[Transcriber’s Note:

This e-text includes characters that require UTF-8 (Unicode) fileencoding. The most common are:

 ὠκύπτερος [Greek, usually in word derivations] ĀĒĪŌŪ āēīōūȳ [letters with macron or “long” mark] ĂĬŎŬ ăĕĭŏŭy̆ [letters with breve or “short” mark] √ ∴ [“root” and “therefore” symbols]

If any of these characters do not display properly--in particular, ifthe diacritic does not appear directly above the letter--or if theapostrophes and quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, make sure your text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is setto Unicode (UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. Asa last resort, use the latin-1 version of the file instead. 

Except for [Linenotes] and [Footnotes], all single brackets [ ] are inthe original. Double brackets [[ ]] and braces { } were added by thetranscriber. 

In some passages, individual letters or syllables within a word wereprinted in boldface. These are shown with braces as f{a}cio. Elsewhere, boldface is shown with +marks+. Other aspects of formatting, includingline numbers, are detailed at the end of the e-text. ]

 HELPS TO

 LATIN TRANSLATION AT SIGHT

 by the REV. EDMUND LUCE

 With an Introductory Note by the REV. THE HON. E. LYTTELTON, M. A. Headmaster of Eton

 ‘Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento; Hae tibi’erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem. Parcere subiectis, et debellare superbos. ’

 VERGIL, _Aeneid_, vi. 851 3

 ‘Fecisti patriam diversis gentibus unam, Profuit iniustis te dominante capi. Dumque offers victis proprii consortia iuris, Urbem fecisti quod prius orbis erat. ’

 RUTILIUS, i. 63-6

 ETON COLLEGE SPOTTISWOODE & CO. , LIMITED 1908

 All rights reserved

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

Whatever controversies may be astir as to the precise objects of aclassical training, it will hardly be disputed that if that teaching hasbeen successful the pupils will sooner or later be able to make out anordinary passage of ‘unseen’ Latin or Greek. It is a test to which thepurely linguistic teacher must obviously defer: while the master, whoaims at imparting knowledge of the subject-matter must acknowledge, ifhis boys flounder helplessly in unprepared extracts, that they couldhave learnt about ancient life better through translations. 

In, addition to the value of unseen translation, as a test of teachingit constitutes an admirable thinking exercise. But so numerous are thevarious books of extracts already published that I should have seennothing to be gained from the appearance of a new one like the presentvolume were it not, as far as I know, different in two importantrespects from others. It contains six Demonstrations of _how_ sentencesare to be attacked: and further, the passages are chosen so that if aboy works through the book he can hardly fail to gain some outlineknowledge of Roman Republican history. 

As to the Demonstrations, their value will be evident if it is realisedthat failure in this sort of translation means failure to analyse: tosplit up, separate, distinguish the component parts of an apparentlyjumbled but really ordered sentence. A beginner must learn to trust thesolvent with which we supply him; and the way to induce him to trust itis to show it to him at work. That is what a Demonstration will do ifonly the learner will give it a fair chance. 

In regard to the historical teaching contained in the extracts, therecan be little doubt that the present tendency of classical teaching istowards emphasising the subject-matter as well as the language. It isfelt that as training in political principles the reading of Greek andRoman authors offers unique advantages, such as many English boys canappreciate, who are deaf to the literary appeal. The choice therefore ofhistorical extracts in chronological order is an attempt to recogniseboth the two great aims of classical teaching at once. At any rate thereis no reason to suppose that the linguistic exercise is in any wayimpaired by being combined with a little history. 

I should like to direct attention also to the notes given on theextracts, and the purpose they are meant to serve. If no notes hadbeen given some of the passages which are important or interestinghistorically would have been found too difficult for the boys for whomthey are intended. Moreover, most of the notes concern the historicalaspect of the extract to which they belong, and are part of the schemeby which the subject-matter of the passage is emphasised. Although thepassages themselves are not strictly graduated, the help given intranslation becomes less and less as the boy goes through the book; andit is obvious that those extracts which illustrate the later periods ofRoman History will be found more difficult than the legends and storieswhich belong to an earlier age. In cases where no help at all isdesired, the Miscellaneous Passages (which are without notes) may beused. 

 E. LYTTELTON. 

 ETON: _April 1908_. 

EDITOR’S PREFACE

The aim of the present book is to help boys to translate at sight. Ofthe many books of unseen translation in general use few exhibitcontinuity of plan as regards the subject-matter, or give any helpbeyond a short heading. The average boy, unequal to the task before him, is forced to draw largely upon his own invention, and the master, incorrecting written unseens, has seldom leisure to do more than markmistakes--a method of correction almost useless to the boy, unlessaccompanied by full and careful explanation when the written work isgiven back. 

Now that less time is available for Latin and Greek, new methods ofteaching them must be adopted if they are to hold their own in ourpublic schools. When Lord Dufferin could say, ‘I am quite determined, sofar as care and forethought can prevent it, that the ten best years ofmy boy’s life shall not be spent (as mine were) in nominally learningtwo dead languages without being able to translate an ordinary paragraphfrom either without the aid of a dictionary;’ and Dr. Reid could write, ‘It is not too much to say that a large number of boys pass through ourschools without ever dreaming that an ancient writer could pen threeconsecutive sentences with a connected meaning: chaos is felt to benatural to ancient literature: no search is made for sense, and theLatin or Greek book is looked upon as a more or less fortuitousconcourse of words;’ when Dr. Rouse can assert, ‘The public schoolboy atnineteen is unable to read a simple Latin or Greek book with ease, or toexpress a simple series of thoughts without atrocious blunders: he haslearnt from his classics neither accuracy nor love of beauty andtruth’--it is obvious that, for the average boy, the system ofperfunctorily prepared set-books and dashed-off unseens is a failure. The experience of every teacher who is also an examiner, and who has hadto deal with public schoolboys, will confirm this; but duringtwenty-five years’ teaching and examining of boys in almost every stage, I have found that translation at sight, taught upon the plan of thisbook, not only produces a good result, but teaches a boy how to grapplewith the bare text of a Latin author better than the habitual practiceof translating at sight without any help at all. If the average boy isto be taught how to translate, his interest must be awakened andsustained, and the standard of routine work made as high as possible. The clever boys are, as a rule, well provided for; but, even for them, the methods of this book have been found to be the shortest road toaccuracy and style in translation. Moreover by this means they havegained a firsthand acquaintance with Latin literature and the sources ofRoman history. 

It is impossible here to enter into ‘the question of the close andstriking correspondence between the history, the literature, and thelanguage of Rome. It was not until the history of Rome threw its mantleover her poetry that the dignity of the poet was recognised andacknowledged.  .  .  . In the same way the life of the Roman people isclosely bound up with the prose records, and the phenomena of the RomanEmpire lend a human interest to all representative Roman writers. ’[1]Considerations of this kind form a sufficient justification of themethod here adopted of employing the historical records of Rome as abasis of teaching. 

In this book the Introduction (pp. 1-14) is written to teach a boy howto arrive at the meanings of words (_Helps to Vocabulary_, pp. 1-5); howto find out the thought of a sentence through analysis and a knowledgeof the order of words in Latin (_Helps to-Translation_, pp. 5-12); howto reproduce in good English the exact meaning and characteristics ofhis author (_Helps to Style_, pp. 13-14). 

In the Demonstrations (pp. 15-58) the boy is taught to notice allallusions that give him a clue to the sense of the passage, to grapplewith the difficulties of construction, to break up sentences, and todistinguish between the principal and the subordinate thoughts both inprose and verse. 

The Passages have been carefully selected, and contain accounts ofnearly all the important events and illustrious men of the period ofhistory to which they belong. They are chronologically arranged anddivided into six periods, covering Roman history from B. C. 753 to B. C. 44, leaving the Augustan and subsequent period to be dealt with in asecond volume. The translation help given in the notes is carefullygraduated. The notes to Parts I. , II. , III. (marked D, pp. 60-107) arethus intended to help younger boys to deal with passages which would insome cases be too difficult for them; less help in translation is givenin Parts IV. And V. (marked C, pp. 108-159); while the notes to Part VI. (marked B, pp. 160-236) are mainly concerned with historicalexplanation, illustration, or allusion. 

The Miscellaneous Passages (pp. 238-271), chosen for me by mybrother-in-law, Mr. A. M. Goodhart (Assistant Master at Eton College), are added to provide occasional passages in which no help is given. Itis hoped that these, which deal with subjects of general interest, andinclude a somewhat wide range of authors, may give variety to the book, and supply more verse passages than the historical character of the restwould admit. For the sake of variety, or to economise time, some of thepassages may be translated _viva voce_ at the discretion of the master. 

The Appendices (pp. 274-363) may be referred to when a boy finds himselfin doubt about the value of a Conjunction (I. ), the force of a Prefix(II. ), the meaning of a Suffix (III. ), the Life and Times of his Author(VI. ), or the historical significance of a date (VII. ). In Appendix V. A Demonstration is given to show how a boy, after sufficient practice intranslation by the help of analysis, may to some extent learn to thinkin Latin, and so to follow the Latin order in arriving at the thought. 

The important question of what maps should accompany the book will bebest solved by providing each boy with a copy of Murray’s SmallClassical Atlas, edited by G. B. Grundy, which will be found to beadmirably adapted to the purpose. By the kindness of Mr. John Murray, two plans (Dyrrachium and Pharsalus), not at present included in theAtlas, have been specially drawn to illustrate passages on pp. 216 and218, and are placed opposite the text. 

As far as possible I have acknowledged my indebtedness to the Editorswhose editions of the classics have been consulted. For the historicalexplanations I am under special obligation to the histories of Ihne andMommsen, to the ‘Life of Cicero’ by the Master of Balliol, and to the‘Life of Caesar’ by Mr. Warde Fowler. I have also to thank Messrs. Macmillan for allowing me to quote from Dr. Potts’ ‘Aids to LatinProse, ’ and from Professor Postgate’s _Sermo Latinus_. For the prosepassages the best texts have been consulted, while for Livy, Weissenborn’s text edited by Müller (1906) has been followed throughout. As regards the verse passages, the text adopted is, wherever possible, that of Professor Postgate’s recension of the _Corpus PoetarumLatinorum_. For the Short Lives I have found useful ‘The Student’sCompanion to Latin Authors’ (Middleton and Mills), but I owe much moreto the works of Teuffel, Cruttwell, Sellar, Tyrrell, and Mackail. 

The Head Master of Eton, besides expressing his approval of the book, has kindly offered to write an Introductory Note. He has also given mean exceptional opportunity of testing more than half the historicalpassages by allowing them to be used in proof, until the book was ready, for the weekly unseen translation in the three blocks of fifth form, represented by the letters, B, C, D. The criticisms and suggestions madeby Classical Masters at Eton, who have used the passages week by week, have been very valuable, and, in particular, my thanks are due to Mr. Impey, Mr. Tatham, Mr. Macnaghten, Mr. Wells, and Mr. Ramsay. My thanksare also due to the Lower Master, Mr. F. H. Rawlins, for kindly readingthe MS. Of the Introduction, Demonstrations, and Appendices I. -IV. , andfor giving me the benefit of his wide experience. 

To my brother-in-law, Mr. A. M. Goodhart, I owe it that I undertook towrite the book; without his advice it would never have seen the light, and he has given me most valuable help and encouragement at every stage. 

As regards the choice of type and style of printing, I owe a specialdebt of thanks to Mr. W. Hacklett (manager of Messrs. Spottiswoode’sEton branch), whose unceasing care and attention has been invaluable inseeing the book through the press. I must also acknowledge the patienceand skill of Messrs. Spottiswoode’s London staff in carrying out themany alterations which I have found to be inseparable from the task ofbringing each passage and its notes into the compass of a single page. 

In conclusion I should like to say that it has been my aim throughout toadhere to what is best in Roman literature, and to omit passages thechoice of which can only be justified by regarding their literary formapart from their moral value. Latin literature contains so much that isat once excellent in style and noble in thought that it seems a gravemistake to exalt the one at the expense of the other. 

_Maxima debetur puero reverentia. _

 EDMUND LUCE. 

 WINDSOR: _April 1908_. 

 [Footnote 1: The late Professor Goodhart. ]

CONTENTS

 PAGE Introductory Note v Editor’s Preface vii List Of Passages For Translation xv Index Of Authors xxiii

 INTRODUCTION. HOW TO TRANSLATE AT SIGHT 1-14

 I. Helps to VOCABULARY 1-5 II. Helps to TRANSLATION 5-12 III. Helps to STYLE 13-14

 DEMONSTRATIONS IN UNSEEN TRANSLATION 15-58

 PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION AT SIGHT 59-236

 (1) _Illustrating Roman History. _-- Part I. --Regal Period, B. C. 753-509 60-66 Part II. --Early Republic, B. C. 509-366 67-88 Part III. --The Conquest of Italy, B. C. 366-266 89-107 Part IV. --Contest with Carthage, B. C. 264-202 108-146 Part V. --Formation of Empire beyond Italy, in Europe and Africa, B. C. 200-133 147-159 Part VI. --Period of Civil Strife in Italy, and Foreign Wars, ending in Revolution, B. C. 133-44 160-236

 (2) _Miscellaneous Passages_ 237-271

 APPENDICES:--

 I. List of Important Conjunctions 274-276 II. List of Important Prefixes 277-281 III. List of Important Suffixes 282-286 IV. Groups of Cognate Words 287-288 V. How to Think in Latin 289-292 VI. Short Lives of Roman Authors 293-345 VII. Chronological Outlines of Roman History and Literature 347-363

 INDEX 365-368

 PLAN OF DYRRACHIUM _opposite page_ 216 PLAN OF PHARSALUS „ „ 218

LIST OF PASSAGES FOR TRANSLATION. 

+DEMONSTRATIONS. +

PAGE

 16 Fierce encounter with the Germans Caesar, _B. G. _ i. 52 24 The Music of Arion Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 83 32 A rash promise rashly believed Livy xxv. 19 40 Rashness justly punished Livy xxv. 19 48 The Happy Life Vergil, _Georg. _ ii. 490 54 The Tomb of Archimedes Cicero, _Tusc. _ v. 23. 64

+Part I. --The Regal Period, 753-509 B. C. +

 60 The Vision of Anchises Vergil, _Aen. _ vi. 777 61 A. The Passing of Romulus Livy i. 16 B. The Mystery explained Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 379 62 A. The Gate of Janus Livy i. 19 B. „ „ Vergil, _Aen. _ vii. 607 63 The Sibylline Books A. Gellius i. 19 64 A. Sextus Tarquinius at Gabii Livy i. 54 B. The Fall of Gabii Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 543 65 The Position of Rome Cicero, _de Rep. _ ii. 3 66 The Praise of Italy Vergil, _Georg. _ ii. 136

+Part II. --The Early Republic, 509-366 B. C. +

 67 A. Horatius Vergil, _Aen. _ viii. 646 B. „ Livy ii. 10 68 Horatius Livy ii. 10 69 A. Mucius Scaevola Livy ii. 12 B. „ „ Martial, i. 21 70 Battle of Lake Regillus Livy ii. 20 71 Tribunes of the People Livy ii. 32 72 Coriolanus Livy ii. 40 73 Destruction of the Fabii Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 175 74 A. Cincinnatus Florus i. 11. 12 B. ‘In the brave days of old’ Ovid, _Fasti_ iii. 729 75 The Decemvirate. XII. Tables Livy iii. 32, 34 76 Verginia’s Death not in vain Livy iii. 49 77 Cossus wins the Spolia Opima Livy iv. 19 78 First Pay given to Citizen Soldiers Livy iv. 59 79 A. Lament over Veii Propertius v. 10. 27 B. The Rise of the Alban Lake Cicero, _de Div. _ i. 44. 100 80 The Conquest of Veii Livy v. 21 81 The Battle of the Allia Livy v. 38 82 A. The Battle of the Allia Livy v. 38 B. July 18th, a Dies Nefastus Lucan, _Phars. _ vii. 407 83 Roman Dignity and Courage Livy v. 41 84 A. Manlius Capitolinus and the Sacred Geese Verg. _Aen. _ viii. 652 B. The Fate of Manlius Val. Max. Vi. _de Sev. _ 85 Camillus, Parens Patriae Livy v. 49 86 A. Migration to Veii abandoned Livy v. 55 B. Juno forbids Rebuilding of Troy Horace, _Od. _ iii. 3. 57 87 First Plebeian Consul Livy vi. 35 88 Origin of the Floralia Ovid, _Fasti_ v. 237

+Part III. --The Conquest of Italy, 366-266 B. C. +

 89 Manlius and his son Torquatus Cicero, _de Off. _ iii. 112 90 An Important Epoch Livy vii. 29 91 Battle of Mt. Gaurus. M. Valerius Corvus Livy vii. 33 92 A. Self-sacrifice of Decius Mus Propertius, iii. 11. 63 B. The Dream of the Consuls Val. Max. I. _de Somn. _ 93 The Battle of Mt. Vesuvius Livy viii. 10 94 The Dictator and his Master of the Horse Livy viii. 30 95 The Caudine Forks Livy ix. 2 96 „ „ The Yoke Livy ix. 5 97 Rome repudiates the Treaty Cicero, _de Off. _ iii. 109 98 Battle of Bovianum Livy ix. 44 99 Battle of Sentinum Livy x. 28 100 Aims of Pyrrhus. Battle of Heraclea Justinus xviii. 1 101 Fabricius the Just Cicero, _de Off. _ iii. 86 102 Appius the Blind Cicero, _de Sen. _ 16, 37 103 A. The Battle of Asculum Florus i. 18. 9 B. The Battle near Beneventum Florus i. 18. 11 104 In Praise of Pyrrhus Justinus xxv. 5 105 A. Manius Curius Dentatus Cicero, _de Sen. _ 55 B. „ „ „ Juvenal xi. 78 C. „ „ „ Horace, _Od. _ i. 12. 41 106 In Praise of Tarentum Horace, _Od. _ ii. 6. 9 107 The Praise of Italy Vergil, _Georg. _ ii. 155

+Part IV. --The Contest with Carthage, 264-202 B. C. +

 108 The Vision of Anchises Vergil, _Aen. _ vi. 836 109 The Foundation of Carthage Justinus, xviii. 5 110 Aeneas views the Building of Carthage Vergil, _Aen. _ i. 419 111 Regulus, a Roman Martyr Cicero, _de Off. _ iii. 99 112 A. Naval Victory near Mylae (Adapted) B. Honour conferred on Duilius Cicero, _de Sen. _ 44 113 Carthaginian Victory off Drepana Cicero, _N. D. _ ii. 3. 7 114 A. Lutatius’ Victory off Aegates Insulae Nepos, _Hamilcar_ i. B. „ „ „ Sil. Ital. Vi. 653 115 A. Importance of Second Punic War Livy xxi. 1 B. Oath of the Boy Hannibal Livy xxi. 1 116 ‘The paths of glory lead but to the grave’ Juvenal x. 147 117 Character of Hannibal Livy xxi. 4 118 The Siege of Saguntum Livy xxi. 7 119 A. The Dream of Hannibal Cicero, _de Div. _ i. 24. 49 B. The Interpretation Sil. Ital. Iii. 198 120 From the Pyrenees to the Rhone Livy xxi. 28 121 From the Rhone to Italy Livy xxi. 30 122 The Descent of the Alps Livy xxi. 36 123 A. The Battle at the Trebia Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii. 5. 23 B. The River bars the Retreat Sil. Ital. Iv. 570 124 The Battle of Lake Trasimene Livy xxii. 4 125 „ „ „ „ „ Livy xxii. 5 126 The Death of Flaminius Sil. Ital. V. 644 127 Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator Cicero, _de Sen. _ 10 128 Fabius and his Master of the Horse Livy xxii. 29 129 Cannae. Destruction of the Roman Infantry Livy xxii. 47 130 Cannae. ‘Paulus animae magnae prodigus’ Livy xxii. 49 131 A. Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome Livy xxii. 51 B. Scipio forbids Nobles Frontinus, to abandon Italy _Strat. _ iv. 7. 39 132 A. Rome’s Heroes Horace, _Od. _ i. 12. 37 B. The Dream of Propertius Propertius iii. 3. 1 133 A. Capua aspires to rival Rome Horace, _Epod. _ xvi. 1 B. Decius Magius defies Hannibal Livy xxiii. 10 134 A. ‘Capua became Hannibal’s Cannae’ Florus ii. 6. 21 B. The Punishment of Rebel Capua Livy xxvi. 16 135 Marcellus at Nola Livy xxiii. 16 136 Cicero’s Description of Syracuse Cicero, _in Verr. _ ii. 4. 117 137 Engineering Skill of Archimedes Livy xxiv. 34 138 Marcellus laments over Syracuse Livy xxv. 24 139 The Death of Marcellus Livy xxvii. 27 140 Character of Scipio Africanus Maior Livy xxvi. 19 141 Scipio takes New Carthage Livy xxvi. 45 142 Nero’s March to the Metaurus Livy xxvii. 43 143 The Metaurus Horace, _Od. _ iv. 4. 29 144 Hannibal leaves Italy Livy xxx. 19 145 Zama. Before the Battle Livy xxx. 31 146 Zama. The Order of Battle Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii. 3. 16

+Part V. --Formation of Empire beyond Italy, in Europe and Africa, 200-133 B. C. +

 147 Battle of Cynoscephalae Livy xxxiii. 9 148 Flamininus proclaims Freedom of Greece Livy xxxiii. 32 149 A. Battle of Thermopylae Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii. 4. B. Battle of Magnesia Florus i. 24 150 Deaths of Three Great Men Livy xxxix. 51 151 M. Porcius Cato Nepos, _Cato_ ii. 152 „ „ Horace, _Od. _ ii. 15 153 Pydna (Aemilius Paulus) Livy xliv. 41 154 „ „ „ Livy xliv. 41 155 Destruction of Carthage Florus ii. 15. 11 156 Destruction of Corinth Vell. Paterc. I. 13 157 The Lusitanian Hannibal Florus ii. 17. 13 158 Destruction of Numantia Florus ii. 18. 11 159 Rome the Invincible Horace, _Od. _ iv. 4. 49

+Part VI. --Civil Strife in Italy, and Foreign Wars, ending inRevolution, 133-44 B. C. +

 160 The Gracchi Sallust, _Iug. _ 42 161 A. On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus Cicero, _de Off. _ i. 76 B. On Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus Cicero, _Tusc. _ iii. 20. 48 C. On C. Gracchus as an Orator Cicero, _Brutus_ 125 162 The Betrayal of Jugurtha Sallust, _Iug. _ 113 163 A. Arpinum. Birthplace of Cicero and Marius Juvenal viii. 237 B. Cicero on Marius Cicero, _Marius_ 164 Teutones annihilated at Aquae Sextiae Florus iii. 3 165 A. Marius’ Flight from Sulla Lucan, _Phars. _ ii. 67 B. Marius outlived his fame Juvenal x. 278 166 Cicero on Civil Strife Cicero, _in Cat. _ iii. 10 167 Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus Vell. Paterc. Ii. 13 168 A. Outbreak of the Social War at Asculum Florus iii. 18. 3 B. The Sabellian father’s advice to his sons Juvenal xiv. 179 169 A. Defeat and Death of Rutilius Ovid, _Fasti_ vi. 563 B. The Lex Plautia Papiria Cicero, _pro Arch. _ iv. 7 C. Cicero’s first and only Campaign Cicero, _Phil. _ xii. 11. 27 D. The Battle near Asculum Florus iii. 18. 14 170 Sulla’s Character and Bearing Sallust, _Iug. _ 95 171 A. Mithridates’ Youth and Early Training Justinus xxxvii. 2 B. His Preparations for Conquest Justinus xxxvii. 3. 4 172 The Battle of Chaeronea Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii. 3. 17 173 A. Capture of Athens and the Piraeus Vell. Paterc. Ii. 23 B. Battle of Orchomenus Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii. 8. 12 C. Peace of Dardanus Vell. Paterc. Ii. 23 174 A. Battles of Sacriportus and the Colline Gate Lucan, _Phars. _ ii. 134 B. „ „ „ Vell. Paterc. Ii. 27 175 A. Death of the Younger Marius. Sulla Felix Vell. Paterc. Ii. 27 B. The Sullan Proscriptions Lucan, _Phars. _ ii. 176 A. Sulla appointed Dictator Vell. Paterc. Ii. 28 B. Sulla lays down his Dictatorship Suetonius, _Iul. _ 77 C. Death of Sulla Val. Max. Ix. 3. 8 177 A. Limitation of Tribune’s Right of Veto Cicero, _de Leg. _ iii. 9. 22 B. Abolition of Corn Distributions Sallust, _Hist. _, _Or. M. Lep. _ C. Judicial Functions restored to Senators Vell. Paterc. Ii. 32 D. A Sumptuary Law A. Gellius ii. 24. 11 178 Speech of Lepidus against Sulla Sallust, _Hist. _, _Or. M. Lep. _ 179 Sertorius and his Fawn A. Gellius, xv. 22 180 A. A New Hannibal Florus iii. 22. 2 B. The Death of Sertorius Vell. Paterc. Ii. 30 181 Lucullus’ Character and Early Career Cicero, _Acad. _ ii. 1 182 A. A Soldier of Lucullus Horace, _Ep. _ ii. 2. 26 B. The Wealth of Lucullus Horace, _Ep. _ i. 6. 40 183 Spartacus and his Gladiators Florus iii. 20. 3 184 Lucullus Ponticus Cicero, _pro L. Man. _ 20 185 Pompeius’ Character and Career Cicero, _pro L. Man. _ 29 186 The Man Caesar Suetonius, _Iul. _ 45 187 Caesar and the Pirates Suetonius, _Iul. _ 4 188 A Roman Citizen maltreated Cicero, _in Verr. _ ii. 5. 62 189 The Lex Gabinia Vell. Paterc. Ii. 31 190 Pompeius clears the Seas of Pirates Cicero, _pro L. Man. _ 34 191 Pompeius subdues Mithridates and Tigranes Vell. Paterc. Ii. 37 192 A. Caesar Curule Aedile Suetonius, _Iul. _ 10 B. Caesar Propraetor in Further Spain Suetonius, _Iul. _ 18 193 Cicero declaims against Catiline Cicero, _in Cat. _ i. 1 194 The End of Catiline Sallust, _Cat. _ 61 195 Caesar forms First Triumvirate Vell. Paterc. Ii. 44 196 ‘That day he overcame the Nervii’ Caesar, _B. G. _ ii. 25 197 Naval Battle with the Veneti Caesar, _B. G. _ iii. 14 198 Caesar’s Bridge across the Rhine Caesar, _B. G. _ iv. 17 199 Cassivellaunus Caesar, _B. G. _ v. 19 200 The Gallic uprising. Vercingetorix Caesar, _B. G. _ vii. 14 201 Siege of Gergovia Caesar, _B. G. _ vii. 50 202 Siege of Alesia Caesar, _B. G. _ vii. 84 203 Cicero’s Banishment Vell. Paterc. Ii. 45 204 Cicero’s Return Cicero, _ad Att. _ iv. 1 205 In Praise of Caesar Cicero, _de Prov. Cons. _ 33 206 ‘Quem deus vult perdere, prius dementat’ Florus iii. 11. 1 207 Carrhae: after the Battle Lucan, _Phars. _ i. 98 „ „ Horace, _Od. _ iii. 5. 5 „ „ Ovid, _Fasti_ vi. 465 208 Cicero’s humane Administration Cicero, _ad Att. _ v. 21 211 Caesar crosses the Rubicon Lucan, _Phars. _ i. 213 212 Caesar’s defence before the Senate Caesar, _B. C. _ i. 32 213 The Campaign round Lerida Lucan, _Phars. _ iv. 167 214 A. Siege of Massilia Lucan, _Phars. _ iii. 388 B. „ „ Caesar, _B. C. _ ii. 14 215 The Death of Curio Lucan, _Phars. _ iv. 799 216 Dyrrachium Caesar, _B. C. _ iii. 47 217 Eve of Pharsalus. Pompeius’ Dream Lucan, _Phars. _ vii. 7 218 Pompeius ill-advised at Pharsalus Caesar, _B. C. _ iii. 92 219 A. Pharsalus and Cannae compared Lucan, _Phars. _ vii. 397 B. Battlefields of Pharsalus and Philippi Vergil, _Georg. _ i. 489 220 How Pompeius died Caesar, _B. C. _ iii. 103 221 Cato’s Eulogy on Pompeius Lucan, _Phars. _ ix. 190 222 The Grave of Pompeius Lucan, _Phars. _ viii. 789 223 ‘Atrox Animus Catonis’ A. Pollio, _B. Afr. _ 88 224 A. Cato Uticensis Vell. Paterc. Ii. 35 B. „ „ Lucan, _Phars. _ ii. 374 225 Caesar dines with Cicero Cicero, _ad Att. _ xiii. 52 226 The Death of Caesar Suetonius, _Iul. _ 82 227 A. In Praise of Caesar Cicero, _Phil. _ ii. 45 B. „ „ Lucan, _Phars. _ i. 143 C. Apotheosis of Caesar Suetonius, _Iul. _ 88 230 A. Peroration of Second Philippic Cicero, _Phil. _ ii. 46 B. On the Murder of Cicero Martial, iii. 66 231 A. Cicero as Orator and Poet Juvenal x. 114 B. Cicero as Advocate Catullus xlix. 232 The Death of Cicero Livy, _fr. _ 233 A. In Praise of Cicero Vell. Paterc. Ii. 66 B. „ „ Livy _fr. _

 234 Laus Italiae Propertius iii. 22 235 Laus Romae Claudian, _de Cons. Stil. _ iii. 150 236 ‘Quod cuncti gens una sumus’ Prudentius, _c. Symm. _ ii. 583

+Miscellaneous Passages. +

 238 A. Propempticon Vergilio Horace, _Od. _ i. 3 B. „ „ Horace, _Od. _ i. 3 239 A. Propempticon Maecio Celeri Statius, _Sil. _ ii. 2. 1 B. „ „ Statius, _Sil. _ ii. 2. 42 240 A. Seneca Seneca, _Ep. _ xv. 8 B. „ Seneca, _Medea_ 920 241 A. Criticism of Poets Horace, _Ep. _ ii. 1. 50 B. „ „ Terence Caesar, _ap. Sueton. _ C. Ovid on his Contemporaries Ovid, _Tr. _ iv. 10. 41 242 A. A Storm at Sea Ovid, _Tr. _ i. 2. 19 B. The Passing of Romulus Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 493 C. Thunder and Hail Pacuvius _ap. Cic. _ D. The Argo in a Gale Val. Fl. _Arg. _ viii. 328 243 A. Lesbia’s Sparrow Catullus iii. B. ‘My Parrot, an obtrusive bird’ Statius, _Sil. _ ii. 4 C. The Lap-dog and its Portrait Martial i. 109 244 A. The Roman Satirists Quintilian x. 1. 93 B. A Criticism of Lucilius Horace, _Sat. _ i. 4. 1 C. Why Juvenal wrote Satire Juvenal i. 19 D. Juvenal’s Subject Juvenal i. 81 245 A. Virtue defined Lucilius, _fr. _ B. Poor men of mighty deeds Juvenal xi. 90 C. Persius in praise of his Tutor Persius v. 19 246 A. Objections to a permanent Theatre Livy, _Epit. _ 48 B. Scenic Arrangements Suetonius _ap. Serv. _ C. The Awnings Lucretius iv. 75 D. The Law of Otho Livy, _Epit. _ 99 E. Usurpers of Equestrian Privileges Horace, _Epod. _ iv. 11 247 A. The Web of Fate Catullus lxiv. 311 B. The Skill of Arachne Ovid, _Met. _ vi. 19 C. The Pastime of Circe Vergil, _Aen. _ vii. 10 248 A. The Monster approaches Andromeda Ovid, _Met. _ iv. 671 B. How Perseus won his Bride Ovid, _Met. _ iv. 721 249 A. Andromeda Manilius, _Astr. _ v. 567 B. The Death of the Monster Manilius, _Astr. _ v. 595 250 A. The School of Flavius Horace, _Sat. _ i. 6. 71 B. Ovid at School Ovid. _Tr. _ iv. 10. 15 C. The Schoolmaster’s Life Juvenal vii. 222 D. Early School Martial xiv. 223 E. Homogeneous Divisions Quintilian i. 2. 23 F. Plagosus Orbilius Martial ix. 68. 1 251 A. Books Ovid, _Tr. _ i. 1. 1 B. „ Tibullus iii. 1. 9 C. „ Martial i. 2 252 A. Arethusa Ovid, _Met. _ v. 585 B. „ Ovid, _Met. _ v. 614 253 A. Hylas Propertius i. 20. 17 B. „ Val. Fl. _Arg. _ iii. 581 254 The Portmanteau Fish Plautus, _Rud. _ iv. 3. 58 255 A. ‘Humani nihil a me alienum puto’ Terence, _Haut. _ i. 1. 15 B. Cicero on Terence Suetonius, _vit. Ter. _ 34 C. Defence of Contaminatio Terence, _Haut. _ prol. 16 256 A. The Song of the Nightingale Pliny, _H. N. _ x. 81 B. A Corinthian Statuette Pliny, _Ep. _ iii. 6 257 A. Helps to Style Pliny, _Ep. _ vii. 9 B. Importance of Concentration Quintilian, _Inst. Or. _ x. 3. 28 258 A. De Simonide Phaedrus iv. 23 B. Mons Parturiens Phaedrus iv. 24 C. Truth will out Phaedrus, _App. _ 22 259 A. The Golden Age Tibullus i. 3. 35 B. Birthday Wishes Tibullus ii. 2 260 A. On the delights of Hunting with a Note-book Pliny, _Ep. _ i. 6 B. Oenone Paridi Ovid, _Her. _ v. 17 C. The Hunting Party Vergil, _Aen. _ iv. 129 261 A. A Roman Day Martial iv. 8 B. The Simple Life Horace, _Sat. _ i. 6. 110 262 A. In Praise of Agricola Tacitus, _Agr. _ 46 B. Britain: its Climate and Products Tacitus, _Agr. _ 12 263 A. Trimalchio’s Supper Petronius 50 B. „ „ Petronius 51 264 I. Pronunciation: H Quintilian i. 5. 20 „ H Catullus lxxxiv. II. A Street Cry Cicero, _Div. _ ii. 40. 84 III. K, Q, C Ter. Maurus IV. U Plautus, _Men. _ 555 265 I. Proverbial Expressions Caesar, _B. C. _ ii. 27 II. „ „ Cicero, _Phil. _ xii. 5 III. „ „ Horace, _Ep. _ i. 2. 40 IV. „ „ Juvenal ii. 83 V. „ „ Livy xxi. 10 VI. „ „ Lucretius ii. 79 VII. „ „ Martial i. 32 VIII. „ „ Plautus, _Bacch. _ i. 2. 36 IX. „ „ Terence, _Eun. _ prol. 41 X. „ „ Terence, _Ph. _ ii. 4. 14 XI. „ „ Pub. Syrus XII. „ „ Seneca, _de Brev. Vit. _ i. 2 XIII. „ „ Tacitus, _Agr. _ 30 XIV. „ „ Varro, _de Re Rust. _ iii. 1 XV. „ „ Vergil, _Aen. _ vi. 95 XVI. „ „ Vergil, _Aen. _ i. 461 266 A. ‘Whom the gods love die young’ Quintilian, _Inst. Or. _ vi. 1. 9 B. Servius Sulpicius to Cicero. Cicero, _ad Fam. _ iv. 5 267 A. Catullus at his Brother’s Grave Catullus ci. B. To Calvus on his Wife’s Death Catullus xcvi. C. Cornelia’s Plea to her Husband Propertius iv. 11. 1 D. Mors Tibulii Ovid, _Am. _ iii. 9 268 Apophoreta Martial 269 „ Martial 270 Epitaphs and Inscriptions. I. On Naevius Naevius II. On Ennius Ennius III. On Pacuvius Pacuvius IV. On Plautus Plautus V. On Tibullus Domitius Marsus VI. In tumulo hominis felicis Ausonius, _Epit. _ 36 VII. Thermopylae Cicero, _Tusc. _ i. 42. 101 271 Epilogue. A. Horace Horace, _Od. _ iii. 30 B. Ovid Ovid, _Met. _ xv. 871 C. Martial Martial iv. 89

INDEX OF AUTHORS

 Asinius Pollio, 223 Aulus Gellius, 63, 177, 179 Ausonius, 270

 Caesar, 16, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 212, 214, 216, 218, 220, 241, 265 Catullus, 231, 243, 247, 264, 267 Cicero, 54, 65, 79, 89, 97, 101, 102, 105, 111, 112, 113, 119, 127, 136, 161, 163, 166, 169, 177, 181, 184, 185, 188, 190, 193, 204, 205, 208, 225, 227, 230, 264, 265, 266, 270 Claudian, 235

 Domitius Marsus, 270

 Ennius, 270

 Florus, 74, 103, 134, 149, 155, 157, 158, 164, 168, 169, 180, 183, 206 Frontinus, 123, 131, 146, 149, 172, 173

 Horace, 86, 105, 106, 132, 133, 143, 152, 159, 182, 207, 238, 241, 244, 246, 250, 261, 265, 271

 Justinus, 100, 104, 109, 171 Juvenal, 105, 116, 163, 165, 168, 231, 244, 246, 250, 265

 Livy, 32, 40, 61, 62, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 115, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 135, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 144, 145, 147, 148, 150, 153, 154, 232, 233, 246, 265 Lucan, 82, 165, 174, 175, 207, 211, 213, 214, 215, 217, 219, 221, 222, 224, 227 Lucilius, 245 Lucretius, 246, 265

 Manilius, 249 Martial, 69, 230, 243, 250, 251, 261, 265, 268, 269, 271

 Naevius, 270 Nepos, 114, 151

 Ovid, 24, 61, 64, 73, 74, 88, 169, 207, 241, 242, 247, 248, 250, 251, 252, 260, 267, 271

 Pacuvius, 242, 270 Persius, 245 Petronius, 263 Phaedrus, 258 Plautus, 254, 264, 265 Pliny the Elder, 256 Pliny the Younger, 256, 257, 260 Propertius, 79, 92, 132, 234, 253, 267 Prudentius, 236 Publilius Syrus, 265

 Quintilian, 244, 250, 257, 264, 266

 Sallust, 160, 162, 170, 177, 178, 194 Seneca, 240, 265 Silius Italicus, 114, 119, 123, 126 Statius, 239, 243 Suetonius, 176, 186, 187, 192, 226, 227, 246, 255

 Tacitus, 262, 265 Terence, 255, 265 Terentianus Maurus, 264 Tibullus, 251, 259

 Valerius Flaccus, 242, 253 Valerius Maximus, 84, 92, 176 Varro, 265 Velleius Paterculus, 156, 167, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 180, 189, 191, 195, 203, 224, 233 Vergil, 48, 60, 62, 66, 67, 84, 107, 108, 110, 219, 247, 260, 265

INTRODUCTION

+1. Heading. +--The selections in this book are in most casesintelligible apart from their context. In cases where this is not so, you will find it a valuable exercise to endeavour to arrive at thecontext for yourself. In all cases, however, you should pay attention tothe +Heading+, which will give you a useful clue to the meaning of thepassage, +2. Author. +--When you see the author’s name, try to remember what youknow about him. For example, +Livy+, the historian of Rome and friend ofAugustus, the contemporary of Vergil and Ovid. The short Lives, pp. 293-345, will tell you the chief facts about the authors from whom theselections are taken, and will give you a brief summary of their chiefworks. Also, if you refer to Appendix VII. , pp. 347-363, you will gainsome idea of the time in which the authors lived and of theircontemporaries. 

+3. Read the Passage through, carefully. +--As you read--

(1) Notice all +allusions+ and +key-words+ that may help you to thesense of the passage. 

(2) +Pay special attention to the opening sentence. + In translating apassage much depends on getting the first sentence right. 

(3) Notice especially the connectives which introduce sentences andclauses +marked off by commas+. In this way you will be able todistinguish between a +Principal Sentence+ and a +Subordinate Clause+. 

(For List of Conjunctions see Appendix I. Pp. 274-276. )

HELPS TO VOCABULARY. 

+4. Through English Derivatives. +--English derivatives, if used in theproper way, may give you valuable help in inferring meanings. The reasonwhy you must generally +not+ translate the Latin word by the derivedEnglish word is that, as you probably know, many English derivativeshave come from Latin words which had wholly or in part lost theirearlier classical meaning, or from Latin words not found at all inclassical Latin. Yet in such cases the English word may be far fromuseless. You must take care to let it suggest to you the original orroot-meaning, leaving the correct meaning of the Latin, whether the sameas the English word or not, to be determined by the context. 

For example, +sē-cūr-us+ does not mean _secure_, but (like _secure_ inShakespeare and Milton) _care-less_. 

 ‘This happy night the Frenchmen are _secure_, Having all day caroused and banqueted. ’

 SHAKESPEARE, _Hen. VI. _ Part 1. II. I.  11. 

+In-crēd-ib-il-is+, on the other hand, often cannot be better translatedthan by _incredible_, and +im-plācā-bilis+ by _implacable_. 

Notice, too, how often in the case of verbs the +supine stem+ willsuggest to you the meaning of the Latin through some English derivative, which the present stem conceals. 

For example:--

 +pingo+ +pictum+ _picture_ suggests _to paint_. +caveo+ +cautum+ _caution_ „ „ _beware_. +colo+ +cultum+ _culture_ „ „ _till_. +fallo+ +falsum+ _false_ „ „ _deceive_. 

+5. Through French Derivatives. +--Sometimes, when you cannot think of anEnglish derivative, a French word that you know will help you to themeaning of the Latin. 

For example:--

 _L. _ _F. _ +pontem+ +pont+ suggests _bridge_. +gustum+ +goût+ „ _taste_. +prātum+ +pré+ „ _meadow_. +tālem+ +tel+ „ _such_. +bĭbĕre+ +boire+ „ _to drink_. 

But, in order to make French derivatives a real help to you, you mustknow something of the origin of the French language and of the chiefrules that govern the pronunciation (and therefore the spelling) ofFrench. Without going too much into detail, it may help you to rememberthat--

(1) +French+ has taken many words from +colloquial Latin+, which in thedays of Cicero was very different from classical Latin. 

For example:--

 _Literary Latin. _ _Popular Latin. _ _French. _

 +equus+ +caballus+ +cheval+ _horse_. +pugna+ +batalia+ +bataille+ _battle_. +os+ +bucca+ +bouche+ _mouth_. 

(2) +Unaccented+ syllables are usually dropped. 

For example:--

 +cérv-um+ +cerf+ _stag_. +bonitátem+ +bonté+ _goodness_. 

(3) The general tendency of French is towards smoothness andcontraction. 

For example:--

 _L. _ _F. _ +bestiam+ +bête+ _beast_. +fact-um+ +fait+ _deed_. +spiss-um+ +épais+ _thick_. +coll-um+ +cou+ _neck_. 

In fact, bearing in mind the caution given you, it is an excellent ruleto try to think out the meaning of the Latin by the help of English andFrench derivatives. 

+6. Compound Words. +--When you come to a word which you cannottranslate, and in regard to which English and French derivatives do nothelp you, +break up the word+, if a compound, into its simple elementsof +Prefix+, +Stem+, +Suffix+. Then from the meaning of its root or stemand from the force of the prefix and suffix, and by the help of thecontext, try to arrive at an English word to suit the sense. 

In order to be able to do this you should have some knowledge of--

(1) A few simple rules for the +vowel changes of verbs in composition+. Thus:

+a+ before two consonants (except +ng+) often changes to +e+. 

 _E. G. _ s{a}cr-o, con-s{e}cr-o; d{a}mn-o, con-d{e}mn-o. 

+a+ before one consonant and before +ng+ often changes to +i+. 

 _E. G. _ f{a}c-io, ef-f{i}c-io; c{ă}d-o, ac-c{i}d-o; t{a}ng-o, con-t{i}ng-o. But gr{ă}d-ior, ag-gr{ĕ}d-ior. 

+a+ before +l+ and another consonant changes to +u+. 

 _E. G. _ s{a}lt-are, in-s{u}lt-are. 

+ĕ+ changes to +ĭ+ (but not +e+ before two consonants) and +ae+ to +i+. 

 _E. G. _ t{e}n-ere, ob-t{i}n-ere; qu{ae}r-ere, in-qu{i}r-ere. 

+au+ changes to +u+. 

 _E. G. _ cl{au}d-ere, in-cl{u}d-ere. 

(2) +Prefixes:+--To help you to detach the prefix more readily, noticethese simple euphonic changes, all of which result in making thepronunciation smoother and easier. Thus:--

(i. ) +The last consonant of a Latin prefix is often made the same as, orsimilar to, the first consonant of the stem. +

 _E. G. _ {ad}-fero = affero; {ob}-pono = {op}-pono; {com}(={cum})-tendo = {con}-tendo. 

(ii. ) +The final consonant of a prefix is often dropped before twoconsonants. +

 _E. G. _ {ad}-scendo = {a}-scendo. 

Notice also that the prepositional prefixes to verbs express differentideas in different combinations. 

Thus, sometimes the prefix has a somewhat +literal prepositional+ force. 

 _E. G. _ {per}-currere = to run +through+. 

But sometimes an +intensive+ force. 

 _E. G. _ {per}-terrere = to +thoroughly+ frighten. 

In all such cases you must be partly guided by the context. 

(For List of Important Prefixes, see Appendix II. Pp. 277--281. )

(3) +Suffixes+ (other than grammatical inflexions). 

A knowledge of the most important suffixes will often help you to thecorrect meaning of a Latin word, the root of which is familiar to you. 

Thus from the √ag = _drive, move_, we have--

 by addition of +-tor+ (= _agent or doer_ of an action), +actor+ = _a doer_, _agent_. „ „ „ +-men+ (= _acts or results of acts_), +agmen+ = _a course_, _line of march_,  &c. „ „ „ +-ilis+ (= _belonging to, able to_), +agilis+ = _easily moved_, _agile_. „ „ „ +-ito+ (= _forcible or repeated action_), +agito+ = _put in action_, _agitate_. 

(For List of Important Suffixes, see Appendix III. Pp. 282--286. )

(4) +Cognates+, that is, words +related in meaning+ through a commonroot. You will find it very useful to make for yourself lists of cognatewords. 

Thus from the √+gna, gno+ = _know_, we have--

 +gna-rus+ = _knowing_. +i-gnarus+ (= +in + gnarus+) = _ignorant_. +nos-co+ (= +gno-sco+) = _to get a knowledge of_. +i-gno-sco+ = _not to know_, _pardon_. +no-bilis+ (= +gno-bilis+) = _that can be known_, _famous_, _noble_. +no-men+ (= +gno-men+) = _a name_. 

To group together in this manner words of common origin and wordsclosely associated in meaning is one of the best ways in which you canincrease your vocabulary. 

(For additional Examples of Cognates, see Appendix IV. Pp. 287-8. )

HELPS TO TRANSLATION. 

You have now read the passage through carefully, and thought out thevocabulary to the best of your ability. Begin then to translate theopening sentence, and pay great attention to these

+7. General Rules. +--(1) Underline the +Principal Verb+, +Subject+ (ifexpressed), and +Object+ (if any). 

(2) If the sentence contains +only one finite verb+, all you have to dois to group round Subject, or Verb, or Object the words and phrases thatbelong to each of the three. 

(3) Translate the sentence literally. Do this mentally, without writingit down. 

(4) Then write down the best translation you can. 

For example:--

 +At GERMANI celeriter, consuetudine sua phalange facta, IMPETUS gladiorum EXCEPERUNT. +

 _But the Germans quickly formed into a phalanx, as was their custom, and received the attacks of the swords_ (i. E. Of the Romans with drawn swords). 

(5) If the sentence contains one or more subordinate clauses, +considereach subordinate clause as if it were bracketed off separately+, andthen deal with each clause as if it were a principal sentence, findingout its Subject, Verb, Object, and adding to each its enlargements. Thenreturn to the sentence as a whole, and group round its Subject, Predicate, and Object the various subordinate clauses which belong toeach. 

+8. Help through Analysis. +--Very often analysis will help you to findout the +proper relation of the subordinate clauses+ to the three partsof the Principal Sentence. You need not always analyse on paper, but doit +always in your mind+. You will find an example of a simple method ofanalysis at the close of Demonstrations I and IV, pp. 23,  47. 

When analysing, notice carefully that:--

(1) An enlargement of a Noun may be

 (a) An adjective +TERTIAM aciem. + (b) A noun in apposition +Publius Crassus ADULESCENS. + (c) A dependent genitive +impetus GLADIORUM. + (d) A participle or participial +nostris LABORANTIBUS. + phrase (e) An adjectival clause +Publius Crassus QUI EQUITATUI PRAEERAT. +

(2) An enlargement of a Verb may be

 (a) An adverb +CELERITER exceperunt. + (b) A prepositional phrase +EX CONSUETUDINE SUA exceperunt. + (c) An ablative absolute +PHALANGE FACTA exceperunt. + (d) An adverbial clause +ID CUM ANIMADVERTISSET, Publius Crassus misit. +

+9. Help through Punctuation. +--Though only the full-stop was used bythe ancients, the punctuation marks which are now used in all printedtexts should be carefully noticed, especially in translating long andinvolved sentences. 

Thus in Demonstrations III and IV notice how the subordinate clauses arefor the most part enclosed in commas. 

+10. Help through Scansion and Metre. +--A knowledge of this isindispensable in translating verse. To scan the lines will help you todetermine the grammatical force of a word, and a knowledge of metre willenable you to grasp the poet’s meaning as conveyed by the position whichhe assigns to the various words, and the varying emphasis which resultsfrom variation of metre. For example:--

(1) _A grammatical help. _--You know that final +-a+ is _short_ in nom. And voc. Sing. 1st Decl. , and in neut. Plural, and is _long_ in abl. Sing. 1st Decl. And 2nd Imperat. 1st Conj. 

Thus in Demonstration II (p. 24) you can easily determine thegrammatical form of finals in +-a+. 

In Sentence IV +agnă+, in VI +cervă+, in VIII +iunctă columbă+, in IX+Cynthiă+ are all short and nom. Sing. 

In Sentence V +umbrā unā+ are long and abl. Sing. In agreement. 

(2) _A help to the poet’s meaning. _--The more you know of the principlesof scansion, the better able you will be to understand and appreciatethe skill with which a great poet varies his metre and chooses hiswords. 

+11. Help through a Study of the Period in Latin. +--One great differencebetween English and Latin Prose is that, while modern English is to agreat extent a language of short, detached sentences, Latin +expressesthe sense by the passage as a whole+, and holds the climax in suspenseuntil the delivery of the last word. ‘This mode of expression is calleda +PERIOD+ (a +circuĭtus+ or +ambĭtus verborum+), because the reader, inorder to collect together the words of the Principal Sentence, must makea _circuit_, so to say, round the inserted clauses, ’[2] ‘Latin possesseswhat English does not, a mode of expression by means of which, +roundone main idea are grouped all its accessory ideas+, and there is thusformed a single harmonious whole, called the +PERIOD+. ’[3]

 [Footnote 2: Potts, _Hints_, p. 82. ]

 [Footnote 3: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p.  45. ]

A +PERIOD+ then is a sentence containing only one main idea (thePrincipal Sentence) and several Subordinate Clauses. The Periodic styleis generally used for History and Description, and is best seen inCicero and Livy. 

The following is a good example of the PERIOD in Latin:--

 [4]+VOLSCI exiguam spem in armis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, praeter cetera adversa loco quoque iniquo ad pugnam congressi, iniquiore ad fugam, cum ab omni parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine versi, dedito imperatore traditisque armis, sub iugum missi, cum singulis vestimentis ignominiae cladisque pleni DIMITTUNTUR. +

 _The +VOLSCIANS+ found that now they were severed from every other hope, there was but little in prolonging the conflict. In addition to other disadvantages they had engaged on a spot ill-adapted for fighting and worse for flight. Cut to pieces on every side they abandoned the contest and cried for quarter. After surrendering their commander and delivering up their arms, they passed under the yoke, and with one garment each +WERE SENT+ to their homes covered with disgrace and defeat. _

 [Footnote 4: Potts, _Hints_, p. 85. ]

Notice here that

(1) There is only one main idea, that of _the ignominious return of theVolscians to their homes_. 

(2) The rest describes the attendant circumstances of the surrender andof the causes that led to it. 

(3) In English we should translate by at least four separate sentences. 

(4) The Latin contains only forty-eight words, while the Englishcontains eighty-one. 

Professor Postgate (‘Sermo Latinus, ’ p. 45) gives the following exampleof the way in which a Latin +PERIOD+ may be built up:--

 +BALBUS vir optimus, dux clārissimus et multis mihi beneficiis carus, rogitantibus Arvernis ut populi Romani māiestātem ostentāret suīque simul imperi monumentum eis relinqueret, MŪRUM laterīcium, vīginti pedes lātum, sexāginta altitūdine et ita in immensum porrectum ut vix tuis ipse oculis crēderes tantum esse, nēdum aliis persuāderes, non sine adverso suo rūmore ut qui principātum adfectaret AEDIFICAVIT. +

 _+BALBUS+, an excellent man and most distinguished commander, who had endeared himself to me by numerous kindnesses, was requested by the Arverni to make a display of the power and greatness of Rome, and at the same time to leave behind him a memorial of his own government. He accordingly +BUILT+ a +WALL+ of bricks, twenty feet wide, sixty high, and extending to such a prodigious length that you could hardly trust your own eyes that it was so large, still less induce others to believe it. But he did not escape the malign rumour that he had designs upon the imperial crown. _

Here, as in the previous example, (1) There is only one main idea, +BALBUS MURUM AEDIFICAVIT+. 

(2) The rest consists of--

 (a) Enlargements of +BALBUS+--+vir optimus . .. Carus+; placed, therefore, directly _after_ +BALBUS+. 

 (b) Enlargements of +MURUM+--+laterīcium . .. Persuaderes+; placed, therefore, directly _after_ +MURUM+. 

 (c) Enlargements of +AEDIFICAVIT+

 +rogitantibus . .. Relinqueret+ = the _cause_ of the building of the wall. 

 +(murum) non sine . .. Adfectaret+ = the _attendant circumstances_ of the building of the wall; placed, therefore, _before_ +AEDIFICAVIT+. 

(3) In English we must translate by at least three separate sentences, and, where necessary, translate participles as finite verbs, and changedependent clauses into independent sentences. 

It has been well said: ‘An English sentence does not often exhibit thestructure of the Period. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill andbeauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose; but its effectis better seen in poetry, as in the following passage:--

 “High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormuz and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat. ”’

 MILTON, _Paradise Lost_, ii. 1-5. 

+12. Help through a Knowledge of the Order of Words in Latin. +--If youstudy the examples already given of the Period you will see that the+Order of Words in English+ differs very much from the +Order of Wordsin Latin+. 

Dr. Abbott writes as follows: ‘The main difference between English andLatin is that in English the _meaning_ depends mainly on the _order_ ofwords, and the _emphasis_ mainly on the _voice_, while in Latin the_meaning_ depends almost entirely on the _inflexions_, and the_emphasis_ upon the _order_. ’

Thus, if we take the English sentence, _Caesar conquered the Gauls_, wecannot invert the order of _Caesar_ and _Gauls_ without entirelychanging the meaning. In Latin, however, we may write (since each Latinword has its own proper inflexion, serving almost as a label)

+Caesar vicit Gallos+: +Gallos Caesar vicit+: +Caesar Gallos vicit+, without any change of meaning except that of shifting the emphasis fromone word to another. 

The usual order of words in a Latin Prose Sentence may be said to be

(1) Particles, or phrases of connection (with some exceptions, _e. G. _+vero+, +autem+, +quidem+, +enim+, which stand second). 

(2) Subject. 

(3) Words, phrases, clauses, as enlargements of Subject. 

(4) Adverbial enlargements of Predicate (though an Ablative Absolutemust generally stand first). 

(5) Indirect Object (if any) and its enlargements. 

(6) Direct Object (if any) and its enlargements. 

(7) The Principal Verb. 

To take a simple example:--

 [5]+LIVIUS, imperator fortissimus, quamquam adventus hostium non ubi oportuit nuntiatus est, PERICULUM illa sua in rebus dubiis audacia facile EVASIT. +

 _+LIVIUS+, a most excellent commander, although the enemy’s arrival was not reported when it should have been, easily +ESCAPED+ the +DANGER+ by his well-known daring in perilous positions. _

 [Footnote 5: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p.  38. ]

To take another example:--

 [6]+Archimedis EGO quaestor ignoratum ab Syracusanis, cum esse omnino negarent, saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis, INDAGAVI SEPULCRUM. +

 _When I was Quaestor, +I WAS ABLE TO TRACE OUT+ the +TOMB+ of Archimedes, overgrown and hedged in with brambles and brushwood. The Syracusans knew nothing of it, and denied its existence. _

 [Footnote 6: Demonstration VI. Sent. 1. P.  55. ]

Notice here the following special points of order:--

(1) The two most important positions in the sentence are the beginningand the end. 

(2) Special emphasis is expressed by placing a word in an unusual orprominent position. 

E. G. Here, the unusual position of +Archimedis+ and +sepulcrum+. 

(3) In the middle of the sentence the arrangement is such that the wordsmost closely connected in meaning stand nearest together. 

E. G. Here, +ignoratum . .. Dumetis+ is all logically connected with theobject +sepulcrum+, which for the sake of emphasis is put in an unusualposition at the end of the sentence. 

+13. Additional Hints. +--(1) Remember that Latin is often +concrete+where English is +abstract+. 

E. G. --

 +ingeniosi+ (men of genius) = _genius_. +eruditi+ } (learned men) = _learning_. +docti+ } +viri summo ingenio praediti, saepe invidia opprimuntur. + _The most exalted genius is frequently overborne by envy. _ +omnes immemorem benefici oderunt. + _The world regards ingratitude with hatred. _

(2) The same Latin word may stand for different English words. Take, forexample, the various uses of the word +RES+ in the following passage ofLivy, xlv.  19:--

 [7]+Ut RES docuit .  .  . Animo gestienti REBUS secundis .  .  . Speculator RERUM quae a fratre agerentur .  .  . REM prope prolapsam restituit .  .  . Aliis alia regna crevisse REBUS dicendo. +

 _As the +FACT+ showed .  .  . Spirits running riot from +PROSPERITY+ .  .  . To watch the +COURSE+ pursued by his brother .  .  . He restored what was almost a lost +CAUSE+ .  .  . By saying that kingdoms grow by various +MEANS+. _

 [Footnote 7: Postgate, _Sermo Latinus_, p.  34. ]

In translating +RES+, +avoid at all costs+ the word +THING+, or+THINGS+, and let the context guide you to the appropriate English word. 

(3) You may often translate a +Latin Active by an English Passive+. Latin prefers the Active because it is more direct and vivid. 

For example:--

 +Liberas aedes coniurati sumpserunt. + _An empty house had been occupied by the conspirators. _

(4) Use great care in translating Latin +Participles+, and make clear inyour translation the relation of the participial enlargements to theaction of the main Verb. 

For example:--

 concessive: +Romani, non ROGATI, auxilium offerunt. + _The Romans, +though they were not asked+, offer help. _

 final: +Fortuna superbos interdum RUITURA levat. + _Fortune sometimes raises the proud, only +to dash them down+. _

 causal: +S. Ahala Sp. Maelium regnum APPETENTEM interemit. + _S. Ahala killed Sp. Maelius +for aiming at+ the royal power. _

Notice also:--

 +Pontem captum incendit+ _He took and burned the bridge. _ +Nescio quem prope adstantem interrogavi. + _I questioned someone who was standing by. _ +Haec dixit moriens+ _He said this while dying. _ +Nuntiata clades+ _The news of the disaster. _

(5) In translating, try to bring out the exact force of the +AblativeAbsolute+, by which a Latin writer shows the time or circumstances ofthe action expressed by the Predicate. The Ablative Absolute is anadverbial enlargement of the Predicate, and is not grammaticallydependent on any word in the sentence. It is, therefore, called+absolutus+ (i. E. _freed from_ or _unconnected_). It should very seldombe translated literally. Your best plan will be to consider carefullywhat the Ablative Absolute seems to suggest about the action of thePrincipal Verb. 

For example:--

 +Capta Troia, Graeci domum redierunt. + _The Greeks returned home after the capture of Troy. _

 +Regnante Romulo, Roma urbs erat parva. + _When Romulus was reigning, Rome was a small city. _

 +Exercitu collecto in hostes contenderunt. + _They collected an army and marched against the enemy. _

 +Nondum hieme confecta in fines Nerviorum contendit. + _Though the winter was not yet over, he hastened to the territory of the Nervii. _

 +Tum salutato hostium duce, ad suos conversus, subditis equo calcaribus, Germanorum ordines praetervectus est, neque expectatis legatis, nec respondente ullo. + _Thereupon, after saluting the enemy’s general, he turned to his companions, and setting spurs to his horse, rode past the ranks of the Germans, without either waiting for his staff, or receiving an answer from anyone. _

HELPS TO STYLE. 

Though Style cannot perhaps be taught, it can certainly be formed andimproved. There are several ways of improving your Style. For example:--

+14. Through the Best English Literature. +--+Read good Literature+, thebest English Authors in prose and verse. You will know something, perhaps, of Shakespeare and Scott, of Macaulay and Tennyson. Though youmay not be able to attack the complete works of any great author, youought not to have any difficulty in finding good books of selectionsfrom the English Classics. 

+15. Through good Translations. +--Study a few +good English Versions+ ofpassages from the best Latin writers. You may often have a good versionof the passage you translate read to you in your Division after yourmistakes have been pointed out to you, and to this you should pay greatattention. You will thus learn eventually to suit your style to theAuthor you are translating, while at the same time you render thepassage closely and accurately. 

+16. Be Clear. +--Remember that the first characteristic of a good styleis +clearness+--that is, to say what you mean and to mean what you say. Quintilian, the great critic, says that the aim of the translator shouldbe, not that the reader may understand if he will, but that he _must_understand whether he will or not. The more you read the greatestAuthors the more you will see that, as Coleridge says, ‘there is areason assignable not only for every word, but for the position of everyword. ’

+17. Be Simple. +--With clearness goes simplicity--that is, use no wordyou do not understand, +avoid fine epithets+, and do not choose a phrasefor its sound alone, but for its sense. 

+18. Avoid Paraphrase. +--You are asked to translate, not to give a meregeneral idea of the sense. What you have to do is to +think out theexact meaning+ of every word in the sentence, and to express this in asgood and correct English as you can. 

+19. Pay attention to Metaphors. +--The subject of Metaphor is of greatimportance in good translation. You will find that every languagepossesses its own special Metaphors in addition to those which arecommon to most European languages. As you become familiar with LatinAuthors you must try to +distinguish the Metaphors common+ to Englishand Latin and those +belonging only+ to English or to Latin. 

For example:--

(1) Metaphors +identical+ in Latin and English--

 +Progreditur res publica naturali quodam itinere et cursu. + _The State advances in a natural path and progress. _

(2) Metaphors +differing+ in Latin and English--

 +cedant arma togae+ _let the sword yield to the pen. _ +ardet acerrime coniuratio+ _the conspiracy is at its height. _ +rex factus est+ _he ascended the throne. _ +conticuit+ _he held his peace. _

+20. Careful Translation a Help to Style. +--In conclusion. Nothing willhelp your style more than to +do your translations as well as youpossibly can+, and to +avoid repeating the same mistakes+. The Latinsthemselves knew the value of translation as a help to style. 

For example, Pliny the Younger says:--

‘As useful as anything is the practice of translating either your Greekinto Latin or your Latin into Greek. By practising this you will acquirepropriety and dignity of expression, an abundant choice of the beautiesof style, power in description, and gain in the imitation of the bestmodels a facility of creating such models for yourself. Besides, whatmay escape you when you read, cannot escape you when you translate. ’

DEMONSTRATIONS

in

UNSEEN TRANSLATION

NOTE

The use of a personal mode of address in the following Demonstrationsis explained by the fact that they are written primarily for the useof boys. It is hoped, however, that they may be found useful to mastersalso, and that the fulness with which each passage is treated may supplysome helpful suggestions. 

DEMONSTRATION I. 

 _Fierce encounter with the Germans. _

(a) Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis pugnatum est. |II| At Germaniceleriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, impetus gladiorumexceperunt. |III| Reperti sunt complures nostri milites, qui inphalangas insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desupervulnerarent. |IV| Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque infugam conversa esset, a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine suorumnostram aciem premebant. |V| Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassusadulescens, qui equitatui praeerat, quod expeditior erat quam hi quiinter aciem versabantur, tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidiomisit. |VI| Ita proelium restitutum est. ||

 CAESAR. 

_Fierce encounter with the Germans. _

(b) Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis +pugnatum est+. {II} At +Germani+celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, +impetus+ gladiorum+exceperunt+. {III} +Reperti sunt+ complures nostri +milites+ [_quiin phalangas insilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desupervulnerarent_. ] {IV} [_Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atquein IV fugam conversa esset, _] a dextro cornu vehementer multitudinesuorum nostram +aciem premebant+. {V} [_Id cum animadvertisset+Publius Crassus+ adulescens, _] [_qui equitatui praeerat, _][_quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur, _]tertiam +aciem+ laborantibus nostris subsidio +misit+. {VI} Itaproelium +restitutum est+. 

 CAESAR. 

DEMONSTRATION I. 

 CAESAR, _B. G. _ i. 52. _Reiectis pilis . .. Restitutum est. _

_Heading and Author. _--This tells you enough for working purposes, evenif you do not remember the outline facts of Caesar’s campaign againstAriovistus, the chief of the Germans, called in by the Gauls in theirdomestic quarrels, who conquered and ruled them until he was himselfcrushed by the Romans. 

_Read through the passage carefully. _--As you do this, notice allallusions and key-words that help you to the sense of the passage, _e. G. _ +Germani+, +nostri milites+, +Publius Crassus+. The general senseof the passage should now be so plain (_i. E. _ an incident in a battlebetween the Germans and the Romans) that you may begin to translatesentence by sentence. 

+I. + +Reiectis pilis cominus gladiis pugnatum est. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Reiectis+ = +re + iacio+ = _throw back_ or _away_. The context willtell you which is the better meaning for +re-+. Notice the force of allprefixes in composition, whether separate or inseparable as here. For+re-+, see pp. 280, 281. [[Appendix II. II: Separable Particles]]

+pilis+ = the +pīlum+, the distinctively _Roman_ missile weapon. 

+cominus+ = +comminus+: _i. E. _ +con (= cum) + manus+ = _hand to hand. _N. B. --In composition _a_ often becomes _i_, cf. +iacio+, +re-icio+; andcf. +e-minus+ = _at a distance_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--

+PUGNATUM EST+. The only finite verb in the sentence, and the principalone. The form shows you it is a so-called impersonal verb, and thereforethe subject must be sought from the verb itself in connection with thecontext. Here, clearly, you must translate _the battle was fought_. 

+cominus+ tells us _how_, i. E. _hand to hand_. 

+reiectis pilis+. You will recognise this as an _ablative absolute_phrase. But do not translate this literally _their javelins having beenthrown away_, for this is not English. Let the principal verb and thesense generally guide you to the force of the phrase. Thus you can seehere that the Roman soldiers had no use for their javelins, and so threwthem away as a useless encumbrance. (The context tells us that the Romansoldiers had no time to hurl their javelins against the foe. ) You cannow translate the whole sentence--_(and so) the Romans threw away theirjavelins and fought hand to hand with swords_. 

+II. + +At Germani celeriter, ex consuetudine sua, phalange facta, impetus gladiorum exceperunt. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+ex consuetudine sua + = _according to their custom_. You will probablyhave met with +consuetudo+, or +consuesco+, or +suesco+. Our own word_custom_ comes from it through the French _coutume_. For this use of+ex+ cf. +ex sententia+, +ex voluntate+. 

+phalange+ = _phalanx_. If you learn Greek, you will readily think ofthe famous Macedonian phalanx. 

+impetus+ = _attacks_ = +in + peto+ (= _aim at_). Cf. Our _impetus_, _impetuous_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence contains only one finite verb, theprincipal one. 

+EXCEPERUNT+ = _(they) received_. _Who_ received? Clearly

+GERMANI+ = _the Germans_. Received _what_?

+IMPETUS+ = _the attacks_. +impetūs+ must be Acc. Plur. 

All you now have to do is to assign to their proper places the words andphrases that remain. Of these

 1. +celeriter+ } 2. +ex consuetudine sua+ } 3. +phalange facta+ } modify the action of +exceperunt+, telling us _when_ and _how_ they received, and 4. +gladiorum+ belongs to +impetūs+. 

Now translate the whole sentence. _But the Germans quickly formed into aphalanx, as was their custom, and received the attacks of the swords_(i. E. _of the Romans with drawn swords_). 

+III. + +Reperti sunt complures nostri milites, qui in phalangasinsilirent, et scuta manibus revellerent, et desuper vulnerarent. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+insilirent+ = +in + salio+ = _leap-on_. And cf. Our _insult_. Noticethe usual phonetic change of vowel from _a_ to _i_. (English derivativeswill often help you to the meaning of a Latin word, though, for reasonsthat are explained to you in the Introduction, pp. 1, 2, § 4, you mustlet them lead you up to the _root-meaning_ of the Latin word rather thanto an exact translation. )

+revellerent+ = +re + vello+ = _pluck-away_. If you forget the meaningof +vello+, the supine +vulsum+ through some English derivative--e. G. _re-vulsion_, _con-vulsion_--will probably help you to the root-meaning. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence contains four finite verbs. As youread it through, underline the principal verb, clearly +REPERTI SUNT+, and bracket +qui+ to +vulnerarent+. You cannot doubt which verbs toinclude in your bracket, for +qui+, which is a subordinate conjunctionas well as a relative pronoun, serves as a sure signpost. Also+revellerent+ and +vulnerarent+ are joined by +et--et+ to +insilirent+, so your bracket includes all from +qui+ to +vulnerarent+. The commas inthe passage will often help you to the beginning and end of asubordinate clause. Now begin with the principal verb +REPERTI SUNT+ andits subject +complures nostri MILITES+, _many of our soldiers werefound_. 

+qui . .. Vulnerarent+. This subordinate clause describes, just as anadjective does, _the character_ of these +complures nostri+, so that+qui = tales ut+--i. E. _brave enough to leap upon the phalanxes, andpluck away the shields (of the Germans) and wound them from above_. 

+IV. + +Cum hostium acies a sinistro cornu pulsa atque in fugam conversaesset, a dextro cornu vehementer multitudine suorum nostram aciempremebant. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+ăcies+ = _line of battle_. 

√+ac+ = _sharp_ (cf. +ācer+), perhaps thought of as the _edge_ of asword. 

+cornu+ = _horn_; so, figuratively, _the wing of an army_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence contains three finite verbs. Underline +PREMEBANT+, clearly the principal verb, and bracket +cum+ to+conversa esset+. Here the signpost is the subordinate conjunction+cum+. Next find the subject of +premebant+: obviously no word from +adextro+ to +aciem+ can be the subject; it is implied in+premebant+--i. E. _they_, which as context shows = +Germani+. Now findthe object = +nostram aciem+ = _our line_. 

Thus you have as the backbone of the whole sentence:--

 _They (the Germans) were pressing our line. _

All the rest of the sentence will now take its proper place, as in someway modifying the action of +premebant+. 

Thus:--

 +cum . .. Conversa esset+ tells us _when_ they were pressing. +a dextro cornu+ „ „ _where_ „ „ +vehementer+ „ „ _how_ „ „ +multitudine suorum+ „ „ _how or why_ „ „

N. B. --+suorum+, reflexive, must be identical with the subject of+premebant+. 

 Now translate _{Though}{When} the enemy’s line had been routed and put to flight on their left wing, on their right wing, owing to their great numbers, they were pressing hard upon our line. _

+V. + +Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens, qui equitatuipraeerat, quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur, tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio misit. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+animadvertisset+ = +animum + ad + verto+ = _to turn the mind to, toobserve_. 

+adulescens+ = here like our _junior_, to distinguish him from hisfather, Marcus Crassus the triumvir. 

+expeditior+ = _more free_ (+ex + pes+ = _foot-free_; so +impeditus+ =_hampered_, _hindered_). 

+versabantur+--(+verso+ frequent. Of +verto+) = _turn this way andthat_; so +verso-r+ dep. = _turn oneself_, _engage in_, _be_, accordingto the context. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence is more involved, ‘periodic’[8] instyle. You will see on p. 23 how much help can be given by a moredetailed analysis. [[Demonstration I: Table]]

 [Footnote 8: See Introduction, pp. 7-9, § 11. ] [[Introduction 11. Help through a Study of the Period in Latin. ]]

Now, as before, bracket the subordinate clauses thus:--

 +1. + +Id . .. Adulescens+ +2. + +qui . .. Praeerat+ +3. + +quod . .. Versabantur+

and then the only principal verb is +MISIT+. Underline this. Nextunderline the principal subject, clearly +P. CRASSUS+, which is also thesubject of clause 1. Then, _outside the brackets_, the only possibleobject is +ACIEM+: underline this. 

Now analyse, as on p. 23. [[Demonstration I: Table]]

(a) Write down +CRASSUS+, +MISIT+, +ACIEM+. 

(b) Place alongside these their proper enlargements. 

(c) If necessary, analyse separately all subordinate clauses--_e. G. _ A1, A2, A3 in example on p.  23. 

You should now be able to translate without any difficulty; only takecare to arrange the enlargements so as to make the best sense and thebest English. Thus: _When Publius Crassus the younger, who was incommand of the cavalry, had observed this, he sent the third line to thehelp of our men who were hard pressed, as he was more free to act thanthose who were engaged in action. _

+VI. + +Ita proelium restitutum est. + _In this way the battle wasrestored. _

 _Final Hints. _

Remember that +one passage mastered+ is worth a great many hurriedlytranslated. So before you leave this passage notice carefully in the

I. _Vocabulary. _--

(i. ) Any words that are quite new to you. Look them out in thedictionary, and notice their derivation and use; if you do not do thisyou will find the same word new to you the next time you meet with it. 

(ii. ) _English Derivatives. _--As you have seen, these will often helpyou to the root-meaning of a word. Thus:--

 +reiectis+ = _reject, throw away_ +insilirent+ = _insult, jump on_

and in the case of verbs, as these two examples show, derivatives aremost easily found from the _supine_ stem. 

N. B. --This must be done very carefully, because many such Englishderivatives have come from Latin words after they had wholly, or inpart, lost their classical meaning, or from Latin words not found at allin classical Latin. 

A great many other English words are derived from the Latin of thispassage--e. G. _pugnacious_, (with) _celerity_, _fact_, _except_, _military_, _manual_, _super_-sede, _vulnerable_, _hostile_, _sinister_, uni-_corn_, and many others. 

(iii. ) _Prefixes. _--Notice especially the force of prepositions andinseparable particles in composition, e. G. :--

 +re-+ in +re-iectis+, +re-vellerent+, +restitutum+. +in-+ in +impetus+, +insilirent+. +ex-+ in +exceperunt+, +expeditior+. 

(iv. ) _Simple Phonetic Changes in Composition_, e. G. :--

+a+ to +i+ in +insilirent+, +cominus+ (+con + manus+). 

(v. ) _Groups of Related Words. _

Thus +acies+ √+ac+ = _sharp_, is related to +ăc-er+, sharp; +ăc-ervus+, a heap; +ăc-utus+, sharp,  &c. 

+expeditior+ √+ped+ = _tread, go_, is related to +pes+, a foot;+impedio+ = entangle; +impedimentum+ = hindrance, etc. 

II. _Historical and other Allusions. _--

(i. ) Read a summary of Caesar’s campaign against Ariovistus. 

(ii. ) _Terms relating to War. _--Thus notice:--

+pilum+, the distinctively _Roman_ infantry weapon, and see a goodillustration. 

_phalanx_; cf. The Roman +testudo+. 

+tertiam aciem+--_i. E. _ the line of reserves, kept for just suchemergencies. Read, if necessary, some short account of the +triplexacies+, the usual Roman order of battle. 

III. _Some Authorities. _--

(i. ) _Caesar_, Allen and Greenough, published by Ginn & Co. (anadmirable edition). 

(ii. ) Froude’s _Caesar_, p. 50. 

(iii. ) Mommsen’s _History of Rome_, vol. Iv. P. 295. 

(iv. ) Napoleon’s _Caesar_, vol. Ii. Cap. 4, and vol. Ii. P. 405. 

DEMONSTRATION I. 

 CAESAR, _B. G. _ i. 52: ‘_Reiectis pilis . .. Restitutum est. _’

SENTENCE

 Kind of Sentence CONNECTIVE SUBJECT _Simple_ _Enlarged_ PREDICATE _Simple_ _Enlarged_ OBJECT _Simple_ _Enlarged_

A. Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens, qui equitatuipraeerat, quod expeditior rat quam hi ui inter aciem versabantur, tertiam aciem laborantibus nostris subsidio misit. 

 PRINCIPAL (complex) +CRASSUS+ 1. Publius 2. Adulescens 3. Qui . .. Praeerat +MISIT+ 1. Id cum . .. Adulescens (= _when_) 2. Quod . .. Versabantur (= _why_) 3. Laborantibus . .. Subsidio (= _how_) +ACIEM+ tertiam

A1. Id cum animadvertisset Publius Crassus adulescens

 Subordinate _adverbial_ to +MISIT+ in +A+ cum Crassus Publius animadvertisset -- id --

A2. Qui equitatui praeerat

 Subordinate _adjectival_ to +CRASSUS+ in +A+ qui qui (= Crassus) -- praeerat equitatui -- --

A3. Quod expeditior erat quam hi qui inter aciem versabantur

 Subordinate _adverbial_ to +MISIT+ in +A+ quod (Crassus) -- erat expeditior quam . .. Hi versabantur -- --

DEMONSTRATION II. 

 _The Music of Arion. _

 (a) Quod mare non novit, quae nescit Ariona tellus? I Carmine currentes ille tenebat aquas. II Saepe, sequens agnam, lupus est a voce retentus; III Saepe avidum fugiens restitit agna lupum; IV 4 Saepe canes leporesque umbra cubuere sub una, V Et stetit in saxo proxima cerva leae: VI Et sine lite loquax cum Palladis alite cornix VII Sedit, || et accipitri iuncta columba fuit. VIII 8 Cynthia saepe tuis fertur, vocalis Arion, IX Tamquam fraternis obstupuisse modis. 10

 OVID. 

 _The Music of Arion. _

 (b) Quod +mare+ non +novit+, quae +nescit Ariona tellus+? I Carmine currentes +ille tenebat aquas+. II Saepe, sequens agnam, +lupus est+ a voce +retentus+; III Saepe avidum fugiens +restitit agna+ lupum; IV 4 Saepe +canes leporesque+ umbra +cubuere+ sub una, V Et +stetit+ in saxo proxima +cerva+ leae: VI Et sine lite loquax cum Palladis alite +cornix+ VII +Sedit+, et accipitri +iuncta columba fuit+. VIII 8 +Cynthia+ saepe tuis +fertur+, vocalis Arion, IX Tamquam fraternis +obstupuisse+ modis. 10

 OVID. 

DEMONSTRATION II. 

 OVID, _Fasti_ ii. 83-92 (Hallam’s Edition). 

_Heading and Author. _--The heading will probably suggest to you thewell-known story of Arion and the Dolphin, and the name of the author, Ovid, will lead you to expect a beautiful version of the legend. 

_Read the Passage carefully. _--As you read, notice all allusions thathelp you to the sense of the passage. Thus the first line (which you canno doubt translate at once) tells of the fame of Arion, and thesucceeding lines describe the charm of his music. 

_The Form of the Passage: Elegiac Verse. _--Scan[9] as you read, and markthe quantity in the verse of all finals in +-a+. You will see the valueof this, as you translate. 

 [Footnote 9: See Introduction, pp. 6, 7, § 10. ] [[Introduction 10. Help through Scansion and Metre]]

You can now begin to translate, taking one complete sentence at a time. 

+I. + +Quod mare non nōvit, quae nescit Ărīŏnă tellūs?+

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--You will know all the words here, but observe+nōvit+ = _knows_, not _knew_, for +nōvi+ means _I have becomeacquainted with, I have learned_, and ∴ _I know_; and notice also theimportant cognates from the √γνο-, γνω-, +-gna+, +-gno+, γι-γνώ-σκω= _I learn to know_, cf. Our _know_, _ken_, _can_, _con_--νό-ος(_mind_), +-gna-rus+ = _know-ing_; +no-sco+ (= +gno-sco+). 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence contains no subordinates; the twofinite verbs, +nōvit+, +nescit+, are both principal. 

Next, the form of the sentence, with the question-mark at the end, showsthat +mare+ must be the subject of +nōvit+, and +tellus+ of +nescit+. (+Ărīŏnă+ cannot be nominative, for the suffix +-a+ is the usual Greek3rd decl. Acc. Sing. , where Latin has +-em+. ) Also +quod+ and +quae+ areclearly interrogative and adjectival; so translate:--

_What sea does not know, what land is ignorant of Arion?_

N. B. --Try to render this line a little more poetically. 

+II. + +Carmine currentes ille tenēbat aquās. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--You will know all these simple words. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--Here again there are no subordinates. Theprincipal verb is +tenebat+, the subject +ille+, and the object +aquas+;so translate:--

_He used to stay the running waters by his song. _

N. B. --Notice force of Imperfect in +tenebat+. 

+III. + +Saepe, sequens agnam, lupus est a voce retentus;+

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--All you need notice here is the force of +re-+ in+retentus+ = _held back_, cf. Our _re_-tain. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--Before you translate, notice Ovid’s frequent useof _parataxis_, _i. E. _ placing one thought side by side with anotherthought, _without any connective_, even although one thought is, insense, clearly subordinate to another. This is one of the ways in whichall great poets _heighten the effect_ of what they say, and manyexamples of it are to be found in Ovid’s best elegiac verse. As you lookthrough this passage you will find:

 (a) Lines 1, 2, 3, 4 each form a complete sentence. 

 (b) In the whole passage there is not _one_ subordinate conjunction. 

 (c) The only expressed connective is the simplest link-word +et+. 

The principal verb is +retentus est+, the subject +lupus+. +Sequensagnam+ describes +lupus+, and +saepe+ and +a voce+ tell us _when_ and_why_ the wolf _was stayed_. 

_Often has the wolf in pursuit of the lamb been stayed at the sound. _

(For this use of +a+ or +ab+ to express _origin_ or _source_ cf. Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 655 [V. 709]: _Pectora traiectus Lynceo Castor_ +ab ense+. )

+IV. + +Saepe avidum fŭgiens restitit agnă lupum. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Restitit+ = _stood still_; +re + si-st-o+, _i. E. _ from √sta-, strengthened by reduplication; cf. ἵ-στη-μι. Contrast carefully meaningof +re-sto+, = _stand firm_ or _be left_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--Again a very simple sentence. The principal verbis +restitit+, the subject +agnă+; +fugiens avidum lupum+ enlarges thesubject +ăgna+, and +saepe+ tells us when the lamb _stood still_. 

_Often has the lamb, when fleeing from the hungry wolf, stood still(stopped short in its flight). _

N. B. --Notice the _parallelism_ in this couplet, where the parallel linesexpress the same idea. This is a characteristic feature of Hebrewpoetry, e. G. :

 ‘Seek ye the Lord while He may be found: Call ye upon Him while He is near. ’

 Is. Lv. 6. 

and is frequently employed by Ovid. [10]

 [Footnote 10: E. G. : Plena fuit vobis omni concordia vita, Et stetit ad finem longa tenaxque fides. _Amores_ ii. 6. 13-14. ]

+V. + +Saepe cănes lepŏresque umbrā cŭbuēre sub unā. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Lepŏres+ = _hares_. As this is closely connected by +-que+ with+cănes+, you are not likely to confuse it with +lĕpor+ (+lepos+; cf. λάμπω) = _a charm_, _grace_. 

+Cubuere+ = _lay down_. Cp. +-cumbo+ in composition, and our_recumbent_, _succumb_, and _cub_-icle. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--Another simple sentence about which there can beno doubt. The metre shows that +umbrā+ must be taken with +sub unā+:--

_Often have the dogs and the hares reclined beneath the same shade. _

+VI. + +Et stetit in saxo proximă cervă leae. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Leae+ = _lioness_. +Lea+ (poetical form of +leaena+) suggests +leo+. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The metre shows +proximă+ must be taken with+cervă+. But to translate _the nearest stag (hind)_ makes nonsense, and renders +leae+ untranslatable, while _the hind very close to thelioness_ makes good sense. 

_And the hind has stood still on the crag close beside the lioness. _

+VII. + +Et sĭne līte lŏquax cum Palladis ālite cornix sēdit. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Līte+ = _strife_. To _litigate_ = contest in law (+lit + agere+) mayhelp you to the root-meaning. 

+Loquax+ = _talkative_, clearly connected with +lŏq-uor+, and_loq_-uacious. +Alite+ = _a bird_, lit. _winged_; cf. +āl-a+, a _wing_. 

+Cornix+ = _a crow_, probably from √καρ; cf. Our _croak_, and κόραξ, +cor-vus+, a _raven_. 

+Palladis. + You have no doubt heard of Παλλὰς Ἀθήνη, the virgin goddessof war and of wisdom. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The force of the illustration lies in the strongcontrast between the chattering, tale-bearing crow and the wise, silentowl sacred to the goddess of wisdom. Two such opposites, under the spellof Arion’s music, forget to quarrel, though for the time in closecompany. 

_And the chattering crow has without strife sat in company with the birdof Pallas. _

+VIII. + +Et accipitri iunctă cŏlumbă fuit. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Accipitri+ = _hawk_ (a general name for birds of prey), probably from√πετ-, +pet-+ = _move quickly_; cf. πέτ-ομαι = _fly about_; +pĕt-o+ =_fall upon_, _attack_, _seek_. 

So +accipiter+ = +ac + pĕt-+, _swift + flying_; cf. ὠκύπτερος =_swift-winged_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The metre shows that +columbă+ and +iunctă+ mustbe taken together:--

_And the dove has-been-joined-to (has consorted with) the hawk. _

+IX. +

 +Cynthia saepe tuis fertur, vōcalis Ărīōn, Tamquam fraternis obstŭpuisse mŏdis. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Cynthia+ = _Diana_ (_Artemis_), so called from Mt. Cynthus, in Delos, where she and Apollo were born. 

+Fertur+ = _is said_, _asserted_; cf. +fĕrunt+ = _they say_. 

+Vōcalis+ = _tuneful_, clearly from same root as +vox+, +vŏc-o+, &c. , ofour _vocal_. For change of quantity cf. +rex+, +rēgis+, from +rĕgo+. 

+Obstŭpuisse+ = _to have been spell-bound_; +stŭp-eo+, +stŭp-idus+, andour _stupefy_, _stupid_ will suggest the root-meaning. [11]

+Mŏdis+ = _measures_, especially of verse, or, as here, of music. 

 [Footnote 11: Notice this word, which is often employed to express the ideas of _entránce_, _enthrall_, _strike dumb_, _amaze_. ]

(ii. ) _Translation. _--You will remember that Apollo, the god who bringsback light and sunshine in spring, is also the god of music and ofpoetry. Ovid skilfully implies that Arion’s playing was so beautifulthat even Diana, Apollo’s own sister, mistakes Arion’s playing for herbrother’s. 

This sentence takes up a whole couplet, but is in form quite simple. Thus +fertur+ is the incomplete predicate, and +obstupuisse saepe tuismodis tamquam fraternis+ completes the predicate, _i. E. _ tells us allthat is said of the subject +Cynthia+. 

+Vōcalis Ărīon+ is clearly vocative, or nominative of address. 

_O tuneful Arion, often is Cynthia said to have been spell-bound by thystrains, as by those of her brother (Apollo). _

_Final Suggestions. _

You have now learnt how to translate this passage, but you must do morebefore you can master it. Thus in these simple but beautiful linesnotice:--

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--This is easy and familiar, but even if you know themeaning of the words study their _cognates_--_i. E. _ related words--aspointed out to you in the vocabulary, _e. G. _ under +nōvit+, p. 25, sentence I. [[Demonstration II. Ii]]

(ii. ) _English Derivatives. _--Remember that often, where you cannotthink of an English derivative, some very familiar _French_ word willhelp you to the root-meaning of the Latin. Thus:--

 Latin. French. English. +Carmine+ _Charme_ _Charm_ (_Song_) +Agnam+ _Agneau_ _Lamb_ +Lupus+ _Loup_ _Wolf_ +Cerva+ _Cerf_ _Stag_ (_Hind_)

and notice that where the English word, e. G. _charm_, differs inspelling from the Latin, it is because it comes to us through a Frenchchannel. Cf. _feat_ from Fr. _fait_ = L. _factum_. 

(iii. ) _Allusions and Parallel Passages. _--In verse these are oftennumerous and important. Poetry is naturally full of imagery, and borrowsfrom many sources. Thus, for ll. 1-8, compare Hor. _Od. _ I. Xii.  5:

 ‘Aut in umbrosis Heliconis oris . . . . Arte materna rapidos morantem Fluminum lapsus . . . ’

and Verg. _G. _ iv. 510:

 ‘Mulcentem tigris et agentem carmine quercus. ’

Shakesp. _Hen. VIII. _ III. I. :

 ‘Orpheus with his lute made trees, And the mountain-tops that freeze, Bow themselves when he did sing’;

or read Tennyson’s poem ‘Amphion. ’

_Lines 5, 6. _--Cf. Isaiah xi. 6: ‘The wolf also shall dwell with thelamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid; and the calf and theyoung lion and the fatling together; and a little child shall leadthem. ’

(iv. ) _Hints for Verses. _--Ovid is the acknowledged master of elegiacverse. Therefore, whenever you have a passage of his elegiacs totranslate, you should, if possible, learn it by heart. (The Arion storyas told by Ovid is well worth a place in any collection of _Ediscenda_. )If you cannot do this, notice useful phrases and turns of expression, e. G. :--

_Line 1. _--A question, instead of a bare statement, where no answer isexpected. 

Cf. ‘Quod crimen dicis praeter amasse meum?’

 (Dido to Aeneas, Ov. _Her. _ vii. 164. )

_Lines 3, 4. _--Parataxis and repetition of idea. 

_Line 9. _--+Vocalis Arion+, apostrophe. 

_Line 2. _--Simplicity; alliteration. 

(v. ) _The Poem as Literature. _--Ovid here depicts in language purposelyexaggerated the power of music over the hearts of men, and even overnature, animate and inanimate. This gives point to the strong contrastin the lines which follow, where greed dominates all the feelings. Shakespeare refers to the love of music as a test of character:--

 ‘The man that hath no music in himself, Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. ’

DEMONSTRATION III. 

PART I. 

_A rash promise rashly believed. _

Hannibali alia in his locis bene gerendae rei fortuna oblata est. |I|M. Centenius fuit cognomine Paenula, insignis inter primipilicenturiones et magnitudine corporis et animo. |II| Is perfunctusmilitia, per P.  Cornelium Sullam praetorem in senatum introductus, petita Patribus, uti sibi quinque milia militum darentur: |III| se peritum ethostis et regionum, brevi operae pretium facturum et, quibus artibus adid locorum nostri et duces et exercitus capti forent, iis adversusinventorem usurum. |IV| Id non promissum magis stolide, quam stolidecreditum, tamquam eaedem militares et imperatoriae artes essent! |V|Data pro quinque octo milia militum; pars dimidia cives, pars socii. |VI| Et ipse aliquantum voluntariorum in itinere ex agris concivit, acprope duplicato exercitu in Lucanos pervenit, ubi Hannibal, nequiquamsecutus Claudium, substiterat. |VII|

 LIVY. 

_A rash promise rashly believed. _

Hannibali alia in his locis bene gerendae rei +fortuna oblata est. {I}M. Centenius fuit+ cognomine Paenula, insignis inter primipilicenturiones et magnitudine corporis et animo. {II} +Is+ perfunctusmilitia, per P. Cornelium Sullam praetorem in senatum introductus, petita Patribus, [uti sibi quinque milia militum darentur]. {III} +Centeniusdixit+ _se peritum et hostis et regionum, brevi operae pretium facturum:et, [quibus artibus ad id locorum nostri et duces et exercitus captiforent], iis adversus inventorem usurum_. {IV} +Id+ non +promissum+magis stolide, quam stolide +creditum+: [tamquam eaedem militares etimperatoriae artes essent!] {V} +Data+ pro quinque octo +milia+ militum;{VI} +pars+ dimidia cives, +pars+ socii. Et +ipse aliquantum+voluntariorum in itinere ex agris +concivit+, ac prope duplicatoexercitu, in Lucanos +pervenit+, [ubi Hannibal, nequiquam secutusClaudium, substiterat]. 

 LIVY. 

DEMONSTRATION III. 

 LIVY, xxv. 19. 

_Read the passage through carefully. _ As you read--

(i. ) Make all the use you can of your previous knowledge of History, Geography, and Antiquities. 

Thus, +Hannibali+ suggests an episode in the Second Punic War. 

 +M. Centenius+ is clearly the unfortunate subject of the episode. 

 +in Lucanos . .. Substiterat+ helps to fix the date as later than +Cannae+, 216 B. C. 

(ii. ) Observe carefully all phrases that will require special care intranslating--_e. G. _ +bene gerendae rei+--+inter primipilicenturiones+--+perfunctus militia+--+operae pretium+--+ad id locorum+. 

You will now have a sufficient general idea of the form and generalsense of the passage, and may begin to translate sentence by sentence. 

+I. + +Hannibali alia in his locis bene gerendae rei fortuna oblata est. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+oblata+, cf. _ob-lation_ = _an offering_ and _of-fer_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--

+oblata est+ shows that the subject must be +fortuna+, with which +alia+must agree, and +gerendae rei+ is dependent genitive. So you may at oncetranslate literally _Another fortune (chance) of carrying-on the matterwell in these parts was offered to Hannibal_. But you must not besatisfied with this, for though literally correct it is neither goodHistory nor good English. So render: _In this district Hannibal hadanother chance presented to him of achieving a success_. 

Here notice especially the use of the word +res+, [12] a remarkableexample of the tendency of Roman writers to employ the ordinary andsimple vocabulary wherever possible _instead of inventing a new word_. As a writer well says, ‘+Res+ is, so to say, a blank cheque, to befilled up from the context to the requisite amount of meaning. ’ Cf. ‘+Consilium erat quo fortuna rem daret, eo inclinare vires+, ’ where+res+ = _victory_. 

 [Footnote 12: Cf. Introduction, p. 11. ] [[Introduction 13 (2)]]

+II. + +M. Centenius fuit cognomine Paenula, insignis inter primipilicenturiones et magnitudine corporis et animo. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+primipili+ = the chief centurion of the +triarii+ (the third, veteranline of the legion), the +primipilus+, or +primus pilus+. So Livy vii. 41, ‘+primus centurio erat, quem nunc (centurionem) primi piliappellant+. ’

+cognomine+, _i. E. _ +co-nomen+, a name _added_ to the +nomen+, a title, epithet, _e. G. _:

 +Publius+ = the distinctive +praenomen+. +Scipio+ = +nomen+, designating his +gens+. +Africanus+ = +cognomen+. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The form of this sentence is quite simple. Thesubject is +M. Centenius+, with which +insignis+ agrees. _There was acertain M. Centenius, by surname Penula, distinguished among thefirst-rank_ (or _chief_) _centurions_ (of the Triarii) _both for hisgreat bodily size and courage. _

+III. + +Is perfunctus militia, per P. Cornelium Sullam praetorem insenatum introductus, petit a Patribus, uti sibi quinque milia militumdarentur. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+perfunctus+, cf. _function_, and notice force of +per+ = discharge_completely_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The principal verb is clearly +petit+, and +is+ isthe only possible subject (= +Centenius+), with which +introductus+agrees. There is one subordinate clause, introduced by +ut+, telling usthe object of his request. 

Translate, first literally, _He having discharged completely hismilitary service, being introduced into the Senate by P. C. Sulla, thePraetor, asks the Fathers that 5000 soldiers should be given him_. Nowimprove this: get rid at all costs of the _having_ and _being_, whichare not English, and change the _asks_ into the past tense of narration. Thus:--

_After he had completed his term of service, and had been introduced tothe Senate by P. Corn. Sulla, the Praetor, he petitioned the Fathersthat 5000 soldiers should be given him. _

+IV. + +Se peritum et hostis et regionum, brevi operae pretium facturum:et, quibus artibus ad id locorum nostri et duces et exercitus captiforent, iis adversus inventorem usurum. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+peritum+, cf. _ex-peri-enced_. √+par-+, +per-+, _pierce_, _go through_;so, +ex-per-ior+, +per-iculum+, in sense of a _trial_. 

+operae pretium+ = lit. ‘_what will pay for the trouble_, ’ _i. E. Worthwhile_, _i. E. _ worth the _time_ (or _labour_) spent upon it. 

+artibus--ars. + √+ar+ = _fit_, _join_ = skill in joining something, skill in producing; so, _artist_, _artisan_, _artifice_, etc. 

+ad id locorum+[13] = _to that point of time_. The ideas of _place_ and_time_ readily interchange; so, +in loco+ = at the right _place_ or_time_. 

 [Footnote 13: Cf. Sallust, _Jugurtha_, 63 _Tamen is_ +ad id locorum+ _talis vir_ = _Such was his character up to this time_. ]

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The form of the sentence shows that it is_reported speech_, and not the actual words of the speaker +Centenius+, who is still the principal subject, and +dixit+, _understood_, theprincipal verb, and +se peritum . .. Usurum+ the object of +dixit+. Youshould now be able to translate without any difficulty, and the logicalcommon-sense rules for the conversion of Or. Recta into Or. Obliquaexplain the mood of the verb +capti forent+ in the subordinate clauseintroduced by +quibus+. 

Literally: _Centenius said that he, experienced in both the enemy andthe districts, would soon make it worth (their) while: and that he woulduse against their inventor those arts by which up to that time both ourleaders and our armies had been overcome. _ Notice that the long relativeclause +quibus artibus . .. Forent+ is in Latin placed before theantecedent +iis+. 

You will readily see that this must be improved in several points. Thus:--

(a) +Use Oratio Recta+--more graphic and better suited to our idiom. 

(b) _arts_. Change this to some more suitable military term--e. G. _tactics_. 

_He was well acquainted (he said) both with the enemy and the country, and would shortly make it worth their while, and would employ againsttheir originator those very tactics by which both our leaders and ourarmies had up to that time been baffled. _

+V. + +Id non promissum magis stolide, quam stolide creditum: tamquameaedem militares et imperatoriae artes essent!+

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+stolide+, cf. _stolid_ = dull, foolish. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The finite copula +est+ is, as often, omitted; thetwo principal verbs are +promissum (est)+ and +creditum (est)+ linked bythe comparative particles +magis--quam+, and the subject is +id+;+tamquam--essent!+ is a subordinate clause modifying the two principalverbs, and expressing contemptuous wonder. 

Cf. ‘+tamquam clausa sit Asia, sic nihil perfertur ad nos+. ’

You can now translate

Literally: _That was promised not more foolishly than it was foolishlybelieved, just as if the arts of a soldier and of a general were thesame. _

Here you can make several improvements; avoid the repetition of_foolishly_, and use a better term than _arts_, and perhaps break up thesentence into two short ones. Thus:--

_The folly of the promise was not greater than that of the credit itreceived. Just as though the qualities of a soldier and of a generalwere the same!_

+VI. + +Data pro quinque octo milia militum; pars dimidia cives, parssocii. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+dimidia+ √+med-+, +mid-+ = _middle_, so +dimidius+ = +dis + medius+. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence is very simple: notice that here, too, +sunt+ and +erant+ are omitted. 

_Eight thousand soldiers were given him instead of five: half werecitizens, half allies. _

+VII. + +Et ipse aliquantum voluntariorum in itinere ex agris concivit, ac prope duplicate exercitu, in Lucanos pervenit, ubi Hannibal, nequiquam secutus Claudium, substiterat. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+aliquantum+ = _considerable_, used in the neuter as a noun, with apartitive genitive +voluntariorum+. Cf. Use of +satis+, +parum+, etc. 

+concivit+ = _raised_, lit. Roused, stirred up. Cf. +ci-eo+, and our_ex-cite_, _in-cite_. 

+substiterat+ = _had halted_. +si-st-o+ is only a form of +sto+strengthened by reduplication (cf. ἵστημι) with a causal force. Cf. +restitit+, p. 27, sentence iv. [[Demonstration II:iv]]

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The principal subject is clearly +ipse+; there aretwo principal verbs, +concivit+ and +pervenit+, coupled by +ac+, and onesubordinate clause, +ubi . .. Substiterat+, introduced by +ubi+, andmodifying +pervenit+. 

The sense is so clear that you may translate at once into goodEnglish:--

_Moreover he himself raised a considerable number of volunteers in thecountry during his march; and so, with his numbers nearly doubled, hereached Lucania, where Hannibal, after his fruitless chase of Claudius, had halted. _

The following version was shown up by a boy of fifteen in a recentscholarship examination:

‘Hannibal in _carrying on his successful campaign met with somedifferent luck in this district_. Marcus Centenius, whose cognomen wasPenula, was famous among the centurions of the first rank for his hugelimbs and great courage. This man, after having accomplished his yearsof military training, on being introduced into the Senate by the PrætorP. Cornelius Sulla, requested the Patricians to give him 5000 soldiers. He said that he was well acquainted both with the enemy’s tactics andthe district round about, and in a short time _would convert theengagement into a prize for the State_: moreover, he added, I willemploy the same tactics against the _enemy_ as those by which ourgenerals and troops have been captured in these parts. This was_faithfully_ believed as it was _faithfully_ promised: the tactics ofthe soldiers and of the commanders were so much alike! He received 8000men instead of 5000: half of them were Roman citizens, half allies:moreover he himself _got_ some volunteers while on the march in thecountry districts and so almost doubled his army: he thus reached theterritory of the Lucani, where Hannibal after a fruitless pursuit afterClaudius, had taken up his position. ’

This version is neither bad nor good. The style is, on the whole fair, knowledge of vocabulary very fair, and the rendering generally accurate. It will, however, be of use to you as an object lesson: so noticecarefully the following points:--

I. _Style. _

_Sentence IV. _--

(i. ) The Oratio Obliqua of the original he renders partly as ReportedSpeech and partly as Oratio Recta. This is, of course, to be avoided. Contrast the rendering given under Sentence IV. 

_Sentence III. _--

(ii. ) +Is perfunctus . .. Darentur. + He uses too many participles. Contrast version under Sentence III. 

_Sentences VI. , VII. _--

(iii. ) He translates +data pro quinque . .. Substiterat+ by one longsentence, instead of breaking it up into two at least. 

II. _Vocabulary. _

_Sentence IV. _--

+Se peritum . .. Usurum. + He confuses +pretium+ with +praemium+, +operae+with +rei publicae+ (?). He should have been familiar with the phrase+operae pretium+. 

+inventorem+ he renders by _enemy_; perhaps a careless mistake, as ifthe word were +inimicum+ (which after all does not = +hostem+). 

_Sentence V. _--

+stolide+ he renders by _faithfully_. A moment’s thought given to theEnglish word _stolid_ should have put him on the right track. 

_Sentence VII. _--

+concivit+ he renders by _got_, vague and inappropriate. He fails tobring out the root-meaning of +cieo+ = _to stir up_. 

III. _Construction. _

_Sentence I. _--

This is very bad. _Analysis_ would at once have shown him that thelogical order of the sentence was

+Alia fortuna bene gerendae rei oblata est Hannibali in his locis+, though he might not see that +in his locis+ must be closely connectedwith +oblata est+. 

_Sentence IV. _--

+brevi operae pretium facturum. + Very bad: due probably to not carefullyweighing the meaning of each word. 

You will now see that a strict attention to analysis and to theroot-meanings of words really familiar would have enabled this candidateto send up a good version. 

DEMONSTRATION IV. 

PART II. 

_Rashness justly punished. _

Haud dubia res est, quippe inter Hannibalem ducem et centurionem;exercitusque, alterum vincendo veteranum, alterum novum totum, magna exparte etiam tumultuarium et semiermem. |I| Ut conspecta inter se agminasunt, et neutra pars detrectavit pugnam, extemplo instructae acies. |II|Pugnatum tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas, concitata et, donec dux stetisset, Romana acie. |III| Postquam is non pro vetere famasolum, sed etiam metu futuri dedecoris, si sua temeritate contractaecladi superesset, obiectans se hostium telis cecidit, fusa extemplo estRomana acies. |IV| Sed adeo ne fugae quidem iter patuit omnibus viis abequite insessis, ut ex tanta multitudine vix mille evaserint, ceteripassim alii alia peste absumpti sint. |V|

 LIVY. 

_Rashness justly punished. _

 [Transcriber’s Note: The braces around the “Postquam. .. ” clause are in the original. ]

+Haud dubia res est+, [quippe inter Hannibalem ducem et centurionem;exercitusque, alterum vincendo veteranum, alterum novum totum, magna exparte etiam tumultuarium et semiermem. ] {I} [Ut conspecta inter seagmina sunt, et neutra pars detrectavit pugnam], extemplo +instructaeacies+. {II} +Pugnatum+ tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas, concitata et, [donec dux stetisset], Romana acie. {III} {Postquam is nonpro vetere fama solum, sed etiam metu futuri dedecoris, [si suatemeritate contractae cladi superesset], obiectans se hostium teliscecidit}, +fusa+ extemplo +est Romana acies+. {IV} Sed adeo ne fugaequidem +iter patuit+ omnibus viis ab equite insessis, [ut ex tantamultitudine vix mille evaserint, ceteri passim alii alia peste absumptisint]. {V}

 LIVY. 

DEMONSTRATION IV. 

 LIVY, xxv. 19. 

_Read through the Passage carefully. _--The context will be familiar toyou, as this piece is a continuation of Demonstration III; but, nonethe less, read the passage through very carefully. Notice, for example, the use of +quippe+, the various uses and meanings of +ut+, +alterum . .. Alterum+, +alii alia+. 

You can now begin to translate. 

+I. + +Haud dubia res est, quippe inter Hannibalem ducem et centurionem;exercitusque, alterum vincendo veteranum, alterum novum totum, magna exparte etiam tumultuarium et semiermem. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+quippe+ = +qui + pe+. +pe+ = a form of +que+ (cf. +nempe = nam-pe+ =indeed) = _since of course_. 

+alterum+ (comparative of +al-ius+), cf. +alter+, _alternate_, _either_, _other_. 

In distributive clauses, +alter--alter+ = _the one_, _the other_. 

+tumultuarium+ (cf. +tumultus+), used of troops brought _hurriedly_together; so, _disorderly_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence is quite simple, consisting of onemain statement, +Haud dubia res est+, and an explanatory subordinatestatement of fact introduced by +quippe+. Notice that the influence of+inter+ extends over the whole of the subordinate clause. 

_Literally:_ ‘The affair was not doubtful, since, of course, it wasbetween Hannibal as general and a centurion, and between armies, the onegrown old in victory, the other wholly new, and for the most part alsohurriedly raised and half-armed. ’

There are several points in which this rendering must be improved. Thus:--

(a) _Affair_ for +res+ is too vague. You will remember what was saidabout +res+ in Sentence I. Of Part I. Pp. 33,  34. 

(b) You must try to express more strongly the contrast in generalshipbetween Hannibal and a mere centurion. Thus:--

‘_The +result+ was not doubtful, considering that the contest wasbetween a general such as Hannibal and a (mere) centurion; and betweentwo armies, the one grown old in victory, the other consisting entirelyof raw recruits, and for the most part undrilled and half-armed. _’

+II. + +Ut conspecta inter se agmina sunt, et neutra pars detrectavitpugnam, extemplo instructae acies. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+neuter+ = ne + uter (+uter = eu-ter+ or +quo-ter-us+ = comparative inform of +quis+), _neither of two_. 

+detrectavit+ = _declined_ (+de + traho+, draw-off). 

+extemplo+ = _immediately_. +Ex + templum+ (dimin. +tempulum+). 

+templum+ √+tem+ = cut; cf. τέμνω = prop. A _section_.  So

 (a) a _space marked_ out, a consecrated place, a _temple_. 

 (b) a _portion of time_; cf. _extempore_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence again is quite simple (in form verysimilar to Sentence I. ), consisting of one main statement, +extemploinstructae acies+, and an introductory subordinate statement of _time_introduced by +ut+ = _when_. 

_‘When the armies came in sight of each other, and neither side declinedbattle, the ranks were at once drawn up in fighting order. ’_

[14]+III. + +Pugnatum tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas, concitata et, donec dux stetisset, Romana acie. +

 [Footnote 14: Weissenborn and Müller read:--Pugnatum tamen, ut in nulla pari re, _diu_: duas amplius horas con_stitit pugna spe con_citante, donec dux stetit, Romana_m_ acie_m_. ]

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+concitata+ = _stirred-up_, _roused_. +con + ci-eo+; cf. _+ex-cite+_, _+incite+_, +cĭ-tus+ = _put in motion_, _swift_,  &c. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence is not quite so simple and needscare. Notice--

(a) +Pugnatum (est). + The Impersonal Pass. Serves as the principalsubject and predicate. 

(b) +ut in nulla pari re. + +ut+ is here not a _conjunction_ but arelative _adverb_ of manner, referring the assertion +pugnatum duasamplius horas+ to the particular circumstance--_i. E. _ of a battle foughtunder very unequal conditions. This use of +ut+ = _considering_ occursfrequently--_e. G. _ +consultissimus vir ut in illa quisquam esse aetatepoterat+ (Livy). Cf. Also p. 124, l.  19. [[Selection C17, “ut in retrepida”]]

(c) +concitata Romana acie+ is clearly ablative absolute. To make quitesure that you understand the logical connection of the thought conveyedby this sentence, you may consult the detailed analysis on page 47. 

_In spite of its being such an unequal match, the battle was maintainedfor more than two hours; the Roman army (as well as [+et+] the enemy’s)being roused (to great exertions) so long as their leader survived. _

+IV. + +Postquam is non pro vetere fama solum, sed etiam metu futuridedecoris, si sua temeritate contractae cladi superesset, obiectans sehostium telis cecidit, fusa extemplo est Romana acies. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+dedecoris+ = of _dis-grace_, for +de+ in composition = separation, andso _removal_ of the fundamental idea. Cf. _un-_, _dis-_, _e. G. _+dis-par+ = _un_-equal. 

+contractae+ = _brought on_, _caused_. +con + traho+ = _bring about_, _cause_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The meaning of this sentence should be quite plainto you if you notice carefully that

(a) the principal verb is +fusa est+, and the principal subject +Romanaacies+, and

(b) that +Postquam . .. Cecidit+ is a subordinate clause of _time_modifying the action of the principal verb +fusa est+. 

It would perhaps be well to translate at first literally:--

_After that he, not only out of regard for_ (+pro+) _his old fame, butalso from fear of future disgrace, if he should survive a disasterbrought about by his own rashness, exposing himself to the weapons ofthe enemy fell, the Roman army was at once routed. _

You will see that this rendering, though verbally correct, is notEnglish, and must be considerably altered before it can be called a goodtranslation. Thus:--

(a) _It is too long. _ You can remedy this by taking +postquam . .. Cecidit+ as one complete sentence, and +fusa . .. Acies+ as another. 

(b) _Exposing himself. _ Better _exposed himself to . .. And_. Notice herethe strictly accurate use of the Pres. Participle in Latin. 

(c) ‘+future+’ may be omitted, as tautological[15] in English. Cf. Ourinexact idiom ‘_he promised to come_’ (Lat. ‘_that he would come_’). 

 [Footnote 15: _i. E. _ needless repetition (ταὐτὸ λέγειν = to say the same thing). ]

_At last, both for the sake of his old renown and from the fear ofdisgrace should he survive a disaster brought on by his own rashness, hethrew himself among the enemy’s darts and was slain. The Roman army wasrouted in a moment. _ --Church and B. 

+V. + +Sed adeo ne fugae quidem iter patuit omnibus viis ab equiteinsessis, ut ex tanta multitudine vix mille evaserint, ceteri passimalii alia peste absumpti sint. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+pătuit+ = _was open_. Cf. +păte-facio+ = _to make open_; +păt-ulus+ =_open_, _spread out_; +păt-era+ = _a broad, flat dish_. English, _patent_. 

+insessis+ = _occupied_; +in + sed-eo+ = _sit upon_--so, _occupy_. 

+passim+ = _hither and thither_, _far and wide_, formed from +passus+(+pando+), _expand_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence resembles in form Sentence IV. , withone principal verb +patuit+, and a principal subject +iter+, and asubordinate clause of _result_, +ut . .. Absumpti sint+, modifying theaction of the principal verb +patuit+. You may conveniently break upthis sentence into two, by beginning a new sentence with +Ceteri+. Thus:--

_So completely closed against them was every chance of escape, all theroads being beset by cavalry, that out of so numerous a host hardly athousand escaped. The rest perished as they fled, some by one death andsome by another. _

Before laying aside these two passages, you should pay attention to thefollowing points:--

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--Besides carefully noticing _new_ words, try to formgroups of _cognates_ (i. E. _related words_). One of the best ways toenlarge your vocabulary is to group together _words of common origin_, and to add to each, where you can, derivative and cognate English words. To take a few examples from this passage:--

 Word. Meaning. English Derivative. +ALIUS+ = _another_ (of many). +ali-enus+ = _that belong to another_ alien, alienate. +ali-quot+ = _some, several_ aliquot (parts). +al-ter+ = _other of two_ alter, alternate. +ali-bi+ = _elsewhere_ alibi. Etc. 

 +SENATUS+ = _the Council Senate. Of the Elders_ +sen-ex+ = _old_ +sen-ior+ = _older_ senior, sire, sir. +sen-ile+ = _belonging to old people_ sen-ile. +sen-ectus+ = _old age_. Etc. 

 +ITER+ = (+i-tiner+) = _a going_ itin-erant. +amb-it-io+ = _a going round, ambition. Canvassing_ +comes+ = _a comrade_. A Count (+cum + eo+) (Fr. Comte). +in-it-ium+ = _a going in, a beginning_ initial. +sed-it-io+ = _a going apart, sedition_ sedition. Etc. 

(ii. ) _Useful Phrases for Latin Prose. _--You should try gradually to puttogether your own phrase-book. You will find this much more useful toyou than any ready-made collection. A good and simple plan is to have aspecial note-book for this purpose. Mark in the text as you read usefulphrases, and in your note-book write the Latin on the right-hand pageand a good idiomatic rendering on the left. For example, from thispassage you might collect the following:--

 English. Latin. 

 _A chance of achieving a success. _ +fortuna bene gerendae rei. + _After completing his term of service. _ +perfunctus militia. + _Would make it worth their while. _ +operae pretium facturum. + _Up to that time. _ +ad id locorum. + _The result was not doubtful. _ +haud dubia res est. + _Though the fight was so unequal. _ +ut in nulla pari re. + _Some by one death and some by another. _ +alii alia peste. +

(iii. ) +HANNIBAL. +--Read some good short estimate of Hannibal as apatriot, statesman, and soldier--such as may be found in Mommsen’s orIhne’s _History of Rome_. If you have time, you will find much tointerest you in the _Hannibal_ (‘Heroes of the Nations’) by O’ConnorMorris. 

DEMONSTRATION IV. 

SENTENCE

 Kind of Sentence CONNECTIVE SUBJECT _Simple_ _Enlarged_ PREDICATE _Simple_ _Enlarged_ OBJECT _Simple_ _Enlarged_

_Sentence III. _

Pugnatum tamen, ut in nulla pari re, duas amplius horas; concitata et, donec dux stetisset, Romana acie. 

 Complex tamen +(THE BATTLE)+ +PUGNATUM (EST)+ 1. Duas amplius horas (_time_) 2. Ut in nulla pari re (_manner_) 3. Concitata . .. Romana acie (_manner_)

_Sentence IV. _

A. Postquam is non pro vetere fama solum, sed etiam metu futuridedecoris, si sua temeritate contractae cladi superesset, obiectans sehostium telis cecidit, fusa extemplo est Romana acies. 

 Complex Postquam +ACIES+ Romana +FUSA EST+ 1. Extemplo (_time_) 2. Postquam is . .. Cecidit (_time_)

A1. Postquam is . .. Cecidit

 Subordinate _adv. _ to +FUSA EST+ in A Postquam is non pro vetere . .. +OBIECTANS+ telis cecidit

A2. Si sua . .. Superesset

 Subordinate _adv. _ to +OBIECTANS+ in A1 si (he) superesset cladi sua temeritate contractae

DEMONSTRATION V. 

_The Happy Life. _

 (a) Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, I Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum Subiecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari! || Fortunatus et ille, deos qui novit agrestes, II Panaque, Silvanumque senem, Nymphasque sorores! || 5 Illum non populi fasces, non purpura regum III Flexit et infidos agitans discordia fratres, Aut coniurato descendens Dacus ab Histro, Non res Romanae, perituraque regna; || neque ille IV Aut doluit miserans inopem aut invidit habenti. || 10

 VERGIL. 

_The Happy Life. _

 (b) +Felix+, (qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, I Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum Subiecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari!) +Fortunatus+ et +ille+, (deos qui novit agrestes, II Panaque, Silvanumque senem, Nymphasque sorores!) 5 +Illum+ non populi +fasces+, non +purpura+ regum III +Flexit+ et infidos agitans +discordia+ fratres, Aut coniurato descendens +Dacus+ ab Histro, Non +res Romanae, perituraque regna+; neque ille IV Aut +doluit+ miserans inopem aut +invidit habenti+. 10

 VERGIL. 

DEMONSTRATION V. 

 VERGIL, _Georg. _ ii. 490-499. 

_Read the Passage carefully. _--Notice as you read the many allusions andkey-words in the passage, _e. G. _ +Acherontis+, +Pana+, +Silvanum+, +Nymphas+, +Dacus ab Istro+, +res Romanae+, +rerum causas+, and +populifasces+. These, taken in connection with the main predicates +felix+, +fortunatus+, +non flexit+, +neque doluit+, +aut invidit+, will readilysuggest to you the main thought of the passage:--

_Happy is Nature’s bard who knows and fears not: happy he too who knowsthe gods of the country. He is not distressed by ambition, nor wars, norpain, nor envy. _

+I. +

 +Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas, Atque metus omnes et inexorabile fatum Subiecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari!+

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+inexorabile+ = _relentless_; lit. _that cannot be moved by entreaty_. +in+ (_not_) + +ex+ (_easily_) + +orabilis+ (_entreated_). 

For +oro+ cf. +ōs+ = _mouth_; +orator+ = _speaker_; +oratio+ = _speech_. 

+fatum+ = _fate_, _i. E. _ of _death_, as the common lot of all men, thedecree of nature. 

+fatum+ = _that which is said_, espec. Prophetically. √+fa+, φα. Cf. +for+ (+fā-ri+), _speak_; +fā-ma+, _report_; +fā-bula+, _a story_;+in-fans+, _that cannot speak_; +fā-cundus+, _eloquent_. 

+strepitum+ = _roar_; lit. A wild, confused noise, din of any kind; cf. _obstreperous_. 

+Acherontis+ = _Acheron_ = (a) a river in the Lower World; (b) the LowerWorld itself. Perh. +Acheron+ = ὁ ἄχεα ῥέων = the stream of woe; cf. Κωκυτός = _Cocytus_, river of _wailing_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _-- You cannot be in doubt about the principalsubject and predicate. +Felix+ is the only word outside the subordinateclause from +qui . .. Avari+. The sense, too, of these lines is clear, soyou may translate at once; but you must take special care to usedignified and appropriate language:--

_Happy the man who has availed to know the causes of things, and sotrampled under foot all fears and fate’s relentless decree, and the roarof insatiate Acheron. _

+II. +

 +Fortunatus et ille, deos qui novit agrestes, Panaque, Silvanumque senem, Nymphasque sorores!+

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+agrestes+ = _of the country_; cf. +ager+ (ἀγρός), +agrarius+, _agrarian_; +peragro+ (+per + ager+), _travel over_. Perhaps to betraced to the same root as +ag-o+ = _drive_, +ager+ and ἀγρός being sonamed +a pecore agendo+ (cf. Germ. +trift+ = _pasturage_, +treiben+ =_drive_). 

+Silvanum+ = _Silvanus_ = Latin god of fields and woods (+silva+), _sylvan_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence closely resembles in form SentenceI, +Ille Fortunatus+ being the principal subject and predicate. 

_He too is blest who knows the gods of the country, Pan, and oldSilvanus, and the sisterhood of the Nymphs. _

+III. +

 +Illum non populi fasces, non purpura regum Flexit, et infidos agitans discordia fratres; Aut coniurato descendens Dacus ab Histro, Non res Romanae, perituraque regna;+

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+fasces+ = _fasces_, i. E. _honours_; +populi+, i. E. _conferred by thepeople_. 

 +fascis+ = a _bundle_, espec. Of wood. 

 +fasces+ = _the lictors’ rods_ (_rods_ + _axe_ in certain cases) carried before the highest magistrates, as an emblem of authority. 

+purpura+, _i. E. _ the _purple_ robe worn by kings and magistrates. 

Cf. [16]‘+Purpura Pompeium summi velabit honoris. +’

 OV. _Ex Ponto_ IV. Iv. 25. 

 [Footnote 16: ‘The purple (the insignia) of the highest office shall clothe Pompeius. ’]

+agitans+ = _driving_, i. E. _moving_, _impelling_. 

+discordia+ = _discord_. Notice force of +dis-+ = separation, negation;cf. +dis-crimen+, +dis-par+. 

+coniurato+ = _united by oath_, _sworn confederate_. 

+Dacus+, the Dacians, akin to the Thracians, N. Of Danube, conquered byTrajan. Cf. Modern _Roumanians_. 

+Histro+ = the Lower Danube. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--You will see there is only one principal verb, +flexit+ (or +flexerunt+), with several principal subjects, +fasces+, +purpura+, +discordia+, +res Romanae+, +perituraque regna+, and nosubordinate clauses. You may therefore translate at once:--

(a) _Him fasces of the people or purple of kings sway not, not maddeningdiscord among treacherous brethren, nor the Dacians swarming down fromthe leagued Danube, not the Roman State, or realms destined to decay;_

OR

(b) _He is not (1) moved by honours that the people confer, or thepurple of empire, or civil feuds, that make (2) brothers swerve frombrothers’ duty; or the Dacian coming down from the Hister, his sworn (2)ally; no, nor by the great Roman State and the death-throes of subjectkingdoms. _

N. B. --(b) is superior to (a) in--

(1) the use of Passive for Active;

(2) the predicative use of +agitans+, +infidos+, +coniurato+. 

+IV. +

 +neque ille Aut doluit miserans inopem, aut invidit habenti. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--You will probably know the meanings of the words inthis sentence. Thus the meaning of--

 +doluit+ is suggested by +dolor+. +miserans+ „ „ +miser+. Cf. _miser-able_. +inopem+ „ „ +in + ops+. Cf. _op-ulent_. +invidit+ „ „ +invidia+. Cf. _envy_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--You have here two principal verbs, +doluit+, +invidit+, joined by +aut+, and a principal subject +ille+. 

Notice that +inopem+ must be the object of the participle +miserans+, and that +habenti+ is used as a noun. 

_He never felt the pang of pity for the poor, or of envy for the rich. _

Copy of a rendering shown up by a boy of fifteen in a recent scholarshipexamination:--

‘Happy is the man who _is able_ to discern the reason of things, and_controls_ under his feet all changes and inexorable destiny, and the_groaning_ of greedy Acheron! |I| Blessed also is he who knows therustic gods, Pan and old Silvanus, and those sisters, the nymphs! |II|He is not moved by _the people’s axes_, nor by the regal purple, nor bydiscord that rouses brothers to _distrust_ each other. He is not movedby _Dacus_, coming down from the _sacred_ Danube, nor by _theaffairs_ of Rome, and the realms about to perish. |III| He neither_grieves for nor pities the helpless_, nor does he envy the rich. ’ |IV|

The above version is fair, but notice the following points:--

_Sentence I. _--

_is able . .. And controls_. The connection in thought is not shown: ‘Heis happy because he _knows_ and ∴ fears not. ’

_groaning_--_i. E. _ +gemitum+; +strepitum+ = _roar_, _din_. 

_Sentence III. _--

_by the people’s axes_. This suggests quite a wrong idea; contrast theversion, ‘by the honours that the people confer. ’

_sacred_. This is quite wrong. +con-iurato+ = _allied by oath_. 

_the affairs of Rome_. A very weak, and inadequate rendering. 

_Sentence IV. _--

_grieves for nor pities_. This quite obscures the point. Vergil saysthat a country life, with its absence of poverty, so commonly met within a town, saves a man from the necessity of feeling a pang of pity forthe poor. 

Before you put aside this passage, try to avail yourself of some of thefollowing suggestions. Thus:--

I. _For the Poet Vergil_[17] (70 B. C. -19 B. C. ). --The chief facts of hislife and the subject of his great poems are clearly and shortly given inthe _Student’s Companion to Latin Authors_ (a useful and convenient bookof reference). 

 [Footnote 17: See Short Lives, p. 343. ] [[Appendix VI]]

II. _For the Georgics, Poems on Husbandry. _ (The passage for translationis taken from _Georgic II. _ lines 490-499. ) See--

 (i. ) _Student’s Companion to Latin Authors_, pp. 157-8. (ii. ) Nettleship’s _Vergil_, pp. 37-45. (iii. ) Sellar’s _Vergil_, pp. 174-198. 

Notice especially the _political purpose_ of the _Georgics_--to help thepolicy of Augustus, which aimed at checking the depopulation of thecountry districts. Compare the alarming migration from the country tothe towns in England at the present day. 

III. _Relation of Lucretius to the Georgics. _

 (i. ) Sellar’s _Vergil_, pp. 199-243. 

 (ii. ) Munro’s _Lucretius_, Notes on Book i. Line 78, and Book iii. Line 449. 

Notice in this connection the opening lines of the passage, +Felix quipotuit . .. Acherontis avari+, which may be summarised as follows: ‘Happyhe who knows the laws of Nature, and has therefore ceased to fearnatural phenomena and has learnt to despise the fabled terrors ofHades. ’ Munro says: ‘I feel that by his +Felix qui+ Vergil does mean apoet-philosopher, who can only be Lucretius. ’

Cf. Also _Lucretius_, iii. 1-30. His address to Epicurus. 

For the thought, cf. Wordsworth’s _Happy Warrior_--

 ‘He therefore does not stoop, nor lie in wait For wealth, or honours, or for worldly state. ’

DEMONSTRATION VI. 

_The Tomb of Archimedes. _

(a) Archimedis ego quaestor ignoratum ab Syracusanis, cum esse omninonegarent, saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis, indagavisepulcrum. |II| Tenebam enim quosdam senariolos, quos in eius monumentoesse inscriptos acceperam: qui declarabant in summo sepulcro sphaeramesse positam cum cylindro. |III| Ego autem, cum omnia collustraremoculis--est enim ad portas Agragantinas magna frequentiasepulcrorum--animadverti columellam non multum e dumis eminentem, in quainerat sphaerae figura et cylindri. |IV| Atque ego statimSyracusanis--erant autem principes mecum--dixi me illud ipsum arbitrariesse quod quaererem. |V| Immissi cum falcibus multi purgarunt locum. |VI| Quo cum patefactus esset aditus, accessimus: |VII| apparebat insepulcro epigramma, exesis posterioribus partibus versiculorum, dimidiatis fere. ||

 CICERO. 

_The Tomb of Archimedes. _

(b) {I} Archimedis +ego quaestor+ ignoratum ab Syracusanis, [cum esseomnino negarent, ] saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis, +indagavi sepulcrum+. {II} +Tenebam+ enim quosdam +senariolos+, [quos ineius monumento esse inscriptos acceperam]: [qui declarabant in summosepulcro sphaeram esse positam cum cylindro. ] {III} +Ego+ autem, [cumomnia collustrarem oculis]--est enim ad portas Agragantinas magnafrequentia sepulcrorum--+animadverti columellam+ non multum e dumiseminentem, [in qua inerat sphaerae figura et cylindri]. {IV} Atque +ego+statim Syracusanis--erant autem principes mecum--+dixi+ me illud ipsumarbitrari esse [quod quaererem]. {V} +Immissi+ cum falcibus multi+purgarunt locum+. {VI} [Quo cum patefactus esset aditus], +accessimus+:{VII} +apparebat+ in sepulcro +epigramma+, exesis posterioribus partibusversiculorum, dimidiatis fere. 

 CICERO. 

DEMONSTRATION VI. 

 CICERO, _Tusc. _ v. 23. 64. 

_Read the Passage through carefully. _--As you read you will notice manyallusions and key-words, _e. G. _ +Archimedes+, +ego quaestor+, +Syracusanis+, +sepulcrum+, etc. These, taken in connection with theheading and the author, will suggest to you the main subject of thepassage--the finding of the Tomb of Archimedes by Cicero. 

+I. + +Archimedis ego quaestor ignoratum ab Syracusanis, cum esse omninonegarent, saeptum undique et vestitum vepribus et dumetis, indagavisepulcrum. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+Quaestor+ (contr. From +quaesītor+--+quaero+), i. E. _investigator_, originally two main functions:--

(a) The preparation of evidence in public prosecutions (this about 240B. C. Transferred to the Tribunes). 

(b) Treasurers of State. Of these the +Quaestores urbani+ stayed atRome, while the +Quaestores provinciales+ or +militares+ acted asfinancial assistants to the _Consuls_ or _Praetors_ for the provinces. 

+saeptum+ = _hedged in_; +saepes+ = _a hedge_, _fence_. 

+vepribus+ = _with bramble-bushes_. 

+dumetis+ = _with brushwood_. 

+indagavi+ = _I traced out_. A metaphor from hunting.  Cf. 

 ‘Dum trepidant alae, saltusque indagine cingunt. ’

 Verg. _Aen. _ iv. 121. 

‘While the scouts (beaters) are all busy, and are encircling the covertswith nets. ’

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The form of the sentence is quite simple. Theprincipal verb is +indagavi+, with subject +ego quaestor+, and object+sepulcrum+. From +ignoratum . .. Dumetis+ describes +sepulcrum+, and thesubordinate clause +cum . .. Negarent+ emphasises +ignoratum aSyracusanis+. You may now translate

(a) literally: _I, when Quaestor, traced out the tomb of Archimedes, notknown of by the Syracusans, for they said it was not there at all, hedged in on all sides and covered with brambles and brushwood. _

(b) A better rendering: _When I was Quaestor I was able to trace thetomb of Archimedes, overgrown and hedged in with brambles and brushwood. The Syracusans knew nothing of it, and entirely denied its existence. _

Notice here the improvement made by breaking up the one long sentenceinto two. 

+II. + +Tenebam enim quosdam senariolos, quos in eius monumento esseinscriptos acceperam: qui declarabant in summo sepulcro sphaeram essepositam cum cylindro. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+senariolos+ = _some lines_, _i. E. _ of poetry--dimin. Of +senarius+(+seni+) = _consisting of six each_, especially of the _iambic senarii_. 

+sphaeram+ = _a sphere_, _globe_--σφαῖρα. 

+cylindro+ = _a cylinder_, κύλινδρος. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--The only principal verb is clearly +tenebam+ (withsubject contained in the verb), and the principal object +senariolos+(sc. +versus+). From +quos . .. Cylindro+ we have two subordinateadjectival clauses enlarging +senariolos+. 

_The fact is, I remembered some iambic lines which I had been told wereinscribed on his monument, and which set forth that his tomb wassurmounted by a sphere and a cylinder. _

+III. + +Ego autem, cum omnia collustrarem oculis--est enim ad portasAgragantinas magna frequentia sepulcrorum--animadverti columellam nonmultum e dumis eminentem, in qua inerat sphaerae figura et cylindri. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+collustrarem+ = _I was surveying on all sides_; +con (cum) + lustro+. 

 +lustro+, perhaps akin to +luc-eo+, +lu-men+; so, +il-lustris+ = _lighted up_, _illustrious_. 

+frequentia+ = _a large number_; cf. +frequens+, √φρακ, +farc+; cf. φράγ-μα = _a fence_, +farc-io+ = _pack close together_; so, +con-fer-tus+ = _crowded_, +freq-uens+ = _repeated_, _frequent_. 

+columellam+ = _a small column_, dimin. Of +columen+, √cel; cf. +cel-sus+ = _lofty_; cf. +ex-cello+, +col-umen+ (= +cul-men+) = _thesummit_; cf. _culminate_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--This sentence is apparently not quite so simple, but if you carefully bracket the subordinate clauses you will see thatthe only principal verb is +animadverti+, with subject +ego+ and object+columellam+. Notice next that--

(a) +cum . .. Oculis+ modifies the principal verb +animadverti+ and is anadverbial clause of _time_. 

(b) The parenthetical clause +est enim . .. Sepulcrorum+ explains+collustrarem+. 

(c) +in qua . .. Cylindri+ is an adjectival clause enlarging+columellam+. 

You may now translate into your best English, following closely thethought and the order of the Latin:--

_Well, as I was surveying the whole place (there is a large number oftombs at[18] the Agrigentine gate) I perceived a small column justshowing above the undergrowth, on which appeared the figure of a sphereand a cylinder. _

 [Footnote 18: Var. Lect. +ad portas Achradinas+. ]

+IV. + +Atque ego statim Syracusanis--erant autem principes mecum--dixime illud ipsum arbitrari esse, quod quaererem. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--The words of this sentence present no difficulty. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--With the practice you have now had, you maytranslate at once; but notice carefully that--

(a) the parenthetical clause +erant . .. Mecum+ enlarges +Syracusanis+;and

(b) +quod quaererem+ describes +illud ipsum+. 

_So I immediately said to the Syracusans who were with me (some peopleof importance) that I thought that was the very thing I was lookingfor. _

+V. + +Immissi cum falcibus multi purgarunt locum. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+falcibus+ = _with bill-hooks_; +falx+ perh. Akin to +flect-o+ = _bend_, from its shape. Cf. _falcon_ (from its _hooked_ claws). 

+purgarunt+ = _cleared_; +purgo+, contr. From +pur-igo+ = +purum + ago+= _purge_. Cf. +pur-us+. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--

_Some men sent in with bill-hooks cleared out the space. _

+VI. + +Quo cum patefactus esset aditus, accessimus. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+patefactus+ = _laid open_: +pateo + facio+. Cf. _patent_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--

_As soon as the way was open, we went up to it. _

+VII. + +Apparebat in sepulcro epigramma, exesis posterioribus partibusversiculorum, dimidiatis fere. +

(i. ) _Vocabulary. _--

+epigramma+ = _inscription_. Cf. _epi-gram_. 

+exesis+ = lit. ‘_eaten out_’; +ex + edo+. Cf. _ed-ible_. 

+dimidiatis+ = _halved_ = +dis + medius+, i. E. _divided into halves_. 

(ii. ) _Translation. _--_There was the inscription on the tomb: the latterpart of each line was gone, nearly half the verse. _

_Note. _--Notice here the rendering of the Lat. Abl. Absol. , an idiomforeign to our language except for example in the so-called nom. Absol. Of Milton. Cf. Introduction, p. 12 (5). [[Introduction 13 (5)]]

Cicero adds the following reflection:--‘_Ita nobilissima Graeciaecivitas, quondam vero etiam doctissima, sui civis unius acutissimimonumentum ignorasset, nisi ab hoimine Arpinate didicisset. _’

_Thus it was that one of the most renowned of Greek cities, and inancient times one of the most enlightened, would have remained ignorantof the monument of the greatest genius it ever produced, if it had notlearnt it from a man born at Arpinum. _[19]

 [Footnote 19: Also the birthplace of Marius. Cf. P. 163. ] [[Selection B4]]

_Some Suggestions and Authorities. _

Before you leave this passage, try to notice some of the followingpoints, and if possible consult _some_ of these authorities:--

(i. ) Read (_e. G. _ in Church and Brodribb’s translation) Livy’s accountof the siege of Syracuse by Marcellus, 214-212 B. C. , Book xxiv. Cap. 34;Book xxv. Caps. 23-31. 

(ii. ) Freeman’s _History of Sicily_. Notice especially the admirableplan of Syracuse illustrating the siege by Nicias. 

Or _Sicily_--‘Story of the Nations’ Series. 

(iii. ) _Some good Life of Archimedes. _ The _Encyclopaedia Britannica_supplies a good short life and refers to Cicero’s finding the Tomb ofArchimedes, and to the still extant work of Archimedes on the Sphere andthe Cylinder. 

(iv. ) For _Cicero’s Quaestorship in Sicily_, 75 B. C. , consult some Lifeof Cicero, _e. G. _ Forsyth’s, pp. 38-58, where reference is made to thisincident. 

(v. ) For the _Tusculanae Disputationes_ (conversations between Ciceroand a friend at his Tusculan villa, the subject of which is the chiefessentials of happiness) consult the admirable introduction to theedition by T. W. Dougan, Camb. Press. 

PASSAGES

FOR

TRANSLATION AT SIGHT

REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B. C. 

D1

_The Vision of Anchises. --The Kings that are to be. _

 Quin et avo comitem sese Mavortius addet Romulus, Assaraci quem sanguinis Ilia mater Educet. Viden’ ut geminae stant vertice cristae, Et pater ipse suo superum iam signat honore? 780 En huius, nate, auspiciis illa incluta Roma Imperium terris, animos aequabit Olympo, Septemque una sibi muro circumdabit arces, Felix prole virum. . . . . . . . Quis procul ille autem ramis insignis olivae Sacra ferens? Nosco crines incanaque menta Regis Romani; primam qui legibus urbem 810 Fundabit, Curibus parvis et paupere terra Missus in imperium magnum. Cui deinde subibit, Otia qui rumpet patriae residesque movebit Tullus in arma viros et iam desueta triumphis Agmina. Quem iuxta sequitur iactantior Ancus, 815 Nunc quoque iam nimium gaudens popularibus auris. Vis et Tarquinios reges animamque superbam Ultoris Bruti fascesque videre receptos?

 VERGIL, _Aen. _ vi. 777-784, 808-818. 

 [Linenotes: 777. +Avo+ = _grandsire_, i. E. Numitor, the father of the Vestal Rhea or Ilia. +Mavortius+ = child of Mavors, old and poetic name for Mars. 778. +Assaraci+: King of Phrygia and grandfather of Anchises. 779. +geminae cristae. + The double-crested helm, a distinction of Mars. 780. +superum+ = _for the world above_, i. E. As a god. Acc. Sing. 808. +ille+ = Numa Pompilius (716-673 B. C. ), a native of Cures (811) in Sabine country, whom the Romans regarded as the founder (+fundabit+, 811) of their religious and legal institutions. 813. +qui+ = Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B. C. ), a man of war, destroyed Alba. +resides+ = _sluggish_, _lazy_ (_re + sedeo_). 815. +Ancus Martius+ (640-616 B. C. ), conqueror of the Latins. 817. +Tarquinios reges+ = (i. ) Tarquinius Priscus (616-578 B. C. ) of Tarquinii in Etruria; (ii. ) Tarquinius Superbus (534-509 B. C. ), expelled by Brutus. Vergil omits Servius Tullius (578-534 B. C. ). 817-818. +animamque . .. Receptos. + Brutus, nephew of T. Superbus, roused Rome to expel the Tarquins and found the Republic: and thus the +fasces+ (the sign of power) were _recovered_ (+receptos+) by the people. --Sidgwick. ]

D2

ROMULUS, 753-716 B. C. 

A. _The Passing of Romulus. _

His immortalibus editis operibus cum ad exercitum recensendum contionemin campo ad Caprae paludem haberet, subito coorta tempestas cum magnofragore tonitribusque tam denso regem operuit nimbo, ut conspectum eiuscontioni abstulerit; nec {5} deinde in terris Romulus fuit. Romanapubes, sedato tandem pavore, postquam ex tam turbido die serena ettranquilla lux rediit, ubi vacuam sedem regiam vidit, etsi satiscredebat patribus, qui proxumi steterant, sublimem raptum procella, tamen velut {10} orbitatis metu icta maestum aliquamdiu silentiumobtinuit. Deinde a paucis initio facto deum deo natum, regem parentemqueurbis Romanae salvere universi Romulum iubent; pacem precibus exposcunt, uti volens propitius suam semper sospitet progeniem. {15}

 LIVY, i. 16. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +ad Caprae paludem+ = _near the Goat’s pool_. 4. +operuit+ = _enveloped_ (+ob + pario+ = _get for_, _put upon_, _cover_), cf. Opposite +a-per-io+ = _get from_, _uncover_. 5. +abstulerit+ = _auferret_. The event is regarded simply as past, without reference to other past events. 5-6. +nec deinde . .. Fuit+, cf. ‘Quirinus | Martis equis Acheronta fugit. ’ Hor. _Od. _ iii. 3.  15. 7. +sēdato+ = _settled_, _calmed_. +Sēd-o+ = _cause to sit_, cf. +sēd-es+, and our _seat_, _settle_. 11. +orbitatis+ = _of orphanhood_; cf. +orb-us+ = _bereaved_, and our _orphan_. 15. +volens propitius+, an ellipse of _et_, cf. _optimus maximus_. +sospitet+ = _he may keep safe_, _preserve_, cf. +sospes+ = _safe_. ]

B. _The Mystery explained. _

 Pulcher et humano maior trabeaque decorus Romulus in media visus adesse via, Et dixisse simul: ‘Prohibe lugere Quirites, Nec violent lacrimis numina nostra suis. 4 Tura ferant placentque novum pia turba Quirinum, Et patrias artes militiamque colant. ’

 OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 379-384.  H. [II. 503-508]

 [Linenotes: 1-6. Romulus appears as a god to Proculus Julius, an honourable man, bidding him tell his people not to mourn for him, but to worship him as Quirinus, and practise valour and all warlike virtues. 1. +trabea+ = _in the (striped) robe of state_. 3-5. +Quirites+ (cf. +Quirinus+ = the deified Romulus) = lit. _spearmen_. Connected with _Cures_ and _curis_ (Sabine word for a _spear_), used of Roman _citizens_ as opposed to Roman _soldiers_. ]

D3

NUMA POMPILIUS, 716-673 B. C. 

_The Gate of Janus, open in war but shut in peace. _

A. Qui regno ita potitus urbem novam, conditam vi et armis, iure eamlegibusque ac moribus de integro condere parat. Quibus cum inter bellaadsuescere videret non posse, quippe efferari militia animos, mitigandumferocem populum armorum {5} desuetudine ratus Ianum ad infimum Argiletumindicem pacis bellique fecit, apertus ut in armis esse civitatem, clausus pacatos circa omnes populos significaret. 

 LIVY, i. 19. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Qui+ = Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. 4-5. +quippe . .. Animos+ = _since_ (he thought that) _men’s tempers were made savage_ (brutalised) _by warfare_. +efferari+ = orat. Obl. Part of Numa’s thoughts. 6. +desuetudine+ = _by disuse_, i. E. By a cessation from the use of. Cf. _de-docēre_ = _unteach_. +Ianum . .. Argiletum+ = (a temple of) Janus at the foot of the Argiletum, a slope to the N. E. Of the Forum. (Prob. = the clayey ground, from _argilla_ = white clay. ) 8. +clausus. + It was closed for a short time, circ. 238 B. C. , and again by Augustus 29-25 B. C. ]

B. 

 Sunt geminae Belli portae, sic nomine dicunt, Religione sacrae et saevi formidine Martis: Centum aerei claudunt vectes aeternaque ferri Robora, nec custos absistit limine Ianus. 610 Has, ubi certa sedet patribus sententia pugnae, Ipse Quirinali trabea cinctuque Gabino Insignis reserat stridentia limina Consul; Ipse vocat pugnas; sequitur tum cetera pubes, Aereaque adsensu conspirant cornua rauco. 

 VERGIL, _Aen. _ vii. 607-615. 

 [Linenotes: 609. +vectes+ = _bolts or bars_, prob. From √veh = carry. Cf. _vect-īgal_. 612. +Quir. Trabea+ = _in the state robe of Romulus_, i. E. The striped robe of state, purple, with white stripes across. +cinctu Gabino+ = _with the Gabine girdle_, formed by girding the toga tight round the body by one of its loose ends. 613. +reserat+ = _un-bars_. For _sĕro_ = _join_, cf. Our _series_. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Ovid, _F. _ i. 115-132. Cf. Hor. _Od. _ iv. 15. 9. Verg. _Aen. _ i. 293-4. 

+Numa Pompilius. + ‘The name of Numa is significant, and denotes anorganiser or _lawgiver_. (For _Numa_ cf. +numerus+, +nummus+, νόμος. )As Romulus was the founder of the State and of political and militaryorder, so the legend regards Numa as the founder of the nationalreligion. ’ --Ihne. 

D4

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, 534-509 B. C. 

_The Purchase of the Sibylline Books. _

In antiquis annalibus memoria super libris Sibyllinis haec prodita est. Anus hospita atque incognita ad Tarquinium Superbum regem adiit, novemlibros ferens, quos esse dicebat divina oracula: eos velle venundare. Tarquinius pretium percontatus {5} est: mulier nimium immensum poposcit. Rex, quasi anus aetate desiperet, derisit. Tum illa foculum coram eo cumigne apposuit, et tres libros ex novem deussit; et, ecquid reliquos sexeodem pretio emere vellet, regem interrogavit. Sed enim {10} Tarquiniusid multo risit magis dixitque anum iam procul dubio delirare. Mulieribidem statim tres libros alios exussit; atque id ipsum denuo placideinterrogavit, an tres reliquos eodem pretio emat. Tarquinius ore iamserio, atque attentiore animo fit; eam {15} constantiam confidentiamquenon insuper habendam intelligit: libros tres reliquos mercatur nihilominore pretio, quam quod erat petitum pro omnibus.  .  .  . Libri tres insacrarium conditi Sibyllini appellati. Ad eos, quasi ad oraculum, quindecimviri {20} adeunt, cum dii immortales publice consulendi sunt. 

 AULUS GELLIUS (fl. 143 A. D. ), i.  19. 

 [Linenotes: 1, 2. +libris Sibyllinis+, i. E. A collection of prophecies uttered by the legendary prophetess who lived at Cumae, near Naples. 5. +venundare+ = _to sell_. Cf. _ven-eo_ (= _venum + eo_), _ven-do_, and our _vendor_. 12. +delirare+ = _to be out of her mind_. Lit. To make a crooked furrow in ploughing; _de + lira_ (a furrow). 19. +sacrarium+ = _the place for the keeping of holy things_, i. E. The Capitol. The original Sibylline Books were burnt in the fire on the Capitol, 82 B. C. , but a fresh collection was made by Augustus, and deposited in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine. 20. +quindecimviri+ (_sacris faciundis_), i. E. A college of priests who had charge of the Sibylline Books. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Verg. _Aen. _ vi. , espec. Ll. 42-101, for theCumaean Sibyl. 

+The Sibylline Books. + ‘There existed also Etruscan +libri fatales+(_Books of Fate_), and these, together with the Sibylline Books, werekept in the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter. Nothing seemed more naturalthan to suppose that Tarquin, who built that temple, purchased also thesacred books of the Sibyl. ’ --Ihne. 

D5

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS, 534-509 B. C. 

A. _Sextus Tarquinius at Gabii. _

Inde in consilia publica adhiberi. . . . Ita cum sensim ad rebellandumprimores Gabinorum incitaret, ipse cum promptissimis iuvenum praedatumatque in expeditiones iret, et dictis factisque omnibus ad fallenduminstructis vana accresceret fides, dux ad {5} ultimum belli legitur. Ibicum inscia multitudine, quid ageretur, proelia parva inter RomamGabiosque fierent, quibus plerumque Gabina res superior esset, tumcertatim summi infimique Gabinorum Sex. Tarquinium dono deum sibi missumducem credere. {10} Apud milites vero obeundo pericula ac laborespariter, praedam munifice largiendo tanta caritate esse, ut non paterTarquinius potentior Bomae quam filius Gabiis esset. 

 LIVY, i. 54. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Inde+, i. E. After the tale he told of his father’s cruelty had gained credit with the men of Gabii. +adhiberi+ = _he was admitted_. Historic Infin. 2. +ad rebellandum+ = _to renew the war_. 4-5. +ad fallendum instructis+ = _were framed to deceive_. 8. +Gabina res+ = _the cause of Gabii_. For +res+ cf. P. 11 (2). [[Introduction 13 (2)]] 11. +obeundo pariter+ = _by facing alike . .. _]

B. _The Sequel: the Fall of Gabii. _

 Iamque potens misso genitorem appellat amico, Perdendi Gabios quod sibi monstret iter. Hortus odoratis suberat cultissimus herbis, Sectus humum rivo lene sonantis aquae. 4 Illic Tarquinius mandata latentia nati Accipit, et virga lilia summa metit. Nuntius ut rediit, decussaque lilia dixit, Filius ‘Agnosco iussa parentis’ ait. 8 Nec mora: principibus caesis ex urbe Gabina, Traduntur ducibus moenia nuda suis. 

 OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 543-552.  H. [II. 701-710]

 [Linenotes: 1. +genitorem appellat . .. + = _he calls on his father (to tell him)_ . .. 6. +virga+ = _with a switch_. +summa+ = _the tallest_. 10. +ducibus suis+, abl. , after _nuda_ = _deprived of_. ]

+Reference. + Hor. _Ep. _ ii. 1. 23-27. Horace refers to the treaty madeby Tarquinius with Gabii. 

+Historic Parallel. + Compare the extraordinary self-sacrifice ofZōpy̆rus, which enabled him to betray Babylon to his master Darius. Herod, iii. 153-158. 

D6

_The Position of Rome, the future Mistress of the World. _

Urbi autem locum Romulus incredibili opportunitate delegit. Neque enimad mare admovit--quod ei fuit illa manu copiisque facillimum, ut inagrum Rutulorum Aboriginumve procederet, aut in ostio Tiberino, quem inlocum multis post annis rex {5} Ancus coloniam deduxit, urbem ipseconderet, --sed hoc vir excellenti providentia sensit ac vidit, non esseopportunissimos situs maritimos urbibus eis quae ad spem diuturnitatisconderentur atque imperi. Itaque urbem perennis amnis et aequabilis et{10} in mare late influentis posuit in ripa, quo posset urbs et accipereex mari, quo egeret, et reddere, quo redundaret: ut mihi iam tumdivinasse ille videatur, hanc urbem sedem aliquando et domum summo esseimperio praebituram: nam hanc rerum tantam {15} potentiam non fermefacilius alia in parte Italiae posita urbs tenere potuisset. Urbis autemipsius is est tractus ductusque muri cum Romuli tum etiam reliquorumregum sapientia definitus ex omni parte arduis praeruptisque montibus. Locumque delegit {20} et fontibus abundantem et in regione pestilentisalubrem. 

 CICERO, _De Rep. _ ii. 3. 5, 6 (selected). 

 [Linenotes: 3-6. +quod ei fuit . .. + = lit. Which he might very easily have done with that band (of men) and those forces, so that . .. 4. +Rutulorum. + S. Of Rome. Turnus their King. Capital, Ardea. 6. +coloniam+, i. E. Ostia, the harbour of Rome and chief naval station. 7-8. +non esse opportunissimos+, e. G. As exposed to sudden attacks, and likely to contain a too large foreign element. 12-13. +quo redundaret+ = _its own superabundance_. 17-18. +is tractus ductusque+ = _the plan and direction_. 19. +definitus+ = _bounded_. 20. +arduis praeruptisque montibus. + ‘The amphitheatre of seven hills which encloses the meadows (afterwards the Campus Martius) in the bend of the Tiber, varying from 120 to 180 feet above the stream, offered heights sufficiently elevated and abrupt for fortification, yet without difficulties for the builder or cultivator. ’]

N. B. --In this passage be careful to translate Cicero’s long, periodicsentences by two or more separate sentences in English. 

+The Position of Rome. + ‘There was no place better fitted for anemporium of the Tiber and sea traffic, and for a maritime frontierfortress than Rome. It combined the advantages of a strong position andof immediate vicinity to the river. ’ Mommsen. 

D7

THE PRAISE OF ITALY. 

_‘Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus. ’_

 Sed neque Medorum silvae ditissima terra, Nec pulcher Ganges atque auro turbidus Hermus Laudibus Italiae certent, non Bactra, neque Indi Totaque turiferis Panchaia pinguis harenis. Haec loca non tauri spirantes naribus ignem 140 Invertere satis immanis dentibus hydri, Nec galeis densisque virum seges horruit hastis; Sed gravidae fruges et Bacchi Massicus umor Implevere; tenent oleae armentaque laeta. Hinc bellator equus campo sese arduus infert; 145 Hinc albi, Clitumne, greges, et maxima taurus Victima, saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro, Romanos ad templa deum duxere triumphos. Hic ver assiduum atque alienis mensibus aestas; Bis gravidae pecudes, bis pomis utilis arbor. 150 At rabidae tigres absunt et saeva leonum Semina, nec miseros fallunt aconita legentes, Nec rapit immensos orbis per humum, neque tanto Squameus in spiram tractu se colligit anguis. 

 VERGIL, _Georg. _ ii, 136-154. 

 [Linenotes: 136. +silvae ditissima+ = _most rich in forests_. --Sidgwick. 137. +Hermus+, auriferous river of Lydia, cf. The R. Pactolus. 138. +Bactra+, modern Balk, N. Of Afghanistan. 139. +Panchaia+, i. E. Arabia, the Eldorado of the Old World. 141. +satis . .. Hydri+ = _where the enormous dragon’s teeth were sown_. +hydri+ (ὕδρος), lit. _a water-snake_. 143. +Massicus umor+ = _Massic juice_, i. E. Of Mt. Massicus in N. W. Campania, famous for its wine, espec. The Falernian. 144. +implevere+ (sc. +haec loca+) = _fill it all_. 146. +Clitumne. + R. Of Umbria, famous for its white cattle. [20] 146-148. White cattle were required for the sacrifices of the Triumphs. 149. +alienis mensibus+ = _in months not her own_, i. E. In months properly belonging to winter. 150. +bis gravidae pecudes+ = _twice the cattle give increase_, Conington. 151, 152. +saeva leonum semina+ = _the fierce lion-brood_. --Mackail. +aconita+, a deadly poison--_monkshood_. 153, 154. +neque--anguis+ = _nor with so_ +vast+ _a sweep gather himself into a coil_, i. E. The snakes in Italy are not so large as elsewhere. ]

+R. Clitumnus. + Compare Pliny’s beautiful letter (viii.  8) describingits source. 

 [Footnote 20: Cf. The Chillingham ‘Wild Cattle. ’]

EARLY REPUBLIC, 509-366 B. C. 

D8

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B. C.  (1)

 ‘_How well Horatius kept the Bridge In the brave days of old. _’

A. 

 Nec non Tarquinium eiectum Porsenna iubebat Accipere, ingentique urbem obsidione premebat; Aeneadae in ferrum pro libertate ruebant. Illum indignanti similem, similemque minanti Aspiceres, pontem auderet quia vellere Cocles, 650 Et fluvium vinclis innaret Cloelia ruptis. 

 VERGIL, _Aen. _ viii. 646-651. 

_Venus brings Aeneas his new armour: he gazes at the shield whereon werewrought scenes of the story of Rome to be. _

 [Linenotes: 646. +Porsenna. + ‘Lars Porsena of Clusium By the nine gods he swore That the great house of Tarquin Should suffer wrong no more. ’ --Macaulay. 648. +in ferrum ruebant+ = _were flinging themselves on the sword_. --C. 651. +Cloelia+, a Roman hostage, who escaped by swimming the Tiber. ]

B. Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Cocles.  .  .  . Qui positus forte in statione pontis, cum captumrepentino impetu Ianiculum atque inde citatos decurrere hostes vidisset, {10} trepidamque turbam suorum arma ordinesque relinquere, reprehensanssingulos, obsistens obtestansque deum et hominum fidem testabaturnequiquam deserto praesidio eos fugere; si transitum pontem a tergoreliquissent, iam plus hostium in Palatio {15} Capitolioque quam inIaniculo fore. Itaque monere, praedicere, ut pontem ferro, igni, quacunque vi possint, interrumpant; se impetum hostium, quantum corporeuno posset obsisti, excepturum. Vadit inde in primum aditum pontis, insignisque inter {20} conspecta cedentium pugnae terga, obversiscominus ad ineundum proelium armis, ipso miraculo audaciae obstupefecithostes. 

 LIVY, ii. 10. 

 [Linenotes: 7. +Pons sublicius+ = _the pile-bridge_, built by Ancus Marcius to connect Rome proper with the Janiculum-hill, or ridge. 8. +Cocles+ = _the one-eyed_, from loss of an eye in battle. 10. +citatos+ = _at full speed_. Adj. Use of participle; cf. _citato equo_. 11. +trepidamque turbam+ = _panic-stricken and in disorder_. 12. +reprehensans+ = _seizing them by the arm one after another_. 14-15. +si transitum . .. Reliquissent+ = _if they left the bridge free for the enemy to cross by_. +transitum+ = noun, in appos. To +pontem+. 21-22. +obversis armis+ = _as he faced about_. ]

D9

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B. C.  (2)

 ‘_How well Horatius kept the Bridge In the brave days of old. _’

Duos tamen cum eo pudor tenuit, Sp. Larcium ac T. Herminium, ambosclaros genere factisque. Cum his primam periculi procellam et quodtumultuosissimum pugnae erat, parumper sustinuit; deinde eos quoqueipsos, exigua parte pontis relicta, revocantibus, {5} qui rescindebant, cedere in tutum coegit. Circumferens inde truces minaciter oculos adproceres Etruscorum nunc singulos provocare, nunc increpare omnes:servitia regum superborum, suae libertatis immemores alienam oppugnatumvenire. {10} Cunctati aliquamdiu sunt, dum alius alium, ut proeliumincipiant, circumspectant. Pudor deinde commovit aciem, et clamoresublato undique in unum hostem tela coniciunt. Quae cum in obiectocuncta scuto haesissent, neque ille minus obstinatus ingenti {15} pontemobtineret gradu, iam impetu conabantur detrudere virum, cum simul fragorrupti pontis, simul clamor Romanorum alacritate perfecti operissublatus, pavore subito impetum sustinuit. Tum Cocles ‘Tiberine pater, ’inquit, ‘te sancte precor, haec arma {20} et hunc militem propitioflumine accipias. ’ Ita sic armatus in Tiberim desiluit, multisquesuperincidentibus telis incolumis ad suos tranavit, rem ausus plus famaehabituram ad posteros quam fidei. 

 LIVY, ii. 10. 

 [Linenotes: 7. +ad proceres+ = _on the chiefs_. For _prŏcer_ cf. _procērus_ = tall. 8-9. +provocare . .. Increpare. + Historic Infinitives = Indic. 9. +servitia+ = _the slaves_ = _servos_. Abstract for concrete, freq. In Livy. Cf. Hor. _Od. _ ii. 8. 18. (_servitus = servi. _) 14. +obiecto+ = _presented_, i. E. To the enemy. 15-16. +ingenti gradu+ = _with mighty (heroic) stand_. Cf. ‘firm as a rock. ’ 18. +alacritate perfecti operis+ = _from joy at the completion of the work_. 24. +plus famae . .. Fidei+ = _destined to win more fame than credit with posterity_. ‘Oh Tiber! father Tiber! To whom the Romans pray, A Roman’s life, a Roman’s arms, Take thou in charge this day!’ So he spake, and speaking sheathed The good sword by his side, And with his harness on his back, Plunged headlong in the tide. --Macaulay. ]

D10

ETRUSCAN INVASION UNDER PORSENA, 507 B. C.  (3)

_How C. Mucius lost his Hand, but won a Name. _

A. Obsidio erat nihilo minus et frumenti cum summa caritate inopia, sedendoque expugnaturum se urbem spem Porsena habebat, cum C. Mucius, adulescens nobilis, . .. Primo sua sponte penetrare in hostium castraconstituit; dein metuens, ne, si consulum {5} iniussu et ignaris omnibusiret, forte deprehensus a custodibus Romanis retraheretur ut transfuga, fortuna tum urbis crimen affirmante, senatum adit. ‘Transire Tiberim, ’inquit, ‘patres, et intrare, si possim, castra hostium volo, non praedonec populationum {10} in vicem ultor; maius, si di iuvant, in animo estfacinus. ’ Approbant patres; abdito intra vestem ferro proficiscitur. Ubieo venit, in confertissima turba prope regium tribunal constitit. 

 LIVY, ii. 12. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +cum summa caritate+ = _involving_ (+cum+) _a very high price_. 2. +sedendo+ = _by sitting down before_, of a besieging army. 3. +Mucius. + From this incident surnamed Scaevola = _the left-handed_. After his time, a frequent surname in the Gens Mucia. 7-8. +fortunā . .. Affirmante+ = (_a charge which_) _the present condition of the city would confirm_ (_substantiate_). 10-11. +non praedo . .. Ultor+ = _not to plunder nor to retaliate on_ (lit. ‘an avenger in turn on’) _our plunderers_. ]

B. 

 Cum peteret regem decepta satellite dextra Ingessit sacris se peritura focis. Sed tam saeva pius miracula non tulit hostis Et raptum flammis iussit abire virum. Urere quam potuit contempto Mucius igne, 5 Hanc spectare manum Porsena non potuit. Maior deceptae fama est et gloria dextrae: Si non errasset, fecerat illa minus. 

 MARTIAL, _Ep. _ I. Xxi. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +sătellite+ = _the attendant_, i. E. The scribe or secretary of Porsena. 2. +ingessit+ = _thrust into_ (_in_ + _gero_). 3. +tam saeva miracula+ = _such a miracle of stern fortitude_. --S. +pius+ = _feeling_, as opposed to _unnatural_. 7-8. I. E. To have killed Porsena would have been less glorious than to display such heroism. --Stephenson. ]

+Porsena. + Livy tells us that Mucius, in gratitude for the magnanimityof Porsena, revealed to him that 300 Roman youths had sworn to attemptthe same deed that he had undertaken. Whereupon Porsena feared todistress the Romans any longer, and made peace with them. 

D11

LATIN WAR. BATTLE OF LAKE REGILLUS, 498 B. C. 

_The Dictator and his Master of the Horse. _

Ibi alia inter proceres coorta pugna. Imperator Latinus, ubi cohortemexulum a dictatore Romano prope circumventam vidit, ex subsidiariismanipulos aliquot in primam aciem secum rapit. Hos agmine venientes T. Herminius legatus conspicatus, interque {5} eos insignem veste armisqueMamilium noscitans, tanto vi maiore, quam paulo ante magister equitum, cum hostium duce proelium iniit, ut et uno ictu transfixum per latusocciderit Mamilium, et ipse inter spoliandum corpus hostis verutopercussus, {10} cum victor in castra esset relatus, inter primamcurationem exspiraverit. Tum ad equites dictator advolat obtestans, utfesso iam pedite descendant ex equis et pugnam capessant. Dicto paruere;desiliunt ex equis, provolant in primum, et pro antesignanis {15} parmasobiciunt. Recipit extemplo animum pedestris acies, postquam iuventutisproceres aequato genere pugnae secum partem periculi sustinentes vidit. Tum demum impulsi Latini, perculsaque inclinavit acies. {20}

 LIVY, ii. 20. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +inter proceres. + The Battle of Lake Regillus was, in the main, a Homeric battle of single combats between the opposing chiefs. 1-2. +Imperator Latinus+, i. E. Mamilius of Tusculum, son-in-law of Tarquin. 5. +T. Herminius+, one of ‘the dauntless Three, ’ who kept the bridge. 7. +magister equitum+, i. E. T. Aebutius. The Master of the Horse, the second in command, was nominated by the Dictator. 10. +veruto+ = _with a javelin_, cf. _veru_ = _a spit_. 11-12. +inter primam curationem+ = _at the first attempt to dress his wound_. --Rawlins. 13. +dictator+, i. E. Aulus Postumius. The Dictator (_magister populi_ = _master of the army_) was appointed by one of the two Consuls (= _colleagues_) in a time of national danger to avoid the possible want of unity between the two consuls in time of war. 15. +in primum = in primam aciem. + +antesignanis+, i. E. The first line fighting _in front of the standards_. 17. +iuventutis proceres+ = _the young noblemen_, i. E. The cavalry are not only the younger men (in Livy often = +iuvenes+) but also patricians. ]

+Reference. + Macaulay, _The Battle of Lake Regillus_. 

D12

FIRST SECESSION OF THE PLEBS, 494 B. C. 

_The Fable of the Belly and the Members. Tribunes of the People. _

Pavor ingens in urbe, metuque mutuo suspensa erant omnia.  .  .  . Placuitigitur oratorem ad plebem mitti Menenium Agrippam, facundum virum et, quod inde oriundus erat, plebi carum. Is intromissus in castra priscoillo dicendi et horrido modo nihil {5} aliud quam hoc narrasse fertur:Tempore, quo in homine non, ut nunc, omnia in unum consentientia, sedsingulis membris suum cuique consilium, suus sermo fuerit, indignatasreliquas partes sua cura, suo labore ac ministerio ventri omnia quaeri, ventrem in {10} medio quietum nihil aliud quam datis voluptatibus frui;conspirasse inde, ne manus ad os cibum ferrent, nec os acciperet datum, nec dentes conficerent. Hac ira dum ventrem fame domare vellent, ipsauna membra totumque corpus ad extremam tabem {15} venisse. Indeapparuisse ventris quoque haud segne ministerium esse, nec magis aliquam alere eum, reddentem in omnes corporis partes hunc, quo vivimusvigemusque, divisum pariter in venas, maturum confecto cibo sanguinem. Comparando hinc, quam {20} intestina corporis seditio similis esset iraeplebis in patres, flexisse mentes hominum. Agi deinde de concordiacoeptum concessumque in condiciones, ut plebi sui magistratus essentsacrosancti, quibus auxili latio adversus consules esset, neve cuipatrum capere {25} eum magistratum liceret. Ita tribuni plebei creatiduo, C. Licinius et L. Albinus. 

 LIVY, ii. 32, 33. 

 [Linenotes: 1-2. +Pavor ingens . .. Omnia. + One of the Roman armies (mainly recruited from Plebeians) refused to obey orders, entrenched itself on Mons Sacer, and threatened to secede from Rome altogether. 2. +oratorem+ (i. E. _legatum_) = _spokesman_, charged with a _verbal_ message. 4. +inde+, i. E. From the Plebs. 10-11. +ventrem . .. Quietum+ = _whereas the belly resting calmly in their midst_. --Rawlins. 13. +conficerent+ = _grind_, and so aid digestion. Cf. +confecto+ l.  20. 19-20. +maturum confecto cibo+ = _brought to perfection only when the food is digested_. --R. 24. +sacrosancti+ = _consecrated and inviolable_. 24-25. +quibus . .. Esset+, i. E. As official protectors of the Plebs, by their right of veto on the official actions of all other magistrates. ]

+For the Fable+, cf. Seneca _de Ira_ ii. 31, and 1 Corinthians, xii. 12-27. 

D13

WAR WITH THE VOLSCIANS, 493 B. C. 

_Veturia and her son Coriolanus. _

Coriolanus prope ut amens consternatus ab sede sua cum ferret matriobviae complexum, mulier in iram ex precibus versa ‘Sine, priusquamcomplexum accipio, sciam’ inquit, ‘ad hostem an ad filium venerim, captiva mater-ne in castris tuis sim. In {5} hoc me longa vita etinfelix senecta traxit, ut exulem te, deinde hostem viderem? Potuistipopulari hanc terram, quae te genuit atque aluit? Non tibi, quamvisinfesto animo et minaci perveneras, ingredienti fines ira cecidit? Non, cum in conspectu {10} Roma fuit, succurrit: Intra illa moenia domus acpenates mei sunt, mater, coniunx liberique? Ergo ego nisi peperissem, Roma non oppugnaretur; nisi filium haberem, libera in libera patriamortua essem. ’ . .. Uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi, fletusque ab {15} omniturba mulierum ortus et conploratio sui patriaeque fregere tandem virum. Complexus inde suos dimittit; ipse retro ab urbe castra movit. Abductisdeinde legionibus ex agro Romano invidia rei oppressum perisse traduntalii alio leto. {20}

 LIVY, ii. 40. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Coriolanus. + Gaius Marcius received the cognomen of Coriolanus for his bravery at the capture of the Volscian town of Corioli (S. E. Of Rome). After this, in a time of famine at Rome, C. Advised that the corn obtained elsewhere should not be distributed, unless the Plebeians would give up their Tribunes. For this he was impeached and went into voluntary exile among the Volsci. +consternatus+ = _in strong emotion_--lit. ‘stretched on the ground. ’ 7. +potuisti+ = _had you the heart to_--question indicated by _tone_ of the voice. 10-11. +non . .. Succurrit+ = _did it not occur to you_? 19-20. +invidia rei oppressum+ = _overwhelmed by the unpopularity of his action_. 20. +alii alio leto+, e. G. I. By a voluntary death; ii. Put to death by the Volscians; iii. Lived to old age in exile. ]

+References. + Cic. _Brutus_ x. (compared to Themistocles). Plutarch, _Coriolanus_. 

‘The germ from which the whole legend sprang is the story of the filiallove of Coriolanus, and of the great authority exercised in olden timesby Roman matrons over their sons and husbands. ’ Ihne. 

Shakespeare, _Coriolanus_, V. Iii. 

D14

WAR WITH VEII, 483-474 B. C. 

_The Destruction of the Fabii at the Cremera, 477 B. C. _

 Campus erat, campi claudebant ultima colles Silvaque montanas occulere apta feras. In medio paucos armentaque rara relinquunt, Cetera virgultis abdita turba latet. 4 Ecce velut torrens undis pluvialibus auctus Aut nive, quae Zephyro victa tepente fluit, Per sata perque vias fertur, nec, ut ante solebat, Riparum clausas margine finit aquas: 8 Sic Fabii vallem latis discursibus implent, Quodque vident sternunt, nec metus alter inest. Quo ruitis, generosa domus? male creditis hosti: Simplex nobilitas, perfida tela cave. 12 Fraude perit virtus. In apertos undique campos Prosiliunt hostes, et latus omne tenent. Quid faciant panci contra tot millia fortes? Quidve, quod in misero tempore restet, adest? 16 Sicut aper longe silvis Laurentibus actus Fulmineo celeres dissipat ore canes, Mox tamen ipse perit: sic non moriuntur inulti Vulneraque alterna dantque feruntque manu. 20 Una dies Fabios ad bellum miserat omnes; Ad bellum missos perdidit una dies. 

 OVID, _Fasti_, ii. 175-196, H. [II. 215-236]

+Context. + To protect their territory from the constant raids of theVeientines, the noble house of the Fabii offered to undertake the warthemselves. The consul Kaeso Fabius marched out of the city at the headof his clan, followed by the blessings and good wishes of the admiringpeople. He erected a fortified camp near the R. Cremera (a tributary ofthe Tiber), and from this spot plundered Veientine territory. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +campus. + ‘Ovid here paints from fancy: there are, however, deep hollows admirably calculated to conceal an ambushed foe. ’ --Ramsay. 9. +discursibus+ = _runnings to and fro_, of soldiers dispersing to plunder. 10. +metus alter+ = _fear of a second enemy_, i. E. Of one in ambush. 17. +silvis Laurentibus. + Laurentum on the coast of Latium between Ostia and Ardea. Wild boars are still found in the swampy thickets. 18. +Fulmineo ore+ = _with flashing tusk_. --Hallam. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Livy, ii. 48,  49. 

‘The story probably came from the Chronicles of the Fabian Clan, perhapsthrough _Fabius_ Pictor, the first Roman annalist. ’ Rawlins, Cf. Ihne, vol. I. Cap.  vi. 

D15

WAR WITH THE AEQUIANS, 458 B. C. 

A. _Cincinnatus called from the Plough. _

Sed Aequos praecipue Quinctius Cincinnatus domuit, ille dictator abaratro, qui obsessa et paene iam capta L. Minuci consulis castra egregiavictoria recuperavit. Medium erat tempus forte sementis, cum patriciumvirum innixum aratro suo lictor in {5} ipso opere deprehendit. Inde inaciem profectus, ne quid a rustici operis imitatione cessaret, morepecudum victos sub iugum misit. Sic expeditione finita redit ad bovesrursus triumphalis agricola. Intra quindecim dies coeptum peractumquebellum, {10} prorsus ut festinasse, dictator ad relictum opus videretur. 

 FLORUS, I. Xi. 12-15. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Aequos+, mountaineers (closely allied to the Sabines) who lived in the mountains forming the E. Boundary of Latium. +Cincinnatus. + ‘The true type of primeval virtue, abstinence, and patriotism. ’ --Ihne. 2-4. +qui . .. Recuperavit. + The Aequian general, Gracchus Cloelius, had defeated the consul, L. Minucius, and blockaded him in his camp on Mt. Algidus, the E. Spur of the Alban range. Cincinnatus makes a wonderful night march from Rome of 20 miles, blockades in turn the investing Aequian force, and compels an unconditional surrender. 4. +sementis+ = _of the seed-time_. Formed from _semen_, cf. _sero_. ]

B. ‘_In the brave days of old. _’

 Restat, ut inveniam, quare toga libera detur Lucifero pueris, candide Bacche, tuo. 2 . . . . . . . An quia, cum colerent prisci studiosius agros, Et patrio faceret rure senator opus, 4 Et caperet fasces a curvo consul aratro, Nec crimen duras esset habere manus, Rusticus ad ludos populus veniebat in urbem: Sed dis, non studiis, ille dabatur honor. 8

 OVID, _Fasti_, iii. 729-742,  H. [III. 771-784]

 [Linenotes: 1. +toga libera+ (or +virilis+), the man’s dress of unornamented white wool. _Lībera_ (_līber_), _free_ from the restraints of boyhood. 2. +lucifero+ = lit. _morning-star_. Here poet. For +die+. 5. +consul+, e. G. Cincinnatus, who was called to be _Dictator_. 8. +sed . .. Honor+, i. E. In ‘the good old days’ worship, not amusement, was the chief object of the visit to Rome. 3-8. Ovid says one reason why the _toga libera_ was assumed at the Liberalia (the Feast of Bacchus--the vintage, festival) was because it was the most crowded festival of the year. ]

+References. + Livy, iii. 26-28. Ihne, vol. I. Cap.  v. 

D16

THE DECEMVIRATE. THE TWELVE TABLES, 451-449 B. C. 

Iam redierant legati cum Atticis legibus. Eo intentius instabanttribuni, ut tandem scribendarum legum initium fieret. Placet crearidecemviros sine provocatione, et ne quis eo anno alius magistratus esset. .. Tum legibus condendis opera dabatur; {5} ingentique hominumexpectatione propositis decem tabulis populum ad contionem advocaveruntet, quod bonum, faustum felixque rei publicae, ipsis liberisque eorumesset, ire et legere leges propositas iussere. Se, quantum decem hominumingeniis provideri {10} potuerit, omnibus, summis infimisque, iuraaequasse; plus pollere multorum ingenia consiliaque. Versarent in animissecum unamquamque rem, agitarent deinde sermonibus atque in medium, quidin quaque re plus minusve esset, conferrent.  .  .  . Cum ad {15} rumoreshominum de unoquoque legum capite editos satis correctae viderentur, centuriatis comitiis decem tabularum leges perlatae sunt, qui nuncquoque in hoc immenso aliarum super alias acervatarum legum cumulo, fonsomnis publici privatique {20} est iuris. 

 LIVY, iii. 32, 34. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +cum Atticis legibus+, i. E. With a copy of the Laws of Solon (the great Athenian Lawgiver, 594 B. C. ). 1-3. +Eo intentius . .. Fieret+, because up to this time the knowledge of law and its interpretation was confined to the Patricians (cf. The Scribes of the N. T. ). This could only be remedied by writng the laws down and making them public. 3-4. +sine provocatione+ = _without appeal_. Lit. ‘challenging. ’ 4-5. +ne quis . .. Esset. + The Decemvirs were to supersede temporarily both Consuls and Tribunes. 14-15. +quid . .. Conferrent+ = ‘_Should point out in the interest of all_ (lit. Should contribute to the public good) _any faults of excess or defect in the several articles_. ’ --Stephenson. 15-17. +ad rumores hominum+ = _in accordance with_ (+ad+) _public opinion_. 17. +centuriatis comitiis. + Servius Tullius divided the people into five classes, according to the value of their property. The people (Patricians and Plebeians alike) voted by centuries; but as 98 centuries (and ∴ 98 votes) were allotted to the richest class and only 95 to the other four classes, the influence of wealth was decisive in the elections. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Cic. _De Republica_ ii. 33-37, and _De Legibus_ii.  23. 

+The Twelve Tables. + ‘They were essentially only a written embodiment ofthe existing public and private law. ’ --Mommsen. Cf. Magna Carta. 

D17

SECOND SECESSION OF THE PLEBS, 448 B. C. 

_The Death of Verginia not in vain. _

Concitatur multitudo partim atrocitate sceleris, partim spe peroccasionem repetendae libertatis. In contionem Appius escendit;sequuntur Horatius Valeriusque. Eos contio audit; decemviro obstrepitur. Iam pro imperio Valerius discedere a privato {5} lictores iubebat, cumfractis animis Appius vitae metuens in domum se propinquam foro insciisadversariis capite obvoluto recipit. M. Duillius deinde tribunus plebisplebem rogavit plebesque scivit, qui plebem sine tribunis reliquissetquique magistratum {10} sine provocatione creasset, tergo ac capitepuniretur. Haec omnia ut invitis, ita non adversantibus patriciistransacta, quia nondum in quemquam unum saeviebatur. Fundata deinde etpotestate tribunicia et plebis libertate tum tribuni aggredi singulostutum {15} maturumque iam rati accusatorem primum Verginium et Appiumreum deligunt. Spe incisa, priusquam prodicta dies adesset, Appiusmortem sibi conscivit. M. Claudius assertor Verginiae, die dictadamnatus ipso remittente Verginio ultimam poenam {20} dimissus Tiburexulatum abiit; manesque Verginiae, mortuae quam vivae felicioris, pertot domos ad petendas poenas vagati nullo relicto sonte tandemquieverunt. 

 LIVY, iii. 49, 55, 56, 58 (sel. )

+Context+. Verginius, seeing no way of saving his daughter from disgraceand dishonour at the hands of Appius Claudius, killed her before thejudgment-seat of the tyrant and before the eyes of the people. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +per occasionem+ = _by such a favourable opportunity_. --Rawlins. 3. +In contionem+ = _to the rostra_ (the platform for speakers). 3-4. +Horatius Valeriusque. + The first Consuls after the abolition of the Decemvirate in 449 B. C. 5. +pro imperio+, i. E. Usurping the authority of a magistrate. 9. +plebesque scivit+ (scisco) = _and the people approved_ (i. E. Voted for) it. 11. +provocatione+ = _right of appeal_. 18. +prodicta+ = _adjourned_, from the first hearing. --R. 19. +assertor V. + = _who claimed V. As his slave_. ]

+Results of the Secession+. ‘The Valerian Laws, by the second of whichit was ordained that in criminal trials, when the life of a citizen wasat stake, the sentence of the Consul should be subject to an appeal tothe people. This Valerian Law of Appeal was the Roman Habeas CorpusAct. ’ --Ihne. 

D18

WAR WITH THE ETRUSCANS OF FIDENAE AND VEII. 

_Cossus wins the Spolia Opima, 437 B. C. _

Erat tum inter equites tribunus militum A. Cornelius Cossus, eximiapulchritudine corporis, animo ac viribus par memorque generis, quodamplissimum acceptum maius auctiusque reliquit posteris. Is cum adimpetum Tolumni, quacumque se intendisset, {5} trepidantes Romanasvideret turmas insignemque eum regio habitu volitantem tota aciecognosset, ‘Hicine est’ inquit ‘ruptor foederis humani violatorquegentium iuris? Iam ego hanc mactatam victimam, si modo sancti quicquamin terris esse di {10} volunt, legatorum manibus dabo. ’ Calcaribussubditis infesta cuspide in unum fertur hostem; quem cum ictum equodeiecisset, confestim et ipse hasta innixus se in pedes excepit. Adsurgentem ibi regem umbone resupinat repetitumque saepius cuspide {15}ad terram affixit. Tum exsangui detracta spolia, caputque abscisumvictor spiculo gerens terrore caesi regis hostes perfudit. Ita equitumquoque fusa acies, quae una fecerat anceps certamen. Dictator legionibusfugatis instat et ad castra compulsos {20} caedit. 

 LIVY, iv. 19. 

 [Linenotes: 3. +par+ = _equally distinguished by_, equal, that is, to his beauty. --S. 5. +Tolumni+ = Lars Tolumnius, King of the Veientos, in alliance with Fidenae (about 5 miles N. E. Of Rome). ] +quacumque se intendisset+ = _wherever he directed his charge. _ 8-11. +Hicine . .. Manibus dabo. + Fidenae had frequently been colonised by Rome, and had as frequently revolted. When the Romans sent four ambassadors to Fidenae to demand satisfaction for this last revolt, the people of Fidenae murdered them. Tolumnius is associated with their crime. 12. +infesta cuspide+ = _with couched lance. _ 13-14. +hasta . .. Excepit+ = _with the help of his spear leapt to the ground_. Lit. ‘resting on his spear caught himself on his feet. ’ --Stephenson. 15. +umbone resupinat+ = _he throws him back with the boss of his shield. _ +repetitum+ = _piercing him again and again_. --S. 19. +Dictator+ = Mamercus Aemilius, a man of energy and ability. ]

The +spolia opima+ (_spoils of honour_) were the arms taken on the fieldof battle by the victorious from the vanquished general. They were wonon only three occasions:--

i. By +Romulus+, ii. By +Cossus+, iii. By +Marcellus+ (the Conqueror ofSyracuse), who in his first consulship, 222 B. C. , slew with his own handViridomarus, King of the Insubrian Gauls. Cf. Prop. V.  x. 

D19

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B. C. (1)

_First Pay given to Citizen Soldiers, 406 B. C. _

Additum deinde omnium maxime tempestivo principum in multitudinemmunere, ut ante mentionem ullam plebis tribunorumve decerneret senatus, ut stipendium miles de publico acciperet, cum ante id tempus de suoquisque functus eo munere esset. {5} Nihil acceptum umquam a plebe tantogaudio traditur. Concursum itaque ad curiam esse prensatasque exeuntiummanus et patres vere appellatos, effectum esse fatentibus, ut nemo protam munifica patria, donec quicquam virium superesset, corpori {10} autsanguini suo parceret. Cum commoditas iuvaret, rem familiarem saltemacquiescere eo tempore, quo corpus addictum atque operatum rei publicaeesset, tum quod ultro sibi oblatum esset, non a tribunis plebisagitatum, non suis sermonibus efflagitatum, {15} id efficiebat multiplexgaudium cumulatioremque gratiam rei.  .  .  . Et lege perlata de indicendoVeientibus bello exercitum magna ex parte voluntarium novi tribunimilitum consulari potestate Veios duxere. {20}

 LIVY, iv. 59, 60. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +tempestivo+ = _seasonable_ (_timely_), in view of the coming struggle with Veii, and the necessity for winter campaigns. 2. +munere. + Livy tells us (cap. 60) that the Senate did _not_ provide the pay as a present, but simply paid punctually their proper share of the _war-tax (tributum) in accordance with their assessment (cum senatus summa fide ex censu contulisset)_. 4. +de publico+ = _out of the Public Treasury_. 9. +fatentibus+ = _while men admitted_. --R. 11-12. +Cum . .. Acquiescere+ = _While the comfortable thought_ (_commoditas_ = lit. _advantage_) _pleased them_ (namely) _that their private property at least was undisturbed_-- i. E. That they paid no war-tax while they were in the field. --Rawlins. 12-13. +quo corpus . .. Esset+ = _when they were impressed (devoted to) and actively employed in the public service_. --S. +addictus+, properly of an insolvent debtor made over to his creditor = a _bondman_. 16-17. +id . .. Gratiam rei+ in apposition to +quod . .. Efflagitatum+. 19. +tribuni . .. Potestate. + Military tribunes with consular power instead of Consuls were elected occasionally from 444 to 367 B. C. 20. +Veios. + The capture of Veii by Camillus (396 B. C. ), in consequence of the introduction of military pay, was enormously important to Rome. ]

+Reference. + Ihne, _Hist. _ vol. I. Pp. 243-4. 

D20

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B. C. (2)

A. _Lament over Veii. _

 Heu, Veii veteres, et vos tum regna fuistis, Et vestro posita est aurea sella foro: Nunc intra muros pastoris bucina lenti Cantat, et in vestris ossibus arva metunt. 30

 PROPERTIUS, IV. (V. ) x. 27-30. 

 [Linenotes: 27. +Veii+ (Isola Farnese) on R. Cremera, about 12 miles N. W. Of Rome. 28. +aurea sella+, i. E. The official seat of the King. Cf. The Sella Curulis at Rome, introduced from Etruria. 29. +bucina+ = _horn_. 30. +et . .. Metunt+ = _and reapers gather the harvests from fields_ (+metunt arva+) _enriched by the bones of your buried heroes_ (+in ossibus vestris+). ]

B. _The Rise of the Alban Lake. _

Quid, quod in annalibus habemus, Veienti {5} bello, cum lacus Albanuspraeter modum crevisset, Veientem quemdam ad nos hominem nobilemprofugisse, eumque dixisse, ex fatis, quae Veientes scripta haberent, Veios capi non posse, dum lacus is redundaret: et, si lacus emissuslapsu et cursu suo ad {10} mare profluxisset, perniciosum populo Romano:sin autem ita esset eductus, ut ad mare pervenire non posset, tumsalutare nostris fore? Ex quo illa admirabilis a maioribus Albanae aquaefacta deductio est. Cum autem Veientes bello fessi legatos ad {15}senatum misissent, tum ex his quidam dixisse dicitur, non omnia illumtransfugam ausum esse senatu dicere: in iisdem enim fatis scriptumVeientes habere, ‘Fore ut brevi a Gallis Roma caperetur:’ quod quidemsexennio post Veios captos esse factum {20} videmus. 

 CICERO, _de Divinatione_, I. Xliv. 100. 

 [Linenotes: 5. +in annalibus+, e. G. In Livy, v.  15. 6. +crevisset+, perh. Partly due to the excessive snows of the preceding winter, 397 B. C. 7. +profugisse. + Livy says he was treacherously made prisoner. 8-9. +ex fatis . .. Haberent+, i. E. The Etruscan +Libri fatales+, _Books of fate_, cf. The +Libri Sibyllini+ = the Roman Books of fate. 10. +lapsu et cursu suo+ = _in its natural course and stream_. 14. +deductio+ = _draining_ (lit. _a leading off_). The tunnel then cut still carries off the superfluous waters of the lake. 20. +sexennio post+ = _six years after_, i. E. 390 B. C. For the 10 years’ siege of Veii, cf. The Trojan War. ]

+Reference. + Plutarch, _Camillus_, iii. -v. Livy, v.  15. 

D21

THE WAR WITH VEII, 405-396 B. C. (3)

_The Conquest of Veii. _

Veientes ignari se iam a suis vatibus, iam ab externis oraculisproditos, iam in partem praedae suae vocatos deos, alios votis ex urbesua evocatos hostium templa novasque sedes spectare, seque ultimum illumdiem agere, nihil minus timentes {5} quam subrutis cuniculo moenibusarcem iam plenam hostium esse, in muros pro se quisque armati discurruntmirantes, quidnam id esset, quod, cum tot per dies nemo se abstationibus Romanus movisset, tum velut repentino icti furore improvidicurrerent ad {10} muros.  .  .  . Cuniculus delectis militibus eo temporeplenus in aedem Iunonis, quae in Veientana arce erat, armatos repenteedidit, et pars aversos in muris invadunt hostes, pars claustra portarumrevellunt, pars, cum ex tectis saxa tegulaeque a mulieribus ac {15}servitiis iacerentur, inferunt ignes. Clamor omnia variis terrentium acpaventium vocibus mixto mulierum ac puerorum ploratu complet. Momentotemporis deiectis ex muro undique armatis patefactisque portis cum aliiagmine irruerent, alii {20} desertos scanderent muros, urbs hostibusimpletur; omnibus locis pugnatur; deinde multa iam edita caede senescitpugna, et dictator praecones edicere iubet, ut ab inermi abstineatur. 

 LIVY, V. 21. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +a suis vatibus+, i. E. By the captured Etruscan soothsayer (_haruspex_). 1-2. +ab externis oraculis+, i. E. By the Delphic Oracle. 2-3. +iam in partem . .. (alios) deos. + Camillus had vowed to give to Apollo the tenth part of the spoils of Veii. 3-4. +alios . .. Spectare+, i. E. Juno. ‘It was a Roman practice to invite the patron deity of a place or country to leave it, and to promise a more honourable worship at Rome. ’ --Whibley. 5-6. +subrutis cunīculo+ = _undermined_. Camillus had a tunnel (_cuniculum--rabbit-burrow_, cf. _cony_) cut from the Roman camp under the wall to the Temple of Juno on the citadel of Veii. 7. +discurrunt+ = _run every man to his post_, cf. _ad arma discurritur_. 15. +tēgulae+ = _tiles_, _roof-tiles_ (_tĕgo_). 23. +senescit+ = _abates_, lit. _grows old_, _becomes exhausted_. ]

+Results of the War. + ‘By the Conquest of Veii, Rome’s territory, wealth, and population were largely increased. Rome was now emergingfrom the position of a federal capital of the Latins to become themistress of a large country, when she was suddenly and unexpectedlyovertaken by a disaster (+the Invasion of the Gauls+) which threatenednot only her growth but her life. ’ --Ihne. 

D22

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B. C. (1)

_The Battle of the Allia. _

Ibi tribuni militum non loco castris ante capto, non praemunito vallo, quo receptus esset, non deorum saltem, si non hominum, memores, necauspicato nec litato instruunt aciem diductam in cornua, ne circumvenirimultitudine hostium possent; {5} nec tamen aequari frontes poterant, cumextenuando infirmam et vix cohaerentem mediam aciem haberent. Paulumerat ab dextera editi loci, quem subsidiariis repleri placuit; eaque resut initium pavoris ac fugae, sic una salus fugientibus fuit. NamBrennus, regulus {10} Gallorum, in paucitate hostium artem maximetimens, ratus ad id captum superiorem locum, ut, ubi Galli cum acielegionum recta fronte concurrissent, subsidia in aversos transversosqueimpetum darent, ad subsidiarios signa convertit, si eos loco depulisset, {15} haud dubius facilem in aequo campi tantum superanti multitudinevictoriam fore; adeo non fortuna modo sed ratio etiam cum barbarisstabat. In altera acie nihil simile Romanis, non apud duces, non apudmilites erat. Pavor fugaque occupaverat animos et {20} tanta omniumoblivio, ut multo maior pars Veios, in hostium urbem, cum Tiberisarceret, quam recto itinere Romam ad coniuges ac liberos fugerent. 

 LIVY, V. 38. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +nec litato+ = _without obtaining favourable omens_ (= καλλιερεῖν). 4-5. +diductam in cornua+ = _extended (drawn out) towards the wings_. 6-7. +cum . .. Haberent+ = _though they made_, concessive subjunctive. 8. +Paulum . .. Editi loci+ = lit. _a little piece of rising ground_. 10. +Brennus+ = lit. _King of the army_. Cf. The Saxon _Heretoga_. 13. +recta fronte+ = _front to front_. --Whibley. 14. +in aversos transversosque+ = _on their rear and flank_. 16-17. +superanti multitudine+ = i. _(the victory) would be (easy) to him superior_ (+superanti+) _in point of numbers_, or ii. Abl, of cause--_as he was so much superior in numbers_. 21-22. +Veios, in hostium urbem. + An exaggeration as Veii was in ruins. 22. +cum T. Arceret+ = _though the Tiber stood in their way_. ]

+The Invasion of the Gauls. + ‘The most advanced tribe of the Gauls werethe Senones who had settled on the Adriatic to the E. Of CentralEtruria. While the Romans reduced S. Etruria to a state of subjection, these Gauls suddenly crossed the Apennines, threatened Clusium, and thenmarched on Rome. +Thus for the first time the Gallic race was brought tothe knowledge of the civilised world. + The two armies met on July 18 atthe small R. Allia, only 15 miles from Rome. ’ --Ihne. 

D23

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B. C. (2)

A. _The Battle of the Allia_ (cont. )

Parumper subsidiarios tutatus est locus; in reliqua acie simul estclamor proximis ab latere, ultimis ab tergo auditus, ignotum hostemprius paene quam viderent, non modo non temptato certamine sed neclamore quidem reddito integri intactique {5} fugerunt; nec ulla caedespugnantium fuit; terga caesa suomet ipsorum certamine in turbaimpedientium fugam. Circa ripam Tiberis, quo armis abiectis totumsinistrum cornu refugit, magna strages facta est, multosque imperitosnandi aut invalidos, {10} graves loricis aliisque tegminibus, hauseregurgites. Maxima tamen pars incolumis Veios perfugit, unde non modopraesidii quicquam, sed ne nuntius quidem cladis Romam est missus. Abdextro cornu, quod procul a flumine et magis sub monte steterat, {15}Romam omnes petiere et ne clausis quidem portis urbis in arcemconfugerunt. 

 LIVY, v. 38. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +simul (= simul ac) . .. Auditus+ = _as soon as the shout was heard, by those nearest on the flank, by the most distant in the rear_. ‘+Proximi+ denotes the Romans on the right wing, who were the first to be attacked; the Gauls after routing them pressed on to the rear of the Romans and attacked the centre and left wing (+ultimi+) from behind. ’ --Whibley. 7-8. +suomet . .. Fugam+ = _as they hindered their own flight by their struggling with one another in the crush_. ] 11. +graves+ = _weighed down with_, equivalent to a pass. Partic. +hausere gurgites+ = _the currents sucked down_. --W 15. +sub monte+, i. E. The Colles Crustumini, which run parallel to the South bank of the Tiber. ]

B. _July 18th, a Dies Nefastus. _

 Pharsalia tanti Causa mali. Cedant feralia nomina Cannae, Et damnata diu Romanis Allia fastis. 

 LUCAN, _Phars. _ vii. 407-9. 

 [Linenotes: 407. +Pharsalia+, Battle of, 48 B. C. Caesar signally defeated Pompey. 408. +feralia+ = _fatal_ (= +funesta+). 409. +fastis+, i. E. _Fasti consulares_, the registers of the higher magistrates. Cf. The Saxon Chronicle. ]

+The Battle. + ‘The defeat of the Allia was never forgotten by theRomans. The panic (due to the strange appearance of the barbarians andtheir unwonted method of fighting) which alone had caused the defeat, struck so deep into their minds that for centuries afterwards the nameand the sight of Gauls inspired them with terror. ’ --Ihne. 

D24

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B. C. (3)

_Roman Dignity and Courage. _

Romae interim satis iam omnibus ut in tali re ad tuendam arcemcompositis turba seniorum domos regressi adventum hostium obstinato admortem animo exspectabant. Qui eorum curules gesserant magistratus, utin fortunae pristinae honorumque ac {5} virtutis insignibus morerentur, quae augustissima vestis est tensas ducentibus triumphantibusve, eavestiti medio aedium eburneis sellis sedere. Galli autem ingressipostero die urbem patente Collina porta in forum perveniunt; ubi eosplebis aedificiis {10} obseratis, patentibus atriis principum, maiorprope cunctatio tenebat aperta quam clausa invadendi; adeo haud secusquam venerabundi intuebantur in aedium vestibulis sedentes viros, praeter ornatum habitumque humano augustiorem maiestate etiam, {15} quamvultus gravitasque oris prae se ferebat, simillimos dis. Ad eos velut adsimulacra versi cum starent, M. Papirius, unus ex eis, dicitur Gallobarbam suam, ut tum omnibus promissa erat, permulcenti scipione eburneoin caput incusso iram {20} movisse, atque ab eo initium caedis ortum, ceteros in sedibus suis trucidatos; post principum caedem nulli deindemortalium parci, diripi tecta, exhaustis inici ignes. 

 LIVY, v. 41 (sel. )

 [Linenotes: 1. +ut in tali re+ = _considering the circumstances_. 3. +obstinato ad+ = _firmly resolved on_. .. --Rawlins. 4-5. +curules magistratus+ = _curule magistracies_, i. E. Of Dictator, Censor, Consul, Praetor, Curule Aedile, who possessed the right of using _sellae curules_ (_the ivory chairs of State_), originally an emblem of kingly power. 5-6. +in fortunae . .. Insignibus+ = _in the emblems of their old rank_ (+fortunae+) _and office_ (+honorum+) _and prowess_ (+virtutis+ i. E. Prizes for valour; e. G. _phalerae_ = _bosses_, _coronae_ = _crowns_). 7. +tensas+ = _state cars_ in which the statues of the gods were drawn in solemn procession to the Circensian games. 11. +obseratis+ = _shut up_, lit. _barred_, +ob + sera+, cf. _sĕro_ = join. 14. +vestibulis+ = _entrance-courts_, only found in large houses. 14-15. +praeter ornatum habitumque+ = _not only in their garb and bearing_. --Whibley. 19. +ut tum . .. Erat+ = _worn long_ (+promissa+) _as was then the custom with all_, or _worn long in accordance with the fashion of the time_. --R. 20. +scipione eburneo+ = _the ivory staff_, one of the _insignia_ of the _triumphator_. 23. +exhaustis+ (sc. _aedibus_) = _when completely pillaged_. ]

+Reference. + Plutarch, _Camillus_, xxi. Xxii. 

D25

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B. C. (4)

A. _Manlius Capitolinus and the Sacred Geese. _

 In summo custos Tarpeiae Manlius arcis Stabat pro templo et Capitolia celsa tenebat, Romuleoque recens horrebat regia culmo. Atque his auratis volitans argenteus anser 655 Porticibus Gallos in limine adesse canebat; Galli per dumos aderant, arcemque tenebant, Defensi tenebris et dono noctis opacae; Aurea caesaries ollis, atque aurea vestis; Virgatis lucent sagulis; tum lactea colla 660 Auro innectuntur; duo quisque Alpina coruscant Gaesa manu, scutis protecti corpora longis. 

 VERGIL, _Aen. _ viii. 652-662. 

+Context. + Venus brings Aeneas his new armour: he gazes at the shieldwhereon were wrought scenes of the story of Rome to be. 

 [Linenotes: 652. +in summo+ (sc. +clipeo+), _on the top of the shield_, as held in position. 654. +Romuleoque . .. Culmo+ = lit. _and the palace was stiff freshly covered_ (+recens+) _with the thatch of Romulus_. 655-656. +auratis . .. Porticibus+ = _the gilded colonnades_ of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus of Vergil’s day, restored 69 B. C. 660. +virgatis sagulis+ = _with striped cloaks_--+virgatus+ = with bands or bars like shoots (_virgae_)--an effect produced by inlaying.  C. 661-662. +Alpina gaesa+ = _Alpine_ (i. E. _native_) _javelins_. ]

B. _The Fate of Manlius, 384 B. C. _

M. Manlius, unde Gallos depulerat, inde ipse praecipitatus est, quiafortiter defensam libertatem nefarie opprimere conatus fuerat. Cuiusiustae ultionis nimirum haec praefatio fuit: ‘Manlius eras {15} mihi, cum praecipites agebas Senones; postquam imitari coepisti, unus factuses ex Senonibus. ’ Huius supplicio aeternae memoriae nota inserta est:propter illum enim lege sanciri placuit ne quis patricius in arce autCapitolio habitaret, quia domum eo loco {20} habuerat, ubi nunc aedemMonetae videmus. 

 VALERIUS MAXIMUS, vi. _De Severitate_. 

 [Linenotes: 13-14. +quia . .. Fuerat. + Manlius in reality fell a victim to his sympathies with the Plebeians. Cf. The fate of Sp. Cassius 485 B. C. 18. +nota+ = _a mark (brand) of infamy_. 20-21. +quia . .. Habuerat. + His house on the Capitol was razed to the ground. 21. +aedem Monetae+, a surname of Juno, in whose temple on the Arx money was coined. Cf. Our Mint. ]

‘Thus ended the life of Manlius, the deliverer of Rome, the humanefriend of an oppressed people, condemned by this very people to die thedeath of a traitor. ’ --Ihne. 

D26

THE INVASION OF ROME BY THE GAULS, 390 B. C.  (5)

_Camillus, Parens Patriae. _

Sed diique et homines prohibuere redemptos vivere Romanos. Nam fortequadam, priusquam infanda merces perficeretur, per altercationem nondumomni auro appenso dictator intervenit auferrique aurum de medio etGallos submoveri iubet. Cum {5} illi renitentes pactos dicerent sese, negat eam pactionem ratam esse, quae, postquam ipse dictator creatusesset, iniussu suo ab inferioris iuris magistratu facta esset, denuntiatque Gallis, ut se ad proelium expediant . .. Instruit deindeaciem, ut {10} loci natura patiebatur, in semirutae solo urbis et naturainaequali, et omnia, quae arte belli secunda suis eligi praepararivepoterant, providit. Galli nova re trepidi arma capiunt, iraque magisquam consilio in Romanos incurrunt. Primo concursu haud {15} maioremomento fusi Galli sunt, quam ad Alliam vicerant. Iustiore altero deindeproelio ad octavum lapidem Gabina via, quo se ex fuga contulerant, eiusdem ductu auspicioque Camilli vincuntur. Ibi caedes omnia obtinuit;castra capiuntur, et ne {20} nuntius quidem cladis relictus. Dictatorrecuperata ex hostibus patria triumphans in urbem redit, interque iocosmilitares, quos inconditos iaciunt, Romulus ac parens patriaeconditorque alter urbis haud vanis laudibus appellabatur. {25}

 LIVY, v. 49 (sel. )

+Context. + The Romans on the Capitol, despairing of outside help, agreedwith Brennus that Rome should be redeemed by a ransom of 1000 pounds ofgold. _Nondum omnni auro appenso_, Camillus appeared at the head of histroops. 

 [Linenotes: 3. +per altercationem+ = _owing to the dispute_. When the Consular Tribune Sulpicius complained that the Gauls used unjust weights, Brennus in derision threw his sword into the scale and said _Vae victis!_ 13-14. +nova re+ = _at the change in their fortunes_. --Whibley. 15-16. +haud maiore momento+ = _with no greater difficulty (effort)_. 17. +Iustiore altero proelio+ = _in a second and more regular engagement_. -- W. 23. +incondītos+ = _rough_, _unpolished_. ‘The Gaul shall come against thee From the land of snow and night: Thou shalt give his fair-haired armies To the raven and the kite. ’ --Macaulay. ]

D27

THE INVASION OF THE GAULS, 390 B. C. (6)

A. _The Migration to Veii abandoned. _

Movisse eos Camillus cum alia oratione tum ea, quae ad religionespertinebat, maxime dicitur; sed rem dubiam decrevit vox opportune missa, quod, cum senatus post paulo de his rebus in curia Hostilia haberetur, cohortesque ex praesidiis revertentes forte {5} agmine forum transirent, centurio in comitio exclamavit: ‘Signifer, statue signum; hic manebimusoptime. ’ Qua voce audita et senatus accipere se omen ex curia egressusconclamavit, et plebs circumfusa approbavit. Antiquata deinde legepromiscue {10} urbs aedificari coepta. 

 LIVY, v. 55. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +cum alia tum+ = _especially_ +ea+ = _ea parte orationis_. 3. +vox opportune missa+ = _a phrase seasonably let fall_. 10. +Antiquata deinde lege+ (= _rogatione_) = _the proposed law was then rejected_, +antiquare+ = _to leave in its former state_. ]

B. _Juno forbids the Rebuilding of Troy. _

 ‘Sed bellicosis fata Quiritibus Hac lege dico, ne nimium pii Rebusque fidentes avitae Tecta velint reparare Troiae. 60 ‘Troiae renascens alite lugubri Fortuna tristi clade iterabitur, Ducente victrices catervas Coniuge me Iovis et sorore. ’ 64

 HORACE, _Odes_, III. Iii. 57-64. 

 [Linenotes: 58. +hac lege+ = _on this condition_, i. E. That Rome should always be the capital. +nimium pii+ = _too dutiful_ to their mother-city Troy. 58-60. +ne . .. Reparare Troiae. + There was a rumour, even in Caesar’s time (v.  Suet. _Iul. Caes. _ 79) that he meant to migrate to Alexandria or Ilium. Horace, prob. With the sanction of Augustus, sets himself to discourage it. Cf. The Speech of Camillus, Livy, v. 51-54. 61-62. +Troiae . .. Iterabitur+ = the _fortunes of Troy, if with evil omen it is called to life again_ (+renascens+), _shall be repeated in an overthrow as sad as before_. --Wickham. ]

‘The Burning of Rome by the Gauls involved the destruction of all theexisting records, and great loss of property. Yet in spite of all thedamage done, the Romans set to work to establish the state anew, torebuild the City, and to reassert their commanding position among theirallies and neighbours. ’ --Ihne. 

+The Speech of Camillus. + Its object was to show the growth of Romeunder the guidance of Providence. Cf. The purpose of the _Aeneid_. 

D28

THE LICINIAN LAWS, 376-366 B. C. (1)

_First Plebeian Consul, 366 B. C. _

Occasio videbatur rerum novandarum propter ingentem vim aeris alieni, cuius levamen mali plebes nisi suis in summo imperio locatis, nullumsperaret: accingendum ad eam cogitationem esse; conando agendoque iam eogradum fecisse plebeios, unde, {5} si porro annitantur, pervenire adsumma et patribus aequari tam honore quam virtute possent. In praesentiatribunes plebis fieri placuit, quo in magistratu sibimet ipsi viam adceteros honores aperirent. Creatique tribuni C. Licinius et L. Sextiuspromulgavere {10} leges omnes adversus opes patriciorum et pro commodisplebis, unam de aere alieno, ut deducto eo de capite, quod usurispernumeratum esset, id, quod superesset, triennio aequis pensionibuspersolveretur; alteram de modo agrorum, ne quis plus quingenta {15}iugera agri possideret; tertiam, ne tribunorum militum comitia fierent, consulumque utique alter ex plebe crearetur; cuncta ingentia et quaesine certamine maximo obtineri non possent.  .  .  . Ita ab diutina iratandem in concordiam redacti sunt ordines. {20}

 LIVY, vi. 35. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Occasio. + This, so Livy tells us, was the jealousy between the Fabian sisters, the one married to the patrician Sulpicius, the other to the plebeian Licinius Stolo. 1-2. +propter . .. Alieni. + The old Roman law of debt was very harsh and severe. 3. +in summo imperio+, i. E. The Consulate. 4. +accingendum . .. Esse+ = _they must brace themselves to the execution of that idea_. --R. +accingendum+, reflexive here. 5. +iam eo+, i. E. To the office of Consular Tribune, created 444 B. C. 6. +si porro annitantur+ = _if they +now+ make a further effort_. This use of Pres. Subj. In Or. Obl. Frequent in Livy. 7. +tam honore quam virtute+ = _in official rank as (they were already) in merit_. --Rawlins. 12-14. +ut deducto . .. Persolveretur+ = ‘_after deducting from the amount of the loan_ (+capite+ = _principal_) _what had been paid in interest, the balance should be paid in three equal instalments_. ’ --Cluer and Matheson. 15. +de modo agrorum+ = _relating to the limitation of land-holding_. 16-17. +tribunorum militum+ (sc. _cum consulari potestate_) created 444 B. C. , but no plebeian obtained that honour till 400 B. C. , and only two after that date. 17. +utique+ = _one at any rate_. ]

+Result. + ‘The principle was established that Patricians and Plebeianswere both citizens of the State, and equally eligible to the honours anddignities of the Republic. ’ --Ihne. 

D29

THE LICINIAN LAWS, 376-366 B. C. (2)

_The Origin of the Floralia, 238 B. C. _

 ‘Dic, dea, ’ respondi, ‘ludorum quae sit origo. ’ Vix bene desieram; rettulit illa mihi: ‘Cetera luxuriae nondum instrumenta vigebant: Aut pecus, aut latam dives habebat humum; 4 Hinc etiam locuples, hinc ipsa pecunia dicta est. Sed iam de vetito quisque parabat opes. Venerat in morem populi depascere saltus; Idque diu licuit, poenaque nulla fuit. 8 Vindice servabat nullo sua publica vulgus; Iamque in privato pascere inertis erat. Plebis ad aediles perducta licentia talis Publicios: animus defuit ante viris. 12 Rem populus recipit: multam subiere nocentes: Vindicibus laudi publica cura fuit. Multa data est ex parte mihi, magnoque favore Victores ludos instituere novos. 16 Parte locant Clivum, qui tunc erat ardua rupes: Utile nunc iter est. Publiciumque vocant. ’

 OVID, _Fasti_, v. 237-254, H. [V. 277-294]

 [Linenotes: 2. +illa+, i. E. _Flora_, the Roman goddess of Flowers and Spring. 3. +luxuriae instrumenta+ = _appliance of luxury_. 5. +locuples+ (_locus + plenus_) = _rich in lands_. +pecunia+ from +pecus+, _cattle_ being in olden time the chief form of wealth and the chief medium of exchange. For +pecus+, cf. _fee_, _fief_, _feudal_. 7. +Venerat . .. Saltus+ = _it had grown into a custom to feed (cattle) on the public forest-pastures_. (Cf. The ager publicus. ) --H. 9. +sua publica+ = _their common property_, i. E. Their interest in the public land. +vulgus+ here = _the commons_, not the _plebs_ as opposed to the _populus_. 10. +inertis erat+ = _it was the mark of a man wanting in spirit_. 12. +Publicios. + L. And M. Publicius Malleolus, [21] plebeian aediles, B. C. 241. +animus . .. Viris+, i. E. Information had before been given but no aedile dared to act upon it. 13. +recipit+ = _takes up the charge at the Comitia_. +multam+ = _a fine_. Cf. To mulct = to fine. 14. +publica cura+ = _their public spirit_. --H. 15. +multa . .. Mihi+, i. E. A new Temple was built to Flora near the Circus Maximus. +ludos novos+ = _the Floralia_. 16. +Parte locant+ (sc. _muniendum_) +Clivum+ = _with the (other) part they contract for (the making of) the Clivus_, a sloping road, called the Clivus Publicius, which led up to the Aventine. ]

 [Footnote 21: For Malleolus, cf. Charles Martel of France, ‘The Hammer’ circ. 689-741 A. D. ]

THE CONQUEST OF ITALY, 366-266 B. C. 

D30

SECOND INVASION OF THE GAULS, 361 B. C. 

_Manlius and his son Torquatus. _

L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius tribunus plebis diemdixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addidisset;criminabatur etiam, quod Titum filium, qui postea est Torquatusappellatus, ab hominibus relegasset et ruri habitare {5} iussisset. Quodcum audivisset adulescens filius negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisseRomam et cum prima luce Pomponii domum venisse dicitur. Cui cum essetnuntiatum, qui illum iratum allaturum ad se aliquid contra patremarbitraretur, surrexit e {10} lectulo remotisque arbitris ad seadulescentem iussit venire. At ille, ut ingressus est, confestim gladiumdestrinxit iuravitque se illum statim interfecturum, nisi ius iurandumsibi dedisset se patrem missum esse facturum. Iuravit hoc terrorecoactus Pomponius; {15} rem ad populum detulit, docuit cur sibi causadesistere necesse esset, Manlium missum fecit. Tantum temporibus illisius iurandum valebat. Atque hic T. Manlius is est, qui ad Anienem Galli, quem ab eo provocatus occiderat, torque detracto cognomen {20} invenit, cuius tertio consulatu Latini ad Veserim fusi et fugati. 

 CICERO, _de Officiis_, iii. § 112. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +L. Manlio+, i. E. L. Manlius Capitolinus Imperiosus, appointed Dictator 363 B. C. ‘to drive in a nail (_clavi figendi causa_) on the right side of the Temple of Jupiter, to mark the number of the year, because written documents were rare in those times. ’ 2. +diem dixit+ = _named a day (for his trial before the Comitia)_. 4-6. +quod Titum filium . .. Iussisset. + Livy, vii. 4, says ‘And for what offence? Because he was a little slow of speech and not ready with his tongue. ’ 4. +Torquatus+, Dictator 353 and 349 B. C. , and three times Consul. 6. +negotium exhiberi patri+ = lit. _that trouble was being brought upon his father_, i. E. _that his father was in trouble_. 9-10. +qui arbitraretur+ = _inasmuch as he thought_. Adject. Causal clause. --Holden. 11. +remotis arbitris+ = _when he had put out of the room all witnesses_. --H. +arbiter+[22] = (ar = ad + bito = eo) = spectator, umpire. 14-15. +missum facturum+ = _would set at liberty_. 19. +ad Anienem Galli. + On this, their second invasion, the Gauls advanced as far as the Anio. Livy tells us that after the death of their champion the Gauls fled under cover of night. 21-22. +cuius . .. Fugati+, i. E. The great battle of Vesuvius fought 340 B. C. By the Veseris, a R. In Campania near Mount Vesuvius, which established for ever the supremacy of Rome over Latium. ]

 [Footnote 22: Cf. _arbiter pugnae_, _bibendi_, Horace. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Livy, vii. 4, 5, 9,  10. 

D31

FIRST SAMNITE WAR, 343-341 B. C. (1)

_An Important Epoch in Roman History. _

Maiora iam hinc bella et viribus hostium et longinquitate vel regionumvel temporum, quibus bellatum est, dicentur. Namque eo anno adversusSamnites, gentem opibus armisque validam, mota arma; Samnitium bellumancipiti Marte gestum {5} Pyrrhus hostis, Pyrrhum Poeni secuti. Quantarerum moles! quoties in extrema periculoram ventum, ut in hancmagnitudinem, quae vix sustinetur, erigi imperium posset! Belli autemcausa cum Samnitibus Romanis, cum societate amicitiaque iuncti essent, {10} extrinsecus venit, non orta inter ipsos est. Samnites Sidicinisiniusta arma, quia viribus plus poterant, cum intulissent, coacti inopesad opulentiorum auxilium confugere Campanis sese coniungunt. Campanimagis nomen ad praesidium sociorum quam {15} vires cum attulissent, fluentes luxu ab duratis usu armorum in Sidicino pulsi agro, in sedeinde molem omnem belli verterunt. Namque Samnites, omissis Sidicinisipsam arcem finitimorum Campanos adorti, unde aeque facilis victoria, praedae atque gloriae {20} plus esset, Tifata, imminentes Capuae colles, cum praesidio firmo occupassent, descendunt inde quadrato agmine inplanitiem, quae Capuam Tifataque interiacet. Ibi rursus acie dimicatum;adversoque proelio Campani intra moenia compulsi, cum robore iuventutis{25} suae acciso nulla propinqua spes esset, coacti sunt ab Romanispetere auxilium. 

 LIVY, vii. 29. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +iam hinc+, i. E. 343-266 B. C. 2. +longinquitate . .. Temporum+ = _the distance of the theatre of war_ (+regionum+) _and the length of the campaign_ (+temporum+). --Rawlins. 6-7. +quanta rerum moles+ = _What stupendous exertions!_--R. 8. +in hanc magnitudinem+, i. E. In the reign of Augustus. 10. +cum societate+, i. E. From 354 B. C. 12. +Sidicinis+, a Sabellian people N. W. Of Campania, on the Samnite border. 16. +fluentes (luxu)+ = _enervated_ (lit. _relaxed_) by luxury. 21. +Tifāta+ (neut. Plur. ), a mountain range N. E. Of Capua. 22-23. +quadrato agmine+ = _in regular order of battle_, so that the whole army formed a parallelogram. ]

+The Cause of the War. + ‘The interference of Rome was a breach of theTreaty with the Samnites. Livy admits this, but asserts that Capua hadformally surrendered to Rome, and as a subject state claimed herprotection. The story is confessedly false, for Capua remained, what ithad always been, an independent town. ’ --R. 

D32

FIRST SAMNITE WAR, 343-341 B. C. (2)

_Battle of Mt. Gaurus. M. Valerius Corvus. _

Non alias militi familiarior dux fuit, omnia inter infimos militum haudgravate munia obeundo. In ludo praeterea militari, cum velocitatisviriumque inter se aequales certamina ineunt, comiter facilis; vincereac vinci vultu eodem, nec quemquam aspernari {5} parem, qui se offerret;factis benignus pro re, dictis haud minus libertatis alienae quam suaedignitatis memor, et, quo nihil popularius est, quibus artibus petieratmagistratus, iisdem gerebat. Itaque universus exercitus incredibilialacritate adhortationem {10} prosecutus ducis castris egreditur.  .  .  . Primus omnium consul invadit hostem et, cum quo forte contulit gradum, obtruncat. Hoc spectaculo accensi dextra laevaque ante se quisquememorandum proelium ciet; stant obnixi Samnites, quamquam {15} pluraaccipiunt quam inferunt vulnera. Aliquamdiu iam pugnatum erat, atroxcaedes circa signa Samnitium, fuga ab nulladum parte erat; adeo mortesola vinci destinaverant animis. Itaque Romani, cum et fluere iamlassitudine vires sentirent et diei {20} haud multum superesse, accensiira concitant se in hostem. Tum primum referri pedem atque inclinari remin fugam apparuit; tum capi, occidi Samnis; nec superfuissent multi, ninox victoriam magis quam proelium diremisset. {25}

 LIVY, vii. 33. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +familiarior+ = _on better terms with_. --Cluer and Matheson. 2. +haud gravate+ = _without reluctance_ (_ungrudgingly_). Compare Sallust’s description of Marius and Sulla. 4. +aequales+ = _competitors_, lit. _well-matched_. +comiter facilis+ = _he was courteously good-natured_. 6-7. +pro re+ = _to suit the occasion_. 9. +artibus iisdem+ = _in the same spirit_. --Weissenborn. 11. +prosecutus+ = _welcoming_, lit. _attending_. 12-13. +cum . .. Gradum+ = _with whom he happened to engage_. Cf. _collato pede_ = _fighting foot to foot_. 15. +stant obnixi+ = _stand their ground firmly_. +obnixus+ (+ob + nitor+, _strive + against_), _resolute_. 23. +Samnis+, nom. Sing. +capi+, +occidi+, Historic Infinitives. 25. +diremisset+ = _had broken off_. _dirimo_ (_dis + emo_) = _take apart_. ]

+The Battle of Mt. Gaurus. + The battle was fought on the volcanic rangeof mountains between Cumae and Neapolis. The Consul in command, M. Valerius, obtained the surname of Corvus (Raven), because when servingas a military Tribune under Camillus in 349 B. C. , he defeated the Gallicchampion by the aid of a raven. See next page, A. L.  4. [[line 66]]

D33

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B. C. (1)

_Self-Sacrifice of Decius Mus, 340 B. C. _

A. _Rome’s Empire safe in the keeping of Augustus. _

 Curtius expletis statuit monimenta lacunis; At Decius misso proelia rupit equo; 64 Coclitis abscissos testatur semita pontes: Est cui cognomen corvus habere dedit. Haec di condiderunt, haec di quoque moenia servant: Vix timeat, salvo Caesare, Roma Iovem. 68

 PROPERTIUS, III. (IV. ) xi. (x. ) 63-68. 

 [Linenotes: 63. +Curtius . .. Lacunis+, in allusion to the spot called _Lacus Curtius_ (marked by a circular pavement) in the Forum which served as a memorial (_monimenta_) of his heroic sacrifice. Livy, vii.  6. +lacuna+ (cf. _lacus_) = _a hole_, _pool_, _chasm_. 65. +semita+ (_sed + meo_ = _go + aside_) = _a path_, _road_. Cocles, apparently, gave his name to the street running up from the bridge which he ‘kept so well. ’ --Ramsay. 66. +cui+, i. E. M. Valerius Corvus, the hero of Mt. Gaurus. See p.  91. [[previous selection]] 67-68. I. E. _with Caesar_ (_Augustus_) _safe_, Rome has none to fear, nay, scarce Jove himself. Flattery can go no further than this!]

B. _The Dream of the Consuls on the Eve of Battle. _

Illud etiam somnium et magnae admirationis et clari exitus, quod eademnocte duo consules P. Decius Mus et T. Manlius Torquatus Latino bellogravi ac periculoso non procul a Vesuvi montis radicibus {10} positiscastris viderunt. Utrique enim quaedam per quietem species praedixit exaltera acie imperatorem, ex altera exercitum dis Manibus matrique Terraedeberi; utrius autem dux copias hostium superque eas sese ipsumdevovisset, victricem abituram. Id {15} luce proxima consulibussacrificio vel expiaturis, si posset averti, vel, si certum deorum etiammonitu visum foret, exsecuturis, hostiarum exta somnio congruerunt, convenitque inter eos, cuius cornu prius laborare coepisset, ut iscapite suo fata patriae lueret. {20} Quae neutro reformidante Deciumdepoposcerunt. 

 VALERIUS MAXIMUS, i. _De Somniis_. 

 [Linenotes: 13. +Dis Manibus+ = _the deified souls of the dead_, usually looked upon as beneficent spirits. 15. +victricem+, sc. _aciem_. 17. +deorum etiam monitu+ = _by the warning of the gods also_, i. E. By the auspices as well as by the dream. 19-20. +cuius cornu . .. Coepisset. + The left wing led by Decius was repulsed by the Latins, and Decius accordingly devoted himself to death. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Livy, viii. 6.  9. 

D34

THE LATIN WAR, 340-338 B. C. (2)

_The Battle of Mt. Vesuvius, 340 B. C. _

Procedente deinde certamine cum aliis partibus multitudo superaretLatinorum, Manlius consul audito eventu collegae paulisper addubitavit, an consurgendi iam triariis tempus esset; deinde melius ratus integroseos ad ultimum discrimen servari, {5} Accensos ab novissima acie antesigna procedere iubet. Qui ubi subiere, extemplo Latini, tamquam idemadversarii fecissent, triarios suos excitaverunt; qui aliquamdiu pugnaatroci cum et semet ipsi fatigassent et hastas aut praefregissent authebetassent, {10} pellerent vi tamen hostem, debellatum iam ratiperventumque ad extremam aciem, tum consul triariis ‘Consurgite nunc’inquit ‘integri adversus fessos, memores patriae parentumque et coniugumac liberorum, memores consulis pro vestra victoria {15} morteoccubantis. ’ Ubi triarii consurrexerunt, integri, refulgentibus armis, nova ex improviso exorta acies, receptis in intervalla ordinumantepilanis, clamore sublato principia Latinorum perturbant hastisqueora fodientes primo robore virorum caeso per alios manipulos {20} velutinermes prope intacti evasere tantaque caede perrupere cuneos, ut vixquartam partem relinquerent hostium. 

 LIVY, viii. 10. 

 [Linenotes: 3-4. +an consurgendi . .. Esset. + Livy says ‘The Triarii were posted crouching by the standards, their left leg extended forwards, holding their shields resting on their shoulders, and their spears fixed in the ground with the points erect, so that their line bristled as if enclosed by a rampart. ’ 6. +Accensos. + The _Accensi_ (_ad + censeo_), originally supernumeraries to take the place of those who fell in battle, = _levis armatura_. +ante signa+, i. E. Of the Hastati and Principes. 8. +excitaverunt+ = _surgere iusserunt_. --Weissenborn. 10. +hebetassent+ = _had blunted_. 18. +antepilanis+ = _prop. _ both the Hastati and Principes who were drawn up before the Pilani or Triarii who formed the third line. 19. +principia+ = _the front line_, now the Triarii of the Latins. 22. +cuneos+ = _columns_ (lit. _wedges_), i. E. A body of soldiers drawn up in the shape of a wedge. Livy uses it of the phalanx. ]

+The Cause of the War. + The war was almost a civil one. The dispute waschiefly about a right to share in the privileges of the full Romancitizenship (espec. The right to vote and to hold office). 

+Result of the War. + Rome broke up the Latin Confederation by makingseparate treaties with the Latin towns, and by prohibiting commercialintercourse between them. 

D35

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B. C. (1)

_The Dictator and his Master of the Horse. _

Ea fortuna pugnae fuit, ut nihil relictum sit, quo, si adfuissetDictator, res melius geri potuerit; non dux militi, non miles ducidefuit. Eques etiam, auctore L. Cominio tribuno militum, qui aliquotiensimpetu capto perrumpere non poterat hostium agmen, {5} detraxit frenosequis atque ita concitatos calcaribus permisit, ut sustinere eos nullavis posset; per arma, per viros late stragem dedere; secutus pedesimpetum equitum turbatis hostibus intulit signa. Viginti milia hostiumcaesa eo die traduntur. Magister equitum, {10} ut ex tanta caede, multispotitus spoliis congesta in ingentem acervum hostilia arma subdito igneconcremavit, seu votum id deorum cuiquam fuit, seu credere libet Fabioauctori eo factum, ne suae gloriae fructum Dictator caperet nomenque ibiscriberet aut {15} spolia in triumpho ferret. Litterae quoque de reprospere gesta ad senatum, non ad Dictatorem missae argumentum fuereminima cum eo communicantis laudes. Ita certe Dictator id factumaccepit, ut laetis aliis victoria parta prae se ferret iramtristitiamque. {20}

 LIVY, viii, 30. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +Dictator+ = L. Papirius Cursor, noted for the strictness of his military discipline. At this time he had gone to Rome to take the auspices anew (_ad auspicium repetendum_) and had given strict orders to his Master of the Horse, Q. Fabius Rullianus, to avoid all collision with the enemy during his absence. 7. +permisit+ = _gave them their heads_. Cf. _immittere habenas_. 9. +turbatis . .. Signa+ = _attacked the enemy_ (dative) _when in confusion_. 11. +spoliis+, i. E. The _arms_ taken from the fallen. 13-14. +seu credere . .. Factum+ = lit. _or whether one prefer to credit the authority of Fabius that it was done on this account_ (+eo+) . .. +Fabius Pictor+, the earliest Roman historian, wrote in Greek and served in the 2nd Punic War. 15. +ibi+ (sc. _hostilia arma_) = _on them_. These, set up as a trophy with the victor’s name inscribed, would have been borne in the triumphal procession. 19. +Ita certe . .. Accepit+ = _so_ (+ita+) _no doubt the Dictator interpreted his_ (Fabius’) _action_. ]

+The Cause of the War. + The actual _casus belli_ was a dispute betweenRome and the Samnites for the possession of Palaeopolis (= _old city_)near Neapolis (= _new city_). Cf. The First Punic War, 241 B. C. , due tothe struggle for the possession of Messana, and the war with Pyrrhus, 281 B. C. , for the possession of Tarentum. 

+Historic Parallel. + Fabius Cunctator and Minucius. --Livy, xxii. 24-30. 

D36

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B. C. (2)

_The Caudine Forks, 321 B. C. _

Duae ad Luceriam ferebant viae, altera praeter oram superi maris, patensapertaque, sed quanto tutior, tanto fere longior, altera per FurculasCaudinas, brevior; sed ita natus locus est. Saltus duo alti, angustisilvosique sunt, montibus circa perpetuis {5} inter se iuncti. Iacetinter eos satis patens, clausus in medio, campus herbidus aquosusque, per quem medium iter est; sed antequam venias ad eum, intrandae primaeangustiae sunt, et aut eadem, qua te insinuaveris, retro via repetenda, aut, si ire {10} porro pergas, per alium saltum, artioremimpeditioremque, evadendum. In eum campum via alia per cavam rupemRomani demisso agmine cum ad alias angustias protinus pergerent, saeptasdeiectu arborum saxorumque ingentium obiacente mole {15} invenere. Cumfraus hostilis apparuisset, praesidium etiam in summo saltu conspicitur. Citati inde retro, qua venerant, pergunt repetere viam; eam quoqueclausam sua obice armisque inveniunt. Sistunt inde gradum sine ulliusimperio, intuentesque alii alios {20} diu immobiles silent. 

 LIVY, ix. 2. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +ad Luceriam+ = _in the direction of Luceria_, a town in Apulia on the borders of Samnium, and now threatened by the Samnites. 1-2. +praeter . .. Maris+ = _along the coast of the upper sea_, i. E. The Adriatic. Taking this route, they would go N. Of Samnium, through the Peligni, and S. Through the Frentani into Apulia. 3. +fere+ = _just_. 3-4. +Furculas Caudinas+, two _fork-shaped_ defiles near Caudium, the capital of the Caudine Samnites, between Beneventum and Capua on what was afterwards the _Via Appia_. 5-6. +montibus . .. Iuncti+ = _united by a continuous ring_ (+perpetuis circa+) _of mountains_. 10. +insinuaveris+ = lit. _have wound your way_. 11-12. +artiorem impeditioremque+ = _more narrow and more difficult_ (i. E. _steeper_). 13. +per cavam rupem+ = _through an overhanging rocky defile_. +demisso agmine+ = _with their troops led down_ (the descent). 14. +protinus+ = _straightforward_. 14-15. +deiectu . .. Mole+ = lit. ‘_a barrier lying in the way (formed) by the throwing down of trees and large pieces of rock_. ’ +mole+ = an _abattis_ (a _knocking down_, _felling_). --Rawlins. 16. +cum fraus . .. + = _no sooner had . .. When . .. _ 17. +citati+ = _hurriedly_ (in hot haste). Partic. Used adverbially. --Stephenson. 19. +sua obice+ = _with a barrier of its own_ (i. E. Specially prepared). ]

D37

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B. C. (3)

_The Caudine Forks. The Yoke. _

Alii alios intueri, contemplari arma mox tradenda et inermes futurasdextras obnoxiaque corpora hosti; proponere sibimet ipsi ante oculosiugum hostile et ludibria victoris et vultus superbos et per armatosinermium iter, inde foedi agminis miserabilem viam {5} per sociorumurbes, reditum in patriam ad parentes, quo saepe ipsi maioresque eorumtriumphantes venissent: se solos sine vulnere, sine ferro, sine acievictos: sibi non stringere licuisse gladios, non manum cum hosteconferre; sibi nequicquam animos datos. {10} Haec frementibus horafatalis ignominiae advenit, omnia tristiora experiundo factura, quamquae praeceperant animis. Iam primum cum singulis vestimentis inermesextra vallum exire iussi, et primi traditi obsides atque in custodiamabducti. Primi {15} consules prope seminudi sub iugum missi; tum utquisque gradu proximus erat, ita ignominiae obiectus; tum deincepssingulae legiones. Ita traducti sub iugum et, quod paene gravius erat, per hostium oculos, cum e saltu evasissent, etsi velut ab inferis {20}extracti tum primum lucem aspicere visi sunt, tamen ipsa lux ita deformeintuentibus agmen omni morte tristior fuit. 

 LIVY, ix. 5, 6. 

 [Linenotes: 1-10. +intueri; contemplari . .. + = _There they are looking one on another_.  .  .  . By a string of infinitives the picture of a series of actions is put before the reader without the actions being thought of singly. --Lee Warner. 2. +obnoxia+ = _at the mercy of_ . .. --Rawlins. 6. +per sociorum urbes+, e. G. _Capua_. 11. +fatalis ignominiae+ = _destined for their disgrace_. 12. +experiundo+ = _by experience_; +praeceperant+ = _they had anticipated_. 16. +seminudi+ = _with only their tunics on_. 17. +gradu+ = _in rank_. 18. +traducti+, ‘always used in this sense of _disgraceful_ exhibition or parade. ’ --Stephenson. 22-23. +ipsa lux . .. Fuit+ = _the very light was to them as they gazed on so hideous a line of march more gloomy than any form of death_. ]

+The Caudine Forks. + Other writers state that the Romans were entrappedonly after a severe defeat. 

‘By the side of those names (the Allia and Cannae) there was yet a thirdin the list of evil days--the name of the Caudine Pass. ’ --Ihne. Cf. P.  82,  B. [[Selection D23 B]]

+Historic Parallels. + Livy’s account of Trasimene. The Kyber Pass, 1842. The Capitulation of Metz, 1870. 

D38

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B. C. (4)

_Rome repudiates the Treaty. _

At vero T. Veturius et Sp. Postumius, cum iterum consules assent, quia, cum male pugnatum apud Caudium esset, legionibus nostris sub iugummissis pacem cum Samnitibus fecerant, dediti sunt eis; iniussu enimpopuli senatusque fecerant. Eodemque {5} tempore Ti. Numicius, Q. Maelius, qui tum tribuni plebis erant, quod eorum auctoritate pax eratfacta, dediti sunt, ut pax Samnitium repudiaretur. Atque huiusdeditionis ipse Postumius, qui dedebatur, suasor et auctor fuit. Quodidem multis annis post {10} C. Mancinus, qui ut Numantinis, quibuscumsine senatus auctoritate foedus fecerat, dederetur, rogationem suasiteam, quam L. Furius, Sex. Atilius ex senatus consulto ferebant: quaaccepta est hostibus deditus. Honestius hic quam Q. Pompeius, quo, {15}cum in eadem causa esset, deprecante accepta lex non est. Hic ea, quaevidebatur utilitas, plus valuit quam honestas, apud superioresutilitatis species falsa ab honestatis auctoritate superata est. 

 CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 109. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +pacem . .. Fecerant+, i. E. _a military convention_, by which Rome and Samnium were to acknowledge each other as free peoples with equal rights and privileges, and Rome was to give up her conquests and colonies on Samnite territory. 5. +iniussu . .. Senatusque. + ‘The Senate considered it in the light of a _sponsio_, a convention made on personal responsibility, rather than a _pactio_ or _foedus_, a public treaty. ’ --Holden. 6. +tribuni plebis+, prob. Only tribunes-elect (= _designati_), for the tribunes could not leave Rome even for one night. 11. +C. Mancinus+ commanded against Numantia in Spain, 137 B. C. 15. +Q. Pompeius+ commanded against Numantia, 140 B. C. 16. +cum in eadem causa esset+ = _though he was in the same case_, as Mancinus, i. E. Had made a degrading peace with the Numantines. --H. 15-17. +quo . .. Deprecante . .. Non est+ = _through his begging to be let off, the law_ (i. E. For delivering him up to the enemy) _was not passed_. 17. +Hic+ = _in this case_, i. E. That of Pompeius. 18. +apud superiores+, i. E. Veturius, Postumius, and Mancinus. 18-19. +utilitatis species falsa+ = _the false semblance of expediency_. ]

+The Repudiation of the Treaty. + ‘It is clear that Postumius and hisbrother officers could not bind the Roman Senate and people by thepromise they had made in Caudium; but it is equally clear that they werebound by their promise to do what was in their power to cause the treatyto be ratified. ’ --Ihne. 

D39

SECOND SAMNITE WAR, 326-304 B. C. (5)

_Battle of Bovianum, 305 B. C. Peace made, 304 B. C. _

Eodem anno in campum Stellatem agri Campani Samnitium incursionesfactae. Itaque ambo consules in Samnium missi cum diversas regiones, Tifernum Postumius, Bovianum Minucius petisset, Postumii prius ductu adTifernum pugnatum. Alii {5} haud dubie Samnites victos ac viginti miliahominum capta tradunt, alii Marte aequo discessum, et Postumium, metumsimulantem, nocturno itinere clam in montes copias abduxisse, hostessecutos duo milia inde locis munitis et ipsos consedisse. Consul ut {10}stativa tuta copiosaque petisse videretur, postquam et munimentis castrafirmavit et omni apparatu rerum utilium instruxit, relicto firmopraesidio de vigilia tertia, qua[23] proxime potest, expeditas legionesad collegam, et ipsum adversus alios sedentem, ducit. {15} Ibi auctorePostumio Minucius cum hostibus signa confert, et, cum anceps proelium inmultum diei processisset, tum Postumius integris legionibus defessam iamaciem hostium improviso invadit. Itaque cum lassitudo ac vulnera fugamquoque praepedissent, {20} occidione occisi hostes, signa unum etviginti capta. 

 LIVY, ix. 44. 

 [Footnote 23: qua _duci_ proxime potest. --W. And M. ]

 [Linenotes: 1. +In campum Stellatem. + Stellas, a part of the Campanian plain, N. Of Mt. Tifata (E.  of Capua). 4. +Tifernum+, E. Of Bovianum on the R. Tifernus. +Postumius . .. Minucius+, Consuls 305 B. C. +Bovianum+, in Samnium, W. Of Luceria (in Apulia). 11. +stativa tuta+ = _safe quarters_. Cf. _stativa castra_ = _a stationary camp_. 15. +et ipsum . .. Sedentem+ = _also lying encamped_ (+sedentem+) _in the face of another army_. --Stephenson. 20. +praepedissent+ = _hampered_, lit. _to entangle the feet_ (_prae_ + _pes_). 21. +occidione occisi. + This has the force of _a superlative by the repetition_, a common idiom in Oriental[24] languages. --S. ]

 [Footnote 24: E. G. In Hebrew, Delivering I will deliver = I will surely deliver. ]

+Results of the Second Samnite War. + Roman influence became supreme inCampania and Apulia, and the Samnites were confined to their ownmountains. In 304 B. C. The Romans renewed their ancient Treaty with theSamnites (as Livy tells us) by which they were left in possession oftheir independence. 

+Why the Romans conquered. + (1) Their conduct of the war was moresystematic. (2) By their plan of fortified colonies (e. G. Cales, Fregellae, Luceria) they retained their hold on the conquered territory. (3) The diplomatic skill of the Senate secured the friendship of theneighbours of the Samnites (e. G. The Apulians and Lucanians). 

D40

THIRD SAMNITE WAR, 298-290 B. C. 

_Battle of Sentinum, 295 B. C. ‘Novum pugnae genus. ’_

Ferocior Decius et aetate et vigore animi quantumcunque virium habuitcertamine primo effudit. Et quia lentior videbatur pedestris pugna, equitatum in pugnam concitat et ipse fortissimae iuvenum turmae immixtusorat proceres iuventutis, in hostem {5} ut secum impetum faciant:duplicem illorum gloriam fore, si ab laevo cornu et ab equite victoriaincipiat. Bis avertere Gallicum equitatum; iterum longius evectos et iaminter media peditum agmina proelium cientes novum pugnae conterruitgenus: essedis {10} carrisque superstans armatus hostis ingenti sonituequorum rotarumque advenit et insolitos eius tumultus Romanorumconterruit eqnos. Ita victorem equitatum velut lymphaticus pavordissipat; sternit inde ruentes equos virosque improvida fuga, {15}turbata hinc etiam signa legionum multique impetu equorum ac vehiculorumraptorum per agmen obtriti antesignani; et insecuta, simul territoshostes vidit, Gallica acies nullum spatium respirandi recipiendique sededit. {20}

 LIVY, x. 28. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Decius. + P. Decius Mus, Consul with Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, commanded the left wing at the Battle of Sentinum, where he was opposed to the Gauls, and when his troops began to give way before the Gaulish chariots (+essedae+) he, like his father at the Battle of Vesuvius, 340 B. C. , devoted[25] himself with the hostile army ‘to the gods of earth and of the grave. ’ 5. +proceres iuventutis+ = _the flower of the young men_. 8. +avertere+ (= +se avertere+) = _to retire_ (lit. _turn away_). 10. +essedis+ = _war-chariots_, on two wheels, open in front, but closed behind, and drawn by two horses; used also by the Britons. 14. +lymphaticus+ = _mad_, _frenzied_. 16. +turbata . .. Signa legionum+ = _the ranks of the legions were thrown into disorder_. +Signa+ is frequently used of military movement, as the most noticeable feature in an army. ]

 [Footnote 25: Cf. Pp. 92, 93. ]

+The Cause of the Third Samnite War. + The democratic party among theLucanians made overtures to the Samnites. The Romans peremptorilyordered the Samnites not to interfere in Lucania, an arrogant commandwhich the Samnites declined to obey, and war broke out anew. 

+Results of the War. + After an obstinate struggle peace was concluded in290 B. C. , the Samnites retaining their independence. 

D41

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS, 281-275 B. C.  (1)

_The Aims of Pyrrhus. Battle of Heraclea, 280 B. C. _

Pyrrhus rex Epiri cum iterata Tarentinorum legatione additis Samnitiumet Lucanorum precibus, fatigaretur, non tam supplicum precibus quam speinvadendi Italiae imperii inductus venturum se cum exercitu pollicetur. In quam rem inclinatum semel {5} animum praecipitem agere coeperantexempla maiorum, ne aut inferior patruo suo Alexandro videretur, quodefensore idem Tarentini adversus Bruttios usi fuerant, aut minoresanimos magno Alexandro habuisse, qui tam longa a domo militia Orientemsubegerat. {10} Igitur relicto custode regni Ptolemaeo filio annos xvnato exercitum in portu Tarentino exponit. Cuius audito adventu consulRomanus Valerius Laevinus festinans, ut prius cum eo congrederetur, quamauxilia sociorum convenirent, exercitum in {15} aciem educit. Nec rex, tametsi numero militum inferior esset, certamini moram fecit. SedRomanos vincentes iam inusitata ante elephantorum forma stupere primo, mox cedere proelio coegit, victoresque iam nova Macedonum repentemonstra vicerunt. {20} Nec hostibus incruenta victoria fuit. Nam etPyrrhus ipse graviter vulneratus est, et magna pars militum eius caesa, maioremque gloriam eius victoriae quam laetitiam habuit. 

 JUSTINUS, xviii. 1. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +iterata legatione+ = _by a second embassy_. 3. +fatigaretur+ = _was importuned_. 3-4. +non tam . .. Inductus. + Pyrrhus aimed at founding a western Grecian Empire in Italy and Sicily. 7-9. +patruo suo Alexandro . .. Fuerant. + Alexander of Epirus had almost succeeded in uniting the whole of Magna Graecia (332-326 B. C. ) when he was cut off by the hand of an assassin. 9. +magno Alexandro. + Pyrrhus was acknowledged to be the first general of the school of Alexander, and Hannibal (so Plutarch tells us) considered him the greatest military genius. 18. +inusitata ante . .. Forma+ = _the unfamiliar appearance of_. 22-23. +magna pars militum. + Pyrrhus is said to have lost 4000 men, ‘a serious matter to him in a foreign country, where he could not easily replace the loss of his tried old warriors. ’ --Ihne. ]

+Cause of the War. + By 282 B. C. Rome had taken possession of MagnaGraecia, with the exception of Tarentum. In 282 B. C. (in defiance of thetreaty of 301 B. C. ) a Roman fleet appeared before the Harbour ofTarentum. A naval battle ensued in which the Tarentines were victorious, and the war began. 

D42

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (2)

_Fabricius the Just. Honesty before Expediency. _

Cum rex Pyrrhus populo Romano bellum ultro intulisset, cumque de imperiocertamen esset cum rege generoso ac potenti, perfuga ab eo venit incastra Fabricii eique est pollicitus, si praemium sibi proposuisset, se, ut clam venisset, sic clam in Pyrrhi {5} castra rediturum et eum venenonecaturum. Hunc Fabricius reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum idque eiusfactum laudatum a senatu est. Atqui, si speciem utilitatis opinionemquequaerimus, magnum illud bellum perfuga unus et gravem adversarium imperi{10} sustulisset, sed magnum dedecus et flagitium, quicum laudiscertamen fuisset, eum non virtute sed scelere superatum. Utrum igiturutilius vel Fabricio, qui talis in hac urbe qualis Aristides Athenisfuit, vel senatui nostro, qui numquam utilitatem a dignitate {15}seiunxit, armis cum hoste certare an venenis? Si gloriae causa imperiumexpetendum est, scelus absit, in quo non potest esse gloria: sin ipsaeopes expetuntur quoquo modo, non poterunt utiles esse cum infamia. {20}

 CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 86,  87. 

 [Linenotes: 1-2. +bellum ultro intulisset+ = _had begun an aggressive_ (+ultro+) _war_. +ultro+ = lit. _to a place beyond_, hence = _beyond expectation_, _unprovoked_. 2. +de imperio+ = _uter imperaret_. --Holden. 3. +perfuga+ = _a deserter_. Aulus Gellius says the traitor was Nicias, a friend of Pyrrhus; Florus and Eutropius, a physician of Pyrrhus. 8. +atqui+ = _and yet_, a more emphatic +at+. 8-9. +speciem utilitatis opinionemque+ (sc. +utilitatis+) = _the semblance and (popular) opinion of expediency_. --H. 11-13. +sed magnum . .. Superatum+ = _but it would have been a lasting disgrace and scandal for a general, with whom the struggle lay for glory, to have been overcome by an act of wickedness and not by valour_. --H. 14. +Aristides Athenis. + Aristides the Just. ‘Sans Peur et sans Reproche. ’ 19. +quoquo modo+ = _in any way_. Cf. _quacumque ratione_. --H. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Eutropius ii. 7. 8. 14: _Tum Pyrrhus admiratus eumdixisse fertur: ‘Ille est Fabricius, qui difficilius ab honestate quamsol a cursu suo averti potest. ’_

+Fabricius+, like Cincinnatus and M’. Curius Dentatus, is therepresentative of the purity and honesty of the good old times. 

D43

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (3)

_Appius the Blind, 280 B. C. _

Ad Appi Claudi senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset; tamen is, cumsententia senatus inclinaret ad pacem cum Pyrrho foedusque faciendum, non dubitavit dicere illa, quae versibus persecutus est Ennius: {5}

 _Quo vobis mentes, rectae quae stare solebant Antehac, dementis sese flexere viai?_

ceteraque gravissime, notum enim vobis carmen est, et tamen ipsius Appiexstat oratio. Atque haec ille egit septemdecim annis post alterumconsulatum, {10} cum inter duos consulatus anni decem interfuissentcensorque ante superiorem consulatum fuisset, ex quo intelligitur Pyrrhibello grandem sane fuisse.  .  .  . Quattuor robustos filios, quinquefilias, tantam domum, tantas clientelas Appius regebat et caecus {15} etsenex; intentum enim animum tamquam arcum habebat nec languescenssuccumbebat senectuti. Tenebat non modo auctoritatem, sed etiam imperiumin suos: metuebant servi, verebantur liberi, carum omnes habebant;vigebat in illo animus {20} patrius et disciplina. 

 CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 16,  37. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Appi Claudi. + This was the Appius Claudius whose Censorship, 312 B. C. , was famous for his great public works, the +Via Appia+, the great South road of Rome, and the +Aqua Appia+, an aqueduct which brought water to Rome a distance of eight miles; and also for his measure (corresponding to a Parliamentary Reform Bill) admitting freedmen as full citizens by enrolling them in Tribes. 2-9. +tamen is . .. Exstat oratio. + When the Senate was about to yield to the persuasive eloquence of Cineas, the envoy of Pyrrhus, he had himself led into the Senate-house to make the speech which turned the scale against the invader. 4. +versibus persecutus est+ = _has followed out in the lines_. J. S.  R. 7. +viai+ (= _viae_ old genit. ) = i. _quo viae_, cf. _ubi terrarum_, or ii. _sese flexere viae_, a Greek genitive. 9-10. +haec ille egit+ = _he made this speech_. 14-15. +tantam . .. Clientelas+ = _a large household_, _a large number of dependents_; +clientelas = clientes+. 16. +intentum+ (_in + tendo_) = _on the stretch_. Cf. Opposite _remissus_. 19-21. +metuebant . .. Disciplina+ = _his slaves feared him, his children stood in awe of him, yet all held him dear; in him ancestral spirit and principles_ (+disciplina+) _were strong_. --J.  S. Reid. ]

+The Speech of Appius Claudius. + For the substance of the Speech, _see_ Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_,  xi. 

D44

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (4)

A. _The Battle of Asculum, 279 B. C. _

In Apulia deinde apud Asculum melius dimicatum est Curio Fabricioqueconsulibus. Iam quippe terror[26] beluarum exoleverat, et Gaius Numiciusquartae legionis hastatus unius proboscide abscisa mori posse beluasostenderat. Itaque in ipsas pila congesta sunt {5} et in turres vibrataefaces tota hostium agmina ardentibus ruinis operuerunt. Nec alius cladifinis fuit quam nox dirimeret, postremusque fugientium rex ipse asatellitibus umero saucius in armis suis referretur. {10}

 [Footnote 26: Cf. P. 100, ll. 17-20. ] [[Selection D41: “inusitata . .. Elephantorum forma”]

 [Linenotes: 1. +Asculum+, a town in Apulia on the borders of Samnium, between Beneventum and Canusium. 3. +exoleverat+ = _had grown less_ (lit. _had grown out of use_). 6. +in turres vibratae faces+ = _firebrands hurled against their towers_. 8. +dirimeret+ = _separated_ (the combatants). ]

B. _The Battle near Beneventum, 275 B. C. _

Lucaniae suprema pugna sub Arusinis, quos vocant, campis ducibus isdemquibus superius; sed tum tota victoria. Exitum, quem datura virtus fuit, casus dedit. Nam provectis in primam aciem rursus elephantis unum ex hispullum adacti in caput teli {15} gravis ictus avertit; qui cum perstragem suorum recurrens stridore quereretur, mater agnovit et quasivindicaret exsiluit, tum omnia circa quasi hostilia gravi molepermiscuit. Ac sic eaedem ferae, quae primam victoriam abstulerunt, secundam parem {20} fecerunt, tertiam sine controversia tradiderunt. 

 FLORUS, I. Xviii. 9-13. 

 [Linenotes: 11-12. +Lucaniae . .. Campis. + The Battle was fought near Beneventum (orig. +Male-+_ventum_, perhaps from _male + ventus_ on account of its unwholesome air) in Samnium on the Via Appia, E. Of Capua. 15-16. +unum ex his . .. Avertit+ = _the heavy stroke of a weapon driven home_ (+adacti+) _into the head of a young elephant_ (+pullum+) _made it turn aside_. 19. +gravi mole+ = _with her unwieldy bulk_. ]

+The Battle of Asculum. + It is clear that Pyrrhus was again victorious, but the Romans were able to retire into their fortified camp, and solost fewer men than at Heraclea. 

+The Battle of Beneventum. + Pyrrhus, in his attempt to storm theentrenched camp of Curius Dentatus, was obliged to fight on unfavourableground. The result was a total defeat, and no choice was left him but togive up the unequal contest. 

D45

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (5)

_Death of Pyrrhus, 272 B. C. _

_In praise of a great General. _

Repulsus ab Spartanis Pyrrhus Argos petit: ibi, dum Antigonum in urbeclausum expugnare conatur, inter confertissimos violentissime dimicans, saxo de muris ictus occiditur. Caput eius Antigono refertur, quivictoria mitius usus filium eius Helenum {5} cum Epirotis sibi deditumin regnum remisit, eique insepulti patris ossa in patriam referendatradidit. 

Satis constans inter omnes auctores fama est, nullum nec eius necsuperioris aetatis regem comparandum Pyrrho fuisse, raroque non interreges {10} tantum, verum etiam inter illustres viros, aut vitaesanctioris aut iustitiae probatioris visum fuisse: scientiam certe reimilitaris in illo viro tantam fuisse, ut cum adversus Lysimachum, Demetrium, Antigonum, tantos reges, bella gesserit, invictus {15} semperfuerit: Illyriorum quoque, Siculorum Romanorumque et Carthaginiensiumbellis numquam inferior, plerumque etiam victor exstiterit; qui patriamcerte suam angustam ignobilemque fama rerum gestarum et claritatenominis sui toto orbe {20} illustrem reddiderit. 

 JUSTINUS, xxv. 5. 

 [Linenotes: 1-4. +Repulsus ab Spartanis . .. Occiditur. + At the invitation of Cleonymus, who had been excluded from the throne of Sparta, Pyrrhus undertook and failed in a desperate attack on the city. He then turned against Argos, to wrest it from Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia, and was hit _by a tile thrown from a roof by a woman_. [27] As he lay helpless on the ground he was recognised and murdered. 8. +Satis constans fama+ = _a tolerably unanimous opinion_. 12. +iustitiae probatioris+ = _of more eminent_ (lit. _tested_) _justice_. 14. +Lysimachum+, one of Alexander’s generals. About 286 B. C. King of Macedonia and Asia Minor. +Demetrium+, surnamed _Poliorcetes_ (_stormer of cities_), son of Antigonus, King of Asia (one of Alexander’s generals). 16-17. +Siculorum bellis. + During the years 280-276 B. C. Pyrrhus made himself master of all Sicily with the exception of the Carthaginian stronghold of Lilybaeum. ]

 [Footnote 27: Cf. The death of Abimelech before Thebez, Judges ix.  53. ]

+Character of Pyrrhus. + ‘He was not only one of the ablest generals andprinces, but amiable also as a man, and worthy of our sympathy andrespect. ’ --Ihne. 

+Why he failed. + ‘From lack of accurate information he whollyunderestimated the power of Rome. Here was the great error in hiscalculation, an error for which he can hardly be held responsible. ’--Ihne. 

+Reference. + Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_. 

D46

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (6)

_Manius Curius Dentatus, an old-time Roman. _

A. Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta rerum rusticarum, sed ea ipsaquae dixi sentio fuisse longiora. Ignoscetis autem, nam et studio rerumrusticarum provectus sum, et senectus est natura loquacior, ne abomnibus eam vitiis videar vindicare. {5} Ergo in hac vita M’. Curius, cum de Samnitibus, de Sabinis, de Pyrrho triumphavisset, consumpsitextremum tempus aetatis; cuius quidem ego villam contemplans, abest enimnon longe a me, admirari satis non possum vel hominis ipsiuscontinentiam {10} vel temporum disciplinam. Curio ad focum sedentimagnum auri pondus Samnites cum attulissent, repudiati sunt: non enimaurum habere praeclarum sibi videri dixit, sed eis qui haberent aurumimperare. 

 CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 55-56. 

+Context. + The speaker is Cato the Censor, 184 B. C. , the founder ofLatin Prose, whose manual of Agriculture, +de Re Rustica+, is stillextant. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Possum persequi+ = _I might follow out_. +oblectamenta+ = _amusements_ (cf. _de-lecto_, _delight_). 4. +provectus sum+ = _I have been carried away_. --J. S. Reid. 8. +extremum tempus aetatis+ = _the closing season of his life_. 9. +a me+ (= +a mea villa+) = _from my country-house_. 11. +disciplinam+ = _morals_ (lit. _teaching_). 11-13. After the close of the war Curius had become +patronus+ of the Samnites, and they were bringing the customary offering of +clientes+. --J. S.  R. ]

B. 

 Curius parvo quae legerat horto Ipse focis brevibus ponebat holuscula. 

 JUVENAL, xi. 78-79. 

 [Linenotes: 78-79. Plutarch, _Cato_ 2, tells the story. Curius was one of Milton’s ‘Men so poor | who could do mighty things. ’ --Duff. 79. +holuscula+ (dimin. Of +hŏlus+) = _small herbs or vegetables_. ]

C. 

 Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis Utilem bello tulit et Camillum Saeva paupertas et avitus apto Cum lare fundus. 44

 HORACE, _Odes_, I. Xii. 41-44. 

 [Linenotes: 41. +Hunc+ = Fabricius. 43. +paupertas+ = _frugality_, not _poverty_ (= _egestas_). 43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with its cottage home to match_ (+apto+). --W. ‘Hurrah! for Manius Curius The bravest son of Rome, Thrice in utmost need sent forth, Thrice drawn in triumph home. ’ --Macaulay. ]

D47

THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (7)

_In Praise of Tarentum. _

 Unde si Parcae prohibent iniquae, Dulce pellītis ovibus Galaesi Flumen et regnata petam Laconi Rura Phalantho. 12 Ille terrarum mihi praeter omnes Angulus ridēt, ubi non Hymetto Mella decedunt viridique certat Baca Venafro, 16 Ver ubi longum tepidasque praebet Iuppiter brumas et amicus Aulon Fertili Baccho minimum Falernis Invidet uvis. 20 Ille te mecum locus et beatae Postulant arces, ibi tu calentem Debita sparges lacrima favillam Vatis amici. 24

 HORACE, _Odes_, II. Vi. 9-end. 

+Subject. + ‘Septimius, my dear friend who would accompany me to the endsof the earth, let me spend the close of my life at Tibur (Tivoli), or ifnot there, then at Tarentum. Let us go there together, and live theretill I die. ’ --Wickham. 

 [Linenotes: 9. +unde+ = _from this place_, i. E. From Tibur. 10. +dulce pellitis ovibus+ = _dear to the skin-clad_ (+pellitis+) _sheep_, so clad to keep their fleeces clean. --Gow. 10-11. +Galaesi flumen+, flows into the Gulf of Tarentum, near the city. 12. +Phalantho+, an exile from Sparta, founded Tarentum, 708 B. C. 13, 21, 22. +Ille+ (13) . .. +ille+ (21) . .. +ibi+ (22) = _Tarentum_, emphatic guiding words. Cf. +te mecum+ (21) . .. +tu amici+ (22, 24) = _Septimius and Horace_. 14-15. +ubi non . .. Decedunt+ = _where the honey does not give way to (is not inferior to) that of Hymettus_. 15-16. +viridi Venafro+ = _with the green (olive-groves of) Venafrum_ (N.  of Campania). 16. +Baca+ = _the olive_, the noblest of berries. --Gow. 18. +Aulon+ = (_the grapes of_) _Aulon_, a hill and valley near Tarentum. 19. +Fertili+ = _who makes the vines fertile_. 22-24. +ibi tu . .. Vatis amici. + ‘There when life shall end, Your tear shall dew my yet warm pyre, Your bard and friend. ’ --Conington. ]

+Reference. + Polybius, x. 1. In 272 B. C. Milo with his garrison ofEpirots marched out of Tarentum with all the honours of war. 

+Rome now ruled supreme over the whole of Italy from Ariminum in theNorth to the Sicilian Straits. +

D48

THE PRAISE OF ITALY. 

 ‘_Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum. _’

 Adde tot egregias urbes operumque laborem, 155 Tot congesta manu praeruptis oppida saxis, Fluminaque antiquos subterlabentia muros. An mare, quod supra, memorem, quodque alluit infra? Anne lacus tantos? Te, Lari maxime, teque, Fluctibus et fremitu adsurgens Benace marino? 160 . . . . . . . Haec eadem argenti rivos aerisque metalla 165 Ostendit venis atque auro plurima fluxit. Haec genus acre virum, Marsos pubemque Sabellam, Adsuetumque malo Ligurem, Volscosque verutos Extulit: haec Decios, Marios, magnosque Camillos, Scipiadas duros bello, et te, maxime Caesar, 170 Qui nunc extremis Asiae iam victor in oris Imbellem avertis Romanis arcibus Indum. Salve, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus, Magna virum: tibi res antiquae laudis et artis Ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere fontes, 175 Ascraeumque cano Romana per oppida carmen. 

 VERGIL, _Georg. _ ii. 155-176. 

 [Linenotes: 158. +mare quod supra alluit+ = the _mare superum_ = the Adriatic. +mare quod infra alluit+ = the _mare inferum_ = the Tuscan or Tyrrhenian (Τυρῥηνός = Tuscan) sea. 159. +Lari+ = Lake Larius (= _Como_), N. Of Milan. 160. +Benace+ = Lake Benacus (= _Garda_), W. Of Verona. +fremitu marino+ = _with roar as of the sea_. 168. +adsuetum malo+ = _trained in hardship_. --Mackail. +Volscosque verutos+ = _and the Volscian spearmen (light infantry)_. +verutos+ = armed with the _verutum_ (or _veru_ = lit. A _spit_), a _javelin_. 170. +Scipiadas+, Greek patronymic form = Lat. _Scīpĭōnēs_. +maxime Caesar+ = Augustus. 172-173. After Actium, 31 B. C. , Augustus spent more than a year in reducing and settling the East (+imbellem Indum+) whose forces had been wielded by Antony. --Sidgwick. 173. +Saturnia tellus+, in allusion to Saturn’s reign in Latium in the age of gold. 174-175. +tibi res . .. Fontes+ = _for thee I enter on themes of ancient glory and skill_ (i. E. In agriculture) _and dare to unseal_ (+recludere+) _the sacred springs_; +res laudis+, the theme of the _Aeneid_, +res artis+, of the _Georgics_. 176. +Ascraeum carmen+ = _the song of Ascra_, i. E. The _Georgics_, because Hesiod (author of _Works and Days_ to which Vergil is much indebted) was born at Ascra, near Helicon, in Boeotia. --S. ]

CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B. C. 

C1

_The Vision of Anchises. --Rome’s Heroes. _

 ‘Ille triumphata Capitolia ad alta Corintho Victor aget currum, caesis insignis Achivis. Eruet ille Argos Agamemnoniasque Mycenas, Ipsumque Aeaciden, genus armipotentis Achilli, Ultus avos Troiae, templa et temerata Minervae. 840 Quis te, magne Cato, tacitum, aut te, Cosse, relinquat? Quis Gracchi genus, aut geminos, duo fulmina belli, Scipiadas, cladem Libyae, parvoque potentem Fabricium, vel te sulco, Serrane, serentem? Quo fessum rapitis, Fabii? Tu Maximus ille es, 845 Unus qui nobis cunctando restituis rem. ’ . . . . . . . ‘Aspice, ut insignis spoliis Marcellus opimis 855 Ingreditur, victorque viros supereminet omnes! Hic rem Romanam, magno turbante tumultu, Sistet, eques sternet Poenos Gallumque rebellem, Tertiaque arma patri suspendet capta Quirino. ’

 VERGIL, _Aen. _ vi. 836-846, 855-859. 

 [Linenotes: 836. +Ille+ = L. Mummius Achaicus, destroyed Corinth, 146 B. C. 838. +Ille+ = L. Aemilius Paullus, crushed Perseus (= +Aeaciden+ l.  839) at Pydna, 168 B. C. 841. +Cosse+ = Cornelius Cossus, won Spolia Opima a second time, 428 B. C. 842. +Gracchi genus+, e. G. (i. ) Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, twice Consul 215, 212 B. C. , in 2nd Punic War; (ii. ) T. S. G. Distinguished in Spain; (iii. ) the two great Tribunes, Tiberius and Gaius. 843. +Scipiadas+ = (i. ) Scipio Africanus Maior, victor at Zama, 202 B. C. ; (ii. ) Scipio Africanus Minor, destroyed Carthage, 146 B. C. 844. +Fabricium+, Consul 282 and 278 B. C. In war with Pyrrhus. Proof against bribes. +Serrane+ = Regulus, victor at Ecnomus, 256 B. C. , a prisoner, 255 B. C. True to his word. 845. +Maximus+ = Q. Fabius M. Cunctator, Dictator after Cannae. The Shield of Rome. 846. From the Annals of Ennius (239-169 B. C. ), often quoted. 855. +Marcellus+, five times Consul. Took Syracuse 212 B. C. The Sword of Rome. 857. +magno . .. Tumultu+ = _when a great upheaving shakes it_. --Page. +Tumultus+ (as Cic. Tells us) is specially used of a rising in Italy or in Gaul, as it was close to Italy. (Elsewhere = _bellum_. ) 858. +Sistet, . .. Sternet. + Notice the antithesis and alliteration (assonance). ]

+The Vision of Anchises+ is the imperishable record of the nationallife, where the poet ‘sums up in lines like bars of gold the hero-rollof the Eternal City. ’ --Myers. 

C2

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B. C. 

_The Foundation of Carthage, 878 B. C. _

Pygmalion, cognita sororis fuga, cum impio bello fugientem persequipararet, aegre precibus matris deorumque minis victus quievit.  .  .  . Itaque Elissa delata in Africae sinum incolas eius loci adventuperegrinorum mutuarumque rerum commercio {5} gaudentes in amicitiamsollicitat. Dein empto loco, qui corio bovis tegi posset, in quo fessoslonga navigatione socios, quoad proficisceretur, reficere posset, coriumin tenuissimas partes secari iubet atque ita maius loci spatium, quampetierat, occupat: unde {10} postea ei loco Byrsae nomen fuit. Confluentibus deinde vicinis locorum, qui spe lucri multa hospitibusvenalia inferebant, sedesque ibi statuentibus ex frequentia hominumvelut instar civitatis effectum. Est.  .  .  . Itaque consentientibusomnibus Carthago {15} conditur, statuto annuo vectigali pro solo urbis. In primis fundamentis caput bubulum inventum est, quod auspiciumfructuosae quidem, sed laboriosae perpetuoque servae urbis fuit; propterquod in alium locum urbs translata. Ibi quoque equi caput repertum, {20}bellicosum potentemque populum futurum significans, urbi auspicatamsedem dedit. Tunc ad opinionem novae urbis concurrentibus gentibus breviet populus et civitas magna facta. 

 JUSTINUS, xviii. 5. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Pygmalion+, King of Tyre, murdered Sychaeus, husband of Elissa (Dido). 4. +sinum+ = Gulf of Tunis. (See Murray’s Classical Atlas. ) 5. +peregrinorum+ = _of strangers_. +per + ager+. Cf. _pilgrim_. Fr. _pèlerin_. +mutuarum rerum commercio+ = _barter_. 11. +Byrsae+, i. E. , later, the Citadel quarter, as if from βύρσα = a _hide_, prob. Corrupted from Phoen. _Bozra_ (= a _fort_). So _Carthage_ = _Kirjath (city)_; cp. _Kirjath-Arba_ (Hebron), and _Hannibal_ (= Hanniel) = _the grace of Baal_. 14. +velut instar c. + = _as if the semblance of a state_; cf. ‘instar montis equus, ’ Verg. --Post. 17. +bubulum+ = _of an ox_, adj. From _bos_. 22. +auspicatam+ = _auspicious_, in active sense. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Verg. _Aen. _ i. 336-368, 418-438, and _Aen. _ iv. 21-22. 

+References. + Bosworth Smith, _Carthage and the Carthaginians_. --Ihne, _Hist. Of Rome_, vol. Ii. Pp. 3-21. 

C3

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B. C. 

_Aeneas views the Building of Carthage, circ. 878 B. C. _

 Iamque ascendebant collem, qui plurimus urbi Imminet adversasque aspectat desuper arces. 420 Miratur molem Aeneas, magalia quondam, Miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum. Instant ardentes Tyrii pars ducere muros Molirique arcem et manibus subvolvere saxa, Pars optare locum tecto et concludere sulco; 425 Iura magistratusque legunt sanctumque senatum; Hic portus alii effodiunt; hinc lata theatris Fundamenta locant alii, immanesque columnas Rupibus excidunt, scaenis decora alta futuris. Qualis apes aestate nova per florea rura 430 Exercet sub sole labor, cum gentis adultos Educunt fetus, aut cum līquentia mella Stipant et dulci distendunt nectare cellas, Aut onera accipiunt venientum, aut agmine facto Ignavum fucos pecus a praesepibus arcent: 435 Fervet opus, redolentque thymo fragrantia mella. ‘O fortunati, quorum iam moenia surgunt!’ Aeneas ait, et fastigia suspicit urbis. 

 VERGIL, _Aen. _ i. 419-438. 

 [Linenotes: 419. +plurimus+ = _in huge mass_, with the predicate +imminet+. 421. +magalia+ = _huts_, a Carthaginian (Phoenician) word. Cf. μέγαρον. 422. +strata viarum+ = _stratas vias_ = _the paved roads_. --Sidgwick. 423, 424, 425. +ducere . .. Moliri . .. Subvolvere . .. Optare . .. Concludere+, dependent on the idea of _eagerness_ or _striving_ in +instant+. --S. 426. Vergil is thinking, as often, of Roman institutions, and not of what was appropriate to heroic times. Cf. _Aen. _ i. 507-8. 430-436. This simile is a reproduction of _Georg. _ iv. 162-169. Cf. Milton, _Par. Lost_, i. 768: ‘As bees In springtime, when the sun with Taurus rides, Pour forth their populous youth about the hive. ’ 432. +līquentia+ = _liquid_, from +līquor+, dep. Elsewhere Vergil uses +lĭquens+ from +lĭqueo+. 433. +Stipant+ = _pack_, the notion of _pushing_ and _tightness_ being given in the very sound of the heavy overhanging spondees in this line. --S. 435. +Ignavum . .. Arcent+ = _drive the drones, a slothful herd, from the enclosure_. Notice the order. --Page. 437. ‘The want of a city is the key-note of the _Aeneid_. ’ --Conington. ]

C4

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B. C. 

_A Roman Martyr. Country before Expediency. _

M. Atilius Regulus, cum consul iterum in Africa ex insidiis captus essetduce Xanthippo Lacedaemonio, iuratus missus est ad senatum, ut, nisiredditi essent Poenis captivi nobiles quidam, rediret ipse Carthaginem. Is cum Romam venisset, utilitatis {5} speciem videbat, sed eam, ut resdeclarat, falsam iudicavit: quae erat talis: manere in patria, essedomui suae cum uxore, cum liberis, quam calamitatem accepisset in bello, communem fortunae bellicae iudicantem tenere consularis dignitatis {10}gradum.  .  .  . Itaque quid fecit? In senatum venit, mandata exposuit, sententiam ne diceret recusavit: quam diu iure iurando hostiumteneretur, non esse se senatorem.  .  .  . Cuius cum valuisset auctoritas, captivi retenti sunt, ipse Carthaginem {15} rediit neque eum caritaspatriae retinuit nec suorum,  .  .  . ‘At stulte, qui non modo noncensuerit captivos remittendos, verum etiam dissuaserit. ’ Quo modostulte? etiamne, si reipublicae conducebat? potest autem, quod inutilereipublicae sit, id cuiquam {20} civi utile esse?

 CICERO, _De Officiis_, iii. 99, 100. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +consul. + Regulus was Consul 261 and 256 B. C. , and Proconsul in Africa 255 B. C. , when he was defeated and taken prisoner by Xanthippus. 6. +speciem+ = the _specious (plausible) appearance (semblance)_. 12, 13. +sententiam . .. Recusavit+ = _declined to give his own opinion on the case_. 13. +iure iurando+ (sc. _dato_) = _by the oath sworn to his enemies_. 17. ‘+At stulte+’ (sc. _fecit_) = ‘_But, it may he said, he acted like a fool. _’ 19. +etiamne+ (sc. _stulte fecit_) = _What, how did he act like a fool, if_ . .. --Holden. ] 20, 21. +potest autem . .. Utile esse. + Cf. Ὅ τῇ πόλει οὐκ ἔστι βλαβερὸν οὐδὲ τὸν πολίτην βλάπτει = that which is not harmful (βλαβερόν = +inutile+) to the State is not harmful to the citizen. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Polybius, i. 31-36 (he makes no mention of theembassy of Regulus); Pliny, _Ep. _ vii. 2 (interesting letter on thedeath of Regulus); and espec. Hor. _Od. _ III. V. 13-end. 

 ‘With counsel thus, ne’er else aread [_advised_], He nerved the Fathers’ weak intent, And, girt by friends that mourn’d him, sped Into illustrious banishment. ’ --C. 

C5

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B. C. 

A. _First Roman Naval Victory near Mylae, 260 B. C. _

C. Duilius, primo Punico bello a Romanis dux contra Carthaginiensesmissus, cum videret eos multum mari valere, classem magis validam quamdecoram aedificavit, et manus ferreas, quas corvos vocabant, instituit. His, quas ante pugnam hostes {5} valde deriserant, in pugna ipsa adLiparas insulas commissa naves hostium comprehendit, easque partimcepit, partim demersit. Dux classis Punicae Carthaginem fugit, et exsenatu quaesivit quid faceret. Omnibus ut pugnaret succlamantibus: {10}‘Feci, ’ inquit, ‘et victus sum. ’ Sic poenam crucis effugit, nam hacpoena dux, re male gesta, apud Poenos afficiebatur. Duilius autem victorprimum triumphum maritimum Romae egit, et ad memoriam victoriae columnarostrata in foro posita est. {15}

 (_Adapted_) Cf. FLORUS, I. Xviii. 7-10. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +corvos+ = _crows_ (the κόρακες of Polybius), boarding-bridges. A broad movable ladder, fastened to the foremast, and held in position by a rope. When the rope was let go, the iron hook at the upper end of the ladder penetrated the deck of an enemy’s ship. 6. +ad Liparas insulas+ = Aeoliae Insulae (Lipari Islands), N. E. Of Sicily. Mylae was on a promontory S. E. Of these Islands. 8. +Dux+, i. E. Hannibal, the defender of Agrigentum 262 B. C. ]

B. _Unique honour conferred on Duilius. _

C. Duilium, qui Poenos classe primus devicerat, redeuntem a cena senemsaepe videbam puer; delectabatur cereo funali et tibicine, quae sibinullo exemplo privatus sumpserat: tantum licentiae dabat gloria. {20}

 CICERO, _De Senectute_, xiii. § 44. 

 [Linenotes: 18. +cereo funali+, [28] i. E. _torchlight_. +nullo exemplo+ = _without any precedent_. 18-19. +sibi . .. Sumpserat. + Cicero is wrong: more probably the honour was conferred on Duilius by a vote of the Comitia Tributa. 19. +dabat+ = _excused_; lit. _granted_, _allowed_. -- J. S. Reid. ]

 [Footnote 28: The +funale+ was a torch composed of twigs twisted into a rope (+funis+) and dipped in pitch or oil. --J. S.  R. ]

+References. + Polybius, i. 22, for a description of the _corvi_, κόρακες. Sir Andrew Barton (Percy’s _Reliques_). Lord Howard says:--

 ‘Were twenty shippes, and he but one, I swear by kirke and bower and hall, He would overcome them every one If once his beames they do down fall. ’

C6

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B. C. 

_Carthaginian Victory off Drepana, 249 B. C. _

_Rashness of Claudius. _

Praedictiones vero et praesensiones rerum futurarum quid aliud declarantnisi hominibus ea ostendi, monstrari, portendi, praedici? Ex quo illaostenta, monstra, portenta, prodigia dicuntur. Quod si ea ficta credimuslicentia fabularum, Mopsum, Tiresiam, {5} Amphiaraum, Calchantem, Helenum, quos tamen augures ne ipsae quidem fabulae adscivissent, si resomnino repudiaret, ne domesticis quidem exemplis docti numen deorumconprobabimus? Nihil nos P. Claudi bello Punico primo temeritas movebit, qui {10} etiam per iocum deos irridens, cum cavea literati pulli nonpascerentur, mergi eos in aquam iussit, ut biberent, quoniam essenollent? Qui risus, classe devicta, multas ipsi lacrimas, magnam populoRomano cladem attulit. Quid? Collega eius Iunius {15} eodem bello nonnetempestate classem amisit, cum auspiciis non paruisset? Itaque Claudiusa populo condemnatus est, Iunius necem sibi ipse conscivit. 

 CICERO, _De Nat. Deorum_, II. 3. 7-8. 

 [Linenotes: 3. +ostenta . .. Dicuntur+ = _are called in Latin_ ‘_ostenta_, ’ ‘_monstra_, ’ etc. --Walford. 4. +prodigium+ for _prodicium_ = _pro_ + √_dic-_ δεικ- = _point out_. 5. +Mopsum+, etc. = _all those stories about Mopsus_, _etc. _, in apposition to +ea+: poetical construction. +Mopsum+, the prophet who accompanied the Argonauts. +Tiresiam+, the blind prophet of Thebes. 6. +Amphiaraum+, the seer of Argos. One of the Seven against Thebes. +Helenus+, son of Priam. A seer of the _Iliad_ and the _Aeneid_. 10. +P. Claudi temeritas. + P. Cl. Pulcher (son of Appius Claudius, the blind Censor) defeated by Adherbal off Drepana (N. W. Corner of Sicily, between Eryx and Lilybaeum). 15. +Iunius. + L. J. Pullus, consul 249 B. C. His fleet was destroyed by a storm off Pachynus (C.  Passaro) the same year. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Florus ii. 2 says that ‘Claudius was overthrown, notby the enemy, but by the gods themselves, whose auspices he haddespised. ’

+The Defeat off Drepana. + ‘The reason of the defeat lay in thesuperiority of the Carthaginian admiral and seamen, and the inexperienceof Claudius and of his crews, consisting mainly of landsmen who knewnothing of the sea. This disaster and the destruction of the fleet ofJunius crowned the series of misfortunes which befell the Romans in theyear 249 B. C. , the most dismal time of the whole war. ’ --Ihne. 

C7

FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B. C. 

_Victory of Lutatius off the Aegates Insulae, 241 B. C. _

_Peace with Carthage. _

A. Interim Carthaginienses classe apud insulas Aegates a C. Lutatio, consule Romanorum, superati statuerunt belli facere finem, eamque remarbitrio permiserunt Hamilcaris. Ille, etsi flagrabat bellandicupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, quod {5} patriam, exhaustamsumptibus, diutius calamitates belli ferre non posse intellegebat, sedita, ut statim mente agitaret, si paulum modo res essent refectae, bellum renovare Romanosque armis persequi, donicum aut virtute vicissentaut victi manus dedissent. {10}

 CORN. NEPOS, _Hamilcar_, i. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +apud insulas Aegates+, the Goat Islands, off the W. Coast of Sicily, between Drepana and Lilybaeum (Marsala). 3. +statuerunt belli facere finem. + This victory led to the close of the First Punic War. 5. +paci serviendum+ = _to devote himself to (obtaining) peace_. 9. +donicum+ (= _donec_), lit. ‘_at the time of day when ----_’ 10. +virtute vicissent+ = _they (the Romans) should have conquered by (superior) prowess_. ]

B. 

 Hic dum stagnosi spectat templumque domosque Literni ductor, varia splendentia cernit Pictura belli patribus monumenta prioris 655 Exhausti: nam porticibus signata manebant, Quis inerat longus rerum et spectabilis ordo. . . . . . . . Addiderant geminas medio consurgere fluctu Aegates: lacerae circum fragmenta videres 685 Classis et effusos fluitare in gurgite Poenos. Possessor pelagi pronaque Lutatius aura Captivas puppes ad litora victor agebat. 

 SILIUS ITALICUS, vi. 653-657, 684-688. 

 [Linenotes: 653-654. +stagnosi Literni. + Town and River on the coast of Campania, N. Of Cumae. The River flows through a marsh = Literna palus. 654. +ductor+ = Hannibal. 654-657. Silius (who closely imitates Vergil) makes Hannibal view the sculptured memorials of the First Punic War, just as Aeneas sees carved the tale of Troy. Verg. _Aen. _ i. 445-493. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Polybius, i. Caps. 59-63. 

+Terms of Peace. + Carthage engaged to evacuate Sicily; not to make warupon Hiero of Syracuse; to give up all Roman prisoners without ransom, and to pay 2200 talents in twenty years. 

+Sicily the first Roman Province. +

C8

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

A. _Great Importance of the Second Punic War. _

In parte operis mei licet mihi praefari bellum maxime omnium memorabile, quae unquam gesta sint, me scripturum, quod Hannibale duceCarthaginienses cum populo Romano gessere. Nam neque validiores opibusullae inter se civitates gentesque contulerunt {5} arma, neque his ipsistantum unquam virium aut roboris fuit, et haud ignotas belli artes intersese, sed expertas primo Punico conferebant bello, et adeo varia fortunabelli ancepsque Mars fuit, ut propius periculum fuerint, qui vicerunt. Odiis etiam prope {10} maioribus certarunt quam viribus, Romanisindignantibus quod victoribus victi ultro inferrent arma, Poenis, quodsuperbe avareque crederent imperitatum victis esse. 

 [Linenotes: 3. +Hannibale duce. + Polybius called the war of which Hannibal was the life and soul the ‘Hannibalian War. ’ 6. +his ipsis+, sc. _Romanis Poenisque_, with _validiores_. 6-7. +virium aut roboris+ = _offensive or defensive strength_. --R. 8. +expertas+ = _tested_, in a passive sense. 9. +ut propius . .. Vicerunt+, e. G. After Cannae, 216 B. C. 12. +ultro inferrent arma+ = _should presume to attack_. --Dimsdale. 13. +Poenis+, sc. _indignantibus_. +superbe avareque. + ‘When the war of the mercenaries broke out in Africa (241-238 B. C. ) Rome availed herself of the distress of Carthage to extort the cession of Sardinia, and raised the war indemnity by 1200 talents. ’ --Ihne. ]

B. _The Oath of the Boy Hannibal. _

Fama est etiam, Hannibalem annorum ferme {15} novem, pueriliterblandientem patri Hamilcari, ut duceretur in Hispaniam, cum, perfectoAfrico bello, exercitum eo traiecturus sacrificaret, altaribus admotum, tactis sacris, iure iurando adactum, se, cum primum posset, hostem forepopulo Romano. {20}

 LIVY, xxi. 1. 

 [Linenotes: 16. +blandientem+ = _coaxingly entreating_. --D. 17. +perfecto Africo bello+, i. E. Between Carthage and her mutinous mercenaries, 241-237 B. C. ]

+Parallel Passage. + For Hannibal’s Oath, Livy xxxv.  19. 

+Importance of the War. + ‘It was a struggle for existence, for supremacyor destruction. It was to decide whether the Graeco-Roman civilisationof the West or the Semitic (Carthaginian) civilisation of the East wasto be established in Europe, and to determine its history for all futuretime. ’ --Ihne. 

C9

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

‘_The paths of glory lead but to the grave. _’

 Expende Hannibalem: quot libras in duce summo 147 Invenies? . . . . Additur imperiis Hispania, Pyrenaeum 151 Transilit. Opposuit natura Alpemque nivemque: Diducit scopulos et montem rumpit aceto. Iam tenet Italiam, tamen ultra pergere tendit: ‘Actum, ’ inquit, ‘nihil est, nisi Poeno milite portas 155 Frangimus et media vexillum pono Subura. ’ O qualis facies et quali digna tabella, Cum Gaetula ducem portaret belua luscum! Exitus ergo quis est? O gloria! vincitur idem Nempe et in exilium praeceps fugit, atque ibi magnus 160 Mirandusque cliens sedet ad praetoria regis, Donec Bithyno libeat vigilare tyranno. Finem animae, quae res humanas miscuit olim, Non gladii, non saxa dabunt, nec tela, sed ille Cannarum vindex et tanti sanguinis ultor, 165 Anulus. I, demens, et saevas curre per Alpes, Ut pueris placeas et declamatio fias. 

 JUVENAL, _Sat. _ x. 147-167. 

 [Linenotes: 147-148. +Expende . .. Invenies+ = _if you lay_ (lit. ‘weigh’) _Hannibal in the scale, how many pounds will you find in the greatest of commanders?_ --Duff. Cf. Ov. _Met. _ xii. 615: Iam cinis est: et de tam magno restat Achille Nescio quid parvam quod non bene compleat urnam. 156. +media Subura+, i. E. In the heart of Rome. The Subura was one of the busiest and most populous quarters of Rome. 157. +O qualis facies . .. Tabella+ = _what a sight and how fit for caricature!_ lit. ‘worthy of what a picture’ i. E. How ridiculous a picture it would have made. --Hardy. 158. +luscum+ = _one-eyed_. Hannibal lost an eye from disease, while marching through the country flooded by the Arno, 217 B. C. 160. +in exilium+, i. E. First to Antiochus of Syria, and then to Prusias of Bithynia. 166. +anulus. + Hannibal took poison which he carried about in a ring (+anulus+) 183 B. C. , aged 76. 167. +ut . .. Fias+ = _to suit the taste of schoolboys, and become the subject of their speeches_. --Duff. ]

+For the thought+, cf. Shak. Ham. V. I. 232:

 Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay, Might stop a hole to keep the wind away: O, that that earth, which kept the world in awe Should patch a wall to expel the winter’s flaw!

C10

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Character of Hannibal. _

Nunquam ingenium idem ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum, habilius fuit. Itaque haud facile discerneres, utrum imperatori anexercitui carior esset; neque Hasdrubal alium quemquam praeficere malle, ubi quid fortiter ac strenue agendum {5} esset, neque milites alio duceplus confidere aut audere. Plurimum audaciae ad pericula capessenda, plurimum consilii inter ipsa pericula erat. Nullo labore aut corpusfatigari aut animus vinci poterat. Caloris ac frigoris patientia par;cibi potionisque {10} desiderio naturali, non voluptate modus finitus;vigiliarum somnique nec die nec nocte discriminata tempora: id, quodgerendis rebus superesset, quieti datum; ea neque molli strato nequesilentio accersita; multi saepe militari sagulo opertum humi iacentem{15} inter custodias stationesque militum conspexerunt. Vestitus nihilinter aequales excellens; arma atque equi conspiciebantur. Equitumpeditumque idem longe primus erat; princeps in proelium ibat, ultimusconserto proelio excedebat. Has tantas viri virtutes {20} ingentia vitiaaequabant, inhumana crudelitas, perfidia plus quam Punica, nihil veri, nihil sancti, nullus deum metus, nullum ius iurandum, nulla religio. 

 LIVY, xxi. 4. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +habilius+ = _better adapted_, lit. ‘more easily handled’; cf. Our _handy_. 7. +ad pericula capessenda+ = _in incurring peril_. 12. +discriminata+ = _regulated_, lit. ‘divided off’; cf. _dis-cerno_, _dis-crimen_. 14. +accersita+ (= _arcessita_) = _wooed_. 15. +sagulo+ = _in his military cloak_: diminutive of _sagum_. 21. +inhumana crudelitas. + Polybius says that many of his alleged cruelties were to be set down to his namesake H. Monomachus. 21-23. +perfidia plus quam Punica. + ‘This does not seem to have been anything worse than a consummate adroitness in laying traps for his enemies. ’ --Church and Brodribb. Cf. ‘Perfidious Albion. ’ 23. +nulla religio+ = _no scruples_, i. E. No force binding (_re + ligare_) or restraining from wrong-doing, no conscience. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Livy xxvi. 41 of Scipio Africanus Minor--Sallust_Cat. _ 5 of Catiline--Polybius ix. 22-26 (important). 

‘Bitterly as the Romans hated, reviled, and persecuted Carthage, themost deadly poison of their hatred they poured upon Hannibal; they didnot hesitate to blacken his memory by the most revolting accusations. ’--Ihne. 

C11

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Siege of Saguntum, 219 B. C. _

Angulus muri erat in planiorem patentioremque quam cetera circa vallemvergens; adversus eum vineas agere instituit, per quas aries moenibusadmoveri posset. Sed ut locus procul muro satis aequus agendis vineisfuit, ita haudquaquam prospere, {5} postquam ad effectum operis ventumest, coeptis succedebat. Et turris ingens imminebat, et murus, ut insuspecto loco, supra ceterae modum altitudinis emunitus erat, etiuventus delecta, ubi plurimum periculi ac timoris ostendebatur, ibi vimaiore obsistebant. {10} Ac primo missilibus summovere hostem necquicquam satis tutum munientibus pati; deinde iam non pro moenibus modoatque turri tela micare, sed ad erumpendum etiam in stationes operaquehostium animus erat; quibus tumultuariis certaminibus {15} haud fermeplures Saguntini cadebant quam Poeni. Ut vero Hannibal ipse, dum murumincautius subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit, tantacirca fuga ac trepidatio fuit, ut non multum abesset, quin opera acvineae desererentur. {20}

 LIVY, xxi. 7. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +quam cetera+ (sc. _loca_) +circa+ = _than the neighbouring country_. 4-5. +ut . .. Ita+ = lit. _as . .. So_, i. E. _although . .. Yet . .. _ 6. +postquam . .. Ventum est+ = _when they came to attack the wall in earnest_. +Effectum+ (verbal noun in _us_) = _the completion of the work_, i. E. The bringing up of the ram. --Dimsdale. 8. +ut in suspecto loco+ = _as (was natural) in a suspected_ (i. E. Weak) _spot_. --Capes. 11-12. +nec quicquam . .. Pati+ = _they allowed those engaged on the works no sort of safety_, lit. Not (even) moderate safety. --D. 18. +adversum femur+ = _in the front of the thigh_. ]

+SAGUNTUM+ (Murviedro = muri veteres) in Hispania Tarraconensis (about20 miles S. Of Valencia) was supposed to have been founded by Greekcolonists from Zacynthos (Zante). In 226 B. C. Rome made an alliance withSaguntum and Hasdrubal was informed of the fact. Hannibal attacked thecity ostensibly on the ground of its having molested subject-allies ofCarthage, but really because he was unwilling to leave a strong city inhis rear, and wished to obtain funds. After an eight months’ siege and aheroic defence, characteristic of Spanish towns, it was taken by storm219 B. C. 

 _Nec pavet hic populus (Massilia) pro libertate subire Obsessum Poeno gessit quod Marte Saguntum. _

 LUCAN, _Phars. _ iii. 349-50. 

Cf. Also Juv. _Sat. _ xv. 113-14, and the siege of Saragossa, 1808 A. D. 

C12

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

A. _The Dream of Hannibal. _

Hannibalem Coelius scribit, cum cepisset Saguntum, visum esse in somnisa Iove in deorum concilium vocari; quo cum venisset, Iovem imperasse utItaliae bellum inferret, ducemque ei unum e concilio datum: quo illumutentem cum exercitu progredi {5} coepisse; tum ei ducem illumpraecepisse ne respiceret; illum autem id diutius facere non potuisseelatumque cupiditate respexisse: tum visam belluam vastam et immanem, circumplicatam serpentibus, quacunque incederet, omnia arbusta, virgulta, tecta {10} pervertere. 

 CICERO, _De Divinatione_, i. 24,  49. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Coelius+, i. E. L. Coelius Antipater (a contemporary of C. Gracchus 123 B. C. ), wrote Annales, which contained a valuable account of the Second Punic War. Livy borrows largely from his narrative. 7. +id . .. Non potuisse. + Cf. Livy ‘temperare oculis nequivisse = he could not restrain his eyes. ’ 8. +cupiditate+ = _from curiosity_. Cf. Livy ‘cura ingeni humani = with the natural curiosity of the human mind. ’ 8-11. +visam belluam . .. Pervertere+ = _he thought he saw a monster overthrowing_. ]

B. _The Interpretation--Vastitatem esse Italiae. _

 Hoc trepidus monstro . .. Ardua quae sit, 198. .. 200 Scitatur, pestis, terrasque urgentia membra Quo ferat et quosnam populos deposcat hiatu. Cui gelidis almae Cyllenes editus antris: ‘Bella vides optata tibi: te maxima bella, Te strages nemorum, te moto turbida caelo 205 Tempestas, caedesque virum, magnaeque ruinae Idaei generis, lacrimosaque fata sequuntur. Quantus per campos populatis montibus actus Contorquet silvas squalenti tergore serpens, Et late umectat terras spumante veneno: 210 Tantus, perdomitis decurrens Alpibus atro Involves bello Italiam, tantoque fragore Eruta convulsis prosternes oppida muris. ’

 SILIUS ITALICUS, iii. 198-213. 

 [Linenotes: 202. +hiatu+ = _with its wide-open mouth_. 203. +Cyllenes+, i. E. Mt. Cyllene (Zyria), the highest point in the Peloponnesus, on the borders of Arcadia and Achaia, where Hermes is said to have been born: hence styled _Cyllenius_. 209. +tergore = tergo+. Poet. And post-Augustian. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Livy xxi. 22, and cf. Polybius iii.  47. 

C13

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_From the Pyrenees to the Rhone. Passage of the Elephants. _

Elephantorum traiciendorum varia consilia fuisse credo, certe variatmemoria actae rei.  .  .  . Ceterum magis constat ratibus traiectos esseelephantos. Ratem unam ducentos longam pedes quinquaginta latam a terrain amnem porrexerunt, quam, ne {5} secunda aqua deferretur, pluribusvalidis retinaculis parte superiore ripae religatam pontis in modum humoiniecta constraverunt, ut beluae audacter velut per solum ingrederentur. Altera ratis aeque lata, longa pedes centum, ad traiciendum flumen apta, {10} huic copulata est; tum elephanti per stabilem ratem tamquam viampraegredientibus feminis acti ubi in minorem applicatam transgressisunt, extemplo resolutis, quibus leviter annexa erat, vinculis abactuariis aliquot navibus ad alteram ripam pertrahitur. Ita {15} primisexpositis alii deinde repetiti ac traiecti sunt. Nihil sane trepidabant, donec continenti velut ponte agerentur; primus erat pavor, cum soluta abceteris rate in altum raperentur. Ibi urgentes inter se cedentibusextremis ab aqua trepidationis aliquantum {20} edebant, donec quietemipse timor circumspectantibus aquam fecisset. Excidere etiam saevientesquidam in flumen; sed pondere ipso stabilis deiectis rectoribusquaerendis pedetemptim vadis in terram evasere. {25}

 LIVY, xxi. 28. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +variat . .. Rei+ = _the accounts of what was done differ_. --Dimsdale. 7. +parte superiore . .. Pontis+ = _fastened to the upper part of the bank_, i. E. To the bank at a point higher up stream. --D. 9. +per solum+ = _on firm ground_. 14. +ab actuariis+ = _by some light craft_, lit. ‘Easily moved’ (_ago_). 17-18. +donec . .. Agerentur+ = _So long as they were being driven on what seemed a bridge connected with the land. _ --C. And B. _Agebantur_ would be more usual, but _agerentur_ may give the reason of _nihil trepidabant_. Cf. _donec--fecisset_ ll. 21-22. 19. +in altum+ = _into mid stream_, usu. Of the Sea. --D. +inter se+ = _one on another_, _alii alios_. 24. +quaerendis pedetemptim vadis+ = _feeling their way into shallow water_. +pedetemptim+ = _step by step_, lit. ‘stretching out the feet’ (_pes + tendo_). Cf. _paulatim_, _sensim_. ]

+Reference. + Polybius, iii. 46. Both Polybius and Livy thought thatelephants could not swim. 

C14

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_From the Rhone to Italy. Hannibal encourages his Soldiers. _

Itaque Hannibal, postquam ipsi sententia stetit pergere ire atqueItaliam petere, advocata contione varie militum versat animos castigandoadhortandoque: mirari se, quinam pectora semper impavida repens terrorinvaserit.  .  .  . Alpes quidem habitari, coli, {5} gignere atque alereanimantes; pervias fauces esse exercitibus. Eos ipsos, quos cernant, legatos non pinnis sublime elatos Alpes transgressos. Ne maiores quidemeorum indigenas, sed advenas Italiae cultores has ipsas Alpes ingentibussaepe agminibus cum {10} liberis ac coniugibus migrantium modo tutotransmisisse. Militi quidem armato nihil secum praeter instrumenta belliportanti quid invium aut inexsuperabile esse? Saguntum ut caperetur, quid per octo menses periculi, quid laboris exhaustum esse! {15} Romam, caput orbis terrarum, petentibus quicquam adeo asperum atque arduumvideri, quod inceptum moretur? Cepisse quondam Gallos ea, quae adiriposse Poenus desperet. Proinde aut cederent animo atque virtute gentiper eos dies totiens ab se victae, {20} aut itineris finem sperentcampum interiacentem Tiberi ac moenibus Romanis. 

 LIVY, xxi. 30. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +varie . .. Versat+ = _works on their minds by different methods_, i. E. +castigando adhortandoque+. --Dimsdale. 4-5. +repens terror. + Livy says that H. ’s soldiers dreaded the Romans (victorious in the 1st Punic War), but still more the exaggerated and unknown terrors of the Alps. 7. +Eos ipsos legatos+, i. E. Of the Boii (Insubrian Gauls), long settled in Gallia Cisalpina (round Mediolanum = Milan). 9. +advenas Italiae cultores+ = _foreign settlers in Italy_. _advenas_ = adj. Here. --D. 11. +migrantium modo+ = _as immigrants_. 16. +Romam caput orbis. + A rhetorical exaggeration, for Rome was not yet mistress even of all Italy (e. G. The Boii not subdued until 191 B. C. ). 18. +Cepisse Gallos. + The Gauls sacked Rome 390 B. C. 20. +genti . .. Victae+, e. G. At the Passage of the Rhone. 21. +campum+, i. E. The Campus Martius, N. W. Of Rome, where the Tiber makes a wide curve. For the thought cf. P. 116, ll. 7,  8. ] [[Selection C9, lines 155, 156]]

+The Speeches of Livy. + ‘He does not intend in them to reproduce thesubstance of words actually spoken, or even to imitate the tone of thetime in which the speech is laid. He uses them as a vivid and dramaticmethod of portraying character and motive. ’ --Mackail. 

C15

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_From the Rhone to Italy. The Descent of the Alps. _

Natura locus iam ante praeceps recenti lapsu terrae in pedum milleadmodum altitudinem abruptus erat.  .  .  . Tandem nequiquam iumentis atquehominibus fatigatis castra in iugo posita, aegerrime ad id ipsum locopurgato: tantum nivis fodiendum atque {5} egerendum fuit. Inde ad rupemmuniendam, per quam unam via esse poterat, milites ducti, cum caedendumesset saxum, arboribus circa immanibus deiectis detruncatisque struemingentem lignorum faciunt, eamque, cum et vis venti apta faciendo igni{10} coorta esset, succendunt ardentiaque saxa infuso acetoputrefaciunt. Ita torridam incendio rupem ferro pandunt, molliuntqueanfractibus modicis clivos, ut non iumenta solum sed elephanti etiamdeduci possent. Quadriduum circa rupem consumptum {15} iumentis propefame absumptis; nuda enim fere cacumina sunt, et, si quid est pabuli, obruunt nives. Inferiora valles apricosque quosdam colles habentrivosque prope silvas et iam humano cultu digniora loca. Ibi iumenta inpabulum missa, et quies {20} muniendo fessis hominibus data. Triduo indead planum descensum iam et locis mollioribus et accolarum ingeniis. 

 LIVY, xxi. 36, 37. 

+Context. + At a short distance from the summit of the Pass (prob. TheLittle St. Bernard) Hannibal finds his passage barred by a break in theroad, caused by a landslip or avalanche. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +in pedum . .. Abruptus erat. + Polybius says that the precipice at the side of the road (leaving only a narrow ledge) extended for about 1000 ft. _in length_. Livy in mistake converts this into 1000 ft. _in depth_. 3-4. +Tandem . .. Fatigatis+, i. E. After H. ’s attempt to pass by a side-way over a glacier failed. 4. +in iugo+, i. E. On the higher level where the road was broken away. 6. +ad rupem muniendam+ = _to cut a way through the rock_. _Munire_ (cf. _moenia_) = lit. ‘to wall, ’ ‘to build. ’ So _munire viam_ = _to make a road_. Hannibal widened the narrow ledge of road by making a sort of terrace. 9. +detruncatis+ = _trimmed_, (lit. ‘lopped off’), i. E. Cleared of branches. 11-12. +infuso aceto. + Limestone rock might be softened by vinegar, which the _posca_, the soldiers’ regular drink of vinegar and water, would supply. Polybius does not mention this. 13-14. +molliuntque . .. Clivos+ = _relieve the steepness of the descent by gently-sloping zigzag paths_. _Anfractus_, from _ambi + frango_. ]

+References. + Polybius, iii. 54-56; Ihne, i. 171-179. 

C16

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

A. _The Battle at the R. Trebia, 218 B. C. _

Hannibal, cum ad Trebiam in conspectu haberet Semproni Longi consuliscastra, medio amne interfluente, saevissima hieme Magonem et electos ininsidiis posuit. Deinde Numidas equites ad eliciendam Sempronicredulitatem adequitare vallo eius {5} iussit, quibus praeceperat, ut adprimum nostrorum incursum per nota refugerent vada. Hos consul etadortus temere et secutus ieiunum exercitum in maximo frigore transitufluminis rigefecit: mox torpore et inedia adfectis Hannibal suum militem{10} opposuit, quem ad id ignibus oleoque et cibo foverat; nec defuitpartibus Mago, quin terga hostium in hoc ordinatus caederet. 

 FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 5.  23. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +ad Trebiam+, a small tributary S. Of the Padus, which it joins 2 miles W. Of Placentia (Piacenza). 2. +castra. + Ti. Sempronius Longus, with his army from Sicily, effected a junction with his colleague, Scipio, in his fortified camp on the W. Or left bank of the Trebia. 8-9. +ieiunum . .. Rigefecit+, i. E. Sempronius _made stiff_ (+rigefecit+) with wading breast-high across the icy river his men _faint with hunger_ (+ieiunum+). 11. +oleoque+, i. E. _ut mollirent artus_ = _to make their limbs supple_. 12-13. +nec defuit . .. Caederet. + The Romans kept their ground with the utmost courage till Mago burst out from his ambush and attacked them in rear. ]

B. _The River bars the Retreat. _

 Et iam, dispersis Romana per agmina signis, 570 Palantes agit, ad ripas, miserabile! Poenus Impellens trepidos, fluvioque immergere certat. Tum Trebia infausto nova proelia gurgite fessis Incohat, ac precibus Iunonis suscitat undas. Haurit subsidens fugientum corpora tellus, 575 Infidaque soli frustrata voragine sorbet. Nec niti lentoque datur convellere limo Mersa pedum penitus vestigia: labe tenaci Haerent devincti gressus, resolutaque ripa Implicat aut caeca prosternit fraude paludis. 580

 SILIUS ITALICUS, iv. 570-580. 

 [Linenotes: 574. +precibus . .. Undas. + The poet, in his imitation of Vergil, makes Juno the devoted ally of Hannibal. 576. +soli frustrata+ = _prevented from reaching firm ground_. 577. +lento+ = _sticky_. 579. +resoluta+ = _crumbling_. ]

+References+. Livy, xxi. 52-56; Ihne, ii. 187-191. 

C17

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B. C. _ (1)

Flaminius cum pridie solis occasu ad lacum pervenisset, inexploratopostero die vixdum satis certa luce angustiis superatis, postquam inpatentiorem campum pandi agmen coepit, id tantum hostium, quod exadverso erat, conspexit; ab tergo ac super {5} caput _haud[29] detectae_insidiae. Poenus ubi, id quod petierat, clausum lacu ac montibus etcircumfusum suis copiis habuit hostem, signum omnibus dat simulinvadendi. Qui ubi, qua cuique proximum fuit, decucurrerunt, eo magisRomanis subita atque improvisa {10} res fuit, quod orta ex lacu nebulacampo quam montibus densior sederat, agminaque hostium ex pluribuscollibus ipsa inter se satis conspecta eoque magis pariterdecucurrerant. Romanus clamore prius undique orto, quam satis cerneret, se circumventum {15} esse sensit, et ante in frontem lateraque pugnaricoeptum est, quam satis instrueretur acies aut expediri arma stringiquegladii possent. Consul perculsis omnibus ipse satis, ut[30] in retrepida, impavidus turbatos ordines, vertente se quoque ad dissonos {20}clamores, instruit, ut tempus locusque patitur, et, quacunque adireaudirique potest, adhortatur ac stare ac pugnare iubet. {25}

 LIVY, xxii. 4, 5. 

 [Footnote 29: Var. Lect. _decepere_. ]

 [Footnote 30: For this qualifying use of _ut_ cf. P. 42, iii. (b) and p. 83 line 1. ] [[Demonstration IV. Iii and Selection D24]]

 [Linenotes: 1. +Flaminius+ (Gaius), the chief of the popular party at Rome. Consul 223 B. C. , conquered the Insubrian Gauls, Censor 220 B. C. Connected Picenum with Rome by the Via Flaminia. Consul (a second time) 217 B. C. , defeated and killed at Trasimene. 2. +inexplorato+ = _without reconnoitring_. ‘This word expresses the whole blame attaching to Flaminius, and it is great. ’ --Dimsdale. 4. +pandi+ (= _se pandere_) = _to deploy_. 13. +ipsa . .. Conspecta+ = _were sufficiently visible to each other_. 15. +prius quam satis cerneret+ = _before he could clearly distinguish anything_. --D. 19. +ut in re trepida+ = _considering the confusion of the moment_. --D. ]

+The Scene of the Battle. + At the N. W. End of the Lake the mountains ofCortona come right down to the lake, but a little further E. The passexpands and forms between the mountains and the lake a narrow plain from½ to 1½ miles in width and about 4 miles in length. At the E. End of theplain the mountains again close down upon the lake. Here Hannibalencamped with his Africans and Spaniards; posted his light-armed troopsbehind the crests of the hills which bounded the plain on the N. , andhis cavalry at the entrance to the pass on the W. To cut off the Romanretreat. 

C18

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B. C. _ (2)

Ceterum prae strepitu ac tumultu nec consilium nec imperium accipipoterat, tantumque aberat, ut sua signa atque ordines et locumnoscerent, ut vix ad arma capienda aptandaque pugnae competeret animus, opprimerenturque quidam onerati magis iis {5} quam tecti. Et erat intanta caligine maior usus aurium quam oculorum. Ad gemitus vulneratorumictusque corporum aut armorum et mixtos _strepentium_[31] paventiumqueclamores circumferebant ora oculosque. Alii fugientes pugnantium globoillati {10} haerebant; alios redeuntes in pugnam avertebat fugientiumagmen. Deinde, ubi in omnes partes nequiquam impetus capti, et ablateribus montes ac lacus, a fronte et ab tergo hostium aciesclaudebant, apparuitque nullam nisi in dextera ferroque salutis {15}spem esse, tum sibi quisque dux adhortatorque factus ad rem gerendam etnova de integro exorta pugna est, non illa ordinata per principeshastatosque ac triarios, nec ut pro signis antesignani, post signa aliapugnaret acies; fors conglobabat et animus suus {20} cuique ante autpost pugnandi ordinem dabat; tantusque fuit ardor animorum, adeointentus pugnae animus, ut eum motum terrae, qui multarum urbium Italiaemagnas partes prostravit, nemo pugnantium senserit. {25}

 LIVY, xxii. 5. 

 [Footnote 31: Var. Lect. _terrentium_ = of those causing fear. ]

 [Linenotes: 4. +ad arma capienda aptandaque+ = _to seize and put on for the battle their arms_. --Dimsdale. 5. +onerati:+ i. E. Most were cut down in their full marching equipment. 8-9. +mixtos . .. Clamores+ = _the mingled shouts of noisy triumph_ (+strepentium+) _or dismay_. 10. +pugnantium . .. Haerebant+ = _rushed upon a knot_ (+globo+) _of combatants, and became entangled with it_. --Jebb. 14. +a fronte+, i. E. By Hannibal’s African and Spanish infantry. +ab tergo+, i. E. By Hannibal’s cavalry and the Gauls. 18-19. +non illa . .. Triarios+ = _not in that well-known_ (+illa+) _mode of fighting_ (sc. +pugna+) _arranged according to_.  .  .  . Livy refers to the old mode of formation (said to have been introduced by Camillus) of i. +hastati+, _of young men_, ii. +principes+, _of men at their prime_, iii. +triarii+, _of middle-aged men_. ]

+References:+ Polybius, iii. 82-84; Ihne, _Hist. _ vol, i. Pp. 204-10. 

C19

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 B. C. _ (3)

_The Death of Flaminius. _

 Dumque ea commemorat densosque obit obvius hostes, Advolat ora ferus mentemque Ducarius. Acri 645 Nomen erat gentile viro, fusisque catervis Boiorum quondam patriis, antiqua gerebat Vulnera barbaricae mentis, noscensque superbi Victoris vultus, ‘Tune, inquit, maximus ille Boiorum terror? libet hoc cognoscere telo, 650 Corporis an tanti manet de vulnere sanguis. Nec vos poeniteat, populares, fortibus umbris Hoc mactare caput: nostros hic curribus egit Insistens victos alta ad Capitolia patres. Ultrix hora vocat. ’ Pariter tunc undique fusis 655 Obruitur telis, nimboque mente per auras Contectus nulli dextra iactare reliquit Flaminium cecidisse sua. Nec pugna perempto Ulterior ductore fuit; namque agmine denso Primores iuvenum, laeva ob discrimina Martis 660 Infensi superis dextrisque, et cernere Poenum Victorem plus morte rati, super ocius omnes Membra ducis stratosque artus certamine magno Telaque corporaque et non fausto Marte cruentas Iniecere manus. Sic densi caedis acervo 665 Ceu tumulo, texere virum. 

 SILIUS ITALICUS, v. 644-666. 

 [Linenotes: 644. +Dum . .. Hostes+, i. E. After Flaminius’ vain attempt to rally and form his men, and his consequent resolve to atone for his fault (_inexplorato_[32] _angustiis superatis_) with his life. 646. +Ducarius+--Livy, ‘an Insubrian (Lombard) trooper. ’ 651. +mānet+ = _will flow_. Cf. _emanate_. 652. +populares+ = _fellow-countrymen_, but of Romans usu. _civis_. 658-666. Livy says more simply ‘He (Ducarius) was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screened it with their shields. ’ 660. +laeva+ = _unfavourable_, lit. ‘on the left side. ’ Cf. _sinister_. ]

 [Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note. ] [[Selection C17, “inexplorato”]]

+Parallel Passages. +--Livy, xxii. 6; Polyb. Iii.  84. 

+Character of Flaminius. + ‘The party feelings which have so coloured thelanguage of the ancient writers (e. G. Livy, Polybius) respecting himneed not be shared by a modern historian. Flaminius was indeed anunequal antagonist to Hannibal; but, in his previous life, as Consul andas Censor, he had served his country well; and if the defile ofTrasimene witnessed his rashness, it also contains his honourablegrave. ’ Arnold, _Hist. Rome_, iii. 110. 

C20

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Quintus Fabus Maximus Cunctator. _

Ego Q. Maximum, eum qui Tarentum recepit, senem adulescens ita dilexi, ut aequalem. Erat enim in illo viro comitate condita gravitas, necsenectus mores mutaverat.  .  .  . Hic et bella gerebat ut adulescens, cumplane grandis esset, et Hannibalem {5} iuveniliter exsultantem patientiasua molliebat; de quo praeclare familiaris noster Ennius:

 _Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem; Noenum rumores ponebat ante salutem; Ergo plusque magisque viri nunc gloria claret. _ 10

Nec vero in armis praestantior quam in toga; qui consul iterum, Sp. Carvilio collega quiescente, C. Flaminio tribuno plebis, quoad potuit, restitit agrum Picentem et Gallicum viritim contra senatus auctoritatemdividenti.  .  .  . Multa in eo viro praeclara {15} cognovi, sed nihiladmirabilius quam quo modo ille mortem fili tulit, clari viri etconsularis. Est in manibus laudatio, quam eum legimus, quem philosophumnon contemnimus? Nec vero ille in luce modo atque in oculis civiummagnus, sed intus {20} domique praestantior. 

 CICERO, _De Senectute_, §§ 10-12. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Ego+, i. E. M. Porcius Cato, the famous Censor of 184 B. C. +eum qui Tarentum recepit. + Tarentum was betrayed to Hannibal 212 B. C. And _recovered_ by Fabius 209 B. C. 2-3. +Erat . .. Gravitas+ = _that hero possessed dignity tempered by courtesy_. --J. S. R. +condita+ (_condio_) = lit. _seasoned_. 5. +grandis+, sc. _natu_. He was consul for a first time in 233 B. C. 6. +iuveniliter. + Hannibal was 29 when he crossed the Alps. +exsultantem+ = _wildly roaming_, of a horse galloping at will. 7. +noster Ennius+, circ. 239-169 B. C. , famous espec. For his Annales in Hexameter verse. He was the first Latin writer to use this metre. 9. +Noenum+ (_ne + oinum_ = _not one thing_) = _non_. Cf. _nihil_ = _ne + hilum_ = not a whit, nothing. 12-14. Flaminius, when tribune 232 B. C. , by a vote of the Comitia Tributa (i. E. By a _plebiscitum_) and against the expressed wish of the Senate (_contra senatus auctoritatem_) carried an agrarian law for the division of public land in Picenum amongst Roman citizens. 18. +laudatio+, sc. _funebris_, the funeral speech. 19-20. +in luce . .. Civium+ = _in public and under the gaze of his fellow-countrymen_. --J. S.  R. ]

+References. + Polybius, iii. 89, 90; Livy, xxii. 12; Plutarch, _Fabius_,  vi. 

C21

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Fabius and his Master of the Horse, 217 B. C. _

Ita per variam fortunam diei maiore parte exacta cum in castra reditumesset, Minucius convocatis militibus ‘Saepe ego’ inquit ‘audivi, milites, eum primum esse virum, qui ipse consulat, quid in rem sit, secundum eum, qui bene monenti oboediat; qui {5} nec ipse consulere necalteri parere sciat, eum extremi ingenii esse. Nobis quoniam prima animiingeniique negata sors est, secundam ac mediam teneamus et, dum imperarediscimus, parere prudenti in animum inducamus. Castra cum Fabioiungamus; ad praetorium {10} eius signa cum tulerimus, ubi ego eumparentem appellavero, quod beneficio erga nos ac maiestate eius dignumest, vos, milites, eos, quorum vos modo arma ac dexterae texerunt, patronos salutabitis, et, si nihil aliud, gratorum certe nobis {15}animorum gloriam dies hic dederit. ’ Signo dato conclamatur inde, utcolligantur vasa. Profecti et agmine incedentes ad dictatoris castra inadmirationem et ipsum et omnes, qui circa erant, converterunt. {20}

 LIVY, xxii. 29, 30. 

+Context. + Fabius’ policy of ‘masterly inactivity’ had become sounpopular at Rome that the command of the army was divided betweenFabius and Minucius, who risked a battle, and was only saved from adestruction as complete as that of the Trebia by the timely aid ofFabius. +Minucius publicly and fully atones for his rashness. +

 [Linenotes: 4. +consulat+ = _can give counsel_--so _consulere_ l.  6. 6-7. +extremi ingenii+ = _has the meanest capacity_. Gen. Of quality. 7-8. +prima . .. Sors est+ = _the highest rank in the scale of spirit and intellect_. --Dimsdale. 14. +patronos+ = _as the authors of your freedom_. +Patronus+ = legal title used by a freed slave (_libertus_) of his former master. The soldiers of Minucius are to think of themselves as _liberti_, owing their freedom to those of Fabius, who are thus their +patroni+. 17. +ut colligantur vasa+, i. E. _impedimenta_. Cf. _signa movere_. ]

+Fabius Cunctator. + ‘Fabius had to create a new army, to accustom it towar, and to inspire it with courage. He did this skilfully andpersistently, and thus he rendered the most essential service that anygeneral could at that time render to the State. It was probably at thistime that the Senate voted him a crown of grass (_corona graminea_), thehighest distinction which was awarded to a general who had saved abesieged town. ’ --Ihne. 

C22

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. CANNAE, 218 B. C.  (1)

_The Destruction of the Roman Infantry. _

Sub equestris finem certaminis coorta est peditum pugna, primo etviribus et animis par, dum constabant ordines Gallis Hispanisque; tandemRomani, diu ac saepe conisi, obliqua fronte acieque densa impulerehostium cuneum nimis tenuem eoque parum {5} validum a cetera prominentemacie. Impulsis deinde ac trepide referentibus pedem institere ac tenoreuno per praeceps pavore fugientium agmen in mediam primum aciem illati, postremo nullo resistente ad subsidia Afrorum pervenerunt, qui utrimquereductis {10} alis constiterant media, qua Galli Hispanique steterant, aliquantum prominente acie. Qui cuneus ut pulsus aequavit frontemprimum, dein cedendo etiam sinum in medio dedit, Afri circa iam cornuafecerant irruentibusque incaute in medium Romanis circumdedere {15}alas; mox cornua extendendo clausere et ab tergo hostis. Hinc Romani, defuncti nequiquam proelio uno, omissis Gallis Hispanisque, quorum tergaceciderant, adversus Afros integram pugnam ineunt non tantum eo iniquam, quod inclusi adversus {20} circumfusos, sed etiam quod fessi cumrecentibus ac vegetis pugnabant. 

 LIVY, xxii. 47. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Sub . .. Certaminis+, i. E. _at the close of_ (+sub+) the first stage in the battle, in which the Roman cavalry were defeated. 2-3. +constabant . .. Hispanisque. + These formed Hannibal’s centre, the _convex_ of his semicircular formation of his infantry, with the African troops on the horns of the semicircle to the right and left, but at some distance behind. 4. +obliqua fronte+, perh. = _concave_, so as to surround _the projecting part of the enemy’s line_ (+a cetera prominentem acie+). 5. +cuneum:+ here = the _convex_ formation of the Gauls and Spaniards. 8-9. +in mediam aciem+ = _the centre of the line_, i. E. Of the Gauls and Spaniards, who were intended to engage with the Romans first. 10. +subsidia+ = _reserves_, i. E. The Africans, on the right and left. 14-16. +Afri circa . .. Alas. + Hannibal’s formation is now reversed. [33] The horns (+cornua+) of the semicircle (the Africans) are now advanced, and _outflanked_ (+circumdedere alas+) the Romans, who rushed heedlessly _into the intervening space_ (+in medium+, i. E. The _concave_ part of H. ’s line formed by the retirement of the Gauls and Spaniards). 21-22. +recentibus ac vegetis+ = _fresh in body and mind_. ]

 [Footnote 33: i. E. The Africans now formed the horns of a _crescent_ in relation to their centre, while it formed the _concave_ part of the crescent. --D. ]

+Results of the Battle. + Hannibal becomes master of Magna Graecia, andthe Romans lose (including 23, 000 taken prisoners) about 70, 000 men. 

C23

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. CANNAE, 216 B. C.  (2)

‘_Paulus animae magnae prodigus. _’

Cn. Lentulus tribunus militum cum praetervehens equo sedentem in saxocruore oppletum consulem vidisset, ‘L. Aemili’ inquit, ‘quem unuminsontem culpae cladis hodiernae dei respicere debent, cape hunc equum, dum et tibi virium aliquid superest, {5} et comes ego te tollere possumac protegere. Ne funestam hanc pugnam morte consulis feceris; etiam sinehoc lacrimarum satis luctusque est. ’ Ad ea consul: ‘Tu quidem, Cn. Corneli, macte virtute esto; sed cave frustra miserando exiguum tempus e{10} manibus hostium evadendi absumas. Abi, nuntia publice patribus, urbem Romanam muniant ac, priusquam victor hostis advenit, praesidiisfirment; privatim Q. Fabio L. Aemilium praeceptorum eius memorem etvixisse adhuc et mori. Memet in hac {15} strage militum meorum patereexspirare, ne aut reus iterum e consulatu sim aut accusator oollegaeexistam, ut alieno crimine innocentiam meam protegam. ’ Haec eos agentesprius turba fugientium civium, deinde hostes oppressere; consulemignorantes, {20} quis esset, obruere telis, Lentulum inter tumultumarripuit equus. Tum undique effuse fugiunt. 

 LIVY, xxii. 49. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +praetervehens equo+ = _riding by_. +praetervehor+ used here as a deponent. --Dimsdale. 2. +oppletum+ (= _perfusum_) = _covered_ (lit. _filled up_), or _drenched_. 4. +respicere+ = _to look on with favour_. --D. 9. +macte virtute esto+ = lit. _go on and prosper in your courage_. +mactus+ = i. _magis + auctus_ = _increased_, _glorified_, or more prob. Ii. = old partic. Of obsolete _mago_ (= _augeo_), from √μακ e. G. In μάκ-αρ. Vocative used as nominative. 14. +praeceptorum. + His self-sacrifice was not in vain. The tactics of Fabius were again adopted after his death. 15. +et vixisse adhuc et mori+ = _died as he had ever lived_. --D. 17. +reus iterum e consulatu+ = _a second time to stand on my defence in consequence of my consulship_, i. E. On a charge that grew out of his acts as Consul (219 B. C. ) with M. Livius Salinator of misappropriation of the spoils at the close of the Illyrian War. 18-19. +ut . .. Protegam. + The two Consuls had the chief command of the army on alternate days. Varro was in command at Cannae. ]

‘The overthrow of Cannae was so complete that every other nation but theRomans would have given up the idea of further resistance. ’ --Ihne. 

C24

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. CANNAE, 216 B. C.  (3)

A. _Maharbal urges Hannibal to march on Rome. _

Hannibali victori cum ceteri circumfusi gratularentur suaderentque, uttanto perfunctus bello diei quod reliquum esset noctisque insequentisquietem et ipse sibi sumeret et fessis daret militibus, Maharbalpraefectus equitum, minime cessandum ratus, ‘Immo {5} ut, quid hac pugnasit actum, scias, die quinto’ inquit ‘victor in Capitolio epulaberis. Sequere: cum equite, ut prius venisse quam venturum sciant, praecedam. ’Hannibali nimis laeta res est visa maiorque, quam ut eam statim capereanimo posset. Itaque voluntatem {10} se laudare Maharbalis ait; adconsilium pensandum temporis opus esse. Tum Maharbal: ‘Non omnia nimirumeidem di dedere; vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis. ’ Mora eiusdiei satis creditur saluti fuisse urbi atque imperio. {15}

 LIVY, xxii. 51. 

 [Linenotes: 2-4. +diei . .. Sumeret+ = _he should take what remained of that day and the following night for rest_. --Church and Brodribb. 8. +venisse+, sc. +te+, suggested by +sequere+. --Dimsdale. 9. +res+ = _the idea_, i. E. Of such a rapid termination to the war. --D. Hannibal was too far off (11 days’ march) to take Rome by storm. Its population contained as many soldiers as his army, and the city was strongly fortified by its situation and by art. ]

B. _Scipio forbids the Nobles to abandon Italy. _

Post Cannensem cladem perculsis ita Romanorum animis, ut pars magnareliquiarum nobilissimis auctoribus deserendae Italiae iniret consilium, P. Scipio adulescens admodum impetu facto, in eo ipso in quo taliaagitabantur coetu pronuntiavit manu se {20} sua interfecturum, nisi quiiurasset non esse sibi mentem destituendae rei publicae: cumque ipse seprimus religione tali obligasset, stricto gladio mortem uni ex proximisminatus, nisi acciperet sacramentum, illum metu, ceteros etiam exemplocoegit ad iurandum. {25}

 FRONTINUS, _Strat. _ iv. 7. 39. 

 [Linenote: 18. +P. Scipio adulescens+, i. E. P. Corn. Scipio Africanns Maior, _fatalis dux huiusce belli_, the predestined champion in this war. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Livy, xxii. 53, and cf. Livy, v. 50-55, whereCamillus dissuades the commons from migrating to Veii. 

C25

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

A. _Rome’s Heroes. _

 Regulum et Scauros animaeque magnae Prodigum Paulum superante Poeno Gratus insigni referam Camena Fabriciumque. 40 Hunc et incomptis Curium capillis Utilem bello tulit et Camillum Saeva paupertas et avitus apto Cum lare fundus. 44 Crescit occulto velut arbor aevo Fama Marcelli; micat inter omnes Iulium sidus velut inter ignes Luna minores. 48

 HORACE, _Odes_, I. Xii. 37-48. 

 [Linenotes: 37. +Scauros+[34] (= +Scaurum+) = _such men as Scaurus_. Censor, 100 B. C. 40. +Fabricium+, who despised the bribes of Pyrrhus. Censor 275 B. C. See p. 101, Fabricius the Just. [[Selection D42]] 43-44. +apto cum lare+ = _with homestead to match_. --Gow. ]

 [Footnote 34: Cf. In French, _Les Vergiles_. ]

B. _The Dream of Propertius. _

 Visus eram molli recubans Heliconis in umbra, Bellerophontei qua fluit umor equi, Reges, Alba, tuos et regum facta tuorum, Tantum operis, nervis hiscere posse meis; 4 Parvaque tam magnis admoram fontibus ora, Unde pater sitiens Ennius ante bibit, Et cecini Curios fratres et Horatia pila, Regiaque Aemilia vecta tropaea rate, 8 Victricesque moras Fabii pugnamque sinistram Cannensem et versos ad pia vota deos, Hannibalemque Lares Romana sede fugantes, Anseris et tutum voce fuisse Iovem. 12

 PROPERTIUS, III. (IV. ) iii. (ii. ) 1-12. 

+Subject:+--Propertius had tremblingly touched the mighty fount with hislips (l.  5): he dreamed that he essayed, in consequence, to follow theexample of Ennius. 

 [Linenotes: 2. I. E. The Spring of Pirene near Corinth, where Pegasus was caught by Bellerophon. Its waters possessed inspiring properties. 4. +nervis . .. Meis+ = _that I had strength to gasp forth_. --Ramsay. 7. +Curios+ = _Curiatios_. +Horatia pila+: see pp. 67-68. [[Selections D8, D9]] 8. +Aemilia+, i. E. Of L. Aemilius Paullus (son of the hero of Cannae), victor at Pydna 168 B. C. Over Perseus of Macedon. 10. +versos . .. Deos+, i. E. The solemn ordinances decreed by Fabius, Dictator after Trasimene, to which the gods _turned a ready ear_ (+versos+). 12. +fuisse+, dependent on +cecini+ l. 19. +Iovem+, i. E. _Iovis Capitolini templum_. See p.  84. ] [[Selection D25]]

C26

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B. C. _ (1)

A. _Capua aspires to rival Rome. _

 Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas, Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit. Quam neque finitimi valuerunt perdere Marsi, Minacis aut Etrusca Porsenae manus, 4 Aemula nec virtus Capuae nec Spartacus acer Novisque rebus infidelis Allobrox, Nec fera caerulea domuit Germania pube Parentibusque abominatus Hannibal: 8 Impia perdemus devoti sanguinis aetas, Ferisque rursus occupabitur solum. 

 HORACE, _Epod. _ xvi. 1-10. 

 [Linenotes: 5. +Aemula virtus Capuae. + In 216 B. C. Capua was, after Rome, the richest and most powerful city in Italy. As the result of Cannae she aspired to dominion over Italy. +Spartacus acer+, leader of the Servile War, 73-71 B. C. 6. +novis rebus infidelis+ = _faithless to revolution_, because they assisted in betraying Catiline’s plot 63 B. C. --Wickham. 9. +impia . .. Aetas+ = _we an impious generation whose blood is foredoomed_ (i. E. There is a curse on us) _shall destroy_ (Rome). ]

B. _Decius Magius defies Hannibal. _

Egressus curia Hannibal in templo magistratuum consedit, comprehendiqueDecium Magium atque ante pedes destitutum causam dicere iussit. Qui cummanente ferocia animi negaret lege foederis id cogi posse, tum iniectaecatenae, ducique ante lictorem {15} in castra est iussus. Quoad capiteaperto est ductus, contionabundus incessit ad circumfusam undiquemultitudinem vociferans: ‘Habetis libertatem, Campani, quam petistis:foro medio, luce clara, videntibus vobis nulli Campanorum secundusvinctus ad mortem {20} rapior. Quid violentius capta Capua fieret? Iteobviam Hannibali, exornate urbem diemque adventus eius consecrate, uthunc triumphum de cive vestro spectetis. ’

 LIVY, xxiii. 10. 

+Context. + After the Revolt of Capua, when Hannibal made a public entryinto the city, the whole population, with the exception of Decius Magiusand his son, poured out to meet him. 

 [Linenotes: 11. +in templo magistratuum+ = _on the magistrates’ bench_, (or _tribunal_). 12. +Decium Magium+, one of the few Capuan nobles faithful to Rome. 14-15. +negaret . .. Posse+ = _urged that by the terms of the treaty_ (i. E. Between the Capuans and H. ) _this could not be insisted on_. --Church and Brodribb. ]

C27

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Revolt of Capua, 216-211 B. C. _ (2)

A. _‘Capua, ’ it is said, ‘became Hannibal’s Cannae. ’_

Cum victoria Hannibal posset uti, frui maluit relictaque Roma CampaniamTarentumque peragrare, ubi mox et ipse et exercitus ardor elanguit adeout vere dictum sit Capuam Hannibali Cannas fuisse. Si quidem invictumAlpibus, indomitum armis Campani--quis {5} crederet?--soles et tepentesfontibus Baiae subegerunt. 

 FLORUS, II. Vi. 21-22. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +Campaniam Tarentumque+, once the two most fertile districts in Italy. 4. +Capuam . .. Fuisse. + Ihne says: ‘Whatever may have been the pleasures and indulgences of Hannibal’s troops in Capua, their military qualities cannot have suffered by them, as the subsequent history of the war sufficiently demonstrates. ’ 7-8. +tepentes fontibus Baiae+, on a small bay west of Naples and opposite Puteoli, abounded in warm mineral springs. ]

B. _The Punishment of Rebel Capua, 211 B. C. _

Ad septuaginta principes senatus interfecti, trecenti ferme nobilesCampani in carcerem conditi; alii per sociorum Latini nominis urbes incustodias {10} dati variis casibus interierunt; multitudo alia civiumCampanorum venum data. De urbe agroque reliqua consultatio fuit, quibusdam delendam censentibus urbem praevalidam, propinquam, inimicam. Ceterum praesens utilitas vicit; nam propter agrum, quem {15} omnifertilitate terrae satis constabat primum in Italia esse, urbs servataest, ut esset aliqua aratorum sedes. Urbi frequentandae multitudoincolarum libertinorumque et institorum opificumque retenta; ager omniset tecta publica populi Romani facta. {20}

 LIVY, xxvi. 16. 

 [Linenotes: 10. +sociorum Latini nominis+ = _sociorum_ +ac+ _Latini nominis_, which includes all the Italian allies. ‘The _Nomen Latinum_ were the members of the old Latin league whose rights were reduced in 338 B. C. After the Latin War. ’ --Rawlins. 13. +delendam. + Cf. Cato’s _Delenda est Carthago_. 15-17. +agrum . .. In Italia esse. + Cf. Verg. _Georg. _ ii. 224-5: ‘Such is the tilth of wealthy Capua and the coast that borders the Vesuvian ridge. ’ --Mackail. 18. +frequentandae+ = _for the purpose of peopling_. 19. +institorum+ = _pedlars or dealers_. Cf. Our ‘commercial travellers’. 20. +publica . .. Facta+ = _confiscated_. ‘This _ager publicus_ was leased by the censors to farmers (_aratores_) who paid rent (_vectigal_) for it. ’ --R. ]

C28

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Marcellus at Nola, 216 B. C. _

Ad tres portas in hostes versas Marcellus tripertito exercituminstruxit.  .  .  . Ita instructi intra portas stabant. Hannibali subsignis, id quod per aliquot dies fecerat, ad multum diei in acie stantiprimo miraculo esse, quod nec exercitus Romanus {5} porta egredereturnec armatus quisquam in muris essent. Ratus deinde, prodita colloquiaesse, metuque resides factos, partem militum in castra remittit iussospropere apparatum omnem oppugnandae urbis in primam aciem afferre, satisfidens, si cunctantibus {10} instaret, tumultum aliquem in urbe plebemmoturam. Dum in sua quisque ministeria discursu trepidat ad prima signasucceditque ad muros acies, patefacta repente porta Marcellus signacanere clamoremque tolli ac pedites primum, deinde equites, quanto {15}maximo possent impetu, in hostem erumpere iubet. Satis terroristumultusque in aciem mediam intulerant, cum duabus circa portis P. Valerius Flaccus et C. Aurelius in cornua hostium erupere.  .  .  . Ingensvictoria eo die res ac nescio an maxima illo bello gesta {20} est; nonvinci enim ab Hannibale tunc diffcilius fuit quam postea vincere. 

 LIVY, xxiii. 16. 

+Context. + The plebs in Nola (as in Capua) was in favour of joiningHannibal, and it was with difficulty that the nobles (who here, aselsewhere, favoured Rome) delayed the decision, thus gaining time toinform Marcellus, who was then stationed at Casilinum, of the danger ofa revolt. Marcellus immediately hastened to Nola, and occupied the townwith a strong garrison. 

 [Linenotes: 3-5. +Hannibali . .. Primo miraculo esse+ = _Hannibal, who . .. Had his troops under arms till a late hour, was first of all astonished that_. --Church and Brodribb. 7. +colloquia esse+, i. E. His _communications_ (+colloquia+) with the Carthaginian party in Nola. 8. +resĭdes+ = _inactive_, lit. _that remains sitting_ (+re + sedeo+). 10. +si cunctantibus instaret+ = _if he met hesitation with prompt action_. --Church and Brodribb. Lit. _if he pressed upon those hesitating_. 12. +in sua . .. Ministeria+ = _to their several posts_. 19-21. +Ingens . .. Gesta est+ = _a great victory, the greatest, perhaps throughout the war, was achieved that day_. ]

+Nola+, an important town in Campania, S. E. Of Capua. It remainedfaithful to the Romans, even after Cannae, when the other Campaniantowns revolted to Hannibal. 

+Marcellus at Nola. + ‘It was the merit of Marcellus that he saved Nolafrom being taken. ’ --Ihne. 

C29

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Cicero’s Description of Syracuse. _

Urbem Syracusas maximam esse Graecarum urbium pulcherrimamque omniumsaepe audistis, Est, indices, ita, ut dicitur: nam et situ est cummunito, tum ex omni aditu vel terra vel mari praeclaro ad aspectum: etportus habet prope in aedificatione {5} aspectuque urbis inclusos: quicum diversos inter se aditus habeant, in exitu coniunguntur etconfluunt. Eorum coniunctione pars oppidi, quae appellatur Insula, maridisiuncta angusto, ponte rursum adiungitur et continetur. Ea tanta esturbs, ut ex {10} quattuor urbibus maximis constare dicatur: quarum unaest ea, quam dixi, Insula: quae duobus portubus cincta, in utriusqueportus ostium aditumque proiecta est: in qua domus est, quae Hieronisregis fuit, qua praetores uti solent. Altera autem est urbs {15}Syracusis, cui nomen Achradina est: in qua forum maximum, pulcherrimaeporticus, ornatissimum prytaneum, amplissima est curia, templumqueegregium Iovis Olympii. Tertia est urbs, quae, quod in ea parte Fortunaefanum antiquum fuit, {20} Tycha nominata est, in qua et gymnasiumamplissimum est et complures aedes sacrae: coliturque ea pars ethabitatur frequentissime. Quarta autem est urbs, quae quia postremacoaedificata est, Neapolis nominatur: quam ad summam theatrum estmaximum. {25}

 CICERO, _In Verrem_, ii. 4. 117-119. 

 [Linenotes: 5-6. +prope . .. Inclusos+, a special feature of Syracuse, because many ancient cities were built at some distance from the sea, with a harbour detached from them (e. G. Ostia, the port of Rome), though sometimes joined by long walls, as at Athens. 7. +in exitu+ = _at their outlet_, i. E. The narrow channel between Ortygia (= Insula) and the mainland which connected the two harbours. 9. +disiuncta+ = _separated from the rest_ (+dis+--). 12. +Insula+, i. E. Ortygia, the only part now inhabited. 14. +Hieronis regis+, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B. C. , distinguished by his military ability and the wise policy of his reign. From 263 B. C. Till his death, the faithful friend and ally of Rome. 16. +Achradina+, the mainland N. Of Ortygia. At the time of the famous siege of Syracuse by the Athenians, 415-413 B. C. , the city consisted only of Ortygia and Achradina. 18. +prytaneum+ = _town-hall_ (πρυτανεῖον = _the presidents’ hall_). 25. +theatrum est maximum+, capable of holding 25, 000 people. Of all the buildings described by Cicero as existing in Neapolis, the Theatre alone remains. ]

+Reference. + Freeman’s _History of Sicily_. 

C30

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Engineering Skill of Archimedes. _

Adversus hunc navalem apparatum Archimedes variae magnitudinis tormentain muria disposuit. In eas, quae procul erant, naves saxa ingentipondere emittebat, propiores levioribus eoque magis crebris petebattelis; postremo, ut sui vulnere intacti tela {5} in hostem ingererent, murum ab imo ad summum crebris cubitalibus fere cavis aperuit, per quaecava pars sagittis pars scorpionibus modicis ex occulto petebant hostem. Quae propius quaedam subibant naves, quo interiores ictibus tormentorumessent, in {10} eas tollenone super murum eminente ferrea manus, firmaecatenae illigata, cum iniecta prorae esset gravique libramento plumbirecelleret ad solum, suspensa prora navem in puppim statuebat; deinremissa subito velut ex muro cadentem navem cum {15} ingentitrepidatione nautarum ita undae affligebat, ut, etiam si rectareciderat, aliquantum aquae acciperet, Ita maritima oppugnatio est elusaomnisque spes eo versa, ut totis viribus terra aggrederentur. Sed eaquoque pars eodem omni apparatu tormehtorum instructa {20} erat Hieronisimpensis curaque per multos annos, Archimedis unica arte. 

 LIVY, xxiv, 34. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +adversus . .. Apparatum+, i. E. To oppose the elaborate naval attack by Marcellus on the seaward defences of Achradina. 7. +cubitalibus fere cavis+ = _with holes_ (fr. +cavum+ = noun) _about 1½ feet square_, +cubitalibus+ (_cubitum_) = _a cubit long_. Polybius has a _palm_ long, about 3 inches. This is more probable. 8. +scorpionibus+ = _crossbows_ or _manuballistae_. 10. +quo interiores . .. Essent+ = _so as to be too close in to be hit by_ (+intertores ictibus+) _the engines_. 10-12. +in eas+ (sc. +proras+) +iniecta+ = _on their bows was dropped_ . .. 11. +tollenone+ = _from a swing beam_, supported at the centre of gravity by a strong fixed fulcrum. 12-13. +cum (ferrea manus) gravique . .. Ad solum+ = lit. _when (the grappling-iron) swung back_ (+recelleret+) _to the ground by a heavyweight of lead_. ‘This is incorrect; it was not the grappling-iron, but the other (_inland_) end of the lever which was brought down to the ground. ’ --Rawlins. 15. +remissa+ (sc. +ferrea manus+) = _the grappling-hook was (then) suddenly let go_. 16. +ita undae affligebat+ = _was dashed with such violence on the disturbed water_ (+undae+). ]

+Cause of the War. + Soon after the death of Hiero in 216 B. C. , his wholefamily was murdered, and the supreme power in Syracuse fell into thehands of the two brothers, Hippocrates and Epicydes, Hannibal’s agents. 

C31

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Marcellus laments over Syracuse. _

Marcellus ut moenia ingressus ex superioribus locis urbem omnium fermeilia tempestate pulcherrimam subiectam oculis vidit, illacrimassedicitur partim gaudio tantae perpetratae rei, partim vetusta gloriaurbis. Atheniensium classes demersae et duo {5} ingentes exercitus cumduobus clarissimis ducibus deleti occurrebant et tot bella cumCarthaginiensibus tanto cum discrimine gesta, tot tam opulenti tyranniregesque, praeter ceteros Hiero cum recentissimae memoriae rex, tum anteomnia, quae virtus ei fortunaque {10} sua dederat, beneficiis in populumRomanum insignis. Ea cum universa occurrerent animo subiretquecogitatio, iam illa momento horae arsura omnia et ad cineres reditura, priusquam signa Achradinam admoveret, praemittit Syracusanos, {15} quiintra praesidia Romana fuerant, ut alloquio leni impellerent hostes addedendam urbem.  .  .  . Achradina diripienda militi data est. Cum multairae, multa avaritiae foeda exempla ederentur, Archimeden memoriaeproditum est in tanto tumultu, quantum {20} pavor captae urbis indiscursu diripientium militum ciere poterat, intentum formis, quas inpulvere descripserat, ab ignaro milite, quis esset, interfectum; aegreid Marcellum tulisse sepulturaeque curam habitam, et propinquis etiaminquisitis honori praesidioque {25} nomen ac memoriam eius fuisse. 

 LIVY, xxv. 24, 31. 

 [Linenotes: 1-2. +ex superioribus locis+, i. E. From the heights of Epipolae, which he had taken by a night attack, when the Syracusans were celebrating a three days’ festival of Artemis. 6. +ducibus+, e. G. Lamachus, Eurymedon, Demosthenes. 7-8. +tot bella . .. Gesta+, e. G. At Himera, 480 B. C. , on the same day as Salamis. 8-9. +tot tam . .. Regesque+, e. G. Gelo, 485 B. C. ; Dionysius the Elder, 406 B. C. ; Hiero II. , the friend and ally of Rome, King of Syracuse, 270-216 B. C. 8. +tyranni+, i. E. _absolute rulers, despots_, with reference rather to the _irregular way_ in which the power was gained, than the way in which it _was exercised_. 16. +qui . .. Fuerant+, i. E. Syracusan deserters who kept up communication with the republican (pro-Roman) party in Syracuse. 22. +formis+ = _diagrams_. 24. +sepulturae+. Cf. Demonstration VI, page 54. ]

+The Treatment of Syracuse. + It would have been the undying glory ofMarcellus if, on obtaining possession, he had shielded the unhappy cityfrom further miseries. The art-treasures of Syracuse were sent to Rome, a precedent afterwards followed. 

C32

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Death of Marcellus, 208 B. C. _

Exiguum campi ante castra erat; inde in collem aperta undique etconspecta ferebat via. Numidis speculator, nequaquam in spem tantae reipositus, sed si quos vagos pabuli aut lignorum causa longius a castrisprogressos possent excipere, signum dat, ut {5} pariter ab suis quisquelatebris exorerentur. Non ante apparuere, quibus obviis ab iugo ipsoconsurgendum erat, quam circumiere, qui ab tergo intercluderent viam. Tum undique omnes exorti et clamore sublato impetum fecere. Cum in eavalle {10} consules essent, ut neque evadere possent in iugum occupatumab hoste nec receptum ab tergo circumventi haberent, extrahi tamendiutius certamen potuisset, ni coepta ab Etruscis fuga pavorem ceteris{15} iniecisset. Non tamen omisere pugnam deserti ab EtruscisFregellani, donec integri consules hortando ipsique ex parte pugnandorem sustinebant; sed postquam vulneratos ambo consules, Marcellum etiamtransfixum lancea prolabentem ex equo moribundum {20} videre, tum etipsi--perpauci autem supererant--cum Crispino consule duobus iaculisieto et Marcello adolescente saucio et ipso effugerunt. 

 LIVY, xxvii. 27. 

+Context+. Marcellus was Consul for a fifth time in 208 B. C. After theattempt to retake Locri (S. E. Of Bruttium) was frustrated by Hannibal, Marcellus and his colleague Crispinus faced H. Near Venusia in Apulia. Hannibal hoped to bring on a decisive action, but Marcellus adoptedFabian tactics, and himself headed a cavalry reconnaissance to explorethe country between the Roman and the Carthaginian camps. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +Numidis speculator+. A wooded hill lay between the two camps: H. Had posted here in ambush some Numidian horsemen. 4-5. +si quos possent excipere+ = _on the chance of their being able to intercept_. --Stephenson. 6-8. +Non ante . .. Circumiere+ = _those who were to spring on the enemy_ (lit. _those to whom it was necessary to rise in a mass confronting the enemy_ +obviis+) _from the hill itself did not show themselves until a detachment had made their way round_ (+circumiere+). --S. 10. +valle+ = _a hollow_, i. E. A depression on the Roman side of the hill. 16. +Fregellani+. Fregellae, a town of the Volsci, on the Via Latina between Rome and Campania, colonised 328 B. C. 17. +ipsique ex parte pugnando+ = _taking their share in fighting_. --S. ]

+Character of Marcellus+. ‘He was a brave soldier, a firm intrepidpatriot, and an unflinching enemy of the enemies of Rome, but as ageneral no match for Hannibal. ’ --Ihne. 

C33

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Character of Scipio Africanus Maior. _

Fuit enim Scipio non veris tantum virtutibus mirabilis, sed arte quoquequadam ab iuventa in ostentationem earum compositus, pleraque apudmultitudinem aut _ut_ per nocturnas visa species aut velut divinitusmente monita agens, sive et ipse capti {5} quadam superstitione animi, sive ut imperia consiliaque velut sorte oraculi missa sine cunctationeexsequerentur. Ad hoc iam inde ab initio praeparans animos, ex quo togamvirilem sumpsit, nullo die prius ullam publicam privatamque rem egit, quam {10} in Capitolium iret, ingressusque aedem consideret et plerumquesolus in secreto ibi tempus tereret. Hic mos, quem per omnem vitamservabat, seu consulto seu temere vulgatae opinioni fidem apud quosdamfecit, stirpis eum divinae virum esse. Multa alia {15} eiusdem generis, alia vera, alia assimulata, admirationis humanae in eo iuveneexcesserant modum; quibus freta tunc civitas aetati haudquaquam maturaetantam rerum molem tantumque imperium permisit. 

 LIVY, xxvi. 19. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +in ostentationem earum compositus+ = _he made a study_ (+compositus+) _of displaying them_, implying artificiality. --R. 3-5. +pleraque . .. Agens+ = _in most of his dealings_ (+pleraque agens+) _with the mob (representing his plans) as inspired_ (+visa+) _by visions in the night or as matters of inspiration_ (+divinitus mente monita+). 7. +sorte+ = _by an oracular response_ (which was often written on a little tablet or _lot_, +sors+). 11. +aedem+, i. E. The _cella_ (_chapel_, the part enclosed within the four side-walls) of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. 13-14. +seu consulto seu temere vulgatae+ = _whether designedly or undesignedly spread abroad_. 17. +humanae+ = _which one has for a mere man_. --Rawlins. 19. +tantam rerum molem+ = _so stupendous a task_. --R. In 212 or 211 B. C. The two brothers, Publius and Gnaeus Scipio, were totally defeated by Hasdrubal and fell at the head of their troops. Scipio, son of this P. Scipio, was in 210 B. C. Sent to Spain, at the age of 27, as proconsul in command of a reinforcement of 11, 000 men. ]

+Character of Scipio. + ‘He was a man far above the average of hiscontemporaries, and possessed a greatness of mind which could not failto rivet attention. He differed from the majority of generals by notonly daring to conceive bold plans, but by contriving to carry themout. ’ --Ihne. 

C34

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Scipio takes New Carthage, 210 B. C. _

Scipio ipse, ut ei nuntiatum est aestum decedere, quod per piscatoresTarraconenses nunc levibus cymbis, nunc, ubi eae siderent, vadispervagatos stagnum compertum habebat, facilem pedibus ad murum transitumdari, eo secum armatos quingentos {5} duxit. Ubi urbem sine certamineintravere, pergunt inde, quanto maximo cursu poterant, ad eam portam, circa quam omne contractum certamen erat. In quod adeo intenti omniumnon animi solum fuere, sed etiam oculi auresque pugnantiumspectantiumque {10} et adhortantium pugnantes, ut nemo ante ab tergosenserit captam urbem, quam tela in aversos inciderunt et utrimqueancipitem hostem habebant. Tunc turbatis defensoribus metu et moeniacapta, et porta intus forisque pariter refringi coepta; et mox {15}caedendo confectis ac distractis, ne iter impediretur, foribus armatiimpetum fecerunt.  .  .  . Quoad dedita arx est, caedes tota urbe passimfactae, nec ulli puberum qui obvius fuit parcebatur; tum signo datocaedibus finis factus; ad praedam victores versi, {20} quae ingens omnisgeneris fuit. 

 LIVY, xxvi. 45, 46 (sel. )

 [Linenotes: 3. +vadis pervagatos stagnum+ = _made their way through the pool by wading_ (+vadis+). 8. +contractum+ = _concentrated (confined)_. 13. +ancipitem+ = _double_, _twofold_, _on two opposite sides_. 15. +intus forisque+ = _both within and without_. +foris+, adv. (an abl. Form from an obsolete nom. +fora+) = _out of doors_, _without_. Cf. +foras+ = _out through the doors_, _forth_. 16-17. +caedendo . .. Distractis foribus+ = _when the doors were destroyed and broken up by blows_. ]

+Carthago Nova+ (Carthagena) was founded by Hasdrubal (the uncle ofHannibal) 243 B. C. The city is situated on a promontory running out intothe sea, and possesses one of the finest harbours in the world, protected by an island as by a natural breakwater. But it had a weakside, and this had been betrayed by fishermen to Scipio. During ebb-tidethe water of the shallow pool W. Of the town fell so much that it wasfordable and the bottom was firm. Of this Scipio took advantage. Hefirst made a feint attack on the N. Wall and then led 500 men across theford, who scaled the W. Wall and opened the nearest gate from theinside. 

+Result of its Capture. + ‘New Carthage, the key of Spain, the basis ofoperations against Italy, and the Carthaginian arsenal, was taken, thusdetermining the issue of the Spanish War. ’ --Ihne. 

C35

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Nero’s famous March to the Metaurus, 207 B. C. _

Praemissi (nuntii) per agrum Larinatem Marrucinum FrentanumPraetutianum, qua exercitum ducturus erat, ut omnes ex agris urbibusquecommeatus paratos militi ad vescendum in viam deferrent, equosiumentaque alia producerent, ut {5} vehiculorum fessis copia esset. Ipsede toto exercitu civium sociorumque quod roboris erat delegit, sex miliapeditum, mille equites.  .  .  . Et hercule per instructa omnia ordinibusvirorum mulierumque undique ex agris effusorum, inter vota ac preces et{10} laudes ibant: illos praesidia rei publicae, vindices urbis Romanaeimperiique appellabant; in illorum armis dextrisque suam liberorumquesuorum salutem ac libertatem repositam esse. Deos omnes deasqueprecabantur, ut illis faustum iter, felix pugna, matura {15} ex hostibusvictoria esset, damnarenturque ipsi votorum, quae pro iis suscepissent, ut, quem ad modum nunc solliciti prosequerentur eos, ita paucos postdies laeti ovantibus victoria obviam irent. Invitare inde pro se quisqueet offerre et fatigare {20} precibus, ut quae ipsis iumentisque usuiessent, ab se potissimum sumerent; benigne omnia cumulata dare. Modestiacertare milites, ne quid ultra usum necessarium sumerent; nihil morari, nec abscedere ab signis nec subsistere nisi cibum capientes: diem {25}ac noctem ire; vix quod satis ad naturale desiderium corporum esset, quieti dare. 

 LIVY, xxvii. 43, 45 (sel. )

+Context. + Nero, on hearing from the captured Numidian horsemen ofHasdrubal’s march and plans--to meet Hannibal in Umbria and then tomarch on Narnia and Rome--with 6000 picked foot and 1000 horse withdrewsecretly from his camp before Hannibal at Canusium, and by a forcedmarch joined his colleague Livius at the Metaurus. 

 [Linenotes: 1-2. +Larinatem+, etc. , districts lying between Apulia and Umbria, but not given in their geographical order. 15. +faustum+ (for _favostus_, _fav-eo_) = that which is done under the blessing of the gods: +felix+ = that which succeeds in consequence of having this blessing upon it. --Stephenson. 16-17. +damnarentur . .. Votorum+ = _condemned (to pay) their vows_. Cf. Verg. _Voti reus_ = _bound to my vow_, i. E. Bound to fulfilment. 23. +Modestia certare+ (sc. _cum iis_) +. .. Sumerent+ = _the soldiers were as moderate as they were pressing, refusing to take anything_ . .. --S. ]

‘Nero showed a resolution and a strategic ability which far surpassedthe average qualifications of Roman generals. ’ --Ihne. 

C36

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_The Metaurus, 207 B. C. _

 Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis; Est in iuvencis, est in equis patrum Virtus, neque imbellem feroces Progenerant aquilae columbam; 32 Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam, Rectique cultus pectora roborant; Utcumque defecere mores, Indecorant bene nata culpae. 36 Quid debeas, o Roma, Neronibus, Testis Metaurum flumen et Hasdrubal Devictus et pulcher fugatis Ille dies Latio tenebris, 40 Qui primus alma risit adorea, Dirus per urbes Afer ut Italas Ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus Per Siculas equitavit undas. 44 Post hoc secundis usque laboribus Romana pubes crevit, et impio Vastata Poenorum tumultu Fana deos habuere rectos. 48

 HORACE, _Odes_, IV. Iv. 29-48. 

 [Linenotes: 29-36. The thought is: ‘It is true that scions of a good stock must be good in men as well as in animals, but yet _education_ (+doctrina+ = _training_ l.  33) _brings out the innate force_. ’ 29. +fortibus et bonis. + For the combined epithets cf. καλὸς κἀγαθός. 36. +Indecorant . .. Culpae+ = _faults disfigure_ (+indecorant = dedecorant+) _scions of an honourable stock_ (+bene nata+). 37. +Neronibus+, e. G. M. Claudius Nero (the hero of Metaurus), and the brothers Drusus and Tiberius (afterwards Emperor), stepsons of Augustus. 41. +alma adorea+ = _with kindly (refreshing) success_. 43. +ceu flamma per taedas+ = _like fire through a pine-forest_. --W. 44. +equitavit+ = _galloped_, _careered_, used of Hannibal, and, by zeugma, with +flamma+ and +Eurus+. 46-47. +impio tumultu+ = _by the sacrilegious invasion_ (or _riot_, _outrage_), possibly with reference to Livy’s story (xxvi. 11) of the plundering of the Temple of Feronia. 48. +rectos+ = _upright_, i. E. Of the images supposed to have been thrown down by Hannibal, and not set on their pedestals again. ]

+Results of the Battle. + ‘The war in Italy was to all appearancesfinished, and it was on the Metaurus that the Romans conquered Spain. ’--Ihne. When Hannibal recognised the head of his brother Hasdrubal, heforesaw the doom of Carthage:--

 ‘Lost, lost is all: A nation’s hope, a nation’s name, They died with dying Hasdrubal. ’ --C. (Hor. _Od. _ IV. Iv. 70-73). 

C37

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Hannibal leaves Italy, 203 B. C. _

Nihil certe ultra rei in Italia ab Hannibale gestum. Nam ad eum quoquelegati ab Carthagine vocantes in Africam eis forte diebus, quibus adMagonem, venerunt. Frendens gemensque ac vix lacrimis temperans diciturlegatorum verba audisse. {5} Postquam edita sunt mandata, ‘Iam nonperplexe, ’ inquit, ‘sed palam revocant, qui vetando supplementum etpecuniam mitti iam pridem trahebant. Vicit ergo Hannibalem non populusRomanus totiens caesus fugatusque, sed senatus Carthaginiensis {10}obtrectatione atque invidia; neque hac deformitate reditus mei tam P. Scipio exsultabit atque efferet sese quam Hanno, qui domum nostram, quando alia re non potuit, ruina Carthaginis oppressit. ’ Iam hoc ipsumpraesagiens animo praeparaverat {15} ante naves. Itaque inutili militumturba praesidii specie in oppida Bruttii agri, quae pauca magis metuquam fide continebantur, dimissa, quod roboris in exercitu erat inAfricam transvexit. Raro quemquam alium, patriam exilii causarelinquentem, {20} tam maestum abisse ferunt quam Hannibalem, hostiumterra excedentem. 

 LIVY, xxx. 19, 20. 

+Context. + Scipio (204 B. C. ) landed in Africa and won such decisivevictories over the Carthaginians under Hasdrubal, the son of Gisco, thatii was necessary in 203 B. C. To recall both Mago and Hannibal. 

 [Linenotes: 3-4. +ad Magonem. + Mago, H. ’s youngest brother, had in 205 B. C. Been despatched from Carthage with considerable reinforcements for H. He took Genoa, again roused the Gauls against Rome, and in 203 B. C. Fought an indecisive action with the Romans. Mago was severely wounded, and died at sea before he reached Africa. 6. +Iam non perplexe+ = _now in no veiled manner_ (lit. _not obscurely_). 8. +iam pridem trahebant+ = _began long ago to try to pull me back_. --Rawlins. 11. +obtrectatione+ = _by disparagement_. 13. +Hanno+, the leader of the aristocratic (peace) party at Carthage, and the persistent opponent of Hamilcar Barca and his sons. ]

+Hannibal’s Speech. + ll. 6-15. This is purely imaginary and illustratesthe bitter hatred of the Romans for H. They alleged that H. Waspersonally responsible for the war, and that he undertook it for selfishand party ends. Also that Carthage, unable to prevent the war, withheldsupplies and reinforcements. Ihne says ‘The whole course of the war is asufficient refutation of these charges. ’

C38

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Zama, 202 B. C. _ (1) _Before the Battle. _

Ita infecta pace ex colloquio ad suos cum se recepissent, frustra verbapraelata renuntiant: armis decernendum esse habendamque eam fortunam, quam dei dedissent. In castra ut est ventum, pronuntiant ambo, armaexpedirent milites animosque ad {5} supremum certamen, non in unum diemsed in perpetuum, si felicitas adesset, victores. Roma an Carthago iuragentibus daret, ante crastinam noctem scituros; neque enim Africam autItaliam, sed orbem terrarum victoriae praemium fore; par {10} periculumpraemio, quibus adversa pugnae fortuna fuisset. Nam neque Romaniseffugium ullum patebat in aliena ignotaque terra et Carthagini supremoauxilio effuso adesse videbatur praesens excidium. Ad hoc discrimenprocedunt postero die duorum {15} opulentissimorum populorum duo longeclarissimi duces, duo fortissimi exercitus, multa ante parta decora autcumulaturi eo die aut eversuri. Anceps igitur spes et metus miscebantanimos; contemplantibus modo suam modo hostium aciem, cum non oculis{20} magis quam ratione pensarent vires, simul laeta simul tristiaobversabantur. 

 LIVY, xxx. 31, 32. 

 [Linenotes: 1-2. +Ita infecta pace . .. Renuntiant+, referring to Livy’s picturesque account of the personal interview between Scipio and Hannibal, and the fruitless negotiations for peace. 7-10. +Roma an Carthago . .. Praemium fore. + ‘By the victory of Zama it was decided that the states of the ancient world should be welded into one great empire, and that this empire should be founded by Rome and not by Carthage. ’ --Ihne. 14. +effuso+ = _dispersed_, i. E. _defeated_. 15. +discrimen+ = _decisive point_, _decision_. 18. +aut cumulaturi aut eversuri+ = _either to augment_ (lit. _heap up_) _or overthrow_. 21. +pensarent vires+ = _they estimated (weighed) their strength_. ]

+The Battle of Zama. + ‘Here, too, the elephants proved disastrous totheir own side. Some ran down the spaces between the Roman maniples (see+C+ 39, B. Note), and were of no further use; while others, driven asideby the Roman skirmishers, threw H. ’s Carthaginian cavalry into suchdisorder that they were unable to resist the attack of Scipio’s horse. The first Roman line threw H. ’s mercenaries back upon their reserves ofthe second line, and in the confusion that ensued Scipio advanced withhis second and third lines. The combat raged long and fiercely untilScipio’s Roman and Numidian cavalry, returning from their pursuit ofH. ’s horse, fell upon the enemy’s rear and decided the battle. ’ --Ihne. 

C39

SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C. 

_Zama, 202 B. C. _ (2) _The Order of Battle. _

A. Hannibal adversus Scipionem, post elephantos lxxx, qui in primafronte positi hostium turbarent aciem, auxiliares Gallos et Ligures etBaliares Maurosque posuit, ut neque fugere possent Poenis a tergostantibus et hostem oppositi, si non infestarent, {5} at certefatigarent: tum suis et Macedonibus, qui iam fessos Romanos integriexciperent, in secunda acie collocatis, novissimos Italicos constituit, quorum et timebat fidem et segnitiam verebatur, quoniam plerosque eorumab Italia invitos extraxerat. {10}

+Hannibal’s Army. + It consisted broadly of five classes:

1. His veteran army of Italy, on which he could thoroughly rely, partlyCarthaginian, partly Italian (mostly Bruttians). 

 These he placed in his _third_ line. 

2. A newly raised force of Carthaginian and Libyan militia. 

 These he placed in his _second_ line. 

3. Mercenaries, consisting of Moors, Gauls, Ligurians, the Baleariccontingent, and the Spaniards. 

 These he placed in his _first_ line. 

4. Carthaginian and Numidian cavalry. 

 These he placed on his _wings_. 

5. 80 elephants. These he placed on his _front_, to open the attack. 

B. Scipio adversus hanc formam robur legionis triplici acie in fronteordinatum per hastatos et principes et triarios opposuit: nec continuasconstruxit cohortes, sed manipulis inter se distantibus spatium dedit, per quod elephanti ab hostibus acti {15} facile transmitti sineperturbatione ordinum possent. Ea ipsa intervalla expeditis velitibusimplevit, ne interluceret acies, dato his praecepto, ut ad impetumelephantorum vel retro vel in latera concederent. Equitatum deinde incornua divisit et dextro Romanis {20} equitibus Laelium, sinistroNumidis Masinissam praeposuit: quae tam prudens ordinatio non dubiecausa victoriae fuit. 

 FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3.  16. 

+Scipio’s order of battle. + Instead of drawing up his manipuli like theblack squares of a chessboard--the usual order, so that, in advancing, the manipuli of the three lines could form one unbroken line--he placedthem one behind the other, like the rounds of a ladder, so as to leavespaces in the lines, through which the elephants might pass withouttrampling down or throwing into confusion the infantry battalions, e. G. :

 +not+ +but+ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY. 

C40

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B. C. (1)

_Battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 B. C. _

Non dubia res fuit; extemplo terga vertere Macedones, terrore primobestiarum aversi. Et ceteri quidem hos pulsos sequebantur; unus etribunis militum, ex tempore capto consilio, cum viginti signorummilitibus, relicta ea parte suorum, quae {5} haud dubie vincebat, brevicircuitu dextrum cornu hostium aversum invadit. Nullam aciem ab tergoadortus non turbasset; ceterum ad communem omnium in tali retrepidationem accessit, quod phalanx Macedonum, gravis atque immobilis, nec {10} circumagere se poterat, nec hoc, qui a fronte, paulo ante pedemreferentes, tunc ultro territis instabant, patiebantur. Ad hoc locoetiam premebantur, quia iugum, ex quo pugnaverant, dum per proclivepulsos insequuntur, tradiderant hosti ad terga sua circumducto. {15}Paulisper in medio caesi, deinde omissis plerique armis capessunt fugam. Philippus cum paucis peditum equitumque primo tumulum altiorem interceteros cepit, ut specularetur, quae in laeva parte suorum fortunaesset; deinde, postquam fugam {20} effusam animadvertit et omnia circaiuga signis atque armis fulgere, tum et ipse acie excessit. 

 LIVY, xxxiii. 9, 10. 

+Context. + Philip V, King of Macedon, had made a treaty with Hannibal in215 B. C. , and provoked the first Macedonian War (214-205 B. C. ) by anattack on Apollonia in Illyria, and the capture of the port of Oricum inEpirus. The Romans now resolved to make Philip suffer for the trouble hehad caused them by interfering in the war with Hannibal. A _casus belli_was soon found in the Athenian Embassy to Rome (201 B. C. ) asking forhelp against Philip. 

 [Linenotes: 3-4. +unus . .. Militum. + Ihne says ‘He seized the favourable opportunity to shape the battle which had begun without plan into a brilliant victory for Rome. ’ 5. +signorum+ (= _manipulorum_) = _companies_, i. E. With some 3500 men. 13. +loco premebantur+ = _they_ (i. E. _the phalanx_) _began to feel the disadvantage of position_. --Rawlins. 16. +in medio caesi+ = _cut down from both sides_. --R. ]

+Cynoscephalae+ (_Dog’s Heads_), a low chain of hills between Pherae andScotussa in Thessaly. 

+Results of the Battle. + ‘The Romans lost only 700 men. That was theprice paid for a victory which laid the Monarchy of Alexander the Greatin the dust. ’ --Ihne. 

+Terms of Peace+, 196 B. C. Macedonia to remain an independent state, but, like Carthage, to lose all her foreign possessions, and to be sunkto the level of a vassal state. 

C41

SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR, 200-196 B. C. (2)

_Flamininus proclaims the Freedom of Greece, 196 B. C. _

Isthmiorum statum ludicrum aderat, semper quidem et alias frequens cumpropter spectaculi studium insitum genti, quo certamina omnis generisartium viriumque et pernicitatis visuntur, tum quia propteropportunitatem loci, per duo diversa maria {5} omnium rerum ususministrantis humano generi, concilium Asiae Graeciaeque is mercatuserat; tum vero non ad solitos modo usus undique convenerant, sedexspectatione erecti, qui deinde status futurus Graeciae, quae suafortuna esset. Ad spectaculum {10} consederant, et praeco cum tubicine, ut mos est, in mediam aream, unde sollemni carmine ludicrum indicisolet, processit et, tuba silentio facto, ita pronuntiat: ‘SenatusRomanus et T. Quinctius imperator, Philippo rege Macedonibusquedevictis, {15} liberos, immunes, suis legibus esse iubet Corinthios, Phocenses, Locrensesque omnes et insulam Euboeam et Magnetas, Thessalos, Perrhaebos, Achaeos Phthiotas. ’ . .. Esse aliquam in terris gentem, quaesua impensa, suo labore ac periculo bella gerat pro {20} libertatealiorum. Una voce praeconis liberatas omnes Graeciae atque Asiae urbes;hoc spe concipere audacis animi fuisse, ad effectum adducere et virtutiset fortunae ingentis. 

 LIVY, xxxiii. 32, 33 (sel. )

 [Linenotes: 1. +Isthmiorum statum ludicrum+ = _time fixed_ (+statum+) _for the Isthmian Games_ (celebrated at Corinth every two years). 3-4. +quo certamina . .. Visuntur+ = _which makes them go to see contests of every kind of artistic performance_ (+artium+) _and of feats of strength and agility_. --Rawlins. 7. +concilium is mercatus erat . .. + = _that gathering was the general rendezvous_ (+mercatus+) _of_ . .. +mercatus+ = i. _trade_, or _mart_; ii. _a festival assemblage_ (πανήγυρις). 11. +in mediam aream+ = _into the centre of the open space (of the stadium)_. 17. +Locrensesque omnes+, i. E. E. & W. Locris. 18. +Perrhaebos+, N. Of Thessaly. +Achaeos Phthiotas+ = the Achaeans who inhabited Phthiotis (S. E. Of Thessaly). 19-24. +Esse aliquam . .. Ingentis:+ in these words the Greeks express their astonishment and gratitude at the greatness of the boon conferred upon them. ]

+The Freedom of Greece. + ‘The Greeks believed with a childlikesimplicity that the Romans really cared for their freedom, and that theyhad crossed the sea with no other object than to deliver Greece from aforeign yoke.  .  .  . Flamininus was a skilful diplomatist, andparticularly qualified to sift and settle the affairs of Greece; for heunderstood the Greek character, and was not inaccessible, like so manyother Romans, to Greek views and opinions. ’ --Ihne. 

C42

WAR WITH ANTIOCHUS OF SYRIA, 191-190 B. C. 

A. _Battle of Thermopylae, 191 B. C. Victory due to Cato. _

Acilius Glabrio consul adversus Antiochi regis aciem, quam is in Achaiapro angustiis Thermopylarum direxerat, iniquitatibus loci non irritustantum, sed cum iactura qnoque repulsus esset, nisi circummissus ab eoPorcius Cato, qui tum, iam {5} consularis, tribunus militum a populofactus in exercitu erat, deiectis iugis Callidromi mentis Aetolis, quipraesidio ea tenebant, super imminentem castris regiis collem a tergosubitus apparuisset: quo facto perturbatis Antiochi copiis utrimqueirrupere Romani {10} et fusis fugatisque castra ceperunt. 

 FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 4.  4. 

+Context. + In 192 B. C. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, accepted theinvitation of the Aetolians, who, since the Peace of 196 B. C. , had beensnubbed by the Romans, to come to liberate Greece from the tyranny ofRome. 

B. _Battle of Magnesia, 190 B. C. _

Tum consule Scipione, cui frater, ille modo victor CarthaginisAfricanus, aderat voluntaria legatione, debellari regem placet. Et iamtoto cesserat mari, sed nos imus ulterius. Maeandrum {15} ad amnemmontemque Sipylum castra ponuntur. Hic rex, incredibile dictu quibusauxiliis, quibus copiis, consederat. Trecenta milia peditum, equitumfalcatorumque curruum non minor numerus. Elephantis ad hoc immensaemagnitudinis, auro purpura {20} argento et suo ebore fulgentibus aciemutrimque vallaverat. Sed haec omnia praepedita magnitudine sua, ad hocimbre, qui subito superfusus mira felicitate Persicos arcus corruperat. Primum trepidatio, mox fuga, deinde triumphus fuerunt. {25}

 FLORUS, i. 24. 14-18. 

+Context. + In 190 B. C. Lucius Scipio was appointed to carry the war intoAsia. Scipio Africanus, who accompanied his brother as Chief of Staff, fell ill at Elaea, the port of Pergamum. His place was taken by Cn. Domitius, an experienced officer. 

 [Linenotes: 14-15. +Et iam toto cesserat mari+, as the result of the decisive defeat, in 190 B. C. , of the Syrian fleet off +Myonnesus+. 15-16. +Maeandrum . .. Ponuntur. + The battle was fought near Magnesia (N. W. Of Lydia) at the foot of Mt. Sipylus. ]

+Parallel Passage. + Livy, xxxvii. 39-44, ‘The +Battle of Magnesia+decided the fate of the Syrian Empire, as the battles of +Zama+ and+Cynoscephalae+ had decided the fate of Carthage and Macedonia. ’ --Ihne. 

C43

_Deaths of Three Great Men, 183 B. C. _

Hannibal, postquam est nuntiatum milites regios in vestibulo esse, postico fugere conatus, ut id quoque occursu militum obsaeptum sensit etomnia circa clausa custodiis dispositis esse, venenum, quod multo antepraeparatum ad tales habebat casus, {5} poposcit. ‘Liberemus, ’ inquit, ‘diuturna cura populum Romanum, quando mortem senis exspectare longumcensent. Nec magnam nec memorabilem ex inermi proditoque Flamininusvictoriam feret. ’ Exsecratus deinde in caput regnumque {10} Prusiae, ethospitales deos violatae ab eo fidei testes invocans, poculumexhausit.  .  .  . Trium clarissimorum suae cuiusque gentis virorum nontempore magis congruente comparabilis mors videtur esse, quam quod nemoeorum satis dignum splendore {15} vitae exitum habuit. Nam primum omnesnon in patrio solo mortui nec sepulti sunt. Veneno absumpti Hannibal etPhilopoemen; exsul Hannibal, proditus ab hospite, captus Philopoemen incarcere et in vinculis exspiravit. Scipio etsi non exsul neque {20}damnatus, die tamen dicta, ad quam non adfuerat reus, absens citatus, voluntarium non sibimet ipse solum sed etiam funeri suo exsiliumindixit. 

 LIVY, xxxix, 51, 52 (sel. )

+Context. + After Zama Hannibal held the highest office (_Suffete_ = L. _praetura_) at Carthage, and effected useful democratic reforms. However, his political enemies denounced him to Rome _as making plansfor a new war_, and in 195 B. C. He was forced to flee from Carthage andtook refuge with Antiochus. After Magnesia, H. Found for seven years asafe asylum with Prusias, king of Bithynia; but the Romans could not beat ease so long as H. Lived, and Flamininus the Liberator of Greeceundertook the inglorious quest of demanding the surrender of Hannibal. 

 [Linenotes: 13-15. +non tempore magis congruente quam+ = _not so much in coincidence of_ (+congruente+, lit. _agreeing with_) _date as_. --R. 18. +Philopoemen+, the heroic chief of the Achaean League, was taken prisoner by Dinocrates, imprisoned in a dungeon at Messene (+in carcere+, l. 19), and compelled to drink poison. 20-23. +Scipio+ was accused, at the instigation of Cato, by the tribune Naevius (185 B. C. ) of having been bribed by Antiochus to procure for him favourable conditions of peace. Too proud to defend himself against such a charge, Scipio retired to his country-seat at Liternum, where _by a voluntary act he consigned both himself and his grave to exile_ (+voluntarium . .. Indixit+). ‘_Ingrata patria, ne ossa quidem mea habes. _’ Epitaph of Scipio, written by himself. ]

C44

_M. Porcius Cato, 234-149 B. C. _ (1)

At Cato, censor cum L. Valerio Flacco, severe praefuit ei potestati. Namet in complures nobiles animadvertit et multas res novas in edictumaddidit, qua re luxuria reprimeretur, quae iam tum incipiebat pullulare. Circiter annos octoginta, usque ad extremam {5} aetatem ab adolescentia, rei publicae causa suscipere inimicitias non destitit. A multis tentatusnon modo nullum detrimentum existimationis fecit, sed, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit. 

In omnibus rebus singulari fuit industria: nam {10} et agricola sollerset peritus iuris consultus et magnus imperator et probabilis orator etcupidissimus litterarum fuit. Quarum studium etsi senior arripuerat, tamen tantum progressum fecit, ut non facile reperiri posset neque deGraecis neque de {15} Italicis rebus, quod ei fuerit incognitum. Abadulescentia confecit orationes. Senex historias scribere instituit. Earum sunt libri vii. Primus continet res gestas regum populi Romani, secundus et tertius unde quaeque civitas orta sit Italica, ob quam remomnes {20} Origines videtur appellasse. 

 NEPOS, _Cato_, ii. , iii. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Censor+, 184 B. C. , with L. Valerius Flaccus, his great friend and patron, by whom he was introduced to political life. 3. +in edictum. + The Censors, on their entrance upon office, issued a _proclamation_ or _edict_, setting forth the principles upon which they intended to act. Cato set forth in his edict that he intended to use his power for the suppression of luxury. 5. +pullulare+ = _to spread, increase_; lit. _to put forth_, of plants and animals. Cf. _pull-us_ (our _pullet_), _pu-er_, πῶλος (= _a foal_). ] +octoginta. + This is an exaggeration. He was only eighty-five when he died 149 B. C. 6-7. +rei publicae . .. Non destitit. + Seneca says: _Scipio cum hostibus nostris bellum, Cato cum moribus gessit. _ 7-9. Cato was accused no less than 44 times, but each time acquitted. 11. +iuris consultus+ = _lawyer_. 12. +magnus imperator+, e. G. In the 2nd Punic War, and the decisive victory at Thermopylae (191 B. C. ) was mainly due to Cato. +probabilis orator+ = _a tolerable, acceptable orator_. Oscar Browning. 17-21. His two great works were his treatise +De Re Rustica+ (or +De Agri Cultura+), the earliest extant work in Latin prose, and his +Origines+, or accounts of the rise and growth of the Italian nation, the earliest history in Latin prose. ‘It was Cato’s great merit that he asserted the rights of his native language for literary prose composition. ’ --Ihne. ]

+Cato the Censor. + ‘He deserves our highest respect for the defiant andmanly spirit that animated him in his untiring contest with the vices ofthe age. ’ --Ihne. 

C45

_M. Porcius Cato. _ (2)

 Iam pauca aratro iugera regiae Moles relinquent, undique latius Extenta visentur Lucrino Stagna lacu platanusque caelebs 4 Evincet ulmos: tum violaria et Myrtus et omnis copia narium Spargent olivetis odorem Fertilibus domino priori; 8 Tum spissa ramis laurea fervidos Excludet ictus. Non ita Romuli Praescriptum et intonsi Catonis Auspiciis veterumque norma. 12 Privatus illis census erat brevis, Commune magnum: nulla decempedis Metata privatis opacam Porticus excipiebat Arcton. 16 Nec fortuitum spernere caespitem Leges sinebant, oppida publico Sumptu iubentes et deorum Templa novo decorare saxo. 20

 HORACE, _Odes_, II. Xv. 

+Argument. + ‘Our palaces and fish-ponds and ornamental gardens aresupplanting the cultivation of corn and vines and olives. +This is notthe spirit of Romulus or of Cato. + Their rule was private thrift, publicmagnificence; private houses of turf, public buildings and temples ofhewn stone. ’ --W. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Iam+ = _presently_. 1-2. +regiae moles+ = _princely piles_. +moles+, lit. _masses_, of _huge buildings_. 2-4. +undique . .. Lacu+ = _and fish-ponds_ (+stagna+) _of wider extent than the L. Lake will be sights to see_ (+visentur+). --Wickham. 4. +platanus caelebs+ = _the bachelor plane_, so called because vines were not _wedded to it_ (i. E. Trained upon it). --Gow. 6. +omnis copia narium+ = _all that is sweet to smell_. Lit. _all the fulness of the nostrils_. 10. +ictus+ (sc. _solis_). The point is that formerly trees were stripped to admit the sun to the vines and olives: nowadays the sun is excluded. --Gow. 11. +intonsi+ (= _antiqui_) = _old-fashioned_. Cf. Cic. ’s use of _barbatus_. 13. +census erat brevis+ = _list of property was short_. 14. +commune+ (= τὸ κοινόν) = _the common (public) stock_. 14-15. +decempedis metata privatis+ = _measured with ten-foot rods for private owners_. In old days the +porticūs+ were always _publicae_. 17. +fortuitum caespitem+ = _the chance-cut (handy) turf_. 20. +novo saxo+ = _with fresh-hewn stone_, i. E. Hewn on purpose. --W. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Livy xxxix. 6. 40. 41; Sallust, _Catiline_ 12,  13. 

‘Cato saw the greatness of Rome in the olden time, and he endeavouredwithout success to bring this old time back. ’ --Ihne. 

C46

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B. C. 

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B. C. _ (1)

Movebat imperii maiestas, gloria viri, ante omnia aetas, quod maiorsexaginta annis iuvenum munia in parte praecipua laboris periculiquecapessebat. Intervallum, quod inter caetratos at phalanges erat, implevit legio, atque aciem hostium interrupit. A {5} tergo caetratiserat, frontem adversus clipeatos habebat: chalcaspides appellabantur. Secundam legionem L. Albinus consularis ducere adversus leucaspidemphalangem iussus; ea media acies hostium fuit. In dextrum cornu, undecirca fluvium {10} commissum proclium erat, elephantos inducit et alassociorum; et hinc primum fuga Macedonum est orta. Nam sicut pleraquenova commenta mortalium in verbis vim habent, experiendo, cum agi, nonquemadmodum agatur edisseri oportet, sine ullo {15} effectu evanescunt, ita tum elephantorum impetum sustinere non poterant, et commentaMacedonum nomen tantum sine usu fuerunt. Elephantorum impetum subsecutisunt socii nominis Latini, pepuleruntque laevum cornu. {20}

 LIVY, xliv. 41. 

+Context. + Perseus, son of Philip, became King of Macedonia on the deathof his father in 179 B. C. He did all he could to prepare for theinevitable struggle with Rome by strengthening Macedonia, posing as theLiberator of Greece, and forming marriage alliances with Seleucus ofSyria (the successor of Antiochus), and Prusias of Bithynia. In 174B. C. , the Romans were informed that Perseus was secretly negotiatingwith Carthage, and after fruitless embassies war was declared. TheSenate, after three years of unsuccessful warfare (171-168 B. C. ), appointed L. Aemilius Paulus (son of the hero who died at Cannae) to thesupreme command in Macedonia. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +caetratos+ = _Targeteers_, armed with the _small_ round shield. 5-7. +A tergo . .. Habebat+ (sc. +legio prima+) = _the (first) Legion thus took the Targeteers in the rear, while it faced towards the Shieldmen_. --Rawlins. 6. +clipeatos+ = _Shieldmen_, armed with the _large_ round shield. 7. +chalcaspides+ = _Brazen Shields_, Right Division of phalanx. 9. +leucaspidem+ = _White Shields_, Left Division of phalanx. 10. +in dextrum cornu+ (sc. +Romanum+), i. E. Nearest to the sea. 13-15. +commenta . .. Oportet+ = lit. _the contrivances of men, though in theory_ (+in verbis+) _they had some importance_ (+vim+) _yet upon trial_ (+experiendo+) _when there is need of action and not of discussion_ (+edisseri+) _how to act_.  .  .  . 17. +commenta Macedonum. + Perh. With reference to Perseus’ contrivances (e. G. By the use of _dummy_ elephants) to prepare his men and horses to make a stand against _real_ elephants. ]

C47

THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR, 171-168 B. C. 

_Pydna (Aemilius Paulus), 168 B. C. _ (2)

In medio secunda legio immissa dissipavit phalangem; neque ullaevidentior causa victoriae fuit, quam quod multa passim proelia erant, quae fluctuantem turbarunt primo, deinde disiecerunt phalangem, cuiusconfertae et intentis horrentes {5} hastis intolerabiles vires sunt; sicarptim aggrediendo circumagere immobilem longitudine et gravitatehastam cogas, confusa strue implicantur: si vero aut ab latere aut abtergo aliquid tumultus increpuit, ruinae modo turbantur. Sicut tumadversus catervatim {10} incurrentes Romanos et interrupta multifariamacie obviam ire cogebantur, et Romani, quacumque data intervalla essent, insinuabant ordines suos.  .  .  . Diu phalanx a fronte, a lateribus, abtergo caesa est; postremo, qui ex hostium manibus elapsi erant, {15}inermes ad mare fugientes, quidam aquam etiam ingressi, manus ad eos, qui in classe erant tendentes, suppliciter vitam orabant; et cum scaphasconcurrere undique ab navibus cernerent, ad excipiendos sese venirerati, ut caperent potius quam occiderent, {20} longius in aquam, quidametiam natantes, progressi sunt. Sed cum hostiliter e scaphiscaederentur, retro, qui poterant, nando repetentes terram, in aliamfoediorem pestem incidebant. Elephanti enim, ab rectoribus ad litusacti, exeuntes obterebant {25} elidebantque. 

 LIVY, xliv. 41, 42. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +In medio . .. Immissa+ = _On the centre the second legion charged_ (+immissa+), i. E. Into the interstices of the phalanx, which was not preserving its usual close order. --Rawlins. 4-6. +fluctuantem . .. Vires sunt+ = _first demoralised the phalanx so as to make it waver_, (+fluctuantem+), _and then shattered it. Its (aggressive) force, so long as it keeps close order and bristles with couched_ (+intentis+) _spears, is irresistible_ (+intolerabiles+). 6. +carptim aggrediendo+ = _by repeated harassing attacks_. 10. +ruinae modo+ = _in hopeless confusion_. --R. 17. +classe. + The Roman fleet under Octavius was co-operating with the army. ]

+Results of the Battle+. Perseus was captured, and his kingdom wasdivided into four independent parts. The Macedonian phalanx had foughtits last great battle. 

+Character of Paulus+. ‘He was a model of the Roman of the best time. Hewas not, like his contemporary Cato, a onesided worshipper of everythingold; but he was a Conservative in the best sense of the word, anxious topreserve old institutions, but at the same time to improve them. ’--Ihne. 

C48

THIRD PUNIC WAR, 149-146 B. C. 

_Destruction of Carthage, 146 B. C. _

Manilio deinde consule terra marique fervebat obsidio. Operti portus, nudatus est primus et sequens, iam et tertius murus, cum tamen Byrsa, quod nomen arci fuit, quasi altera civitas resistebat. Quamvisprofligato urbis excidio tamen fatale Africae nomen {5} Scipionumvidebatur. Igitur in alium Scipionem conversa respublica finem bellireposcebat. Sed quem ad modum maxime mortiferi morsus solent essemorientium bestiarum, sic plus negoti fuit cum semiruta Carthagine quamcum integra. Compulsis {10} in unam arcem hostibus portum quoque mariRomanus obstruxerat. Illi alterum sibi portum ab alia urbis partefoderunt, nec ut fugerent; sed qua nemo illos nec evadere possecredebat, inde quasi enata subito classis erupit, cum interim iamdiebus, {15} iam noctibus nova aliqua moles, nova machina, novaperditorum hominum manus quasi ex obruto incendio subita de cineribusflamma prodibat. Deploratis novissime rebus triginta sex milia virorumse dederunt quod minus credas--duce Hasdrubale. {20}

 FLORUS, II. Xv. 11-17 (sel. ). 

+Context. + An Embassy was sent from Rome in 157 B. C. To inquire into theaffairs of Africa. Among its members was M. Porcius Cato, who, astonished and alarmed at the flourishing condition of Carthage, returned to Rome with the firm conviction that Carthage must bedestroyed--_delenda est Carthago_. A pretext was soon found in the war(151 B. C. ) between Carthage and Masinissa, King of Numidia, the ally ofRome. Though the Carthaginians surrendered all their arms and munitionsof war, Rome declared that they would have to leave their city andsettle ten miles from the sea. The Carthaginians resolved to die ratherthan give up the sacred soil of their country. 

 [Linenotes: 5. +profligato+ = _almost finished_. 6. +in alium Scipionem+, i. E. P. Corn. Scipio Aemilianus Africanus Minor, the younger son of Aemilius Paulus (of Pydna) and adopted by P. Scipio, the son of the conqueror of Hannibal. 12. +alterum portum+, i. E. They pierced the narrow strip of land separating the round naval port (Cothon) from the sea. 18. +deploratis+ = _was looked upon as lost_, lit. _wept for bitterly_. 20. +duce Hasdrubale:+ ‘Hasdrubal seems to have deserved the name of _the last Carthaginian_ in the best sense of the word, as a representative of the intensity of the strength, endurance, and patriotism of his race. ’ --Ihne. ]

‘The plough was drawn over the site of destroyed Carthage, and a solemncurse was pronounced against anyone who should ever undertake to build anew town on that spot. ’ --Ihne. 

+Africa made a Roman Province. +

C49

WAR WITH ANDRISCUS AND THE ACHAEANS, 148-146 B. C. 

_Destruction of Corinth (L. Mummius Achaicus), 146 B. C. _

Eodem anno, quo Carthago concidit, L. Mummius Corinthum post annosDCCCCLII, quam ab Alete Hippotis filio erat condita, funditus eruit. Uterque imperator devictae a se gentis nomine honoratus, alterAfricanus, alter appellatus est Achaicus; nec {5} quisquam ex novishominibus prior Mummio cognomen virtute partum vindicavit. Diversiimperatoribus mores, diversa fuere studia: quippe Scipio tam elegansliberalium studiorum omnisque doctrinae et auctor et admirator fuit, utPolybium Panaetiumque, {10} praecellentes ingenio viros, domimilitiaeque secum habuerit. Neque enim quisquam hoc Scipione elegantiusintervalla negotiorum otio dispunxit semperque aut belli aut pacisserviit artibus: semper inter arma ac studia versatus aut corpuspericulis {15} aut animum disciplinis exercuit. Mummius tam rudis fuit, ut capta Corintho cum maximorum artificum perfectas manibus tabulas acstatuas in Italiam portandas locaret, iuberet praedici conducentibus, sieas perdidissent, novas eos reddituros. {20}

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, i. 13. 

+Context. + In 149 B. C. An adventurer named Andriscus claimed to bePhilip, the son of Perseus, and mastered Macedonia and part of Thessaly. He totally defeated the praetor Juventius, but in 148 B. C. His army wasrouted and himself taken prisoner by Q. Caecilius Metellus. The Romans, _no longer needing the help of Greek troops_, determined to break up theAchaean League. A last desperate struggle for freedom ensued, but theGreeks were easily defeated (146 B. C. ) by L. Mummius on the Isthmus, andCorinth itself was plundered and destroyed. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +quam . .. Condita. + Aletes, son of Hippotes and a descendant of Heracles, is said to have taken possession of Corinth by the help of the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and therefore named the city Διὸς Κόρινθος. 10. +Panaetium+, a native of Rhodes and a celebrated Stoic philosopher, settled in Rome, where he became the intimate friend of Laelius and Scipio Africanus Minor. 13. +dispunxit+ = _he devoted, gave up_ (lit. _marked off_). 19. +locaret+ = _he hired_ (lit. _place out_, i. E. _give out on contract_). +conducentibus+ = _to the contractors_. ]

+The Destruction of Corinth. + ‘The flames which consumed Miletus(destroyed by the Persians 494 B. C. ) and Athens (burnt by Xerxes 480B. C. ) were the signal for the great rising of the people, the dawn of amagnificent day of Greek splendour: after the fall of Corinth came thelong dark night. ’ --Ihne. 

+Macedonia made a Roman Province. Greece placed under the control of theRoman governor of Macedonia+. 

C50

WAR WITH VIRIATHUS IN SPAIN, 149-140 B. C. 

_The Lusitanian Hannibal. _

Sed tota certaminum moles cum Lusitanis fuit et Numantinis. Quippe solisgentium Hispaniae duces contigerunt. Lusitanos Viriathus erexit, vircalliditatis acerrimae. Qui ex venatore latro, ex latrone subito duxatque imperator et, si fortuna {5} cessisset, Hispaniae Romulus, noncontentus libertatem suorum defendere, per quattuordecim annos omniacitra ultraque Hiberum et Tagum igni ferroque populatus, castra etiampraetoria et praesidia aggressus Claudium Unimanum paene adinternecionem {10} exercitus cecidit et insignia trabeis et fascibusnostris quae ceperat in montibus suis tropaea fixit. Tandem eum iamFabius Maximus consul oppresserat; sed a successore Popilio violatavictoria est. Quippe qui conficiendae rei cupidus, fractum ducem etextrema {15} deditionis agitantem per fraudem et insidias et domesticospercussores aggressus hanc hosti gloriam dedit ut videretur aliter vincinon posse. 

 FLORUS, II. Xvii. 13-17 (sel. ). 

+Context. + After the defeat of Perseus (168 B. C. ) and before theoutbreak of the third Punic War (149 B. C. ) a suitable opportunity seemedto present itself to Rome for continuing the interrupted conquest ofSpain; but ‘for eight long years Viriathus, although a barbarian and ofhumble origin, defied the armies of Rome, and thereby secured forhimself a position in history almost equal to that of Hannibal andMithridates. ’ Ihne. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +cum Lusitanis. + The Lusitani (S.  of the R. Tagus = mod. Portugal, and part of Estremadura and Toledo) were not finally subdued till after the capture of Numantia by Scipio in 133 B. C. 6. +cessisset+ (= _concessisset_) = _had permitted. _ 10-12. +Claudium Unimanum . .. Fixit+, i. E. In 147 B. C. ‘The captured fasces of the lictors were exhibited, with other trophies (e. G. +trabeis+, l. 11), far and wide on the Spanish mountains. ’ --Ihne. 13. +Fabius Maximus consul+, i. E. Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who allowed himself to be decoyed into an ambush 141 B. C. , and was compelled to grant an honourable peace, which Rome soon found a pretext for breaking. 17. +percussores+ = _assassins_, lit. _strikers_ (_per + cutio_ = _quatio_). Cf. The fate of Sertorius, 72 B. C. ]

+The War with Viriathus. + ‘It was sad and disgraceful for the Romanarms, but in a far higher degree for Roman morals. It sowed, moreover, the seeds of the Numantine War, in which both the warlike ability andthe moral virtues of the Roman nation appear more deteriorated than evenin the war with Viriathus. ’ --Ihne. 

C51

NUMANTINE WAR, 143-133 B. C. 

_Destruction of Numantia, 133 B. C. _

Tanti esse exercitum quanti imperatorem vere proditum est. Sic redactoin disciplinam milite a Scipione commissa acies, quodque nemo visurum seumquam speraverat, factum ut fugientes Numantinos quisquam videret. Dedere etiam se volebant, {5} si toleranda viris imperarentur. Cum fossaatque lorica quattuorque castris circumdatos fames premeret, a duceorantes proelium, ut tamquam viros occideret, ubi non impetrabant, placuit eruptio. Sic conserta manu plurimi occisi, et cum urgueret {10}fames, novissime consilium fugae sedit; sed hoc quoque ruptis equorumcingulis uxores ademere, summo scelere per amorem. Itaque deploratoexitu in ultimam rabiem furoremque conversi, postremo Rhoecogene duce sesuos patriam ferro veneno {15} subiecto igne undique peregerunt. Mactefortissimam et meo iudicio beatissimam in ipsis malis civitatem!Asseruit cum fide socios, populum orbis terrarum viribus fultum sua manuaetate tam longa sustinuit. Novissime maximo duce oppressa civitasnullum de {20} se gaudium hosti reliquit. Unus enim vir Numantinus nonfuit qui in catenis duceretur; praeda, ut de pauperrimis, nulla: armaipsa cremaverunt. Triumphus fuit tantum de nomine. 

 FLORUS, II. Xviii. 11-17 (sel. ). 

+Context. + In 143 B. C. The Celtiberians (of Middle Spain), encouraged bythe successes of the Lusitanians, took up arms once more. Their mostimportant town was Numantia, situated near the sources of the R. Durius(Douro), strongly fortified by nature and by art. Consul after consulfailed to take it, until in 134 B. C. Scipio Africanus Minor, theconqueror of Carthage, was sent out to Spain to reduce the stubborncity. 

 [Linenotes: 2-3. +Sic redacto . .. A Scipione. + ‘Scipio’s first task, when he arrived in Spain, was to accustom the army which he found there, once more to Roman discipline. Luxury and indulgence were rife, and cowardice--the most unroman of all vices--had begun to creep in. ’ --Ihne. 7. +lorica+ = _a breastwork_, serving as _a screen_. Usu. = _a cuirass_. 11. +sedit+ = _was decided on_, lit. _settled_. 16. +Macte+ = _a blessing on_ or _hail to thee_. +Mactus+ prob. From √μακ, e. G. In μάκ-αρ = _blessed_, but cf. _mag-nus_. 18. +Asseruit+ = _it protected_. +assero+ (_ad + sero_) = lit. _join-to_. ]

+Destruction of Numantia. + Scipio, of his own accord, razed the town tothe ground, and received the added surname of +Numantinus+. 

+Roman Province in Spain. +

C52

_Rome the Invincible. _

 Dixitque tandem perfidus Hannibal: ‘Cervi, luporum praeda rapacium, Sectamur ultro, quos opimus Fallere et effugere est triumphus. 52 Gens, quae cremato fortis ab Ilio Iactata Tuscis aequoribus sacra Natosque maturosque patres Pertulit Ausonias ad urbes, 56 Duris ut ilex tonsa bipennibus Nigrae feraci frondis in Algido, Per damna, per caedes ab ipso Ducit opes animumque ferro 60 Non Hydra secto corpore firmior Vinci dolentem crevit in Herculem, Monstrumve submisere Colchi Maius Echioniaeve Thebae. 64 Merses profundo: pulchrior evenit; Luctere: multa proruet integrum Cum laude victorem geretque Proelia coniugibus loquenda. ’ 68

 HORACE, _Odes_, IV. Iv. 49-68. 

 [Linenotes: 51. +ultro+ = _aggressively, needlessly_. --Wickham. 51-52. +opimus triumphus+ = _a rare_ (lit. _rich, noble_) _triumph_. Cf. _spolia opima_. 53-56. ‘This stanza is a _résumé_ of the story of the _Aeneid_. ’ --W. 53. +gens+ (sc. +illa+), i. E. The Roman stock. 57-60. ‘The idea of this stanza is that their very calamities only gave them fresh heart and vigour. They rise like the Phoenix from its pyre. ’ --W. 58. +frondis+ with +feraci+. Cf. _fertilis frugum_. 59-60. +ab ipso . .. Ferro+ = _from the very edge of the steel itself, the holm-oak_ (= _the Roman stock_) _draws fresh power and spirit_. 61-62. Cf. The saying of Pyrrhus, recorded by Floras i. 18, ‘I see that I was born under the constellation of Hercules, since so many heads of enemies, that were cut off, arise upon me afresh out of their own blood, as if from the Lernaean serpent. ’ 63-64. I. E. Of the armed warriors which sprang from the dragon’s teeth sown by Jason at Colchis or by Cadmus at Thebes. 63. +submisere+ = _produced, raised_. 64. +Echioniae Thebae. + Echion was one of the five survivors of the Σπαρτοί (sown men). He helped Cadmus to found Thebes. 65. +Merses+ (= +si mersaris+) = _plunge it if you will_. +evenit+ = _it emerges (comes forth)_. 66-67. +multa cum laude+ = _amid loud applause_, of a feat in a wrestling match. --W. 68. +coniugibus+ = i. _by Roman wives_ or ii. _by Carthaginian widows_. So Conington, ‘Whose story widow’d wives shall tell. ’]

CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, AND FOREIGN WARS, ENDING IN REVOLUTION 133-44 B. C. 

B1

THE GRACCHI. 

Nam postquam Tiberius et C. Gracchus, quorum maiores Punico atque aliisbellis multum rei publicae addiderant, vindicare plebem in libertatem etpaucorum celera patefacere coepere, nobilitas noxia atque eo perculsa, modo per socios et nomen Latinum, {5} interdum per equites Romanos, quosspes societatis a plebe dimoverat, Gracchorum actionibus obviam ierat, et primo Tiberium, dein paucos post annos eadem ingredientem Gaium, tribunum alterum, alterum triumvirum coloniis deducendis, cum M. {10}Fulvio Flacco ferro necaverat. Et sane Gracchis cupidine victoriae haudsatis moderatus animus fuit. Sed bono vinci satius est quam malo moreiniuriam vincere. Igitur ea victoria nobilitas ex lubidine sua usamultos mortales ferro aut fuga exstinxit plusque {15} in reliquum sibitimoris quam potentiae addidit. Quae res plerumque magnas civitatespessum dedit, dum alteri alteros vincere quovis modo et victos acerbiusulcisci volunt. 

 SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 42. 

 [Linenotes: 1-3. +quorum maiores . .. Addiderant+, e. G. Their grandfather P. Scipio Africanus Maior, and their father Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (in Spain and Sardinia). 3-4. +paucorum scelera . .. Coepere. + (i) Tib. Gracchus by his Agrarian Law tried to counteract the selfish land-grabbing of the ruling class (in excess of the 500 _iugera_ limit of the Licinian Laws, 367 B. C. ). (ii) C. Gracchus exposed the corrupt Senatorian Courts, transferred their judicial power to the Equites, and carried the Sempronian Law, ‘one of the cornerstones of individual liberty. ’ 5. +per socios . .. Latinum+, by working on Roman jealousy against the Italians, for whom equality was claimed. 6. +spes societatis+, i. E. The hope of sharing with the nobility in office, and in provincial appointments. 10. +triumvirum c. D. +, one of the three Commissioners for establishing Colonies of Roman citizens on the _ager publicus_. 11. +Fulvio Flacco+, slain with C. Gracchus, 121 B. C. 17. +pessum dedit+ = _has destroyed_. _pessum_ (prob. ) = _pedis_ + _versum_ = _towards the feet, to the ground_, cf. _pessum ire_. ]

+The aim of the Gracchi. + ‘Their object was to reduce the excessivepower of the nobility, and to make the sovereignty of the people, whichhad become merely nominal, a reality. ’ --Ihne. 

+Their political mistake. + ‘Their error consisted in the belief thatsuch a change was possible by returning to the simple forms of the oldComitia. They overlooked the necessity of +remodelling the Roman peopleitself+ by giving the popular assemblies a form which would in realitymake them represent the people. ’ --Ihne. 

B2

CICERO ON THE GRACCHI. 

A. _On the Death of Tiberius Gracchus, 133 B. C. _

Nec plus Africanus, singularis et vir et imperator, in exscindendaNumantia rei publicae profuit quam eodem tempore P. Nasica privatus, cum Ti. Gracchum interemit. 

 _De Off. _ i. 76. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +Numantia+, destroyed by P. Scipio Africanus Minor Numantinus, 133 B. C. 3. +P. Nasīca+, a partisan leader of the Senate. +privatus+ = _not in office_. Cicero speaks very differently of the Gracchi when it suits his purpose, e. G. In _de lege agraria_, ii. § 10, _duos (Gracchos) clarissimos, ingeniosissimos, amantissimos plebei Romanae viros . .. Quorum consiliis, sapientia, legibus multas esse video partes constitutas_. ]

B. _On the Lex Frumentaria of C. Gracchus, 123 B. C. _

Et quidem C. Gracchus, cum largitiones maximas {5} fecisset eteffudisset aerarium, verbis tamen defendebat aerarium. Quid verbaaudiam, cum facta videam? L. Piso ille Frugi semper contra legemfrumentariam dixerat. Is lege lata consularis ad frumentum accipiendumvenerat. Animum advertit {10} Gracchus in contione Pisonem stantem:quaerit audiente populo Romano qui sibi constet, cum ea lege frumentumpetat, quam dissuaserit. ‘Nolim’ inquit ‘mea bona, Gracche, tibi viritimdividere libeat, sed si facias, partem petam. ’ Parumne declaravit vir{15} gravis et sapiens lege Sempronia patrimonium publicum dissipari?Lege orationes Gracchi, patronum aerari esse dices. 

 _Tusc. Disput. _ iii. 20, 48. 

 [Linenotes: 8. +L. Piso ille Frugi+ = L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (the man of _worth_), a convinced and honourable opponent of C. Gracchus. 8-9. +legem frumentariam+, by which corn was sold to Roman citizens at about half the market price. ‘One of the worst measures ever proposed by a well-meaning statesman. ’ --Ihne. 12. +qui+ = _how_, old abl. Of _qui_. ]

C. _On C. Gracchus as an Orator. _

Sed ecce in manibus vir et praestantissimo ingenio et flagranti studioet doctus a puero, C. Gracchus. Noli enim putare quemquam. Brute, pleniorem et uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse. 

 _Brutus_, 125. 

 [Linenote: 20. +doctus a puero. + CORNELIA MATER GRACCHORUM (inscribed upon her statue erected by the Roman people), the daughter of the Conqueror of Zama, was mainly responsible for their training and education; so Cic. _Brut. _ 104 _Fuit Tib. Gracchus diligentia matris a puero doctus et Graecis literis eruditus_. ‘From her they had received that sensitive nature and that sympathy with the weak and suffering, which animated their political action. ’ --Ihne. ]

B3

THE JUGURTHINE WAR, 111-106 B. C. 

_The Betrayal of Jugurtha, 106 B. C. _

Postea, tempore et loco constituto, in colloquium uti de pace veniretur, Bocchus Sullam modo, modo Iugurthae legatum appellare, benigne habere, idem ambobus polliceri. Illi pariter laeti ac spei bonae pleni esse. Sednocte ea, quae proxuma fuit ante {5} diem colloquio decretum, Maurus, adhibitis amicis ac statim immutata voluntate remotis, dicitur secumipse multa agitavisse, voltu et oculis pariter atque animo varius: quaescilicet tacente ipso occulta pectoris patefecisse. Tamen postremoSullam accersi {10} iubet et ex illius sententia Numidae insidiastendit. Deinde ubi dies advenit et ei nuntiatum est Iugurtham haudprocul abesse, cum paucis amicis et quaestore nostro quasi obviushonoris causa procedit in tumulum facillumum visu insidiantibus. Eodem{15} Numida cum plerisque necessariis suis inermis, uti dictum erat, accedit; ac statim signo dato undique simul ex insidiis invaditur. Ceteri obtruncati, Iugurtha Suilae vinctus traditur et ab eo ad Mariumdeductus est. {20}

 SALLUST, _Jugurtha_, 113. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +Bocchus+, King of Mauretania, and father-in-law of Jugurtha, coveted the West of Numidia, and was ready to accept it either from the Romans or from Jugurtha, as the price of his alliance. +Sullam+, appointed Quaestor 107 B. C. By Marius, who superseded Metellus in the conduct of the Jugurthine War. 9. +quae scilicet . .. Patefecisse+, i. E. The external signs of his irresolution, --the calling and then dismissing his people (+adhibitis . .. Remotis+, ll. 6,  7), and the changes of his countenance (+voltu . .. Varius+, ll. 8,  9). +Scilicet+ is here used with the Infinitive +patefecisse+, the verbal sense of the word (= _scire_ + _licet_) being prominent. 10. +accersi+ (= _arcessiri_), frequent in Sallust. 16. +necessariis+ (_necesse_) = _friends_. Cf. ἀναγκαῖοι (ἀνάγκη). 19. +Iugurtha Sullae . .. Traditur. + Sulla is said to have been so proud of this stratagem that he had the scene engraved upon a signet-ring, an act of vainglory which estranged Marius from him. (Plutarch, _Sulla_,  3. )]

+Jugurtha. + ‘Having resisted the whole power of the great Republic forsix years, having kept his ground against the best generals of the time, against a Metellus, a Marius, and a Sulla, he was deluded by treacherouspromises of peace and betrayed by his own ally and father-in-law. ’--Ihne. 

B4

A. _Arpinum--Birthplace of Cicero and Marius. _

 Hic novus Arpinas, ignobilis et modo Romae 237 Municipalis eques, galeatum ponit ubique Praesidium attonitis et in omni monte laborat. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sed Roma parentem, 243 Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit. Arpinas alius Volscorum in monte solebat 245 Poscere mercedes alieno lassus aratro, Nodosam post haec frangebat vertice vitem, Si lentus pigra muniret castra dolabra; Hic tamen et Cimbros et summa pericula rerum Excipit et solus trepidantem protegit urbem. 250

 JUVENAL, _Sat. _ viii. 237-239, 243-250. 

 [Linenotes: 239. +in omni monte+, i. E. In every part of Rome, on each of the seven hills. 244. +patrem patriae:+ under the Empire the title _pater patriae_ became a formal one, always accorded to the new Emperor. +libera+ = _while yet free_, emphatic. The State was no longer free when Augustus received this title, 2 B. C. --Duff. 247. +frangebat vertice vitem+ = _he had the vine-switch (rattan) broken on his head_, i. E. Served as a common soldier. --D. 248. +dolabra+ = half-hatchet for cutting stakes, and half-pickaxe for digging the fossa. For +dolabra+, cf. _Dolabella_. 249. +Cimbros+, annihilated by Marius and Catulus near Vercellae, 101 B. C. 250. +Excipit+ = _faced_ (lit. _is ready to receive_); metaphor from field-sports. --D. ]

B. _From a poem by Cicero on his fellow-townsman Marius. _

 Hic Iovis altisoni subito pinnata satelles Arboris e trunco serpentis saucia morsu Surrigit ipsa feris transfigens unguibus anguem Semianimum et varia graviter cervice micantem. 4 . . . . . . . Hanc ubi praepetibus pennis lapsuque volantem Conspexit Marius, divini numinis augur, Faustaque signa suae laudis reditusque notavit, Partibus intonuit caeli pater ipse sinistris: Sic aquilae clarum firmavit Iuppiter omen. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Iovis pinnata satelles+, i. E. The Eagle. Cf. Pindar, _Pyth. _ i.  6: εὕδει δ’ ἀνὰ σκάπτῳ (= σκήπτρῳ) Διὸς αἰετός, _and sleeps on the staff of Zeus his eagle_. 3. +Surrigit+ (= _surgit_) = _raises up_; very rare in this sense. The _v. L. _ +Sūbigit+ (for _sŭbigit_) = _carries aloft_. ]

Compare Plutarch’s story of the eagle’s nest, with seven young ones init, which fell into the lap of Marius when a boy, predicting (so thediviners said) that Marius would be seven times Consul. 

B5

_The Annihilation of the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 102 B. C. _

Cimbri et Teutones ab extremis Germaniae profugi, cum terras eoruminundasset Oceanus, novas sedes toto orbe quaerebant, exclusique etGallia et Hispania cum in Italiam demigrarent, misere legatos in castraSilani, inde ad Senatum {5} petentes ut populus Martius aliquid sibiterrae daret. Sed quas daret terras populus Romanus, agrariis legibusinter se dimicaturus? Repulsi igitur, quod nequiverant precibus, armispetere coeperunt. Sed nec primum impetum barbarorum Silanus, nec {10}secundum Mallius, nec tertium Caepio sustinere potuerunt: omnes fugati, exuti castris. Actum erat, nisi Marius illi saeculo contigisset.  .  .  . Ille mira statim velocitate occupatis compendiis praevenit hostem, prioresque Teutones sub ipsis Alpium radicibus {15} adsecutus in locoquem Aquas Sextias vocant, proelio oppressit. Vallem fluviumque mediumhostes tenebant, et nostris aquarum nulla erat copia. Consultone idegerit imperator an errorem in consilium verterit, dubium; certenecessitate acta virtus {20} victoriae causa fuit. Nam flagitante aquamexercitu, ‘Si viri estis’ inquit, ‘en, illic habetis. ’ Itaque tantoardore pugnatum est, ea caedes hostium fuit ut victor Romanus cruentoflumine non plus aquae biberit quam sanguinis barbarorum. {25}

 FLORUS, III. Iii. 1-9 (sel). 

 [Linenotes: 5. +Silani+ = M. Junius Silanus, defeated by Cimbri, 109 B. C. 11. +Mallius--Caepio+, defeated by Cimbrians at Arausio, on the Rhone, 105 B. C. Plutarch, _Lucullus_ 27, says: ‘The 6th Oct. , on which day the battle was fought, was marked in the calendar as a black day, like the fatal day of the Allia, 390 B. C. ’ 12. +Actum erat+, sc. _de republica_. 14. +compendiis+ = _short ways_; cf. Our _compendium_ = _an abridgement_. 16. +Aquas Sextias+, founded by Sextius Calvinus 122 B. C. = Aix, 18 miles N. Of Marseilles. 23. +caedes hostium. + 150, 000 (Vell. ) and 200, 000 (Liv. Ep. Lxviii. ). ‘By the great victories of Aquae Sextiae and of Vercellae (over the Cimbri, 101 B. C. ), the movement of the German races southward was for the present stopped. Rome was saved, and the saviour of Rome was Marius, the champion of the people. ’ --Ihne. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Propert. IV. Iii. 41-44; Livy Ep. Lxviii. 

+References. + Plutarch, _Marius_, 15. Ihne, _Hist. Rome_, vol. V. Pp. 98-105. 

B6

MARIUS, 157-86 B. C. 

A. _His Flight from Sulla: Consul for the 7th time. _

 Atque aliquis magno quaerens exempla timori, ‘Non alios, ’ inquit, ‘motus tum fata parabant, Cum post Teutonicos victor Libycosque triumphos Exsul limosa Marius caput abdidit ulva. 70 Stagna avidi texere soli laxaeque paludes Depositum, Fortuna, tuum: mox vincula ferri Exedere senem longusque in carcere paedor. Consul et eversa felix moriturus in urbe Poenas ante dabat scelerum. Mors ipsa refugit 75 Saepe virum, frustraque hosti concessa potestas. Sanguinis invisi: primo qui caedis in ictu[35] Deriguit ferrumque manu torpente remisit; Viderat immensum tenebroso in carcere lumen Terribilesque deos scelerum Mariumque futurum 80 Audieratque pavens: “Fas haec contingere non est Colla tibi: debet multas his legibus aevi Ante suam mortes: vanum depone furorem. ” Si libet ulcisci deletae funera gentis, Hunc, Cimbri, servate senem. ’ 85

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 67-85. 

 [Footnote 35: Postgate, _actu_. ]

 [Linenotes: 67. +exempla timori+ = _precedents to hear out his fears_. --Haskins. 70. +Exsul. + 88-7 B. C. For details see Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-40. 72. +Fortuna+, i. E. The _evil_ destiny of Rome, protecting him because the gods were angry with Rome. Cf. 16-17 _debet . .. Mortes_. 73. +in carcere+, i. E. At Minturnae, S. E. Of Latium. There were extensive marshes in the neighbourhood. +paedor+ = _filth_. 82. +legibus aevi+ = _the laws that govern time_ = _fatis_. --H. ]

B. _Marius outlived his fame. _

 Quid illo cive tulisset Natura in terris, quid Roma beatius umquam, Si circumducto captivorum agmine et omni 280 Bellorum pompa animam exhalasset opimam, Cum de Teutonico vellet descendere curru?

 JUVENAL, _Sat. _ x. 278-282. 

_Marius outlived his powers and his reputation. _

‘Had he now died, he would have gone down to posterity as one of thegreatest men of his people, as a second Romulus or Camillus, unstainedwith any blood save that of foreign foes. ’ --Ihne. 

+Parallel Passages. + Ov. _P. Ep. _ iv. 3. 45-48; Juv. X. 276-278. 

+References. + Plut. _Marius_, caps. 38-end. Ihne, vol. Iv. Pp. 336-7, vol. V. Pp. 111-12. 

B7

_Cicero on Civil Strife. _

Etenim recordamini, Quirites, omnes civiles dissensiones, non solum easquas audistis, sed et has quas vosmetipsi meministis atque vidistis. L. Sulla P. Sulpicium oppressit: ex Urbe eiecit C. Marium, custodem huiusurbis, multosque fortes viros partim {5} eiecit ex civitate, partiminteremit. Cn. Octavius consul armis ex Urbe collegam suum expulit:omnis his locus acervis corporum et civium sanguine redundavit. Superavit postea Cinna cum Mario: tum vero, clarissimis virisinterfectis, lumina civitatis {10} exstincta sunt. Ultus est huiusvictoriae crudelitatem postea Sulla: ne dici quidem opus est, quantademinutione civium et quanta calamitate reipublicae.  .  .  . Atque illaetamen omnes dissensiones, quae non ad delendam, sed ad commutandamrempublicam {15} pertinebant--non illi nullam esse rempublicam, sed inea quae esset se esse principes, neque hanc urbem conflagrare, sed se inhac urbe florere voluerunt--eius modi fuerunt, ut non reconciliationeconcordiae, sed internecione civium diiudicatae sint. {20}

 CICERO, _In Cat. _ iii. 10. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +P. Sulpicium+, distinguished orator, bought over by Marius. As Tribunus Plebis 88 B. C. Carried the Leges Sulpiciae. 6. +Cn. Octavius+, one of Sulla’s chief supporters. Consul 87 B. C. Expelled his colleague Cinna. Murdered in his curule chair. 9-11. +Superavit . .. Exstincta sunt+, i. E. 87-6 B. C. The Reign of Terror. Marius Consul for the 7th time. Cf. Vell. Pat. Ii. 22 ‘Nihil illa victoria fuisset crudelius, nisi mox Sullana esset secuta. ’ 10. +lumina civitatis+, e. G. The Consuls Cn. Octavius and L. Merula; Q. Catulus, the conqueror (with Marius) in the Cimbric War; the orator M. Antonius; the brothers L. And C. Caesar. 11-13. The victims of the Sullanian proscriptions. Cf. Vell. Pat. Ii. 28 ‘Primus ille (Sulla), et utinam ultimus, exemplum proscriptionis invenit. ’]

+Parallel Passages. + Horace, _Epodes_ vii. And xvi. 1-14. 

+The Sullanian Proscriptions. + Sulla was not like Marius swayed byfeelings of revenge alone. His main object was the public good, which inhis conviction was to be realised by a return to the older institutionsof the republic. This he believed could be accomplished only by theutter annihilation of his opponents. The Proscriptions were not howeverintended to be an encouragement to indiscriminate murder, but rather abarrier against the rage of over-zealous partisans. 

B8

_Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus, 91 B. C. _

Deinde interiectis paucis annis tribunatum iniit M. Livius Drusus, virnobilissimus, eloquentissimus, sanetissimus, meliore in omnia ingenioanimoque quam fortuna usus. Qui cum senatui priscum restituere cuperetdecus et indicia ab equitibus ad {5} eum transferre ordinem . .. In eisipsis, quae pro senatu moliebatur, senatum habuit adversarium nonintellegentem, si qua de plebis commodis ab eo agerentur, velutiilliciendae multitudinis causa fieri, ut minoribus perceptis maiorapermitteret. Denique {10} ea fortuna Drusi fuit, ut malefacta collegarumquamvis optime ab ipso cogitatis senatus probaret magis.  .  .  . Tumconversus Drusi animus, quando bene incepta male cedebant, ad dandamcivitatem Italiae: quod cum moliens revertisset e foro, immensa {15}illa et incondita, quae eum semper comitabatur, cinctus multitudine inarea domus suae cultello percussus, qui affixus lateri eius relictusest, intra paucas horas decessit. Sed cum ultimum redderet spiritum, intuens circumstantium macrentiumque {20} frequentiam, effudit vocemconvenientissimam conscientiae suae: ecquandone, inquit, propinquiamicique, similem mei civem habebit res publica? Hunc finem clarissimusiuvenis vitae habuit. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 13-14. 

 [Linenotes: 3-4. +Drusus. + ‘Generous and free from all selfishness and meanness, but without political experience, adroitness and knowledge of men, he aspired to a task which surpassed his strength. ’ --Ihne. 4-6. By the Sempronian Laws of C. Gracchus 123 B. C. _exclusive judicial rights had been given to the Equites_, as a counterpoise to the power of the Senate. The corruption of the Equites (as Judices) was flagrant, and Drusus proposed to transfer the judicial functions to a mixed body of 300 Senators and 300 Knights, the selected Knights to be included in the now attenuated ranks of the Senate. 14. +ad dandam civitatem Italiae. + The claims of the Italians to the franchise were just and pressing, but the overbearing pride and self-sufficiency of the Roman citizens proved too strong. ]

+Parallel Passages. + Cic. _de Oratore_ iii. 1, and _pro Cluent. _ 56, 153. Florus, iii.  18. 

+Reference. + Ihne, _Hist. _ vol. V. Pp. 176-189. 

‘Drusus was the Mirabeau of the social revolution of Rome, and had hismeasures been carried Rome might have been spared the most terrible ofher civil wars. ’

B9

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B. C. (1)

A. _Cause and Outbreak of the War at Asculum. _

Cum ius civitatis, quam viribus auxerant, socii iustissime postularent, quam in spem eos cupidine dominationis Drusus erexerat, postquam illedomestico scelere oppressus est, eadem fax, quae illum cremavit, sociosin arma et in expugnationem urbis {5} accendit.  .  .  . Primum fuit belliconsilium ut in Albano monte festo die Latinarum Iulius Caesar etMarcius Philippus consules inter sacra et aras immolarentur. Postquam idnefas proditione discussum est, Asculo furor omnis erupit, in ipsaquidem ludorum {10} frequentia trucidatis qui tum aderant ab urbelegatis. Hoc fuit impii belli sacramentum. Inde iam passim ab omni parteItaliae duce et auctore belli discursante Poppaedio diversa per populoset urbes signa cecinere. {15}

 FLORUS, III. Xviii. 3-10 (sel. ). 

 [Linenotes: 2. +iustissime. + ‘The final issue of the war confirmed the justice and the wisdom of the reforms planned by the Gracchi and by Livius Drusus. ’ --Ihne. 7. +Latinarum+, sc. _Feriarum_, the solemn festival conducted by the Consuls on the Alban Mount. 10. +Asculo. + Asculum (Ascoli), chief town of Picenum. The opening and closing scene of the war. ]

B. _Advice of the Sabellian father to his sons. _

 ‘Vivite contenti casulis et collibus istis, O pueri, ’ Marsus dicebat et Hernicus olim 180 Vestinusque senex, ‘panem quaeramus aratro, Qui satis est mensis: laudant hoc numina ruris, Quorum ope et auxilio gratae post munus aristae Contingunt homini veteris fastidia quercus. Nil vetitum fecisse volet, quem non pudet alto 185 Per glaciem perone tegi, qui summovet Euros Pellibus inversis; peregrina ignotaque nobis Ad scelus atque nefas, quaecumque est, purpura ducit. ’

 JUVENAL, _Sat. _ xiv. 179-188. 

 [Linenotes: 179. +collibus istis+, i. E. In the central mountain range of Italy. The Federals chose Corfinium (E.  of Lake Fucinus) to be the Italian rallying-point, and the seat of a new State. 180-181. +Marsus . .. Hernicus . .. Vestinus+, Sabellian peoples noted for their bravery and simplicity; the backbone of Rome’s army. 182. +numina ruris+, e. G. Ceres, Liber and Priapus. 185-196. +alto perone+ = a high rustic boot of raw hide. 187. +pellibus inversis+ = skins with the hair turned inwards. --Duff. ]

B10

THE SOCIAL OR MARSIC WAR, 91-88 B. C. (2)

A. _Defeat and Death of Rutilius. _

 Hanc tibi, ‘Quo properas’, memorant dixisse ‘Rutili? Luce mea Marso consul ab hoste cades. ’ Exitus accessit verbis, flumenque Toleni Purpureum mixtis sanguine fluxit aquis. 566

 OVID, _Fasti_, vi. 563-566. [Hallam VI. 487-490]

 [Linenote: 563. +Hanc+, sc. _Leucothea_, goddess of the sea and of harbours. +Rutili+. Rutilius, consul 90 B. C. , defeated and slain at the R. Tolenus (Turano) by the Marsian Vettius Scato. ]

B. _The Lex Plautia Papiria of 89 B. C. _

Data est civitas Silvani lege et Carbonis: si qui {5} foederatiscivitatibus ascripti fuissent, si tum, cum lex ferebatur, in Italiadomicilium habuissent et si sexaginta diebus apud praetorem essentprofessi. 

 CICERO, _pro Archia_, 4, 7. 

 [Linenotes: 5. +lege+, i. E. The Lex Plautia Papiria of the tribines M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papirius Carbo. The Lex Julia of L. Julius Caesar 90 B. C. , granting the _civitas_ to the Latins and to all the other Italian States not in rebellion, had weakened the resistance. The Lex Plautia Papiria ‘scattered among the Italian ranks the seeds of discord and dissolution. ’]

C. _Cicero’s first and only Campaign. _

Memini colloquia et cum acerrimis hostibus et cum gravissimedissidentibus civibus. Cn. Pompeius, {10} consul me praesente, cum essemtiro in eius exercitu, cum P. Vettio Scatone, duce Marsorum, inter binacastra collocutus est.  .  .  . Quem cum Scato salutasset, ‘quem teappellem?’ inquit: ‘voluntate hospitem, necessitate hostem. ’ Erat incolloquio aequitas: {15} nullus timor, nulla suberat suspicio; mediocreetiam odium. Non enim, ut eriperent nobis socii civitatem, sed ut in eamreciperentur petebant. 

 CICERO, _Phil. _ xii. 11, 27. 

D. _The battle near Asculum, and capture of the city. _

Strabo vero Pompeius omnia flammis ferroque populatus non prius finemcaedium fecit quam Asculi {20} eversione manibus tot exercituum consulumdireptarumque urbium dis litaretur. 

 FLORUS, III. Xviii. 14. 

 [Linenote: 20. +Asculi eversione. + The siege was memorable for the desperate patriotism of the besieged under their leader Judacilius, cf. Siege of Saguntum. ]

+Reference. + Ihne, _Hist. _ vol. V. Pp. 190-220. 

B11

L. CORNELIUS SULLA, 138-78 B. C. 

_His Character and Bearing. _

Igitur Sulla gentis patriciae nobilis fuit, familia prope iam exstinctamaiorum ignavia, litteris Graecis et Latinis iuxta atque doctissimieruditus, animo ingenti, cupidus voluptatum sed gloriae cupidior: tamenab negotiis numquam voluptas remorata; {5} facundus callidus et amicitiafacilis, ad simulanda negotia altitudo ingeni incredibilis, multarumrerum ac maxumae pecuniae largitor. Atque illi, felicissumo omnium antecivilem victoriam, numquam super industriam fortuna fuit, multiquedubitavere fortior {10} an felicior esset. Nam postea quae fecerit, incertum habeo pudeat an pigeat magis disserere. Igitur Sulla, uti supradictum est, postquam in Africam atque in castra Mari cum equitatu venit, rudis antea et ignarus belli, solertissumus omnium in paucis {15}tempestatibus factus est. Ad hoc milites benigne appellare, multisrogantibus aliis per se ipse dare beneficia, invitus accipere, sed eaproperantius quam aes mutuum reddere, ipse ab nullo repetere, magis idlaborare ut illi quam plurimi deberent, ioca atque {20} seria cumhumillumis agere, in operibus in agmine atque ad vigilias multus adesseneque interim, quod prava ambitio solet, consulis aut cuiusquam bonifamam laedere, tantum modo neque consilio neque manu priorem alium pati, plerosque antevenire. {25}

 SALLUST, _Jug. _ 95, 96. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +nobilis+, i. E. Of a patrician family which had held curule offices. 1-2. +familia . .. Exstincta. + The Cornelii were a distinguished _gens_ in early times and included 7 patrician families (e. G. The Lentuli and Scipios). Of these the Sullae were the least known. 2-3. +litteris Graecis . .. Eruditus. + Contrast the proud boast of Marius:--‘I have learnt no Greek: in the knowledge, however, which is far the most important for the State, I am a master. ’ --Sall. _Jug. _ 85. 9. +ante civilem victoriam+, i. E. Before 81 B. C. 10-11. +fortior an felicior. + Sulla assumed the name Felix on the death of the younger Marius 82 B. C. Cf. Plut. _Sulla_, cap.  vi. 11-12. +Nam postea . .. Disserere. + Cf. Vell. Patere. II. Xvii. 2: ‘Sulla vir qui neque ad finem victoriae satis laudari neque post victoriam abunde vituperari potest. ’ 20. +illi+ more strictly _sibi_--‘a negligence not unfrequent. ’ --Merivale. 22. +multus adesse+ = _frequently visited_, +multus+ = _saepe_. ]

For +character of Sulla+ cf. Plut. _Sulla_, and Mommsen, iv. Pp. 139-142: ‘One of the most marvellous characters in history. ’

B12

MITHRIDATES THE GREAT, 130-63 B. C. 

A. _His Youth and Early Training. _

Huius futuram magnitudinem etiam caelestia ostenta praedixerant. Nam eteo, quo genitus est, anno, et eo, quo regnare primum coepit, stellacometes per utrumque tempus LXX diebus ita luxit, ut caelum omneconflagrare videretur. Puer tutorum insidias {5} passus est, qui eumfero equo impositum equitare iacularique cogebant: qui conatus cum eosfefellissent, supra aetatem regente equum Mithridate, veneno eumappetivere. Veritus deinde, ne inimici, quod veneno non potuerant, ferroperagerent, venandi {10} studium finxit, quo per septem annos nequeurbano neque rustico tecto usus est, sed per silvas vagatus, diversismontium regionibus pernoctabat ignaris omnibus, quibus esset locis;adsuetus feras cursu aut fugere aut persequi, cum quibusdam etiamviribus {15} congredi. Quibus rebus et insidias vitavit, et corpus adomnem virtutis patientiam duravit. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Huius. + Mithridates (_Mithras_ = Persian sun-god) ‘second only to Hannibal in inextinguishable, life-long hostility to Rome, as also in military genius. ’ Ihne. 5. +tutorum+ = (_at the hands_) _of his guardians_. Cf. _tueor. _ 17. +ad omnem virtutis patientiam+ = _to all manly endurance_. ]

B. _His Preparations for Conquest. _

Ad regni deinde administrationem cum accessisset, statim non de regendo, sed de augendo regno cogitavit. Itaque Scythas invictos antea ingenti{20} felicitate perdomuit. Hieme deinde appetente, non in convivio, sedin campo, nec in avocationibus, nec inter sodales, sed inter aequales, aut equo aut cursu aut viribus contendebat. Exercitum quoque suum adparem laboris patientiam cotidiana exercitatione {25} durabat, atque itainvictus ipse inexpugnabilem exercitum fecerat. 

 JUSTINUS, xxxvii. 2, 3, 4. 

 [Linenotes: 19. +de augendo regno. + He subdued all the coast districts of the Euxine, East, North and West, as far as the Hister (Danube). 22. +avocationibus+ = _in diversions_ (very rare). 24. +exercitum. + At the outbreak of the War with Rome, 88 B. C. , he had collected a motley force of 250, 000 foot and 40, 000 horse. ]

+Mithridates. + ‘With one blow he overthrew the Roman dominion in Asia, carried the war into Europe, united almost the whole Eastern world in anattack on the Republic, and resisted for 25 years the first generals ofhis time, --a Sulla, a Lucullus, and a Pompeius. ’ --Ihne. 

+Historic Parallels. + Alexander, Hannibal, Peter the Great. 

B13

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B. C. (1)?]

_The Battle of Chaeronea, 86 B. C. Brilliant Tactics of Sulla. _

Archelaus adversus L. Sullam in fronte ad perturbandum hostem falcatasquadrigas locavit, in secunda acie phalangem Macedonicam, in tertiaRomanorum more armatos auxiliares, mixtis fugitivis Italicae gentis, quorum pervicaciae plurimum fidebat; {5} levem armaturam in ultimostatuit; in utroque deinde latere equitatum, cuius amplum numerumhabebat, circumeundi hostis causa posuit. Contra haec Sulla fossasamplae latitudinis utroque latere duxit et capitibus earum castellacommuniit: qua {10} ratione, ne circuiretur ab hoste et peditum numeroet maxime equitatu superante, consecutus est. Triplicem deinde peditumaciem ordinavit relictis intervallis per quae levem armaturam etequitem, quem in novissimo conlocaverat, cum res exegisset, emitteret. {15} Tum postsignanis qui in secunda acie erant imperavit ut densosnumerososque palos firme in terram defigerent, intraque eosappropinquantibus quadrigis antesignanorum aciem recepit: tum demumsublato universorum clamore velites et levem armaturam {20} ingereretela iussit. Quibus factis quadrigae hostium aut implicitae palis autexterritae clamore telisque in suos conversae sunt turbaveruntqueMacedonum structuram: qua cedente, cum Sulla instaret et Archelausequitem opposuisset, Romani equites {25} subito emissi averterunt eosconsummaverantque victoriam. 

 FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 3.  17. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Archelaus+ (and his brother Neoptolemus) ‘trained in the traditions and experience of Greek and Macedonian masters. ’ 2. +falcatas quadrigras. + Archelaus had 60 of these chariots armed with scythes projecting. Cf. Livy xxxvii.  41. 5. +pervicaciae+ = _steadfastness_ (_per_ + _vic_; cf. _vinco_). 11-12. +qua ratione . .. Consecutus est. + Sulla had about 30, 000 men (15, 000 Romans only) against 120, 000. 23. +turbaverunt. + ‘The war-chariots on this as on other occasions (e. G. At Magnesia) had not only proved a failure, but had actually led to a partial disaster. ’ --Ihne. Cf. Use of war elephants, e. G. At Beneventum 275 B. C. And at Zama 202 B. C. 27. +victoriam. + It was a great victory, but the results were trifling, partly because Sulla had no fleet, and partly because his political enemies at Rome were bent on crippling him. ]

+Historic Parallel. + The Battle of Magnesia 190 B. C. 

B14

FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR, 88-84 B. C. (2)

A. _Capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 86 B. C. _

Sulla interim cum Mithridatis praefectis circa Athenas ita dimicavit, utet Athenas reciperet et plurimo circa multiplices Piraei portusmunitiones labore expleto amplius CC milia hostium interficeret necminus multa caperet.  .  .  . Nam oppressi (Athenienses) {5} Mithridatisarmis homines miserrimae condicionis cum ab inimicis tenerentur, oppugnabantur ab amicis et animos extra moenia, corpora necessitatiservientes intra muros habebant. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +ut Athenas reciperet. + Sulla reduced the city by starvation. 3. +Piraei portus. + This was strongly held by Archelaus, and was taken only after a most obstinate defence. 7. +cum . .. Tenerentur. + The contemptible adventurer Aristion, with his bodyguard of 2000 men and the bribe of Delos and its treasure, had made himself master of Athens. ]

B. _Battle of Orchomenus, 85 B. C. Sulla restores the Fight. _

L. Sulla, cedentibus iam legionibus exercitui {10} Mithridatico ductuArchelai, stricto gladio in primam aciem procucurrit appellansquemilites dixit, si quis quaesisset, ubi imperatorem reliquissent, responderent pugnantem in Boeotia: cuius rei pudore universi eum secutisunt. {15}

 FRONTINUS, _Strategemata_, ii. 8.  12. 

 [Linenote: 10-15. = ‘The great victory at Orchomenus was the turning-point in the War. ’ --Ihne. ]

C. _Peace of Dardanus. End of the First Mithridatic War, 84 B. C. _

Transgressus deinde in Asiam Sulla parentem ad omnia supplicemqueMithridatem invenit, quem multatum pecunia ac parte navium, Asiaomnibusque aliis provinciis, quas armis occupaverat, decedere coegit, captivos recepit, in perfugas noxiosque {20} animadvertit, paternis, idest Ponticis finibus contentum esse iussit. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 23. 

 [Linenote: 16-22. +The terms of peace+ were (i) Restoration of all conquests, (ii) Surrender of 80 ships and of all prisoners, (iii) Indemnity of 3000 talents. Florus says ‘Non fregit ea res Ponticos, sed incendit. ’ Sulla was anxious to secure peace, because his presence was needed at Rome. ]

+Sulla’s Conduct of the War+. ‘No previous general had shown so great amastery of the art of war and such care and interest for the welfare ofthe State, as distinguished from the success of a party. ’ --Ihne. 

B15

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B. C. (1)

_Battles of Sacriportus and the Colline Gate. _

A. 

 Iam quot apud Sacri cecidere cadavera Portum Aut Collina tulit stratas quot porta catervas, 135 Tum cum, paene caput mundi rerumque potestas Mutavit translata locum, Romanaque Samnis Ultra Caudinas speravit volnera Furcas. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 134-138. 

 [Linenotes: 134. +apud Sacriportum+, near Praeneste, where Sulla totally defeated the Marians, under the younger Marius, 82 B. C. 135. +Collina Porta+, i. E. N. E. Gate of Rome near the _Collis_ Quirinalis. 136. +paene+, with _mutavit_, l.  137. ]

B. At Pontius Telesinus, dux Samnitium, vir animi bellique fortissimuspenitusque Romano nomini infestissimus, contractis circiter XL milibusfortissimae pertinacissimaeque in retinendis armis iuventutis Kal. Novembribus ita ad portam Collinam cum Sulla {10} dimicavit, ut adsummum discrimen et eum et rempublicam perduceret, quae non maiuspericulum adiit Hannibalis intra tertium miliarium conspicata castra, quam eo die, quo circumvolans ordines exercitus sui Telesinusdictitansque adesse Romanis ultimum {15} diem vociferabatur eruendamdelendamque urbem, adiciens numquam deluturos raptores Italicaelibertatis lupos, nisi silva, in quam refugere solerent, esset excisa. Post primam demum horam noctis et Romana acies respiravit et hostiumcessit. Telesinus {20} postera die semianimis repertus est, victorismagis quam morientis vultum praeferens, cuius abscisum caput ferro figigestarique circa Praeneste Sulla iussit. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 27. 

 [Linenotes: 6. +Pontius Telesinus+, ‘a kinsman in name and temper of the hero of 321 B. C. ’ 12-14. +quae . .. Castra. + ‘As Hannibal had tried to relieve the closely pressed Capua by a direct attack on Rome, Pontius Telesinus thought to draw off the besieging army from Praeneste by threatening the Capital. ’ --Ihne. 20. +Romana acies respiravit. + Sulla, with the left wing, was driven back by the Samnites to the walls of Rome, but Crassus with the right wing was completely victorious, and to him the final victory was due. ‘The issue of the whole war, at least on Italian ground, was decided by the battle of the Colline Gate. ’ --Ihne. ]

B16

SECOND CIVIL WAR, 83-82 B. C. (2)

A. _Death of the Younger Marius. Sulla Felix. _

Tum demum desperatis rebus suis C. Marius adulescens per cuniculos, quimiro opere fabricati in diversas agrorum partes fuerunt, conatuserumpere, cum foramine e terra emersisset, a dispositis in id ipsuminteremptus est.  .  .  . De quo iuvene quid {5} existimaverit Sulla, inpromptu est; occiso enim demum eo Felicis nomen adsumpsit, quod quidemusurpasset iustissime, si eundem et vincendi et vivendi finem habuisset. 

 VELL. PAT. Ii. 27. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Tum+, i. E. After Sulla’s victory at the Colline Gate, 82 B. C. +C. Marius. + ‘He possessed his father’s martial spirit, courage and unyielding perseverance. ’ --Ihne. 2. +per cuniculos+ = _through subterranean passages_. ]

B. _The Sullan Proscriptions. _

 ‘Sulla quoque immensis accessit cladibus ultor. 139 Ille quod exiguum restabat sanguinis urbi Hausit: dumque nimis iam putria membra recidit, Excessit medicina modum, nimiumque secuta est, Qua morbi duxere, manus. . . . 143 Tum data libertas odiis, resolutaque legum 145 Frenis ira ruit. Non uni cuncta dabantur, Sed fecit sibi quisque nefas: semel omnia victor Iusserat . . . Hisne Salus rerum, Felix his Sulla vocari, 221 His meruit tumulum medio sibi tollere Campo? Haec rursus patienda manent: hoc ordine belli Ibitur: hic stabit civilibus exitus armis. ’ . . . . Sic maesta senectus 232 Praeteritique memor flebat metuensque futuri. 233

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 139-148, 221-224. 

 [Linenotes: 139. +Sulla . .. Ultor+ = _Sulla too in his vengeance came to crown these fearful disasters_. --Haskins. 141-143. +dumque . .. Manus. + Sulla is compared to a surgeon who in too great haste to remove the mortified flesh cuts away the sound flesh also. 146. +non uni . .. + = _all crimes were not committed for one man’s sake_, i. E. To please Sulla. 223-224. +hoc ordine belli ibitur+ = _in this course of war events will move_. --H. I. E. History will repeat itself. 232. +sic maesta senectus. + An old man, who had lived through the Marian and Sullan times, predicts similar horrors of the Civil War between Caesar and Pompey. ]

+The Proscriptions. + ‘They were the product not of passion or thirst ofblood, but of a cool political calculation, and the conviction of itsinevitable necessity. ’ --Ihne. 

B17

A. _Sulla appointed Dictator, 81 B. C. _

Dictator creatus (cuius honoris usurpatio per annos centum et vigintiintermissa; nam proximus post annum quam Hannibal Italia excesserat, utiappareat populum Romanum usum dictatoris haud metu desiderasse tali quotimuisset potestatem) imperio, {5} quo priores ad vindicandum maximispericulis patriam usi erant, eo in immodicae crudelitatis licentiam ususest. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 28. 

 [Linenotes: 1-2. +cuius honoris . .. Intermissa. + The last real Dictator (M.  Junius Pera) was appointed after Cannae 216 B. C. 5-8. +imperio quo . .. Usus est. + ‘The Dictator of the first age of the Republic down to the Punic Wars had always a _well-defined special duty to discharge in a given time_. Sulla’s task was of _a general nature and all-comprehensive range_, and he had the most essential of all monarchical attributes, which is _the unlimited duration of office_. ’ --Ihne. ]

B. _Sulla lays down his Dictatorship, 79 B. C. _

Nec minoris impotentiae voces propalam edebat, ut Titus Ampius scribit, ‘Nihil esse rempublicam, {10} appellationem modo sine corpore ac specie. Sullam nescisse litteras, qui dictaturam deposuerit. ’

 SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_,  77. 

 [Linenotes: 9. +impotentiae+ = _arrogance_ (lack of self-restraint). 10. +Ampius. + Titus Ampius Balbus, a Pompeian general. 11-12. +Sullam nescisse litteras+ = (i) S. Had not profited by the teachings of History, or (ii) S. Was without a liberal education. ]

C. _Death of Sulla, 78 B. C. _

Puteolis enim ardens indignatione, quod Granius, princeps eius coloniaepecuniam a decurionibus ad refectionem Capitolii promissam cunctantiusdaret, {15} animi concitatione nimia atque immoderato vocis impetuconvulso pectore, spiritum cruore ac minis mixtum evomuit, nec senio iamprolapsus, utpote sexagesimum ingrediens annum, sed alita miseriisreipublicae inpotentia furens. Igitur in dubio est {20} Sullane prior aniracundia Sullae sit extincta. 

 VALERIUS MAXIMUS, ix. 3. 8. 

 [Linenote: 13. +Granius+, the chief magistrate of Puteoli, had kept back money destined for the building of the new temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The old one was destroyed by fire 83 B. C. ‘It was Sulla’s great desire that his name should be recorded on the front of the new temple, for it was to be the symbol of the Republic, restored as he fondly hoped by him to its pristine purity. ’ --Ihne. ]

B18

THE LEGES CORNELIAE, 81 B. C. 

A. _Limitation of the Tribune’s Right of Veto. _

In ista quidem re vehementer Sullam probo, qui tribunis plebis sua legeiniuriae faciendae potestatem ademerit, auxili ferendi reliquerit. 

 CICERO, _de Legibus_, iii. 9.  22. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +iniuriae faciendae+, e. G. By their abuse of the right of veto. 3. +auxili ferendi. + ‘Sulla limited the office of tribune to the original functions for which it was established, _the legal protection of the people from the abuse of magisterial power_. ’ --Ihne. ]

B. _Abolition of Corn Distributions. _

Populus Romanus, paullo ante gentium moderator, exutus imperio gloriaiure, agitandi inops despectusque ne servilia quidem alimenta relicuahabet. 

 SALLUST, _Hist. , Orat. M. Lepidi_. 

 [Linenotes: 5. +agitandi inops+ (i. E. _vitam sustentandi_) = _without means of livelihood. _ 6. +servilia alimenta+ = _a slave’s allowance of food_. Sulla abolished the largesses of corn. ]

C. _Restoration of Judicial Functions to the Senators. _

Iudicandi munus quod C. Gracchus ereptum senatui ad Equites, Sulla abillis ad Senatum transtulerat. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 32. 

 [Linenote: 8-10. Sulla filled up the gaps in the Senate from the ranks of the Equites, and to the new Senate thus constituted he entrusted the administration of justice. ]

D. _A Sumptuary Law, Limiting the Expense of the Table. _

L. Sulla dictator, cum plerique in patrimoniis amplis eluerentur etfamiliam pecuniamque suam prandiorum conviviorumque gurgitibusproluissent, legem ad populam tulit, qua cautum est, ut Kalendis, Idibus, Nonis diebusque ludorum et feriis quibusdam {15} sollemnibussestertios trecenos in cenam insumere ius potestasque esset, ceterisautem diebus omnibus non amplius tricenos. 

 AULUS GELLIUS, ii. 24, 11. 

 [Linenote: 12. +eluerentur+ = _had squandered_ (lit. ‘washed away’). ]

+Leges Corneliae. + ‘Sulla’s legislation was an attempt to revive whatwas dead and gone. The time had arrived when the old republicaninstitutions could last no longer. The transformation of the state intoa monarchy was inevitable. ’ --Ihne. 

+The Sultan Constitution. + It had as little endurance as that ofCromwell, and was finally destroyed in 70 B. C. During the consulship ofPompeius and Crassus. 

B19

_Speech of Lepidus against Sulla, 78 B. C. _

Nam praeter satellites commaculatos quis eadem volt? aut quis non omniamutata praeter victorem? Scilicet milites, quorum sanguine TarulaeScyrtoque, pessumis servorum, divitiae partae sunt! Itaque maxumam mihifiduciam parit victor exercitus, cui {5} per tot volnera et laboresnihil praeter tyrannum quaesitum est. Nisi forte tribuniciam potestatemevorsum profecti sunt, per arma conditam a maioribus suis, utique iuraet iudicia sibimet extorquerent, egregia scilicet mercede, cum relegatiin paludes et {10} silvam contumeliam atque invidiam suam, praemia penespaucos intellegerint. Quare igitur tanto agmine atque animis incedit?Quia secundae res mire sunt vitiis obtentui; quibus labefactis, quamformidatus est, tam contemnetur; nisi forte specie {15} concordiae etpacis, quae sceleri et parricidio suo nomina indidit; neque aliterrempublicam et belli finem ait, nisi maneat expulsa agris plebes, praedacivilis acerbissima, ius iudiciumque omnium rerum penes se, quod populiRomani fuit. Quae si vobis {20} pax et concordia intelleguntur, maxumaturbamenta reipublicae atque exitia probate, annuite legibus impositis, accipite otium cum servitio et tradite exemplum posteris ad populumRomanum suimet sanguinis mercede circumveniundum. {25}

 SALLUST, _Hist, Orat. M. Lepidi_. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Nam+, sc. ‘His luck is not so great as he supposes, for. .. ’ 7-8. +tribuniciam . .. Evorsum+, i. E. By the Leges Corneliae 81 B. C. 9. +iudicia. + Sulla restored the judicial functions to the Senate (from the Equites). 10. +relegati in paludes. + Sulla established 120, 000 soldiers in military colonies in different parts of Italy, but their roaming adventurous life had unfitted them for agricultural pursuits. 13-14. +Quia . .. Obtentui+ = _because prosperity serves in a marvellous manner to cover a man’s faults of character_. --Holden. For +obtentui+ cf. _draw a veil over_. 16. +parricidio+ = _treason_. 18. +nisi . .. Agris+, i. E. Sulla’s confiscations of estates, especially of those Italians who had fought against him. 24-25. +ad p. R. Circumveniundum+ = _for oppressing_ (enslaving) _the people of Rome_. ]

+M. Aemillus Lepidus+, Consul 78 B. C. , a disappointed Optimate, jealousof Sulla’s power, but without Sulla’s ability. He posed as leader of thedemocratic party, took up arms against the State, but was defeated by Q. Catulus at the Milvian Bridge, 77 B. C. 

B20

WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN, 78-72 B. C. (1)

_Sertorius and his Fawn. _

Huic Sertorio cerva alba eximiae pulchritudinis et vivacissimaeceleritatis a Lusitano quodam dono data est. Hanc sibi oblatamdivinitus, et instinctam Dianae numine colloqui secum, monereque, etdocere, quae utilia factu essent, persuadere omnibus instituit: {5} ac, si quid durius videbatur, quod imperandum militibus foret, a cerva sesemonitum tum praedicabat. Id cum dixerat, universi, tamquam si deo, libentes parebant. Ea cerva quodam die, cum incursio esset hostiumnuntiata, festinatione ac tumultu consternata {10} in fugam seproripuit, atque in palude proxima delituit; et postea requisita perissecredita est. Neque multis diebus post inventam esse cervam Sertorionuntiatur. Tum, qui nuntiaverat, iussit tacere: ac, ne cui palamdiceret, interminatus est: {15} praecepitque, ut eam postero die repentein eum locum, in quo ipse cum amicis esset, immitteret: admissis deindeamicis postridie, visum sibi esse ait in quiete cervam, quae perisset, ad se reverti, et, ut prius consueverat, quod opus esset factopraedicare. {20} Tum servo, quod imperaverat, significat. Cerva emissain cubiculum Sertorii introrupit; clamor factus et orta admiratio est:eaque hominum barbarorum credulitas Sertorio in magnis rebus magno usuifuit. {25}

 GELLIUS, _Noctes Atticae_, xv.  22. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +alba+ = a _dull_ white as opp. To +ater+ = _dull_ black. Cf. +candidus+ = _shining_ white as opp. To +niger+ = _shining_ black. 3. +instinctam+ = _fired_, _animated_. 15. +interminatus+ = _he forbade with threats_. +inter + minor+, freq. In Plautus and Terence. 23-25. ‘Sertorius did not disdain to turn to account the superstition of the ruder Spanish tribes, and to have his plans of war brought to him as commands of Diana by the white fawn of the goddess. ’ --M. ]

+Character of Sertorius. + ‘He was the only democratic (Marian) officerwho knew how to prepare and to conduct war, and the only democraticstatesman who opposed the furious doings of his party with statesmanlikeenergy. His Spanish soldiers called him the new Hannibal, and not merelybecause he had, like that hero, lost an eye in war. He in realityreminds us of the great Phoenician by his equally cunning and courageousstrategy, and by the quickness of his ingenuity in turning to goodaccount his victories and averting the consequences of his defeats. ’--M. 

B21

WAR WITH SERTORIUS IN SPAIN (2)

A. _A New Hannibal. _

Sertorius, exsul et profugus feralis illius tabulae, vir summae quidemsed calamitosae virtutis, malis suis maria terrasque permiscuit; et iamAfricae, iam Balearibus insulis fortunam expertus usque in OceanumFortunatasque insulas penetravit consiliis, {5} tandem Hispaniamarmavit. Viro cum viris facile convenit. Nec alias magis apparuitHispani militis vigor quam Romano duce. Quamquam ille non contentusHispania ad Mithridatem quoque Ponticosque respexit regemque classeiuvit. Et quid futurum {10} fuit satis tanto hosti, cui uno imperatoreresistere res Romana non potuit? Additus Metello Gnaeus Pompeius. Hicopias attrivere viri prope tota Hispania persecuti. Diu et ancipitisemper acie pugnatum est; nec tamen prius bello quam suorum scelere {15}et insidiis extinctus est. 

 FLORUS, III. Xxii. 2-6. A. 

 [Linenotes: 1.  +feralis illius tabulae+ = _from that fatal list_, i. E. Sulla’s list of proscribed Marians 82 B. C. 9-10. +ad Mithridatem . .. Iuvit. + In 75 B. C. He concluded a formal treaty of alliance with Mithridates, and sent him the propraetor M. Marius to lead his troops. Cf. Alliance between Hannibal and Philip. 14-15. +Diu et ancipiti semper acie pugnatum est+, e. G. The defeat of Pompey near Lauro. (For a graphic account of the strategy by which the battle was won see Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii.  5. )]

B. _The Death of Sertorius. _

M. Perpenna praetorius e proscriptis, gentis clarioris quam animi, Sertorium inter cenam Oscae interemit Romanisque certam victoriam, partibus suis excidium, sibi turpissimam mortem pessimo {20} auctoravitfacinore. Metellus et Pompeius ex Hispaniis triumphaverunt. 

 VELL. PATERC. Ii. 30. 

 [Linenotes: 17. +M. Perpenna praetorius+ (= _ex-praetor_), with the remnant of the army of Lepidus (defeated by Pompey in 77 B. C. ) joined Sertorius in Spain. After serving under Sertorius for some years, through jealousy, he brought about his leader’s assassination. 21. +auctoravit+ = _he brought about_. More usu. As +auctorari+ = _to hire oneself out for some service_, e. G. Of gladiators. ]

+The Death of Sertorius. + ‘So ended one of the greatest men that Romehad hitherto produced--a man who under more fortunate circumstanceswould perhaps have become the regenerator of his country. ’ --M. 

B22

_Character and Early Career of Lucullus. _

Magnum ingenium L. Luculli, magnumque optimarum artium studium, tumomnis liberalis et digna homine nobili ab eo percepta doctrina, quibustemporibus florere in foro maxime potuit, caruit omnino rebus urbanis. Ut enim admodum adolescens, {5} cum fratre pari pietate et industriapraedito, paternas inimicitias magna cum gloria est persecutus, in Asiamquaestor profectus, ibi permultos annos admirabili quadam laudeprovinciae praefuit: deinde absens factus aedilis, continuo praetor:licebat {10} enim celerius legis praemio: post in Africam: inde adconsulatum: quem ita gessit ut diligentiam admirarentur omnes, ingeniumcognoscerent. Post ad Mithridaticum bellum missus a senatu non modoopinionem vicit omnium quae de virtute eius erat, sed {15} etiam gloriamsuperiorum. Idque eo fuit mirabilius, quod ab eo laus imperatoria nonadmodum exspectabatur, qui adolescentiam in forensi opera, quaesturaediuturnum tempus, Murena bellum in Ponto gerente, in Asiae paceconsumpserat.  .  .  . {20} In eodem tanta prudentia fuit in constituendistemperandisque civitatibus, tanta aequitas, ut hodie stet Asia Luculliinstitutis servandis et quasi vestigiis persequendis. 

 CICERO, _Academica_, ii. 1. 

 [Linenotes: 1-3. +ingenium+, +studium+, +doctrina+, subjects of +caruit+. 3-5. +quibus temporibus . .. Urbanis+ = _all this was divorced_ (+caruit+, lit. _was cut off from_) _from the business of the capital, at the season when he might have had a specially brilliant career in the forum_. --J.  S. Reid. 6. +paternas inimicitias+ = _his father’s quarrel_. The first appearance of Lucullus in public life was as the accuser of the Augur Servilius who had procured the banishment of his father. 7-9. +in Asiam . .. Praefuit+, i. E. As Sulla’s quaestor in the first Mithridatic War, 88-84 B. C. And then till 80 B. C. In charge of the province of Asia (= orig. Kingdom of Pergamus, N. W. Part of Asia Minor). 11. +legis praemio+ = _owing to a privilege conveyed by statute_. J.  S.  R. 13-14. +ad Mithridaticum bellum+, i. E. The 3rd M. War, which he carried on for eight years (74-66 B. C. ) with great success, until superseded by Pompeius in 66 B. C. 19-20. +Murena . .. Gerente. + Lic. Murena, anxious for distinction, provoked the disastrous 2nd Mithridatic War, 83-81 B. C. , when by the peremptory orders of Sulla the peace was renewed. 23. +stet . .. Servandis+ = _persists in maintaining_ (lit. _stands by_) _the ordinances of L. _--J.  S.  R. ]

+Reference. + For _Character of Lucullus_, see Mommsen, vol. Iv. Pp. 337-8. Cf. Also Vell. Paterc. Ii.  32. 

B23

A. _A Soldier of Lucullus. _

 Luculli miles collecta viatica multis Aerumnis, lassus dum noctu stertit, ad assem Perdiderat; post hoc vehemens lupus, et sibi et hosti Iratus pariter, ieiunis dentibus acer, Praesidium regale loco deiecit, ut aiunt, 30 Summe munito et multarum divite rerum. Clarus ob id factum donis ornatur honestis, Accipit et bis dena super sestertia nummum. Forte sub hoc tempus castellum evertere praetor Nescio quod cupiens hortari coepit eundem 35 Verbis, quae timido quoque possent addere mentem: ‘I, bone, quo virtus tua te vocat, i pede fausto, Grandia laturus meritorum praemia. Quid stas?’ Post haec ille catus, quantumvis rusticus, ‘Ibit, Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam perdidit, ’ inquit. 40

 HORACE, _Ep. _ II. Ii. 26-40. 

 [Linenotes: 26. +viatica+ = _savings_ (cf. _prize-money_). +viaticum+ = originally _travelling-money_. 28. +vehemens lupus+ = _a very wolf in his fury_. Cf. Vergil’s simile for a forlorn hope--‘lupi ceu | Raptores. ’ --Wickham. 32. +donis honestis+ = _gifts of honour_--i. E. The _corona muralis_, the _mural crown_, such as is worn by the goddess Cybele. 33. +nummum+ (= _nummorum_) = _in hard cash_. 39. +catus+ = _shrewd_, _witty_, a Sabine word, = _acutus_. 39-40. +Ibit . .. Quo vis+, the original of Juvenal’s _ad caelum, iusseris, ibit_. 40. +zonam+ = _purse_. The +zona+ here was a broad belt made double or hollow to carry money in. ]

B. _The Wealth of Lucullus. _

 Chlamydes Lucullus, ut aiunt, 40 Si posset centum scaenae praebere rogatus, ‘Qui possum tot?’ ait; ‘tamen et quaeram, et quot habebo Mittam’: post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque Esse domi chlamydum; partem vel tolleret omnes. 44

 HORACE, _Ep. _ I. Vi. 40-44. 

+Subject. + Horace says ‘I am like Lucullus’ soldier--when his pocket wasempty he would volunteer for forlorn hopes; when it was full again hewould do so no more. It was poverty that made me write verses. ’ --W. 

 [Linenotes: 40. +Chlamydes. + The Chlamys was the light short mantle of the Greeks, here wanted for a pageant on the stage. 44. +tolleret. + The subj. Is the praetor or person giving the show. --W. ]

+Reference. + For _the magnificence of his Villas_ at Tusculum and nearNeapolis, see Cicero _De Fin. _ ii. § 107, _De Leg. _ iii. § 30, Pliny, _N. H. _ ix. 170. 

B24

WAR WITH SPARTACUS, 73-71 B. C. 

_Spartacus and his Gladiators. _

Spartacus, Crixus, Oenomaus effracto Lentuli ludo cum triginta autamplius eiusdem fortunae viris erupere Capua; servisque ad vexillumvocatis cum statim decem amplius milia coissent, homines modo effugissecontenti iam et vindicari volebant. {5} Prima sedes velut rabidis beluismons Vesuvius placuit. Ibi cum obsiderentur a Clodio Glabro, per faucescavi montis vitineis delapsi vinculis ad imas eius descendere radices etexitu inviso nihil tale opinantis ducis subito impetu castra rapuerunt. Adfluentibus {10} in diem copiis cum iam esset iustus exercitus, e viminibus pecudumque tegumentis inconditos sibi clipeos et ferroergastulorum recocto gladios ac tela fecerunt, Indo iam consularesquoque aggressus in Appennino Lentuli exercitum percecidit, apud {15}Mutinam Gai Cassi castra delevit. Tandem enim totis imperii viribuscontra mirmillonem consurgunt, pudoremque Romanum Marcus Crassusasseruit: a quo pulsi fugatique hostes in extrema Italiae refugerunt. Ibi circa Bruttium angulum clusi cum {20} fugam in Siciliam pararentneque navigia suppeterent ratesque ex trabibus et dolia connexavirgultis rapidissimo freto frustra experirentur, tandem eruptione factadignam viris obiere mortem, et quod sub gladiatore duce oportuit, sinemissione {25} pugnatum est. Spartacus ipse in primo agmine fortissimedimicans quasi imperator occisus est. 

 FLORUS, III. Xx. 3-14 (sel. ). 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Spartacus+, by birth a Thracian, who had served among the Thracian auxiliaries in the Roman army, had deserted and become a chief of banditti. He was taken prisoner and sold to a trainer of gladiators. +Crixus+, +Oenomaus+, the slave-names of two Celts. 1-2. +effracto ludo+ = _broke out of the gladiators’ school_. 8. +vitineis vinculis+ = _by means of ropes made of vine-branches_. 9. +inviso+ = _unknown_, lit. _unseen_. 13. +ergastulorum+ = _from the slaves’ work-houses_. 17. +mirmillonem. + The Mirmillones were a class of gladiators usually matched with the Thraces or the _retiarii_ (_net-fighters_). 18. +Marcus Crassus+, the Triumvir of 60 B. C. +asseruit+ = _maintained_. Cf. Our _assert_. 21. +in Siciliam+, where the slaves had risen in 133 and 104 B. C. , and only waited an impulse to break out a third time. 25. +sine missione+ = _without quarter_. Cf. _missio_ = _the discharge_ from service of soldiers and gladiators. ]

B25

THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR, 74-63 B. C. (1)

_Lucullus Ponticus. _

Quoniam de genere belli dixi, nunc de magnitudine pauca dicam. Atque utomnes intellegant me L. Lucullo tantum impertire laudis, quantum fortiviro et sapienti homini et magno imperatori debeatur, dico eius adventumaximas Mithridatis {5} copias omnibus rebus ornatas atque instructasfuisse urbemque Asiae clarissimam nobisque amicissimam, Cyzicenorum, obsessam esse ab ipso rege maxima multitudine et oppugnatamvehementissime, quam L. Lucullus virtute, assiduitate, consilio summis{10} obsidionis periculis liberavit: ab eodem imperatore classem magnamet ornatam, quae ducibus Sertorianis ad Italiam studio inflammataraperetur, superatam esse atque depressam; magnas hostium praetereacopias multis proeliis esse deletas patefactumque {15} nostrislegionibus esse Pontum, qui antea populo Romano ex omni aditu claususfuisset; Sinopen atque Amisum, quibus in oppidis erant domicilia regis, omnibus rebus ornatas atque refertas, ceterasque urbes Ponti etCappadociae permultas uno {20} aditu adventuque esse captas; regemspoliatum regno patrio atque avito ad alios se reges atque ad aliasgentes supplicem contulisse: atque haec omnia salvis populi Romanisociis atque integris vectigalibus esse gesta. {25}

 CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 20,  21. 

 [Linenotes: 5-6. +maximas . .. Fuisse. + M. Had 140, 000 well-trained men, Roman officers sent by Sertorius, 16, 000 cavalry, a war-fleet of 400 ships, and abundance of stores. 7-11. +urbemque . .. Liberavit. + The city of Cyzicus stood on the S. Side of the island of the same name in the Propontis (Sea of Marmora), close to the shore of Mȳsia, to which it was joined by two bridges. 12-14. +classem . .. Depressam+, i. E. Probably the Battle of Tenedos 73 B. C. , in which Marcus Marius and the ablest of the Roman emigrants met their death, and the whole Aegean fleet of Mithridates was annihilated. 15. +multis proeliis+, e. G. Of Cabira, 72 B. C. ; Tigranocerta, 69 B. C. 18. +Sinopen. + +Sinope+, on the W. Headland of the great bay of which the delta of the R. Halys forms the E. Headland, was the birthplace and residence (+domicilia+) of M. 22. +ad alios reges+, e. G. To his son-in-law, Tigranes of Armenia. 23-24. +salvis . .. Vectigalibus+, i. E. Without ruining the provincial by forced contributions and requisitions. ]

+Reference. + For _Siege of Cyzicus_, see Mommsen, vol. Iv. Pp. 326-328;Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii. 13.  6. 

B26

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B. C. 

_His Character, and Career to 66 B. C. _

Iam vero virtuti Cn. Pompei quae potest oratio par inveniri? Quid estquod quisquam aut illo dignum, aut vobis novum aut cuiquam inauditumpossit adferre? Neque enim illae sunt solae virtutes imperatoriae, quaevulgo esistimantur, labor in {5} negotiis, fortitudo in periculis, industria in agendo, celeritas in conficiendo, consilium in providendo, quae tanta sunt in hoc uno, quanta in omnibus reliquis imperatoribus, quos aut vidimus aut audivimus, non fuerunt. Testis est Italia, quamille ipse {10} victor L. Sulla huius virtute et subsidio confessus estliberatam: testis est Sicilia, quam multis undique cinctam periculis nonterrore belli, sed consilii celeritate explicavit: testis est Africa, quae magnis oppressa hostium copiis eorum ipsorum sanguine {15}redundavit: testis est Gallia, per quam legionibus nostris iter inHispaniam Gallorum internecione patefactum est: testis est Hispania, quae saepissime plurimos hostes ab hoc superatos prostratosqueconspexit: testis est iterum et saepius Italia, quae {20} cum servilibello taetro periculosoque premeretur, ab hoc auxilium absenteexpetivit, quod bellum exspectatione eius attenuatum atque imminutumest, adventu sublatum ac sepultum: testes nunc vero iam omnes orae atqueomnes exterae gentes ac nationes. {25}

 CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 29-31. 

 [Linenotes: 10-12. +Testis est Italia . .. Liberatam. + In 83 B. C. Pompeius, aged twenty-four, raised three legions in Picenum, gained several advantages over the Marian generals, and was saluted by Sulla as Imperator. 12-14. +testis est Sicilia . .. Explicavit. + In 82 B. C. Pompeius, sent as propraetor to Sicily, quickly took possession of the island for Sulla. 14-16. +testis est Africa . .. Redundavit. + In 81 B. C. Pompeius defeated at Utica the Marian Ahenobarbus (allied with Hiarbas of Numidia), and was, though _a simple Roman eques_, granted a triumph by Sulla and saluted as +Magnus+. 16-18. +testis est Gallia . .. Patefactum est. + In 77 B. C. , on his way to Spain as proconsul against Sertorius, he had to cut his way through the Transalpine Gauls, and laid out a new and shorter road over the Cottian Alps. 21. +servili bello. + On his return from Spain he cut to pieces the scattered remnants of the army of Spartacus. 21-23. +ab hoc . .. Imminutum est. + Cic. Assumes that the enemy was crippled even by the mere notion of sending for Pompeius. ]

+References. + Plutarch, _Pompeius_; Vell. Paterc. Ii.  29. 

B27

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (1)

_The Man Caesar. _

Fuisse traditur excelsa statura, colore candido, teretibus membris, orepaulo pleniore, nigris vegetisque oculis, valetudine prospera; nisi quodtempore extremo repente animo linqui atque etiam per somnum exterrerisolebat. Armorum et equitandi {5} peritissimus, laboris ultra fidempatiens erat. In agmine nonnunquam equo, saepius pedibus anteibat, capite detecto, seu sol seu imber esset; longissimas vias incredibiliceleritate confecit. In obeundis expeditionibus dubium cautior anaudentior, {10} exercitum neque per insidiosa itinera duxit umquam nisiperspeculatus locorum situs. A Brundisio Dyrrachium inter oppositasclasses hieme transmisit cessantibusque copiis, quas subsequi iusserat, cum ad accersendas frustra saepe misisset, {15} novissime ipse clamnoctu parvulum navigium solus obvoluto capite conscendit, neque aut quisesset ante detexit aut gubernatorem cedere adversae tempestati passusest, quam paene obrutus fluctibus. Ne religione quidem ulla a quoquamincepto absterritus {20} umquam vel retardatus est. Cum immolantiaufugisset hostia, profectionem adversus Scipionem et Iubam nondistulit. Prolapsus etiam in egressu navis, verso ad melius omine Teneote, inquit, Africa. 

 SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 45, 57-59 (sel. )

 [Linenotes: 4. +animo linqui+ = _he was subject to fainting-fits_. 8. +capite detecto+, so Cyrus the Younger and Hannibal. 9. +incredibili celeritate+, cf. Cic. _Ep. Ad Att. _ viii. 9 _hoc_ τέρας (= prodigy) _horribili vigilantia, celeritate, diligentia est_. Cf. Also Napoleon the Great. 14. +cessantibusque copiis+ = _and when the troops delayed their coming_. Caesar did not then know that Antonius had himself been attacked at Brundisium by a Pompeian fleet, and had shown great skill in baffling it, and forcing it to put to sea again. Once more Antonius set sail with 4 legions and 800 horsemen, and fortunately a strong S. Wind carried him safely to the port of Lissus (N.  of Dyrrachium). 18-19. +gubernatorem . .. Passus est. + ‘_Quid times? Caesarem vehis!_’ was Caesar’s famous exhortation to the pilot. (Florus. ) 21-22. +Cum . .. Hostia:+ if the victim even tugged at the rope when being led to sacrifice, it was considered unfortunate, and hence a long slack rope was used. Cf. Juv. Xii. 5 _Sed procul extensum petulans_ (butting) _quatit hostia funem_. 24. According to Frontinus his words were ‘_Teneo te, terra mater_. ’]

+The man Caesar. + ‘We may picture him as a man the dignity of whosebodily presence was in due proportion to the greatness of his mentalpowers. ’ --Warde Fowler. 

B28

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (2)

_Captured by Pirates. Studies Oratory at Rhodes, 76-75 B. C. _

Composita seditione civili Cornelium Dolabellam consularem ettriumphalem repetundarum postulavit; absolutoque Rhodum secederestatuit, et ad declinandam invidiam et ut per otium ac requiem ApollonioMoloni clarissimo tunc dicendi magistro {5} operam daret. Huc dumhibernis iam mensibus traicit, circa Pharmacussam insulam a praedonibuscaptus est, mansitque apud eos, non sine summa indignatione, propequadraginta dies cum uno medico et cubicularis duobus. Nam comitesservosque {10} ceteros initio statim ad expediendas pecunias, quibusredimeretur, dimiserat. Numeratis deinde quinquaginta talentis, expositus in litore non distulit quin e vestigio classe deductapersequeretur abeuntis, ac redactos in potestatem supplicio, quod saepeillis {15} minatus inter iocum fuerat, adficeret. Vastante regionesproximas Mithridate ne desidere in discrimine sociorum videretur, abRhodio quo pertenderat, transiit in Asiam, auxiliisque contractis etpraefecto regis provincia expulso, nutantes ac dubias civitates {20}retinuit in fide. 

 SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 4. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Composita seditione civili+, i. E. After the abortive attempt of Lepidus to make himself master of the state 77 B. C. +C. Dolabellam, + impeached for illegal extortion during his government of Macedonia. +Repetundarum+ (sc. _pecuniarum_), post-Aug. For _de repetundis (pecuniis)_, used i. Of money extorted by an official and to be returned, ii. Of money extorted as a bribe. Caesar lost his case, but succeeded in showing that Sulla’s senatorial judges were corrupt. 4. +Apollonio Moloni+, the famous rhetorician, whose pupil Cicero was both at Rome and at Rhodes. Very possibly Caesar took this step by the advice of Cicero. 7. +circa Pharmacussam insulam:+ S. W. Of Miletus (= mod. _Farmako_). 8-9. +non sine summa indignatione:+ Plutarch, _Caes. _ gives a picturesque account of his adventures as their prisoner. 10. +cubicularis+ (_cubiculum_) = lit. _chamber-servants_. 11. +pecunias . .. + Velleius says that Caesar’s ransom was paid out of public funds. 14. +e vestigio+ (= _statim_) = _immediately_. ]

+Caesar at Rhodes. + ‘Caesar, from what we know of his taste andcharacter, could hardly have found the same delight as Cicero in hisstudies at Rhodes. He nevertheless became one of the greatest orators ofhis day, and according to some accounts, second only to Cicero. It ischaracteristic of Caesar, but unfortunate for us, that he never took anypains to collect and preserve his speeches. ’ --Warde Fowler. 

B29

CICERO PROSECUTES VERRES, 70 B. C. 

_A Roman Citizen maltreated. _

Quid ego de P. Gavio, Consano municipe, dicam, indices? Aut qua vivocis, qua gravitate verborum, quo dolore animi dicam? Quod crimen eiusmodi est ut, cum primum ad me delatum est, usurum me illo non putarem;tametsi enim verissimum esse {5} intellegebam, tamen credibile fore nonarbitrabar. Quid nunc agam? Rem in medio ponam: quae tantum habet ipsagravitatis ut neque mea, quae nulla est, neque cuiusquam ad inflammandosvestros animos eloquentia requiratur. {10}

Caedebatur virgis in medio foro Messanae civis Romanus, iudices; cuminterea nullus gemitus, nulla vox alia illius miseri inter doloremcrepitumque plagarum audiebatur, nisi haec, _Civis Romanus sum_. Hac secommemoratione civitatis omnia verbera {15} depulsurum, cruciatum acorpore deiecturum arbitrabatur. Is non modo hoc non perfecit utvirgarum vim deprecaretur, sed cum imploraret saepius usurparetque nomencivitatis, crux, crux, inquam, infelici et aerumnoso comparabatur. {20}

O nomen dulce libertatis! O ius eximium nostrae civitatis! O lex Porcialegesque Semproniae! O graviter desiderata et aliquando reddita plebiRomanae tribunicia potestas! Hucine tandem omnia reciderunt ut civisRomanus in provincia populi Romani, {25} in oppido foederatorum, ab eoqui beneficio populi Romani fasces et secures haberet deligatus in forovirgis caederetur?

 CICERO, _in Verrem_, ii. 5.  62. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Consano municipe+ = _a burgess of Consa_, on the borders of Lucania. 22. +Lex Porcia. + Passed by M. Porcius Cato, 197 B. C. , forbade the execution or scourging of a Roman citizen. +Leges Semproniae+, a code of laws passed by C. Sempronius Gracchus, 123 B. C. One of these declared it to be the sole right of the people to decide capital cases. 22-24. +O graviter desiderata . .. Potestas!+ Sulla (Dictator 82-79 B. C. ) took from the tribunes _the right of proposing laws_, and left them only their original right of Intercessio or veto. In 70 B. C. Pompeius, who had formally accepted the democratic programme, gave back to the tribunes the power to initiate legislation. ]

+The Orationes In Verrem. + Cicero, as patronus of the Sicilians, undertook the prosecution of the Senator C. Verres for his grossmisconduct as governor of Sicily, 73-71 B. C. 

B30

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B. C. 

_The Lex Gabinia, 67 B. C. _

Converterat Cn. Pompei persona totum in se terrarum orbem et per omniamaior cive habebatur. Qui cum consul perquam laudabiliter iurasset se innullam provinciam ex eo magistratu iturum idque servasset, post bienniumA. Gabinius tribunus {5} legem tulit, ut cum belli more, nonlatrociniorum, orbem classibus iam, non furtivis expeditionibus, pirataeterrerent, quasdamque etiam Italiae urbis diripuissent, Cn. Pompeius adeos opprimendos mitteretur essetque ei imperium aequum in omnibus {10}provinciis cum proconsulibus usque ad quinquagesimum miliarium a mari. Quo decreto paene totius terrarum orbis imperium uni viro deferebatur;sed tamen idem hoc ante biennium in M. Antoni praetura decretum erat. Sed interdum persona ut exemplo {15} nocet, ita invidiam auget autlevat: in Antonio homines aequo animo passi erant; raro enim invidetureorum honoribus, quorum vis non timetur: contra in iis hominesextraordinaria reformidant, qui ea suo arbitrio aut deposituri autretenturi videntur {20} et modum in voluntate habent. Dissuadebantoptimates, sed consilia impetu victa sunt. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 31. 

 [Linenotes: 3-5. +Qui cum consul . .. Servasset. + Pompeius, consul with Crassus in 71-70 B. C. , thought it beneath his dignity to accept a consular province, and waited in Rome as a simple citizen until an opportunity should be offered him to play an extraordinary part. 5. +A. Gabinius+, a client of Pompeius, a man ruined in finances and character, but a dexterous negotiator, a bold orator, and a brave soldier. In 57 B. C. Did excellent service as proconsul of Syria. 6-9. +ut cum belli more . .. Diripuissent. + ‘For twenty years the sea had been rendered unsafe by these curses of human society. ’ The commerce of the whole Mediterranean was in their power. 13-15. +sed tamen . .. Decretum erat. + In 74 B. C. M. Antonius, son of the orator and father of the triumvir, was entrusted by the Senate with the task of clearing the seas from the corsairs. In spite of his extensive powers, the utter incapacity of Antonius, and the mismanagement of the Senate, caused the expedition to end in failure and disgrace. ]

+Result. + ‘The Gabinio-Manilian proposals terminated the strugglebetween the senate and the popular party, which the Sempronian laws(133-123 B. C. ) had begun. As the Sempronian laws first constituted therevolutionary party into a _political opposition_, the Gabinio-Manilianfirst converted it from an _opposition_ into a _government_. ’ --M. 

B31

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B. C. 

_Pompeius clears the Seas of Pirates, 67 B. C. _

Quis enim umquam aut obeundi negoti aut consequendi quaestus studio tambrevi tempore tot loca adire, tantos cursus conficere potuit, quamceleriter Cn. Pompeio duce tanti belli impetus navigavit? Qui nondumtempestivo ad navigandum mari Siciliam {5} adiit, Africam exploravit, inSardiniam cum classe venit, atque haec tria frumentaria subsidia reipublicae firmissimis praesidiis classibusque munivit. Inde cum se inItaliam recepisset, duabus Hispaniis et Gallia transalpina praesidiis acnavibus confirmata, {10} missis item in oram Illyrici maris et inAchaiam omnemque Graeciam navibus Italiae duo maria maximis classibusfirmissimisque praesidiis adornavit, ipse autem, ut Brundisio profectusest, undequinquagesimo die totam ad imperium populi Romani {15} Ciliciamadiunxit: omnes, qui ubique praedones fuerant, partim captiinterfectique sunt, partim unius huius se imperio ac potestatidediderunt. Ita tantum bellum, tam diuturnum, tam longe latequedispersum, quo bello omnes gentes ac nationes {20} premebantur, Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme adparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestateconfecit. 

 CICERO, _pro Lege Manilia_, 34,  35. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +tanti belli impetus, + fig. For _an attacking fleet of such force_, which from its size would ordinarily sail slowly. --Wilkins. 5-8. +Qui . .. Munivit. + Early in the year (+nondum tempestivo ad navigandum+) Pompeius cleared of pirates the Sicilian, African, and Sardinian waters, so re-establish the supply of grain from these provinces to Italy. 14-18. +undequagesimo . .. Dediderunt. + The bold Cilician seakings alone ventured to face the Roman fleet in the offing of Coracesium (at the W. Frontier of Cilicia), but were completely defeated. Forty-nine days (+undequinquagesimo+) after Pompeius had appeared in the Eastern seas, Cilicia was subdued, and the war at an end. ‘In all about 1300 piratical vessels are said to have been destroyed: besides which the richly filled arsenals and magazines of the buccaneers were burnt. Of the pirates, about 10, 000 perished (+interfecti+); upwards of 20, 000 fell alive (+partim capti--partim se dediderunt+) into the hands of the victor. ’ --M. 22. +ineunte vere . .. Confecit. + ‘In the summer of 67 B. C. , three months after the beginning of the campaign, commerce resumed its wonted course, and instead of the former famine abundance prevailed in Italy. ’ --M. ]

+This was the first trial of rule centralised in a single hand, + andPompeius fully justified the confidence that was placed in him. 

B32

THE THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR, 74-63 B. C. (2)

_Pompeius subdues Mithridates and Tigranes. _

Pompeius interea memorabile adversus Mithridaten, qui post Luculliprofectionem magnas novi exercitus vires reparaverat, bellum gessit. Atrex fusus fugatusque et omnibus exutus copiis Armeniam Tigranenquegenerum petit, regem eius temporis, {5} nisi qua Luculli armis eratinfractus, potentissimum. Simul itaque duos persecutus Pompeius intravitArmeniam. Prior filius Tigranis, sed discors patri, pervenit adPompeium: mox ipse supplex et praesens se regnumque dicioni eiuspermisit, {10} praefatus neminem alium neque Romanum neque ullius gentisvirum futurum fuisse, cuius se societate commissurus foret, quamPompeium; non esse turpe ab eo vinci, quem vincere esset nefas, nequeinhoneste aliquem summitti huic, quem fortuna super {15} omnesextulisset. Servatus regi honos imperi, sed multato ingenti pecunia, quae omnis, sicuti Pompeio moris erat, redacta in quaestoris potestatemac publicis descripta litteris. Syria aliaeque, quas occupaverat, provinciae ereptae, et aliae restitutae populo {20} Romano, aliae tumprimum in eius potestatem redactae, ut Syria, quae tum primum facta eststipendiaria. Finis imperi regi terminatus Armenia. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 37. 

+Context. + In 66 B. C. Lucullus, of whom Mommsen says ‘hardly any otherRoman general accomplished so much with so trifling means, ’ wassuperseded by Pompeius. By the Lex Manilia Pompeius obtained, inaddition to the extensive powers conferred upon him by the Lex Gabinia67 B. C. , the military administration of Asia as far as Armenia. ‘Neversince Rome stood had such power been united in the hands of a singleman. ’ --M. 

 [Linenotes: 3-4. +rex fusus . .. Copiis+, i. E. In Lesser Armenia, on S. Bank of R. Lycus, where Pompeius afterwards founded Nicopolis. 5. +Tigranenque generum petit. + Tigranes had married Cleopatra, the daughter of Mithridates. 17-19. +quae omnis . .. Litteris, + i. E. Paid into the Roman treasury. Cf. Lucan ix. 197 _Immodicas possedit opes, sed plura retentis_ | _Intulit_ sc. _in aerarium_. ]

+The End of Mithridates. + After his defeat at Nicopolis the aged kingtook refuge in his Northern capital of Panticapaeum (on the CimmerianBosporus). Here, when all turned against him, he took poison, 63 B. C. ‘In him a great enemy was borne to the tomb, a greater than had ever yetwithstood the Romans in the indolent East. ’ --M. 

+Syria made a Roman Province, + 65 B. C. 

B33

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (3)

A. _Curule Aedile, 65 B. C. _

Aedilis praeter comitium ac forum basilicasque etiam Capitolium ornavitporticibus ad tempus exstructis, in quibus abundante rerum copia parsapparatus exponeretur. Venationes autem ludosque et cum collega etseparatim edidit, quo factum est, {5} ut communium quoque impensarumsolus gratiam caperet, nec dissimularet collega eius Marcus Bibulusevenisse sibi quod Polluci: ut enim geminis fratribus aedes in foroconstituta tantum Castoris vocaretur, ita suam Caesarisque munificentiamunius Caesaris {10} dici. 

 SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 10. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Aedilis. + As curule-aedile Caesar exceeded all previous expenditure. This was meant to secure the favour of the democracy, and gain the position of its leader, which was in fact vacant; for Crassus was never popular, and Pompeius was absent in the East. +basilicas+ (βασιλική sc. οἰκία and στοά: _regia_) = _halls_. 2. +porticibus:+ these acted as booths, in a grand fair, as we should say. 4. +Venationes+, here of the combats with wild beasts. 7. +M. Bibulus+, also Caesar’s colleague in his first consulship, 59 B. C. ]

B. _Propraetor in Further Spain, 61 B. C. _

Ex praetura ulteriorem sortitus Hispaniam, retinentes creditoresinterventu sponsorum removit, ac neque more neque iure, ante quamprovinciae ornarentur, profectus est; pacataque provincia, pari {15}festinatione, non expectato successore, ad triumphum simul consulatumquedecessit. Sed cum, edictis iam comitiis, ratio eius haberi non possetnisi privatus introisset urbem, et ambienti ut legibus solveretur multicontradicerent, coactus est triumphum, {20} ne consulatu excluderetur, dimittere. 

 SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 18. 

+Context. + In 69 B. C. Caesar was elected to a Quaestorship (the loweststep in the ladder of official life) and discharged his judicial dutiesin Further Spain with tact and industry. 

 [Linenotes: 13. +retinentes . .. Removit+ = _freed himself from his creditors, who were for detaining him_, by the help of sureties. Caesar is said to have borrowed from Crassus 830 talents. 14-15. +ante quam provinciae ornarentur:+ a regular phrase used of supplying the newly chosen magistrate with money, arms, attendants, etc. 18. +ratio . .. Posset+ = _his candidature could not be considered_. ]

+Propraetor in F. Spain. + ‘His governorship enabled him partly to ridhimself of his debts partly to lay the foundation for his militaryrepute. ’ --M. 

B34

THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE, 63 B. C. (1)

_Cicero declaims against the Audacity of Catiline. _

Quo usque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra? Quam diu etiamfuror iste tuus nos eludet? Quem ad finem sese effrenata iactabitaudacia? Nihilne te nocturnum praesidium Palati, nihil urbis vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil concursus bonorum {5} omnium, nihil hicmunitissimus habendi senatus locus, nihil horum ora voltusque moverunt?Patere tua consilia non sentis? Constrictam iam horum omnium scientiateneri coniurationem tuam non vides? Quid proxima, quid superiore nocteegeris, {10} ubi fueris, quos convocaveris, quid consilii ceperis, quemnostrum ignorare arbitraris? O tempora! O mores! Senatus haecintellegit; consul videt: hic tamen vivit. Vivit? immo vero etiam insenatum venit: fit publici consilii particeps; notat at designat {15}oculis ad caedem unum quemque nostrum.  .  .  . Castra sunt in Italiacontra rem publicam in Etruriae faucibus collocata: crescit in diessingulos hostium numerus; eorum autem castrorum imperatorem ducemquehostium intra moenia atque {20} adeo in senatu videmus intestinamaliquam cotidie perniciem rei publicae molientem. Si te iam, Catilina, eomprehendi, si interfici iussero, credo, erit verendum mihi ne non hocpotius omnes boni serius a me quam quisquam crudelius factum esse dicat. {25}

 CICERO, _in Catilinam_, i. §§ 1, 2,  5. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Quo usque tandem abutere+ = _how long, pray, will you presume upon?_ Catiline had been declared _hostis patriae_, and yet dared to appear in the Senate. 4. +praesidium Palati+: in the case of any threatening danger the +Mons Palatinus+ was occupied as one of the most important military points in the city. 6-7. +senatus locus+, i. E. The temple of +Jupiter Stator+, on the N. Slope of the Palatine, chosen as the safest meeting-place, and near Cicero’s house. 17-18. +castra . .. Collocata+, the camp of Manlius (one of the veteran centurions of Sulla) was planted at Faesulae (Fiesole), a rocky fastness three miles N. E. Of Florence. 19. +imperatorem:+ ironical, as though Catiline were the legally appointed general of the Republic. ]

+In L. Catilinam Oratio i. + ‘This splendid oration, in its fiery vigourand mastery of invective, is unsurpassed except by the SecondPhilippic. ’ --Cruttwell. 

+Its effect on Catiline. + _Tum ille furibundus ‘quoniam quidemcircumventus’ inquit ‘ab inimicis praeceps agor, incendium meum ruinarestinguam. ’_ Sall. _Catil. _ 31. That night Catiline left Rome for thecamp of Manlius. 

B35

THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE, 63 B. C. (2)

_The End of Catiline. _

Sed confecto proelio tum vero cerneres, quanta audacia quantaque visanimi fuisset in exercitu Catilinae. Nam fere, quem quisque vivuspugnando locum ceperat, eum, amissa anima, corpore tegebat. Pauci autem, quos medios cohors praetoria disiecerat, {5} paulo divorsius, sed omnestamen advorsis volneribus conciderant. Catilina vero longe a suis interhostium cadavera repertus est, paululum etiam spirans ferociamque animi, quam habuerat vivus, in voltu retinens. Postremo ex omni copia neque in{10} proelio neque in fuga quisquam civis ingenuus captus est. Itacuncti suae hostiumque vitae iuxta pepercerant. Neque tamen exercituspopuli Romani laetam aut incruentam victoriam adeptus erat; namstrenuissumus quisque aut occiderat in proelio, aut {15} gravitervolneratus discesserat. Multi autem, qui de castris visundi autspoliandi gratia processerant, volventes hostilia cadavera, amicum alii, pars hospitem aut cognatum reperiebant; fuere item, qui inimicos suoscognoscerent. Ita varie per omnem {20} exercitum laetitia, maeror, luctus atque gaudia agitabantur. 

 SALLUST, _Bellum Catilinae_,  61. 

 [Linenotes: 5. +cohors praetoria+: a _corps d’élite_, specially organised as a bodyguard of the general (_praetor_ = _praeitor_, _prae + eo_), dating from the time when the praetores was the older name of the consuls (= _colleagues_). 8. +etiam+ (= _adhuc_) = _still_. Cf. Verg. _Aen. _ vi. 485 _etiam currus etiam arma tenentem_. 11. +civis ingenuus+, i. E. A free citizen born of free citizens. 12. +Ita cuncti . .. Pepercerant+ = _so unsparing had they all been alike of their own and their opponents’ lives_. --Pollard. 21. +laetitia+ = joy manifested, +gaudia+ = joy felt. +luctus+ = grief shown by outward signs, e. G. By dress. +maeror+ = grief shown by inward signs, e. G. By tears, or a sad face. ]

+The Battle of Pistoria+ (Pistoia, N. W. Of Faesulae). ‘Catiline showedon this day that nature had destined him for no ordinary things, andthat he knew at once how to command and how to fight as a soldier. Atlength Petreius, with his bodyguard, broke the centre of the enemy, andthen attacked the two wings from within. This decided the day. ’ --M. 

+The character of Catiline. + ‘He was one of the most wicked men in thatwicked age. He possessed in a high degree the qualities which arerequired in the leader of a band of ruined and desperate men--thefaculty of enjoying all pleasures and of bearing all privations, courage, military talent, knowledge of men, indomitable energy. ’ --M. Cf. Sall. _Catil. _ 5. 

B36

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR (4). 

_Forms the First Triumvirate: Consul, 60-59 B. C. _

Hoc igitur consule inter eum et Cn. Pompeium et M. Crassum initapotentiae societas, quae urbi orbique terrarum nec minus diverso quoquetempore ipsis exitiabilis fuit. Hoc consilium sequendi Pompeius causamhabuerat, ut tandem acta in {5} transmarinis provinciis, quibus, utpraediximus, multi obtrectabant, per Caesarem confirmarentur consulem, Caesar autem, quod animadvertebat se cedendo Pompei gloriae aucturumsuam et invidia communis potentiae in illum relegata confirmaturum {10}vires suas, Crassus, ut quem principatum solus adsequi non poterat, auctoritate Pompei, viribus teneret Caesaris. Adfinitas etiam interCaesarem Pompeiumque contracta nuptiis, quippe Iuliam, filiam C. Caesaris, Cn. Magnus duxit uxorem. In {15} hoc consulatu Caesar legemtulit, ut ager Campanus plebei divideretur, suasore legis Pompeio: itacirciter XX milia civium eo deducta et ius urbis restitutum post annoscirciter CLII quam bello Punico ab Romanis Capua in formam praefecturae{20} redacta erat. Bibulus, collega Caesaris, cum actiones eius magisvellet impedire quam posset, maiore parte anni domi se tenuit: quo factodum augere vult invidiam collegae, auxit potentiam. Tum Caesari decretaein quinquennium Galliae. {25}

 VELL. PAT. Ii. 44. 

 [Linenotes: 1-2. +inter eum . .. Societas+, the famous First Triumvirate. ‘It was at first an expedient to secure, as we should say, a working majority for a vigorous democratic policy, but the bitterness of its enemies transformed the coalition itself from an honourable union into the semblance of a three-headed tyranny. ’ --Warde Fowler. 4-7. The ultra-senatorial party (after Pompeius’ great act of renunciation, when he dismissed his victorious veterans in 62 B. C. ) had checked and worried Pompeius by refusing to ratify his arrangements in the East, and by criticising and opposing his plans for rewarding his veterans. Thus they deliberately drove him once more into the arms of Caesar and the democracy. 10. +relegata+ = _attributed_, _imputed_, lit. _removed_ (_re_ + _lēgo_). 21. +Bibulus, collega Caesaris:+ cf. Suet. _Divus Iulius_ 20: _Non Bibulo quicquam, nuper sed Caesare factum est: Nam Bibulo fieri consule nil memini. _]

+Caesar’s First Consulship. + Among his other acts was the famous _LexIulia de pecuniis repetundis_ (against official extortion in theprovinces), which won strong praise even from Cicero himself. 

B37

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B. C. (1)

‘_That day he overcame the Nervii_, ’ 57 B. C. 

Caesar ab decimae legionis cohortatione ad dextrum cornu profectus, ubisuos urgeri signisque in unum locum collatis duodecimae legionisconfertos milites sibi ipsos ad pugnam esse impedimento vidit--quartaecohortis omnibus centurionibus occisis, {5} signifero interfecto, signoamisso, reliquarum cohortium omnibus fere centurionibus aut vulneratisaut occisis, in his primipilo P. Sextio Baculo, fortissimo viro, multisgravibusque volneribus confecto, ut iam se sustinere non posset;reliquos esse tardiores et nonnullos {10} ab novissimis deserto proelioexcedere ac tela vitare, hostes neque a fronte ex inferiore locosubeuntes intermittere et ab utroque latere instare, et rem esse inangusto vidit neque ullum esse subsidium quod submitti posset, scuto abnovissimis {15} militi detracto, quod ipse eo sine scuto venerat, inprimam aciem processit; centurionibusque nominatim appellatis reliquoscohortatus milites signa inferre et manipulos laxare iussit, quofacilius gladiis uti possent. Cuius adventu spe illata militibus ac {20}redintegrato animo, cum pro se quisque in conspectu imperatoris etiam inextremis suis rebus operam navare cuperet, paulum hostium impetustardatus est. 

 CAESAR, _de B. G. _ ii. 25. 

+Context. + The Nervii, the bravest of the Belgae, surprised Caesar’s menwhile at work on their camp. There was no time to think: they tookstation where they could. The 9th and 10th legions on the left broke andpursued the enemy in front of them, and the two legions in the centrestood firm. But on the right there was a gap, and the Nervii wererapidly surrounding the two legions huddled together here, and the fightthreatened every moment to become a second Cannae, +when Caesar restoredthe fight+. Labienus sent back the victorious 10th, who took the enemyin their rear, and the cavalry completed the victory. 

 [Linenotes: 14-15. +neque ullum . .. Posset+: the rear guard, the 13th and 14th legions, had not yet come up. 18-19. +signa . .. Laxare+ = _to charge and_ (thus) _open out the ranks_. 22-23. +operam navare+ = _to do their very best_. +navo+ (orig. _gnavo_; cf. γνώσκω) = lit. _to make known_, _to exhibit_. ]

+The Battle of the Sambre. + One of the most desperate that Caesar everfought. The memory of it lived in Caesar’s mind so vividly that he seemsto fight the battle over again as he describes it, in language for himunusually strong and intense. --W.  F. 

+Result of the Battle+, the submission of North West Gaul. 

B38

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B. C. (2)

_Naval Battle with the Veneti, 56 B. C. _

Una erat magno usui res praeparata a nostris, --falces praeacutaeinsertae affixaeque longuriis non absimili forma muralium falcium. Hiscum funes qui antemnas ad malos destinabant comprehensi adductiqueessent, navigio remis incitato praerumpebantur. {5} Quibus abscisisantemnae necessario concidebant; ut, cum omnis Gallicis spes in velisarmamentisque consisteret, his ereptis omnis usus navium uno temporeeriperetur. Reliquum erat certamen positum in virtute, qua nostrimilites facile {10} superabant atque eo magis, quod in conspectuCaesaris atque omnis exercitus res gerebatur, ut nullum paulo fortiusfactum latere posset; omnes enim colles ac loca superiora, unde eratpropinquus despectus in mare, ab exercitu tenebantur. Disiectis, utdiximus, {15} antemnis, cum singulas binae ac ternae navescircumsteterant, milites summa vi transcendere in hostium navescontendebant. Quod postquam barbari fieri animadverterunt, expugnatiscompluribus navibus, cum ei rei nullum reperiretur auxilium, fuga {20}salutem petere contenderunt. Ac iam conversis in eam partem navibus quoventus ferebat, tanta subito malacia ac tranquillitas exstitit ut se exloco movere non possent. Quae quidem res ad negotium conficiendum maximefuit opportuna; nam singulas {25} nostri consectati expugnaverunt, utperpaucae ex omni numero noctis interventu ad terram pervenerint, cum abhora fere quarta usque ad solis occasum pugnaretur. 

 CAESAR, _de B. G. _ iii. 14,  15. 

+Context. + In the winter of 57-6 Roman officers, who came to levyrequisitions of grain, were detained by the Veneti. Caesar’s attack ontheir coast-towns failed to reduce them to submission: so he determinedto wait for his fleet. This he entrusted to Decimus Brutus, an able anddevoted officer. At first the Roman galleys were powerless against thehigh-decked strong sailing-vessels of the Veneti, but +the use of themurales falces, and the opportune calm, enabled Brutus to annihilatetheir fleet+. 

 [Linenotes: 11-12. +quod . .. Gerebatur. + Napoleon (_Caesar_, vol. Ii. P.  6) thinks that Caesar was encamped on the heights of Saint Gildas overlooking Quiberon Bay. 23. +malacia+ = _a calm_, but μαλακία = _softness_, L. _mollities_. ]

+Result of the Victory+--the surrender of the Veneti and of allBrittany. +The earliest historical naval battle fought on the AtlanticOcean. +--M. 

B39

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B. C. (3)

_Caesar’s Bridge across the Rhine, 55 B. C. _

Rationem pontis hanc instituit. Tigna bina sesquipedalia paulum ab imopraeacuta, dimensa ad altitudinem fluminis, intervallo pedum duoruminter se iungebat. Haec cum machinationibus immissa in flumen defixeratfistucisque adegerat--non sublicae {5} modo derecte ad perpendiculum, sed prone ac fastigate, ut secundum naturam fluminis procumberent--eisitem contraria duo ad eundem modum iuncta intervallo pedum quadragenumab inferiore parte contra vim atque impetum fluminis conversa statuebat. {10} Haec utraque insuper bipedalibus trabibus immissis, quantum eorumtignorum iunctura distabat, binis utrimque fibulis ab extrema partedistinebantur; quibus disclusis atque in contrariam partem revinctis, tanta erat operis firmitudo atque {15} ea rerum natura ut, quo maior visaquae se incitavisset, hoc artius illigata tenerentur. Haec derectamateria iniecta contexebantur ac longuriis cratibusque consternebantur;ac nihilo setius sublicae et ad inferiorem partem fluminis obliqueagebantur, quae {20} pro ariete subiectae et cum omni opere coniunctaevim fluminis exciperent; et aliae item supra pontem mediocri spatio, ut, si arborum trunci sive naves deiciendi operis essent a barbarisimmissae, his defensoribus earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti {25}nocerent. 

 CAESAR, _de B. G. _ iv. 17. 

+Context. + The year 55 B. C. Appears to have been marked by a generalmovement in the migration of the German tribes. An advance, consistingof two tribes, the Usipetes and Tenctri, crowded forward by the morepowerful Suevi, crossed the Lower Rhine into N. Gaul. Caesar drove themback across the Rhine, +bridged the river+, followed them up into theirown territories, and fully established the supremacy of the Roman arms. --Allen and Greenough. 

 [Linenotes: 5. +fistucisque adegerat+ = _and had driven them home_ (+ad+-) _with rammers_. For Plan of Bridge see Allen’s _Caesar_, p. 103. 11-14. +Haec . .. Distinebantur+ = _these two sets were held apart by two-feet timbers laid on above, equal_ (in thickness) _to the interval left by the fastening of the piles_ (+quantum . .. Distabat+), _with a pair of ties_ (+fibulis+) _at each end_. --A. & G. 17-18. +Haec . .. Contexebantur+ = _these_ (i. E. The framework of timber) _were covered over by boards_ (+materia+) _laid lengthwise_. +longuriis+ = _with long poles_. ]

+The Bridge+ (prob. Near Bonn). ‘With extraordinary speed (in ten days)the bridge was completed. It was a triumph of engineering and industry. ’--W.  F. 

B40

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B. C. (4)

_Cassivellaunus. Second Invasion of Britain, 54 B. C. _

Cassivellaunus, omni deposita spe contentionis, dimissis amplioribuscopiis, milibus circiter quattuor essedariorum relictis itinera nostraservabat: paulumque ex via excedebat locisque impeditis ac silvestribussese occultabat, atque eis regionibus quibus {5} nos iter facturoscognoverat pecora atque homines ex agris in silvas compellebat; et cumequitatus noster liberius praedandi vastandique causa se in agroseiecerat, omnibus viis semitisque essedarios ex silvis emittebat; etmagno cum periculo nostrorum {10} equitum cum eis confligebat atque hocmetu latius vagari prohibebat. Relinquebatur ut neque longius ab agminelegionum discedi Caesar pateretur, et tantum in agris vastandisincendiisque faciendis hostibus noceretur quantum in labore atqueitinere {15} legionarii milites efficere poterant.  .  .  . Cassivellaunushoc proelio nuntiato, tot detrimentis acceptis, vastatis finibus, maximeetiam permotus defectione civitatum, legatos per Atrebatem Commium dededitione ad Caesarem mittit. {20}

 CAESAR, _de B. G. _ v. 19, 22. 

+Context. + The First Invasion of Britain (55 B. C. ) was only a visit ofexploration; but in the Second Invasion (54 B. C. ) Caesar aimed at apartial conquest. He had been hearing of Britain ever since he came toGaul, and knew it to be a refuge for his Celtic enemies and a secretsource of their strength. He set sail from the Portus Ittius (mod. Wissant, some twelve miles W. Of Calais) and after drifting some way tothe N. E. , made his way to his former landing-place, probably nearRomney. Some severe fighting followed, till at length Caesar crossed theThames (apparently between Kingston and Brentford) and +entered thecountry of Cassivellaunus, who gave Caesar much trouble by his guerillatactics. Deserted by his allies, Cassivellaunus offered his submission, which Caesar gladly accepted. +

 [Linenotes: 1. +Contentionis+, i. E. Of a general engagement with Caesar. 12. +Relinquebatur ut+ = _the consequence was that_ . .. 17. +hoc proelio+, i. E. The storming by Caesar of his fortified camp, perh. St. Albans. 18-19. +defectione civitatum+, espec. Of the Trinobantes (chief place _Camulodunum_, later _Colonia castrum_ = _Colchester_). 19. +Commium+, Caesar had made him King of the Atrebates (N. W. Gaul). ]

+Caesar In Britain. + ‘What he tells us of the geography and inhabitantsof the Island comprises almost all we know, except from coins, down tothe time of its final conquest by Clodius 51 A. D. ’ --W.  F. 

B41

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B. C. (5)

_The Gallic uprising. Fabian tactics of Vercingetorix, 52 B. C. _

Vercingetorix tot continuis incommodis acceptis suos ad conciliumconvocat. Docet ‘longe alia ratione esse bellum gerendum atque anteagestum sit; omnibus modis huic rei studendum ut pabulatione et commeatuRomani prohibeantur: id esse {5} facile, quod equitatu ipsi abundent etquod anni tempore subleventur; pabulum secari non posse; necessariodispersos hostes ex aedificiis petere; hos omnes cotidie ab equitibusdeleri posse. Praeterea, salutis causa rei familiaris commodaneglegenda; {10} vicos atque aedificia incendi oportere hoc spatioquoqueversus, quo pabulandi causa adire posse videantur. Harum ipsisrerum copiam suppetere, quod quorum in finibus bellum geratur eorumopibus subleventur: Romanos aut inopiam non laturos aut {15} magno cumpericulo longius a castris processuros; neque interesse ipsosneinterficiant an impedimentis exuant, quibus amissis bellum geri nonpossit. Praeterea, oppida incendi oportere quae non munitione et locinatura ab omni sint periculo tuta; ne {20} suis sint ad detrectandammilitiam receptacula, neu Romanis proposita ad copiam commeatuspraedamque tollendam. Haec si gravia aut acerba videantur, multo illagravius aestimari debere, liberos, coniuges in servitutem abstrahi, ipsos interfici; {25} quae sit necesse accidere victis. ’

 CAESAR, _de B. G. _ vii. 14. 

+Context. + On his return from Britain, Caesar found the N. Gauls in openrevolt. The division of Sabinus (at Aduatuca, near Liège) wasannihilated by Ambiorix, and Caesar was only just in time to relieve Q. Cicero at Charleroi. To prevent all further support to the Gauls fromthe Germans across the Rhine, Caesar again made a military demonstrationacross the river, and put an end to all the hopes of the Germans ofbreaking through this boundary. In the winter of 53-2 B. C. , during hisabsence in Cisalpine Gaul, +a general uprising of the S. And CentralGauls took place under the Arvernian Vercingetorix, the hero of thewhole Gallic race+. 

 [Linenotes: 6-7. +anni tempore+, i. E. Scarcely yet spring, when no crops could be got off the land. 11-12. +hoc spatio quoqueversus, quo+ = _so far in every direction as_. 19. +oppida incendi:+ only Avaricum (Bourges) was to be spared. 22. +proposita+ = _offered_ to be captured by the Romans. ]

+The tactics of Vercingetorix. + ‘He adopted a system of warfare similarto that by which Cassivellaunus had saved the Celts of Britain. ’ --M. 

B42

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B. C. (6)

_Siege of Gergovia. Petronius dies to save his men, 52 B. C. _

Cum acerrime comminus pugnaretur, hostes loco et numero, nostri virtuteconfiderent, subito sunt Aedui visi ab latere nostris aperto, quosCaesar ab dextra parte alio ascensu manus distinendae causa miserat. Hisimilitudine armorum vehementer {5} nostros perterruerunt. Eodem temporeL. Fabius centurio quique una murum ascenderant circumventi atqueinterfecti de muro praecipitabantur. M. Petronius, eiusdem legioniscenturio, cum portas excidere conatus esset, a multitudine oppressus acsibi desperans, {10} multis iam volneribus acceptis, manipularibus suisqui illum secuti erant, ‘Quoniam, ’ inquit, ‘me una vobiscum servare nonpossum, vestrae quidem certe vitae prospiciam, quos cupiditate gloriaeadductus in periculum deduxi. Vos data facultate vobis consulite. ’ {15}Simul in niedios hostes irrupit, duobusque interfectis reliquos a portapaulum submovit. Conantibus auxiliari suis, ‘Frustra, ’ inquit, ‘meaevitae subvenire conamini, quem iam sanguis viresque deficiunt. Proindeabite dum est facultas vosque ad {20} legionem recipite. ’ Ita pugnanspost paulum concidit ac suis saluti fuit. 

 CAESAR, _de B. G. _ vii. 50. 

+Context. + With a half-starved army Caesar stormed Avaricum after a mostobstinate defence, and then laid siege to the Arvernian capital ofGergovia, in hope of destroying Vercingetorix and ending the war. As thetown was too strong to be taken by storm, he resolved to try a blockade, but he failed, as at Dyrrachium in 49 B. C. , from want of sufficienttroops. 

+A last desperate attack on the town was repulsed+, and Caesar, defeatedfor the first time, was forced to raise the siege. 

 [Linenotes: 3. +ab latere nostris aperto:+ as a soldier carries his shield on the left arm, leaving the sword hand free, this (right) side is called +latus apertum+. --Compton. 4. +manus distinendae causa+ = _for the purpose of diverting_ (+distinendae+, lit. _hold off_) _the enemy’s force_. 6. +perterruerunt+: this was all the more natural, as the Aeduan contingent was only awaiting the result of the blockade, to openly join the insurgents. 9. +excidere+ = _to cut away_, _hew down_, i. E. From within. ]

+Gergovia+, 4 miles S. Of Clermont. This famous stronghold consists of arectangular plateau nearly a mile in length, and some 1300 feet abovethe plain through which the Allier flows, and descending steeply on allsides but one to the ground. 

+Caesar’s failure. + ‘The fact was that chiefly owing to the nature ofthe ground and their own ardour, Caesar’s men were not well in hand. ’--W.  F. 

B43

THE GALLIC WAR, 58-50 B. C. (7)

_Siege of Alesia. The Last Fight of Vercingetorix, 52 B. C. _

Vercingetorix ex arce Alesiae suos conspicatus ex oppido egreditur:crates, longurios, musculos, fasces, reliquaque quae eruptionis causaparaverat profert. Pugnatur uno tempore omnibus locis atque omniatemptantur; quae minime visa pars firma est huc {5} concurritur. Romanorum manus tantis munitionibus distinetur nec facile pluribus locisoccurrit.  .  .  . Labienus, postquam neque aggeres neque fossae vimhostium sustinere poterant, coactis XI cohortibus, quas ex proximispraesidiis deductas fors obtulit, {10} Caesarem per nuntios facitcertiorem quid faciendum existimet. Accelerat Caesar ut proeliointersit. Eius adventu ex colore vestitus cognito (quo insigni inproeliis uti consuerat), turmisque equitum et cohortibus visis quas sesequi iusserat, ut de locis {15} superioribus haec declivia et devexacemebantur, hostes proelium committunt. Utrimque clamore sublato excipitrursus ex vallo atque omnibus munitionibus clamor. Nostri omissis pilisgladiis rem gerunt. Repente post tergum equitatus cernitur: {20}cohortes aliae appropinquant. Hostes terga vertunt; fugientibus equitesoccurrunt: fit magna caedes: pauci ex tanto numero se incolumes incastra recipiunt. 

 CAESAR, _de B. G. _ vii. 84, 87,  88. 

+Context. + After his successful defence of Gergovia, Vercingetorixallowed his judgment to be overruled, and attacked Caesar’s army (nowunited to the division of Labienus) on the march. Caesar shook off theenemy with the help of his German cavalry, and turned their retreat intoa rout. V. Then threw himself with all his forces into Alesia. Caesarconstructed an inner line of investment and an outer line of defence, and was thus able to wear out the besieged and +beat back the relievinghost of the Gauls+. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +suos+, i. E. The host (some 250, 000) of the relieving army of Gauls. 2. +musculos+ (dimin. Of _mus_) = _pent-houses_ or _sheds_. 4. +omnibus locis+, i. E. Along the whole length of Caesar’s outer line of defence, _where it ran along the slope of Mont Réa_, to the N. W. Of Alesia. This, as the relieving Gauls were quick to see, was the weakest point of the whole line. 13. +ex colore vestitus+, i. E. The purple or scarlet paludamentum. ]

+Vercingetorix. + The Celtic officers delivered up V. To Caesar, to beled in triumph five years later, and beheaded as a traitor. In 1865 astatue was erected on the summit of Alesia, in honour of the heroicGaul. 

+The fall of Alesia decided the fate of Gaul. +

B44

CICERO IN EXILE, MARCH 58 B. C. -AUGUST 57 B. C.  (1)

_His Banishment. _

Per idem tempus P. Clodius, homo nobilis, disertus, audax, quiquedicendi neque faciendi ullum nisi quem vellet nosset modum, malorumpropositorum exsecutor acerrimus, cum graves inimicitias cum M. Ciceroneexerceret (quid enim inter tam {5} dissimilis amicum esse poterat?) et apatribus ad plebem transisset, legem in tribunatu tulit, qui civemRomanum non damnatum interemisset, ei aqua et igni interdiceretur: cuiusverbis etsi non nominabatur Cicero, tamen solus petebatur. Ita viroptime {10} meritus de re publica conservatae patriae pretiumcalamitatem exili tulit. Non caruerunt suspicione oppressi CiceronisCaesar et Pompeius. Hoc sibi contraxisse videbatur Cicero, quod inter xxviros dividendo agro Campano esse noluisset. Idem intra {15} bienniumsera Cn. Pompei cura, verum ut coepit intenta, votisque Italiae acdecretis senatus, virtute atque actione Anni Milonis tribuni pl. Dignitati patriaeque restitutus est. Neque post Numidici exilium acreditum quisquam aut expulsus invidiosius {20} aut receptus est laetius:cuius domus quam infeste a Clodio disiecta erat, tam speciose a senaturestituta est. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 45. 

 [Linenotes: 6-7. +a patribus . .. Transisset. + When Cicero refused to throw in his lot with the Triumvirs, Publius Clodius was (by the aid of Caesar as Pontifex Maximus) hurriedly transferred from a patrician to a plebeian gens, and then chosen a tribune of the people for the year 58 B. C. Clodius was thus enabled to satisfy his private hatred of Cicero, and Caesar was enabled to get rid of the man who persisted in opposing him. 7-8. +qui . .. Interemisset:+ aimed at Cicero for his share in the summary execution of the Catilinarians 63 B. C. Mommsen calls it a judicial murder. Undoubtedly the Senate had not the power of sentencing _citizens_ to death. But Cicero argues that the legal effect of the _Senatus consultum ultimum_ was to _disenfranchise_ Lentulus and his associates, and to place them in the position of _outlaws_. 12-13. +Non caruerunt . .. Pompeius:+ Caesar having in vain tried to win him over abandoned him to his fate, and Pompeius basely deserted him. 15. +dividendo agro Campano+, i. E. By Caesar’s Agrarian Law of 59 B. C. , to provide for Pompey’s veterans. 18. +Anni Milonis:+ the bravoes of Milo protected from disturbance the voters engaged in sanctioning the decree for the recall of Cicero. 19. +Numidici+, i. E. Q. Caecilius Metellus, general against Jugurtha, superseded by Marius and forced to retire to Rhodes. ]

B45

CICERO IN EXILE, MARCH 58 B. C. -AUGUST 57 B. C.  (2)

_His Return. _

Pr. Nonas Sextiles Dyrrachio sum profectus, ipso illo die, quo lex estlata de nobis; Brundisium veni Nonis Sextilibus: ibi mihi Tulliola meafuit praesto natali suo ipso die, qui casu idem natalis erat etBrundisinae coloniae et tuae vicinae Salutis; quae {5} res animadversa amultitudine summa Brundisinorum gratulatione celebrata est. Ante diem viIdus Sextiles cognovi, cum Brundisii essem, litteris Quinti, mirificostudio omnium aetatum atque ordinum, incredibili concursu Italiae legemcomitiis {10} centuriatis esse perlatam: inde a Brundisinishonestissimis ornatus iter ita feci, ut undique ad me cum gratulationelegati convenerint. Ad urbem ita veni, ut nemo ullius ordinis homonomenclatori notus fuerit, qui mihi obviam non venerit, praeter eos {15}inimicos, quibus id ipsum, se inimicos esse, non liceret aut dissimulareaut negare. Cum venissem ad portam Capenam, gradus templorum ab infimaplebe completi erant, a qua plausu maximo cum esset mihi gratulatiosignificata, similis et frequentia {20} et plausus me usque adCapitolium celebravit, in foroque et in ipso Capitolio miranda multitudofuit. Postridie in senatu, qui fuit dies Nonarum Septembr. , senatuigratias egimus. 

 CICERO, _Ep. Ad Att. _ iv. 1. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Dyrrachio+ (formerly _Epidamnus_, mod. _Durazzo_), a town in Illyria, on a peninsula in the Adriatic. It was the usual port of landing and departure from and for Brundisium (distant about 100 miles). 3. +Tulliola+, Cicero’s dearly-loved daughter Tullia, the only one of his family of whose conduct he never complains, and his tender and sympathising companion in all his pursuits. 4-5. +qui casu . .. Coloniae. + Brundisium was founded 244 B. C. The Via Appia terminated here. 5. +tuae vicinae Salutis+, the Temple of Salus on the Quirinal was near the house of Atticus. 9. +Quinti+ (sc. _Ciceronis_): Cicero’s only brother, a gallant soldier (e. G. As legatus to Caesar in Gaul), but a man of violent temper. Proscribed by the Triumvirs, and put to death in 43 B. C. 11-12. +a Brundisinis . .. Ornatus+ = _having received attentions from the most respectable men of Brundisium_. 13. +legati+ = _deputations_, i. E. From the various towns en route. 14. +nomenclatori+ (= lit. _one who calls by name_, cf. καλ-έω, _Cal-endae_): a confidential slave who attended his master in canvassing, and on similar occasions, and told him the names of the people he met. 18. +ad portam Capenam+ (_Porta S. Sebastiano_), by which the Via Appia led to Capua. ‘Cicero, perhaps for effect, followed the line of triumphal procession. ’ --Impey. ]

B46

CICERO’S RECANTATION, 56 B. C. 

_In praise of Caesar. _

Itaque cum acerrimis nationibus et maximis Germanorum et Helvetiorumproeliis felicissime decertavit: ceteras conterruit, compulit, domuit, imperio populi Romani parere assuefecit, et quas regiones, quasquegentes nullae nobis antea litterae, {5} nulla vox, nulla fama notasfecerat, has noster imperator nosterque exercitus et populi Romani armaperagrarunt. Semitam tantum Galliae tenebamus antea, patres conscripti;ceterae partes a gentibus aut inimicis huic imperio, aut infidis, aut{10} incognitis, aut certe immanibus et barbaris et bellicosistenebantur; quas nationes, nemo umquam fuit, quin frangi domariquecuperet; nemo sapienter de republica nostra cogitavit iam inde aprincipio huius imperi, quin Galliam maxime timendam huic {15} imperioputaret; sed propter vim ac multitudinem gentium illarum numquam estantea cum omnibus dimicatum. Restitimus semper lacessiti. Nunc deniqueest perfectum, ut imperii nostri terrarumque illarum idem essetextremum. {20}

 CICERO, _de Provinciis Consularibus_, § 33. 

 [Linenotes: 3. +compulit+ = _checked_, usu. = _to constrain_. 5. +nullae litterae+ = _no book_. 8. +Semitam tantum Galliae+ = _it was but a strip of Gaul. _ --W.  F. +Semita+ (_se + mi_ = _go aside_, cf. _meo_, _trames_) = lit. _a narrow way_, _path. _ 13-14. +nemo . .. Cogitavit+ = _there never has been a prudent statesman_. --W.  F. 17. +cum omnibus+, i. E. With the Gauls as a nation. 19-20. +ut imperi . .. Extremum+, i. E. That our Empire extends to the utmost limits of that land. ]

+Cicero’s Recantation+ (παλινῳδία). The time for the struggle betweenthe Senatorial party (the Optimates) and the Triumvirs, weakened bytheir mutual jealousy, seemed to have come. Accordingly Cicero proposedin a full house to reconsider Caesar’s Agrarian Law (of 59 B. C. ) for theallotment of lands in Campania; while Domitius Ahenobarbus (candidatefor next year’s Consulship) openly declared his intention to proposeCaesar’s recall. Caesar acted with his usual promptness, and theConference at Luca restored an understanding between the three regents. Pompeius then crossed to Sardinia, and informed Q. Cicero that he wouldbe held reponsible for any act of hostility on the part of his brother. Cicero had no choice but to submit, and delivered in the Senate hisoration _de Provinciis Consularibus_, a political manifesto on behalf ofCaesar and Pompeius--the _Recantation_ alluded to in _Ep. Ad Att. _ iv. 5, and elaborately explained in _Ep. Ad Fam. _ i. 9 (to LentulusSpinther). 

B47

CARRHAE, 53 B. C. (1)

‘_Quem deus vult perdere, prius dementat. _’

Dum Gallos per Caesarem in septentrione debellat, ipse interim adorientem grave volnus a Parthis populus Romanus accepit. Nec de fortunaqueri possumus; caret solacio clades. Adversis et dis et hominibuscupiditas consulis Crassi, dum Parthico {5} inhiat auro, undecim stragelegionum et ipsius capite multata est. Primum enim, qui solus etsubvehere commeatus et munire poterat a tergo, relictus Euphrates, dumsimulato transfugae cuidam Mazzarae Syro creditur. Tum in mediamcamporum {10} vastitatem eodem duce ductus exercitus, ut undique hostiexponeretur. Itaque vixdum venerat Carrhas cum undique praefecti regisSilaces et Surenas ostendere signa auro sericisque vexillis vibrantia. Tunc sine mora circumfusi undique equitatus in {15} modum grandinisatque nimborum densa pariter tela fuderunt. Sic miserabili stragedeletus exercitus. Ipse in colloquium sollicitatus signo dato vivus inhostium manus incidisset, nisi tribunis reluctantibus fugam ducisbarbari ferro occupassent. Filium {20} ducis paene in conspectu patriseisdem telis operuerunt. Reliquiae infelicis exercitus, quo quemquerapuit fuga, in Armeniam Ciliciam Syriamque distractae vix nuntiumcladis rettulerunt. 

 FLORUS, III. Xi. 1-10 (sel. )

+Context. + By the conference of the Triumvirs at Luca, it was arrangedto secure the succession of Crassus to the government of Syria, in orderto make war on the growing strength of the Parthian Empire beyond theEuphrates. Consul with Pompeius in 55 B. C. He set out for his provinceeven before the expiration of his consulship ‘eager to gather in thetreasures of the East in addition to those of the West. ’

 [Linenotes: 7-14. +Primum enim . .. Vibrantia. + The Arab prince Abgarus induced Crassus to leave the Euphrates, and cross the great Mesopotamian desert to the Tigris. When at length the enemy offered battle some 30 miles to the S. Of Carrhae (Harran, not far from Edessa), by the side of the Parthian vizier stood prince Abgarus with his Bedouins. 15-17. +Tunc sine mora . .. Exercitus. + The Roman weapons of close combat, and the Roman system of concentration yielded for the first time to cavalry and distant warfare (the bow). 20-21. +Filium ducis:+ his young and brave son Publius, who had served with the greatest distinction under Caesar in Gaul. 22. +Reliquiae:+ out of 40, 000 Roman legionaries, who had crossed the Euphrates, not a fourth part returned: 20, 000 fell, and 10, 000 were taken prisoners. ]

+Carrhae. + ‘The day of Carrhae takes its place side by side with thedays of the Allia, and of Cannae. ’ --M. 

B48

CARRHAE, 53 B. C. (2)

_After the Battle. _

A. 

 Temporis angusti mansit concordia discors, Paxque fuit non sponte ducum; nam sola futuri Crassus erat belli medius mora. Qualiter undas 100 Qui secat et geminum gracilis mare separat Isthmos Nec patitur conferre fretum: si terra recedat, Ionium Aegaeo frangat mare: sic, ubi saeva Arma ducum dirimens miserando funere Crassus Assyrias Latio maculavit sanguine Carrhas, 105 Parthica Romanos solverunt damna furores. Plus illa vobis acie quam creditis actum est, Arsacidae: bellum victis civile dedistis. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, i. 98-108. 

 [Linenotes: 98. +Temporis . .. Discors+ = _the short-lived concord endured, but it was a jarring_ (+discors+) _concord_. --Haskins. 101. +Isthmos+, sc. _of Corinth_: Caesar planned to cut it, and thus to secure a direct route by sea, connecting Italy and the East. 102. +Nec patitur . .. Fretum+ = _and suffers it_ (+mare+, l.  101) _not to join its waters_, i. E. The Corinthian and Saronic gulfs. ]

B. 

 Milesne Crassi coniuge barbara Turpis maritus vixit, et hostium (Pro curia inversique mores!) Consenuit socerorum in armis 8 Sub rege Medo Marsus et Apulus, Anciliorum et nominis et togae Oblitus aeternaeque Vestae, Incolumi Iove et urbe Roma? 12

 HORACE, _Odes_ III. V. 5-12. 

Nearly 10, 000 Roman prisoners were settled by the victors in the oasisof Merv, as bondsmen compelled after the Parthian fashion to rendermilitary service (+in armis+, l.  8). 

 [Linenotes: 8. +Consenuit:+ Carrhae (53 B. C. ) was fought 26 years before this Ode was written (27 B. C. ). 10-11. +Anciliorum, aeternae Vestae+, pledges of the immortality of Rome. 10. +togae+, i. E. The Roman people, the _gens togata_. 12. +Iove+, Jove’s temple on the Capitol. ]

C. 

 Crassus ad Euphraten aquilas natumque suosque Perdidit, et leto est ultimus ipse datus. “Parthe, quid exsultas?” dixit dea, “signa remittes, Quique necem Crassi vindicet, ultor erit. ” 468

 OVID, _Fasti_, vi. 465-468. [[Hallam VI. 397-400]]

 [Linenote: 3-4. During the last few months of his life, Caesar was occupied with the preparations for his expedition against the Parthians. In 36 B. C. Antonius carried on a disastrous campaign against Phraates, King of Parthia, but in 20 B. C. Augustus received from the King the Eagles (+signa+, l. 467) and prisoners captured at Carrhae. ]

B49

CICERO, GOVERNOR OF CILICIA, 51-50 B. C. 

_His humane Administration. _

Ipse in Asiam profectus sum Tarso Nonis Ianuariis, non mehercule dicipotest, qua admiratione Ciliciae civitatum maximeque Tarsensium; posteavero quam Taurum transgressus sum, mirifica exspectatio Asiae nostrarumdioecesium, quae sex {5} mensibus imperii mei nullas meas acceperatlitteras, numquam hospitem viderat. Illud autem tempus quotannis anteme fuerat in hoc quaestu; civitates locupletes, ne in hiberna militesreciperent, magnas pecunias dabant, Cyprii talenta Attica CC, quaex {10} insula--non ὑπερβολικῶς, sed verissime loquor--nummus nullusme obtinente erogabatur. Ob haec beneficia, quibus illi obstupescunt, nullos honores mihi nisi verborum decerni sino; statuas, fana, τέθριππα prohibeo, nec sum in ulla re alia molestus {15} civitatibus, sed fortasse tibi, qui haec praedicem de me. Perifer, si me amas; tuenim me haec facere voluisti. Iter igitur ita per Asiam feci, ut etiamfames, qua nihil miserius est, quae tum erat in hac mea Asia--messisenim nulla fuerat--, mihi optanda {20} fuerit: quacumque iter feci, nulla vi, nullo iudicio, nulla contumelia auctoritate et cohortationeperfeci, ut et Graeci et cives Romani, qui frumentum compresserant, magnum numerum populis pollicerentur. 

 CICERO, _Ep. Ad Atticum_, v.  21. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +in Asiam+, i. E. To the districts N. Of the Taurus range, which belonged geographically to Asia in the Roman sense, but were politically attached to Cilicia. --Watson. +Tarso+ = on the R. Cydnus, about twelve miles above its mouth. Pompeius made Tarsus the capital of the new province of Cilicia, 66 B. C. 6-7. +nullas meas . .. Viderat+ = _had never received demands_ (+litteras+) _from me, never seen a man billeted on them_. The +hospites+ = _soldiers or public officials_. 8. +fuerat in hoc quaestu+ = _had been devoted to gain in the following fashion_. --Tyrrell. 9. +ne in hiberna milites reciperent:+ Mommsen says ‘A town suffered nearly to the same extent when a Roman army took up winter quarters in it as when an enemy took it by storm. ’ 15. τέθριππα = _statues in chariots drawn by four horses_. 20-21. +mihi optanda fuerit:+ i. E. Because it gave him the opportunity of showing the effect of his personal influence. --T. 23. +compresserant+ = _had stowed away_; lit. _kept back_, rare. ]

+Cicero as Governor. + His administration seems to have been just, considerate and popular. 

For +Cicero’s Ideal of a Roman Governor+, see _Ep. Ad Q. F. _ i.  1(Q.  Cicero governed Asia as Propraetor 62-58 B. C. )

CAUSES OF THE CIVIL WAR. 

 _Nec quemquam iam ferre potest Caesarve priorem Pompeiusve parem. _ --LUCAN. 

+56 B. C. By the Conference at Luca+ it was arranged:--

(i) to give Caesar a new term of five years’ government in which tocomplete his work in Gaul (until March 1,  49);

(ii) to give Pompeius the government of the two Spains, and Crassus thatof Syria, for five years also. 

It was further agreed that Pompeius and Crassus should have theconsulship for 55 B. C. 

+52 B. C. Pompeius Sole Consul. + So things continued until 52 B. C. , whenthe constant rioting (Clodius v. Milo), and utter lawlessness prevailingin Rome +gave Pompeius his opportunity+. The Senate in their distresscaused Pompeius to be nominated sole Consul, with supreme power to meetthe crisis. The death of Julia in 54 and of Crassus in 53 had removedthe two strongest influences for peace, and from 52 onwards the breachbetween Pompeius and Caesar began to widen. 

During Caesar’s long absence from Rome his opponents, with Cato at theirhead, were waiting their chance to impeach him for numerous acts in hisprovince, as soon as he appeared in Rome for the consular elections. Hewould then be merely a private citizen, and as such amenable toprosecution. Now Caesar’s proconsulship of Gaul was to terminate onMarch 1, 49, and the consular elections would take place at the earliestin the following summer. +There would therefore be an interval betweenthe two offices+, and Caesar would be exposed to the utmost peril, if hegave up province and army on March 1, 49. Caesar had long foreseen this. When the law was passed in 55, which added a fresh term of five years tohis government, +Pompeius seems to have inserted in it+ (doubtless inaccordance with a previous promise to Caesar) +a clause prohibiting thediscussion of a successor before March 1, 50+. Caesar therefore couldnot be superseded except by the consuls of 49, and these would not beable to succeed him (as proconsuls) till Jan. 1, 48. He would thus beable to retain his army and government throughout the year 49. 

+Caesar’s canvass for the Consulship. + As the law stood, he would haveto come in person to Rome. But early in 52 +a decree was promulgated, with the support of Pompeius, which relieved him from the necessity ofcanvassing in person+. Caesar might now feel himself safe: he wouldretain both army and provinces throughout 49, and would not be forced toreturn to Rome until he was safe from prosecution as Consul. 

+Lex Pompeia de iure magistratuum. + But this did not suit Caesar’senemies. Pompeius and the Senate combined to alter the whole legalmachinery for appointing provincial governors. +There was to be aninterval of five years between a consulship and a proconsulship+, whichwould prevent Caesar, even if he were duly elected Consul in 49, fromobtaining a fresh provincial governorship until five years from the endof 48. When the bill became law (as it did in 51) there would be aninterval of some years before any consuls would be qualified under itfor provinces: and to fill up the governorships during the interval, theSenate was authorised to appoint any person of consular rank who had notas yet proceeded to a proconsulship. +Thus Caesar’s resignation both ofhis army and his province could be demanded on March 1,  49. +

+50 B. C. Caesar’s overtures for peace. + Caesar let it be known to theSenate through Curio that +he was willing to resign his army andprovinces if Pompeius would simultaneously do the same+: and the Senatevoted a resolution in this sense by a majority of 370 to 22. Thepresiding Consul, Gaius Marcellus, broke up the meeting in anger, andwith the two Consuls elected for 49 (Claudius Marcellus and LentulusCrus) requested Pompeius to put himself at the head of the two legionsstationed at Capua and to call the Italian militia to arms. 

+Caesar had completely attained the object of devolving the initiativeof Civil War on his opponents. + He had, while himself keeping on legalground, compelled Pompeius to declare war, and to declare it not as therepresentative of the legitimate authority, but as general of arevolutionary minority of the Senate, which overawed the majority. --_Adapted from Long, Mommsen, and Warde Fowler. _

B50

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (1)

_Caesar crosses the Rubicon, 49 B. C. _

 Fonte cadit modico parvisque impellitur undis Puniceus Rubicon cum fervida canduit aestas, Perque imas serpit valles et Gallica certus 215 Limes ab Ausoniis disterminat arva colonis. Tunc vires praebebat hiemps atque auxerat undas Tertia iam gravido pluvialis Cynthia cornu Et madidis Euri resolutae flatibus Alpes. Primus in obliquum sonipes opponitur amnem 220 Excepturus aquas; molli tum cetera rumpit Turba vado faciles iam fracti fluminis undas. Caesar, ut adversam superato gurgite ripam Attigit Hesperiae vetitis et constitit arvis, ‘Hic’ ait ‘hic pacem temerataque iura relinquo; 225 Te, Fortuna, sequor; procul hinc iam foedora sunto, Credidimus fatis, utendum est iudice bello. ’ Sic fatus noctis tenebris rapit agmina ductor Impiger; it torto Balearis verbere fundae Ocior et missa Parthi post terga sagitta 230 Vicinumque minax invadit Ariminum, et ignes Solis lucifero fugiebant astra relicto. Iamque dies primos belli visura tumultus Exoritur; seu sponte deum, seu turbidus Auster Impulerat, maestam tenuerunt nubila lucem. 235

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, i. 213-235. 

+Context. + On Lentulus Crus and Claudius Marcellus, the Consuls for 49B. C. , must rest the immediate blame of the Civil War. On Jan. 1stCaesar’s tribune Curio once more presented proposals from Caesar, whichstartle us by their marvellous moderation (cf. Suet. _Caesar_, 29, 30), but Lentulus would not allow them to be considered. On Jan. 7th the_Senatus consultum ultimum_ was decreed, and a state of war declared. Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the narrow brook which separated hisprovince from Italy, to pass which at the head of an army was hightreason to the State. --W.  F. 

 [Linenotes: 214. +puniceus+ = _dark red_: +Rubicon+, as if from _ruber_. 216. +limes+, i. E. Until the time of Augustus, by whom Italy was extended to the R. Varus, the boundary between Gallia Narbonensis and Italy. 218. I. E. Prob. The third night after the change of moon; +gravido+ = _surcharged with rain_. --Haskins. 219. +Alpes+ = _mountains_, not _the_ Alps. 225. +temerata+, i. E. By Pompeius and the senatorial party. 229. +verbere+ = the _thong_, i. E. Of the sling (+fundae+). 231. +Ariminum+ (Rimini), at this period the frontier town of Italy. ]

+The Passage of the Rubicon. + ‘When after nine years’ absence he trodonce more the soil of his native land, he trod at the same time the pathof revolution. Alea iacta est. ’ --M. 

B51

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (2)

_Caesar defends himself before the Senate, April 49 B. C. _

His rebus confectis Caesar, ut reliquum tempus a labore intermitteretur, milites in proxima municipia deducit; ipse ad urbem proficiscitur. Coacto senatu iniurias inimicorum commemorat. Docet se nullumextraordinarium honorem appetisse, sed exspectato {5} legitimo temporeconsulatus eo fuisse contentum, quod omnibus civibus pateret. Latum ab xtribunis plebis contradicentibus inimicis, Catone vero acerrimerepugnante et pristina consuetudine dicendi mora dies extrahente, ut suiratio absentis haberetur, ipso {10} consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset, cur ferri passus esset? qui si improbasset, cur se uti populi beneficioprohibuisset? Patientiam proponit suam, cum de exercitibus dimittendisultro postulavisset; in quo iacturam dignitatis atque honoris ipsefacturus {15} esset. Acerbitatem inimicorum docet, qui, quod ab alteropostularent, in se recusarent atque omnia permisceri mallent, quamimperium exercitusque dimittere. Iniuriam in eripiendis legionibuspraedicat, crudelitatem et insolentiam in circumscribendis {20} tribunisplebis; condiciones a se latas, expetita colloquia et denegatacommemorat. Pro quibus rebus hortatur ac postulat, ut rem publicamsuscipiant atque una secum administrent. 

 CAESAR, _de B. C. _ i. 32. 

+Context. + After his passage of the Rubicon, Caesar quickly made himselfmaster of Italy. Town after town opened its gates to him. Corfinium(held in force by Domitius for Pompeius) surrendered, and the capturedtroops enlisted in his ranks. An attempt to blockade Pompeius inBrundisium was skilfully foiled. On the last day of March Caesar arrivedat Rome. The Senate was legally summoned by the tribunes Antonius andCassius, and +was invited to unite with him in carrying on thegovernment+. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +municipia+, i. E. Brundisium, Tarentum, Hydruntum (Otranto). 10. +ut sui . .. Haberetur+, i. E. Allowing him to stand for the consulship in his absence. 15. +iacturam dignitatis+ = sacrifice of prestige. --Long. 19. +eripiendis legionibus+, i. E. In 50 B. C. Caesar was required to send home a legion he had borrowed of Pompeius, and contribute another himself, ostensibly for the Parthian War; but the legions were detained by Pompeius in Italy, and the Parthian War was quietly dropped. ]

+Caesar in Rome. + All Caesar’s acts after the crossing of the Rubiconwere entirely unconstitutional. But when he told the senators that hewas prepared to take the government on himself, he was justified tohimself by the past, and to posterity by the result. --W.  F. 

B52

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (3)

_The Campaign round Lerida: the Soldiers fraternise, 49 B. C. _

 Dixit et ad montes tendentem praevenit hostem. Illic exiguo paulum distantia vallo Castra locant. Postquam spatio languentia nullo Mutua conspicuos habuerunt lumina voltus, 170 Et fratres natosque sues videre, patresque; Deprensum est civile nefas. Tenuere parumper Ora metu, tantum nutu motoque salutant Ense suos; mox ut stimulis maioribus ardens Rupit amor leges, audet transcendere vallum 175 Miles, in amplexus effusas tendere palmas. Hospitis ille ciet nomen, vocat ille propinquum, Admonet hunc studiis consors puerilibus aetas; Nec Romanus erat, qui non agnoverat hostem. 179 Pax erat, et miles castris permixtus utrisque 196 Errabat; duro concordes caespite mensas Instituunt et permixto libamina Baccho; Graminei luxere foci, iunctoque cubili Extrahit insomnes bellorum fabula noctes, 200 Quo primum steterint campo, qua lancea dextrum Exierit. Dum quae gesserunt fortia iactant, Et dum multa negant, quod solum fata petebant, Est miseris renovata fides, atque omne futurum Crevit amore nefas. 205

 LUCAN, iv. 167-179, 196-205. 

+Context. + On leaving Rome Caesar set out for Spain to encounter theveteran army of Pompeius under his legati Afranius and Petreius. If thiswere crushed, he felt he would be free to take the offensive againstPompeius in the East. Round Lerida (_Ilerda_) on the R. Segres(a tributary of the Ebro) he fought the most brilliant campaign of allhis military life. After severe losses and hardships, Caesaroutmanœuvred the Pompeians, cut them off from their base on the Ebro, and forced a surrender on most generous terms. 

 [Linenotes: 167. +Dixit+, sc. Caesar. +ad montes+, i. E. The rocky hills through which the retreating Pompeians had to pass before they could reach the Ebro valley. Caesar, by a wonderful march, outstrips (+praevenit+) them and blocks the way. 169. +spatio+ (sc. _interposito_) +languentia nullo+ = _not failing_ (+languentia+) _owing to the distance_, i. E. They were so near they could not fail to recognise one another. --Haskins. 173. +metu+, i. E. Of their leaders. 175. +Rupit leges+ = _burst the bonds of discipline_. --H. 178. +Admonet . .. Aetas+ = _one is reminded of his friend by the time passed together in boyhood’s pursuits_. --H. 200. +Extrahit+ = _whiles away_. ]

+Result of the Campaign. + The whole of the western half of the Empirewas now in Caesar’s power, with the single exception of Massilia. 

B53

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (4)

_Siege of Massilia. A Treacherous Sortie, 49 B. C. _

A. 

 Iam satis hoc Graiae memorandum contigit urbi Aeternumque decus, quod non impulsa nec ipso Strata metu tenuit flagrantis in omnia belli 390 Praecipitem cursum, raptisque a Caesare cunctis Vincitur una mora. Quantum est quod fata tenentur, Quodque virum toti properans imponere mundo Hos perdit fortuna, dies!

 LUCAN, iii. 388-394. 

+Context. + Caesar’s appeal to the leading citizens to espouse his causewas at first successful, but the arrival of Domitius (whom he hadtreated so generously at Corfinium) with a fleet caused the Massiliotsto change their mind. Unable to remain himself, Caesar entrusted thesiege to Trebonius, supported by Dec. Brutus with the fleet. He has, however, left us a detailed account of their skill and energy, and ofthe heroic defence of the citizens, +marred by a treacherous sortieunder a truce+. He returned to receive its final submission, and leftthe city unharmed, as a tribute ‘rather to its ancient renown than toany claim it had on himself. ’

 [Linenotes: 389. +non impulsa+ = _not urged by others_, i. E. By Pompeius and his adherents. But cf. Caesar, _de B. C. _ i.  34. 391. +raptis+ = _speedily won_. --H. ]

B. At hostes sine fide tempus atque occasionem fraudis ac doli quaerunt;interiectisque aliquot diebus, nostris languentibus atque animoremissis, {10} subito meridiano tempore, cum alius discessisset, aliusex diutino labore in ipsis operibus quieti se dedisset, arma vero omniareposita contectaque essent, portis se foras erumpunt, secundo magnoquevento ignem operibus inferunt. Hunc sic distulit {15} ventus, uti unotempore agger, plutei, testudo, turris, tormenta flammam conciperent, etprius haec omnia consumerentur, quam quem ad modum accidissetanimadverti posset. Nostri repentina fortuna permoti arma, quae possunt, arripiunt; alii ex castris {20} sese incitant. Fit in hostes impetuseorum, sed muro sagittis tormentisque fugientes persequi prohibentur. Illi sub murum se recipiunt, ibique musculum turrimque latericiam libereincendunt. Ita multorum mensium labor hostium perfidia et vi {25}tempestatis puncto temporis interiit. 

 CAESAR, _de Bello Civili_, ii.  14. 

 [Linenotes: 13. +contecta:+ i. E. The shield kept in a leather casing. 16. +plutei+ = _screens_ or _mantlets_ of hurdles covered with raw hides. 17. +tormenta+ (_torqu + mentum_) = _artillery_, engines for throwing missiles by _twisted_ ropes; e. G. The _ballista_, _catapulta_. 24. +musculum+ = _sapping-shed_. +turrim latericiam+ = _brick tower_. 25. +multorum mensium+, i. E. From May to August 49 B. C. ]

B54

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (5)

 ‘_Nothing in his life Became him like the leaving it. _’

 Quid nunc rostra tibi prosunt turbata forumque Unde tribunicia plebeius signifer arce 800 Arma dabas populis? Quid prodita iura senatus Et gener atque socer bello concurrere iussi? Ante iaces quam dira duces Pharsalia confert, Spectandumque tibi bellum civile negatum est. 804 Libycas en nobile corpus 809 Pascit aves nullo contectus Curio busto. 810 At tibi nos, quando non proderit ista silere A quibus omne aevi senium sua fama repellit, Digna damus, iuvenis, meritae praeconia vitae. Haud alium tanta civem tulit indole Roma, Aut cui plus leges deberent recta sequenti. 815 Perdita nunc urbi nocuerunt saecula, postquam Ambitus et luxus et opum metuenda facultas Transverso mentem dubiam torrente tulerunt; Momentumque fuit mutatus Curio rerum Gallorum captus spoliis et Caesaris auro. 820 Ius licet in iugulos nostros sibi fecerit ense Sulla potens Mariusque ferox et Cinna cruentus Caesareaeque domus series; cui tanta potestas Concessa est? Emere omnes, hic vendidit urbem. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, iv. 799-804, 809-end. 

+Context. + In 49 B. C. Curio was sent by Caesar to wrest thecorn-province of Africa from the Pompeians. He won a signal success overVarus (allied with Juba) at Utica, but allowed himself to be surprisedon the plain of the Bagradas, and, when all was lost, died sword inhand. 

 [Linenotes: 800. +tribunicia arce+ = _from the citadel of the tribune_, i. E. The inviolability of the office and the right of veto. As tribune Curio played an all-important part in the crisis of 50 B. C. 801. +prodita iura senatus+, i. E. Of the right of the senators to appoint governors of the provinces. --Haskins. 802. +gener atque socer:+ by the early death of Julia (54 B. C. )--a beloved wife and daughter--the personal relation between Pompeius and Caesar was broken up. 812. +senium+ (_senex_) = _decay_ (of lapse of time). 813. +digna . .. Vitae+ = _such a panegyric_ (+praeconia+) _as thy life deserves_. --H. 815-818. As tribune Curio for a time played the part of an independent republican, till his talent induced Caesar to buy him up. 819. +momentum+ (= _movi + mentum_) +rerum+ = _that which turned the scale of history_. --H. 824. +vendidit+: perh. Referred to by Verg. _Aen. _ vi. 621-2: _Vendidit hic auro patriam dominumque potentem Imposuit; fixit leges pretio atque refixit. _]

B55

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (6)

_Dyrrachium. Caesar’s line of circumvallation, 48 B. C. _

Erat nova et inusitata belli ratio cum tot castellorum numero tantoquespatio et tantis munitionibus et toto obsidionis genere, tum etiamreliquis rebus. Nam quicumque alterum obsidere conati sunt, perculsosatque infirmos hostes adorti aut proelio superatos {5} aut aliquaoffensione permotos continuerunt, cum ipsi numero equitum militumquepraestarent; causa autem obsidionis haec fere esse consuevit, utfrumento hostes prohiberent. At tum integras atque incolumes copiasCaesar inferiore militum {10} numero continebat, cum illi omnium rerumcopia abundarent; cotidie enim magnus undique navium numerusconveniebat, quae commeatum supportarent, neque ullus flare ventuspoterat, quin aliqua ex parte secundum cursum haberent. Ipse autemconsumptis {15} omnibus longe lateque frumentis summis erat inangustiis. Sed tamen haec singulari patientia milites ferebant. Recordabantur enim eadem se superiore anno in Hispania perpessos laboreet patientia maximum bellum confecisse, meminerant ad {20} Alesiammagnam se inopiam perpessos, multo etiam maiorem ad Avaricum maximarumse gentium victores discessisse. 

 CAESAR, _de B. C. _ iii. 47. 

+Context. + In Jan. (48 B. C. ) Caesar set sail from Brundisium and landedsafely in Epirus. After a junction with Antonius, who followed him fromBrundisium with reinforcements, Caesar established himself close toDyrrachium (Durazzo), the key of the whole military situation. Pompeiusrefused to fight, and encamped on a hill close to the sea at Petra, a short distance S. Of Dyrrachium, where his fleets could bring himsupplies. Caesar now determined to hem him in by a line ofcircumvallation. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +tanto spatio+: eventually the whole circuit of circumvallation covered at the least 16 miles: to this was afterwards added, just as before Alesia, an outer line of defence. 6. +aut aliqua offensione permotos+ = _or demoralised by some other mishap_ (+offensione+, lit. _stumbling_, and so _failure_). 12-15. Pompeius still had undisputed command of the sea. ]

+Caesar’s lines broken. + Pompeius was informed by Celtic deserters thatCaesar had not yet secured by a cross wall the beach between his twochains of entrenchment on his left (200 yards apart), leaving itpossible to land troops from the sea into the unprotected space. Troopswere landed by night: Caesar’s outer line of defence was carried, andhis lines broken through. ‘Like Wellington at Burgos in 1812, Caesarfailed from want of a sufficient force. In each case the only safecourse was a retreat: in each case the retreat was conducted withadmirable skill. ’ --W.  F. 

[Illustration: DYRRACHIUM. [_To face p. 216. _]

B56

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (7)

_The Eve of Pharsalus. Dream of Pompeius. _

 At nox, felicis Magno pars ultima vitae, Sollicitos vana decepit imagine somnos. Nam Pompeiani visus sibi sede theatri Innumeram effigiem Romanae cernere plebis, 10 Attollique suum laetis ad sidera nomen Vocibus, et plausu cuneos certare sonantes. Qualis erat populi facies clamorque faventis, Olim cum iuvenis primique aetata triumphi Post domitas gentes quas torrens ambit Hiberus, 15 Et quaecumque fugax Sertorius impulit arma, Vespere pacato, pura venerabilis aeque Quam currus ornante toga, plaudente senatu, Sedit adhuc Romanus eques: seu fine bonorum Anxia venturis ad tempora laeta refugit, 20 Sive per ambages solitas contraria visis Vaticinata quies magni tulit omina planctus, Seu vetito patrias ultra tibi cernere sedes Sic Romam fortuna dedit. Ne rumpite somnos. Castrorum vigiles, nullas tuba verberet aures. 25 Crastina dira quies et imagine maesta diurna Undique funestas acies feret undique bellum. Unde pares somnos populi noctemque beatam? O felix, si te vel sic tua Roma videret. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, vii. 7-29. 

 [Linenotes: 9. +Pompeiani theatri. + Pompeius built the first stone theatre at Rome, near the Campus Martius, capable of holding 40, 000 people. 10. +Innumeram . .. Plebis+ = _the image of the countless Roman people_. +innumeram+ which belongs to +plebis+ is transferred to +effigiem+. --Haskins. 14. +Olim . .. Triumphi+, i. E. Over Africa 79 B. C. When only 24, and +adhuc Romanus eques+ (l.  19). It was not until 71 B. C. That he triumphed over Spain, after the murder of Sertorius. Lucan confuses the two triumphs. 16. +impulit+ = _set in motion_ (lit. _drive forward_). 17-18. +pura venerabilis . .. Toga+ = _no less worshipful in pure white gown than_ (he would have been) _in that which usually adorns the car of triumph_, i. E. The _toga picta_. --H. 20. +anxia+ (sc. _quies_) = _his repose full of anxiety for the future_. --H. 21-22. +solitas . .. Vaticinata+ = _foretelling the opposite of his visions_ i. E. By the +plausus+ of which he dreamed, the +planctus+ which was in store for him was foreshadowed. --H. 25. +nullas+ = _at all_. Cf. Cic. _Ep. _: _nullus venit_ = _he never came_. 26. +Crastina . .. Diurna+ = _to-morrow’s night of horror haunted by the sad image of the day’s events_. --H. 29. +sic+, i. E. In dreams. ]

+The Dream of Pompeius. + Macaulay says ‘I hardly know an instance ofso great an effect produced by means so simple. ’

B57

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (8)

_Pompeius ill-advised at Pharsalus, 48 B. C. _

Inter duas acies tantum erat relictum spatii, ut satis esset adconcursum utriusque exercitus. Sed Pompeius suis praedixerat, utCaesaris impetum exciperent neve se loco moverent aciemque eius distrahipaterentur; idque admonitu C. Triarii {5} fecisse dicebatur, ut primusexcursus visque militum infringeretur aciesque distenderetur atque insuis ordinibus dispositi dispersos adorirentur; leviusque casura pilasperabat in loco retentis militibus, quam si ipsi immissis telisoccucurrissent, simul fore, ut {10} duplicato cursu Caesaris militesexanimarentur et lassitudine conficerentur. Quod nobis quidem nullaratione factum a Pompeio videtur, propterea quod est quaedam animiincitatio atque alacritas naturaliter innata omnibus, quae studio pugnaeincenditur. {15} Hanc non reprimere, sed augere imperatores debent;neque frustra antiquitus institutum est, ut signa undique concinerentclamoremque universi tollerent: quibus rebus et hostes terreri et suosincitari existimaverunt. {20}

 CAESAR, _de Bello Civili_, iii.  92. 

+Context. + Caesar made for Apollonia, where he left his wounded, andthen marched S. E. Into Thessaly, where he joined Domitius Calvinus. (Hehad been sent with two legions E. Into Macedonia, to stop reinforcementsfor Pompeius under Scipio, Pompeius’ father-in-law. ) Pompeius followedCaesar, and encamped on the slope of a hill facing Caesar’s positionnear Pharsalus. Here he offered battle, his better judgment overruled bythe clamorous Senators in his camp. 

 [Linenotes: 4-5. +aciem . .. Paterentur+ = _so as to allow their_ (advancing) _line to become disorganised_ (+distrahi+), by the force of its onset. 7. +in suis . .. Dispositi+ = _by maintaining their proper distances_. ]

+Scene of the Fight. + The battle was fought near the town of_Pharsalus_, while the territory of the town was named _Pharsalia_. Cf. Catull. Lxiv.  37:

+Pharsalum+ _coeunt_, +Pharsalia+ _late frequentant_. 

+The Battle. + Pompeius had 47, 000 infantry and 7000 cavalry againstCaesar’s 22, 000 infantry and 1000 cavalry. Pompeius stationed hiscavalry and archers on his left, and confidently expected to outflankhis enemy’s right. But Caesar, foreseeing the defeat of his cavalry, hadstationed behind it in reserve 2000 of his best legionaries. WhenCaesar’s cavalry fell back outnumbered, this reserve ran forward at thecharge, not discharging their _pila_, but using them as spears, anddriving them against man and horse. Taken aback by so unusual aninfantry attack, the Pompeian cavalry wavered and fled. Caesar’s thirdline (forming a rear-guard) was now sent forward to support the twofront lines, and this decided the battle. --+Result. + Submission of theEast to Caesar. 

[Illustration: PHARSALUS. [_To face p. 218. _]

B58

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (9)

A. _Pharsalus and Cannae compared. _

 Non aetas haec carpsit edax monimentaque rerum Putria destituit: crimen civile videmus Tot vacuas urbes. Generis quo turba redacta est Humani? Toto populi qui nascimur orbe 400 Nec muros implere viris nec possumus agros; Urbs nos una capit. Vincto fossore coluntur Hesperiae segetes, stat tectis putris avitis In nullos ruitura domus, nulloque frequentem Cive suo Romam, sed mundi faece repletam 405 Cladis eo dedimus, ne tanto in tempore bellum Iam posset civile geri. Pharsalia tanti Causa mali. Cedant feralia nomina Cannae Et damnata diu Romanis Allia fastis. Tempora signavit leviorum Roma malorum: 410 Hunc voluit nescire diem. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, vii. 397-411. 

 [Linenotes: 397-398. +monimentaque . .. Destituit+ = _and has abandoned to decay the monuments of the past_. --Haskins. 402. +vincto fossore+ = _by a chained digger_ (delver), in consequence of the dearth of free labour. Cf. Juv. Xi. 80 _squalidus in magna . .. Compede fossor_. 404. +in nullos ruitura+ = _ready to fall, but on the heads of none_. --H. 405. +faece+ = _dregs_. Cf. Juv. Iii. 60, 61 _Non possum ferre Quirites_ | _Graecam urbem_ (a Greek Rome); _quamvis_ (and yet) _quota portio_ (how small a fraction) _faecis Achaei_? 406-407. +ne tanto . .. Geri+ = lit. _so that during the long time since, it is impossible to wage_ +civil+ _war_, i. E. From the dearth of genuine Roman soldiers. 409. +Allia+: 390 B. C. Cf. Vergil. _Aeneid_, vii. 717 _quosque secans infaustum interluit Allia nomen_. 411. +nescire+ = _to ignore_. ]

B. _The Battlefields of Pharsalus and Philippi. _

 Ergo inter sese paribus concurrere telis Romanas acies iterum videre Philippi; 490 Nec fuit indignum superis, bis sanguine nostro Emathiam et latos Haemi pinguescere campos. Scilicet et tempus veniet, cum finibus illis Agricola, incurvo terram molitus aratro, Exesa inveniet scabra robigine pila, 495 Aut gravibus rastris galeas pulsabit inanes, Grandiaque effossis mirabitur ossa sepulchris. 

 VERGIL, _Georg. _ i. 489-497. 

 [Linenotes: 489. +Ergo+ = _therefore_, in fulfilment of the terrible warnings at the death of Caesar. 490. +iterum+, i. E. At Philippi 42 B. C. ; the first time at Pharsalus. ]

B59

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (10)

_How Pompeius died, 48 B. C. _

Pompeius, deposito adeundae Syriae consilio, et aeris magno pondere admilitarem usum in naves imposito, duobusque milibus hominum armatis, Pelusium pervenit. Ibi casu rex erat Ptolemaeus, puer aetate, magniscopiis cum sorore Cleopatra {5} bellum gerens, quam paucis ante mensibusper suos propinquos atque amicos regno expulerat; castraque Cleopatraenon longo spatio ab eius castris distabant. Ad eum Pompeius misit, utpro hospitio atque amicitia patris Alexandria reciperetur atque illiusopibus in {10} calamitate tegeretur. Sed, qui ab eo missi erant, confecto legationis officio, liberius cum militibus regis colloquicoeperant eosque hortari, ut suum officium Pompeio praestarent, neveeius fortunam despicerent. His tunc cognitis rebus amici regis, {15} quipropter aetatem eius in procuratione erant regni, sive timore adducti, ne Pompeius Alexandriam Aegyptunique occuparet, sive despecta eiusfortuna, iis, qui erant ab eo missi, palam liberaliter responderunteumque ad regem venire iusserunt: ipsi, {20} clam consilio inito, Achillan, praefectum regium, singulari hominem audacia, et L. Septimium, tribunum militum, ad interficiendum Pompeium miserunt. Ab hisliberaliter ipse appellatus naviculam parvulam conscendit cum paucissuis, et ibi {25} ab Achilla et Septimio interficitur. 

 CAESAR, _de Bello Civili_, iii. 103, 104 (sel. )

+Context. + After the battle of Pharsalus, Pompeius, closely pursued byCaesar, had thoughts of going to Parthia and trying to form alliancesthere. While in Cyprus he heard that Antioch (in Syria) had declared forCaesar and that the route to the Parthians was no longer open. So healtered his plan and sailed to Egypt, where a number of his old soldiersserved in the Egyptian army. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +Pelusium+, on the E. Side of the easternmost mouth of the Nile. 5. +cum sorore Cleopatra. + By his father’s will, Ptolemy ruled jointly with his sister for three years, 51-48 B. C. , when he expelled her. Cleopatra raised an army in Syria and invaded Egypt. The two armies were encamped opposite each other when Pompeius landed to seek the help of Ptolemy. 15. +amici regis+, e. G. Achillas, l. 21, and espec. Ptolemy’s guardian Pothinus, the _de facto_ ruler of Egypt. ]

‘On the same day (28 Sept. ) on which he had triumphed over Mithridates(61 B. C. ) Pompeius died on the desert sands of the inhospitable Casianshore by the hands of one of his old soldiers (Septimius). ’--M. 

B60

CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS, 106-48 B. C. (11)

_Cato’s Eulogy on Pompeius. _

 ‘Civis obit, ’ inquit, ‘multum maioribus impar 190 Nosse modum iuris sed in hoc tamen utilis aevo, Cui non ulla fuit iusti reverentia; salva Libertate potens, et solus plebe parata Privatus servire sibi, rectorque senatus, Sed regnantis, erat. Nil belli iure poposcit, 195 Quaeque dari voluit, voluit sibi posse negari. Immodicas possedit opes, sed plura retentis Intulit: invasit ferrum, sed ponere norat; Praetulit arma togae, sed pacem armatus amavit; Iuvit sumpta ducem, iuvit dimissa potestas. 200 Casta domus luxuque carens corruptaque numquam Fortuna domini. Clarum et venerabile nomen Gentibus, et multum nostrae quod proderat urbi. . . . . . . . O felix, cui summa dies fuit obvia victo, 208 Et cui quaerendos Pharium scelus obtulit enses! Forsitan in soceri potuisses vivere regno. Scire mori sors prima viris sed proxima cogi. ’ 211 Vocibus his maior, quam si Romana sonarent 215 Rostra ducis laudes, generosam venit ad umbram Mortis honos. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ix. 190-217. 

 [Linenotes: 190-191. +multum . .. Iuris+ = _far inferior to our ancestors in recognising the due bounds of power_. --Haskins. 193. +solus+ (sc. _ex proceribus_) . .. +servire sibi+ = _alone (of the chief men of the State) acting the private citizen when the populace were ready to be his slaves_, i. E. Acting unlike Sulla or Caesar. --H. 195. +sed regnantis. + ‘Pompeius came forward as the duly installed general of the Senate against the Imperator of the street, once more to save his country. ’ --M. 198. +Intulit+, sc. _in aerarium_. Cf. Shaksp. _Jul. C. _ III. Ii. (Mark Antony of Caesar) ‘He hath brought many captives home to Rome | Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill. ’ ‘Caesar devoted the proceeds of the confiscations (the property of defeated opponents) entirely to the benefit of the State. ’ --M. 208. +cui summa dies . .. Victo+ = _whom the day of death met when he was vanquished_, i. E. Without his having to seek it himself. --H. 209. +Pharium+ = _Egyptian_, lit. Of _Pharos_ (= Faro), an island near Alexandria, famous for its lighthouse. 211. One of Lucan’s famous _sententiae_ (γνῶμαι, _maxims_). ]

+Pompeius. + ‘Even in his own age he would have had a clearly defined andrespectable position, _had he contented himself with being the generalof the Senate_, for which he was from the outset destined. ’ --M. 

B61

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (12)

_The Grave of Pompeius. His Roll of Fame. _

 Tunc ne levis aura retectos Auferret cineres, saxo compressit harenam: 790 Nautaque ne bustum religato fune moveret, Inscripsit sacrum semiusto stipite nomen: HIC SITUS EST MAGNUS. . . . Quod si tam sacro dignaris nomine saxum, 806 Adde actus tantos monimentaque maxima rerum, Adde truces Lepidi motus Alpinaque bella Armaque Sertori revocato consule victa, Et currus quos egit eques, commercia tuta 810 Gentibus et pavidos Cilicas maris: adde subactam Barbariem gentesque vagas et quidquid in Euro Regnorum Boreaque iacet. Die semper ab armis Civilem repetisse togam, ter curribus actis Contentum patriae multos donasse triumphos. 815 Quis capit haec tumulus? Surgit miserabile bustum Non ullis plenum titulis, non ordine tanto Fastorum, solitumque legi super alta deorum Culmina et exstructos spoliis hostilibus arcus Haud procul est ima Pompei nomen harena, 820 Depressum tumulo, quod non legat advena rectus, Quod nisi monstratum Romanus transeat hospes. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, viii. 789-793, 806-822. 

+Subject. + Cordus, whom Lucan calls _infaustus Magni comes_ (oraccording to Plutarch Philippus the faithful freedman of Pompeius), finds the cast-up body of Pompeius and gives it honourable burial. 

 [Linenotes: 793. +HIC SITUS EST+ = ἔνθαδε κεῖται, the regular inscription on a tombstone. 808. +truces Lepidi motus. + Cf. Page 178, last note on page. 809. +revocato consule+, i. E. Metellus. Cf. Page 180, A. , l.  12. [[Selection B21, “Metello”]] 811. +pavidos Cilicas maris+ = _the Cilicians scared from the sea_. --Jebb. _Pompeius effecit ut piratae timerent maria quibus ipsi ante grassabantur_ (= they sailed at will). --Schol. 813-814. +dic semper . .. Togam+, e. G. After his triumph over Spain 71 B. C. , and over Mithridates and the East in 61 B. C. 814-815. +ter curribus . .. Triumphos+ = (tell how) _content with thrice driving the_ (triumphal) _car he made a present to his fatherland of many triumphs_, i. E. He did not claim them when he might have done so. 817-818. +Non ordine tanto Fastorum+ = _storied with no majestic annals_. --Jebb. 819. +arcus+ = _triumphal arches_, orig. Temporary structures of wood, but under the Empire built of marble, e. G. Of Septimius Severus. 821. +Depressum . .. Rectus+ = _sunk low upon a tomb, which the stranger cannot read without stooping_ (+rectus+). --Haskins. ]

B62

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (13)

_Atrox Animus Catonis, 46 B. C. _

Complures interim ex fuga Uticam perveniunt. Quos omnes Cato convocatosuna cum trecentis, qui pecuniam Scipioni ad bellum faciendumcontulerant, hortatur, ut servitia manumitterent, oppidumquedefenderent. Quorum cum partem assentire, partem {5} animum mentemqueperterritam atque in fugam destinatam habere intellexisset, amplius deea re agere destitit, navesque eis attribuit, ut in quas quisque partesvellet proficisceretur. Ipse, omnibus rebus diligentissime constitutis, liberis suis L. Caesari, {10} qui tum ei pro quaestore fuerat, commendatis et sine suspicione, vultu atque sermone, quo superioretempore usus fuerat, cum dormitum isset, ferrum intro clam in cubiculumtulit, atque ita se traiecit. Qui cum anima nondum exspirataconcidisset, et, {15} impetu facto in cubiculum ex suspicione, medicusfamiliaresque continere atque vulnus obligare coepissent, ipse suismanibus vulnus crudelissime divellit, atque animo praesenti seinteremit. 

 ASINIUS POLLIO, _de B. Africo_,  88. 

+Context. + After Pharsalus and the flight of Pompeius, we finally partcompany with Caesar as an author. The _Bellum Alexandrinum_ (Caesar’sperils in Egypt and his settlement of the East 48-47 B. C. ), the _B. Africum_ (Thapsus 46 B. C. ), the _B. Hispaniense_ (Munda 45 B. C. ), arethe work of eyewitnesses and officers of his army. After a delay offifteen precious months Caesar landed in Africa (Jan. 46), and byinvesting Thapsus tempted Scipio (Pompeius’ father-in-law) to try tosave the city by a battle. His troops were quickly arranged as atPharsalus, and by a single impetuous charge won a complete victory. Theslaughter was terrible: the survivors fled to Utica, where Cato in vaintried to organise a defence and to restore order, and then in despairdied by his own sword. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Uticam:+ second in importance to Carthage. 19. +animo praesenti+ = _deliberately_. ]

+After Thapsus. + ‘Caesar left Africa in June 46 B. C. , and celebrated amagnificent triumph, not over Roman citizens, but over Gauls andEgyptians, Pharnaces and Juba. As Dictator he remained in Rome severalmonths, in which more permanently valuable work was done than was everachieved in the same space of time, unless it were by Cromwell in1653-4. The senseless outbreak of the Pompeian party in Spain underLabienus and the two sons of Pompeius took him away from Rome: but thevictory of Munda (45 B. C. ) closed the civil strife. Caesar returned toRome in September, and six months more of life was all that was left tohim. ’ --W.  F. 

B63

CIVIL WAR, 49-45 B. C. (14)

_Cato Uticensis, 46 B. C. _

A. Hic genitus proavo M. Catone, principe illo familiae Porciae, homoVirtuti simillimus et per omnia ingenio diis quam hominibus propior, quinunquam recte fecit, ut facere videretur, sed quia aliter facere nonpotuerat, cuique id solum visum {5} est rationem habere, quod haberetiustitiae, omnibus humanis vitiis immunis semper fortunam in suapotestate habuit. 

 VELL. PATERC. Ii. 35. 

 [Linenote: 1. +M. Catone+, the famous Censor of 184 B. C. +principe+ = _founder_. ]

B. 

 Ut primum tolli feralia viderat arma, Intonsos rigidam in frontem descendere canos 375 Passus erat maestamque genis increscere barbam: Uni quippe vacat studiis odiisque carenti Humanum lugere genus . . . Hi mores, haec duri immota Catonis 380 Secta fuit, servare modum finemque tenere Naturamque sequi patriaeque impendere vitam Nec sibi sed toti genitum se credere mundo. Huic epulae, vicisse famem; magnique penates, Summovisse hiemem tecto; pretiosaque vestis, 385 Hirtam membra super Romani more Quiritis Induxisse togam . . . Iustitiae cultor, rigidi servator honesti, 389 In commune bonus: nullosque Catonis in actus Subrepsit partemque tulit sibi nata voluptas. 

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, ii. 374-391 (sel. )

 [Linenotes: 377. +uni+ (sc. _Catoni_), as the only true representative of the wise man of the Stoics. --Haskins. 381. +secta+ (sc. _via_, lit. _a beaten way_) here = _disciplina_ = _principles_. 381-383. +servare modum . .. Mundo. + These expressions are Stoic maxims. Lucan (the nephew of Seneca) depicts the Stoic idea of virtue in the character of Cato. 382-383. +patriaeque . .. Mundo. + Cato’s aim is +patriae impendere vitam+. His devotion to the service of humanity is complete; it is his part +toti genitum se credere mundo+. But this humanity includes Rome in the first place, the rest of the world in a quite secondary sense. --H. 386-387. +hirtam togam+ = _a coarse_ (lit. _hairy_) _toga_. 389. +honesti+ = τοῦ καλοῦ. Cicero defines +honestum+ as _aut ipsa virtus, aut res gesta virtute_. ]

+Cato Uticensis. + ‘He was like Caesar alone in this, that he had clearpolitical convictions and acted on them not only with consistency butwith justice and humanity. It is “his vain faith and courage” that alonelights up the dark hours of the falling Commonwealth:--

 ‘Victrix causa deis placuit, sed victa Catoni. ’ --W.  F. 

B64

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR. (5)

_Caesar dines with Cicero, Dec. 19, 45 B. C. _

O hospitem mihi tam gravem ἀμεταμέλητον! fuit enim periucunde. Sed cumsecundis Saturnalibus ad Philippum vesperi venisset, villa ita completamilitibus est, ut vix triclinium, ubi cenaturus ipse Caesar esset, vacaret; quippe hominum ⅭⅠↃ ⅭⅠↃ. {5} Sane sum commotus, quid futurumesset postridie; at mihi Barba Cassius subvenit: custodes dedit. Castrain agro, villa defensa est. Ille tertiis Saturnalibus apud Philippum adh. VII, nec quemquam admisit: rationes opinor cum Balbo. Inde ambulavit{10} in litore; post h. VIII in balneum; unctus est, accubuit. Et editet bibit ἀδεῶς et iucunde, opipare sane et apparate, nec id solum, sed

 _bene cocto, condito, sermone bono et, si quaeri’, libenter. _ 15

Praeterea tribus tricliniis accepti οἱ περὶ αὐτὸν valde copiose. Libertis minus lautis servisque nihil defuit: nam lautiores eleganteraccepti. Quid multa? homines visi sumus. Hospes tamen non is, cuidiceres: ‘amabo te, eodem ad me, cum revertere’: semel {20} satis est. Σπουδαῖον οὐδὲν in sermone, φιλόλογα multa. Quid quaeris? delectatus estet libenter fuit. Puteolis se aiebat unum diem fore, alterum ad Baias. Habes hospitium sive ἐπισταθμείαν, odiosam mihi, dixi, non molestam. {25}

 CICERO, _Ep. Ad Att. _ xiii.  52. 

+Subject. + We here catch a glimpse of Caesar as he really was. He hadspent a night near Puteoli (where Cicero also had a villa) withPhilippus, the step-father of Octavianus. The Dictator proposed a visit, and Cicero in this memorable letter describes to Atticus what happened. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +O hospitem . .. + ἀμεταμέλητον! = _Oh, what a formidable guest to have had, and yet I have had no reason to repent of it_ (ἀμεταμέλητον). 10. +rationes+ (sc. _conferebat_) . .. +Balbo+ = _he was settling accounts with Balbus, I suppose_. L. Cornelius Balbus, a native of Gades (Cadiz), was Caesar’s confidential secretary and faithful friend. He was the first enfranchised foreigner who attained to the highest magistracy (Consul 40 B. C. ). 14-15. ‘Though the cook was good, ’Twas Attic salt (+sermone bono+) that flavoured most the food. ’ --Jeans. 18-19. +homines visi sumus+ = _I showed myself a man of taste_, i. E. As host. 21. Σπουδαῖον οὐδὲν = lit. _nothing serious_, i. E. _nothing political_. φιλόλογα = _literary chat_. 24-25. ἐπισταθμείαν = _billeting_, as Caesar’s offer to dine with Cicero was equivalent to a command. +odiosam . .. Molestam+ = _unwelcome, though not disagreeable_. ]

B65

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR. (6)

_The Death of Caesar, 44 B. C. _

Assidentem conspirati specie officii circumsteterunt; ilicoque CimberTillius, qui primas partes susceperat, quasi aliquid rogaturus propiusaccessit, renuentique et gestu in aliud tempus differenti ab utroqueumero togam apprehendit; deinde clamantem: {5} _Ista quidem vis est_, alter e Cascis aversum vulnerat, paulum infra iugulum. Caesar Cascaebrachium arreptum graphio traiecit, conatusque prosilire alio vulneretardatus est; utque animadvertit undique se strictis pugionibus peti, toga caput {10} obvolvit, simul sinistra manu sinum ad ima cruradeduxit, quo honestius caderet etiam inferiore corporis parte velata. Atque ita tribus et viginti plagis confossus est, uno modo ad primumictum gemitu sine voce edito; etsi tradiderunt quidam {15} Marco Brutoirruenti dixisse: Καὶ σὺ τέκνον; Exanimis, diffugientibus cunctis, aliquamdiu iacuit, donec lecticae impositum, dependente brachio, tresservoli domum rettulerunt. Nec in tot vulneribus, ut Antistius medicusexistimabat, letale ullum {20} repertum est, nisi quod secundo loco inpectore acceperat. 

 SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_, 82. 

+Context. + After his return from Spain (Sept. 45 B. C. ), Caesar was busywith the reconstruction of the Senate, the completion of his vastbuildings in Rome, and with other far-reaching projects. But duringthese months the clouds of ill-will were gathering and threatening himon every side. A conspiracy was formed, of which C. Cassius, ‘a lean andhungry man, ’ of a bitter and jealous disposition, seems to have been thereal instigator. He persuaded Brutus, a student of life chiefly inbooks, that liberty could only be gained by murder, and at last it wasresolved that the deed should be done on the Ides (15th) of March. 

 [Linenotes: 8. +graphio+ (γραφίον = _scriptorium_) = _a writing-style_. 12. +quo honestius caderet+, cf. Ovid, _Fasti_ ii. 833 (of Lucretia): [Hallam II. 675] _Tunc quoque iam moriens ne non procumbat honeste Respicit, haec etiam cura cadentis erat. _ 16. Καὶ σὺ τέκνον; there seems to be no authority for attributing the words _Et tu Brute?_ to Caesar. Shakespeare found them in an earlier play. ]

+The Murder of Caesar. + ‘It is the most brutal and the most patheticscene that profane history has to record; it was, as Goethe has said, the most senseless deed that ever was done. It was wholly useless, forit did not and could not save Rome from monarchy. The deed was done bya handful of men, who, pursuing a phantom liberty and following the leadof a personal hatred, slew +the one man who saw the truth of things+. ’--W.  F. 

B66

GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR. (7)

 ‘_There may be many Caesars Ere such another Julius. _’--Cymbeline. 

A. Fuit in illo ingenium, ratio, memoria, litterae, cura, cogitatio, diligentia; res bello gesserat quamvis rei publicae calamitosas, attamen magnas; multos annos regnare meditatus magno labore multispericulis quod cogitarat effecerat; muneribus, monumentis, {5}congiariis, epulis multitudinem imperitam delenierat: suos praemiis, adversarios clementiae specie devinxerat. 

 CICERO, _Philippica_, ii. 45. 

 [Linenotes: 4. +regnare meditatus. + For Caesar monarchy meant the liberation of the Empire. 5. +muneribus+ (sc. +gladiatoriis+) = _gladiatorial shows_. +monumentis+ = _public buildings_, e. G. His forum, amphitheatre, Temple of Venus Genetrix, and other public works begun (e. G. The _Curia Iulia_) and planned. 6. +congiariis+ (sc. _donis_), orig. A _gift of wine_ (a _congius_ = about 6 pints), then = _wine-money_ (Ger. _Trinkgeld_), and so of any largess. 7-8. +clementiae specie. + Cic. Himself refutes this ungrateful taunt in his _pro Marcello_: _Recte igitur unus invictus est, a quo etiam ipsius victoriae condicio visque devicta est_. ]

B. 

 Sed non in Caesare tantum Nomen erat nec fama ducis, sed nescia virtus Stare loco, solusque pudor non vincere bello. Acer et indomitus, quo spes quoque ira vocasset, 145 Ferre manum et numquam temerando parcere ferro. Successus urguere suos, instare favori Numinis, impellens quidquid sibi summa petenti Obstaret, gaudensque viam fecisse ruina. 150

 LUCAN, _Pharsalia_, i. 143-150. 

 [Linenotes: 143-144. +tantum nomen+ = _not a mere name alone_, in contrast to Pompeius:--_Stat magni nominis umbra. _ -- Haskins. 146. +temerando parcere ferro+ = _shrink from dyeing his sword_ (in blood). --H. ]

_Apotheosis of Caesar. _

C. Periit sexto et quinquagesimo aetatis anno atque in deorum numerumrelatus est, non ore modo decernentium sed et persuasione volgi. Siquidem ludis, quos primos consecrato ei heres Augustus edebat, {20}stella crinita per septem continuos dies fulsit, exoriens circaundecimam horam, creditumque est animam esse Caesaris in caelum recepti;et hac de causa simulacro eius in vertice additur stella. 

 SUET. _Div. Iul. _ 88. 

 [Linenotes: 21. +stella crinita+ (= κομήτης); cf. Verg. _Georg. _ iv. 466-8: _Ille_ (= the sun) _etiam exstincto miseratus Caesare Romam Cum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine_ (= gloom) _texit, Impiaque aeternam timuerunt saecula noctem. _]

‘FACTA DUCIS VIVENT, OPEROSAQUE GLORIA RERUM. ’ --_OVID. _

‘THE HERO’S DEEDS AND HARD-WON FAME SHALL LIVE. ’

Caesar was the sole creative genius produced by Rome, and the lastproduced by the ancient world, which accordingly moved on in the paththat he marked out for it until its sun went down. 

Whatever he undertook and achieved was pervaded and guided by the coolsobriety which constitutes the most marked peculiarity of his genius. Tothis he owed the power of living energetically in the present, undisturbed either by recollection or by expectation: to this he owedthe capacity of acting at any moment with collected vigour, and ofapplying his whole genius even to the smallest and most incidentalenterprise. Gifts such as these could not fail to produce a statesman. 

+Caesar as a statesman. +--From early youth Caesar was a statesman in thedeepest sense of the term, and his aim was the +political, military, intellectual, and moral regeneration of his own deeply decayed nation, and of the still more deeply decayed Hellenic nation intimately akin tohis own+. According to his original plan, he had proposed to reach hisobject, like Pericles and Gaius Gracchus, without force of arms, until, reluctantly convinced of the necessity for a military support, he, whenalready forty years of age, put himself at the head of an army. 

+His talent for organisation was marvellous. +--No statesman has evercompelled alliances, no general has ever collected an army out ofunyielding and refractory elements with such decision, and kept themtogether with such firmness, as Caesar displayed in constraining andupholding his coalitions and his legions; never did regent judge hisinstruments and assign each to the place appropriate for him with soaccurate an eye. 

+He was monarch; but he never played the king. +--‘I am no king, butCaesar. ’ Even when absolute lord of Rome, he retained the deportment ofthe party-leader; perfectly pliant and smooth, easy and charming inconversation, complaisant towards everyone, it seemed as if he wished iobe nothing but the first among his peers. 

Caesar ruled as king of Rome for five years and a half, not half as longas Alexander: in the intervals of seven great campaigns, which allowedhim to stay not more than fifteen months altogether in the capital ofhis empire, +he regulated the destinies of the world for the present andthe future+. The outlines were laid down, and thereby the new State wasdefined for all coming time: the boundless future alone could completethe structure. But precisely because the building was an endless one, the master so long as he lived restlessly added stone to stone, withalways the same dexterity and always the same elasticity busy at work. Thus he worked and created as never did any man before or after him: andas a worker and creator he still, after well-nigh two thousand years, lives in the memory of the nations--the first and withal uniqueImperator Caesar. 

 MOMMSEN. 

B67

CICERO AND ANTONIUS. 

A. _Peroration of the Second Philippic, 44 B. C. _

Respice, quaeso, aliquando rem publicam, M. Antoni: quibus ortus sis, non quibuscum vivas considera: mecum, uti voles: redi cum re publica ingratiam. Sed de te tu videris: ego de me ipso profitebor. Defendi rempublicam adulescens, non {5} deseram senex: contempsi Catilinae gladios, non pertimescam tuos. Quin etiam corpus libenter obtulerim, sirepraesentari morte mea libertas civitatis potest: ut aliquando dolorpopuli Romani pariat, quod iam diu parturit. Etenim si abhinc {10} annosprope viginti hoc ipso in templo negavi posse mortem immaturam esseconsulari, quanto verius nunc negabo seni? Mihi vero, patres conscripti, iam etiam optanda mors est, perfuncto rebus eis quas adeptus sum quasquegessi. Duo modo haec {15} opto: unum, ut moriens populum Romanum liberumrelinquam--hoc mihi maius ab dis immortalibus dari nihilpotest, --alterum, ut ita cuique eveniat ut de re publica quisquemereatur. 

 CICERO, _Phil. _ ii. 46. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +quibus ortus sis+: espec. His grandfather M. Antonius, the famous orator, whom Cicero held in great esteem. 5. +adulescens+, i. E. In 63 B. C. , when he was in his 44th year. 8. +repraesentari+ = _be realised, won now and here_. --Jebb. 11. +templo+, i. E. _Concordiae_. Cic. Refers to _In Catil. _ iv. 

+The Peroration. + ‘Such a passage speaks to us with a living impressionof unity and directness which we acknowledge without question. We admireand ask for nothing more. ’ --Nettleship. 

B. _On the Murder of Cicero, by order of Antonius. _

 Par scelus admisit Phariis Antonius armis: Abscidit voltus ensis uterque sacros. Illud, laurigeros ageres cum laeta triumphos, Hoc tibi, Roma, caput, cum loquereris, erat. 4 Antoni tamen est peior quam causa Pothini: Hic facinus domino praestitit, ille sibi. 

 MARTIAL, _Epig. _ III. Lxvi. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +Par Phariis armis+ = _which matches (that committed by) the armed hand of an Egyptian_, i. E. Pothinus (the guardian of the young king) who planned the murder of Pompeius, when he fled to Egypt 48 B. C. +sacros+: _consecrated_ to Rome from their public services. 3-4. +Illud caput+ = Pompeius. +hoc caput+ = Cicero. Cf. _Epig. _ v. Lxix: _Quid gladium demens_ +Romana+ _stringis_ +in ora+? 6. +domino+, sc. Ptolemaeus, King of Egypt, jointly with Cleopatra. ]

B68

CICERO. 

A. _Cicero as Orator and Poet. _

 Eloquium ac famam Demosthenis aut Ciceronis Incipit optare et totis Quinquatribus optat 115 Quisquis adhuc uno parcam colit asse Minervam, Quem sequitur custos angustae vernula capsae. Eloquio sed uterque perit orator, utrumque Largus et exundans leto dedit ingenii fons. Ingenio manus est et cervix caesa, nec umquam 120 Sanguine causidici maduerunt rostra pusilli. ‘O fortunatam natam me consule Romam’: Antoni gladios potuit contemnere, si sic Omnia dixisset. Ridenda poemata malo Quam te, conspicuae divina Philippica famae, 125 Volveris a prima quae proxima. 

 JUVENAL, _Satires_, x. 114-126. 

 [Linenotes: 114-117. Boys at school long to be a Demosthenes or a Cicero. 115. +totis Quinquatribus+, i. E. During all the five days of the Quinquatria, an annual feast of Minerva, March 19-23: it was always a holiday time at schools, and the school year began at the close of it. 116. +parcam Minervam+ = _a cheap kind of learning_, and +uno asse+ = _an entrance fee of one_ +as+. But Duff says +as+ here = +stips+, i. E. The boy’s contribution to the goddess of wisdom, who can make him wise, and +parcam+ (= _economical_), transferred from +asse+ to +Minervam+. 117. +vernula+ = _a little home-born slave_, +capsa+ a circular box of beech-wood, used for the transport of books. 121. +causidici pusilli+ = _of a petty pleader_, as opposed to orator. 122. From Cicero’s poem _de suo consulatu_. Another line quoted in the 2nd Philippic is _Cedant arma togae, concedat laurea laudi_. 124. +Ridenda poemata malo+, i. E. They are better as being safer. Juvenal himself refutes this argument: _Summum crede nefas animam praeferre pudori Et propter vitam vivendi perdere causas. _]

B. _Cicero as Advocate. _

 Disertissime Romuli nepotum, Quot sunt quotque fuere, Marce Tulli, Quotque post aliis erunt in annis, Gratias tibi maximas Catullus Agit pessimus omnium poeta, 5 Tanto pessimus omnium poeta Quanto tu optimus omnium patronus. 

 CATULLUS, xlix. 

 [Linenotes: 2. +Marce Tulli+: the formal address suits the formal expression of thanks to a _patronus_ (= _advocate_). 5. +pessimus omnium poeta:+ the self-depreciation heightens the praise of the last line. --Merrill. ]

B69

CICERO. 

_His Death, by order of Antonius, 43 B. C. _

M. Cicero sub adventum triumvirorum urbe cesserat pro certo habens idquod erat, non magis se Antonio eripi quam Caesari Cassium et Brutumposse: primo in Tusculanum fugerat, inde transversis itineribus inFormianum ut ab Caieta navem {5} conscensurus proficiscitur. Undealiquoties in altum provectum cum modo venti adversi retulissent, modoipse iactationem navis caeco volvente fluctu pati non posset, taediumtandem eum et fugae et vitae cepit, regressusque ad superiorem villam, quae paulo {10} plus mille passibus a mari abest, ‘moriar, ’ inquit, ‘inpatria saepe servata. ’ Satis constat servos fortiter fideliterqueparatos fuisse ad dimicandum; ipsum deponi lecticam et quietos pati quodsors iniqua cogeret iussisse. Prominenti ex lectica praebentique {15}immotam cervicem caput praecisum est. Nec satis stolidae crudelitatimilitum fuit: manus quoque scripsisse aliquid in Antonium exprobrantespraeciderunt. Ita relatum caput ad Antonium iussuque eius inter duasmanus in rostris positum, ubi {20} ille consul, ubi saepe consularis, ubi eo ipso anno adversus Antonium quanta nulla umquam humana vox cumadmiratione eloquentiae auditus fuerat: vix attollentes prae lacrimisoculos homines intueri trucidati membra civis poterant. Vixit tres etsexaginta {25} annos, ut si vis afuisset, ne immatura quidem mors videripossit. 

 LIVY, _Fr. Ap. Sen. Rh. Suas. _ vii. 

 [Linenotes: 1. +triumvirorum+, sc. Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus. These three allies (about the end of Oct. 43 B. C. ) held their famous meeting on an island in the R. Rhenus (a tributary of the Padus) near Bononia (Bologna), at which they constituted themselves a commission of three with absolute powers for five years. This was followed by a proscription of their principal opponents, of whom seventeen, including Cicero (sacrificed to Antonius), were at once put to death. 4. +in Tusculanum+, i. E. To his villa at Tusculum, richly adorned with pictures and statues. 5. +in Formianum+, i. E. To his villa at Formiae, on the Appian Way, in the innermost corner of the beautiful Gulf of Caieta (Gaëta). Near this villa Cicero was murdered. ]

+The Death of Cicero. + Cicero’s work was over, and the tragedy of hisdeath was the natural outcome of his splendid failure. The restorationof the Commonwealth of the Scipios was but a dream; still it was abeautiful dream, and Cicero gave his life for it. --Tyrrell. 

B70

_In Praise of Cicero. _

A. Nihil tamen egisti, M. Antoni, nihil, inquam, egisti mercedemcaelestissimi oris et clarissimi capitis abscisi numerando, auctoramentoque funebri ad conservatoris quondam rei publicae tantiqueconsulis irritando necem. Rapuisti tum Ciceroni lucem {5} sollicitam etaetatem senilem et vitam miseriorem te principe quam sub te triumviromortem, famam vero gloriamque factorum atque dictorum adeo nonabstulisti, ut auxeris. Vivit vivetque per omnem saeculorum memoriam, dumque hoc vel forte vel {10} providentia vel utcumque constitutum rerumnaturae corpus, quod ille paene solus Romanorum animo vidit, ingeniocomplexus est, eloquentia illuminavit, manebit incolume, comitem aevisui laudem Ciceronis trahet omnisque posteritas illius in te scriptamirabitur, {15} tuum in eum factum exsecrabitur citiusque e mundo genushominum quam Ciceronis memoria cedet. 

 VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, ii. 66. 

 [Linenotes: 3-4. +auctoramentoque funebri irritando+ = lit. _and by stimulating (provoking) by a fatal reward_ (+auctoramento+) _the death_.  .  .  . 10-15. +dumque . .. Trahet+, in reference to Cicero’s philosophical works, in which Cicero propounds no original scheme of philosophy, claiming only that he renders the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to his own countrymen. ]

B. Ingenium et operibus et praemiis operum felix; ipse fortunae diuprosperae et in longo tenore felicitatis {20} magnis interim ictusvulneribus, exilio, ruina partium pro quibus steterat, filiae exitu tamtristi tamque acerbo, omnium adversorum nihil ut viro dignum erat tulitpraeter mortem, quae vere aestimanti minus indigna videri potuit, quod avictore {25} inimico nil crudelius passurus erat quam quod eiusdemfortunae compos victo fecisset. Si quis tamen virtutibus vitia pensaret, vir magnus ac memorabilis fuit, et in cuius laudes exsequendas Ciceronelaudatore opus fuerit. {30}

 LIVY, _Fr. Ap. Sen. _

 [Linenote: 21-22. +ruina . .. Steterat+, i. E. The restoration of the Commonwealth of the Scipios. ]

+Cicero. + ‘It happened many years after that Augustus once found one ofhis grandsons with a work of Cicero’s in his hands. The boy wasfrightened, and hid the book under his gown; but Caesar took it fromhim, and, standing there motionless, he read through a great part of thebook; then he gave it back to the boy, and said “This was a greatorator, my child; a great orator, and a man who loved his countrywell. ”’--Plutarch, _Cicero_,  49. 

B71

LAUS ITALIAE. 

 Si te forte iuvant Helles Athamantidos urbes, Nec desiderio, Tulle, movere meo, Tu licet aspicias caelum omne Atlanta gerentem, Sectaque Persea Phorcidos ora manu, 8 Geryonis stabula et luctantum in pulvere signa Herculis Antaeique Hesperidumque choros, Tuque tuo Colchum propellas remige Phasim, Peliacaeque trabis totum iter ipse legas, 12 Qua rudis Argoa natat inter saxa columba In faciem prorae pinus adacta novae, Et siqua Ortygii visenda est ora Caystri, Et quae septenas temperat unda vias; 16 Omnia Romanae cedent miracula terrae; Natura his posuit, quicquid ubique fuit. Armis apta magis tellus, quam commoda noxae: Famam, Roma, tuae non pudet historiae. 20 Nam quantum ferro, tantum pietate potentes Stamus: victrices temperat illa manus. Hic Anio Tiburne fluis, Clitumnus ab Umbro Tramite, et aeternum Marcius umor opus, 24 Albanus lacus et foliis Nemorensis abundans, Potaque Pollucis lympha salubris equo. 26 Haec tibi, Tulle, parens, haec est pulcherrima sedes; 39 Hic tibi pro digna gente petendus honos; Hic tibi ad eloquium cives, hic ampla nepotum Spes et venturae coniugis aptus amor. 42

 PROPERTIUS, III. (IV. ) xxii. 5-26, 39-42. 

+Subject. + Go where thou wilt, my Tullus, know that all the sights andmarvels of all lands, from West to East, are outdone by those of thineown Italy. A truly famous land! A land ever victorious, ever merciful;full of fair lakes and streams. Here, Tullus, is thy true abode: hereseek a life of honour and a home. 

 [Linenotes: 8. +Phorcidos ora+ = _the head of Medusa_, the daughter of Phorcus. 15. +Ortygii Caystri. + Ortygia, an old name for Ephesus, near the mouth of the R. Cayster: the haunt of _quails_ (_Ortygia_, ὄρτυξ). 16. +temperat septenas vias+ = _moderates its seven channels_, of the delta of the Nile. --Ramsay. 19-22. Cf. Verg. _Aen. _ vi. 853 _Parcere subiectis et debellare superbos. _ 19. +commoda noxae+ = _disposed to harm_. --North Pinder. 24. +Marcius umor+, i. E. The aqueduct of Q. Marcius Rex; built 145 B. C. 25. The Alban and Arician Lakes (+Nemorensis+ = mod. _Nemi_) are close together. 26. I. E. The well Iuturna in the Forum (‘the well that springs by Vesta’s fane’) at which the Dioscuri washed their horses after their hot ride from Lake Regillus. 41. +ad eloquium cives+ = _citizens to hear and profit by your eloquence_. --N.  P. ]

B72

LAUS ROMAE. 

 Haec est in gremium victos quae sola recepit 150 Humanumque genus communi nomine fovit Matris, non dominae ritu: civesque vocavit Quos domuit, nexuque pio longinqua revinxit. Huius pacificis debemus moribus omnes Quod veluti patriis regionibus utitur hospes: 155 Quod sedem mutare licet: quod cernere Thulen Lusus, et horrendos quondam penetrare recessus: Quod bibimus passim Rhodanum, potamus Orontem; Quod cuncti gens una sumus. Nec terminus unquam Romanae dicionis erit. Nam cetera regna 160 Luxuries vitiis odiisque superbia vertit. Sic male sublimes fregit Spartanus Athenas Atque idem Thebas cecidit. Sic Medus ademit Assyrio, Medoque tulit moderamina Perses: Subiecit Macedo Persen, cessurus et ipse 165 Romanis. Haec auguriis firmata Sibyllae, Haec sacris animata Numae: huic fulmina vibrat Iuppiter: hanc tota Tritonia Gorgone velat. Arcanas huc Vesta faces, huc orgia Bacchus Transtulit, et Phrygios genetrix turrita leones. 170 Huc defensurus morbos Epidaurius hospes Reptavit placido tractu, vectumque per undas Insula Paeonium texit Tiberina draconem. 

 CLAUDIAN, _de Consulatu Stilichonis_, iii. 150-173. 

 [Linenotes: 153. +nexuque . .. Revinxit+ = _and has linked far places in a bond of love_. --Jebb. 156. +Thulen:+ cf. Vergil’s _ultima Thule_, of the northernmost island known, variously identified with the Shetlands, Iceland, or Norway. 158. +Orontem+: the largest river of Syria, whence Juvenal, iii. 62, uses it of the Syrian people-- _Iam pridem Syrus in Tiberim defluxit Orontes. _ 159. +Quod cuncti . .. Sumus+ = _that the whole earth is one people_. 164. +moderamina+ = _the reins of power_; lit. _a means of managing_. 168. +hanc tota . .. Velat+ = _she it is above whom Pallas spreads the whole shadow of the aegis_ (+tota Gorgone+). Cf. Verg. _Aen. _ viii. 435-8: _Aegidaque horriferam, turbatae Palladis arma, Certatim squamis serpentum auroque polibant, Connexosque angues ipsamque in pectore divae Gorgona, desecto vertentem lumina collo. _ 170. +genetrix turrita+, i. E. Cybele, the goddess of settled life. 171. +Epidaurius hospes+, i. E. Asclepius (Aesculapius), who had a famous temple at Epidaurus (in Argolis), whence his worship was introduced into Rome to avert a pestilence 293 B. C. 172. +reptavit placido tractu+ = _came gently gliding on his voyage_. --Jebb. --For +reptavit+ cf. _repo_, ἕρπω, and our _creep_. 173. +Paeonium draconem+ = _the serpent of the healer_. Cf. Παιών. ]

B73

‘QUOD CUNCTI GENS UNA SUMUS. ’ --CLAUDIAN. 

 Vis dicam, quae causa tuos, Romane, labores In tantum extulerit, quis gloria fotibus aucta Sic cluat, impositis ut mundum frenet habenis? 585 Discordes linguis populos et dissona cultu Regna volens sociare Dens, subiungier uni Imperio, quidquid tractabile moribus esset, Concordique iugo retinacula mollia ferre Constituit, quo corda hominum coniuncta teneret 590 Relligionis amor: nec enim fit copula Christo Digna, nisi implicitas societ mens unica gentes. 592 Ius fecit commune pares et nomine eodem 608 Nexuit et domitos fraterna in vincla redegit. Vivitur omnigenis in partibus, haud secus ac si Cives congenitos concludat moenibus unis Urbs patria atque omnes lare conciliemur avito. 612 En ades omnipotens, concordibus influe terris: 634 Iam mundus te, Christe, capit, quem congrege nexu Pax et Roma tenent: capita haec et culmina rerum Esse iubes, nec Roma tibi sine pace probatur: Et pax ut placeat, facit excellentia Romae, Quae motus varios simul et dicione coercet Et terrore premit. 640

 PRUDENTIUS, _contra Symmachum_, ii. 583-640 (sel. ). 

+Subject. + In a remarkable passage, Prudentius (circ. 400 A. D. ) viewsthe victorious empire of Rome as preparing the way for the coming ofChrist. The triumphs of the Romans were not, he says, the gifts of falsegods, grateful for sacrifices, but were designed by Providence to breakdown the barriers between the jarring nationalities of the world, andfamiliarise them with a common yoke, by way of disciplining them for acommon Christianity. An “universal peace is struck through sea andland, ” and Law, Art, Commerce, and Marriage constitute the world onecity and one family. Thus the way was paved for the coming of Christ bythe unity of the empire and the civilisation of the individual subject. --North Pinder. 

 [Linenotes: 584. +fotibus+ (cf. _fotum_, _foveo_) = _cherishings_, _supports_, post-classical. 585. +sic cluat+ = _is so famed_, for _cluo_ (ante and post-class. ) cf. κλέος. 590-591. +quo+ (sc. _iugo_) . .. +amor+, i. E. Hearts once knit together by a common yoke would best be held together by a common faith. --N.  P. 609. +fraterna in vincla+ = _in the bonds of brotherhood, not those of slavery, as_ +domitos+ _would naturally suggest_. 634. +concordibus+ = _now they are in harmony and peace_, emphatic. 635. +capit+ = _is fit to receive thee_. ]

MISCELLANEOUS PASSAGES

PROPEMPTICON VERGILIO. [36]

_The Perils of the Deep. _

 A. 

 Sic te diva potens Cypri, Sic fratres Helenae, lucida sidera, Ventorumque regat pater Obstrictis aliis praeter Iapyga, 4 Navis, quae tibi creditum Debes Vergilium, finibus Atticis Reddas incolumem precor Et serves animae dimidium meae. 8 Illi robur et aes triplex Circa pectus erat, qui fragilem truci Commisit pelago ratem Primus, nec timuit praecipitem Africum 12 Decertantem Aquilonibus Nec tristes Hyadas nec rabiem Noti, Quo non arbiter Hadriae Maior, tollere seu ponere vult freta. 16 Quem mortis timuit gradum, Qui siccis oculis monstra natantia, Qui vidit mare turbidum et Infames scopulos Acroceraunia? 20 Nequiquam deus abscidit Prudens Oceano dissociabili Terras, si tamen impiae Non tangenda rates transiliunt vada. 24

 [Footnote 36: A ‘God-speed’ to Vergil’s ship. ]

‘_Nought is there for man too high. _’

B. 

 Audax omnia perpeti Gens humana ruit per vetitum nefas: Audax Iapeti genus Ignem fraude mala gentibus intulit; 28 Post ignem aetheria domo Subductum macies et nova febrium Terris incubuit cohors Semotique prius tarda necessitas 32 Leti corripuit gradum. Expertus vacuum Daedalus aera. Pinnis non homini datis; Perrupit Acheronta Herculeus labor. 36 Nil mortalibus arduist; Caelum ipsum petimus stultitia neque Per nostrum patimur scelus Iracunda Iovem ponere fulmina. 40

 HORACE, _Od. _ I. Iii. 

PROPEMPTICON MAECIO CELERI. 

_A Prayer for his friend’s safety. _

A. 

 Di, quibus audaces amor est servare carinas Saevaque ventosi mulcere pericula ponti, Sternite molle fretum placidumque advertite votis Concilium, et lenis non obstrepat unda precanti: Grande tuo rarumque damus, Neptune, profundo 5 Depositum. Iuvenis dubio committitur alto Maecius atque animae partem super aequora nostrae Maiorem transferre parat. Proferte benigna Sidera et antemnae gemino considite cornu, Oebalii fratres; vobis pontusque polusque 10 Luceat; Iliacae longe nimbosa sororis Astra fugate, precor, totoque excludite caelo. Vos quoque caeruleum ponti, Nereides, agmen Quis honor ei regni cessit fortuna secundi, Dicere quae magni fas sit mihi sidera ponti, 15 Surgite de vitreis spumosae Doridos antris Baianosque sinus et feta tepentibus undis Litora tranquillo certatim ambite natatu, Quaerentes ubi celsa ratis, quam scandere gaudet Nobilis Ausoniae Celer armipotentis alumnus.  .  .  . 20

_His Prayer is heard. Man’s audacity. _

B. 

 Et pater, Aeolio frangit qui carcere ventos 42 Cui varii flatus omnisque per aequora mundi Spiritus atque hiemes nimbosaque nubila parent, Artius obiecto Borean Eurumque Notumque 45 Monte premat: soli Zephyro sit copia caeli, Solus agat puppes summasque supernatet undas Assiduus pelago; donec tua turbine nullo Laeta Paraetoniis assignet carbasa ripis.  .  .  . Audimur. Vocat ipse ratem nautasque morantes 50 Increpat. Ecce meum timido iam frigore pectus Labitur et nequeo, quamvis movet ominis horror, Claudere suspensos oculorum in margine fletus.  .  .  . 53 Quis rude et abscissum miseris animantibus aequor 61 Fecit iter solidaeque pios telluris alumnos Expulit in fluctus pelagoque immisit hianti Audax ingenii? nec enim temeraria virtus Illa magis, summae gelidum quae Pelion Ossae 65 Iunxit anhelantemque iugis bis pressit Olympum. 

 STATIUS, _Silvae_, II. Ii. 1-20, 42-53, 61-66. 

SENECA. 

_For those ‘qui corporis cura mentem obruerunt. ’_

A. Stulta est enim, mi Lucili, et minime conveniens litterato virooccupatio exercendi lacertos et dilatandi cervicem, ac latera firmandi. Cum tibi feliciter sagina cesserit, et tori creverint: nec vires unquamopimi bovis, nec pondus aequabis. Adice nunc, quod maiore corporissarcina animus eliditur, et minus agilis est. Itaque, quantum potescircumscribe corpus tuum, et animo locum laxa. Multa sequuntur incommodahuic deditos curae. Primum exercitationes, quarum labor spiritumexhaurit, et inhabilem intentioni ac studiis acrioribus reddit; deindecopia ciborum subtilitas animi impeditur. Accedunt pessimae notae, mancipia in magisterium recepta, homines inter oleum et vinum occupati:quibus ad votum dies est actus, si bene desudaverunt, si in locum eiusquod effluxit, multum potionis altius ieiuno gutture regesserunt. Bibereet sudare, vita cardiaci est. Sunt exercitationes et faciles et breves, quae corpus et sine mora laxent, et tempori parcant: cuius praecipuaratio habenda est. Cursus, et cum aliquo pondere manus motae, et saltus, vel ille qui corpus in altum levat, vel ille qui in longum mittit, velille (ut ita dicam) saliaris, aut (ut contumeliosius dicam) fullonius. Quodlibet ex his elige, usu fit facile. Neque ego te iubeo semperimminere libro, aut pugillaribus. Dandum et aliquod intervallum animo:ita tamen ut non resolvatur, sed remittatur. 

 SENECA, _Ep. _ xv. 8. 

‘_They needs must die. _’

B. 

 Incognitum istud facinus, ac dirum nefas A me quoque absit. Quod scelus miseri luent? Scelus est Iason genitor, et maius scelus Medea mater. Occidant: non sunt mei. Pereant? mei sunt. Crimine et culpa carent. Sunt innocentes, fateor: et frater fuit. Quid, anime, titubas? ora quid lacrimae rigant? Variamque nunc huc ira nunc illuc amor Diducit? anceps aestus incertam rapit. 

 SENECA, _Medea_, 920. 

CRITICISM OF POETS. 

_An Estimate of early Roman Dramatists. _

A. 

 Ennius, et sapiens et fortis et alter Homerus, 50 Ut critici dicunt, leviter curare videtur, Quo promissa cadant et somnia Pythagorea. Naevius in manibus non est et mentibus haeret Paene recens? Adeo sanctum est vetus omne poema. Ambigitur quotiens uter utro sit prior, aufert 55 Pacuvius docti famam senis, Accius alti, Dicitur Afrani toga convenisse Menandro, Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare Epicharmi, Vincere Caecilius gravitate, Terentius arte. Hos ediscit et hos arto stipata theatro 60 Spectat Roma potens, habet hos numeratque poetas Ad nostrum tempus Livi scriptoris ab aevo. 

 HOR. _Ep. _ II. I. 50-62. 

‘_Teréntio non símilem dices quémpiam. _’

B. 

 Tu quoque tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander, Poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator. Lenibus atque utinam scriptis adiuncta foret vis, Comica ut aequato virtus polleret honore Cum Graecis neve hac despectus parte iaceres! Unum hoc maceror ac doleo tibi deesse, Terenti. 

 CAESAR, _ap. _ SUETON. _vit. Ter. _

_Ovid on his Contemporaries. _

C. 

 Temporis illius colui fovique poetas, Quotque aderant vates, rebar adesse deos. Saepe suas volucres legit mihi grandior aevo, Quaeque nocet serpens, quae iuvat herba, Macer. 44 Saepe suos solitus recitare Propertius ignes, Iure sodalicio qui mihi iunctus erat. Ponticus heroo, Bassus quoque clarus iambis Dulcia convictus membra fuere mei; 48 Et tenuit nostras numerosus Horatius aures, Dum ferit Ausonia carmina culta lyra. Vergilium vidi tantum: nec amara Tibullo Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae. 52 Successor fuit hic tibi, Galle, Propertius illi; Quartus ab his serie temporis ipse fui: Utque ego maiores, sic me coluere minores, Notaque non tarde facta Thalia mea est. 56

 OVID, _Tr. _ IV. X. 41-56. 

Cf. OVID, _Am. _ I. Xv. 9-30; _Am. _ III. Ix. 38-68; _Rem. Am. _ 65-388;QUINT. X. I. 85-90. 

STORMS BY SEA AND LAND. 

_Ovid describes a Storm at Sea. _

A. 

 Me miserum, quanti montes volvuntur aquarum! Iam iam tacturos sidera summa putes. 20 Quantae diducto subsidunt aequore valles! Iam iam tacturas Tartara nigra putes. Quocumque aspicio, nihil est nisi pontus et aer, Fluctibus hic tumidus, nubibus ille minax. 24 Inter utrumque fremunt inmani murmure venti: Nescit, cui domino pareat, unda maris. Nam modo purpureo vires capit Eurus ab ortu, Nunc Zephyrus sero vespere missus adest, 28 Nunc sicca gelidus Boreas bacchatur ab Arcto, Nunc Notus adversa proelia fronte gerit. Rector in incerto est nec quid fugiatve petatve Invenit: ambiguis ars stupet ipsa malis. 32

 OVID, _Tr. _ I. Ii. 19-32. 

_The passing of Romulus. _

B. 

 Sol fugit, et removent subeuntia nubila caelum, Et gravis effusis decidet imber aquis. Hinc tonat, hinc missis abrumpitur ignibus aether, Fit fuga, rex patriis astra petebat equis. 

 OVID, _Fast. _ ii. 493-496. [Hallam II. 369-372]

_Thunder and Hail. _

C. 

 Ínterea prope iam óccidente sóle inhorrescít mare, Ténebrae conduplicántur, noctisque ét nimbum occaecát nigror, Flámma inter nubés coruscat, caélum tonitru cóntremit, Grándo mixta imbri largifico súbita praecipitáns cadit, Úndique omnes vénti erumpunt, saévi existunt túrbines, Férvit aestu pélagus. 

 PACUVIUS _ap. _ CIC. _De Div. _ I. Xiv.  24. 

_The Argo in a Gale. _

D. 

 Tollitur atque intra Minyas Argoaque vela Styrus adest: vasto rursus desidit hiatu Abrupta revolutus aqua. Iamque omnis in astra 330 Itque reditque ratis, lapsoque reciproca fluctu Descendit. Vorat hos vertex, hos agmine toto Gurges agit. Simul in voltus micat undique terror; Crebra ruina poli caelestia limina laxat. 

 VAL. FL. _Argon. _ viii. 328-334. 

Cf. VERG. _Aen. _ i. 81-123, _Aen. _ iv, 160-168; STAT. _Theb. _i. 336-363. 

PETS RENOWNED IN SONG. 

_Lesbia’s Sparrow. _

A. 

 Lugete, o Veneres Cupidinesque, Et quantumst hominum venustiorum. Passer mortuus est meae puellae, Passer, deliciae meae puellae, Quem plus illa oculis suis amabat. 5 Nam mellitus erat suamque norat Ipsam tam bene quam puella matrem; Nec sese a gremio illius movebat, Sed circumsiliens modo huc modo illuc Ad solam dominam usque pipiabat. 10 Qui nunc it per iter tenebricosum Illuc, unde negant redire quemquam. At vobis male sit, malae tenebrae Orci, quae omnia bella devoratis: Tam bellum mihi passerem abstulistis. 15 Vae factum male! vae miselle passer! Tua nunc opera meae puellae Flendo turgiduli rubent ocelli. 

 CATULLUS, iii. 

‘_My Parrot an obtrusive bird. _’

B. 

 Psittace, dux volucrum, domini facunda voluptas, Humanae sollers imitator, psittace, linguae, Quis tua tam subito praeclusit murmura fato?

 STATIUS, _Silv. _ ii. 4

_The Lap-dog and its Portrait. _

C. 

 Issa est passere nequior Catulli, Issa est purior osculo columbae, Issa est blandior omnibus puellis, Issa est carior Indicis lapillis, Issa est deliciae catella Publi. 5 Hanc tu, si queritur, loqui putabis; Sentit tristitiamque gaudiumque. Collo nixa cubat capitque somnos, Ut suspiria nulla sentiantur. Hanc ne lux rapiat suprema totam, 10 Picta Publius exprimit tabella, In qua tam similem videbis Issam, Ut sit tam similis sibi nec ipsa. Issam denique pone cum tabella: Aut utramque putabis esse veram, 15 Aut utramque putabis esse pictam. 

 MARTIAL, I. Cix. 

Cf. CATULL. Ii. ; OVID, _Am. _ ii.  6. 

THE ROMAN SATIRISTS. (1)

A. Satura quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus insignem laudem adeptusLucilius quosdam ita deditos sibi adhuc habet amatores, ut eum noneiusdem modo operis auctoribus, sed omnibus poetis praeferre nondubitent. Ego quantum ab illis tantum ab Horatio dissentio, quiLucilium _fluere lutulentum et esse aliquid, quod tollere possis_, putat. Nam et eruditio in eo mira et libertas atque inde acerbitas, etabunde salis. Multum eo est tersior ac purus magis Horatius, et, nisilabor eius amore, praecipuus. Multum et verae gloriae, quamvis unolibro, Persius meruit. 

 QUINT. X. I. 93. 

_A Criticism of Lucilius. _

B. 

 Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae Atque alii, quorum comoedia prisca virorum est, Siquis erat dignus describi, quod malus ac fur, Quod moechus foret aut sicarius aut alioqui Famosus, multa cum libertate notabant. 5 Hinc omnis pendet Lucilius, hosce secutus Mutatis tantum pedibus numerisque, facetus, Emunctae naris, durus componere versus. Nam fuit hoc vitiosus: in hora saepe ducentos, Ut magnum, versus dictabat stans pede in uno; 10 Cum flueret lutulentus, erat quod tollere velles; Garrulus atque piger scribendi ferre laborem. 

 HORACE, _Sat. _ I. Iv. 1-12. 

_Juvenal’s Reasons for Writing Satire. _

C. 

 Cur tamen hoc potius libeat decurrere campo, 19 Per quem magnus equos Auruncae flexit alumnus, Si vacat ac placidi rationem admittitis, edam. 21 Cum pars Niliacae plebis, cum verna Canopi 26 Crispinus Tyrias umero revocante lacernas Ventilet aestivum digitis sudantibus aurum Nec sufferre queat maioris pondera gemmae, Difficile est saturam non scribere. 30

 JUVENAL, _Sat. _ i. 19-21, 26-30. 

_His Subject. _

D. 

 Ex quo Deucalion, nimbis tollentibus aequor, 81 Navigio montem ascendit sortesque poposcit, Paulatimque anima caluerunt mollia saxa, 83 Quidquid agunt homines, votum, timor, ira, voluptas, 85 Gaudia, discursus, nostri farrago libelli est. 86

 JUVENAL, _Sat. _ i. 81-86. 

 [Transcriber’s Note: The omitted line (84) is _Et maribus nudas ostendit Pyrrha puellas_]

THE ROMAN SATIRISTS. (2)

_Virtue defined. _

A. 

 Virtus, Albine, est pretium persolvere verum Quis in versamur, quis vivimus rebus potesse: Virtus est homini scire id quo quaeque habeat res. Virtus scire homini rectum, utile, quid sit honestum; Quae bona, quae mala item, quid inutile, turpe, inhonestum; 5 Virtus quaerendae finem rei scire modumque: Virtus divitiis pretium persolvere posse: Virtus, id dare, quod re ipsa debetur, honori; Hostem esse atque inimicum hominum morumque malorum, Contra defensorem hominum morumque bonorum; 10 Hos magni facere, his bene velle, his vivere amicum; Commoda praeterea patriai prima putare, Deinde parentum, tertia iam postremaque nostra. 

 LUCILIUS, _Sat. Frag. _

 ‘_The names of men so poor Who could do mighty deeds. _’

B. 

 Cum tremerent autem Fabios durumque Catonem 90 Et Scauros et Fabricium rigidique severos Censoris mores etiam collega timeret, Nemo inter curas et seria duxit habendum Qualis in Oceani fluctu testudo nataret Clarum Troiugenis factura et nobile fulcrum, 95 Sed nudo latere et parvis frons aerea lectis Vile coronati caput ostendebat aselli, Ad quod lascivi ludebant ruris alumni. Tales ergo cibi qualis domus atque supellex. 

 JUVENAL, _Sat. _ xi. 90-99. 

_Persius in Praise of his Tutor, Cornutus. _

C. 

 Cum primum pavido custos mihi purpura cessit 30 Bullaque succinctis Laribus donata pependit; Cum blandi comites totaque inpune Subura Permisit sparsisse oculos iam candidus umbo, Cumque iter ambiguum est et vitae nescius error Deducit trepidas ramosa in compita mentes, 35 Me tibi supposui. Teneros tu suscipis annos Socratico, Cornute, sinu; tum fallere sollers Apposita intortos extendit regula mores, Et premitur ratione animus vincique laborat Artificemque tuo ducit sub pollice vultum. 40

 PERSIUS, _Sat. _ v. 19-25, 30-40. 

THE THEATRE. 

_Objections to a Permanent Theatre, 151 B. C. _

A. Cum locatum a censoribus theatrum exstrueretur, P.  Cornelio Nasicaauctore tamquam inutile et nociturum publicis moribus ex senatusconsulto destructum est, populusque aliquamdiu stans ludos spectavit. 

 LIVY, _Epit. _ 48. 

_Scenic Arrangements. _

B. Apud maiores theatri gradus tantum fuerunt. Nam scena de lignotantumad tempus fiebat, unde hodieque permansit consuetudo, ut componanturpegmata a ludorum theatralium editoribus. Scena autem, quae fiebat, autversilis erat aut ductilis. Versilis tunc erat, cum subito tota machinisquibusdam convertebantur, et aliam picturae faciem ostendebat. Ductilistunc, cum tractis tabulatis hac atque illac species picturae nudabaturinterior. Unde perite utrumque tetigit, dicens, ‘Versis discedatfrontibus’: singula singulis complectens sermonibus. Quod Varro etSuetonius commemorant. 

 SUET. _ap. Serv. Georg. _ iii.  24. 

_The Awnings. _

C. 

 Et vulgo faciunt id lutea russaque vela 75 Et ferrugina, cum magnis intenta theatris Per malos volgata trabesque trementia flutant; Namque ibi consessam caveai subter et omnem Scaenai speciem, patrum coetumque decorum Inficiunt coguntque suo fluitare colore. 80

 LUCRETIUS, iv. 75-80. 

_The Law of Otho, 67 B. C. _

D. L. Roscius Otho tribunus plebis legem tulit, ut equitibus Romanis intheatro quattuordecim gradus proximi adsignarentur. 

 LIVY, _Epit. _ 99. 

_Usurpers of Equestrian Privileges. _

E. 

 ‘Sectus flagellis hic triumviralibus Praeconis ad fastidium Arat Falerni mille fundi iugera Et Appiam mannis terit 30 Sedilibusque magnus in primis eques Othone contempto sedet. ’

 HORACE, _Epod. _ iv. 11-16. 

SPINNING. 

_The Parcae spin the Web of Fate. _

A. 

 Laeva colum molli lana retinebat amictum, Dextera tum leviter deducens fila supinis Formabat digitis, tum prono in pollice torquens Libratum tereti versabat turbine fusum, Atque ita decerpens aequabat semper opus dens, 315 Laneaque aridulis haerebant morsa labellis, Quae prius in levi fuerant extantia filo: Ante pedes autem candentis mollia lanae Vellera virgati custodibant calathisci. Haec tum clarisona pellentes vellera voce 320 Talia divino fuderunt carmine fata, Carmine perfidiae quod post nulla arguet aetas. ‘O decus eximium magnis virtutibus augens, Emathiae tutamen opis, clarissime nato, Accipe, quod laeta tibi pandunt luce sorores, 325 Veridicum oraclum--sed vos quae fata secuntur Currite ducentes subtemina, currite fusi. ’

 CATULLUS, lxiv. 311-327. 

_The Skill of Arachne. Her Contest with Pallas. _

B. 

 Sive rudem primos lanam glomerabat in orbes, Seu digitis subigebat opus repetitaque longo 20 Vellera mollibat nebulas aequantia tractu Sive levi teretem versabat pollice fusum, Seu pingebat acu scires a Pallade doctam. . . . . . . . Haud mora constituunt diversis partibus ambae Et gracili geminas intendunt stamine telas. Tela iugo vincta est, stamen secernit harundo, 55 Inseritur medium radiis subtemen acutis Quod digiti expediunt, atque inter stamina ductum Percusso paviunt insecti pectine dentes. Utraque festinant cinctaeque ad pectora vestes Bracchia docta movent, studio fallente laborem. 60

 OVID, _Met. _ vi. 19-23, 53-60. 

_The Pastime of Circe. _

C. 

 Proxima Circaeae raduntur litora terrae 10 Dives inaccessos ubi Solis filia lucos Assiduo resonat cantu, tectisque superbis Urit odoratam nocturna in lumina cedrum, Arguto tenues percurrens pectine telas. 

 VERG. _Aen. _ vii. 10-14. 

Cf. OVID, _Met. _ iv. 220-229; _Fasti_, iii. 815-20. [III. 857-862]

ANDROMEDA. (1)

_The Approach of the Monster. _

A. 

 Andromedan poenas immitis iusserat Ammon. 671 Quam simul ad duras religatam bracchia cautes Vidit Abantiades, nisi quod levis aura capillos Moverat et tepido manabant lumina fletu, Marmoreum ratus esset opus. Trahit inscius ignes 675 Et stupet et visae correptus imagine formae Paene suas quatere est oblitus in aere pennas.  .  .  . 677 Ecce velut navis praefixo concita rostro 706 Sulcat aquas, iuvenum sudantibus acta lacertis, Sic fera dimotis inpulsu pectoris undis Tantum aberat scopulis, quantum Balearica torto Funda potest plumbo medii transmittere caeli; 710 Cum subito iuvenis pedibus tellure repulsa Arduus in nubes abiit. Ut in aequore summo Umbra viri visa est, visam fera saevit in umbram. Utque Iovis praepes, vacuo cum vidit in arvo Praebentem Phoebo liventia terga draconem, 715 Occupat aversum, neu saeva retorqueat ora, Squamigeris avidos figit cervicibus ungues, Sic celeri missus praeceps per inane volatu Terga ferae pressit dextroque frementis in armo Inachides ferrum curvo tenus abdidit hamo. 720

_How Perseus won his Bride. _

B. 

 Vulnere laesa gravi modo se sublimis in auras Attollit, modo subdit aquis, modo more ferocis Versat apri, quem turba canum circumsona terret. Ille avidos morsus velocibus effugit alis; Quaque patet, nunc terga cavis super obsita conchis, 725 Nunc laterum costas, nunc qua tenuissima cauda Desinit in piscem, falcato vulnerat ense. Belua puniceo mixtos cum sanguine fluctus Ore vomit; maduere graves adspergine pennae. Nec bibulis ultra Perseus talaribus ausus 730 Credere, conspexit scopulum, qui vertice summo Stantibus extat aquis, operitur ab aequore moto. Nixus eo rupisque tenens iuga prima sinistra Ter quater exegit repetita per ilia ferrum. Litora cum plausu clamor superasque deorum 735 Inplevere domos; gaudent generumque salutant Auxiliumque domus servatoremque fatentur Cassiope Cepheusque pater, resoluta catenis Incedit virgo, pretiumque et causa laboris. 

 OVID, _Met. _ iv. 671-677, 706-720, 721-739. 

ANDROMEDA. (2)

 ‘_From afar, unknowing, I marked thee, Shining, a snow-white cross on the dark-green walls of the sea-cliff. _’ --KINGSLEY. 

A. 

 Tandem Gorgonei victorem Persea monstri Felix illa dies redeuntem ad litora duxit. Isque ubi pendentem vidit de rupe puellam, Deriguit facie, quam non stupefecerat hostis; 670 Vixque manu spolium tenuit; victorque Medusae Victus in Andromeda est. Iam cautibus invidet ipsis Felicesque vocat, teneant quae membra, catenas. Et postquam poenae causam cognovit ab ipsa, Destinat in thalamos per bellum vadere ponti, 675 Altera si Gorgo veniat, non territus ira. Concitat aerios cursus flentesque parentes Promissu vitae recreat pactusque maritam Ad litus remeat. Gravidus nam surgere pontus Coeperat, et longo fugiebant agmine fluctus 680 Impellentis onus monstri. Caput eminet undis Scindentis pelagusque movet. Circumsonat aequor Dentibus, inque ipso rapidum mare navigat ore. 

_The Death of the Monster. _

B. 

 Illa[37] subit contra versoque a gurgite frontem 595 Erigit et tortis innitens orbibus alte Emicat ac toto sublimis corpore fertur. Sed quantum illa subit semet iaculata profundo, In tantum revolat laxumque per aethera ludit Perseus et ceti subeuntis verberat ora. 600 Nec cedit tamen illa viro, sed saevit in auras Morsibus, et vani crepitant sine vulnere dentes; Efflat et in caelum pelagus mergitque volantem Sanguineis undis pontumque extollit in astra. Spectabat pugnam pugnandi causa puella; 605 Iamque oblita sui, metuit pro vindice tali Suspirans, animoque magis quam corpore pendet. Tandem confossis subsedit belua membris Plena maris summasque iterum remeavit ad undas Et magnum vasto contexit corpore pontum, 610 Tunc quoque terribilis nec virginis ore videnda. Perfundit liquido Perseus in marmore corpus Maior et ex undis ad cautes pervolat alto Solvitque haerentem vinclis de rupe puellam Desponsam pugna, nupturam dote mariti. 615

 MANILIUS, _Astronomica_, v. 667-583, 595-615. 

 [Footnote 37: _illa_ = _belua_. ]

SCHOOLS. 

_The School of Flavius, at Venusia. _

A. 

 Causa fuit pater his, qui macro pauper agello Noluit in Flavi ludum me mittere, magni Quo pueri magnis e centurionibus orti, Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto, Ibant octonos refererentes Idibus aeris. 75

 HOR. _Sat. _ I. Vi. 71-75. 

_Ovid and his Brother educated at Rome. _

B. 

 Protinus excolimur teneri, curaque parentis Imus ad insignes Urbis ab arte viros. 16 Frater ad eloquium viridi tendebat ab aevo, Fortia verbosi natus ad arma fori. At mihi iam puero caelestia sacra placebant, Inque suum furtim Musa trahebat opus. 20

 OVID, _Tristia_, IV. X. 15-20. 

_The Schoolmaster’s life a hard one. _

C. 

 Dummodo non pereat, mediae quod noctis ab hora Sedisti, qua nemo faber, qua nemo sederet, Qui docet obliquo lanam deducere ferro; Dummodo non pereat, totidem olfecisse lucernas, 225 Quot stabant pueri, cum totus decolor esset Flaccus, et haereret nigro fuligo Maroni. 

 JUVENAL, vii. 222-227. 

_Early School. _

D. 

 Surgite: iam vendit pueris ientacula pistor, Cristataeque sonant undique lucis aves. 

 MARTIAL, XIV. Ccxxiii. 

_Homogeneous Divisions. _

E. 

Non inutilem scio servatum esse a praeceptoribus meis morem, qui, cumpueros in classes distribuerent, ordinem discendi secundum vires ingenidabant. 

 QUINTIL. I. Ii. 23. 

_Plagosus Orbilius. _

F. 

 Quid tibi nobiscum est, ludi scelerate magister, Invisum pueris virginibusque caput? Nondum cristati rupere silentia galli: Murmure iam saevo verberibusque tonas. 

 MARTIAL, IX. Lxviii. 1-4. 

Cf. JUV. X. 114-7; MARTIAL, X. Lxii. ; HOR. _Ep. _ II. I. 69-71. 

BOOKS. 

A. 

 Parve (nec invideo) sine me, liber, ibis in urbem: Ei mihi, quod domino non licet ire tuo. Vade, sed incultus, qualem decet exsulis esse: Infelix habitum temporis huius habe. 4 Nec te purpureo velent vaccinia fuco: Non est conveniens luctibus ille color: Nec titulus minio nec cedro charta notetur, Candida nec nigra cornua fronte geras. 8 Felices ornent haec instrumenta libellos: Fortunae memorem te decet esse meae. Nec fragili geminae poliantur pumice frontes, Hirsutus sparsis ut videare comis. 12 Neve liturarum pudeat. Qui viderit illas De lacrimis factas sentiat esse meis. Vade, liber, verbisque meis loca grata saluta: Contingam certe quo licet illa pede. 16

 OVID, _Trist. _ I. I. 1-16. 

B. 

 Lutea sed niveum involvat membrana libellum, Pumex et canas tondeat ante comas Summaque praetexat tenuis fastigia chartae Indicet ut nomen littera facta meum, 12 Atque inter geminas pingantur cornua frontes: Sic etenim comptum mittere oportet opus. 

 TIBULLUS, III. I. 9-14. 

C. 

 Qui tecum cupis esse meos ubicumque libellos Et comites longae quaeris habere viae, Hos eme, quos artat brevibus membrana tabellis: Scrinia da magnis, me manus una capit. 4 Ne tamen ignores ubi sim venalis et erres Urbe vagus tota, me duce certus eris: Libertum docti Lucensis quaere Secundum Limina post Pacis Palladiumque forum. 8

 MARTIAL, I. Ii. 

Cf. HOR. _Epist. _ I. Xx. ; CATULL. Xxii, 4-8; STATIUS, _Silvae_, IV.  ix. 

ARETHUSA. 

 ‘_As an eagle pursuing A dove to its ruin Down the streams of the cloudy wind. _’--SHELLEY. 

A. 

 Lassa revertebar (memini) Stymphalide silva; 585 Aestus erat, magnumque labor geminaverat aestum. Invenio sine vertice aquas, sine murmure euntes, Perspicuas ad humum, per quas numerabilis alte Calculus omnis erat, quas tu vix ire putares.  .  .  . 589 Nescioquod medio sensi sub gurgite murmur 597 Territaque insisto propioris margine fontis. ‘Quo properas Arethusa?’ suis Alpheos ab undis, ‘Quo properas?’ iterum rauco mihi dixerat ore.  .  .  . 600 Sic ego currebam, sic me ferus ille premebat, 604 Ut fugere accipitrem penna trepidante columbae, Ut solet accipiter trepidas urguere columbas. Usque sub Orchomenon Psophidaque Cyllenenque Maenaliosque sinus gelidumque Erymanthon et Elin Currere sustinui; nec me velocior ille. Sed tolerare diu cursus ego, viribus inpar, 610 Non poteram; longi patiens erat ille laboris. Per tamen et campos, per opertos arbore montes, Saxa quoque et rupes et qua via nulla, cucurri. 

 ‘_Alpheum fama est huc Elidis amnem Occultas egisse vias subter mare, qui nunc Ore, Arethusa, tuo Siculis confunditur undis. _’ --VERGIL. 

B. 

 Sol erat a tergo: vidi praecedere longam Ante pedes umbram, nisi si timor illa videbat, 615 Sed certe sonitusque pedum terrebat et ingens Crinales vittas afflabat anhelitus oris. Fessa labore fugae ‘fer opem, deprendimur, ’ inquam, ‘Armigerae, Diana, tuae, cui saepe dedisti Ferre tuos arcus inclusaque tela pharetra. ’ 620 Mota dea est spissisque ferens e nubibus unam Me super iniecit. Lustrat caligine tectam Amnis et ignarus circum cava nubila quaerit. Bisque locum, quo me dea texerat, inscius ambit Et bis ‘io Arethusa, io Arethusa’ vocavit.  .  .  . 625 In latices mutor, sed enim cognoscit amatas 636 Amnis aquas, positoque viri, quod sumpserat, ore Vertitur in proprias, ut se mihi misceat, undas. Delia rupit humum, caecisque ego mersa cavernis Advehor Ortygiam, quae me cognomine divae 640 Grata meae superas eduxit prima sub auras. 

 OVID, _Met. _ v. 586-641 (sel. ). 

HYLAS

Οὕτω μὲν κάλλιστος Ὕλας μακάρων ἀριθμεῖται. 

A. 

 Namque ferunt olim Pagasae navalibus Argon Egressam longe Phasidis isse viam, Et iam praeteritis labentem Athamantidos undis Mysorum scopulis applicuisse ratem. 20 Hic manus heroum, placidis ut constitit oris, Mollia composita litora fronde tegit. At comes invicti iuvenis processerat ultra, Sacram sepositi quaerere fontis aquam. 24 Hanc circum irriguo surgebant lilia prato 37 Candida purpureis mixta papaveribus. Quae modo decerpens tenero pueriliter ungui Proposito florem praetulit officio, 40 Ex modo formosis incumbens nescius undis Errorem blandis tardat imaginibus. Tandem haurire parat demissis flumina palmis Innixus dextro plena trahens umero. 44 Cuius ut accensae Hydriades candore puellae Miratae solitos destituere choros. Prolapsum leviter facili traxere liquore: Tum sonitum rapto corpore fecit Hylas. 48

 PROPERTIUS, I. Xx. 17-24, 37-48. 

_Litus ‘Hyla Hyla’ omne sonabat. _

B. 

 Continuo, volucri ceu pectora tactus asilo Emicuit Calabria taurus per confraga saeptis Obvia quaque ruens, tali se concitat ardens In iuga senta fuga: pavet omnis conscia late Silva, pavent montes, luctu succensus acerbo 585 Quid struat Alcides tantaque quid apparet ira. Ille, velut refugi quem contigit improba Mauri Lancea sanguineus vasto leo murmure fertur, Frangit et absentem vacuis sub dentibus hostem, Sic furiis accensa gerens Tirynthius ora 590 Fertur et intento decurrit montibus arcu. Heu miserae quibus ille ferae, quibus incidit usquam Immeritis per lustra viris! volat ordine nullo Cuncta petens; nunc ad ripas deiectaque saxis Flumina, nunc notas nemorum procurrit ad umbras. 595 Rursus Hylan et rursus Hylan per longa reclamat Avia: responsant silvae et vaga certat imago. 

 VALERIUS FLACCUS, _Argonautica_, iii. 581-597. 

Cf. APOLLONIUS RHODIUS, _Argonautica_, i. 1224-1239. 

PLAUTUS. 

_The Portmanteau Fish. _

(TRACHALIO--GRIPUS. )

 TR. Quid ais, impudens? Ausu’s etiam comparare vidulum cum piscibus? Eadem tandem res videtur? GR. In manu non est mea: 60 Ubi demisi rete atque hamum, quidquid haesit extraho Meum quod rete atque bami nancti sunt, meum potissimumst. 

 TR. Immo hercle haud est, siquidem quod vas excepisti. 

 GR. Philosophe!

 TR. Sed tu, enunquam piscatorem vidisti, venefice, Vidulum piscem cepisse aut protulisse ullum in forum? 65 Non enim tu hic quidem occupabis omnes quaestus quos voles: Et vitorem et piscatorem te esse, impure, postulas. Vel te mihi monstrare oportet piscis qui sit vidulus: Vel quod in mari non natumst neque habet squamas ne feras. 

 GR. Quid tu? nunquam audisti antehac vidulum esse piscem? TR. Scelus, 70 Nullus est. GR. Immost profecto: ego qui sum piscator scio. Verum rare capitur: nullus minus saepe ad terram venit. 

 TR. Nil agis: dare verba speras mihi te posse, furcifer. Quo colorest? GR. Hoc colore capiuntur pauxilluli: Sunt alii puniceo corio, magni autem, atque atri. 

 TR. Scio: 75 Tu hercle, opino, in vidulum piscem te convortes, nisi caves: Fiet tibi puniceum corium, postea atrum denuo. 

 _Rudens_, IV. Iii. 58-77. 

TERENCE. 

‘_Humani nil a me alienum puto. _’

(CHREMES--MENEDEMUS. )

A. 

 CH. Numquam tam mane egredior neque tam vesperi 15 Domum revortor, quin te in fundo conspicer Fodere aut arare aut aliquid ferre. Denique Nullum remittis tempus neque te respicis. Haec non voluptati tibi esse satis certo scio. ‘Enim, ’ dices, ‘quantum hic operis fiat poenitet. ’ 20 Quod in opere faciundo operae consumis tuae, Si sumas in illis exercendis, plus agas. 

 ME. Chremes, tantumne ab re tuast oti tibi, Aliena ut cures ea quae nil ad te attinent?

 CH. Homo sum: humani nil a me alienum puto. 25 Vel me monere hoc vel percontari puta: Rectumst, ego ut faciam; non est, te ut deterream. 

 ME. Mihi sic est usus: tibi ut opus factost, face. 

 CH. An quoiquamst usus homini, se ut cruciet?

 ME. Mihi. 30

 CH. Siquid laborist, nollem: sed quid istuc malist? Quaeso, quid de te tantum commeruisti?

 ME. Eheu. 

 CH. Ne lacruma, atque istuc, quidquid est, fac me ut sciam; Ne retice, ne verere, crede inquam mihi: Aut consolando aut consilio aut re iuvero. 34

 _Hautont. _ I. I. 15-34. 

_Cicero on Terence. _

B. 

 ‘Tu quoque, qui solus lecto sermone, Terenti, Conversum expressumque Latina voce Menandrum In medium nobis sedatis vocibus effers, Quiddam come loquens, atque omnia dulcia miscens. ’

 SUETON. _Vit. Ter. _ p. 34. 

_Terence defends his use of ‘Contaminatio. ’_[38]

C. 

 Nam quod rumores distulerunt malivoli Multas contaminasse Graecas, dum facit Paucas Latinas: factum id esse hic non negat, Neque se pigere et deinde facturum autumat. Habet bonorum exemplum, quo exemplo sibi 20 Licere id facere quod illi fecerunt putat. 

 _Hautont. _ Prol. 16-21. 

 [Footnote 38: _Contaminatio_ = the _blending_ of the parts of different comedies into one whole--e. G. The _Andria_ of Terence, an adaptation of Menander’s _Andria_ and _Perinthia_. ]

PLINY THE ELDER. 

_The Song of the Nightingale. _

A. Lusciniis diebus ac noctibus continuis xv garrulus sine intermissucantus densante se frondium germine, non in novissimum digna miratu ave. Primum tanta vox tam parvo in corpusculo, tam pertinax spiritus; deindein una perfecta musica scientia: modulatus editur sonus, et nunccontinuo spiritu trahitur in longum, nunc variatur inflexo, nuncdistinguitur conciso, copulatur intorto, promittitur revocato, infuscatur ex inopinato interdum et secum ipse murmurat, plenus, gravis, acutus, creber, extentus, ubi visum est, vibrans, summus, medius, imus;breviterque omnia tam parvulis in faucibus quae tot exquisitis tibiarumtormentis ars hominum excogitavit, ut non sit dubium hanc suavitatempraemonstratam efficaci auspicio, cum in ore Stesichori cecinitinfantis. Ac ne quis dubitet artis esse, plures singulis sunt cantus, nec iidem omnibus, sed sui cuique. Certant inter se, palamque animosacontentio est: victa morte finit saepe vitam, spiritu prius deficientequam captu. Meditantur iuveniores versusque quos imitentur accipiunt:audit discipula intentione magna et reddit vicibusque reticent;intelligitur emendatae correptio et in docente quaedam reprehensio. 

 _Hist. Nat. _ x. 81. 

PLINY THE YOUNGER. 

_A Corinthian Statuette. _

B. Ex hereditate, quae mihi obvenit, emi proxime Corinthium signum, modicum quidem, sed festivum et expressum, quantum ego sapio, quifortasse in omni re, in hac certe perquam exiguum sapio: hoc tamensignum ego quoque intellego. Est enim nudum, nec aut vitia, si qua sunt, celat, aut laudes parum ostentat. Effingit senem stantem: ossa, musculi, nervi, venae, rugae etiam ut spirantis apparent: rari et cedentescapilli, lata frons, contracta facies, exile collum. Aes ipsum, quantumverus color indicat, vetus et antiquum. Talia denique omnia, ut possintartificum oculos tenere, delectare imperitorum. Quod me, quamquamtirunculum, solicitavit ad emendum. Emi autem, non at haberem domi, verum ut in patria nostri celebri loco ponerem; ac potissimum in Iovistemplo. Videtur enim dignum templo, dignum deo donum. 

 _Ep. _ iii. 6. 

METHODS OF WORK. 

_Helps to Style. _

A. Quaeris, quemadmodum in secessu, quo iam diu frueris, putem testudere oportere. Utile in primis, et multi praecipiunt, vel ex Graecoin Latinum, vel ex Latino vertere in Graecum: quo genere exercitationisproprietas splendorque verborum, copia figurarum, vis explicandi, praeterea imitatione optimorum similia inveniendi facultas paratur;simul quae legentem fefellissent transferentem fugere non possunt. Intelligentia ex hoc et iudicium adquiritur. Nihil obfuerit, quaelegeris hactenus, ut rem argumentumque teneas, quasi aemulum scriberelectisque conferre, ac sedulo pensitare quid tu, quid ille commodius. Magna gratulatio, si non nulla tu; magnus pudor, si cuncta ille melius. Licebit interdum et notissima eligere, et certare cum electis. Poteriset, quae dixeris, post oblivionem retractare, multa retinere, pluratransire, alia interscribere, alia rescribere. Laboriosum istud ettaedio plenum sed difficultate ipsa fructuosum, recalescere ex integro, et resumere impetum fractum omissumque, postremo nova velut membraperacto corpori intexere, nec tamen priora turbare. Fas est et carmineremitti, non dico continuo et longo (id enim perfici nisi in otio nonpotest), sed hoc arguto et brevi, quod apte quantaslibet occupationescurasque distinguit. 

 PLINY THE YOUNGER, _Ep. _ vii. 9 (sel. )

_Importance of Concentration. _

B. Sed silentium et secessus et undique liber animus ut sunt maximeoptanda, ita non semper possunt contingere, ideoque non statim, si quidobstrepet, abiciendi codices erunt et deplorandus dies, verum incommodisrepugnandum et hic faciendus usus, ut omnia quae impedient vincatintentio: quam si tota mente in opus ipsum direxeris, nihil eorum, quaeoculis vel auribus incursant, ad animum perveniet. An vero frequenteretiam fortuita hoc cogitatio praestat, ut obvios non videamus et itineredeerremus; non consequemur, si et voluerimus? Non est indulgendum causisdesidiae. Nam si nonnisi refecti, nonnisi hilares, nonnisi omnibus aliiscuris vacantes studendum existimaverimus, semper erit propter quod nobisignoscamus. 

 QUINTILIAN, _Inst. Or. _ X. Iii.  28. 

PHAEDRUS. 

_De Simonide. _

A. 

 Homo doctus in se semper divitias habet. Simonides, qui scripsit egregium melos, Quo paupertatem sustineret facilius, Circum ire coepit urbes Asiae nobiles, Mercede accepta laudem victorum canens. 5 Hoc genere quaestus postquam locuples factus est, Revenire in patriam voluit cursu pelagio; Erat autem, ut aiunt, natus in Chia insula. Ascendit navem, quam tempestas horrida Simul et vetustas medio dissolvit mari. 10 Hi zonas, illi res pretiosas colligunt, Subsidium vitae. Quidam curiosior: ‘Simonide, tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis?’ ‘Mecum, ’ inquit, ‘mea sunt cuncta. ’[39] Tunc pauci enatant, Quia plures onere degravati perierant. 15 Praedones adsunt, rapiunt quod quisque extulit, Nudos relinquunt. Forte Clazomenae prope Antiqua fuit urbs; quam petierunt naufragi. Hic litterarum quidam studio deditus, Simondis qui saepe versus legerat 20 Eratque absentis admirator maximus, Sermone ab ipso cognitum cupidissime Ad se recepit; veste, nummis, familia Hominem exornavit. Ceteri tabulam suam Portant rogantes victum. Quos casu obvios 25 Simonides ut vidit, ‘Dixi’ inquit ‘mea Mecum esse cuncta: vos quod habuistis, perit. ’

 iv. 23. 

 [Footnote 39: Cf. ‘Omnia bona mea mecum sunt. ’ --SENECA, _Ep. _ 9. ]

_Mons Parturiens. _

B. 

 Mons parturibat, gemitus immanes ciens, Eratque in terris maxima expectatio. At ille murem peperit. Hoc scriptum est tibi, Qui, magna cum minaris, extricas nihil. 

 iv. 24. 

_Nihil ita occultum esse quod non reveletur. _

C. 

 Pastor capellae cornu baculo fregerat: Rogare coepit, ne se domino proderet . .. ‘Quamvis indigne laesa, reticebo tamen; Sed res clamabit ipsa quid deliqueris. ’

 _Appendix_, 22. 

TIBULLUS. 

_The Golden Age. _

A. 

 Quam bene Saturno vivebant rege, priusquam Tellus in longas est patefacta vias! 36 Nondum caeruleas pinus contempserat undas, Effusum ventis praebueratque sinum, Nec vagus ignotis repetens compendia terris Presserat externa navita merce ratem. 40 Illo non validus subiit iuga tempore taurus, Non domito frenos ore momordit equus, Non domus ulla fores habuit, non fixus in agris Qui regeret certis finibus arva, lapis. 44 Ipsae mella dabant quercus, ultroque ferebant Obvia securis ubera lactis oves. Non acies, non ira fuit, non bella, nec ensem Immiti saevus duxerat arte faber. 48 Nunc Iove sub domino caedes et vulnera semper, Nunc mare, nunc leti mille repente viae. 

 I. Iii. 35-50. 

Cf. CATULLUS, lxiv. ; VERGIL, _Ecl. _ iv. 

_Birthday Wishes. _

B. 

 Dicamus bona verba: venit natalis ad aras: Quisquis ades, lingua, vir mulierque fave. Urantur pia tura focis, urantur odores, Quos tener e terra divite mittit Arabs. 4 Ipse suos Genius adsit visurus honores, Cui decorent sanctas mollia serta comas. Illius puro destillent tempora nardo, Atque satur libo sit madeatque mero, 8 Adnuat et, Cornute, tibi quodcumque rogabis. En age, quid cessas? adnuit ille: roga. Auguror, uxoris fidos optabis amores; Iam reor hoc ipsos edidicisse deos. 12 Nec tibi malueris, totum quaecumque per orbem Fortis arat valido rusticus arva bove, Nec tibi, gemmarum quidquid felicibus Indis Nascitur, Eoi qua maris unda rubet. 16 Vota cadunt: utinam strepitantibus advolet alis Flavaque coniugio vincula portet Amor, Vincula, quae maneant semper, dum tarda senectus Inducat rugas inficiatque comas. 20 Hic veniat natalis avis prolemque ministret, Ludat et ante tuos turba novella pedes. 

 II. Ii. 

Cf. TIBULL. I. Vii. 49-54; PERSIUS, ii. 1-4. 

HUNTING. 

_On the delights of hunting with a note-book. _

A. Ridebis, et licet rideas. Ego ille, quem nosti apros tres, et quidempulcherrimos, cepi. Ipse? inquis. Ipse; non tamen ut omnino ab inertiamea et quiete discederem. Ad retia sedebam: erat in proximo, nonvenabulum aut lancea, sed stilus et pugillares. Meditabar aliquidenotabamque, ut, si manus vacuas, plenas tamen ceras reportarem. Nonest, quod contemnas hoc studendi genus. Mirum est ut animus agitationemotuque corporis excitetur. Iam undique silvae et solitudo, ipsumqueillud silentium, quod venationi datur, magna cogitationis incitamentasunt. Proinde cum venabere, licebit auctore me ut panarium et lagunculamsic etiam pugillares feras. Experieris non Dianam magis montibus, quamMinervam inerrare. Vale. 

 PLINY, _Ep. _ i. 6. 

_Oenone Paridi. _

B. 

 Quis tibi monstrabat saltus venatibus aptos Et tegeret catulos qua fera rupe suos? Retia saepe comes maculis distincta tetendi; Saepi cites egi per iuga longa canes. 20

 OVID, _Her. _ v. 17-20. 

_The Hunting Party. _

C. 

 Oceanum interea surgens Aurora reliquit. It portis iubare exorto delecta iuventus; 130 Retia rara, plagae, lato venabula ferro, Massylique ruunt equites et odora canum vis. Reginam thalamo cunctantem ad limina primi Poenorum exspectant, ostroque insignis et auro Stat sonipes ac frena ferox spumantia mandit. 135 . . . . . . . Postquam altos ventum in montes atque invia lustra Ecce ferae, saxi deiectae vertice, caprae Decurrere iugis; alia de parte patentes Transmittunt cursu campos atque agmina cervi Pulverulenta fuga glomerant montisque relinquunt. 155 At puer Ascanius mediis in vallibus acri Gaudet equo, iamque hos cursu, iam praeterit illos Spumantemque dari pecora inter inertia votis Optat aprum aut fulvum descendere monte leonem. 

 VERG. _Aen. _ iv. 129-135, 151-159. 

ROMAN DAY. 

_Its Duties and Amusements. _

A. 

 Prima salutantes atque altera conterit hora; Exercet raucos tertia causidicos; In quintam varies extendit Roma labores; Sexta quies lassis; septima finis erit; 4 Sufficit in nonam nitidis octava palaestris; Imperat exstructos frangere nona toros; Hora libellorum decima est, Eupheme, meorum, Temperat ambrosias cum tua cura dapes 8 Et bonus aetherio laxatur nectare Caesar Ingentique tenet pocula parca manu. Tunc admitte iocos: gressu timet ire licenti Ad matutinum nostra Thalia Iovem. 12

 MARTIAL, IV. Viii. 

_The Simple Life. How Horace spent his day. _

B. 

 Hoc ego commodius quam tu praeclare senator, 110 Milibus atque aliis vivo. Quacunque libido est Incedo solus, percontor quanti holus ac far, Fallacem circum vespertinumque pererro Saepe forum, adsisto divinis. Inde domum me Ad porri et ciceris refero laganique catinum; 115 Cena ministratur pueris tribus, et lapis albus Pocula cum cyatho duo sustinet, astat echinus Vilis, cum patera guttus, Campana supellex. Deinde eo dormitum, non sollicitus, mihi quod cras Surgendum sit mane, obeundus Marsya, qui se 120 Voltum ferre negat Noviorum posse minoris. Ad quartam iaceo; post hanc vagor, aut ego, lecto Aut scripto quod me tacitum iuvet, unguor olivo, Non quo fraudatis immundus Natta lucernis. Ast ubi me fessum sol acrior ire lavatum 125 Admonuit, fugio campum lusumque trigonem. Pransus non avide quantum interpellet inani Ventre diem durare, domesticus otior. Haec est Vita solutorum misera ambitione gravique. His me consolor victurum suavius, ac si 130 Quaestor avus pater atque meus patruusque fuisset. 

 HORACE, _Sat. _ I. Vi. 110-131. 

Cf. Cic. _ad Fam. _ ix. 20; Lucr. Ii. 14-33; Verg. _Georg. _ ii. 458-474;Hor. _Od. _ III,  i. 

TACITUS. 

 ‘_Lives of great men all remind us, We can make our lives sublime. _’

A. Si quis piorum manibus locus, si, ut sapientibus placet, non cumcorpore extinguuntur magnae animae, placide quiescas, nosque domum tuamab inferno desiderio et muliebribus lamentis ad contemplationem virtutumtuarum voces, quas neque lugeri neque plangi fas est. Admiratione tepotius et immortalibus laudibus et, si natura suppeditet, similitudinecolamus: is verus honos, ea coniunctissimi cuiusque pietas. Id filiaequoque uxorique praeceperim, sic patris, sic mariti memoriam venerari, ut omnia facta dictaque eius secum revolvant, formamque ac figuram animimagis quam corporis complectantur, non quia intercedendum putemimaginibus quae marmore aut aere finguntur, sed, ut vultus hominum, itasimulacra vultus imbecilla ac mortalia sunt, forma mentis aeterna, quamtenere et exprimere non per alienam materiam et artem, sed tuis ipsemoribus possis. Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus, quidquid mirati sumus, manet mansurumque est in animis hominum, in aeternitate temporum, infama rerum; nam multos veterum velut inglorios et ignobilis oblivioobruet: Agricola posteritati narratus et traditus superstes erit. 

 _Agricola_ 46. 

_The Climate and Products of Britain. _

B. Caelum crebris imbribus ac nebulis foedum; asperitas frigorum abest. Dierum spatia ultra nostri orbis mensuram; nox clara et extremaBritanniae parte brevis, ut finem atque initium lucis exiguo discrimineinternoscas. Quod si nubes non officiunt, aspici per noctem solisfulgorem, nec occidere et exsurgere, sed transire affirmant. Scilicetextrema et plana terrarum humili umbra non erigunt tenebras, infraquecaelum et sidera nox cadit. Solum praeter oleam vitemque et ceteracalidioribus terris oriri sueta patiens frugum, fecundum: tardemitescunt, cito proveniunt; eademque utriusque rei causa, multus umorterrarum caelique. Fert Britannia aurum et argentum et alia metalla, pretium victoriae. Gignit et oceanus margarita, sed subfusca acliventia. 

 _Agricola_ 12. 

TRIMALCHIO’S SUPPER. 

_Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. An Ignorant Connoisseur. _

A. Plausum post hoc automatum familia dedit, et ‘Gaio feliciter!’conclamavit: nec non cocus potione oneratus est, et argentea coronapoculumque in lance accepit Corinthia. Quam cum Agamemnon propiusconsideraret, ait Trimalchio: ‘Solus sum, qui vera Corinthea habeam. ’Exspectabam, ut pro reliqua insolentia diceret sibi vasa Corinthoafferri. Sed ille melius: ‘Et forsitan, ’ inquit, ‘quaeris, quare solusCorinthea vera possideam? Quia scilicet aerarius, a quo emo, Corinthusvocatur; quid est autem Corintheum, nisi quis Corinthum habeat? Et ne meputetis nesapium esse, valde bene scio, unde primum Corinthea nata sint. Cum Ilium captum est, Hannibal, homo vafer, et magnus stelio, omnesstatuas aeneas, et aureas, et argenteas in unum rogum congessit, et easincendit; factae sunt in unum aera miscellanea. Ita ex hac massa fabrisustulerunt, et fecerunt catilla et paropsides et statuncula. SicCorinthea nata sunt, ex omnibus in unum, nec hoc, nec illud. ’

 PETRONIUS ARBITER, 50. 

_The Glass Bowl, and its Maker. _

B. ‘Ignoscetis mihi, ’ inquit Trimalchio, ‘quod dixero: ego malo mihivitrea; certe non olunt. Quod si non frangerentur, mallem mihi, quamaurum; nunc autem vilia sunt. Fuit tamen faber, qui fecit phialamvitream, quae non frangebatur. Admissus ergo Caesarem est cum suomunere; deinde fecit se porrigere Caesari, et illam in pavimentumproiecit. Caesar non pote validius, quam expavit. At ille sustulitphialam de terra: collisa erat, tanquam vasum aeneum. Deinde marceolumde sinu protulit, et phialam otio belle correxit. Hoc facto putabat sesolium Iovis tenere, utique, postquam illi dixit: “Numquid alius scithanc condituram vitreorum?” Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illumCaesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus. ’

 PETRONIUS ARBITER, 51. 

PRONUNCIATION. [40]

 [Footnote 40: For further information see Dr. Postgate’s _How to pronounce Latin_ (Bell & Sons). ]

+H. +

I. Diu deinde servatum ne consonantibus (veteres) adspirarent, ut in_Graccis_ et in _triumpis_. Erupit brevi tempore nimius usus, ut_choronae_, _chenturiones_, _praechones_ adhuc quibusdam ininscriptionibus maneant, qua de re Catulli nobile epigramma est. 

 QUINT. I. 5. 20. 

 C_h_ommoda dicebat, si quando commoda vellet Dicere, et insidias Arrius _h_insidias, Et tum mirifice sperabat se esse locutum, Cum quantum poterat dixerat _h_insidias. Credo, sic mater, sic liber avonculus eius, Sic maternus avos dixerat atque avia. Hoc misso in Syriam requierant omnibus aures: Audibant eadem haec leviter et leviter, Nec sibi postilla metuebant talia verba, Cum subito adfertur nuntius horribilis, Ionios fluctus, postquam illuc Arrius isset, Iam non Ionios esse, sed _H_ionios. 

 CATULLUS, lxxxiv. 

_A Street Cry. _

II. Cum M. Crassus exercitum Brundisii imponeret, quidam in portu, caricas Cauno advectas vendens, _Cauneas!_ clamitabat. Dicamus, siplacet, monitum ab eo Crassum, caveret, ne iret (_cau[e] n[e] eas_ = _donot go_): non fuisse periturum, si omini paruisset. Quae si suscipiamus, pedis offensio nobis et abruptio corrigiae et sternutamenta eruntobservanda. 

 CICERO, _Div. _ ii. 40. 84. 

+K. Q. C. +

 III. +K+ perspicuum est littera quod vacare possit; Et +Q+, similis, namque eadem vis in utraque est; Quia qui locus est primitus unde exoritur +C+, Quascunque deinceps libeat iugare voces, Mutare necesse est sonitum quidem supremum, Refert nihilum, +K+ prior an +Q+ siet an +C+. 

 TERENTIANUS MAURUS (_circ. _ 300 A. D. ). 

+U. +

IV. 

 ME. Egon’ dedi?

 PE. Tu tu, istic, inquam! Vin’ adferri noctuam Quae _tu tu_ usque dicat tibi? Nam nos iam defessi sumus. 

 PLAUTUS, _Men. _ 553-6. 

PROVERBIAL EXPRESSIONS. 

I. Nam quae volumus et credimus libenter. 

 CAES. _B. Civ. _ ii. 27. 

II. Cuiusvis hominis est errare; nullius nisi insipientis in erroreperseverare. Posteriores enim cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientioressolent esse. 

 CIC. _Phil. _ xii. 5. 

III. Dimidium facti qui coepit habet. 

 HOR. _Ep. _ I. Ii. 40. 

IV. Nemo repente fuit turpissimus. 

 JUV. _Sat. _ ii. 83. 

V. Velut materiam igni praebentes. 

 LIVY, xxi. 10. 

VI. Et quasi cursores vitai lampada tradunt. 

 LUCR. Ii. 79. 

VII. 

 Non amo te, Sabidi, nec possum dicere quare: Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te. 

 MARTIAL, _Ep. _ I. Xxxii. 

VIII. 

 quem di diligunt Adulescens moritur. 

 PLAUT. _Bacch. _ I. Ii. 36. 

IX. Nullumst iam dictum, quod non sit dictum prius. 

 TERENCE, _Eun. Prol. _ 41. 

X. Quot homines tot sententiae: suus cuique mos. 

 TER. _Phormio_, II. Iv. 14. 

XI. Stultum facit fortuna, quem vult pedere. 

 PUB. SYRUS. 

XII. 

 Vita brevis est, longa ars. Vita, si scias uti, longa est. 

 SEN. _de Brevit. Vitae_, i.  2. 

XIII. Omne ignotum pro magnifico. 

 TAC. _Agric. _ 30. 

XIV. Divina natura dedit agros, ars humana aedificavit urbes. 

 VARRO, _de Re Rust. _ iii. 1. 

XV. 

 Tu ne cede malis, sed contra audentior ito Quam tua te Fortuna sinet. 

 VERG. _Aen. _ vi. 95. 

XVI. . . . . Sunt hic etiam sua praemia laudi; Sunt lacrimae rerum, et mentem mortalia tangunt. 

 VERG. _Aen. _ i. 461-2. 

CONSOLATIO. 

‘_Whom the gods love die young. _’

A. Una post haec Quintiliani mei spe ac voluptate nitebar: at poteratsufficere solatio. Non enim flosculos, sicut prior, sed iam decimumaetatis ingressus annum, certos ac deformatos fructus ostenderat. Iuroper mala mea, per infelicem conscientiam, per illos manes, numina meidoloris, has me in illo vidisse virtutes ingeni, non modo adpercipiendas disciplinas, quo nihil praestantius cognovi plurimaexpertus studiique iam tum non coacti (sciunt praeceptores), sedprobitatis, pietatis, humanitatis, liberalitatis, ut prorsus posset hincesse tanti fulminis metus, quod observatum fere est, celerius occiderefestinatam maturitatem: et esse nescio quam quae spes tantas decerpatinvidiam, ne videlicet ultra, quam homini datum est, nostra provehantur. Etiam illa fortuita aderant omnia, vocis iucunditas claritasque, orissuavitas, et in utracumque lingua, tanquam ad eam demum natus esset, expressa proprietas omnium litterarum. Sed haec spes adhuc: illa maiora, constantia, gravitas, contra dolores etiam ac metus robur. Nam quo illeanimo, qua medicorum admiratione, mensium octo valetudinem tulit! ut mein supremis consolatus est! quam etiam deficiens, iamque _non_[41]_noster_, ipsum illum alienatae mentis errorem circa solas literashabuit!

 QUINTILIAN, _Inst. Or. _ VI. I.  9. 

 [Footnote 41: Cf. ‘Invalidasque tibi tendens, heu _non tua_, palmas. ’ VERG. _G. _ iv. 498. ]

_Servius Sulpicius to Cicero. _

B. Quae res mihi non mediocrem consolationem attulerit, volo tibicommemorare, si forte eadem res tibi dolorem minuere possit. [42]Ex Asiarediens, cum ab Aegina Megaram versus navigarem, coepi regionescircumcirca prospicere. Post me erat Aegina, ante me Megara, dextraPiraeeus, sinistra Corinthus: quae oppida quodam tempore florentissimafuerunt, nunc prostrata et diruta ante oculos iacent. Coepi egomet mecumsic cogitare: ‘Hem! nos homunculi indignamur, si quis nostrum interiitaut occisus est, quorum vita brevior esse debet, cum uno loco totoppidum cadavera proiecta iacent? Visne tu te, Servi, cohibere etmeminisse hominem te esse natum?’

 CICERO, _Ep. Ad Fam. _ iv. 5. 

 [Footnote 42: Cf. Byron, _Childe Harold_, iv. 44-5. ]

ELEGIES. 

_Catullus at the Grave of his Brother. _

A. 

 Multas per gentes et multa per aequora vectus Advenio has miseras, frater, ad inferias, Ut te postremo donarem munere mortis Et mutam nequiquam alloquerer cinerem, 4 Quandoquidem fortuna mihi tete abstulit ipsum, Heu miser indigne frater adempte mihi. Nunc tamen interea haec prisco quae more parentum Tradita sunt tristes munera ad inferias, 8 Accipe fraterno multum manantia fletu, Atque in perpetuum, frater, ave atque vale. 

 CATULLUS, ci. 

_To Calvus on the Death of his Wife. _

B. 

 Si quicquam muteis gratum acceptumve sepulcris Accidere a nostro, Calve, dolore potest, Cum desiderio veteres renovamus amores Atque olim amissas flemus amicitias, Certe non tanto mors immatura dolori est Quintiliae, quantum gaudet amore tuo. 

 CATULLUS, xcvi. 

_The Plea of Cornelia to her Husband. _

C. 

 Desine, Paule, meum lacrimis urgere sepulcrum: Panditur ad nullas ianua nigra preces. Cum semel infernas intrarunt funera leges, Obserat umbrosos lurida porta locos. . . . 4 Nunc tibi commendo communia pignora natos: Haec cura et cineri spirat inusta meo. Te Lepide, et te, Paule, meum post fata levamen; Condita sunt vestro lumina nostra sinu. 76 Fungere maternis vicibus, pater: illa meorum Omnis erit collo turba ferenda tuo. Oscula cum dederis tua flentibus, adice matris: Tota domus coepit nunc onus esse tuum. 80

 PROPERTIUS, IV. (V. ) xi. 1-4, 73-80. 

_Mors Tibulli. _

D. 

 Memnona si mater, mater ploravit Achillem, Et tangunt magnas tristia fata deas, Flebilis indignos, Elegia, solve capillos: A nimis ex vero nunc tibi nomen erit! Ille tui vates operis, tua fama, Tibullus Ardet in exstructo corpus inane rogo. 

 OVID, _Am. _ III. Ix. (sel. )

MARTIALIS APOPHORETA[43] (1). 

 [Footnote 43: Apophoreta (ἀποφόρητα = to be carried away), Christmas presents which were interchanged at the Saturnalia. ]

_Lectori. _

 Quo vis cumque loco potes hunc finire libellum: Versibus explicitumst omne duobus opus. Lemmata si quaeris cur sint adscripta, docebo, Ut, si malueris, lemmata sola legas. 

_Chartae Epistulares. _

 I. Seu leviter noto seu caro missa sodali Omnes ista solet charta vocare suos. 

_Theca Libraria. _

 II. Sortitus thecam calamis armare memento: Cetera nos dedimus, tu leviora para. 

_Umbella. _

 III. Accipe quae nimios vincant umbracula soles: Sit licet et ventus, te tua vela tegent. 

_Parazonium. _

 IV. Militiae decus hoc gratique erit omen honoris, Arma tribunicium cingere digna latus. 

_Falx. _

 V. Pax me certa ducis placidos curvavit in usus. Agricolae nunc sum, militis ante fui. 

_Scrinium. _

 VI. Selectos nisi das mihi libellos, Admittam tineas trucesque blattas. 

_Candelabrum Corinthium. _

 VII. Nomina candelae nobis antiqua dederunt. Non norat parcos uncta lucerna patres. 

_Pila Paganica. _

 VIII. Haec quae difficili turget paganica pluma, Folle minus laxast et minus arta pila. 

_Pila Trigonalis. _

 IX. Si me mobilibus scis expulsare sinistris, Sum tua. Tu nescis? rustice, redde pilam. 

_Follis. _

 X. Ite procul, iuvenes: mitis mihi convenit aetas: Folle decet pueros ludere, folle senes. 

_Vergilius in membranis. _

 I. Quam brevis immensum cepit membrana Maronem! Ipsius vultus prima tabella gerit. 

_Cicero in membranis. _

 II. Si comes ista tibi fuerit membrana, putato Carpere te longas cum Cicerone vias. 

_Monobyblos Properti. _

 III. Cynthia, facundi carmen iuvenale Properti, Accepit famam; non minus ipsa dedit. 

_Titus Livius in membranis. _

 IV. Pellibus exiguis artatur Livius ingens, Quem mea non totum bybliotheca capit. 

_Sallustius. _

 V. Hic erit, ut perhibent doctorum corda virorum, Primus Romana Crispus in historia. 

_Lucanus. _

 VI. Sunt quidam qui me dicunt non esse poetam: Sed qui me vendit bybliopola putat. 

_Catullus. _

 VII. Tantum magna suo debet Verona Catullo, Quantum parva suo Mantua Vergilio. 

_Fistula. _

 VIII. Quid me corapactam ceris et harundine rides? Quae primum structa est fistula talis erat. 

_Catella Gallicana. _

 IX. Delicias parvae si vis audire catellae Narranti brevis est pagina tota mihi. 

_Minerva argentea. _

 X. Dic mihi, virgo ferox, cum sit tibi cassis et hasta Quare non habeas aegida. ‘Caesar habet. ’

_Hercules fictilis. _

 XI. Sum fragilis: sed tu, moneo, ne sperne sigillum: Non pudet Alciden nomen habere meum. 

_Toga. _

 XII. ‘Romanos rerum dominos gentemque togatam’ Ille facit, magno qui dedit astra patri. 

EPITAPHS AND INSCRIPTIONS. 

_On Naevius_ (by himself). 

 I. ‘Immortales mortales si foret fas flere Flerent divae Camenae Naevium poetam; Itaque postquam est Orci traditus thesauro Obliti sunt Romai loquier lingua Latina. ’

_On Ennius_ (by himself). 

 II. ‘Aspicite, o cives, senis Enni imaginis formam: Hic vestrum panxit maxima facta patrum. Nemo me lacrumis decoret nec funera fletu Faxit. Cur? Volito vivas per ora virum. ’

_On Pacuvius_ (by himself). 

 III. ‘Adulescens, tametsi properas, te hoc saxum rogat, Ut sese aspicias, deinde quod scriptum est, legas. Hic sunt poetae Pacuvi Marci sita Ossa. Hoc volebam nescius ne esses. Vale. ’

_On Plautus_ (by himself). 

 IV. ‘Postquam est mortem aptus Plautus, Comoedia luget, Scena est deserta, ac dein Risus, Ludus, Iocusque, Et Numeri innumeri simul omnes collacrumarunt. ’

_On Tibullus. _

 V. ‘Te quoque Vergilio comitem non aequa, Tibulle, Mors iuvenem campos misit ad Elysios, Ne foret aut elegis molles qui fleret amores Aut caneret forti regia bella pede. ’

 DOMITIUS MARSUS. 

_In tumulo hominis felicis. _

 VI. ‘Sparge mero cineres, bene olentis et unguine nardi, Hospes, et adde rosis balsama puniceis. Perpetuum mihi ver agit illacrimabilis urna Et commutavi saecula, non obii. Nulla mihi veteris perierunt gaudia vitae, Seu meminisse putes omnia, sive nihil. ’

 AUSONIUS, _Epit. _ 36. 

_Thermopylae. _

 VII. ‘Ὦ ξεῖν’, ἀγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοις, ὅτι τῇδε Κείμεθα, τοῖς κείνων ῥήμασι πειθόμενοι. ’

 SIMONIDES _of Ceos_. 

 ‘Dic, hospes, Spartae, nos te vidisse iacentes, Dum sanctis patriae legibus obsequimur. ’

 _Transl. By_ CICERO, _Tusc. _ i. 42. 101. 

EPILOGUE. 

_Horace. _

A. 

 Exegi monumentum aere perennius Regalique situ pyramidum altius, Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impotens Possit diruere aut innumerabilis Annorum series et fuga temporum. 5 Non omnis moriar, multaque pars mei Vitabit Libitinam: usque ego postera Crescam laude recens, dum Capitolium Scandet cum tacita virgine pontifex. Dicar, qua violens obstrepit Aufidus 10 Et qua pauper aquae Daunus agrestium Regnavit populorum, ex humili potens Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos Deduxisse modos. Sume superbiam Quaesitam meritis et mihi Delphica 15 Lauro cinge volens, Melpomene, comam. 

 HORACE, _Od. _ III. Xxx. 

_Ovid. _

B. 

 Iamque opus exegi, quod nec Iovis ira nec ignis Nec poterit ferrum nec edax abolere vetustas. Cum volet, illa dies, quae nil nisi corporis huius Ius habet, incerti spatium mihi finiat aevi; Parte tamen meliore mei super alta perennis 875 Astra ferar nomenque erit indelebile nostrum. Quaque patet domitis Romana potentia terris, Ore legar populi perque omnia saecula fama, Siquid habent veri vatum praesagia, vivam. 

 OVID, _Met. _ xv. 871-9. 

_Martial. _

C. 

 Ohe, iam satis est, ohe, libelle, Iam pervenimus usque ad umbilicos: Tu procedere adhuc et ire quaeris, Nec summa potes in schida teneri, Sic tamquam tibi res peracta non sit, 5 Quae prima quoque pagina peracta est. Iam lector queriturque deficitque; Iam librarius hoc et ipse dicit ‘Ohe, iam satis est, ohe, libelle. ’

 MARTIAL, _Epig. _ IV. Lxxxix. 

APPENDICES

 PAGES

 I. List of Important Conjunctions 274-276 II. List of Important Prefixes 277-281 III. List of Important Suffixes 282-286 IV. Groups of Cognate Words 287-288 V. How to Think in Latin 289-292 VI. Short Lives of Roman Authors 293-345 VII. Chronological Outlines of Roman History and Literature 347-363

[Transcriber’s Note:

In Appendixes I-IV, most +boldface+ markup has been omitted forreadability. In general, Latin words are unmarked, while Englishtranslations are _italicized_. ]

APPENDIX I

LIST OF IMPORTANT CONJUNCTIONS

+I. CO-ORDINATE. +--These conjunctions join sentences of equalgrammatical _rank_ (+ordo+), that is, each sentence is grammaticallyindependent of the other. 

They are generally divided into FIVE classes:--

(1) COPULATIVE (_link_) conjunctions are those which connect both thesentences and the meaning. 

 et, -quĕ, ac, atque . .. _and_. Et . .. Et, -que . .. -que (poet. ) . .. _both . .. And_. ĕtĭam, quŏque . .. _also_. 

 _Divide +et+ impera. _ Divide +and+ control. 

(2) DISJUNCTIVE conjunctions join together the sentence but they_disjoin_ or separate from each other the thoughts conveyed. 

 aut . .. Aut, vĕl . .. Vĕl (vĕ) . .. _either . ..  or_. Sĭve (seu) . .. Seu . .. _whether . ..  or_. Nĕc (nĕque) . .. Nec (neque) . .. _neither . .. Nor_. _+aut+ vincemus +aut+ moriemur. _ We will +either+ conquer +or+ die. 

(3) ADVERSATIVE conjunctions _oppose_ two statements to each other. 

 sĕd, vērum, vērō, cētĕrum . .. _but_. Autem, tămen . .. _however_. ăt . .. _but_, _on the other hand_. _Ille quidem tardior: tu +autem+ ingeniosus, +sed+ in omni vita inconstans. _ He is a little dull: +while+ you are clever, +but+ unstable in all your actions. 

(4) INFERENTIAL. --The statement of one sentence _brings in_ (+infert+)or proves the other. 

 Ergo, ĭgĭtur, ĭtăque . .. _therefore_, _accordingly_. 

 ‘_Unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem: +Ergo+ postque magisque viri nunc gloria claret_. ’

 ENNIUS. 

(5) CAUSAL. 

 nam, namque, ĕnim, ĕtĕnim . .. _for_. Quāpropter, quārē, quămobrem . .. _wherefore_. 

 Ex. : ‘_+quamobrem+, Quirites, celebratote illos dies cum coniugibus ac liberis vestris: +nam+ multi saepe honores dis immortalibus iusti habiti sunt, sed profecto iustiores nunquam. _’

+II. SUBORDINATE. +--These conjunctions attach to a sentence or clauseanother clause which holds (grammatically) a lower or _subordinate_position, qualifying the principal clause just as an adverb qualifies averb. 

Thus in ‘I will do this, _if_ you do, ’ the _if_ clause is equivalent tothe adverb _conditionally_. 

They are generally divided into EIGHT classes:--

(1) FINAL introduce a clause expressing a _purpose_. 

 ŭt, quō . .. _that_, _in order to_. Nē, quōmĭnus . .. _that not_, _lest_. Qui . .. _who_ (= ut is . .. ). _Edo +ut+ vivam. _ _+Ne+ ignavum te putemus, fortiter pugna. _ _Pauci mihi sunt +quos+ mittam. _

(2) CONSECUTIVE introduce a clause expressing a _consequence_ or_result_. 

 ŭt . .. _so that_, _so as to_. ŭt nōn, quīn . .. _so as not to_. Qui . .. _who (of such a kind as to. .. )_. Ex. : _Tam fortis adest nemo ut solus muros ascendat. _ _Tam fortis est +ut+ hostes +non+ timeat. _ _Dignus erat +qui+ rex fieret. _

(3) TEMPORAL. 

 cum, quandō . .. _when_. ŭbī̆, ŭt . .. _when_, _as_. Sĭmŭl, sĭmŭl atque (ac) . .. _as soon as_. Postquam . .. _after that_. Dum, dōnec, quŏad . .. _until_, _as long as_, _while_. Prĭus . .. Quam, antĕ . .. Quam . .. _before that_. 

 _Discedere +prius+ noluit +quam+ ducem vidisset. _ _Pompeius +ut+ equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit. _

(4) CONDITIONAL. 

 sī, nĭsī̆ (nī), si non, quod sī . .. _if_, _unless_, _if not_, _but if_. Mŏdŏ, dummŏdo, si mŏdo . .. _if only_, _provided that_. Dummŏdo nē (dum nē, mŏdo nē) . .. _provided only not_. 

 _Ne promiseris unquam +nisi+ fidem praestare potes. _ _Never promise +if+ you cannot keep your word. _

(5) COMPARATIVE AND PROPORTIONAL. 

 ut, utī, sīcut, vĕlut . .. _just as_,  _as_. Tanquam, quăsĭ . .. _as if_. Quo . .. ĕo . .. _the more . .. The more_. 

 _Poenas dedit +sicut+ meritus est. _ _E corpore +velut+ e carcere, evolat animus. _ The soul flies forth from the prison-house of the body. _+quo+ difficilius +eo+ praeclarius. _

(6) CONCESSIVE. 

 etsī, ĕtĭamsi, tămetsi . .. _even if_. Quamquam . .. _although_. Quamvīs, quamlĭbet . .. _however much_. Lĭcet, ut, cum . .. _though_, _although_. 

 _+Cum+ liber esse posset, servire maluit. _

(7) CAUSAL. 

 quĭă, quŏd, quŏnĭam, quandō . .. _because_. Cum . .. _since_. Proptĕrĕā . .. Quod . .. _for this reason . .. That_. Quandōquĭdem, quippe . .. _since indeed_, _inasmuch as_. 

 _Quae +cum+ ita sint, ab urbe discedam. _ _Socrates accusatus est +quod+ iuventutem corrumperet. _

(8) INTERROGATIVE (with dependent clauses). 

 cūr, ūtrum . .. ăn, num . .. _why_, _whether . .. Or_,  _if_. Quemadmŏdum, ut . .. _how_. ŭbī̆, quandō . .. _when_. 

 _Caesar +utrum+ iure caesus fuerit, +an+ nefarie necatus, dubitari potest. _ _Whether_ Caesar was rightfully put to death, +or+ foully murdered, is open to question. 

APPENDIX II

LIST OF IMPORTANT PREFIXES

+I. PREPOSITIONS. +--In these compounds the Prepositions retain theiroriginal adverbial force. 

A-, AB-, ABS-, = _away_, _from_ (of the starting-place)

 (i) = _separation. _

 abire = _go away_. Abscēdere = _go away_. āvŏcare = _call away_. 

 (ii) = _consumption. _ absūmere = _take away_, _consume_. ăbūti = _use up_. 

AD-, AC-, A-, = to (of a person, place, or thing, as the goal ofmotion). 

 (i) = _to_, _at_ (local). Accēdere = _approach_. Adfāri = _speak to_. (ii) = _in addition. _ acquīrere = _get in addition_. 

ANTE = before (of place and time). 

 antecēdere = _come before_. Anteferre = _prefer_. 

CIRCUM = around. 

 circumdăre = _surround_. Circumdūcere } circumscrībere } literally, and with secondary meaning, = _cheat_. Circumvĕnire }

COM-, CON- (CUM), CO-, COL-, COR-, = together. 

 (i) = _collectively. _

 conclāmare = _shout together_. Commiscēre = _mix together_. 

 (ii) = _completely_ (often apparently only pleonastic). 

 consectari = _follow persistently_. Confirmare = _strengthen_. 

DE-, = down, from. 

 (i) = _down_, _down off_, _down to. _

 decĭdere = _fall down_, or _off_. Devĕnire = _come to_. 

 (ii) = _off_, _away_, _aside. _

 dēcēdere = _depart_. Deflectere = _turn aside_. Deterrēre = _frighten_. 

 (iii) = _completely. _

 depŏpŭlari = _lay waste_. Debellare = _bring a war to an end_. 

 (iv) = _un-_ (negative). 

 despērare = _despair_. Deesse = _be wanting_. 

E-, EX-, EC-, EF-, = out of. 

 (i) = _out_, _forth. _

 excēdere = _go out_. Effundere = _pour forth_. 

 (ii) = _throughout_, _to the end_, _thoroughly. _

 explēre = _fill to the brim_. Exposcere = _earnestly ask_. 

IN-, IM-, IR-, I-, = in, on, against. 

 (i) = _in_, _into_, _on. _

 inclūdere = _shut in_. Incĭdere = _fall on_. Invĭdere = _look at_ (with ill intent), _envy_. 

 (ii) = _intensive_, almost _pleonastic_. 

 incĭpere = _take up_, _begin_. Implēre = _fill_. 

INTER = between. 

 (i) = _between_, _among. _

 intercēdere = _come between_. Intellĕgere = _pick among_, _perceive_. 

 (ii) = _breaking a continuity. _

 interclūdere = _shut off_, _blockade_. Interfĭcere = _destroy_ (lit. _put between_). 

OB-, OBS-, OC-, OF-, OP-, O-, = against, on account of. 

 (i) = _over against_, _before_ (as an obstruction). 

 offendere = _strike against_. Oblŏqui = _speak against_. 

 (ii) = _towards_, with the idea of _favour_ or _compliance_. 

 oboedire = _hearken to_. Obsĕqui = _follow compliantly_. 

PER-, = through, along. 

 (i) = _through_, _all over. _

 perrumpere = _break through_. Perspĭcēre = _look through_. 

 (ii) = _thoroughly_, _to completion. _

 perdiscere = _learn thoroughly_. Perfungi = _go through a duty_, _discharge_. Permagnus = _very large_. 

PRAE = in front. 

 (i) = (of place) _before_, _in front_. 

 praefĭcere = _put at the head of_. Praeses (sĕdeo) = _guardian_. 

 (ii) = (of time) _before_, _too soon_. 

 praediscere = _learn beforehand_. Praevĕnire = _outstrip_. 

 (iii) = _before others_, _in comparison_, _greatly. _

 praecellens = _surpassing_. 

PRO-, PROD-, = before, in front of, forth. 

 prod-ire = _come forth_. Provĭdēre = _look onwards or ahead_. 

SUB-, SUF-, SUM-, SUP-, SUR-, SU-, SUS-, = beneath, under. 

 (i) = _under. _

 subĭcere = _throw under_, _subject_. Supprĭmere = _press under_, _suppress_. 

 (ii) = _up. _

 succingere = _gird up_. Sustĭnēre = _hold up_, _check_. 

 (iii) = _to the help of_, _close to. _

 subvĕnire = _come up to aid of_. 

 (iv) = _secretly. _

 subdūcere = _withdraw secretly_. 

 (v) = _slightly. _

 subrīdere = _laugh somewhat_, _smile_. Sublustris = _giving some light_. 

SUPER = over, upon. 

 (i) = _over_, _upon_ (of place). 

 superpōnere_ = place upon_ or _over_. 

 (ii) = _metaphorically. _

 sūperesse = _remain_, _survive_, _abound_. 

TRANS-, TRA-, = across. 

 (i) = _across. _

 transgrĕdi = _step across_. 

 (ii) = _a change or transference. _

 trādere = _hand over_, _surrender_. 

 (iii) = _through to the end. _

 transĭgere = _complete_ a business. 

II. SEPARABLE PARTICLES, which do not appear as Prepositions in Latin. 

AMB-, AM-, AN-, = around, on both sides. 

 ambīre = _go around_, _canvass_. Amplecti = _fold oneself round_, _embrace_. 

DIS-, DI-, DIF-, DIR-, = in twain. 

 (i) = _asunder_, _apart. _

 discēdere = _part asunder_, _depart_. Discernere = _separate_, _distinguish_. Dīmittere = _send in different directions_. 

 (ii) = _un-_ (negative). 

 displĭcēre = _displease_. Diffīdere = _distrust_. 

 (iii) = _exceedingly. _

 differtus = _crammed to bursting_. 

 (iv) = _individually_, _separately_. 

 dīnŭmĕrare = _count up (singly)_. 

IN- (cf. ἀν-, ἀ-) = UN-, usually with adjectives. 

 ignoscere = _not to know_, _forget_, _pardon_. Innŏcens = _not guilty_, _harmless_. 

PER- (cf. παρά) = in a sense of wrong or injury. 

 perdere = _destroy_. Perfĭdus = _faithless_. 

RED-, RE-, = back. 

 (i) = _back_, _backwards. _

 rĕcumbere = _lie down_. Rĕflectere = _bend back_. 

 (ii) = _in response_, or _return_. 

 reddere = _give in return_. 

 (iii) = _against_, _behind. _

 rĕpugnare = _fight against_. Rĕlinquere = _leave behind_. 

 (iv) = _again. _

 rĕfĭcere = _make again_, _repair_. Rĕpĕrire = _find again_, _discover_. 

 (v) = _intensive action. _

 rĕvellere = _pluck by the roots_. 

 (vi) = _un-_ (negative). 

 rĕfīgere = _unfix_. 

SED-, SE-, = apart. 

 sēcernere = _sift away_, _separate_. Sēcēdere = _go aside_, _withdraw_. Sēd-ĭtio = _a going apart_, _secession_. 

APPENDIX III

LIST OF IMPORTANT SUFFIXES

+I. DERIVATION OF NOUNS. +

 (i. ) TOR (-SOR), M. } +Agent+ or +doer+ of an action -TRIX, F. }

 ac-tor = _doer_, formed from √ag = _do_. Auc-tor = _maker_ „ √aug = _increase_. Vic-tor = _conqueror_ „ √vic = _conquer_. Petī-tor = _candidate_ „ √pet = _seek_. Ton-sor = _barber_ „ √tem = _cut_. 

(ii. ) +Abstract+ Nouns and +Names+ of +Actions+. 

 -OR, -SUS (= -TUS), M. -ĒS, -IA (-IES), -TIA (-TIES), -IŌ, -TIŌ, } F. -TĀS, -TŪS, -TŪDŌ, -DŌ, -GŌ, -NIA, } -US, -IUM, -ITIUM, -NIUM, -LIUM, -CINIUM,  N. 

 tĭm-or = _fear_ formed from tĭm-ere = _to fear_. Sen-sus = _feeling_ „ sent-ire = _to feel_. Sēd-ēs = _seat_ „ sĕd-ēre = _to sit_. Audāc-ia = _boldness_ „ audax = _bold_. Segnĭt-ies = _laziness_ „ segnis = _lazy_. Tristĭ-tia = _sadness_ „ tristis = _sad_. Lĕg-io = _a collecting_ } „ lĕg-ere = _to collect_. _a legion_ } sălūtā-tio = _a greeting_ „ salutare = _to greet_. Bŏnĭ-tas = _goodness_ „ bonus = _good_. Sĕnec-tūs = _age_ „ senex = _old_. Magni-tudo = _greatness_ „ magnus = _great_. Cupī-dō = _desire_ „ cupere = _to desire_. Vertī-go = _a turning_ } „ vertere = _to turn_. _giddiness_ } pĕcū-nia = _money (chattels)_ „ pecus = _cattle_. Gĕn-us = _race_, _birth_ „ √gen = _to be born_. Auspĭc-ium = an _omen_ „ { auspex = _a soothsayer_. { avis + spicio gaud-ium = _joy_ „ gaudēre = _to rejoice_. Lā̆tro-cinium = _robbery_ „ latro = _robber_. Auxĭ-lium = _help_ „ augēre = _to increase_. 

(iii. ) +Nouns+ denoting +acts+, or +means+ and +results of acts+. 

-MŌNIA, F. ; -MEN, -MENTUM, -MŌNIUM,  N. 

 quĕri-monia = _complaint_, formed from quĕri = _to complain_. Ag-men = _line of march_ } „ agere √ag = _to lead_. _band_ } mŏnŭ-mentum = a _memorial_, „ mon-ēre = _to remind_. Nō-men = a _name_ „ √gno = _to know_. 

(iv. ) Nouns denoting means or instrument. 

-BŬLUM, -CŬLUM, -BRUM, -CRUM, -TRUM,  N. 

 stā-bulum = _stall_ formed from stare = _to stand_. Vĕhĭ-cŭlum = _wagon_ „ vehere = _to carry_. Sĕpul-crum = _tomb_ „ sepelīre = _to bury_. ărā-trum = _plough_ „ arāre = _to plough_. 

+II. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. +

(i. ) +Adjectives+ expressing +diminution+, and used as +DiminutiveNouns+. 

-ŬLUS, -ŎLUS, -CŬLUS, -ELLUS, -ILLUS. 

 rīv-ulus = a _streamlet_ formed from rīvus = a _brook_. Fīlĭ-olus = a _little son_ „ filius = a _son_. Mūnus-culum = a _little gift_ „ munus = a _gift_. Cōdic-illi = _writing tablets_ „ codex = a _block of wood_. Lĭb-ellus = a _little book_ „ lĭber = a _book_. 

(ii. ) +Patronymics+, indicating +descent+ or +relationship+. 

-ADES, -ĬDES, -ĪDES, -EUS, M. 

-AS, -IS, -EIS, F. 

 Atlanti-adēs = _Mercury_ } formed from Atlas. Atlant-idĕs = the _Pleiads_ } Tȳd-īdēs = _Diomedes_ „ Tydeus. Cissē-is = _Hecuba_ „ Cisseus. 

(iii. ) +Adjectives+ meaning +full of, prone to+. 

-ŌSUS, -LENS, -LENTUS. 

 form-ōsus = _beautiful_ formed from forma = _beauty_. Pesti-lens = _pestilent_ „ pestis = _plague_. Vĭŏ-lentus = _violent_ „ vis = _force_. 

(iv. ) +Adjectives+ meaning +provided with+. 

-TUS, -ĀTUS, -ĪTUS, -ŪTUS. 

 fūnes-tus = _deadly_ formed from funus (funer-) = _death_. Barb-ātus = _bearded_ „ barba = a _beard_. Turr-ītus = _turreted_ „ turris = a _tower_. Corn-ūtus = _horned_ „ cornu = a _horn_. 

(v. ) +Adjectives+ meaning +made of+ or +belonging to+, or+pertaining to+. 

 -EUS, -ĬUS, -ĀNEUS, -TĬCUS, -ĀLIS, -ĀRIS, -ĪLIS, -ŪLIS, -ĀNUS, -ĒNUS, -ĪNUS, -ENSIS, -TER (-TRIS), -ESTER (-ESTRIS), -TĬMUS, -ERNUS, -URNUS, -TURNUS (-TERNUS). 

 aur-eus = _golden_ formed from aurum = _gold_. Patr-ius = _paternal_ „ pater = a _father_. Subterr-aneus = _subterranean_ „ sub terrā = _underground_. Dŏmes-ticus = _domestic_ „ domus = a _house_. Nātūr-ālis = _natural_ „ natura = _nature_. Pŏpŭl-aris = _fellow-countryman_ „ populus = a _people_. Vĕtĕr-ānus = _veteran_ „ vetus (veter-) = _old_. Sĕr-ēnus = _calm_, _of „ serus = _late_. Evening stillness_ dīv-īnus = _divine_ „ divus = _god_. Fŏr-ensis = _of the forum_ „ forum = _a market-place_. Lac-teus = _milky_ „ lac (lacti-) = _milk_. Subl-icius = _resting „ sublica = a _pile_. On piles_ pălus-ter = _marshy_ „ palūs = a _marsh_. Silv-ester = _woody_ „ silva = a _wood_. Fīnĭ-timus = _neighbouring_ „ finis = a _boundary_. Ver-nus = _vernal_ „ vēr = _spring_. Dĭ-urnus = _daily_ „ dies = _day_. Diū-turnus = _lasting_ „ diū = _long_ (time). 

(vi. ) +Adjectives+ expressing the action of the Verb as +a quality+ or+tendency+. 

-AX, -ĬDUS, -ŬLUS, -VUS (-UUS, -ĪVUS, -TĪVUS). 

 pugn-ax = _pugnacious_ formed from pugnare = _to fight_. Cŭp-idus = _eager_ „ cupere = _to desire_. Bĭb-ulus = _thirsty_ „ bibere = _to drink_. (of sand etc. ) nŏc-uus = _hurtful_ „ nocēre = _to hurt_. Cap-tivus = _captive_ „ capere = _to take_. 

(vii. ) +Adjectives+ expressing +passive qualities+ but +occasionallyactive+. 

-ILIS, -BĬLIS, -ĬUS, -TĪLIS. 

 frăg-ilis = _frail_ formed from frangere √frag = _to break_. Nō-bilis = _well known_ „ noscere √gno = _to know_. Exĭm-ius = _choice_, _rare_ „ eximere = _take out_. Tex-tilis = _woven_ „ texere = _to weave_. 

(viii. ) +Adjectives originally gerundives. +

-NDUS, -BUNDUS, -CUNDUS. 

 sĕcu-ndus = _second (the } formed from sequi =_to follow_. Following)_, } _favourable_ } mŏrĭ-bundus = _dying_ „ mori = _to die_. Fā-cundus = _eloquent_ „ fa-ri = _to speak_. 

+III. NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES. +

-ĀRIUS, denotes +person employed about+ anything. 

 argent-ārius = _silversmith_, formed from argentum = _silver_. _banker_

-ĀRIUM, denotes +place of+ a thing. 

 aer-arium = _treasury_ formed from aes = _copper_. 

-ĪLE denotes +stall of an animal+. 

 bŏv-īle = _cattle-stall_ formed from bōs (bŏv-) = _ox_. ŏv-īle = _sheep-fold_ „ ovis = _sheep_. 

-ĒTUM denotes +place where a tree or plant grows+. 

 querc-ētum = _oak-grove_ formed from quercus = _an oak_. 

+IV. DERIVATION OF VERBS. +

(i. ) +From Nouns and Adjectives. +

 stĭmŭlo, -āre = _to goad_, formed from stimulus = _a goad_. _incite_ nŏvo, -āre = _to renew_ „ novus = _new_. Vĭgĭlo, -āre = _to watch_ „ vigil = _awake_. Albeo, -ēre = _to be white_ „ albus = _white_. Mĕtuo, -ere = _to fear_ „ metus = _fear_. ăcuo, -ere = _to sharpen_ „ acus = _needle_. Mōlior, -īri = _to toil_ „ moles = _mass_. Custōdio, -īre = _to guard _ „ custos (custod-) = _guardian_. 

(ii. ) +Verbs from other Verbs. +

-SCO denotes the +beginning+ of an action. (Third Conjugation. )

 lăbā-sco = _begin to totter_ formed from labo = _totter_. Mītē-sco = _grow mild_ „ mītis = _mild_. 

-TO, -ĬTO, (rarely -SŌ), -ESSO, denote +forcible or repeated action+. 

 iac-to, -ăre = _hurl_ formed from iacio = _throw_. Quas-so, āre = _shatter_ „ quatio = _shake_. Făc-esso, -ĕre = _do_ „ facio = _do_. (with energy)

-TŬRIO (-SŬRIO) denotes +longing or wishing+. 

 par-turio, -īre = { _to bring forth_ formed from pario { _produce_ = _bring forth_. ē-surio = _to be hungry_ „ edo (= _ed-turio_) = _to eat_. 

APPENDIX IV

GROUPS OF RELATED (COGNATE) WORDS

√AC = sharp. English derivative. 

 āc-er = _sharp_. Eager (F.  aigre). ăc-erbus = _harsh_, _cruel_. Acerbity (= harshness). ăc-ervus = _a heap_. ăc-ies = _edge_, _keen look_. } Fr. Acier (= steel). _army in battle array_. } ăc-idus = _sour_. Acid. ăc-uo = _to sharpen_. ăc-utus = _sharpened_, _sharp_. Acute (Fr. Aigu). ăc-umen = _a point_, _acuteness_. Acumen. ăc-us = _a needle_. Fr. Aiguille. 

√AUG = be active, strong. 

 aug-eo = _increase_. Aug-mentum = _an increase_. Augment. Auc-tio = _a sale by increase of } auction. Bids_, _an auction_ } auc-tor = _a maker_, _producer_. Author. Auc-toritas = _a producing_, _authority_. Authority. Aug-ustus = _majestic_, _august_. August. Aux-ilium = _aid_, _help_. Auxiliary. 

√CAP = take hold of, seize. 

 căp-io = _take hold of_. Captive. Căp-ax = _capacious_. Capacious. Căp-ulus = _handle_, _hilt of a sword_. Ac-cĭp-io = _take to_, _receive_. Accept. (ad + capio) ex-cĭp-io = _take up_. Exception. (ex_ +capio) man-cĭp-ium = _property_, _a slave_. Emancipate. (manus + capio) muni-cĭp-ium = _a free town_. Municipal. (munia + capio) prin-ceps = _first_, _chief_. { principal. (primus + capio) { prince. 

√GEN-, √GNA- = beget, become, produce. 

 gi-gn-o = _to beget_. Indigenous. (= gi-gĕn-o) gĕn-i-tor = _a father_. (pro)genitor. Gen-s = _clan_, _house_, _race_. Gentile. In-gens = _vast_. Gĕn-us = _birth_, _race_. Genus (Fr. Genre). In-gĕn-ium = _innate quality_, _character_. In-gĕn-uus = _native_, _free-born_, ingenuous. _frank_. In-gĕn-iosus = _of good natural } ingenious. Abilities_. } pro-gĕn-ies = _descent_, _descendants_. Progenitor. Gĕn-er = _son-in-law_. Gĕn-ius = _the innate superior } genius. Nature_, _tutelary } (protecting) deity_. } indi-gĕn-a = _nature_. Indigenous. Gĕn-erōsus = _of noble birth_, generous. _noble-minded_ gĕn-ĕro = _to beget_, _produce_. Generate. Gĕn-ĕtivus = _of or belonging to } genitive. Birth_, _genitive_. } na-scor = _to be born_. Native. = gna-scor nā-tūra = _nature_. Nature. Nā-tio = _birth_, _a race_. Nation. 

APPENDIX V

HOW TO THINK IN LATIN

_Flaminius atones for his rashness. _[44]

 [Footnote 44: Cf. P. 126. ] [[Selection C19]]

 Tres ferme horas pugnatum est et ubique atrociter; circa consulem tamen acrior infestiorque pugna est. Eum et robora virorum sequebantur, et ipse, quacunque in parte premi ac laborare senserat suos, impigre ferebat opem; insignemque armis et hostes summa vi petebant {5} et tuebantur cives, donec Insuber eques (Ducario nomen erat) facie quoque noscitans consulem, ‘En’ inquit ‘hic est’ popularibus suis, ‘qui legiones nostras cecidit agrosque et urbem est depopulatus. Iam ego hanc victimam manibus peremptorum foede civium dabo. ’ Subditisque calcaribus {10} equo per confertissimam hostium turbam impetum facit, obtruncatoque prius armigero, qui se infesto venienti obviam obiecerat, consulem lancea transfixit; spoliare cupientem triarii obiectis scutis arcuere. 

 LIVY, xxii. 6. 

The heading and the author will at once suggest the stirring incident inthe Battle of Lake Trasimene, when Flaminius atoned for his rashness byhis gallant example and death. 

You have seen how Analysis helps you to arrive at the main thought ofthe sentence, and you are familiar with the principles that govern theorder of words in Latin, and the important part played by the emphaticposition of words. So you may now try to +think in Latin+; that is, totake the thought in the Latin order, without reference to analysis orthe English order. You will do well to follow closely this advice ofexperienced teachers:--‘Read every word as if it were the last on thepage, and you had to turn over without being able to turn back. If, however, you are obliged to turn back, begin again at the beginning ofthe sentence and proceed as before. Let each word of the Latin suggestsome conception gradually adding to and completing the meaning of thewriter. If the form of the word gives several possibilities, hold themall in your mind, so far as may be, till something occurs in theprogress of the sentence to settle the doubt. ’

1. +Tres ferme horas+ = _for nearly three hours_. This construction(Acc. Of extent of time) will be familiar to you. Notice the emphaticposition of the phrase. 

+pugnatum est+ = _the battle was fought_. This use of the so-calledimpersonal passive is very frequent, and is generally best translated bytaking the root-idea of the verb as a subject. 

+et ubique atrociter+ = _and everywhere fiercely_. 

2. +circa consulem tamen+ = _around the consul however_. 

+acrior infestiorque pugna est+ = _the battle is more keen and morevehement_. This presents no difficulty; +acrior+ and +infestior+ mustqualify +pugna+, which follows immediately. 

3. +eum+ = _him_, plainly _consulem_ (i. E. Flaminius), for no one elsehas been mentioned. Notice the emphatic position of +eum+. 

+et robora virorum sequebantur+ = _both the strongest of his troopsfollowed_. You may know that +robur+ (lit. _hard wood_) is often used of_the toughest troops_, _the flower of an army_. 

+et ipse+ = _and himself_, i. E. The consul (Flaminius). 

3-4. +quacunque in parte+ = _in whatever part_. 

4. +premi ac laborare senserat suos+ = _he had seen his men hard pressedand in distress_. No other meaning is possible, nor does the orderpresent any difficulty, but notice the emphatic position of +suos+. 

4-5. +impigre ferebat opem+ = _actively he bore help_. 

5. +insignemque armis+ = _and distinguished by his arms_, clearlyreferring to +consulem+ (l.  2). Cf. +eum+ (l.  3). 

+et hostes summa vi petebant+ = _both the enemy with all their mightattacked_. +et+ might, of course, = _also_ (cf. +et+, l.  2), but thesecond +et+ which immediately follows determines the meaning _both_. 

6. +et tuebantur cives+ = _and his fellow-citizens_ (Romans) _defended_(him). 

+donec Insuber eques+ = _until an Insubrian trooper_. +donec+ may mean_while_, but the context shows that _until_ or _at last_ is the rightmeaning here. 

6-7. +Ducario nomen erat+ = (his) _name was Ducarius_, i. E. _ei nomenerat Ducario_, where +Ducario+ is possess. Dat. In appos. To _ei_understood. It is, however, possible that the trooper’s name wasDucario, but cf. Page 126, l.  2. [[Selection C19, line 645]]

7. +facie quoque noscitans consulem+ = _by his face also_ (i. E. As wellas by his armour) _recognising the consul_. 

7-8. +‘En’ inquit ‘his est’ popularibus suis+ = _See, said he, to hisfellow-countrymen_ (comrades), _this is the man_. 

8. +qui legiones nostras cecīdit+ = _who slaughtered our legions_. Thereis a slight difficulty here, but a moment’s thought will remove it. Itmust be +cecīdit+, perf. Of _caedo_, and not _cecĭdit_, perf. Of _cado_, which is intransitive. 

8-9. +agrosque et urbem est depopulatus+ = _and laid waste our fieldsand our city_. 

9-10. +Iam ego hanc victimam mānibus peremptorum foede civium dabo+ =_now I will give this victim to the shades of our countrymen foullyslain_. +Mānibus+ cannot = _hands_ (_mănibus_), for +peremptorumcivium+, which immediately follows, fixes the right meaning. 

10-11. +subditisque calcaribus equo+ = _and putting spurs to his horse_. You will not attempt to translate this Abl. Absol. Literally. 

11-12. +per confertissimam hostium turbam impetum facit+ = _through theclosely packed crowd of the enemy he makes his charge_. 

12. +obtruncatoque prius armigero+ = _and first cut down thearmour-bearer_ (i. E. Of Flaminius). 

12-13. +qui se infesto venienti obviam obiecerat+ = _who had thrownhimself in the way of him advancing at the charge_. 

+infesto venienti+ is clearly dative with +obviam+. 

13. +consulem lancea transfixit+ = _ran the Consul through with hislance_. 

13-14. +spoliare cupientem+ = (him, i. E. Ducarius) _wishing to spoil_(the consul). 

14. +triarii obiectis scutis arcuere+ = _the triarii_ (veterans)_thrusting their shields in the way kept off_. 

This passage is quite simple, but it will serve to show you how you maywith practice learn to +take the thought in the Latin order+, and tograsp the writer’s meaning. All that now remains for you to do is towrite out a translation in good English, using short coordinatesentences, each complete in itself, in place of the more involvedstructure of the original. The following version by the late ProfessorJebb will serve as a model:--

They fought for about three hours, and everywhere with desperation. Around the consul, however, the fight was peculiarly keen and vehement. He had the toughest troops with him; and he himself, whenever he sawthat his men were hard pressed, was indefatigable in coming to therescue. Distinguished by his equipment, he was a target for the enemyand a rallying-point for the Romans. At last a Lombard trooper, namedDucario, recognising the person as well as the guise of the consul, cried out to his people, ‘Here is the man who cut our legions to piecesand sacked our city--now I will give this victim to the shades of ourmurdered countrymen. ’ Putting spurs to his horse, he dashed through thethick of the foe. First he cut down the armour-bearer, who had thrownhimself in the way of the onset. Then he drove his lance through theconsul. He was trying to despoil the corpse, when some veterans screenedit with their shields. 

APPENDIX VI

SHORT LIVES OF ROMAN AUTHORS

DECIMUS MAGNUS AUSONIUS, 309-392 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: AUSONIUS. ]

Born at Burdigala (_Bordeaux_), and carefully educated. At the age ofthirty appointed professor of rhetoric in his native University, wherehe became so famous that he was appointed tutor to Gratian, son of theEmperor Valentinian (364-375 A. D. ), and was afterwards raised to thehighest honours of the State (Consul, 379 A. D. ). Theodosius (Emperor ofthe East, 378-395 A. D. ) gave him leave to retire from court to hisnative country, where he closed his days in an honoured literaryretirement. 

2. Works. 

A very voluminous writer both in prose and verse. 

1. Prose: The only extant specimen is his _Gratiarum Actio_ to Gratianusfor the Consulship. 

2. Verse: Of this we have much: it has little value as poetry, but inpoint of contents and diction it is interesting and valuable. Some ofhis _Epigrammata_ and _Epitaphia_ are worth preserving, but his claim torank as a poet rests on his _Mosella_, a beautiful description of the R. Moselle, which is worthy to be compared with Pliny’s description of theR. Clitumnus (_Ep. _ viii.  8). 

‘In virtue of this poem Ausonius ranks not merely as the last, or allbut the last, of Latin, but as the first of French poets. ’ --Mackail. 

GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR, 102 (or 100?)-44 B. C. 

1. Important Events in Caesar’s Life. 

[Sidenote: CAESAR. ]

 B. C. 102. Gaius Julius Caesar, nephew of Marius, born July 12th. „ 83. Marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, the friend of Marius. „ 81-78. Served with distinction in Asia. „ 76. Studies oratory at Rhodes. „ 68. Begins his political career as Quaestor, partly at Rome, partly in Spain. „ 65. Curule Aedile. Incurs enormous debts by his splendid shows. „ 61. Propraetor in Spain: conquers Lusitanians: amasses wealth. „ 60. Coalition of Pompeius, Caesar, and Crassus: First Triumvirate. „ 59. Consul. The Leges Iuliae. „ 58-50. Subjugation of Gaul and two invasions of Britain (55 and 54). „ 56. Meeting of Triumvirate at Luca. „ 50. The trouble with Pompeius begins. „ 49. Crosses the Rubicon. Civil war with Pompeius. Dictator a first time. „ 48. Pharsalus. Defeats Pompeius. Dictator a second time. „ 46. Thapsus. Defeats Scipio, Sulla, and Afranius. Declared Dictator for ten years. „ 45. Munda. Defeats Gn. Pompeius and Labienus. Dictator and Imperator for life. „ 44. Assassinated in the Senate House on the Ides of March. 

2. Works. 

(1) +THE DE BELLO GALLICO. +--This work describes Caesar’s operations inGaul, Germany, and Britain during the years 58-52 B. C. , the events ofeach year occupying a separate Book. 

 BOOK I. B. C. 58. The Helvetii and Ariovistus the German defeated. „ II. „ 57. The Nervii, the bravest Belgian tribe, almost exterminated. „ III. „ 56. Conquest of the coast tribes of Brittany (Veneti, &c. ) and of the South-West (Aquitani). „ IV. „ 55. Inroad of Germans into Northern Gaul repulsed. Caesar crosses the Rhine a first time. First invasion of Britain. „ V. „ 54. Second invasion of Britain. Fresh risings of the Gauls put down by Labienus and Q. Cicero. „ VI. „ 53. Caesar crosses the Rhine a second time. Northern Gaul reduced to peace. „ VII. „ 52. Uprising of the Gauls under Vercingetorix. Siege and capture of Alesia. Surrender of Vercingetorix. He is taken in chains to Rome, to adorn Caesar’s triumph. „ VIII. „ 51 (added by HIRTIUS). Final subjugation of Gaul. 

Caesar’s object was threefold:--

(i) To provide materials for professed historians. 

(ii) To justify the conquest he describes. 

(iii) To vindicate in the eyes of the world his opposition to the Senateand the Government. 

(2) +DE BELLO CIVILI. +--This work, in three Books, is similar in planto the _De Bello Gallico_. It describes the events of the Civil Warduring the years 49-48 B. C. Book III. Ends abruptly with the words:

_Haec initia belli Alexandrini fuerunt. _

 BOOK I. B. C. 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. Follows Pompeius to Brundusium and conquers Afranius in Spain. „ II. „ 49. Caesar takes Massilia. Submission of Varro in Further Spain. Defeat and death of Curio before Utica. 

 „ III. „ 48. Caesar follows Pompeius into Illyria. The lines of Dyrrachium and the Battle of Pharsalus. The beginning of the Alexandrine War. 

(3) +OTHER WORKS. +--All Caesar’s other writings (Speeches, Poems, &c. )have been lost, with the exception of a few brief Letters to Cicero. 

3. Style. 

Remarkable for brevity, directness, and simplicity. The simplest factstold in the simplest way. _Ars est celare artem. _

‘Caesar’s Commentaries are worthy of all praise; they are unadorned, straightforward, and elegant, every ornament being stripped off as if itwere a garment. ’ --CICERO. 

MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, 234-149 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: CATO. ]

For his military and political career, his Consulship (195 B. C. ), hisfamous Censorship (184 B. C. ), and his social reforms, see some goodhistory, e. G. Mommsen, vol, iii. 

2. Works. 

His chief works are:--

(1) His treatise +De Re Rustica+ or +De Agri Cultura+ (his only extantwork). --A series of terse and pointed directions following one onanother, somewhat in the manner of Hesiod, and interesting ‘as showingthe practical Latin style, and as giving the prose groundwork ofVergil’s stately and beautiful embroidery in the _Georgics_. ’ --Mackail. 

(2) +The Origines. +--‘The oldest historical work written in Latin, andthe first important prose work in Roman literature. ’ --Mommsen. Nepos, _Cato_, 3, summarises the contents of the seven books. 

Cato struggled all his life against Greek influence in literature and inmanners, which he felt would be fatal to his ideal of a Roman citizen. In a letter to his son Marcus he says _Quandoque ista gens suas litterasdabit, omnia corrumpet_. He was famous for his homely wisdom, whichgained him the title of _Sapiens_, e. G. _Rem tene: verbasequentur_--‘Take care of the sense: the words will take care ofthemselves. ’

GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, circ. 84-54 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: CATULLUS. ]

Born at Verona, of a family of wealth and position, as is seen from hishaving estates at Sirmio:--

_Salve, O venusta Sirmio, atque ero gaude_ (C.  31)

and near Tibur: _O funde noster seu Sabine seu Tiburs_ (C.  44). Hisfather was an intimate friend of Caesar. He went to Rome early, where hespent the greater part of his short life, _Romae vivimus: illa domus, Illa mihi sedes, illic mea carpitur aetas_ (C.  68), with the exception of an official journey to Bithynia, 57 B. C. To betterhis fortunes: cf. _Iam ver egelidos refert tepores . .. LinquanturPhrygii, Catulle, campi_ (C.  46). After a life of poetic culture andfree social enjoyment he died at the early age of thirty, ‘the youngCatullus, ’ _hedera iuvenilia tempora cinctus_ (Ovid, _Am. _ III. Ix.  61). 

2. Works. 

116 poems written in various metres and on various subjects, Lyric, Elegiac, Epic. 

‘The event which first revealed the full power of his genius, and whichmade both the supreme happiness and supreme misery of his life, was hislove for Lesbia (Clodia). ’--Sellar. 

‘Catullus is one of the great poets of the world, not so much throughvividness of imagination as through his singleness of nature, his vividimpressibility, and his keen perception. He received the gifts of thepassing hour so happily that to produce pure and lasting poetry it wasenough for him to utter in natural words something of the fulness of hisheart. He says on every occasion exactly what he wanted to say, inclear, forcible, spontaneous language. ’ --Sellar. 

‘The most attractive feature in the character of Catullus is the warmthof his affection. If to love warmly, constantly, and unselfishly be thebest title to the love of others, few poets in any age or countrydeserve a kindlier place in the hearts of men than “the youngCatullus. ”’--Sellar. 

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, 106-43 B. C. 

1. Important Events in Cicero’s Life, and chief Works. 

[Sidenote: CICERO. ]

 B. C. 106. Born at Arpinum. Birth of Pompeius. „ 102. Birth of Quintus Cicero, and of Caesar. „ 91. Assumes the _toga virilis_. Q. Mucius Scaevola the augur becomes his tutor in civil law. Writes an heroic poem in praise of Marius. „ 89. Serves his first and only campaign under Pompeius Strabo. „ 87. Studies Rhetoric at Rome under Apollonius Molo of Rhodes. „ 81. Delivers his first speech (_causa privata_) +Pro P. Quinctio+. „ 80. Delivers his first speech (_causa publica_) +Pro S. Roscio Amerino+. „ 79-7. Studies at Athens and Rhodes. Marries Terentia. „ 75-4. Quaestor at Lilybaeum in Sicily. „ 70. The six speeches +In C. Verrem+. „ 69. Curule Aedile. The +Pro Caecina+. „ 68. Date of the earliest extant letter. „ 67. Praetor. The Lex Gabinia. „ 66. The De Imperio Cn. Pompeii (+Pro Lege Manilia+). „ 64. Birth of his son Marcus. Marriage of Tullia to C. Piso Frugi. „ 63. Consul. The four speeches +In Catilinam+. The +Pro Murena+. „ 62. Cicero hailed ‘pater patriae. ’ The +Pro Sulla+ and +Pro Archia+. „ 60. Poem ‘De consulatu meo. ’ „ 59. The First Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompeius, and Crassus). The +Pro Valerio Flacco+. „ 58-7. Cicero in Exile. The four speeches +Post Reditum+. „ 56. The +Pro Sestio+ and +De Provinciis Consularibus+ (his recantation). „ 55. The +De Oratore+ and +De temporibus meis+. „ 52. The +Pro Milone+. The +De Legibus+: the +De Republica+. „ 51-50. Proconsul of Cilicia. Is granted a _supplicatio_. „ 49. Joins Pompeius at Dyrrachium. „ 47. Becomes reconciled to Caesar. „ 46. The +Brutus+ and +Orator+. „ 45. Death of Tullia. The +De Finibus+ and +Academics+. „ 44. The +Tusculanae Disputationes+: the +De Natura Deorum+: +De Divinatione+: +De Amicitia+: +De Senectute+: +De Officiis+. +Philippics i-iv. + „ 43. +Philippics v-xiv. + The Second Triumvirate (Antonius, Octavianus, and Lepidus). Murder of Cicero. 

2. Works. 

(1) +Speeches. +--We possess 57 speeches, and fragments of about 20 more, and we know of 33 others delivered by Cicero. 

‘As a speaker and orator Cicero succeeded in gaining a place besideDemosthenes. His strongest point is his style; there he is clear, concise and apt, perspicuous, elegant and brilliant. He commands allmoods, from playful jest to tragic pathos, but is most successful in theimitation of conviction and feeling, to which he gave increasedimpression by his fiery delivery. ’ --Teuffel. Quintilian says of himthat his eloquence combined the power of Demosthenes, the copiousness ofPlato, and the sweetness of Isocrates. 

(2) +Philosophical Works. +--The chief are the _De Republica_ (closed bythe _Sommium Sciponis_): the _De Legibus_: the _De Finibus Bonorum etMalorum_: the _Academics_: _Tusculan Disputations_ with the _DeDivinatione_: the _De Senectute_ and _De Amicitia_: _De natura Deorum_, and the _De Officiis_. 

As a philosopher Cicero had no pretensions to originality. He found thematerials for most of these works in the writings of the Greekphilosophers. ‘I have to supply little but the words, ’ he writes, ‘andfor these I am never at a loss. ’ It was however no small achievement tomould the Latin tongue to be a vehicle for Greek philosophic thought, and thus to render the conclusions of Greek thinkers accessible to hisown countrymen. 

(3) +Rhetorical treatises. +--The chief are the _De Oratore_ (in 3Books), perhaps the most finished example of the Ciceronian style: the_Brutus_ or _De Claris Oratoribus_, and the _Orator_ (or _De optimeGenere Dicendi_). 

(4) +Letters. +--Besides 774 letters written by Cicero, we have 90addressed to him by friends. The two largest collections of his Lettersare the _Epistulae ad Atticum_ (68-43 B. C. ) and the _Epistulae adFamiliares_ (62-43 B. C. ). 

These letters are of supreme importance for the history of Cicero’stime. ‘The quality which makes them most valuable is that they were not(like the letters of Pliny, and Seneca, and Madame de Sévigné) writtento be published. We see in them Cicero as he was. We behold him in hisstrength and in his weakness--the bold advocate, and yet timid andvacillating statesman, the fond husband, the affectionate father, thekind master, the warm-hearted friend. ’ --Tyrrell. 

The style of the Letters is colloquial but thoroughly accurate. ‘The artof letter-writing suddenly rose in Cicero’s hands to its fullperfection. ’ --Mackail. 

(5) +Poems. +--The fragments we possess show that verse-writing cameeasily to him, but he never could have been a great poet, for he had notthe _divinus afflatus_, so finely expressed by Ovid in the line _EstDeus in nobis, agitante calescimus illo_. 

‘Cicero stands in prose like Vergil in poetry, as the bridge between theancient and the modern world. Before his time Latin prose was, from awide point of view, but one among many local ancient dialects. As itleft his hands it had become a universal language, one which haddefinitely superseded all others, Greek included, as the type ofcivilised expression. ’ --Mackail. 

CLAUDIUS CLAUDIANUS, flor. 400 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: CLAUDIAN. ]

Born probably at Alexandria, where he lived until, in the year of thedeath of Theodosius 395 A. D. , he acquired the patronage of Stilicho, thegreat Vandal general, who, as guardian of the young Emperor Honorius, was practically ruler of the Western Empire. He remained attached to theCourt at Milan, Rome and Ravenna, and died soon after the downfall ofhis patron Stilicho, 408 A. D. 

2. Works. 

In his historical epics he derived his subjects from his own age, praising his patrons Stilicho (_On the Consulate of Stilicho_) andHonorius (_on the Consulate of Honorius_), and inveighing againstRufinus and Eutropius, the rivals of Stilicho. Of poems on othersubjects, ‘his three books of the unfinished Rape of Proserpine areamong the finest examples of the purely literary epic. ’ --Mackail. 

‘Claudian is the last of the Latin poets, forming the transitional linkbetween the Classic and the Gothic mode of thought. ’ --Coleridge. 

3. Style. 

‘His faults belong almost as much to the age as to the writer. Indescription he is too copious and detailed: his poems abound with longspeeches: his parade of varied learning, his partiality for abstrusemythology, are just the natural defects of a lettered but uninspiredepoch. ’ --North Pinder. 

QUINTUS ENNIUS, 239-169 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: ENNIUS. ]

He was born at Rudiae in Calabria (about 19 miles S. Of Brundisium), a meeting-place of three different languages, that of common life(Oscan, cf. _Opici_), that of culture and education (Greek), that ofmilitary service (Latin). Here he lived for some twenty years, availinghimself of those means of education which at this time were denied toRome or Latium. We next hear of him serving as centurion in Sardinia, where he attracted the attention of Cato, then quaestor, and accompaniedhim to Rome, 204 B. C. Here for some fifteen years he lived plainly, supporting himself by teaching Greek, and making translations of Greekplays for the Roman stage, and so won the friendship of the elderScipio. In 189 B. C. M. Fulvius Nobilior took Ennius with him in hiscampaign against the Aetolians, as a witness and herald of his deeds. His son obtained for Ennius the Roman citizenship (184 B. C. ) by givinghim a grant of land at Potentia in Picenum. _Nos sumus Romani, quifuimus ante Rudini. _ The rest of his life was spent mainly at Rome incheerful simplicity and active literary work. 

2. Works. 

The chief are:--

(1) +Tragedies. +--Mainly translations, especially from Euripides. A fewfragments only remain. ‘It was certainly due to Ennius that RomanTragedy was first raised to that pitch of popular favour which itenjoyed till the age of Cicero. ’ --Sellar. 

(2) +Annales. +--An Epic Hexameter poem, in 18 books, which dealt withthe History of Rome from the landing of Aeneas in Italy down to theThird Macedonian War (Pydna, 168 B. C. ). About 600 lines are extant. 

‘In his Annals he unfolds a long gallery of national portraits. Hisheroes are men of one common aim--the advancement of Rome; animated withone sentiment, devotion to the State. All that was purely personal inthem seems merged in the traditional pictures which express only thefortitude, dignity and sagacity of the Republic. ’ --Sellar. 

3. Style. 

For the first time Ennius succeeded in moulding the Latin language tothe movement of the Greek hexameter. In spite of imperfections androughness, his _Annals_ remained the foremost and representative Romanpoem till Vergil wrote the _Aeneid_. Lucretius, whom he influenced, andto whom Vergil owes so much, says of him:

 _Ennius ut noster cecinit, qui primus amoeno Detulit ex Helicone perenni fronde coronam, Per gentes Italas honinum quae clara clueret;_

 ‘As sang our Ennius, the first who brought down from pleasant Helicon a chaplet of unfading leaf, the fame of which should ring out clear through the nations of Italy. ’

And later, Quintilian, X. I. 88: ‘Ennium sicut sacros vetustate lucosadoremus, in quibus grandia et antiqua robora iam non tantam habentspeciem quantam religionem: Let us venerate Ennius like the groves, sacred from their antiquity, in which the great and ancient oak-treesare invested, not so much with beauty, as with sacred associations. ’--Sellar. 

FLAVIUS EUTROPIUS, fl. 375 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: EUTROPIUS. ]

Very little is known of his life. He is said to have held the office ofa secretary under Contanstine the Great (_ob. _ 337 A. D. ), and to haveserved under the Emperor Julian in his ill-fated expedition against thePersians, 363 A. D. 

2. Works. 

His only extant work is his

+Breviarium Historiae Romanae. +--A brief compendium of Roman History inten books from the foundation of the city to the accession of Valens, 364 A. D. , to whom it is inscribed. 

3. Style. 

His work is a compilation made from the best authorities, with goodjudgment and impartiality, and in a simple style. Its brevity andpractical arrangement made it very popular. 

FLORUS, circ. 120 (or 140?) A. D. (temp. Hadrian). 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: FLORUS. ]

L. Julius (or Annaeus) Florus lived at Rome in the time of Trajan orHadrian. Little else is known of his life. 

2. Works. 

An Epitome of the Wars of Livy, in two Books:--

 Book I. Treats of the good time of Rome, 753-133 B. C. (the Gracchi). 

 „ II. Treats of the decline of Rome, 133-29 B. C. (Temple of Janus closed). 

3. Style. 

A pretentious and smartly written work abounding in mistakes, contradictions, and misrepresentations of historical truth. It was, however, popular in the Middle Ages on account of its brevity and itsrhetorical style. Florus is useful in giving us a short account ofevents in periods where we have no books of Livy to guide us. 

S. JULIUS FRONTINUS, circ. 41-103 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: FRONTINUS. ]

He was _praetor urbanus_ 70 A. D. , and in 75 succeeded Cerealis asgovernor oi Britain, where, as Tacitus tells us, he distinguishedhimself by the conquest of the Silures: _sustinuit molem IuliusFrontinus, vir magnus, quantum licebat, validamque et pugnacem Siturumgentem armis subegit_: ‘Julius Frontinus was equal to the burden, a great man as far as greatness was then possible (i. E. Under thejealous rule of Domitian), who subdued by his arms the powerful andwarlike tribe of the Silures. ’

In 97 he was nominated _curator aquarum_, administrator of the aqueductsof Rome: the closing years of his life were passed in studiousretirement at his villa on the Bay of Naples. Cf. Mart. X. Lviii. 

2. Works. 

Two works of his are extant:--

(1) +De Aquis Urbis Romae. +--A treatise on the Roman water-supply, published under Trajan, soon after the death of Nerva, 97 A. D. ; acomplete and valuable account. 

(2) +Strategemata. +--A manual of strategy, in three books, consisting ofhistorical examples derived chiefly from Sallust, Caesar, and Livy. 

3. Style. 

Simple and concise: ‘he shuns the conceits of the period and goes backto the republican authors, of whom (and especially of Caesar’sCommentaries) his language strongly reminds us. ’ --Cruttwell. 

As a mark of his unaffected modesty, Pliny (_Ep. _ ix. 19) tells us:_vetuit exstrui monimentum: sed quibus verbis? ‘impensa monimentasupervacua est: memoria nostri durabit, si vita meruimus_. ’

AULUS GELLIUS, circ. 123-175 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: GELLIUS. ]

All that is known about his life is gathered from occasional hints inhis own writings. He seems to have spent his early years at Rome, studying under the most famous teachers, first at Rome and afterwards atAthens, and then to have returned to Rome, where he spent the remainingyears of his life in literary pursuits and in the society of a largecircle of friends. 

2. Works. 

The +Noctes Atticae+ (so called because it was begun during the longnights of winter in a country house in Attica) in twenty books consistsof numerous extracts from Greek and Roman writers on subjects connectedwith history, philosophy, philology, natural science and antiquities, illustrated by abundant criticisms and discussions. It is, in fact, a commonplace book, and the arrangement of the contents is merelycasual, following the course of his reading of Greek and Latin authors. The work is, however, of special value to us from the very numerousquotations from ancient authors preserved by him alone. 

3. Style. 

His language is sober but full of archaisms, which he much affected (hegives, therefore, no quotations from post-Augustan writers). His styleshows the defects of an age in which men had ceased to feel the fullmeaning of the words they used, and strove to hide the triviality of asubject under obscure phrases and florid expression. Yet, on the whole, he is a very interesting writer, and the last that can in any way becalled classical. 

‘_Vir elegantissimi eloquii et multae ac facundae scientiae. _’ --St. Augustine, 400 A. D. 

QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS, 65-8 B. C. 

1. Important Events in the Life of Horace. 

[Sidenote: HORACE. ]

 B. C. 65. Born at Venusia (_Venosa_) on the confines of Apulia and Lucania. „ 53-46. Educated at Rome under the famous _plagosus_ Orbilius. „ 46-44. At the University of Athens. „ 44-42. Served under Brutus as _tribunus militum_: fought at Philippi. „ 42-39. Pardoned by Octavianus and allowed to return to Rome. His poverty compelled him to write verses, prob. _Sat. _ I, ii. Iii. Iv. , and some _Epodes_. Through these he obtained the notice of Varius and Vergil, who became his fast friends and „ 38. Introduced him to Maecenas, the trusted minister of Augustus. „ 35. +Satires, Book I+ published. (Journey to Brundisium described, _Sat. _ I. V. ) „ 33. Maecenas bestowed upon him a Sabine farm (about 15 miles N. E. Of Tivoli). For fullest description see _Epist. _ I. Xvi. „ 31. +Satires, Book II+, and +Epodes+ published. „ 23. +Odes, Books I-III+ published. „ 20. +Epistles, Book I+ published. „ 17. +Carmen Saeculare+ written at the request of Augustus for the _Ludi Saeculares_. „ 13. +Odes, Book IV+ published. „ 12. +Epistles, Book II+ published. „ 8. Died in the same year as his friend and patron Maecenas. 

 3. Works. 

(1) +Odes+, in four books, and +Epodes+. --The words of Cicero (_proArchia_ 16) best describe the abiding value of the four Books of theOdes--_Adolescentiam alunt_ (strengthen), _senectutem oblectant, secundas res ornant, adversis perfugium ac solacium praebent, delectantdomi, non impediunt foris, pernoctant nobiscum, peregrinantur, rusticantur_. In them we see a poet, as Quintilian says, _verbisfelicissime audax_--most happily daring in his use of words and endowed, as Petronius says, with _curiosa felicitas_, a subtle happiness ofexpression--‘what oft was thought but ne’er so well express’d. ’

(2) +Satires (Sermones)+ in two Books. --Horace’s chief model isLucilius, whom he wished to adapt to the Augustan age. To touch onpolitical topics was impossible; Horace employed satire to display hisown individuality and his own views on various subjects. Book I (hisearliest effort) is marred by faults in execution and is often wantingin good taste; but in Book II ‘he uses the hexameter to exhibit thesemi-dramatic form of easy dialogue, with a perfection as complete asthat of Vergil in the stately and serious manner. In reading theseSatires we all read our own minds and hearts. ’ --Mackail. 

(3) +The Epistles (Sermones)+ in two Books, and +Ars Poetica+ (_Ep. AdPisones_). --These represent his most mature production. As a poet Horacenow stood without a rival. Life was still full of vivid interest forhim, but years (_fallentis semita vitae_) had brought the philosophicmind. ‘To teach the true end and wise regulation of life, and to act oncharacter from within, are the motives of the more formal and elaborateepistles. ’ --Sellar. 

The +Ars Poetica+ is a _résumé_ of Greek criticism on the drama. 

3. Style. 

‘With the principal lyric metres, the Sapphic and Alcaic, Horace haddone what Vergil had accomplished with the dactylic hexameter, carriedthem to the highest point of which the foreign Latin tongue wascapable. ’ --Mackail. 

‘As Vergil is the most idealising exponent of what was of permanent anduniversal significance in the time, Horace is the most complete exponentof its actual life and movement. He is at once the lyrical poet, withheart and imagination responsive to the deeper meaning and lighteramusements of life, and the satirist, the moralist, and the literarycritic of the age. ’ --Sellar. 

JUSTINUS, circ. 150 A. D. (_temp. _ Antoninus Pius). 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: JUSTINUS. ]

We know nothing positively about him, though probably he lived in theage of the Antonines. Teuffel says ‘Considering his correct mode ofthinking and the style of his preface, we should not like to put himmuch later than Florus, who epitomised Livy. ’

2. Works. 

+Epitoma Historiarum Philippicarum Pompei Trogi+, in forty-fourBooks. --An abridgment of the Universal History of Pompeius Trogus(_temp. _ Livy). The title _Historiae Philippicae_ was given to it byTrogus because its main object was to give the history of the Macedonianmonarchy, with all its branches, but he allowed himself, like Herodotus, to indulge in such large digressions that it was regarded by many as aUniversal History. It was arranged according to nations; it began withNinus, the Nimrod of legend, and was brought down to about 9 A. D. 

3. Style. 

Justinus (as he tells us in his Preface) made it his business to form anattractive reading-book--_breve veluti florum corpusculum feci_ (ananthology)--and his chief merit is that he seems to have been a faithfulabbreviator. 

DECIMUS JUNIUS JUVENALIS, 55-138 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: JUVENAL. ]

Of Juvenal’s life very little is certainly known. Thirteen lives of himexist, which are confused and contradictory in detail. From theevidences of the Satires we learn that he lived from early youth atRome, but went for holidays to Aquinum, a town of the Volscians (whereperhaps he was born in the reign of Nero); that he had a small farm atTibur, and a house in Rome, where he entertained his friends in a modestway; that he had been in Egypt; that he wrote Satires late in life; thathe reached his eightieth year, and lived into the reign of AntoninusPius. He complains frequently and bitterly of his poverty and of thehardships of a dependent’s life. In short, the circumstances of his lifewere very similar to those of Martial, who speaks of Juvenal as a veryintimate friend. 

The famous inscription at Aquinum--which Duff considers does not referto the poet but to a wealthy kinsman of his--indicates that he hadserved in the army as commander of a Dalmatian cohort, and, as one ofthe chief men of the town, was superintendent of the civic worship paidto Vespasian after his deification. 

All the Lives assert that Juvenal was banished to Egypt--Juvenal himselfnever alludes to this--for offence given to an actor who was high infavour with the reigning Emperor (Hadrian according to Prof. Hardy), andthat he died in exile. 

2. Works. 

+Saturae+, sixteen, grouped in five Books. 

Books I-III (Satires 1-9) are sharply divided both in form and substancefrom Books IV-V (Satires 10-16), which are not satires at all, but moralessays, in the form of letters. The first nine satires present awonderfully vivid picture of the seamy side of life at Rome at the endof the first century. We must, however, read side by side with them thecontemporary Letters of Pliny, in which we find ourselves in a differentworld from that scourged by the satirist. 

‘His chief literary qualities are his power of painting lifelike scenes, and his command of brilliant epigrammatic phrase. ’ --Duff. Nothing, forinstance, could surpass his picture of the fall of Sejanus (Sat. X. 56-97). His power of coining phrases is seen in these _sententiae_:_nemo repente fuit turpissimus--expende Hannibalem_: _quot libras induce summo | invenies_: _maxima debetur puero reverentia_: _mens sana incorpora sano_--which are familiar proverbs among educated men. 

Juvenal tells us that he takes all life, all the world, for his text:

 _Quidquid agunt homines, Votum, Timor, Ira, Voluptas, Gaudia, Discursus, nostri est farrago libelli_ (the motley subject of my page). --_Sat. _ i. 85-6. 

TITUS LIVIUS PATAVINUS, circ. 59 B. C. -17 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: LIVY. ]

Livy was born at Patavium (_Padua_) between the years 59 and 57 B. C. Little is known of his life, but his aristocratic sympathies, as seen inhis writings, seem to suggest that he was of good family. Padua was apopulous and busy place, where opportunities for public speaking wereabundant and the public life vigorous; thus Livy was early trained ineloquence, and lived amid scenes of human activity. About 30 B. C. Hesettled at Rome, where his literary talents secured the patronage andfriendship of Augustus. But though a courtier he was no flatterer. ‘Titus Livius, ’ says Tacitus (_Ann. _ iv. 34), ‘pre-eminently famous foreloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such a panegyricthat Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle totheir friendship. ’ He returned to his native town before his death, 17A. D. , at the age of about 75. 

2. Works. 

+History of Rome+ (_Ab urbe condita Libri_), a comprehensive account in142 Books of the whole History of Rome from the foundation of the Cityto the death of Drusus, 9 A. D. It is probable that he intended tocontinue his work in 150 Books, down to the death of Augustus in 14A. D. , the point from which Tacitus starts. The number of Books nowextant is 35, about one fourth of the whole number, but we possesssummaries (_Periochae_ or _Argumenta_) of nearly the whole work. Thedivision of the History into decades (sets of ten Books), though merelyconventional, is convenient. According to this arrangement the Books nowextant are:

Books I-X, 754-293 B. C. , to nearly the close of the Third Samnite War. 

Books XXI-XXX, 219-201 B. C. , the narrative of the Second Punic War. 

Books XXXI-XLV, 201-167 B. C. , describe the Wars in Greece and Macedonia, and end with the triumph of Aemilius Paulus after Pydna, 168 B. C. 

3. Style. 

His style is characterised by variety, liveliness, and picturesqueness. ‘As a master of style Livy is in the first rank of historians. He marksthe highest point which the enlarged and enriched prose of the Augustanage reached just before it began to fall into decadence.  .  .  . Theperiodic structure of Latin prose, which had been developed by Cicero, is carried by him to an even greater complexity and used with a greaterdaring and freedom.  .  .  . His imagination never fails to kindle at greatactions; it is he, more than any other author, who has impressed thegreat soldiers and statesmen of the Republic on the imagination of theworld. ’ --Mackail. 

4. The Speeches. 

‘The spirit in which he writes History is well illustrated by theSpeeches. These, in a way, set the tone of the whole work. He does notaffect in them to reproduce the substance of words actually spoken, oreven to imitate the colour of the time in which the speech is laid. Heuses them rather as a vivid and dramatic method of portraying characterand motive. ’ --Mackail. ‘Everything, ’ says Quintilian (X.  i. 101), ‘isperfectly adapted both to the circumstances and personages introduced. ’

5. The Purpose of his History. 

The first ten books of Livy were being written about the same time asthe _Aeneid_; both Vergil and Livy had the same patriotic purpose, ‘tocelebrate the growth, in accordance with a divine dispensation, of theRoman Empire and Roman civilisation. ’ --Nettleship. Livy, however, brought into greater prominence the moral causes which contributed tothe growth of the Empire. In his preface to Book I, § 9, he asks hisreaders to consider _what have been the life and habits of the Romans, by aid of what men and by what talents at home and in the field theirEmpire has been gained and extended_. Only by virtue and manliness, justice and piety, was the dominion of the world achieved. 

‘In ancient Rome he sees his ideal realised, and _romanus_ hencesignifies in his language all that is noble. He thus involuntarilyappears partial to Rome, and unjust to her enemies, notably to theSamnites and Hannibal. ’ --Teuffel. 

‘As the title of _Gesta Populi Romani_ was given to the _Aeneid_ on itsappearance, so the _Historiae ab Urbe Condita_ might be called, with noless truth, a funeral eulogy--_consummatio totius vitae et quasifunebris laudatio_ (Sen. _Suas. _ VI. 21)--delivered, by the most lovingand most eloquent of her sons, over the grave of the great Republic. ’--Mackail. 

M. ANNAEUS LUCANUS, 39-65 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: LUCAN. ]

+Important Events in the Life of Lucan. +

 A. D. 39. Born at Corduba (_Cordova_) on the R. Baetis (_Guadalquivir_). „ 40. His father migrates with his family to Rome. „ 54-68. Nero Emperor. „ 55. Lucan under Cornutus, the tutor also of Persius. „ 57-9. At the University of Athens. „ 60. Wins the favour of Nero, who begins to hate Seneca. „ 61. Lucan quaestor: famous as a reciter and pleader. „ 62. Disgrace of Seneca. +Pharsalia I. -III. + published. Death of Persius. „ 63. Marries Polla Argentaria, a marriage of affection. „ 64. Nero, from jealousy, forbids Lucan to publish poems or to recite them. „ 65. Pisonian conspiracy discovered. Lucan compelled to die. 

Lucan was a nephew of M. Annaeus Novatus (the Gallio of Acts xviii. 12-17), and of Seneca, the philosopher and tutor of Nero. ‘Rhetoric andStoic dogma were the staple of his mental training. For a much-petted, quick-witted youth, plunged into such a society as that of Rome in thefirst century A. D. , hardly any training could be more mischievous. Puffed up with presumed merits and the applause of the lecture-room andthe _salon_, he became a shallow rhetorician, devoted to phrase-makingand tinsel ornament, and ready to write and declaim on any subject inverse or prose at the shortest notice. ’ --Heitland. Silenced by Nero, inan enforced retirement--probably in the stately gardens spoken of byJuvenal vii. 79-80 _contentus fama iaceat Lucanus in hortisMarmoreis--Lucan may repose in his park adorned with statues and findfame enough_--he brooded over his wrongs, and despairing of any otherway of restoration to public life, joined the ill-fated conspiracy ofPiso. 

2. Works. 

The +Pharsalia+ (or _De Bello Civili_), an epic poem in ten Books, fromthe beginning of the Civil War down to the point where Caesar isbesieged in Alexandria, 49-48 B. C. His narrative thus runs parallel toCaesar’s De _Bello Civili_, but it contains some valuable additionalmatter and gives a faithful picture of the feeling general among thenobility of the day. 

3. Style. 

‘To Lucan’s rhetorical instincts and training, and the influence of therecitations which Juvenal _Sat. _ iii. Tells us were so customary andsuch a nuisance in his day, are due the great defects of the_Pharsalia_. We see the sacrifice of the whole to the parts, neglect ofthe matter in an over-studious regard for the manner, a self-conscioustone appealing rather to an audience than to a reader, venting itself inapostrophes, digressions, hyperbole (over-drawn description), episodesand epigrams, an unhappy laboriousness that strains itself to befirst-rate for a moment, but leaves the poem second-rate for ever. ’--Heitland. 

The general effect of Lucan’s verse is one of steady monotony, due to awant of variety in the pauses and in the ending of lines, and a toosparing use of elision, by which Vergil was able to regulate themovement of lines and make sound and sense agree. 

‘In spite of its immaturity and bad taste the poem compels admiration byits elevation of thought and sustained brilliance of execution; itcontains passages of lofty thought and real beauty, such as the dream ofPompeius, or the character which Cato gives of Pompeius, and is full ofquotations which have become household words; such as, _In se magnaruunt--Stat magni nominis umbra--Nil actum reputans si quid superessetagendum_ (a line which rivals Caesar’s energy). ’--Mackail. 

The brief and balanced judgment of Quintilian (_Inst. Orat. _ X. I. 90)sums up Lucan in words which suggest at once his chief merits anddefects as a poet: _Lucanus ardens et concitatus et sententiisclarissimus et magis oratoribus quam poetis imitandus--Lucan has fireand point, is very famous for his maxims, and indeed is rather a modelfor orators than poets_. 

GAIUS LUCILIUS, circ. 170-103 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: LUCILIUS. ]

Lucilius was born in the Latin town of Suessa of the Aurunci, inCampania, of a well-to-do equestrian family. Velleius tells us that thesister of Lucilius was grandmother to Pompeius, and that Lucilius servedin the cavalry under Scipio in the Numantine war, 134 B. C. Luciliuslived on very intimate terms with Scipio Africanus Minor and Laelius, and died at Naples (103 B. C. ), where he was honoured with a publicfuneral. 

2. Works. 

+Saturae+ in thirty Books, in various metres. Fragments only are extant. 

‘After Terence he is the most distinguished and the most important inhis literary influence among the friends of Scipio. The form ofliterature which he invented and popularised, that of familiar poetry, was one which proved singularly suited to the Latin genius. He speaks ofhis own works under the name of _Sermones_ (talks)--a name which wasretained by his great successor and imitator Horace; but the peculiarcombination of metrical form with wide range of subject and thepedestrian style of ordinary prose received in popular usage the name_Satura_ (mixture). ’--Mackail. 

_Satura quidem tota nostra est, in qua primus insignem laudem adeptusLucilius. _ --Quint. X. I.  93. 

‘The chief social vices which Lucilius attacks are those which reappearin the pages of the later satirists. They are the two extremes to whichthe Roman temperament was most prone: rapacity and meanness in gainingmoney, vulgar ostentation and coarse sensuality in using it. ’ --Sellar. 

Juvenal says of him (_Sat. _ i. 165-7):

‘When old Lucilius seems to draw his sword and growls in burning ire, the hearer blushes for shame, his conscience is chilled for hisoffences, and his heart faints for secret sins. ’

T. LUCRETIUS CARUS, circ. 99-55 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: LUCRETIUS. ]

Very little is known of his life. The subiect of his poem prevented himfrom telling his own history as Catullus, Horace, and Ovid have done, and his contemporaries seldom refer to him. The name Lucretius suggeststhat he was descended from one of the most ancient patrician houses ofRome, famous in the early annals of the Republic. He was evidently a manof wealth and position, but he deliberately chose the life ofcontemplation, and lived apart from the ambitions and follies of hisday. Donatus, in his life of Vergil, tells us that Lucretius died on theday on which Vergil assumed the _toga virilis_, Oct. 15, 55 B. C. 

2. Works. 

The +De Rerum Natura+, a didactic poem in hexameter verse in six Books. The poem was left unfinished at his death, and Munro supports thetradition that Cicero both corrected it and superintended itspublication. The object of the poem is to deliver men from the fear ofdeath and the terrors of superstition by the new knowledge of Nature:

 _Hunc igitur terrorem animi tenebrasque necessest Non radii solis neque lucida tela diei Discutiant, sed naturae species ratioque. _

_This terror of the soul, therefore, and this darkness must bedispelled, not by the rays of the sun or the bright shafts of day, butby the outward aspect and harmonious plan of nature. _ --S. 

The source of these terrors is traced to the general ignorance ofcertain facts in Nature--ignorance, namely, of the constitution andcondition of our minds and bodies, of the means by which the world cameinto existence and is still maintained, and, lastly, of the causes ofmany natural phenomena. Thus:

Books I and II uphold the principles of the Atomic Theory as held byEpicurus (_fl. _ 300 B. C. ). 

Book I states that the world consists of atoms and void. At line 694 isstated the important doctrine that the evidence of the senses alone isto be believed--_sensus, unde omnia credita pendent, the senses on whichrests all our belief_. 

Book II treats of the _motions_ of atoms, including the curious doctrineof the _swerve_, which enables them to combine and makes freedom of willpossible: then of their _shapes_ and _arrangement_. 

Book III shows the nature of mind (_animus_) and life (_anima_) to bematerial and therefore mortal. Therefore death is nothing to us:

 _Nil igitur mors est ad nos neque pertinet hilum, Quandoquidem natura animi mortalis habetur. Death therefore to us is nothing, concerns us not a jot, Since the nature of the mind is proved to be mortal. _ --(M. )

Book IV gives Lucretius’ theory of vision and the nature of dreams andapparitions. 

Book V explains the origin of the heavens, of the earth, of vegetableand animal life upon it, and the advance of human nature from a savagestate to the arts and usages of civilisation. 

Book VI describes and accounts for certain naturalphenomena--thunderstorms, tempests, volcanoes, earthquakes, and thelike. It concludes with a theory of disease, illustrated by a finedescription of the plague at Athens. 

Professor Tyrrell says: ‘It is interesting to point to places in whichLucretius or his predecessors had really anticipated modern scientificresearch. Thus Lucretius recognises that in a vacuum every body, nomatter what its weight, falls with equal swiftness; the circulation ofthe sap in the vegetable world is known to him, and he describes fallingstars, aerolites, etc. , as the unused material of the universe. ’ Thegreat truth that matter is not destroyed but only changes its form isvery clearly stated by Lucretius, and his account (Book V) of thebeginnings of life upon the earth, the evolution of man, and theprogress of human society is interesting and valuable. 

3. Style. 

‘Notwithstanding the antique tinge (e. G. His use of archaism, assonance, and alliteration) which for poetical ends he has given to his poem, thebest judges have always looked upon it as one of the purest models ofthe Latin idiom in the age of its greatest perfection. ’ --Munro. 

‘The language of Lucretius, so bold, so genial, so powerful, and in itsway so perfect. ’ --Nettleship. 

 _Carmina sublimis tunc sunt peritura Lucreti, Exitio terras cum dabit una dies. _ --Ovid. _Am. _ I. Xv.  23. 

 ‘But till this cosmic order everywhere Shattered into one earthquake in one day Cracks all to pieces . .. Till that hour My golden work shall stand. ’ --Tennyson, _Lucretius_. 

MARCUS MANILIUS, fl. 12 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: MANILIUS. ]

Nothing is known of his life. That he was not of Roman birth (perhaps anative of N. Africa) is probable from the foreign colouring of hislanguage at the outset, which in the later books becomes more smooth andfluent from increased practice. 

2. Works. 

The +Astronomica+ in five Books of hexameter verse. The poem shouldrather be called Astrology, as Astronomy is treated only in Book I. Heis proud of being the first writer on this subject in Latin literature. A close study of Lucretius is obvious from several passages: he oftenimitates Vergil, and in the legends (e. G. Of Perseus and Andromeda)Ovid. 

3. Style. 

He is not a great poet; but he is a writer of real power both in thoughtand style. In his introductions to each Book, and in his digressions, heshows sincere feeling and poetical ability. 

M. VALERIUS MARTIALIS, circ. 40-102 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: MARTIAL. ]

He was born at Bilbilis in Hispania Tarraconensis (E.  Spain), a townsituated on a rocky height overlooking the R. Salo:

 _Municipes, Augusta mihi quos Bilbilis acri Monte creat, rapidis quem Salo cingit aquis. _

 X. Ciii. 1-2. 

His father gave him a good education, and at the age of twenty-three (63A. D. ) he went to Rome. After living there for thirty-five years, patronised by Titus and Vespasian, he returned to Bilbilis soon afterthe accession of Trajan (98 A. D. ), where he died _circ. _ 102 A. D. 

At Rome he for a time found powerful friends in his great countrymen ofthe house of Seneca (Lucan and Seneca were then at the height of theirfame), and from 79 to 96 (_temp. _ Trajan and Domitian) he received thepatronage of the Court, and numbered among his friends Pliny theYounger, Quintilian, Juvenal, Valerius Flaccus, and Silius Italicus. Hiscomplaints of his poverty are incessant. It is true that he livedthroughout the life of a dependent, but it is probable that Martial wasa poor man who contrived to get through a good deal of money, and whomistook for poverty a capacity for spending more than he could get. 

2. Works. 

+Epigrammata+ in fourteen Books (Books XIII and XIV, _Xenia_ and_Apophoreta_, are two collections of inscriptions for presents at theSaturnalia); also a +Liber Spectaculorum+ on the opening of the grandFlavian amphitheatre (the Coliseum) begun by Vespasian and completed byTitus. 

3. Style. 

‘Martial did not create the epigram. What he did was to differentiatethe epigram and elaborate it. Adhering always to what he considered thetrue type of the literary epigram, consisting of i. The _preface_, ordescription of the occasion of the epigram, rousing the curiosity toknow what the poet has to say about it; and, ii. The explanation orcommentary of the poet, commonly called the _point_--he employed hisvast resources of satire, wit, observation, fancy, and pathos to producethe greatest number of varieties of epigram that the type admitsof.  .  .  . What Martial really stands convicted of on his own showing isof laughing at that which ought to have roused in him shame andindignation, and of making literary capital out of other men’s vices. ’--Stephenson. Among his good points are his candour, his love of nature, and the loyalty of his friendships. 

Pliny says of him: _Audio Valerium Martialem decessisse et moleste fero. Erat homo ingeniosus, acutus, acer, et qui plurimum in scribendo etsltis haberet et fellis, nec candoris minus--I hear with regret that V. Martial is dead. He was a man of talent, acuteness, and spirit: withplenty of wit and gall, and as sincere as he was witty. _ --Pliny, _Ep. _iii.  21. 

‘The greatest epigrammatist of the world, and one of its mostdisagreeable literary characters. ’ --Merrill. 

CORNELIUS NEPOS, circ. 100-24 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: NEPOS. ]

Nepos was probably born at Ticinium on the R. Padus. He inherited anample fortune, and was thereby enabled to keep aloof from public lifeand to devote himself to literature and to writing works of anhistorical nature. In earlier life he was one of the circle of Catullus, who dedicated a collection of poems to him (Catull. _C. _ i. ): ‘To whomam I to give my dainty, new-born little volume? To you, Cornelius. ’ Hewas also a friend and contemporary of Cicero, and after Cicero’s death(43 B. C. ) was one of the chief friends of Atticus. 

2. Works. 

Of his numerous writings on history, chronology, and grammar we possessonly a fragment of his +De Viris Illustribus+ (originally in sixteenBooks), a collection of Roman and foreign biographies. Of this workthere is extant one complete section, +De Excellentibus DucibusExterarum Gentium+, and two lives, those of Atticus and Cato theYounger, from his +De Historicis Latinis+. 

3. Style. 

Nepos is a most untrustworthy historian, and his work possesses littleindependent value. But his style is clear, elegant, and lively, and hedid much to make Greek learning popular among his fellow-citizens. 

PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO, 43 B. C. -18 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: OVID. ]

Ovid’s own writings (espec. _Tr. _ IV.  x. ) supply nearly all theinformation we possess regarding his life. He was born at Sulmo, a townin the cold, moist hills of the Peligni, one of the Sabine clans, situated near Corfinium, and about ninety miles E. Of Rome. He was of anancient equestrian family, and together with his elder brother receiveda careful education at Rome, and studied also at Athens. He was trainedfor the Bar, but in spite of his father’s remonstrances preferred poetryto public life. ‘An easy fortune, a brilliant wit, an inexhaustiblememory, and an unfailing social tact soon made him a prominent figure insociety; and his genuine love of literature and admiration for geniusmade him the friend of the whole contemporary world of letters. ’--Mackail. Up to his fiftieth year fortune smiled steadily upon Ovid:his works were universally popular, and he enjoyed the favour andpatronage of the Emperor himself. But towards the end of 8 A. D. Animperial edict ordered him to leave Rome on a named day and take up hisresidence at the small barbarous town of Tomi, on the Black Sea, at theextreme outposts of civilisation. Augustus proved deaf to all entreatiesto recall him, Tiberius remained alike inexorable, and Ovid died of abroken heart at the ago of sixty, in the tenth year of his banishment. 

2. Works. 

(1) +Amores+, in three Books, poems in elegiac verse, nearly all onCorinna, who was probably no real person, but only a name around whichOvid grouped his own fancies, and wrote as the poet of a fashionable, pleasure-loving society. The _Mors Psittaci_ is pleasing and the _MorsTibulli_ is a noble tribute to a brother poet. 

(2) +Heroides+, twenty letters in elegiac verse, feigned to have beenwritten by ladies or chiefs of the heroic age to the absent objects oftheir love (15-20 are in pairs, e. G. Paris to Helen and Helen to Paris, and are probably spurious). ‘The Letters 1-14 are thoroughly modern:they express the feelings and speak the language of refined women in arefined age, and all exhibit an artificiality both in the substance andthe manner of their pleading. ’ --Sellar. 

(3) +Ars Amatoria+, in elegiac verse in three Books. This is an ironicalform of didactic poetry in which Ovid teaches the art of lying quite asmuch as the art of loving. 

(4) +Remedia Amoris+, in elegiac verse, while professing to be arecantation of the _Ars Amatoria_, shows, if possible, a worse taste. 

(5) +Metamorphoses+, in hexameter verse in fifteen Books, containingversions of legends on transformations (_mutatae formae_) from Chaosdown to Caesar’s transformation into a star. In some respects this ishis greatest poem: Ovid himself makes for it as strong a claim toimmortality as Horace does for his Odes:

 _Quaque patet domitis Romana potentia terris, Ore legar populi perque omnia saecula fama, Siquid habent veri vatum praesagia, vivam. _

 _Met. _ XV. 877-end. 

‘The attractiveness of this work lies in its descriptions; but theattempt to divest it of the character of a dictionary of mythology byinterweaving stories, after the fashion of the _Arabian Nights_, is onlypartially successful. ’ --Tyrrell. 

(6) +Fasti+, in elegiac verse in six Books, a poetical calendar of theRoman year. Each month has a Book allotted to it, and Ovid probablysketched out Books vii-xii, but his exile made it impossible for him tocomplete the work. It contains much valuable information on Romancustoms and some exquisitely told stories (_e. G. _ the Rape ofProserpine), but leaves the impression of being an effort to produce onthe reader the effect of a patriotism which the writer did not feel. 

(7) +Poems Written in Exile. +

 (i) +Tristia+, in elegiac verse in five Books: letters to Augustus, to Ovid’s wife (for whom he had a deep affection) and to friends, praying for pardon or for a place of exile nearer Rome. 

 (ii) +Epistulae ex Ponto+: similar to the _Tristia_. 

‘These poems are a melancholy record of flagging vitality and failingpowers. ’ --Mackail. 

3. Style. 

The real importance of Ovid in literature and his gift to posterity layin the new and vivid life which he imparted to the fables of Greekmythology. ‘No other classical poet has furnished more ideas than Ovidto the Italian poets and painters of the Renaissance, and to our ownpoets--from Chaucer to Pope, who, like Ovid, ‘“Lisped in numbers, for the numbers came. ”’

AULUS PERSIUS FLACCUS, 34-62 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PERSIUS. ]

He was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, and was the son of a Roman knightof wealth and rank. At twelve years of age Persius was removed to Rome, where he placed himself under the guidance of the Stoic Cornutus, whoremained his close friend to the end of his short life. Persius(_Sat. _ v. ) touchingly describes his residence with Cornutus, and theinfluence of this beloved teacher in moulding his character:

 _Pars tua sit, Cornute, animae, tibi, dulcis amice, Ostendisse iuvat:_

‘_My delight is to show you, Cornutus, how large a share of my inmostbeing is yours, my beloved friend. _’--C. 

He was nearly related to Arria, daughter of that ‘true wife’ who taughther husband Paetus how to die (Mart. I. Xiii. ; Pliny _Epist. _ i. 16). Inthe consistent life of Thrasea (the husband of Arria), who was a Cato injustice and more than a Cato in goodness, Persius had a noble example tofollow. So during the short span of his life the poet lived and worked, a man of maidenly modesty, an excellent son, brother, and nephew, offrugal and moderate habits. 

2. Works. 

+Saturae+, six Satires in hexameter verse. The first, devoted to anattack upon the literary style of the day, is the only real Satire: theother five are declamations or dogmas of the Stoic system (e. G. Sat. Ii. , on right and wrong prayers to the gods), interspersed with dramaticscenes. It was to Lucilius that Persius owed the impulse that made him awriter of Satire, but his obligations to Horace are paramount. ‘He waswhat would be called a plagiarist, but probably no writer ever borrowedso much and yet left on the mind so decided an impression oforiginality. Where he draws from his own experience, his portraits havean imaginative truth, minutely accurate yet highly ideal, which wouldentitle them to a distinguished place in any portrait gallery. ’--Nettleship. 

3. Style. 

‘The involved and obscure style of much of his work is the style whichhis taste leads him to assume for satiric purposes. He feels that aclear, straightforward, everyday manner of speech would not suit asubject over which the gods themselves might hesitate whether to laughor weep. As the poet of Stoicism, using the very words of Vergil, hecalls upon a benighted race to acquaint itself with the _causes_ ofthings: to an inquiry into the purpose of man’s being, the art ofskilful driving in the chariot-race of life, and the ordained positionof each individual in the social system. ’ --Nettleship. 

‘Persius is the sole instance among Roman writers of a philosopher whoselife was in accordance with the doctrines he professed. ’ --Cruttwell. 

_Multum et verae gloriae quamvis uno libro Persius meruit. _ --Quint. _Inst. Orat. _ X. I.  94. 

PETRONIUS ARBITER, obiit 66 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PETRONIUS. ]

He is probably the Petronius of whose life and character Tacitus hasgiven us a brilliant sketch in the _Annals_, xvi. 18. 19. ‘His days werepassed, ’ says Tacitus, ‘in sleep, his nights in the duties or pleasuresof life: where others toiled for fame he had lounged into it. Yet, asgovernor of Bithynia, and afterwards as consul, he showed himself avigorous and capable administrator; then relapsing into the habit orassuming the mask of vice, he was adopted as +Elegantiae Arbiter+ (_theauthority on taste_) into the small circle of Nero’s intimatecompanions. No luxury was charming or refined till Petronius had givenit his approval, and the jealousy of Tigellinus was roused against arival and master in the science of pleasure. ’ Petronius anticipated hisinevitable fate by committing suicide. 

2. Works. 

+Satirae+ (or +Satiricon+), a character-novel, often called, from itscentral and most entertaining incident, _The Supper of Trimalchio_. ‘This is the description of a Christmas dinner-party given by a sort ofGolden Dustman and his wife, people of low birth and little education, who had come into an enormous fortune. The dinner itself, and theconversation on literature and art that goes on at the dinner-table, areconceived in a spirit of the wildest humour. ’ --Mackail. 

The chief interest of the _Satiricon_ for us is the glimpse which itaffords of everyday manners and conversation under the Empire among allorders of society, from the highest to the lowest. 

PHAEDRUS (_temp. _ Augustus to Nero). 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PHAEDRUS. ]

The Latin Fabulist, of whom we know nothing except what may be gatheredor inferred from his fables. He was originally a slave, and was born inThrace, possibly in the district of Pieria. He was brought to Rome at anearly age, and there became acquainted with Roman literature. His patronappears to have been Augustus, who gave him his freedom. Afterpublishing two books of fables he incurred the resentment of Augustusand was imprisoned. This was due probably to the bold outspokenness ofmany of his fables. He survived the attacks made on him, and Book V waswritten in his old age. 

2. Works. 

+Fables+, in five Books, written in _iambic senarii_, like those ofTerence and Publius Syrus. The full title of his work is _PhaedriAugusti liberti fabularum Aesopiarum libri_. ‘Phaedrus constantly plumeshimself on his superiority to his model Aesop, but his animals have notthe lifelike reality of those of the latter. With Phaedrus the animalsare mere lay-figures: the moral comes first, and then he attaches ananimal to it. ’ --Tyrrell. 

‘The chief interest of the Fables lies in the fact that they form thelast survival of the _urbanus sermo_ (the speech of Terence) in Latinpoetry. ’ --Mackail. 

‘Phaedrus is the only important writer during the half-century ofliterary darkness between the Golden and the Silver Age. ’ --Tyrrell. 

T. MACCIUS PLAUTUS, circ. 254-184 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PLAUTUS. ]

Plautus was born in the little Umbrian town of Sarsina, of free but poorparents. He came to Rome and made a small fortune as a stage-carpenter, but lost it by rash investment. He was then reduced to working for someyears in a corn-mill, during which time he wrote plays, and continued todo so until his death. 

2. Works. 

+Comedies. + About 130 plays were current under the name of Plautus, butonly 21 (_Fabulae Varronianae_) were, as Varro tells us, universallyadmitted to be genuine. Of these, all except one are extant. 

Though his comedies are mainly free versions of Greek originals--ofPhilemon, Diphilus and Menander, the writers of the New Comedy 320-250B. C. --the characters in them act, speak, and joke like genuine Romans, and he thereby secured the sympatliy of his audience more completelythan Terence could ever have done. 

‘In point of language his plays form one of the most important documentsfor the history of the Latin language. In the freedom with which heuses, without vulgarising, popular modes of speech, he has no equalamong Latin writers. ’ --Sellar. 

For Horace’s unfavourable judgment of Plautus see _Epist. _ I. I. 170-176, and A. P. 270-272; Cicero’s criticism is more just: _Duplexomnino est iocandi genus: unum illiberale petulans flagitiosum obscenum(vulgar, spiteful, shameful, coarse), alterum elegans urbanum ingeniosumfacetum (in good taste, gracious, clever, witty). Quo genere non modoPlautus noster et Atticorum antiqua comoedia_ (i. E. Of Aristophanes), _sed etiam philosophorum Socraticorum libri referti sunt_. --_De Off. _I. Civ. 

GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, 23-79 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PLINY THE ELDER. ]

Born at Comum (_Como_) in the middle of the reign of Tiberius, Plinypassed his life in high public employments, both military and civil, which took him successively over nearly all the provinces of the Empire. He had always felt a strong interest in science, and he used hismilitary position to secure information that otherwise might have beenhard to obtain. Vespasian (70-78 A. D. ), with whom he was on terms ofclose intimacy, made him admiral of the fleet stationed at Misenum. Itwas while here that news was brought him of the memorable eruption ofVesuvius in 79 A. D. ‘In his zeal for scientific investigation he setsail for the spot in a man-of-war, and lingering too near the zone ofthe eruption was suffocated by the rain of hot ashes. The account of hisdeath, given by his nephew, Pliny the Younger, in a letter to thehistorian Tacitus (_Ep. _ vi. 16), is one of the best known passages inthe classics. ’ --Mackail. 

2. Works. 

A +Natural History+, in thirty-seven Books, is Pliny’s only extant work. (For his numerous other writings see Pliny the Younger, _Ep. _ iii.  5. )‘It is a priceless storehouse of information on every branch of naturalscience as known to the ancient world. ’ --Mackail. 

His work has been called the first popular encyclopedia of naturalscience. 

_Plinius Aetatis Suae Doctissimus. _ --Gellius. 

C. PLINIUS CAECILIUS SECUNDUS, 62-113 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PLINY THE YOUNGER. ]

Pliny the Younger was the son of C. Caecilius and of Plinia, the sisterof the elder Pliny. He was born at Comum (_Como_), also the birthplaceof his celebrated uncle. His father died when he was eight years old, and he was placed under the care of a guardian, Verginius Rufus, one ofthe most distinguished Romans of the day, since he had held the crownwithin his grasp and had declined to wear it, 68 A. D. Verginius was notmuch of a student, but Pliny learned from him high ideals of duty andnoble thoughts about the Rome of earlier days, and never lost hisunbounded admiration and respect for his guardian (_Ep. _ ii.  1). Underhis uncle’s watchful care he received the best education Rome couldgive, and studied rhetoric under the great Quintilian. His bacheloruncle on his death in 79 left him his heir, adopting him in his will. Gifted with wealth, enthusiasm, taste for publicity, and a wide circleof influential friends, Pliny could not be content with the career of asimple _eques_. Accordingly he began the course of office that led tothe Senate and the Consulship, and finally in 111 A. D. Was appointed byTrajan governor of Bithynia, where he discharged his duties with skilland ability. His service seems to have been terminated only with hisdeath. 

2. Works. 

+Epistulae+, Letters in nine Books, to which is added Pliny’scorrespondence with Trajan during his governorship of Bithynia. Theseand his +Panegyricus+, in praise of Trajan, are his only extant works. 

It is on his Letters that Pliny’s fame now rests, and both in tone andstyle they are a monument that does him honour. In many cases they werewritten for publication, and thus can never have the unique andsurpassing interest that belongs to those of Cicero, but they give avaried and interesting picture of the time. ‘In the Letters thecharacter of the writer, its virtues and its weakness, is throughoutunmistakeable. Pliny, the patriotic citizen, --Pliny, the munificentpatron, --Pliny, the eminent man of letters, --Pliny, the affectionatehusband and humane master, --Pliny, the man of principle, is in hisvarious phases the real subject of the whole collection. ’ --Mackail. 

‘Pliny is an almost perfect type of a refined pagan gentleman. ’--Cruttwell. 

SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, circ. 50-15 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PROPERTIUS. ]

Of his life little or nothing is known, except what is recorded byhimself. He was an Umbrian by birth, and probably a native of Asisium(_Assisi_), a town on the W. Slope of the Apennines, not far fromPerusia. Like Vergil and Tibullus, he lost his family property in theconfiscation of lands by the Triumvirs in 42 B. C. ; but his mother’sefforts secured for him a good education, to complete which she broughthim to Rome. He entered on a course of training for the Bar, butabandoned it in favour of poetry (IV. I. 131-4). 

 _Mox ubi bulla rudi dimissa est aurea collo, Matris et ante deos libera sumpta toga, Tum tibi pauca suo de carmine dictat Apollo Et vetat insano verba tonare foro. _

His earliest poems (Book I, _Cynthia_), published at the age of abouttwenty, brought him into notice and gained him admission to the literarycircle of Maecenas. He lived in close intimacy with Vergil, Ovid, andmost of his other literary contemporaries, with the remarkable exceptionof Horace, to whom the sensitive vanity and passionate manner of theyoung elegiac poet were alike distasteful. He died young, before he wasthirty-five, about 15 B. C. 

2. Works. 

+Elegies+, in four Books. (Some editors divide Book II into two Books, El. 1-9 Book II, and El. 10-34 Book III, so that III and IV of the MSS. And of Postgate become IV and V. )

Books I and II are nearly all poems on Cynthia. 

Book III contains, besides poems on Cynthia, themes dealing withfriendship (El. 7. 12. 22) and events of national interest (El. 4. 11. 18). The poet struggles to emancipate himself from the thraldom ofCynthia and to accomplish work more worthy of his genius. 

Book IV contains poems on Roman antiquities (El. 2. 4. 9. 10), writtenat the suggestion of Maecenas, the paean on the great victory at Actium(El.  6), and the noblest of his elegiacs, the Elegy on Cornelia(El.  11). 

3. Style. 

The aim of Propertius was to be the Roman Callimachus: +Umbria Romanipatria Callimachi+ (IV. I.  64). 

The flexibility and elasticity of rhythm of the finest Greek elegiacs hemade his own. The pentameter, instead of being a weaker echo of thehexameter, is the stronger line of the two, and has a weightiermovement. In Book I he ends the pentameter freely with words of three, four, and five syllables, and we find long continuous passages in whichthere is scarcely any pause: e. G. In I. Xx. 33-37:

 _Hic erat Arganthi Pege sub vertice montis Grata domus Nymphis umida Thyniasin, Quam supra nullae pendebant debita curae Roscida desertis poma sub arboribus, Et circum irriguo surgebant lilia prato Candida purpureis mixta papaveribus. _

‘In some respects both Tibullus and Ovid may claim the advantage overPropertius: Tibullus for refined simplicity, for natural grace andexquisiteness of touch; Ovid for the technical merits of execution, fortransparency of construction, for smoothness and polish of expression. But in all the higher qualities of a poet Propertius is as much theirsuperior. ’ --Postgate. 

AURELIUS PRUDENTIUS CLEMENS, 348-circ. 410 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: PRUDENTIUS. ]

Prudentius (as he tells us in the brief metrical autobiography prefixedto his poems) was born in the N. Of Spain, and, like so many of theRoman poets, began his public life as an advocate. He was afterwardsappointed by Theodosius (379-395 A. D. ) judge over a district in Spain. His active and successful discharge of this office induced Theodosius(or Honorius, 395-423 A. D. ) to promote him to some post of honour aboutthe Emperor’s person. His later years he devoted to the composition ofsacred poetry, and published his collected works 405 A. D. , after whichdate we know no more of his history. 

2. Works. 

His best known works are his +Cathemerina+, a series of poems on theChristian’s day and life, of which the most graceful and pathetic is the_Funeral Hymn_, e. G. 

 _Iam maesta quiesce querella, Lacrimas suspendite matres, Nullus sua pignora plangat, Mors haec reparatio vitae est_, and his +Peristephanon+ (περὶ στεφάνων _liber_) in praise ofChristian martyrs. ‘These represent the most substantial additionto Latin lyrical poetry since Horace. ’ --Mackail. We also have his+Contra Symmachum+ in two Books of indifferent hexameter verse, inwhich he combats Symmachus (Consul 391 A. D. ), the last champion ofthe old faith, and claims the victories of the Christian Stilicho astriumphs alike of Rome and of the Cross. 

‘Prudentius has his distinct place and office in the field of Latinliterature, as the chief author who bridged the gulf between paganpoetry and Christian hymnology. ’ --North Pinder. 

MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS, circ. 35-95 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: QUINTILIAN. ]

Quintilian is the last and perhaps the most distinguished of that schoolof Spanish writers (Martial, the two Senecas, and Lucan) which played soimportant a part in the literary history of the first century. Born atCalagurris, a small town on the Upper Ebro, he was educated at Rome, andafterwards returned to his native town as a teacher of rhetoric. Therehe made the acquaintance of the proconsul Galba (68-9), and was broughtback by him to Rome in 68 A. D. , where for twenty years he enjoyed thehighest reputation as a teacher of eloquence. Among his pupils werenumbered Pliny the Younger and the two sons of Flavius Clemens, grand-nephews of Domitian, destined for his successors. In 79 A. D. Hewas appointed by Vespasian professor of rhetoric, the first teacher whoreceived a regular salary from the imperial exchequer. Domitian (81-96A. D. ) conferred upon him an honorary consulship, and the last ten yearsof his life were spent in an honoured retirement, which he devoted torecording for the benefit of posterity his unrivalled experience as ateacher of rhetoric. 

2. Works. 

+Institutio Oratoria+, the _Training of an Orator_, in twelve Books. This great work sums up the teaching and criticism of his life, andgives us the complete training of an orator, starting with him inchildhood and leading him on to perfection. 

Thus:--

Book I gives a sketch of the elementary training of the child from thetime he leaves the nursery. Quintilian rightly attaches the greatestimportance to early impressions. 

Book II deals with the general principles and scope of the art oforatory, and continues the discussion of the aims and methods ofeducation in its later stages. 

Books III-VII are occupied with an exhaustive treatment of the _matter_of oratory, and are highly technical. ‘Now that the formal study of theart of rhetoric has ceased to be a part of the higher education theseBooks have lost their general interest. ’ --Mackail. 

Books VIII-XI treat of the _manner_ (style) of oratory. In Book X, cap. I, in the course of an enumeration of the Greek and Latin authors likelyto be most useful to an orator, Quintilian gives us a masterly sketch ofLatin literature, ‘in language so careful and so choice that many of hisbrief phrases have remained the final words on the authors, both inprose and verse, whom he mentions in his rapid survey. ’ --Mackail. 

Book XII treats of the moral qualifications of a great speaker. The goodorator must be a good man. 

‘Quintilian with admirable clearness insists on the great truth that badeducation is responsible for bad life, and expresses with equalplainness the complementary truth that education, from the cradleupwards, is something which acts on the whole intellectual and moralnature, and that its object is the production of the _good man_. ’--Mackail. 

3. Style. 

The style of Quintilian is modelled on that of Cicero, whom he is nevertired of praising, and is intended to be a return to the usages of thebest period. In spite of some faults characteristic of the Silver Age(e. G. His excessive use of antithesis) ‘for ordinary use it would bedifficult to name a manner that combines so well the Ciceronian dignitywith the rich colour and high finish added to Latin prose by the writersof the earlier empire. ’ --Mackail. 

For the death of his son, aged ten, a boy of great promise, for whoseinstruction he wrote the work, see Preface to Book VI. 

 _Quintiliane, vagae moderator summe iuventae, Gloria Romanae, Quintiliane, togae. _

Mart. II. Xc. 1-2. 

 _Nihil in studiis parvum est. _ _Cito scribendo non fit ut bene scribatur, bene scribendo fit ut cito. _

 --Quintilian. 

GAIUS SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, 86-35 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: SALLUST. ]

A member of a plebeian family, Sallust was born 86 B. C. At Amiternum, inthe country of the Sabines. As tribune of the people in 52 B. C. He tookan active part in opposing Milo (Cicero’s client) and the Pompeian partyin general. In 48 B. C. He commanded a legion in Illyria withoutdistinction, and next year Caesar sent him to treat with the mutinouslegions in Campania, where he narrowly escaped assassination. Heafterwards followed Caesar to Africa, and apparently did good servicethere, for he was appointed in 46 the first governor of the newly formedprovince of Numidia. In 45 he returned to Rome a very rich man, andbuilt himself a magnificent palace, surrounded by pleasure grounds (thefamous Gardens of Sallust, in the valley between the Quirinal and thePincius), which in after years emperors preferred to the palace of theCaesars. After Caesar’s death Sallust retired from public life, and itis to the leisure and study of these ten years that we owe the worksthat have made him famous. 

2. Works. 

(1) +De Catilinae Coniuratione+ (or _Bellum Catilinae_), a monograph onthe famous conspiracy, in which Sallust writes very largely from directpersonal knowledge of men and events. 

(2) +Bellum Iugurthinum+ (111-106 B. C. ) The writing of this monographinvolved wide inquiry and much preparation. 

(3) +Historiae+, in five books, dealing with the events from 78 B. C. (death of Sulla) to 67 B. C. , of which only a few fragments are extant. 

3. Style. 

‘Sallust aimed at making historical writing a branch of literature. Hefelt that nothing had yet been done by any Roman writer which wouldstand beside Thucydides. It was his ambition to supply the want. Thatcould only be done by offering as complete a contrast to the tediousannalist as possible, and Sallust neglected no means of giving varietyto his work. From Thucydides he probably borrowed the idea of hisintroductions, the imaginary speeches and the character portraits; fromCato the picturesque descriptions of the scenes of historical events andthe ethnographical digressions. ’ --Cook. 

‘The style of Sallust is characterised by the use of old words and forms(especially in the speeches). He makes use of alliteration, extensivelyemploys the Historic Infinitive, and shows a partiality forconversational expressions which from a literary point of view arearchaic. His abrupt unperiodic style of writing (rough periods withoutparticles of connexion) has won for Sallust his reputation for brevity. His style is, however, the expression of the writer’s character, direct, incisive, emphatic, and outspoken; to have been a model for Tacitus isno slight merit. ’ --Cook. 

 _Nec minus noto Sallustius epigrammate incessitur:_ ‘Et verba antiqui multum furate Catonis, Crispe, Iugurthinae conditor historiae. ’

 Quint. VIII. Iii. 29. 

‘The last of the Ciceronians, Sallust is also in a sense the first ofthe imperial prose-writers. ’ --Mackail. 

_Primus Romana Crispus in Historia_ (Mart. XIV. Cxci. )

L. ANNAEUS SENECA THE YOUNGER, circ. 4 B. C. -65 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: SENECA. ]

The son of Seneca the Elder, the famous rhetorician, was born at Corduba(_Cordova_), in Spain, and brought to Rome by his parents at an earlyage. His life was one of singularly dramatic contrasts and vicissitudes. Under his mother Helvia’s watchful care he received the best educationRome could give. Through the influence of his mother’s family he passedinto the Senate through the quaestorship, and his successes at the barawakened the jealousy of Caligula (37-41 A. D. ) By his father’s advice heretired for a time and spent his days in philosophy. On the accession ofClaudius (41-54 A. D. ) he was banished to Corsica at the instance of theEmpress Messalina, probably because he was suspected of belonging to thefaction of Agrippina, the mother of Nero. After eight years he wasrecalled (49 A. D. ) by the influence of Agrippina (now the wife ofClaudius), and appointed tutor to her son Nero, then a boy of ten. WhenNero became emperor, at the age of seventeen (54 A. D. ), Seneca, inconjunction with his friend Burrus, the prefect of the praetorianguards, became practically the administrator of the Empire. ‘The mildand enlightened administration of the earlier years of the new reign, the famous _quinquennium Neronis_, may indeed be largely ascribed toSeneca’s influence; but this influence was based on an excessiveindulgence of Nero’s caprices, which soon worked out its ownpunishment. ’ --Mackail. His connivance at the murder of Agrippina (59A. D. ) was the death-blow to his influence for good, and the death ofBurrus (63 A. D. ) was, as Tacitus says (_Ann. _ xiv. 52), ‘a blow toSeneca’s power, for virtue had not the same strength when one of itschampions, so to speak, was removed, and Nero began to lean on worseadvisers. ’ Seneca resolved to retire, and entreated Nero to receive backthe wealth he had so lavishly bestowed. The Emperor, bent on vengeance, refused the proffered gift, and Seneca knew that his doom was sealed. Inthe year 65, on the pretext of complicity in the conspiracy of Piso, hewas commanded to commit suicide, and Tacitus (_Ann. _ xv. 61-63) hasshown his love for Seneca, in spite of all his faults, by the tribute hepays to the constancy of his death. 

2. Works. 

His chief works are:--

(1) +Dialogorum Libri XII+, of which the most important are the +De Ira+and the +Consolatio+ to his mother Helvia, whom he tenderly loved. 

(2) +De Clementia+, in three Books, addressed to Nero, written in 55-6A. D. , to show the public what sort of instruction Seneca had given hispupil, and what sort of Emperor they had to expect. 

(3) +De Beneficiis+, in seven Books. Seneca proves that a tyrant’sbenefits are not kindnesses, and sets forth his views on the giving andreceiving of benefits. 

(4) +Epistulae morales ad Lucilium. + 124 letters are extant, and formthe most important and most pleasing of his works. 

(5) +Tragedies. + Nine are extant, derived from plays by Sophocles andEuripides. The only extant Latin tragedies. 

‘As a moral writer Seneca stands deservedly high. Though infected withthe rhetorical vices of the age his treatises are full of striking andoften gorgeous eloquence, and in their combination of high thought withdeep feeling have rarely, if at all, been surpassed. ’ --Mackail. 

‘Seneca is a lamentable instance of variance between precept andexample. ’ --Cruttwell. 

SILIUS ITALICUS, circ. 25-100 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: SILIUS. ]

A letter of Pliny (iii. 7) is the chief source of our knowledge of thelife of Silius. Pliny tells us that Silius had risen by acting as a_delator_ (informer) under Nero, who made him consul 68 A. D. He goes onto say ‘He had gained much credit by his proconsulship in Asia (underVespasian, _circ. _ 77 A. D. ), and had since by an honourable leisurewiped out the blot which stained the activity of his former years. ’Martial also, who has the effrontery to speak of him as a combinedVergil and Cicero, tells us of his luxurious and learned retirement inCampania, and of his reverence for his master Vergil, ‘whose birthday hekept more religiously than his own. ’ According to Martial (xi. 49) thetomb of Vergil had been practically forgotten, and was in the possessionof some poor man when Silius bought the plot of ground on which itstood:

 _Iam prope desertos cineres et sancta Maronis Nomina qui coleret, pauper et unus erat. Silius optatae succurrere censuit umbrae, Silius et vatem, non minor ipse, colit. _

2. Works. 

The +Punica+, an Epic poem in seventeen Books, on the Second Punic War, closes with Scipio’s triumph, after the Battle of Zama, 202 B. C. 

Silius closely followed the history as told by Livy, and without anyinventive or constructive power of his own copies, with tastelesspedantry, Homer and Vergil. ‘He cannot perceive that the divineinterventions which are admissible in the quarrel of Aeneas and Turnusare ludicrous when imported into the struggle between Scipio andHannibal. Who can help resenting the unreality when at Saguntum Jupiterguides an arrow into Hannibal’s body, which Juno immediately withdraws, or when, at Cannae, Aeolus yields to the prayer of Juno and blinds theRomans by a whirlwind of dust?’--Cruttwell. 

The _Punica_ is valuable for its historical accuracy, but it is one ofthe longest and one of the worst Epic poems ever written. 

_Scribebat carmina maiore cura quam ingenio. _

 Pliny, _Epist. _ iii. 7. 

P. PAPINIUS STATIUS, circ. 60-100 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: STATIUS. ]

Statius was born at Naples, but early removed to Rome, where he wascarefully educated and spent the greater part of his life. His fatherwas a scholar, rhetorician, and poet of some distinction, and acted fora time as tutor to Domitian. Statius had thus access to the Court, andrepaid the patronage of Domitian by incessant and shameless flattery. After the completion of his +Thebais+ he retired to Naples, which wasendeared to him by its associations with Vergil, and there satisfied hisreal love of nature. 

2. Works. 

(1) The +Thebais+, an Epic poem in twelve Books, on the strife betweenthe brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and the subsequent history ofThebes to the death of Creon. 

The Thebaid became very famous: Juvenal (_Sat. _ vii. 82-4) tells us

 _Curritur ad vocem iucundam et carmen amicae Thebaidos, laetam cum fecit Statius urbem promisitque diem_ (i. E. For a public recitation of his poem). 

‘Its smooth versification, copious diction, and sustained elegance madeit a sort of canon of poetical technique. Among much tedious rhetoricand cumbrous mythology there is enough imagination and pathos to makethe poem interesting and even charming. ’ --Mackail. 

(2) The +Silvae+, in five Books, are occasional poems, descriptive andlyrical, on miscellaneous subjects. These may well be considered hismasterpiece. ‘Genuine poetry, ’ says Niebuhr, ‘imprinted with thecharacter of the true poet, and constituting some of the most gracefulproductions of Roman literature. ’

Among the best known are the touching poem to his wife Claudia (iii.  5), the marriage song to his brother-poet Arruntius Stella (i.  2), the_Propempticon Maecio Celeri_ (iii.  2), the _Epicedion_ (funeral song) onthe death of his adopted son (v.  5), and the short poem (v.  4) on Sleep. 

The greatest poet of the Decline. 

GAIUS SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS, circ. 75-160 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: SUETONIUS. ]

The little we know of his life is chiefly gathered from the Letters ofPliny the Younger, and from scattered allusions in his own works. Theson of an officer of the Thirteenth Legion, Suetonius in early lifepractised as an advocate, and subsequently became one of Hadrian’sprivate secretaries (_magister epistularum_), but was dismissed fromoffice in 121 A. D. After his retirement from the service of the Court hedevoted the rest of his long life to literary research and compilation, and published a number of works on a great variety of subjects, so thathe became famous as the Varro of the imperial period. 

2. Works. 

His extant works are:

(1) +De Vita Caesarum+, the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, in eight Books(I-VI Julius-Nero; VII Galba, Otho, and Vitellius; VIII Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian). This is his most interesting and most valuablework. His Lives are not works of art: he is simply a gatherer of facts, collected from good sources with considerable care and judgment. ‘Hefollows out with absolute faithfulness his own theory, which makes itnecessary to omit no possible detail that can throw light upon thepersonality of his subject. ’ --Peck. 

(2) +De Viris Illustribus+, a history of Latin literature up to his day. The greater part of the section +De grammaticis et rhetoribus+ isextant, as well as the Lives of Terence, Horace, and Lucan (partly), from the section +De poetis+, and fragments of the Life of Pliny theElder from the section +De historicis+. 

Extracts made from this work by Jerome (_circ. _ 400 A. D. ) in his Latinversion of Eusebius’ Chronicles are the source from which much of ourinformation as to Latin authors is derived. 

‘Suetonius is terse, and in that respect he resembles Tacitus; he isdeeply interesting, and there he shows some likeness to Livy; but hisstyle is one of his own creation. His chief desire is to present thefacts stripped of any comment whatever, grouped in such a way as toproduce their own effect without the adventitious aid of rhetoric; andthen to leave the reader to his own conclusions. ’ --Peck. 

_Probissimus, honestissimus, eruditissimus vir. _

 Pliny, _Epist. Ad Trai. _ 94. 

PUBLILIUS SYRUS, circ. 45 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: SYRUS. ]

All we know of him is that he was an enfranchised Syrian slave, a nativeof Antioch, and wrote for the stage _mimes_ (farces) which wereperformed with great applause. Mime-writing was also practised at thistime by the Knight Laberius, and Caesar is said to have patronised thesewriters in the hope of elevating their art. 

2. Works. 

+Sententiae+ (_Maxims_). We possess 697 lines from his mimes(unconnected and alphabetically arranged), a collection made in theearly Middle Ages, and much used in schools. As proverbs of worldlywisdom, and admirable examples of the terse vigour of Roman philosophy, they are widely known, e. G. 

_Cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest. _

CORNELIUS TACITUS, circ. 54-120 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: TACITUS. ]

The personal history of Tacitus is known to us only from allusions inhis own works, and from the letters of his friend the younger Pliny. Hewas born early in the reign of Nero, probably in Rome; his education, political career, and marriage into the distinguished family of Agricolaprove that he was a man of wealth and position. He studied rhetoricunder the best masters (possibly under Quintilian), and had, as Plinytells us (_Epist. _ II. I.  6), a great reputation as a speaker. He passedthrough the usual stages of an official career and was appointed _consulsuffectus_ under Trajan, 98 A. D. , when he was a little over forty. From89 to 93 A. D. He was absent from Rome, probably in some provincialcommand, and during these years he may have acquired some personalknowledge of the German peoples. In 100 A. D. He was associated withPliny in the prosecution for extortion of Marius Priscus, proconsul ofAfrica, of whom Juvenal says (_Sat. _ viii. 120):

_Cum tenues nuper Marius discinxerit Afros. _

_Since Marius has so lately stripped to their girdles_ (i. E. Thoroughlyplundered) _the needy Africans_. 

From this date Tacitus seems to have devoted himself entirely toliterary pursuits and to have lived to or beyond the end of Trajan’sreign, 116 A. D. 

2. Works. 

(1) +Dialogus de Oratoribus+, an inquiry into the causes of the decay oforatory, his earliest extant work. In the style of this work theinfluence of Quintilian and Cicero is strongly seen. 

(2) +De Vita et Moribus Iulii Agricolae liber+, an account of the lifeof his father-in-law, particularly of his career in Britain, publishedshortly after the accession of Trajan, 98 A. D. ‘The Sallustian epoch ofTacitus finds its expression in the _Agricola_ and _Germania_. ’--Teuffel. 

The _Agricola_ is perhaps the most beautiful biography in ancientliterature. 

(3) The +Germania+, or _Concerning the Geography, the Manners andCustoms, and the Tribes of Germany_, published in 98 or 99. ‘The motivefor its publication was apparently the pressing importance, in Tacitus’opinion, of the “German question, ” and the necessity for vigorous actionto secure the safety of the Roman Empire against the dangers with which. It was threatened from German strength. ’ --Stephenson. 

‘The +Germania+ is an inestimable treasury of facts and generalisations, and of the general faithfulness of the outline we have no doubt. ’--Stubbs. 

(4) +Historiae+, consisting originally of fourteen Books, is a narrativeof the events of the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 69-96 A. D. Only Books I-IV and the first half of Book Vare extant, and give the history of 69 and most of 70 A. D. 

‘The style of the _Historiae_ still retains some traces of the influenceof Cicero: it has not yet been pressed tight into the short _sententiae_which were its final and most characteristic development, but shows in amarked degree the influence of Vergil. ’ --Cruttwell. 

In the _Historiae_, as Tacitus himself says, ‘the secret of the imperialsystem was divulged--that an emperor could be made elsewhere than atRome’; or, in other words, that the imperial system was a military andnot a civil institution. 

(5) The +Annales, ab excessu divi Augusti+, in sixteen Books, containingthe history of the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, 14-68A. D. There are extant only Books I-IV, parts of V and VI, and XI-XVI. 

‘The old criticism, tracing the characteristics of the style of Tacitusto poetic colouring (almost wholly Vergilian) and to the study ofbrevity and of variety, is well founded. They may be explained by thefact that he was the most finished pleader of an age which requiredabove all that its orators should be terse, brilliant, and striking, andby his own painful consciousness of the dull monotony and repulsivesadness of great part of his subject, which needed the help of everysort of variety to stimulate the flagging interest of the reader. ’--Furneaux. 

His aim as an historian is best given in his own words: ‘I hold it thechief office of history to rescue virtue from oblivion, and to hold outthe reprobation of posterity as a terror to evil words and deeds’(_Ann. _ iii.  65). 

The greatest of Roman historians. 

PUBLIUS TERENTIUS AFER, circ. 185-159 B. C. 

1. Life

[Sidenote: TERENCE. ]

Terence was born probably at Carthage, reached Rome as a slave-boy, andpassed there into the possession of a rich and educated Senator, P. Terentius Lucanus, by whom he was educated and manumitted, taking fromhim the name of Publius Terentius the African. ‘A small literary circleof the Roman aristocracy admitted young Terence to their intimatecompanionship; and soon he was widely known as making a third in thefriendship of Gaius Laelius with the first citizen of the Republic, theyounger Scipio Africanus. Six plays had been subjected to the criticismof this informal academy of letters and produced on the stage, whenTerence undertook a prolonged visit to Greece for the purpose of furtherstudy. He died of fever in the next year, 159 B. C. , at the early age oftwenty-six. ’ --Mackail. 

2. Works. 

+Comedies. +--All the six plays written and exhibited at Rome by Terenceare extant. They are the _Andria_ (exhibited 166 B. C. , when the poet wasonly eighteen years of age), the _Heauton Timoroumenos_, _Eunuchus_, _Phormio_, _Hecyra_, _Adelphoe_. 

‘With Terence Roman literature takes a new departure. The Scipioniccircle believed that the best way to create a national Latin literaturewas to deviate as little as possible, in spirit, form, and substance, from the works of Greek genius. The task which awaited Terence was thecomplete Hellenising of Roman comedy: accordingly his aim was to give atrue picture of Greek life and manners in the purest Latin style. He wasnot a popular poet, in the sense in which Plautus was popular: he hasnone of the purely Roman characteristics of Plautus in sentiment, allusion, or style; none of his extravagance, and none of his vigour andoriginality. ’ --Sellar. Terence is, accordingly, in substance and form, as Caesar styles him, a _dimidiatus Menander (halved Menander)_:

 _Tu quoque, tu in summis, o dimidiate Menander, Poneris, et merito, puri sermonis amator. _

A Roman only in language, but as _puri sermonis amator_ worthy to beranked by the side of Caesar himself and the purest Latin authors. 

ALBIUS TIBULLUS, circ. 54-19 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: TIBULLUS. ]

Tibullus was a Roman _eques_, and was probably born at Pedum, a Latintown just at the foot of the Apennines, and a few miles north ofPraeneste, where his father possessed an ample estate. Much of hisinherited property was lost; and it is possible that, like Vergil, Horace, and Propertius, he was a victim to the confiscations of theTriumvirs in 42 B. C. He, however, retained or recovered enough to affordhim a modest competence. In 31-30 B. C. He served on the staff of hislife-long friend and patron M. Valerius Messalla, the eminent generaland statesman, not less distinguished in literature than in politics. The rest of his short life the poet spent on his ancestral farm atPedum, amid the country scenes and employments congenial to his natureand habits. 

2. Works. 

+Elegies+, in four Books (or three, Postgate). Tibullus published in hislifetime two Books of elegiac poems: after his death a third volume waspublished, containing a few of his own poems, together with poems byother members of the literary circle of Messalla. Books I and II consistmainly of poems addressed to Delia and to Nemesis (cf. Ov. _Am. _ III. Ix. 31-32):

 _Sic Nemesis longum, sic Delia nomen habebunt; Altera cura recens, altera primus amor. _

And to Messalla, e. G. _El. _ I. Vii. 55-6:

 _At tibi succrescat proles, quae facta parentis Augeat et circa stet veneranda senem. _

3. Style. 

‘Tibullus is pre-eminently Roman in his genius and poetry. He is thenatural poet of warm, tender, and simple feeling. Neither Greekmythology nor Alexandrine learning had any attractions for his purelyItalian genius. His language may be limited in range and variety, but itis terse, clear, simple, and popular. His constructions are plain anddirect. ’ --North Pinder. 

‘To Tibullus belongs the distinction of having given artistic perfectionto the Roman elegy. ’ --Sellar. 

_Elegia quoque Graecos provocamus, cuius mihi tersus atque elegansmaxime videtur auctor Tibullus. _

‘_In elegy also we rival the Greeks, of which Tibullus appears to methe purest and finest representative. _’ --Quint. _Inst. Or. _ X. I.  93. 

‘Tibullus might be succinctly and perhaps not unjustly described as aVergil without the genius. ’ --Mackail. 

‘Tibullus and Vergil are alike in their human affection and their piety, in their capacity of tender and self-forgetful love, in their delight inthe labours of the field and their sympathy with the herdsman and theobjects of his care. ’ --Sellar. 

 _Quid voveat dulci nutricula maius alumno, Qui sapere et fari possit quae sentiat, et cui Gratia, fama valetudo contingat abunde, Et mundus victus, non deficiente crumena!_

 Horace to Tibullus, _Epist. _ I. Iv. 8-11. 

 _Si tamen e nobis aliquid nisi nomen et umbra Restat, in Elysia valle Tibullus erit. _ . . . . . _Ossa quieta, precor, tuta requiescite in urna, Et sit humus cineri non onerosa tuo. _

 Ovid, _Am. _ III. Ix. 59-60, 67-8. 

C. VALERIUS FLACCUS, fl. 70 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: VALERIUS FLACCUS. ]

He lived in the reign of Vespasian (70-78 A. D. ), to whom he dedicatedhis poem, in which he refers to Vespasian’s exploits in Britain and tothe capture of Jerusalem by Titus, 70 A. D. There are also references tothe eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A. D. Quintilian is the only Roman writerwho mentions him (X.  i. 90): _Multum in Valerio Flacco nuper amisimus_, which shows that he must have died _circ. _ 90 A. D. 

2. Works. 

+The Argonautica+, an Hexameter poem in eight Books, apparentlyunfinished. The poem is in part a translation, in part a free imitationof the Alexandrine epic of Apollonius Rhodius (222-181 B. C. ) ‘Hisdescriptive power, particularly shown in touches of natural scenery, hispure diction and correct style have inclined some critics to setValerius Flaccus above his Greek model. ’ --North Pinder. The rhetoricaltreatment of the subject, so characteristic of the period of thedecline, is, however, too prominent throughout his work. Both his rhythmand language are closely modelled on Vergil. 

VALERIUS MAXIMUS, fl. 26 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: VALERIUS MAXIMUS. ]

All that we know of him is that he visited Asia in company with SextusPompeius (the friend of Ovid and of Germanicus), _circ. _ 27-30 A. D. 

2. Works. 

+Facta et Dicta Memorabilia+, in nine Books. Each Book is divided intochapters on separate subjects (e. G. _De Severitate_, _De Verecundia_, _De Constantia_), under each of which he gives illustrations from Romanhistory and from the history of other nations, in order to show thenative superiority (as he thinks) of Romans to foreigners, andespecially to Greeks. As an historian he is most untrustworthy, butthere are many gaps in Roman history (e. G. Owing to the lost books ofLivy) which he helps to supply. His style shows all the faults of hisage and rhetorical training; his work was probably intended to be acommonplace-book for students and teachers of rhetoric. 

M. TERENTIUS VARRO, 116-27 B. C. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: VARRO. ]

Born at Reate, in the Sabine territory, which was the nurse of all manlyvirtues, Varro was brought up in the good old-fashioned way. ‘For mewhen a boy, ’ he says, ‘there sufficed a single rough coat and a singleunder-garment, shoes without stockings, a horse without a saddle. ’ Bold, frank, and sarcastic, he had all the qualities of the country gentlemanof the best days of the Republic. On account of his personal valour heobtained in the war with the Pirates, 67 B. C. , where he commanded adivision of the fleet, the naval crown. In politics he belonged, as wasnatural, to the constitutional party, and bore an honourable andenergetic part in its doings and sufferings. On the outbreak of theCivil War he served as the legatus of Pompeius in command of FurtherSpain, but was compelled to surrender his forces to Caesar, 69 B. C. Whenthe cause of the Republic was lost Caesar, who knew Varro’s worth, employed him in superintending the collection and arrangement of thegreat library at Rome designed for public use. After Caesar’s deathVarro was exposed to the persecution of Antonius, whose drunken revelsand excesses at Varro’s villa at Casinum are vividly described by Cicero(_Phil. _ ii. 103 sqq. ) Through the influence of his many friends Varroobtained the protection of Octavianus, and was enabled to live at Romein peace until his death, 27 B. C. , in his ninetieth year. 

2. Works. 

Of all the works of Varro, embracing almost all branches of knowledgeand literature, only two have come down to us:

(1) The +De Re Rustica+, in three Books, in the form of a dialogue, written in his eightieth year. It was a subject of which he had athorough practical knowledge, and is the most important of all thetreatises upon ancient agriculture now extant. Book I treats ofagriculture; Book II of stock-raising; Book III of poultry, game, andfish. 

(2) +De Lingua Latina+, in twenty-five Books, of which only V-X havebeen preserved. These contain much valuable information not foundelsewhere, but Varro’s notions of etymology are extremely crude. 

Of his other works, we have much cause to regret the loss of his+Antiquities of Things Human and Divine+, the standard work on thereligious and secular antiquities of Rome down to the time of Augustus, and his +Imagines+, biographical sketches, with portraits, of sevenhundred famous Greeks and Romans, the first instance in history of thepublication of an illustrated book. 

‘Varro belongs to the genuine type of old Roman, improved but notaltered by Greek learning, with his heart fixed in the past, deeplyconservative of everything national, and even in his style of speechprotesting against the innovations of the day. ’ --Cruttwell. 

_Omnium facile acutissimus, et sine ulla dubitatione doctissimus. _--Cicero. 

_Studiosum rerum tantum docet, quantum studiosum verborum Cicerodelectat. _ --St. Augustine. 

VELLEIUS PATERCULUS, circ. 19 B. C. -31 A. D. 

1. Life. 

[Sidenote: VELLEIUS PATERCULUS. ]

All we know of him is derived from his own pages. He descended from adistinguished family in Campania, and his father was a Praefectusequitum. He accompanied C. Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, on hismission to the East, and was present at the interview with the Parthianking. Two years afterwards, 4 A. D. , he served under Tiberius in Germanyas Praefectus equitum. For the next eight years Paterculus served underTiberius in Pannonia and Dalmatia. Tiberius’ sterling qualities as asoldier gained him the friendship of many of his officers, and Velleiusby his energy and ability secured that of Tiberius in return. The lastcircumstance of his life that he records is the election to thepraetorship of his brother and himself as candidates of Caesar(Tiberius) in 14 A. D. 

2. Works. 

The +Historia Romana+ in two Books. The beginning of Book I is lost;chapters 1-8 in our text are occupied with a rapid survey of universalhistory, especially of the East and of Greece. Chapter 8 breaks off atthe rape of the Sabine women, and there is a great gap in the textbefore we reach in c. 9 the defeat of Perseus at Pydna in 168 B. C. Chapters 9-13 carry the narrative down to the destruction of Carthageand Corinth in 146 B. C. Book II continues the history and ends at thedeath of Livia 27 A. D. 

‘The pretentiousness of his style is partly due to the declining tasteof the period, partly to an idea of his own that he could write in themanner of Sallust. It alternates between a sort of labouredsprightliness and a careless, conversational manner full of endlessparentheses. Yet Velleius has two real merits: the eye of a trainedsoldier for character, and an unaffected, if not a very intelligent, interest in literature. ’ --Mackail. 

P. VERGILIUS MARO, 70-19 B. C. 

1. Important Events in Vergil’s Life, and Chief Works. 

[Sidenote: VERGIL. ]

 B. C. 70. Born at Andes, near Mantua. „ 65. Birth of Horace. „ 55. Assumes the _Toga Virilis_ at Cremona. Death of Lucretius. „ 53. Studies philosophy at Rome under the Epicurean Siron. „ 42. +Eclogues II, III, V+, and perhaps +VI+, written. „ 41. Suffers confiscation of his estate. Takes refuge in _Siron’s_ villa. Estates restored by Octavianus through Pollio. +Eclogue I+. „ 40. Vergil evicted a second time. +Eclogues IV, VI,  IX+. Becomes a member of the literary circle of Maecenas. „ 39. +Eclogues VIII+ and +X+. „ 38. Introduces Horace to Maecenas. „ 37. Begins the +Georgics+ at the suggestion of Maecenas. „ 29. +Completed Georgics+ read to Octavianus. +Aeneid+ begun. „ 27. Augustus Emperor. „ 26. Banishment and death of his friend Gallus. „ 25. Marriage of Marcellus to Julia, daughter of Augustus. „ 23. Death of Marcellus: +Aeneid, Book VI+, read to the Imperial family. „ 19. Journey of Vergil to Greece: is taken ill, dies at Brundusium, and is buried at Naples:

 _Mantua me genuit, Calabri rapuere, tenet nunc Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces. _

2. Works. 

(1) +Bucolica+ (Pastoral Poems), ten +Eclogues+ (selected pieces), written 42-39 B. C. These are closely modelled on Theocritus, and haveall the weaknesses of imitative poetry. ‘The Eclogues of Vergil haveless of consistency but more of purpose than the Idylls of Theocritus. They are an advocacy of the charm of scenery and the pleasures of thecountry addressed to a luxurious and artificial society of dwellers in atown. ’ --Myers. 

(2) +Georgica+, in four Books, written 37-30 B. C. , at the suggestion ofMaecenas, ‘the Home Minister of Augustus, and public patron of art andletters in the interest of the new government. ’ --Mackail. ‘The detailsof his subject Vergil draws mainly from his Greek predecessors, Hesiod, Xenophon, Aratus, and Nicander, but it is to Lucretius he is chieflyindebted. The language of Lucretius, so bold, so genial, so powerful, and in its way so perfect, is echoed a thousand times in the Georgics. ’--Nettleship. 

Book I treats of agriculture, Book II of the cultivation of trees, BookIII of domestic animals, Book IV of bees (including the Myth ofAristaeus, ll. 315-558). 

The _purpose of the Georgics_ is to ennoble the annual round of labourin which the rural life was passed and to help the policy of Augustus byinducing the people to go back to the land. 

‘The motto of the Georgics might well be said to be _Ora et labora_. ’--Tyrrell. 

‘The Georgics represent the art of Vergil in its matured perfection, andin mere technical finish are the most perfect work of Latin literature. ’--Mackail. 

(3) The +Aeneid+, in twelve Books, written 29-19 B. C. 

The _choice of the subject_ was influenced by the wish of Augustus toestablish the legendary tradition of the connection of the gens Iuliawith Aeneas through his son Iulus, and by Vergil’s own desire to writean epic on the greatness of Rome, in the manner of Homer. Thus ‘thecentre of the mythical background was naturally Aeneas, as Augustus wasthe centre of the present magnificence of the Roman Empire. _We surpassall other nations_, says Cicero (_De Nat. Deor. _ ii.  8), _in holdingfast the belief that all things are ordered by a Divine Providence_. Thetheme of the _Aeneid_ is the building up of the Roman Empire under thisProvidence. Aeneas is the son of a goddess, and his life the working outof the divine decrees. ’ --Nettleship. 

 _Tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento; Hae tibi erunt artes; pacisque imponere morem. _

 _Aen. _ vi. 851-2. 

‘At a verse from the _Aeneid_, the sun goes back for us on the dial; ourboyhood is recreated, and returns to us for a moment like a visitantfrom a happy dreamland. ’ --Tyrrell. 

‘In merely technical quality the supremacy of Vergil’s art has neverbeen disputed. The Latin Hexameter, _the stateliest measure ever mouldedby the lips of man_, was brought by him to a perfection which made anyfurther development impossible. ’ --Mackail. 

‘As Homer among the Greeks, so Vergil among our own authors will besthead the list; he is beyond doubt the second epic poet of eithernation. ’ --Quint. X. I.  85. 

‘The chastest poet and royalest, Vergilius Maro, that to the memory ofman is known. ’ --Bacon. 

APPENDIX VII. 

NOTE

The following Chronological Outlines of Roman History and Literature areintended to illustrate the passages selected for translation. Importantevents and writers in contemporary History and Literature are added, inorder to emphasise the comparative method of treating History. 

The names of those Latin authors from whose works passages have beenselected are printed in capitals in the Literature Column. 

A fuller outline of the Imperial Period will be given in a later volume. 

PERIODS OF LATIN LITERATURE. 

 PERIOD I. The Growth of Latin Literature 250-80 B. C. PERIOD II. The Golden Age of Latin Literature 80 B. C. -14 A. D. PERIOD III. The Silver Age of Latin Literature 14-117 A. D. PERIOD IV. The Later Empire from 117 A. D. 

CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINES OF ROMAN HISTORY AND LITERATURE

 ---------------------------------------- B. C. ROME. OTHER NATIONS. B. C. LITERATURE. B. C. ---------------------------------------- PART I. --REGAL PERIOD, 753-509 B. C. ---------------------------------------- +Foundation of Carthage+ 878 Amos _c. _ 760

 753 +Foundation of Rome+ Rise of Corinth 745 Isaiah _c. _ 720

 753-716 ROMULUS. Roman Senate of 200. _Spolia opima_ (1) Captivity of Israel 721 Hesiod _c. _ 700

 716-673 NUMA POMPILIUS. Religious Institutions Carentum founded 708

 673-640 TULLUS HOSTILIUS. Destruction of _Alba_ Destruction of Sennacherib’s host 701 Tyrtaeus (Sparta) _c. _ 680 Legend of +Horatii+ and +Curiatii+ Cyrene founded 641 Archilochus. 650

 640-616 ANCUS MARTIUS. Conquest of Latin Towns Josiah’s reformation 625 Jeremiah _c. _ 625 _Ostia_, first maritime colony Periander, tyrant of Corinth 625-585

 616-578 TARQUINIUS PRISCUS. Public Works: the _Circus Maximus_, _Cloaca Maxima_, and Temple of Jupiter Draco, the law-giver at Athens 621 Alcaeus } Sappho } 600 Solon } +Massilia founded+ 600

 578-534 SERVIUS TULLIUS. The Census, basis of _Comitia Centuriata_. The Servian Wall includes the Quirinal, Viminal and Esquiline hills, i. E. Rome of Republican times. Captivity of Judah 606-536 Solon at Athens 594 Thales 590 Peisistratus at Athens 560-527 Ezekiel 585 Croesus in Lydia 560-546 Aesop _c. _ 570

 534-509 TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. Conquest of _Gabii_. Tyranny leading to expulsion of the Tarquins and abolition of the monarchy Cyrus enters Babylon 538 Theognis 540 Return of Jews under Zerubbabel 536 Pythagoras 530 Expulsion of Peisistratidae 510 Anacreon 530 ---------------------------------------- PART II. --EARLY REPUBLIC, 509-366 B. C. ---------------------------------------- 509 +Two Consuls (Praetors) first appointed+ Darius Hystaspes 521-486 Aeschylus 525-456 _Lex Valeria_ establishes right of appeal Pindar 518-_c. _ 443

 507 Rome taken by Etruscans under Porsena Ionian Revolt 501-493 Heracleitus 500

 498 +Latin War. Dictator first appointed. + Miltiades at Athens 493-489 Simonides (Ceos) 490 Battle of _Lake Regillus_ Ionians defeated at Lade 494

 494 First Session of the Plebs. _Tribuni Plebis_ Battle of Marathon 490

 489 Volscian War (+Coriolanus+) Aristides and Themistocles 490-470 Parmenides 490

 486-5 Agrarian Law. Spurius Cassius put to death Xerxes 485-465 Bacchylides 470

 477 Destruction of the +Fabii+ at _Cremera_ Thermopylae. Salamis. Himera 480 Anaxagoras 460

 458 War with Aequians--Battle of _Mt. Algidus_ Plataea (Pausanians). Mycale 479 Sophocles 496-406 Cincinnatus Dictator Hiero I at Syracuse 478-467 Euripides 480-406

 451 +First Decemvirate. Ten Tables+ Pericles at Athens 469-429 Herodotus _c. _ 484-425

 450 Second Decemvirate. Two new Tables. (+Appius Claudius+) Cimon at Athens 466-449 _Phidias (Parthenon)_ 448

 448 Second Secession of the Plebs, resulting in the _Valerio-Horatian_ Laws Athenian defeat at Coronea 447 Empedocles 445 Ezra and Nehemiah _c. _ 444

 445 Military tribunes with consular power appointed Athenian colony to Thurii 444 Era of the Sophists 440 (Gorgias, Protagoras)

 443 Censors first appointed

 439 Spurius Maelius killed

 437 War with Etruscans. +Cossus+ wins _Spolia opima_ (2) War of Corinth and Corcyra 435 Antiphon _c. _ 480-411

 424 Capua taken by the Samnites Peloponnesian War 431-405 Thucydides _c. _ 471-402 Sphacteria (Demosthenes, Cleon) 425 _Zeuxis_ } _Parrhasius_} _painters_ _c. _ 420 Alcibiades at Athens 424-404 Syracusan Expedition 415-413 Lysias _c. _ 445-378

 +406-396+ +War with Veii. Camillus Dictator+ Battle of Aegospotami 405 Aristophanes _c. _ 450-385

 406 Roman soldiers first receive pay Lysander enters Athens 404 Cratinus 449 Critias and Thirty Tyrants 404 Eupolis 429 Democracy restored (Thrasybulus) 403

 390 +Invasion of the Gauls+. Battle of the _Allia_ Artaxerxes II 405-359 Burning of Rome (+Brennus+) Expedition of Cyrus the Younger (The _Anabasis_ of Xenophon) 401 +Manlius Capitolinus+. +Camillus+ _Parens Patriae_ Xenophon _c. _ 430-355 _History based on documents begins_ Socrates condemned 399 Socrates 468-399

 389 Rome rebuilt Dionysius I of Syracuse, Wars of Syracuse and Carthage 405-368 Plato 420-348 Isocrates 436-338

 376-366 +The Licinian Laws+ Pelopidas and Epaminondas (Thebes) 378-362 Isaeus 420-348 Supremacy of Thebes (Leuctra) 371 +First Plebeian Consul+ Death of Epaminondas (Mantinea) 362 First Praetor (Judge) appointed ---------------------------------------- PART III. --THE CONQUEST OF ITALY, 366-266 B. C. ---------------------------------------- 361 Second Invasion of the Gauls Dionysius II of Syracuse 368-343 Diogenes (Cynic) _c. _ 419-324 Legend of +Manlius Torquatus+ Battle of Mantinea 362 +Ludi Scenici at Rome+ 365

 356 C. Marcius Rutilus, First Plebeian Dictator Philip of Macedon 359-336

 349 War with Gauls. Legend of +M. Valerius Corvus+ Dion at Syracuse 357-353 _Praxiteles_ (_sculptor_) _fl. _ 360

 348 _Treaty of Rome with Carthage_ Olynthus taken by Philip 348 Aeschines 389-314

 +343-341+ +First Samnite War+ Demosthenes 384-322 Battle of _Mt. Gaurus_ (M. Valerius Corvus) Aristotle 384-322

 +340-338+ +The Latin War+. Devotion of +Decius Mus I+. Battle of Chaeronea 338 _Apelles_ (_painter_) 336 Battle of _Mt. Vesuvius_

 339 _Leges Publiliae. Supremacy of Comitia Tributa_ +Alexander the Great+ 336-323

 +326-304+ +Second Samnite War (C. Pontius)+ Battle of Issus 333 Menander 344-292

 321 +Caudine Forks+. The Yoke Foundation of Alexandria 332

 311 Appius Claudius, Censor. The _Via Appia_ Battle of Arbela 331

 +311-309+ Etruscan War. First Battle at _Lake Vadimo_ Alexander’s Successors } Battle of Ipsus (301) } 323-301

 305 Battle of _Bovianum_

 +298-290+ +Third Samnite War+ Ptolemy I (Soter) 323-285 Euclid _fl. _ 300 Agathocles at Syracuse 317-289 Theophrastus _c. _ 384-277

 295 Battle of _Sentinum_. Devotion of +Decius Mus II+. Demetrius Poliorcetes 308-283 Zeno, the Stoic _c. _ 366-264

 287 Last Secession of the Plebs Rhodes powerful 300-200 Epicurus 341-270

 287 _Lex Hortensia. Legislative power of Comitia Tributa finally established_ _Political distinction between the Patricians and Plebeians now at an end_ Aetolian League 284-167 Theocritus _fl. _ 280

 283 Renewed Etruscan and Gallic War Achaean League 280-146 Bion and Moschus _fl. _ 270 Second Battle at _Lake Vadimo_

 +281-275+ +War with Tarentines and Pyrrhus+

 280 Battle of _Heraclea_. Victory of the phalanx Gauls in Greece 280-278

 279 Battle of _Asculum_. +Fabricius the Just+ Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) 285-247 _Septuagint_ _c. _ 277

 278 +Rome and Carthage allied+

 277 Pyrrhus masters nearly all Sicily

 275 Battle near _Beneventum_ (+M’. Curius Dentatus+) Pyrrhus returns to Epirus

 273 Treaty of Rome with Egypt. _Recognition of Rome as one of the great powers_ _Aratus_ (_astronomer_) _fl. _ 270

 272 Pyrrhus killed at Argos. Surrender of Tarentum

 266 +All Italy (south of the Apennines) Roman+ ---------------------------------------- PART IV. --THE CONTEST WITH CARTHAGE, 264-202 B. C. ---------------------------------------- +264-241+ +First Punic War+

 263 +Hiero of Syracuse+ joins Rome +Hiero of Syracuse+ 269-219

 261 Romans build a fleet

 260 Naval victory of +Duilius+ near _Mylae_ Aratus, General of Achaean League 245 Callimachus _fl. _ 260 _Columna Rostrata_

 256 Naval victory of +Regulus+ at _Ecnomus_ ---------------------------------------- LATIN LITERATURE. B. C. ---------------------------------------- PROSE. ---------------------------------------- VERSE. ---------------------------------------- PERIOD I. --THE GROWTH OF LATIN LITERATURE, 250-80 B. C. ---------------------------------------- 255 Regulus defeated by Xanthippus of Sparta

 250 Roman victory at _Panormus_ (Metellus)

 249 Carthaginian victory at _Drepana_ (Claudius)

 248-241 +Hamilcar Barca+ in Sicily Ptolemy III (Euergetes) 247-222

 241 Victory of Lutatius off the _Aegates Insulae_ _Peace with Carthage_ +Sicily made a Roman Province+ (1) Livius Andronicus (_fl. _ 240)

 241-238 War of Carthage with her Mercenaries +Corsica and Sardinia made a Roman Province+ (2) Naevius (_fl. _ 235)

 236-228 +Hamilcar in Spain. Hannibal’s oath+

 230-229 Illyrian War. (Queen Teuta) Athens joins Achaean League 229

 228 Corinth admits the Romans to the Isthmian Games +Roman Embassy to Greece+ 228 +Hasdrubal+ succeeds Hamilcar in Spain _Founds New Carthage_. The _Iberus_ (_Ebro_) fixed as the Carthaginian boundary

 225-223 Gallic rising (Boii and Insubres) Reforms of Cleomenes at Sparta 226-5 Great victory near _Telamon_

 222 Victory over the Insubres at _Clastidium_ Aratus and Antigonus take Sparta 221 +M. Marcellus+ wins the _spolia opima_ (3) Subjugation of Gaul south of the Alps Antiochus the Great (Syria) 224-187

 221 +Hannibal succeeds Hasdrubal in Spain+

 219 Hannibal takes _Saguntum_ (ally of Rome) Ptolemy IV (Philopator) 222-205

 +218-202+ +Second Punic War+ Philip V (Macedon) 221-179 PLAUTUS (254-184)

 218 Hannibal crosses the Alps Battles of the _Ticinus_ and _Trebia_

 217 Battle of _Lake Trasimene_. Death of +Flaminius+ +Q. Fabius Maximus, Dictator+ +Philip allied with Hannibal+ 216 Fabius Pictor (_fl. _ 216) ENNIUS (239-169)

 216 Battle of _Cannae_. Death of +Paulus+

 216-211 +Revolt of Capua+

 215 Marcellus saves Nola First Macedonian War 214-205

 214-212 +Siege and Capture of Syracuse by Marcellus+ +Death of Archimedes+ 212

 212 P. & Cn. Scipio defeated by Hasdrubal Loss of Spain south of the Ebro Hannibal seizes Tarentum

 211-206 +P. Cornelius Scipio+ (Africanus Maior) in Spain Rome allied with Aetolians 211

 210 Scipio surprises New Carthage

 208 +Hasdrubal+ (son of Hamilcar) eludes Scipio and crosses the Pyrenees to join Hannibal Philopoemen, General of Achaean League 208-183

 207 +Defeat and Death of Hasdrubal at the Metaurus (Nero)+

 204 Scipio goes to Africa: blockades _Utica_ +Peace of Rome with Philip+ 205

 203 +Hannibal recalled: leaves Italy+

 202 Battle of _Zama_. Peace made ---------------------------------------- PART V. --FORMATION OF EMPIRE BEYOND ITALY, 200-183 B. C. ---------------------------------------- +200-196+ +Second Macedonian War+

 197 Battle of _Cynoscephalae_ (+Flaminius+)

 196 _Proclamation of the Freedom of Greece_

 195 Hannibal takes refuge with Antiochus Cato (234-149)

 200-191 War with Insubrian and Boian Gauls +Gallia Cisalpina a Roman Province+ (3) Antiochus in Greece 192

 +191-190+ +War with Antiochus of Syria+

 191 Battle of _Thermopylae_ (+Cato+)

 190 Battle of _Magnesia_. (L. Scipio and Domitius) Hannibal with Prusias, King of Bithynia 190-183 PACUVIUS (220-132)

 184 +Censorship of Cato+

 183 _Deaths of Hannibal, Scipio and Philopoemen_

 179 T. Sempronius Gracchus in Spain War of Antiochus and Egypt 172-168

 +171-168+ +Third Macedonian War (Perseus)+

 168 Battle of _Pydna_ (+Aemilius Paulus+) Judas Maccabaeus (a treaty with Rome, 161) 166-161 TERENCE (185-159) Egypt accepts the protectorate of Rome

 +149-146+ +Third Punic War (Scipio Africanus Minor)+ _Destruction of Carthage_ LUCILIUS (180-103)

 148-146 War with Andriscus (the pseudo-Philip) and the Achaeans. _Destruction of Corinth_ (+Mummius+)

 148 +Macedonia made a Roman Province+ (4) +Illyricum made a Roman Province+ (5)

 149-140 War with +Viriathus+, the Lusitanian Hero Judaea free from Syrian control (Simon Maccabaeus) 142

 143-133 +Numantine War+

 133 _Destruction of Numantia_ (Scipio Africanus Minor) Accius (_c. _ 170-90) +Roman Province in Spain+ (7) +Achaia made a Roman Province+ (8)

 133 Attalus III bequeaths the Kingdom of Pergamum to Rome. This becomes the +Roman Province of Asia+ (9) ---------------------------------------- PART VI. --PERIOD OF CIVIL STRIFE IN ITALY, ETC. 133-44 B. C. ---------------------------------------- 133-121 Attempted reforms (_Leges Semproniae_) of the Gracchi

 133 Agrarian Law of +Tiberius Gracchus+ John Hyrcanus subdues Idumea and Samaria 129 Murder of Tib. Gracchus (P. Scipio Nasica) First civil bloodshed in Rome

 131 _Two plebeian Consuls_ (the first time)

 129 Death of Scipio Africanus Minor (Carbo suspected)

 123-2 +Tribunate of C. Gracchus+ _Roman Colony sent to Carthage_ 123

 121 Death of C. Gracchus Conquest of S. Gaul. +Province of Narbonensis+ (10) +Mithridates (Pontus)+ 120-63 Afranius (_fl. _ 100)

 118 Death of Micipsa, King of Numidia

 +111-106+ +The Jugurthine War (Metellus, Marius, Sulla)+ Conquests of Mithridates on the Black Sea 112-110

 106 Jugurtha betrayed to Sulla

 105 The Cimbrians defeat the Romans at _Arausio_

 102 Marius defeats Teutones at _Aquae Sextiae_

 101 Marius (with Catulus) defeats Cimbri at _Vercellae_

 100 Marius Consul a sixth time Sulla on the Euphrates 92

 91 +Tribunate of M. Livius Drusus+

 91-81 +The Social or Marsic War+ +Tigranes+ (_Armenia_) 95-60

 90 _Lex Iulia_, granting the _civitas_ to the Italian States not in rebellion

 89 Battle of _Asculum_

 +88-86+ +First Civil War (between Marius and Sulla)+ ---------------------------------------- PERIOD II. --THE GOLDEN AGE OF LATIN LITERATURE, 80 B. C. -14 A. D. ---------------------------------------- 88 Sulla occupies Rome. _First invasion of Rome by a Roman army_

 87-84 +Cinnan revolution+. Marius’ reign of terror

 +88-84+ +First Mithridatic War. (Sulla)+

 88 Massacre of Romans in Asia

 86 Victory at _Chaeronea_. Sulla takes Athens Death of Marius

 85 Victory at _Orchomenus_ Tigranes at war with Rome 86-85 LUCRETIUS (97-53)

 84 _Peace of Dardanus with Mithridates_

 +83-82+ +Second Civil War (between Marius and Sulla)+

 82 Death of the younger Marius. _Sulla Felix_

 83-81 _The Sullan Proscriptions_ Second Mithridatic War (Murena) Pompeius in Africa: triumphs as an Eques 81

 81-79 Sulla Dictator. _Leges Corneliae_

 80 +Cilicia made a Roman Province+ (11)

 78 Death of Sulla

 +78-72+ +War with Sertorius in Spain (Pompeius)+ Pharisees supreme in Judaea 78 Sisenna (_fl. _ 78)

 75 Mithridates in alliance with Sertorius

 74 +Bithynia made a Roman Province+ (12) _Nicomedes leaves Bithynia to Rome_ 75 VARRO (116-27)

 72 Betrayal and murder of Sertorius

 +73-71+ +War with Spartacus and his gladiators+

 71 Death of Spartacus (Crassus and Pompeius)

 +74-63+ +Third Mithridatic War (Lucullus, Pompeius)+

 72 Victory of _Cabira_ (Pontus). Lucullus reforms the province of Asia (hence unpopular with Equites) CATULLUS (84-54)

 70 +First Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus+ Overthrow of the Sullan Constitution

 69 Victory at _Tigranocerta_ (capital of Armenia) NEPOS (100-24)

 67 Mutiny of Lucullus’ soldiers. Mithridates recovers Pontus Rome interferes in Palestine 65 SALLUST (86-34) _Lex Gabinia_. Pompeius destroys the Pirates

 66 _Lex Manilia_. Lucullus superseded by Pompeius Victory of _Nicopolis_ (Armenia). _Peace with Tigranes_ CICERO (106-43)

 64 +Syria made a Roman Province+ (13)

 63 Pompeius takes Jerusalem Death of Mithridates

 63 +Cicero Consul+. Catiline’s conspiracy crushed Cicero saluted as _Pater Patriae_

 61 Pompeius’ great Triumph

 60 +First Triumvirate+ (Pompeius, Caesar, Crassus)

 59 +Caesar’s first Consulship+. The _Leges Iuliae_

 +58-50+ +Caesar in Gaul+ (in Britain 55 and 54 B. C. ) +Gaul divided into three Provinces+ (14, 15, 16) CAESAR (102-44)

 58-57 Cicero’s banishment and return A. Hirtius (ob. 43)

 56 Conference of the Triumvirs at _Luca_

 55 Second Consulship of Pompeius and Crassus

 53 Disaster at _Carrhae_. Death of Crassus

 52 +Pompeius sole Consul+ till August 1st

 51-50 Cicero Governor of Cilicia

 +49-45+ +Third Civil War (between Caesar and Pompeius)+

 49 Caesar crosses the _Rubicon_

 49 Caesar’s successful campaign round _Lerida_ (Spain)

 49 _Massilia_ surrenders to Caesar

 49 Defeat and death of Curio in Africa

 48 Caesar’s unsuccessful investment of _Dyrrachium_ +Cleopatra+ 69-30

 48 Battle of _Pharsalus_. Murder of Pompeius

 47 Alexandrine War. Settlement of Asia

 46 Battle of _Thapsus_. Death of Cato

 45 Caesar sole Consul. Battle of _Munda_ (Spain) PUB. SYRUS (_fl. _ 45)

 44 +Murder of Caesar+ ---------------------------------------- IMPERIAL PERIOD. ---------------------------------------- 43 +Second Triumvirate+ (Lepidus, Antonius, Octavianus) Herod the Great in Judaea 37-4 Pollio (_fl. _ 40) VERGIL (70-19)

 42 Battle of _Philippi_ (Brutus and Cassius)

 31 Battle of _Actium_ (Antonius and Cleopatra) +Egypt a Roman Province+ (17) HORACE (65-8) 27 B. C. -14 A. D. OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS TIBULLUS (54-19)

 23 Death of +Marcellus+ LIVY (59 B. C. -18 A. D. ) PROPERTIUS (49-15)

 20 Parthians restore standards BIRTH OF CHRIST B. C. 4 OVID (43 B. C. -18 A. D. )

 A. D. 9 Destruction of army under Varus (Arminius) ---------------------------------------- PERIOD III. --THE SILVER AGE, 14-117 A. D. ---------------------------------------- 14-37 TIBERIUS

 37-41 CALIGULA

 41-54 CLAUDIUS Pontius Pilate in Judaea 26-36 V. PATERCULUS (_fl. _ 20) MANILIUS (_fl. _ 12)

 43-51 Conquest of Britain CRUCIFIXION 30 VAL. MAXIMUS (_fl. _ 26) PHAEDRUS (_fl. _ 30-40)

 Boadicea in Britain 61 SENECA (4 B. C. -65 A. D. ) PERSIUS (34-62)

 54-68 NERO Rome burnt 64

 68-69 GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS PETRONIUS (_ob. _ 66) LUCAN (39-65)

 70-78 VESPASIAN. (Colosseum built)

 79-81 TITUS Titus destroys Jerusalem 70 PLINY I. (23-79) VAL. FLACCUS (_ob. _ 90)

 79 Eruption of Vesuvius (Herculaneum and Pompeii)

 81-96 DOMITIAN Agricola subdues Britain 78-85

 93 Death of +Agricola+ (father-in-law of Tacitus) QUINTILIAN (_c. _ 35-95)

 96-98 NERVA FRONTINUS (_c. _ 41-103) STATIUS (_ob. _ 95)

 98-116 TRAJAN _Greatest extent of Roman Empire_ TACITUS (_c. _ 55-120) PLINY II. (61-113) SILIUS (25-101) MARTIAL (_c. _ 40-102)

 117-138 HADRIAN Hadrian’s wall 121 FLORUS (_fl. _ 137) JUVENAL (_c. _ 55-138)

 138-160 ANTONINUS PIUS SUETONIUS (_c. _ 75-160) JUSTINUS (_c. _ 150)

 161-180 MARCUS AURELIUS Wall of Antonine 140 A. GELLIUS (_fl. _ 169) ---------------------------------------- PERIOD IV. --THE LATER EMPIRE, FROM 117 A. D. ----------------------------------------

 274-337 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT Council of _Nicaea_ 325 NEMESIANUS (_fl. _ 284) TER. MAURUS (_c. _ 300) AUSONIUS (_fl. _ 379)

 395-1453 +Byzantine Empire+ Romans leave Britain 409-420

 408-410 +Alaric+ the Goth at Rome (Stilicho) Hengist and Horsa (Kent) 449 EUTROPIUS (_fl. _ 375) CLAUDIAN (_fl. _ 400)

 451 +Attila+ the Hun defeated at Chalons Constantinople taken by Turks 1453

 455 +Genseric+ the Vandal at Rome Augustine (354-430) PRUDENTIUS (_fl. _ 404)

 476 +Odoacer+ at Rome. +Western Empire ends+ Rutilius (_fl. _ 416)

INDEX

_The numbers refer to pages throughout. _

 Ablative Absolute, 12, 58 +Aegates Insulae+, battle off, 114 +Alban Lake+, its rise, 79 +Alesia+, siege of, 202 +Allia+, battle of the, 81, 82 Analysis, help through, 6, 23, 47 +Andriscus+, war with, 156 +Antiochus+, his overthrow, 149 +Antonius+, attacked by Cicero, 230; causes the murder of Cicero, 230, 232 +Appius Claudius+, his speech against peace with Pyrrhus, 102 +Aquae Sextiae+, Teutones annihilated at, 164 +Archelaus+, defeated at Chaeronea, 172; at Orchomenus, 173 +Archimedes+, his engineering skill, 137; the Tomb of Archimedes, 54 +Arpinum+, birthplace of Cicero and Marius, 163 +Asculum+ (Apulia), battle of, 103 +Asculum+ (Picenum), outbreak of Social War at, 108; battle near, 169

 +Beneventum+, battle near, 103 +Bovianum+, battle of, 98

 +Caesar+, personal appearance and physical powers, 186; captured by pirates, studies oratory at Rhodes, 187; curule aedile, propraetor, 192; first triumvirate, consul, 195; campaigns in Gaul and Britain, 196-202; civil war with Pompeius, 209-224; dines with Cicero, 225; his death, 226; his character, 227-229; life of, 293-296 +Camillus+, capture of Veii, 80; delivers Rome from the Gauls, 85; stays migration to Veii, 86 +Capua+, the revolt and punishment of, 133, 134 +Carrhae+, battle of, 206, 207 +Carthage+, its foundation, 109; the building of, 110; wars between Rome and, 108-146; destruction of, 155 +Cassivellaunus+, submission of, to Caesar, 199 +Catiline+, his conspiracy, 193; his end, 194 +Cato Major+, his character, 151, 152; life of, 296 +Cato Uticensis+, his character, 224; his death, 223 +Caudine Forks+, the Romans entrapped and sent under the yoke, 95,  96 +Chaeronea+, battle of, 172 +Cicero+, his first and only campaign, 169; impeaches Verres, 188; speech against Catiline, 193; his banishment and return, 203, 204; his recantation, 205; governor of Cilicia, 208; speech against Antonius, 230; his death, 232; his character, 231, 233; life of, 297-300 +Cincinnatus+, called from the plough,  74 +Claudius Pulcher+, his defeat off Drepana, 113 Cognates, 4, 5, 44, 45, 267-8 +Colline Gate+, battle at the, 174 Compound Words, 3-5 Conjunctions, 274-6 +Corinth+, destruction of, 156 +Coriolanus+ and his mother Veturia,  72 +Corvus, M. Valerius+, hero of Mt. Gaurus,  91 +Cossus, A. Cornelius+, wins _spolia opima_,  77 +Crassus+, member of First Triumvirate, 195; his defeat at Carrhae, 206, 207 +Cremera+ (River), Fabii destroyed at the,  73 +Cynoscephalae+, battle of, 147

 +Dardanus+, peace of, 173 +Decius Magius+, his defiance of Hannibal, 133 +Decius Mus+ (the elder), his self-sacrifice at battle of Mt. Vesuvius,  92 +Decius Mus+ (the younger), his self-sacrifice at battle of Sentinum,  99 +Dentatus, M’. Curius+, an old-time Roman, 105 +Drepana+, battle off, 113 +Drusus, M. Livius+, his tribuneship, 167 +Duilius+, his naval victory near Mylae, 112 +Dyrrachium+, Caesar’s lines of circumvallation, 216; plan of, _opposite_ 216

 +Elissa+ (+Dido+), foundress of Carthage, 109 English Derivatives, help through, 1, 2, 21, 29,  30

 +Fabii+, destruction of, 73 +Fabius Maximus Cunctator+, his character, 127; and his Master of the Horse, 128 +Fabricius+ the Just, 101 +Flamininus+ proclaims the freedom of Greece, 148 +Flaminius+, his defeat at Lake Trasimene, 124-126; his death, 126 +Floralia+, origin of, 88 French Derivatives, help through, 2, 3, 29,  30

 +Gaurus+ (Mount), battle of, 91 +Gergovia+, siege of, 201 +Gracchi+, The, 160, 161

 +Hannibal+, his oath, 115; his character, 116, 117; lays siege to Saguntum, 118; his dream and its interpretation, 119; his march from Spain to Italy, 120-122; his victory at the Trebia, 123; at Lake Trasimene, 124-126; at Cannae, 129, 130; the advice of Maharbal, 131; at Capua, 133, 134; leaves Italy, 144; his overthrow at Zama, 145, 146; his death, 150 +Hasdrubal+, his defeat and death at the Metaurus, 143 +Heraclea+, battle of, 100 +Horatius Cocles+, his defence of the Sublician bridge, 67,  68

 +Jugurtha+, his betrayal, 162

 +Lepidus, M. Aemilius+, speech against Sulla, 178 +Lerida+, campaign round, 213 +Liciuius+, first plebeian consul, 87 +Lucullus+, character and early career, 181; his wealth, 182; surnamed Ponticus, 184 +Lutatius+, his victory off the Aegates Insulae, 114

 +Magnesia+, battle of, 149 +Maharbal+ urges Hannibal to advance on Rome, 131 +Manlius Capitolinus+, his fate, 84 +Manilus, L. +, and his son Torquatus,  89 +Marcellus+ saves Nola from Hannibal, 135; his lament over Syracuse, 138; his death, 139 +Marius+, Cicero on, 163; annihilates Teutones at Aquae Sextiae, 164; seven times consul, 165; outlived his fame, 165 +Marius the Younger+, death of, 175 +Massilia+, siege of, 214 +Menenius Agrippa+, harangues the Plebs,  71 Metaphors, 13, 14 +Metaurus+, Nero’s march to the, 142; battle of the, 143 +Mithridates+, his youth and early training, 171; his preparations for conquest, 171 +Mucius+ (Scaevola), loss of his right hand,  69 +Mummius Achaicus+ destroys Corinth, 156 +Mylae+, naval battle near, 112

 +Nero+, his march to the Metaurus, 142; his victory over Hasdrubal, 143 +Nervii, The+, overthrown by Caesar, 196 +Numantia+ destroyed, 158 +Numa Pompilius+, 62

 Order of words in Latin, 9, 10

 +Papirius Cursor+ and his Master of the Horse,  94 Parallelism, use of, in Ovid, 27 Parataxis, use of, in Ovid, 26 Participles, how to translate, 11, 12 Passive in English for Latin Active, 11 +Paulus L. Aemilius+, his victory at Pydna, 153, 154 Period, the, 7-9 +Perseus+, King of Macedon, his overthrow, 153, 154 +Pharsalus+, battle of, 217-219; plan of, _opposite_ 218 +Philip+, King of Macedon, his overthrow, 147 +Philopoemen+, death of, 150 Phrases for Latin Prose Composition, 45 +Pompeius+, character and career to 66 B. C. , 185; campaign against the pirates and Mithridates, 189-191; coalition with Caesar, 195; civil war with Caesar, 209-222; dream on the eve of Pharsalus, 217; ill-advised at Pharsalus, 218; his death, 220; Cato’s eulogy on, 221; his grave, 222 +Porsenna, Lars+, attack upon Rome, 67-69 Prefixes, 4, 22, 277-281 Punctuation a help to translation, 6 +Pydna+, battle of, 153, 154 +Pyrrhus+, his aims, 100; defeats the Romans at Heraclea, 100; victorious at Asculum but routed near Beneventum, 103; his death and eulogy, 104

 +Regillus, Lake+, battle of, 70 +Regulus+, his embassy, 111 _Res_, different meanings of, 11, 33-34,  41 +Rome+, position of, 65 +Romulus+, the passing of, 61 +Rutilius+, defeat and death of, 169

 +Sacriportus+, battle of, 174 +Saguntum+, siege of, 118 Scansion and Metre, a help to translation,  6 +Scipio Major+, prevents Nobles from abandoning Italy, 131; his character, 140; takes New Carthage, 141; his victory at Zama, 145, 146; his death, 150 +Scipio Minor+, destroys Carthage, 135; Numantia, 158 +Sentinum+, battle of, 99 +Sertorius+, and his Fawn, 179; his career and death, 180 +Spartacus+, war with, 183 Style, helps to, 13, 14 Suffixes, 4, 282-286 +Sulla+, his character and bearing, 170; his proscriptions, 175; his brilliant tactics at Chaeronea, 172; capture of Athens and the Piraeus, 173; victory at Orchomenus, 173; concludes peace with Mithridates, 173; defeats Marians at Sacriportus, 174; and at battle of the Colline Gate, 174; surnamed Felix, 175; dictator, abdication and death, 176; his legislation, 177 +Syracuse+, description of, 136; siege and fall of, 137, 138

 +Tarentum+, Horace in praise of, 106 +Tarquinius Superbus+, purchase of the Sibylline books,  63 +Tarquinius, Sextus+, at Gabii, 64 +Teutones+, annihilated at Aquae Sextiae, 164 +Thermopylae+, battle of, 149 Translation, helps to, 5-12 +Trasimene+, battle of, 124-126 +Trebia+, battle at, 123

 +Veii+, conquest of, 80 +Veneti+, naval battle with, 197 +Vercingetorix+, Gallic rising under, 200; his last fight, 202 +Verginia+, the consequences of her death,  76 +Verres+, prosecuted by Cicero, 188 +Vesuvius+, Mount, battle of, 92, 93 +Viriathus+, war with, 157 Vocabulary, helps to, 1-5 Vowel changes of Verbs, 3-4

 +Zama+, battle of, 145, 146

 PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD. LONDON AND ETON. 

 * * * * * * * * * * * * * *

_Format of E-Text_

In Appendixes I-IV, +boldface+ markup of Latin words and word elementswas omitted for readability. English translations retain their _italic_markup. 

In the Demonstrations, sentence breaks were marked with || in the bodytext corresponding to Roman numerals in the margin. These numerals areshown _between_ paired lines as |IV|, or in braces {IV} when the lineswere not used. 

Internal references using page numbers are supplemented in doublebrackets as [[Selection C17]] or [[Introduction 6 (2)]]. 

_Line Numbers_

Reading passages were printed with marginal line numbers starting from1 at the top of each page. A page might contain one or more selections, but readings never crossed page breaks. Line numbers have been variouslyhandled:

All markings of line 1 were omitted. 

In the six Demonstrations, line numbers are not used in the explanatorytext, so they were omitted. In the Miscellaneous Passages, which have nolinenotes, line numbers were omitted in all prose and in the shorterverse selections. 

In prose passages labeled B, C, D, line numbers by multiples of 5 wereprinted in the margin. They are shown here in {braces} within the bodytext. Where a word was split at line break, the number comes after thecomplete word. 

In verse passages, lines have been renumbered to match the actual linenumbers as cited in the text. Selections from the Hallam edition ofOvid’s _Fasti_ (see below) are numbered from 1 within each passage. 

Any cross-references containing line numbers have been correspondinglychanged. 

_The Hallam Edition of Ovid’s Fasti_

This expurgated edition was produced in 1882 for the use of boys atHarrow. Hallam’s Preface says:

 I have cut out all passages unfit for a boy to read, and renumbered all the lines in text and references, and it seemed best not to put the old numbering side by side with the new, except in the Grammatical Appendices. It has been necessary to alter the text, though very slightly, in about six places. 

In some books, cuts are substantial: ii. 701-710 (reading D5B, page 64)is 543-552 in Hallam. For this e-text, the original line number is shownin double brackets after the cited Hallam number; when the originalnumber was used, the Hallam number is shown in the same way. 

_Errata_ (noted by transcriber)

CONTENTS

 149 A. . .. Frontinus, _Strat. _ ii. 4 [ii. 4. ]

LIST OF AUTHORS

 Livy, 32, 40 . .. 246, 265 [265, ]

INTRODUCTION

 Satan exalted sat. ”’ [final ’ missing] +13. Additional Hints. + [final . Missing]

DEMONSTRATIONS

 I: [Table] . .. Subsidio misit. [. Missing] II: even although [text unchanged] III: P. Corn. Sulla, the Praetor, [final comma missing] +dimidia+ √+med-+, +mid-+ = _middle_ [+mid-+, ] VI: +cylindro+ = _a cylinder_, κύλινδρος. [. For, ] [Footnote 19: Also the birthplace of Marius. Cf. P. 163. ] [“p” (for “page”) invisible]

TRANSLATION PASSAGES

 D9 Linenote 24. . .. Plunged headlong in the tide. --Macaulay [mismatched close quote at end]

 D23B Linenote 20 . .. Cf. The Saxon Chronicle. [final . Missing]

 D24 Linenote 23. [32]

 D30 Linenote 11. . .. Spectator, umpire. [final . Missing]

 D33A Linenote 4. +cui+, i. E. [final . Missing]

 D43 THE WAR WITH THE TARENTINES AND PYRRHUS. (3). [closing ) missing]

 C19 [Footnote 32: See p. 124, l. 2, note. ] [p, 124]

 C24B +Parallel Passage. + [, for . ]

 C27B Linenote 19. . .. Cf. Our ‘commercial travellers. ’ [closing ’ missing]

 C28 +Context. + The plebs in Nola . .. [extraneous open quote at ‘The. .. ]

 C31 Linenote 22. +formis+ . .. [line number missing]

 C43 Linenote 18. . .. (+in carcere+, l. 19) [l. 23]

 B6 Audieratque pavens: “Fas haec contingere non est [‘ for “] . .. Vanum depone furorem. ” [closing ” missing]

 B9A Linenote 7. . .. The solemn festival [festvial]

 B17B SUETONIUS, _Divus Iulius_,  77. [SEUTONIUS]

 B36 Linenote 21. [19]

 B40 +Caesar In Britain. + [printed as if note to (nonexistent) line 24]

 B46 Linenote 19-20. +ut imperi . .. Extremum+ [_spelling unchanged: body text has “imperii”_]

 B51 qui si improbasset [_syllable “im” crossed out by hand: readings of this passage include both “probasset” and “in(im-)probasset”]

 B63 +Cato Uticensis. + . .. ‘Victrix causa . .. Catoni. ’ --W.  F. [opening ‘ missing]

MISCELLANEOUS PASSAGES

 SENECA, _Medea_ 920. [_passage is more often numbered 931_] STATIUS, _Silvae_, III. Ii. 1-20, 42-53, 61-66. [II. Ii. ] PERSIUS, _Sat. _ v. 19-25, 30-40. [_text shown as printed: passage quoted is ll. 30-40_] ANDROMEDA (2) B. [. Missing] Tibullus: _Birthday Wishes. _ B. [final . Missing] Trimalchio's Supper B. ‘quod dixero . .. “Numquid alius scit hanc condituram vitreorum?” Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illum Caesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus. ’ [_as printed:_ ‘quod dixero . .. ‘Numquid alius scit hanc condituram vitreorum?’ Vide modo. Postquam negavit, iussit illum Caesar decollari; quia enim, si scitum esset, aurum pro luto haberemus. ] MARTIALIS APOPHORETA (2). IX _Catella Gallicana. _ [, for . ]

APPENDIXES

 V LIVY, xxii. 6: ‘En’ inquit ‘hic . .. Foede civium dabo. [closing ’ missing] VI Sallust: His style is, however [‘His style]

APPENDIX VII (Chronological Outlines)

 Carthaginian victory at _Drepana_ [Cathaginian]

 149-146 B. C. : _Destruction of Carthage_ 148 B. C. : +Macedonia made a Roman Province+ (4) +Illyricum made a Roman Province+ (5) 133 B. C. : +Roman Province in Spain+ (7) +Achaia made a Roman Province+ (8)

[Province #6 is missing. By this text’s numbering, Africa (146 BC)should have been #4, with Macedonia and Illyricum as #5 and #6. ]

 Wall of Antonine [_text unchanged_]

[Text shown in {braces} is conjectural. In the printed book, therightmost part of some pages was lost in the gutter. ]

 ROMULUS. Roman Senate of 200. _Spolia opima_ {(1)} SERVIUS TULLIUS. The Census, basis of _Com{itia} Centuriata_. The Servian Wall includes {the} Quirinal . .. TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. Conquest of _Gabii_. Tyran{ny} leading to expulsion of the Tarquins and aboli{tion} of the monarchy Two new Tables. (+Ap{pius} Claudius+) . .. Resulting in {the} _Valerio-Horatian_ Laws

INDEX

 +Mummius Achaicus+ destroys Corinth, 156 [, missing]