HANDBOOK OF UNIVERSAL LITERATURE_FROM THE BEST AND LATEST AUTHORITIES_

BYANNE C. LYNCH BOTTA

PREFATORY NOTE TO THE REVISED EDITION. 

Since the first publication of this work in 1860, many new names haveappeared in modern literature. Japan, hitherto almost unknown toEuropeans, has taken her place among the nations with a literature of herown, and the researches and discoveries of scholars in various parts ofthe world have thrown much light on the literatures of antiquity. To keeppace with this advance, a new edition of the work has been called for. Prefixed is a very brief summary of an important and exhaustive History ofthe Alphabet recently published. 

PREFACE. 

This work was begun many years ago, as a literary exercise, to meet thepersonal requirements of the writer, which were such as most personsexperience on leaving school and "completing their education, " as thephrase is. The world of literature lies before them, but where to begin, what course of study to pursue, in order best to comprehend it, are theproblems which present themselves to the bewildered questioner, who findshimself in a position not unlike that of a traveler suddenly set down inan unknown country, without guide-book or map. The most natural courseunder such circumstances would be to begin at the beginning, and take arapid survey of the entire field of literature, arriving at its detailsthrough this general view. But as this could be accomplished only bysubjecting each individual to a severe and protracted course of systematicstudy, the idea was conceived of obviating this necessity to some extentby embodying the results of such a course in the form of the followingwork, which, after being long laid aside, is now at length completed. 

In conformity with this design, standard books have been condensed, withno alterations except such as were required to give unity to the wholework; and in some instances a few additions have been made. Where standardworks have not been found, the sketches have been made from the bestsources of information, and submitted to the criticism of able scholars. 

The literatures of different nations are so related, and have soinfluenced each other, that it is only by a survey of all that any singleliterature, or even any great literary work, can be fully comprehended, asthe various groups and figures of a historical picture must be viewed as awhole, before they can assume their true place and proportions. 

A. C. L. B. 

CONTENTS. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES

INTRODUCTION. 

THE ALPHABET. 1. The Origin of Letters. --2. The Phoenician Alphabet and Inscriptions. --3. The Greek Alphabet. Its Three Epochs. --4. The Mediaeval Scripts. TheIrish. The Anglo-Saxon. The Roman. The Gothic. The Runic. CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES

CHINESE LITERATURE. 

1. Chinese Literature. --2. The Language. --3. The Writing. --4. The FiveClassics and Four Books. --5. Chinese Religion and Philosophy. Lao-tsé. Confucius. Meng-tsé or Mencius. --6. Buddhism. --7. Social Constitution ofChina. --8. Invention of Printing. --9. Science, History, and Geography. Encyclopaedias. --10. Poetry. --11. Dramatic Literature and Fiction. --12. Education in China. 

JAPANESE LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. The Religion. --3. The Literature. Influence ofWomen. --4. History. --5. The Drama and Poetry. --6. Geography. Newspapers. Novels. Medical Science. --7. Position of Woman. 

SANSKRIT LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. The Social Constitution of India. Brahmanism. --3. Characteristics of the Literature and its Divisions. --4. The Vedas andother Sacred Books. --5. Sanskrit Poetry; Epic; the Ramayana andMahabharata. Lyric Poetry. Didactic Poetry; the Hitopadesa. DramaticPoetry. --6. History and Science. --7. Philosophy. --8. Buddhism. --9. MoralPhilosophy. The Code of Manu. --10. Modern Literatures of India. --11. Education. The Brahmo Somaj. 

BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Accadians and Babylonians. --2. The Cuneiform Letters. --3. Babylonian and Assyrian Remains. 

PHOENICIAN LITERATURE. 

The Language. --The Remains. 

SYRIAC LITERATURE. 

The Language. --Influence of the Literature in the Eighth and NinthCentury. 

PERSIAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Persian Language and its Divisions. --2. Zendic Literature; theZendavesta. --3. Pehlvi and Parsee Literatures. --4. The Ancient Religion ofPersia; Zoroaster. --5. Modern Literature. --6. The Sufis. --7. PersianPoetry. --8. Persian Poets; Ferdusi; Eesedi of Tus; Togray, etc. --9. History and Philosophy. --10. Education in Persia. 

HEBREW LITERATURE. 

1. Hebrew Literature; its Divisions. --2. The Language; its Alphabet; itsStructure; Peculiarities, Formation, and Phases. --3. The Old Testament. --4. Hebrew Education. --5. Fundamental Idea of Hebrew Literature. --6. HebrewPoetry. --7. Lyric Poetry; Songs; the Psalms; the Prophets. --8. PastoralPoetry and Didactic Poetry; the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. --9. Epic andDramatic Poetry; the Book of Job. --10. Hebrew History; the Pentateuch andother Historical Books. --11. Hebrew Philosophy. --12. Restoration of theSacred Books. --13. Manuscripts and Translations. --14. RabbinicalLiterature. --15. The New Revision of the Bible, and the New BiblicalManuscript. 

EGYPTIAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. The Writing. --3. The Literature. --4. The Monuments. --5. The Discovery of Champollion. --6. Literary Remains; Historical;Religious; Epistolary; Fictitious; Scientific; Epic; Satirical andJudicial. --7. The Alexandrian Period. --8. The Literary Condition of ModernEgypt. 

GREEK LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Greek Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language. --3. The Religion. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Ante-Homeric Songs and Bards. --2. Poems of Homer; theIliad; the Odyssey. --3. The Cyclic Poets and the Homeric Hymns. --4. Poemsof Hesiod; the Works and Days; the Theogony. --5. Elegy and Epigram;Tyrtaeus; Achilochus; Simanides. --6. Iambic Poetry, the Fable, and Parody;Aesop. --7. Greek Music and Lyric Poetry; Terpander. --8. Aeolic LyricPoets; Alcaeus; Sappho; Anacreon. --9. Doric, or Choral Lyric Poets;Alcman; Stesichorus; Pindar. --10. The Orphic Doctrines and Poems. --11. Pre-Socratic Philosophy; Ionian, Eleatic, Pythagorean Schools. --12. History; Herodotus. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. Literary Predominance of Athens. --2. Greek Drama. --3. Tragedy. --4. The Tragic Poets; Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides. --5. Comedy; Aristophanes; Menander. --6. Oratory, Rhetoric, and History;Pericles; the Sophists; Lysias; Isocrates; Demosthenes; Thucydides;Xenophon. --7. Socrates and the Socratic Schools; Plato; Aristotle. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. Origin of the Alexandrian Literature. --2. TheAlexandrian Poets; Philetas; Callimachus; Theocritus; Bion; Moschus. --3. The Prose Writers of Alexandria; Zenodotus; Aristophanes; Aristarchus;Eratosthenes; Euclid; Archimedes. --4, Philosophy of Alexandria; Neo-Platonism. --5. Anti-Neo-Platonic Tendencies; Epictetus; Lucian; Longinus. --6. Greek Literature in Rome; Dionysius of Halicarnassus; FlaviusJosephus; Polybius; Diodorus; Strabo; Plutarch. --7. Continued Decline ofGreek Literature. --8. Last Echoes of the Old Literature; Hypatia; Nonnus;Musaeus; Byzantine Literature. --9. The New Testament and the GreekFathers. Modern Literature; the Brothers Santsos and Alexander Rangabé. 

ROMAN LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Roman Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language;Ethnographical Elements of the Latin Language; the Umbrian; Oscan;Etruscan; the Old Roman Tongue; Saturnian Verse; Peculiarities of theLatin Language. --3. The Roman Religion. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Early Literature of the Romans; the Fescennine Songs;the Fabulae Atellanae. --2. Early Latin Poets; Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Ennius. --3. Roman Comedy. --4. Comic Poets; Plautus, Terence, andStatius. --5. Roman Tragedy. --6. Tragic Poets; Pacuvius and Attius. --7. Satire; Lucilius. --8. History and Oratory; Fabius Pictor; CenciusAlimentus; Cato; Varro; M. Antonius; Crassus; Hortensius. --9. RomanJurisprudence. --10. Grammarians. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. Development of the Roman Literature. --2. Mimes, Mimographers, Pantomime; Laberius and P. Lyrus. --3. Epic Poetry; Virgil;the Aeneid. --4. Didactic Poetry; the Bucolics; the Georgics; Lucretius. --5. Lyric Poetry; Catullus; Horace. --6. Elegy; Tibullus; Propertius;Ovid. --7. Oratory and Philosophy; Cicero. --8. History; J. Caesar; Sallust;Livy. --9. Other Prose Writers. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. Decline of Roman Literature. --2. Fable; Phaedrus. --3. Satire and Epigram; Persius, Juvenal, Martial. --4. Dramatic Literature;the Tragedies of Seneca. --5. Epic Poetry; Lucan; Silius Italicus; ValeriusFlaccus; P. Statius. --6. History; Paterculus; Tacitus; Suetonius; Q. Curtius; Valerius Maximus. --7. Rhetoric and Eloquence; Quintilian; Plinythe Younger. --8. Philosophy and Science; Seneca; Pliny the Elder; Celsus;P. Mela; Columella; Frontinus. --9. Roman Literature from Hadrian toTheodoric; Claudian; Eutropius; A. Marcellinus; S. Sulpicius; Gellius;Macrobius; L. Apuleius; Boethius: the Latin Fathers. --10. RomanJurisprudence. 

ARABIAN LITERATURE. 

1. European Literature in the Dark Ages. --2. The Arabian Language. --3. Arabian Mythology and the Koran. --4. Historical Development of ArabianLiterature. --5. Grammar and Rhetoric. --6. Poetry. --7. The Arabian Tales. --8. History and Science. --9. Education. 

ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Italian Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Dialects. --3. The Italian Language. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Latin Influence. --2. Early Italian Poetry and Prose. --3. Dante--4. Petrarch. --5. Boccaccio and other Prose Writers. --6. FirstDecline of Italian Literature. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. The Close of the Fifteenth Century; Lorenzo de'Medici. --2. The Origin of the Drama and Romantic Epic; Poliziano, Pulci, Boiardo. --3. Romantic Epic Poetry; Ariosto. --4. Heroic Epic Poetry;Tasso. --5. Lyric Poetry; Bembo, Molza, Tarsia, V. Colonna. --6. DramaticPoetry; Trissino, Rucellai; the Writers of Comedy. --7. Pastoral Drama andDidactic Poetry; Beccari, Sannazzaro, Tasso, Guarini, Rucellai, Alamanni. --8. Satirical Poetry, Novels, and Tales; Berni, Grazzini, Firenzuola, Bandello, and others. --9. History; Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Nardi, andothers. --10. Grammar and Rhetoric; the Academy della Crusca, Della Casa, Speroni, and others. --11. Science, Philosophy, and Politics; the Academydel Cimento, Galileo, Torricelli, Borelli, Patrizi, Telesio, Campanella, Bruno, Castiglione, Machiavelli, and others. --12. Decline of theLiterature in the Seventeenth Century. --13. Epic and Lyric Poetry; Marini, Filicaja. --14. Mock Heroic Poetry, the Drama, and Satire; Tassoni, Bracciolini, Anderini, and others. --15. History and Epistolary Writings;Davila, Bentivoglio, Sarpi, Redi. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. Historical Development of the Third Period. --2. TheMelodrama; Rinuccini, Zeno, Metastasio. --3. Comedy; Goldoni, C. Gozzi, andothers. --4. Tragedy; Maffei, Alfieri, Monti, Manzoni, Nicolini, andothers. --5. Lyric, Epic, and Didactic Poetry; Parini, Monti, Ugo Foscolo, Leopardi, Grossi, Lorenzi, and others. --6. Heroic-Comic Poetry, Satire, and Fable; Fortiguerri, Passeroni, G. Gozzi, Parini, Ginsti, and others. --7. Romances; Verri, Manzoni, D'Azeglio, Cantù, Guerrazzi, and others. --8. History; Muratori, Vico, Giannone, Botta, Colletta, Tiraboschi, andothers. --9. Aesthetics, Criticism, Philology, and Philosophy; Baretti, Parini, Giordani, Gioja, Romagnosi, Gallupi, Roemini, Gioberti. --From 1860to 1885. 

FRENCH LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. French Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language

PERIOD FIRST. --1. The Troubadours. --2. The Trouvères. --3. FrenchLiterature in the Fifteenth Century. --4. The Mysteries and Moralities:Charles of Orleans, Villon, Ville-Hardouin, Joinville, Froissart, Philippede Commines. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. The Renaissance and the Reformation: Marguerite deValois, Marot, Rabelais, Calvin, Montaigne, Charron, and others. --2. LightLiterature: Ronsard, Jodelle, Hardy, Malherbe, Scarron, Madame deRambouillet, and others. --3. The French Academy. --4. The Drama:Corneille. --5. Philosophy: Descartes, Pascal; Port Royal. --6. The Rise ofthe Golden Age of French Literature: Louis XIV. --7. Tragedy: Racine. --8. Comedy: Molière. --9. Fables, Satires, Mock-Heroic, and other Poetry: LaFontaine, Boileau. --10. Eloquence of the Pulpit and of the Bar:Bourdaloue, Bossuet, Massillon, Fléchier, Le Maitre, D'Aguesseau, andothers. --11. Moral Philosophy: Rochefoucault, La Bruyère, Nicole. --12. History and Memoirs: Mézeray, Fleury, Rollia, Brantôme, the Duke of Sully, Cardinal de Retz. --13. Romance and Letter Writing: Fénelon, Madame deSévigné. --257

PERIOD THIRD. --1. The Dawn of Skepticism: Bayle, J. B. Rousseau, Fontenelle, Lamotte. --2. Progress of Skepticism: Montesquieu, Voltaire. --3. French Literature during the Revolution: D'Holbach, D'Alembert, Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Buffon, Beaumarchais, St. Pierre, and others. --4. French Literature under the Empire: Madame de Staël, Chateaubriand, Royer-Collard, Ronald, De Maistre. --5. French Literature from the Age ofthe Restoration to the Present Time. History: Thierry, Sismondi, Thiers, Mignet, Martin, Michelet, and others. Poetry and the Drama; Rise of theRomantic School: Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and others; LesParnassiens. Fiction: Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée, Balzac, Sand, Sandeau, and others. Criticism: Sainte-Beuve, Taine, and others. Miscellaneous. 

SPANISH LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Spanish Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Early National Literature; the Poem of the Cid; Berceo, Alfonso the Wise, Segura; Don Juan Manuel, the Archpriest of Hita, Santob, Ayala. --2. Old Ballads. --3. The Chronicles. -4. Romances of Chivalry. --5. The Drama. --6. Provençal Literature in Spain. --7. The Influence of ItalianLiterature in Spain. --8. The Cancioneros and Prose Writing. --9. TheInquisition. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. The Effect of Intolerance on Letters. --2. Influence ofItaly on Spanish Literature; Boscan, Garcilasso de la Vega, Diego deMendoza. --3. History; Cortez, Gomara, Oviedo, Las Casas. --4. The Drama, Rueda, Lope de Vega, Calderon de la Barca. --5. Romances and Tales;Cervantes, and other Writers of Fiction. --6. Historical Narrative Poems;Ercilla. --7. Lyric Poetry; the Argensolas; Luis de Leon, Quevedo, Herrera, Gongora, and others. --8. Satirical and other Poetry. --9. History and otherProse Writing; Zurita, Mariana, Sandoval, and others. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. French Influence on the Literature of Spain. --2. TheDawn of Spanish Literature in the Eighteenth Century; Feyjoo, Isla, Moratin the elder, Yriarte, Melendez, Gonzalez, Quintana, Moratin theyounger. --3. Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth Century. 

PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

1. The Portuguese Language. --2. Early Literature of Portugal. --3. Poets ofthe Fifteenth Century; Macias, Ribeyro. --4. Introduction of the ItalianStyle; Saa de Miranda, Montemayor, Ferreira. --5. Epic Poetry; Camoëns; theLusiad. --6. Dramatic Poetry; Gil Vicente. --7. Prose Writing; RodriguezLobo, Barros, Brito, Veira. --8. Portuguese Literature in the Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries; Antonio José, Manuel do Nascimento, Manuel de Bocage. 

FINNISH LITERATURE. 

1. The Finnish Language and Literature: Poetry; the Kalevala; Lönnrot;Korhonen. --2. The Hungarian Language and Literature: the Age of StephenI. ; Influence of the House of Anjou; of the Reformation; of the House ofAustria; Kossuth; Josika; Eötvös; Kuthy; Szigligeti; Petöfi. 

SLAVIC LITERATURES. 

The Slavic Race and Languages; the Eastern and Western Stems; theAlphabets; the Old or Church Slavic Language; St. Cyril's Bible; thePravda Russkaya; the Annals of Nestor. 

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. Literature in the Reign of Peter the Great; ofAlexander; of Nicholas; Danilof, Lomonosof, Kheraskof, Derzhavin, Karamzin. --3. History, Poetry, the Drama: Kostrof, Dmitrief, Zhukoffski, Krylof, Pushkin, Lermontoff, Gogol. --4. Literature in Russia since theCrimean War: School of Nature; Turguenieff; Ultra-realistic School:Science; Mendeleéff. 

THE SERVIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

THE BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Comenius, and others. 

THE POLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

Rey, Bielski, Copernicus, Czartoryski, Niemcewicz, Mickiewicz, and others. 

ROMANIAN LITERATURE. 

Carmen Sylva. 

DUTCH LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. Dutch Literature to the Sixteenth Century: Maerlant;Melis Stoke; De Weert; the Chambers of Rhetoric; the Flemish Chroniclers;the Rise of the Dutch Republic. --3. The Latin Writers: Erasmus; Grotius;Arminius; Lipsius; the Scaligers, and others; Salmasius; Spinoza;Boerhaave; Johannes Secundus. --4. Dutch Writers of the Sixteenth Century:Anna Byns; Coornhert; Marnix de St. Aldegonde; Bor, Visscher, andSpieghel. --5. Writers of the Seventeenth Century: Hooft; Vondel; Cats;Antonides; Brandt, and others; Decline in Dutch Literature. --6. TheEighteenth Century: Poot; Langendijk; Hoogvliet; De Marre; Feitama;Huydecoper; the Van Harens; Smits; Ten Kate; Van Winter; Van Merken; DeLannoy; Van Alphen; Bellamy; Nieuwland, Styl, and others. --7. TheNineteenth Century: Feith; Helmers; Bilderdyk; Van der Palm; Loosjes;Loots, Tollens, Van Kampen, De s'Gravenweert, Hoevill, and others. 

SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. 

1. Introduction. The Ancient Scandinavians; their Influence on the EnglishRace. --2. The Mythology. --3. The Scandinavian Languages. --4. Icelandic, orOld Norse Literature: the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, the Scalds, theSagas, the "Heimskringla. " The Folks-Sagas and Ballads of the MiddleAges. --5. Danish Literature: Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric; Arreboe, Kingo, Tycho Brahe, Holberg, Evald, Baggesen, Oehlenschläger, Grundtvig, Blicher, Ingemann, Heiberg, Gyllenbourg, Winther, Hertz, Müller, HansAndersen, Plong, Goldschmidt, Hastrup, and others; Malte Brun, Rask, Rafn, Magnusen, the brothers Oersted. --6. Swedish Literature: Messenius, Stjernhjelm, Lucidor, and others. The Gallic period: Dalin, Nordenflycht, Crutz and Gyllenborg, Gustavus III. , Kellgren, Leopold, Oxenstjerna. TheNew Era: Bellman, Hallman, Kexel, Wallenberg, Lidner, Thorild, Lengren, Franzen, Wallin. The Phosphorists: Atterbom, Hammarsköld, and Palmblad. The Gothic School: Geijer, Tegnér, Stagnelius, Almquist, Vitalis, Runeberg, and others. The Romance Writers: Cederborg, Bremer, Carlén, Knorring. Science: Swedenborg, Linnaeus, and others. 

GERMAN LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. German Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Mythology. --3. The Language. 

PERIOD FIRST--1. Early Literature; Translation of the Bible by Ulphilas;the Hildebrand Lied. --2. The Age of Charlemagne; his Successors; theLudwig's Lied; Roswitha; the Lombard Cycle. --3. The Suabian Age; theCrusades; the Minnesingers; the Romances of Chivalry; the Heldenbuch; theNibelungen Lied. --4. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries; theMastersingers; Satires and Fables; Mysteries and Dramatic Representations;the Mystics; the Universities; the Invention of Printing. 

PERIOD SECOND. --From 1517 to 1700. --1. The Lutheran Period: Luther, Melanchthon. --2. Manuel, Zwingle, Fischart, Franck, Arnd, Boehm. --3. Poetry, Satire, and Demonology; Paracelsus and Agrippa; the Thirty Years'War. --4. The Seventeenth Century: Opitz, Leibnitz, Puffendorf, Kepler, Wolf, Thomasius, Gerhard; Silesian Schools; Hoffmannswaldau, Lohenstein. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. The Swiss and Saxon Schools; Gottsched, Bodmer, Rabener, Gellert, Kästner, and others. --2. Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, and Herder. --3. Goethe and Schiller. --4. The Göttingen School: Voss, Stolberg, Claudius, Bürger, and others. --5. The Romantic School: the Schlegels, Novalis; Tieck, Körner, Arndt, Uhland, Heine, and others. --6. The Drama:Goethe and Schiller; the _Power Men_; Müllner, Werner, Howald, andGrillparzer. --7. Philosophy: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Hartmann. Science: Liebig, Du Bois-Raymond, Virchow, Helmholst, Haeckel. --8. Miscellaneous Writings. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. _English Literature_. Its Divisions. --2. _The Language_. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. _Celtic Literature_, Irish, Scotch, and Cymric Celts;the Chronicles of Ireland; Ossian's Poems; Traditions of Arthur; theTriads; Tales. --2. _Latin Literature_, Bede; Alcuin; Erigena. --3. _Anglo-Saxon Literature_. Poetry; Prose; Versions of Scripture; the SaxonChronicle; Alfred. 

PERIOD SECOND. --The Norman Age and the Fourteenth and FifteenthCenturies. --1. _Literature in the Latin Tongue_. --2. _Literature inNorman-French_. Poetry; Romances of Chivalry. --3. _Saxon-English_. Metrical Remains. --4. _Literature in the fourteenth Century_. --ProseWriters: Occam, Duns Scotus, Wickliffe, Mandeville, Chaucer. Poetry;Langland, Gower, Chaucer. --5. _Literature in the Fifteenth Century_. Ballads. --6. _Poets of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries inScotland_. Wyntoun, Harbour, and others. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. _Age of the Reformation_ (1509-1558). Classical, Theological, and Miscellaneous Literature: Sir Thomas More and others. Poetry: Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville; the Drama. --2. _The Age ofSpenser, Shakespeare, Bacon, and Milton_ (1558-1660). Scholastic andEcclesiastical Literature. Translations of the Bible: Hooker, Andrews, Donne. Hall, Taylor, Baxter; other Prose Writers: Fuller, Cudworth, Bacon, Hobbes, Raleigh, Milton, Sidney, Selden, Burton, Browne, and Cowley. Dramatic Poetry: Marlowe and Greene, Shakspeare, Beaumont and Fletcher, Ben Jonson, and others; Massinger, Ford, and Shirley; Decline of theDrama. Non-dramatic Poetry: Spenser and the Minor Poets. Lyrical Poets:Donne, Cowley, Denham, Waller, Milton. --3. _The Age of the Restoration andRevolution_ (1660-1702). Prose: Leighton, Tillotson, Barrow, Bunyan, Locke, and others. The Drama: Dryden, Otway. Comedy: Didactic Poetry:Roscommon, Marvell, Butler, Pryor, Dryden. --4. _The Eighteenth Century_. The _First_ Generation (1702-1727): Pope, Swift, and others; thePeriodical Essayists: Addison, Steele. The _Second_ Generation (1727-1760); Theology: Warburton, Butler, Watts, Doddridge. Philosophy: Hume. Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson; the Novelists: Richardson, Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne. The Drama; Non-dramatic Poetry: Young, Blair, Akenside, Thomson, Gray, and Collins. The _Third_ Generation (1760-1800);the Historians: Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon. Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson, Goldsmith, "Junius, " Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and Burke, Criticism: Burke, Reynolds, Campbell, Kames. Political Economy: Adam Smith. Ethics: Paley, Smith, Tucker. Metaphysics: Reid. Theological and Religious Writers:Campbell, Paley, Watson, Newton, Hannah More, and Wilberforce. Poetry:Comedies of Goldsmith and Sheridan; Minor Poets; Later Poems; Beattie'sMinstrel; Cowper and Burns. 5. _The Nineteenth Century_. The Poets:Campbell, Southey, Scott, Byron; Coleridge and Wordsworth; Wilson, Shelley, Keats; Crabbe, Moore, and others; Tennyson, Browning, Procter, and others. Fiction: the Waverley and other Novels; Dickens, Thackeray, and others. History: Arnold, Thirlwall, Grote, Macaulay, Alison, Carlyle, Freeman, Buckle. Criticism: Hallam, De Quincey, Macaulay, Carlyle, Wilson, Lamb, and others. Theology: Poster, Hall, Chalmers. Philosophy: Stewart, Brown, Mackintosh, Bentham, Alison, and others. Political Economy: Mill, Whewell, Whately, De Morgan, Hamilton. Periodical Writings: the Edinburgh, Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews, and Blackwood's Magazine. PhysicalScience: Brewster, Herschel, Playfair, Miller, Buckland, Whewell. --Since1860. I. Poets: Matthew Arnold, Algernon Swinburne, Dante Rossetti, RobertBuchanan, Edwin Arnold, "Owen Meredith, " William Morris, Jean Ingelow, Adelaide Procter, Christina Rossetti, Augusta Webster, Mary Robinson, andothers. 2. Fiction: "George Eliot, " McDonald, Collins, Black, Blackmore, Mrs. Oliphant, Yates, McCarthy, Trollope, and others. 3. ScientificWriters: Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, Tyndall, Huxley, and others. 4. Miscellaneous. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

THE COLONIAL PERIOD. --1. The Seventeenth Century. George Sandys; The BayPsalm Book; Anne Bradstreet, John Eliot, and Cotton Mather. --2. From 1700to 1770. Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, Cadwallader Colden. 

FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD, FROM 1771 TO 1820. --1. Statesmen and PoliticalWriters: Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton; The Federalist; Jay, Madison, Marshall, Fisher Ames, and others. --2. The Poets: Freneau, Trumbull, Hopkinson, Barlow, Clifton, and Dwight. --3. Writers in other Departments:Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Rush, McClurg, Lindley Murray, Charles Brockden Brown. Ramsay, Graydon. Count Rumford, Wirt, Ledyard, Pinkney, and Pike. 

SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD, FROM 1820 TO 1860. --1. History, Biography, andTravels: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Godwin, Ticknor, Schoolcraft, Hildreth, Sparks, Irving, Headley, Stephens, Kane, Squier, Perry, Lynch, Taylor, and others. --2. Oratory: Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Everett, and others. --3. Fiction: Cooper, Irving, Willis, Hawthorne, Poe, Simms, Mrs. Stowe, and others. --4. Poetry: Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Longfellow, Willis, Lowell, Allston, Hillhouse, Drake, Whittier, Hoffman, and others. --5. The Transcendental Movement in New England. --6. MiscellaneousWritings: Whipple, Tuckerman, Curtis, Brigge, Prentice, and others. --7. Encyclopaedias, Dictionaries, and Educational Books. The EncyclopaediaAmericana. The New American Cyclopaedia. Allibone, Griswold, Duyckinck, Webster, Worcester, Anthon, Felton, Barnard, and others. --8. Theology, Philosophy, Economy, and Jurisprudence: Stuart, Robinson, Wayland, Barnes, Channing, Parker. Tappan, Henry, Hickok, Haven. Carey, Kent, Wheaton, Story, Livingston, Lawrence, Bouvier. --9. Natural Sciences: Franklin, Morse, Fulton, Silliman, Dana, Hitchcock, Rogers, Bowditch, Peirce, Bache, Holbrook, Audubon, Morton, Gliddon, Maury, and others. --10. ForeignWriters: Paine, Witherspoon, Rowson, Priestley, Wilson, Agassiz, Guyot, Mrs. Robinson, Gurowski, and others. --11. Newspapers and Periodicals. --12. Since 1860. 

CONCLUSION. 

INDEX. 

LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 

The following works are the sources from which this book is wholly orchiefly derived:--

Taylor's History of the Alphabet; Dwight's Philology; Herder's Spirit ofHebrew Poetry; Lowth's Hebrew Poetry; Asiatic Researches; the works ofGesenius, De Wette, Ewald, Colebrooke, Sir William Jones, Wilson, Ward;Schlegel's Hindu Language and Literature; Max Müller's History of SanskritLiterature; and What India has taught us; Malcolm's History of Persia;Richardson on the Language of Eastern Nations; Adelung's Mithridates;Chodzko's Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia; Costello's RoseGarden of Persia; Rémusat's Mémoire sur l'Ecriture Chinoise; Davis on thePoetry of the Chinese; Williams's Middle Kingdom; The Mikado's Empire;Rein's Travels in Japan; Duhalde's Description de la Chine; Champollion'sLetters; Wilkinson's Extracts from Hieroglyphical Subjects; the works ofBunsen, Müller, and Lane; Müller's History of the Literature of AncientGreece, continued by Donaldson; Browne's History of Roman ClassicalLiterature; Fiske's Manual of Classical Literature; Sismondi's Literatureof the South of Europe; Goodrich's Universal History; Sanford's Rise andProgress of Literature; Schlegel's Lectures on the History of Literature;Schlegel's History of Dramatic Art; Tiraboschi's History of ItalianLiterature; Maffei, Corniani, and Ugoni on the same subject; Chambers'sHandbooks of Italian and German Literature; Vilmar's History of GermanLiterature; Foster's Handbook of French Literature; Nisard's Histoire dela Littérature Française; Demogeot's Histoire de la Littérature française;Ticknor's History of Spanish Literature; Talvi's (Mrs. Robinson)Literature of the Slavic Nations; Mallet's Northern Antiquities; Keyson'sReligion of the Northmen; Pigott's Northern Mythology; William and MaryHowitt's Literature and Romance of Northern Europe; De s'Gravenweert's Surla Littérature Néerlandaise; Siegenbeck's Histoire Littéraire des Pays-Bas; Da Pontes' Poets and Poetry of Germany; Menzel's German Literature;Spaulding's History of English Literature; Chambers's Cyclopaedia ofEnglish Literature; Shaw's English Literature; Stedman's Victorian Poets;Trübner's guide to American Literature; Duyckinck's Cyclopaedia ofAmerican Literature; Griswold's Poets and Prose Writers of America;Tuckerman's Sketch of American Literature; Frothingham's TranscendentalMovement in New England. French, English, and American Encyclopaedias, Biographies, Dictionaries, and numerous other works of reference have alsobeen extensively consulted. 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE ALPHABET. 

1. The Origin of Letters. --2. The Phoenician Alphabet and Inscriptions. --3, The Greek Alphabet. Its Three Epochs. --4. The Medieval Scripts. TheIrish. The Anglo-Saxon. The Roman. The Gothic. The Runic. 

1. THE ORIGIN OF LETTERS. --Alphabetic writing is an art easy to acquire, but its invention has tasked the genius of the three most gifted nationsof the ancient world. All primitive people have begun to record events andtransmit messages by means of rude pictures of objects, intended torepresent things or thoughts, which afterwards became the symbols ofsounds. For instance, the letter _M_ is traced down from theconventionalized picture of an owl in the ancient language of Egypt, _Mulak_. This was used first to denote the bird itself; then it stood forthe name of the bird; then gradually became a syllabic sign to express thesound "mu, " the first syllable of the name, and ultimately to denote "M, "the initial sound of that syllable. 

In like manner _A_ can be shown to be originally the picture of an eagle, _D_ of a hand, _F_ of the horned asp, _R_, of the mouth, and so on. 

Five systems of picture writing have been independently invented, --theEgyptian, the Cuneiform, the Chinese, the Mexican, and the Hittite. Thetradition of the ancient world, which assigned to the Phoenicians theglory of the invention of letters, declared that it was from Egypt thatthey originally derived the art of writing, which they afterwards carriedinto Greece, and the latest investigations have confirmed this tradition. 

2. THE PHOENICIAN ALPHABET. --Of the Phoenician alphabet the Samaritan isthe only living representative, the Sacred Script of the few families whostill worship on Mount Gerizim. With this exception, it is only known tous by inscriptions, of which several hundred have been discovered. Theyform two well-marked varieties, the Moabite and the Sidonian. The mostimportant monument of the first is the celebrated Moabite stone, discovered in 1868 on the site of the ancient capital of the land of Moab, portions of which are preserved in the Louvre. It gives an account of therevolt of the King of Moab against Jehoram, King of Israel, 890 B. C. Themost important inscription of the Sidonian type is that on the magnificentsarcophagus of a king of Sidon, now one of the glories of the Louvre. 

A monument of the early Hebrew alphabet, another offshoot of thePhoenician, was discovered in 1880 in an inscription in the ancient tunnelwhich conveys water to the pool of Siloam. 

3. THE GREEK ALPHABET. --The names, number, order, and forms of theprimitive Greek alphabet attest its Semitic origin. Of the manyinscriptions which remain, the earliest has been discovered, not inGreece, but upon the colossal portrait statues carved by Rameses theGreat, in front of the stupendous cave temple at Abou-Simbel, at the timewhen the Hebrews were still in Egyptian bondage. In the seventh century B. C. , certain Greek mercenaries in the service of an Egyptian king inscribeda record of their visit in five precious lines of writing, which the dryNubian atmosphere has preserved almost in their pristine sharpness. 

The legend, according to which Cadmus the Tyrian sailed for Greece insearch of Europa, the damsel who personified the West, designates theisland of Thera as the earliest site of Phoenician colonization in theAegean, and from inscriptions found there this may be regarded as thefirst spot of European soil on which words were written, and they exhibitbetter than any others the progressive form of the Cadmean alphabet. Theoldest inscriptions found on Hellenic soil bearing a definite date arethose cut on the pedestals of the statues which lined the sacred wayleading to the temple of Apollo, near Miletus. Several of those, now inthe British Museum, range in date over the sixth century B. C. They belong, not to the primitive alphabet, but to the Ionian, one of the localvarieties which mark the second stage, which may be called the epoch oftransition, which began in the seventh and lasted to the close of thefifth century B. C. It is not till the middle of the fifth century that wehave any dated monuments belonging to the Western types. Among these arethe names of the allied states of Hellas, inscribed on the coils of thethree-headed bronze serpent which supported the gold tripod dedicated tothe Delphian Apollo, 476 B. C. This famous monument was transported toByzantium by Constantine the Great, and still stands in the Hippodrome atConstantinople. Of equal interest is the bronze Etruscan helmet in theBritish Museum, dedicated to the Olympian Zeus, in commemoration of thegreat victory off Cumae, which destroyed the naval supremacy of theEtruscans, 474 B. C. , and is celebrated in an ode by Pindar. 

The third epoch witnessed the emergence of the classical alphabets ofEuropean culture, the Ionian and the Italic. 

The Ionian has been the source of the Eastern scripts, Romaic, Coptic, Slavic, and others. The Italic became the parent of the modern alphabetsof Western Europe. 

4. THE MEDIAEVAL SCRIPTS. --A variety of national scripts arose in theestablishment of the Teutonic kingdoms upon the ruins of the Roman Empire. But the most magnificent of all mediaeval scripts was the Irish, whichexercised a profound influence on the later alphabets of Europe. From acombination of the Roman and Irish arose the Anglo-Saxon script, theprecursor of that which was developed in the ninth century by Alcuin ofYork, the friend and preceptor of Charlemagne. This was the parent of theRoman alphabet, in which our books are now printed. Among otherdeteriorations, there crept in, in the fourteenth century, the Gothic orblack letter character, and these barbarous forms are still essentiallyretained by the Teutonic nations though discarded by the English and Latinraces; but from its superior excellences the Roman alphabet is constantlyextending its range and bids fair to become the sole alphabet of thefuture. In all the lands that were settled and overrun by theScandinavians, there are found multitudes of inscriptions in the ancientalphabet of the Norsemen, which is called the Runic. The latest modernresearches seem to prove that this was derived from the Greek, andprobably dates back as far as the sixth century B. C. The Goths were earlyin occupation of the regions south of the Baltic and east of the Vistula, and in direct commercial intercourse with the Greek traders, from whomthey doubtless obtained a knowledge of the Greek alphabet, as the Greeksthemselves had gained it from the Phoenicians. 

CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES. 

Modern philologists have made different classifications of the variouslanguages of the world, one of which divides them into three greatclasses: the Monosyllabic, the Agglutinated, and the Inflected. 

--The _first_, or Monosyllabic class, contains those languages whichconsist only of separate, unvaried monosyllables. The words have noorganization that adapts them for mutual affiliation, and there is inthem, accordingly, an utter absence of all scientific forms and principlesof grammar. The Chinese and a few languages in its vicinity, doubtlessoriginally identical with it, are all that belong to this class. Thelanguages of the North American Indians, though differing in manyrespects, have the same general grade of character. 

The _second_ class consists of those languages which are formed byagglutination. The words combine only in a mechanical way; they have _no_elective affinity, and exhibit toward each other none of the active orsensitive capabilities of living organisms. Prepositions are joined tosubstantives, and pronouns to verbs, but never so as to make a new form ofthe original word, as in the inflected languages, and words thus placed injuxtaposition retain their personal identity unimpaired. 

The agglutinative languages are known also as the Turanian, from Turan, aname of Central Asia, and the principal varieties of this family are theTartar, Finnish, Lappish, Hungarian, and Caucasian. They are classedtogether almost exclusively on the ground of correspondence in theirgrammatical structure, but they are bound together by ties of far lessstrength than those which connect the inflected languages. The race bywhom they are spoken has, from the first, occupied more of the surface ofthe earth than either of the others, stretching westward from the shoresof the Japan Sea to the neighborhood of Vienna, and southward from theArctic Ocean to Afghanistan and the southern coast of Asia Minor. 

The inflected languages form the _third_ great division. They have all acomplete interior organization, complicated with many mutual relations andadaptations, and are thoroughly systematic in all their parts. Betweenthis class and the monosyllabic there is all the difference that there isbetween organic and inorganic forms of matter; and between them and theagglutinative languages there is the same difference that exists in naturebetween mineral accretions and vegetable growths. The boundaries of thisclass of languages are the boundaries of cultivated humanity, and in theirhistory lies embosomed that of the civilized portions of the world. 

Two great races speaking inflected languages, the Semitic and the Indo-European, have shared between them the peopling of the historic portionsof the earth; and on this account these two languages have sometimes beencalled political or state languages, in contrast with the appellation ofthe Turanian as nomadic. The term Semitic is applied to that family oflanguages which are native in Southwestern Asia, and which are supposed tohave been spoken by the descendants of Shem, the son of Noah. They are theHebrew, Aramaeic, Arabic, the ancient Egyptian or Coptic, the Chaldaic, and Phoenician. Of these the only living language of note is the Arabic, which has supplanted all the others, and wonderfully diffused its elementsamong the constituents of many of the Asiatic tongues. In Europe theArabic has left a deep impress on the Spanish language, and is stillrepresented in the Maltese, which is one of its dialects. 

The Semitic languages differ widely from the Indo-European in reference totheir grammar, vocabulary, and idioms. On account of the greatpreponderance of the pictorial element in them, they may be called themetaphorical languages, while the Indo-European, from the prevailing styleof their higher literature, may be called the philosophical languages. TheSemitic nations also differ from the Indo-European in their nationalcharacteristics; while they have lived with remarkable uniformity on thevast open plains, or wandered over the wide and dreary deserts of theirnative region, the Indo-Europeans have spread themselves over bothhemispheres, and carried civilization to its highest development. But theSemitic mind has not been without influence on human progress. It earlyrecorded its thoughts, its wants, and achievements in the hieroglyphs ofancient Egypt; the Phoenicians, foremost in their day in commerce and thearts, introduced from Egypt alphabetic letters, of which all the world hassince made use. The Jewish portion of the race, long in communication withEgypt, Phoenicia, Babylonia, and Persia, could not fail to impart to thesenations some knowledge of their religion and literature, and it cannot bedoubted that many new ideas and quickening influences were thus set inmotion, and communicated to the more remote countries both of the East andWest. 

The most ancient languages of the Indo-European stock may be grouped intwo distinct family pairs: the Aryan, which comprises two leadingfamilies, the Indian and Iranian, and the Graeco-Italic or Pelasgic, whichcomprises the Greek family and its various dialects, and the Italicfamily, the chief-subdivisions of which are the Etruscan, the Latin, andthe modern languages derived from the Latin. The other Indo-Europeanfamilies are the Lettic, Slavic, Gothic, and Celtic, with their varioussubdivisions. 

The word Aryan (Sanskrit, Arya), the oldest known name of the entire Indo-European family, signifies well-born, and was applied by the ancientHindus to themselves in contradistinction to the rest of the world, whomthey considered base-born and contemptible. 

In the country called Aryavarta, lying between the Himalaya and theVindhya Mountains, the high table-land of Central Asia, more than twothousand years before Christ, our Hindu ancestors had their early home. From this source there have been, historically, two great streams of Aryanmigration. One, towards the south, stagnated in the fertile valleys, wherethey were walled in from all danger of invasion by the Himalaya Mountainson the north, the Indian Ocean on the south, and the deserts of Bactria onthe west, and where the people sunk into a life of inglorious ease, orwasted their powers in the regions of dreamy mysticism. The othermigration, at first northern, and then western, includes the greatfamilies of nations in Northwestern Asia and in Europe. Forced bycircumstances into a more objective life, and under the stimulus of morefavorable influences, these nations have been brought into a marvelousstate of individual and social progress, and to this branch of the humanfamily belongs all the civilization of the present, and most of that whichdistinguishes the past. 

The Indo-European family of languages far surpasses the Semitic invariety, flexibility, beauty, and strength. It is remarkable for itsvitality, and has the power of continually regenerating itself andbringing forth new linguistic creations. It renders most faithfully thevarious workings of the human mind, its wants, its aspirations, itspassion, imagination, and reasoning power, and is most in harmony with theever progressive spirit of man. In its varied scientific and artisticdevelopment it forms the most perfect family of languages on the globe, and modern civilization, by a chain reaching through thousands of years, ascends to this primitive source. 

CHINESE LITERATURE. 

1. Chinese literature. --2. The Language. --3. The Writing. --4. The fiveClassics and four Books. --5. Chinese Religion and Philosophy, Lao-tsé, Confucius, Meng-tsé or Mencius. --6. Buddhism. --7. Social Constitution ofChina. --8. Invention of Printing. --9. Science, History, and Geography. Encyclopaedias. --10. Poetry. --11. Dramatic Literature and Fiction. --12. Education in China. 

1. CHINESE LITERATURE. --The Chinese literature is one of the mostvoluminous of all literatures, and among the most important of those ofAsia. Originating in a vast empire, it is diffused among a populationnumbering nearly half the inhabitants of the globe. It is expressed by anoriginal language differing from all others, it refers to a nation whosehistory may be traced back nearly five thousand years in an almostunbroken series of annals, and it illustrates the peculiar character of apeople long unknown to the Western world. 

2. THE LANGUAGE. --The date of the origin of this language is lost inantiquity, but there is no doubt that it is the most ancient now spoken, and probably the oldest written language used by man. It has undergone fewalterations during successive ages, and this fact has served to deepen thelines of demarkation between the Chinese and other branches of the raceand has resulted in a marked national life. It belongs to the monosyllabicfamily; its radical words number 450, but as many of these, by beingpronounced with a different accent convey a different meaning, in realitythey amount to 1, 203. Its pronunciation varies in different provinces, butthat of Nanking, the ancient capital of the Empire, is the most pure. Manydialects are spoken in the different provinces, but the Chinese proper isthe literary tongue of the nation, the language of the court and of politesociety, and it is vernacular in that portion of China called the MiddleKingdom. 

3. THE WRITING. --There is an essential difference between the Chineselanguage as spoken and written, and the poverty of the former presents astriking contrast with the exuberance of the latter. Chinese writing, generally speaking, does not express the sounds of the words, but itrepresents the ideas or the objects indicated by them. Its alphabeticalcharacters are therefore ideographic, and not phonetic. They wereoriginally rude representations of the thing signified; but they haveundergone various changes from picture-writing to the present moresymbolical and more complete system. 

As the alphabetic signs represent objects or ideas, it would follow thatthere must be in writing as many characters as words in the spokenlanguage. Yet many words, which have the same sound, represent differentideas; and these must be represented also in the written language. Thusthe number of the written words far surpasses that of the spoken language. As far as they are used in the common writing, they amount to 2, 425. Thenumber of characters in the Chinese dictionary is 40, 000, of which, however, only 10, 000 are required for the general purposes of literature. They are disposed under 214 signs, which serve as keys, and whichcorrespond to our alphabetic order. 

The Chinese language is written, from right to left, in vertical columnsor in horizontal lines. 

4. THE CLASSICS. --The first five canonical books are "The Book ofTransformations, " "The Book of History, " "The Book of Rites, " "The Springand Autumn Annals, " and "The Book of Odes"

"The Book of Transformations" consists of sixty-four short essays onimportant themes, symbolically and enigmatically expressed, based onlinear figures and diagrams. These cabala are held in high esteem by thelearned, and the hundreds of fortune-tellers in the streets of Chinesetowns practice their art on the basis of these mysteries. 

"The Book of History" was compiled by Confucius, 551-470 B. C. , from theearliest records of the Empire, and in the estimation of the Chinese itcontains the seeds of all that is valuable in their political system, their history, and their religious rites, and is the basis of theirtactics, music, and astronomy. It consists mainly of conversations betweenkings and their ministers, in which are traced the same patriarchalprinciples of government that guide the rulers of the present day. 

"The Book of Rites" is still the rule by which the Chinese regulate allthe relations of life. No every-day ceremony is too insignificant toescape notice, and no social or domestic duty is beyond its scope. No workof the classics has left such an impression on the manners and customs ofthe people. Its rules are still minutely observed, and the office of theBoard of Rites, one of the six governing boards of Peking, is to see thatits precepts are carried out throughout the Empire. According to thissystem, all the relations of man to the family, society, the state, tomorals, and to religion, are reduced to ceremonial, but this includes notonly the external conduct, but it involves those right principles fromwhich all true politeness and etiquette spring. 

The "Book of Odes" consists of national airs, chants, and sacrificial odesof great antiquity, some of them remarkable for their sublimity. It isdifficult to estimate the power they have exerted over all subsequentgenerations of Chinese scholars. They are valuable for their religiouscharacter and for their illustration of early Chinese customs andfeelings; but they are crude in measure, and wanting in that harmony whichcomes from study and cultivation. 

The "Spring and Autumn Annals" consist of bald statements of historicalfacts. Of the Four Books, the first three--the "Great Learning, " the "JustMedium, " and the "Confucian Analects"--are by the pupils and followers ofConfucius. The last of the four books consists entirely of the writings ofMencius (371-288 B. C. ). In originality and breadth of view he is superiorto Confucius, and must be regarded as one of the greatest men Asiaticnations have produced. 

The Five Classics and Four Books would scarcely be considered more thancuriosities in literature were it not for the incomparable influence, freefrom any debasing character, which they have exerted over so many millionsof minds. 

5. CHINESE RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY. --Three periods may be distinguished inthe history of the religious and philosophical progress of China. Thefirst relates to ancient tradition, to the idea of one supreme God, to thepatriarchal institutions, which were the foundation of the socialorganization of the Empire, and to the primitive customs and moraldoctrines. It appears that this religion at length degenerated into thatmingled idolatry and indifference which still characterizes the people ofChina. 

In the sixth century B. C. , the corruption of the ancient religion havingreached its height, a reaction took place which gave birth to the second, or philosophical period, which produced three systems. Lao-tsé, born 604B. C. , was the founder of the religion of the Tao, or of the external andsupreme reason. The Tao is the primitive existence and intelligence, thegreat principle of the spiritual and material world, which must beworshiped through the purification of the soul, by retirement, abnegation, contemplation, and metempsychosis. This school gave rise to a sect ofmystics similar to those of India. 

Later writers have debased the system of Lao-tsé, and cast aside hisprofound speculations for superstitious rituals and the multiplication ofgods and goddesses. 

Confucius was the founder of the second school, which has exerted a farmore extensive and beneficial influence on the political and socialinstitutions of China. Confucius is a Latin name, corresponding to theoriginal Kung-fu-tsé, Kung being the proper name, and Fu-tsé signifyingreverend teacher or doctor. He was born 551 B. C. , and educated by hismother, who impressed upon him a strong sense of morality. After a carefulstudy of the ancient writings he decided to undertake the moral reform ofhis country, and giving up his high position of prime minister, hetraveled extensively in China, preaching justice and virtue wherever hewent. His doctrines, founded on the unity of God and the necessities ofhuman nature, bore essentially a moral character, and being of a practicaltendency, they exerted a great influence not only on the morals of thepeople, but also on their legislation, and the authority of Confuciusbecame supreme. He died 479 B. C. , at the age of seventy-two, eleven yearsbefore the birth of Socrates. He left a grandson, through whom thesuccession has been transmitted to the present day, and his descendantsconstitute a distinct class in Chinese society. 

At the close of the fourth century B. C. , another philosopher appeared bythe name of Meng-tsé, or Mencius (eminent and venerable teacher), whosemethod of instruction bore a strong similarity to that of Socrates. Hisbooks rank among the classics, and breathe a spirit of freedom andindependence; they are full of irony on petty sovereigns and on theirvices; they establish moral goodness above social position, and the willof the people above the arbitrary power of their rulers. He was muchrevered, and considered bolder and more eloquent than Confucius. 

6. The third period of the intellectual development of the Chinese datesfrom the introduction of Buddhism into the country, under the name of thereligion of Fo, 70 A. D. The emperor himself professes this religion, andits followers have the largest number of temples. The great bulk ofBuddhist literature is of Indian origin. Buddhism, however, has lost inChina much of its originality, and for the mass it has sunk into a low anddebasing idolatry. Recently a new religion has sprung up in China, amixture of ancient Chinese and Christian doctrines, which apparently findsgreat favor in some portions of the country. 

7. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF CHINA. --The social constitution of China restson the ancient traditions preserved in the canonical and classic books. The Chinese empire is founded on the patriarchal system, in which allauthority over the family belongs to the _pater familias_. The emperorrepresents the great father of the nation, and is the supreme master ofthe state and the head of religion. All his subjects being considered ashis children, they are all equal before him, and according to theircapacity are admitted to the public offices. Hence no distinction ofcastes, no privileged classes, no nobility of birth; but a generalequality under an absolute chief. The public administration is entirely inthe hands of the emperor, who is assisted by his mandarins, both militaryand civil. They are admitted to this rank only after severe examinations, and from them the members of the different councils of the empire areselected. Among these the Board of Control, or the all-examining Court, and the Court of History and Literature deserve particular mention, asbeing more closely related to the subject of this work. The duty of thisboard consists in examining all the official acts of the government, andin preventing the enacting of those measures which they may deemdetrimental to the best interests of the country. They can even reprovethe personal acts of the emperor, an office which has afforded manyoccasions for the display of eloquence. The courage of some of the membersof this board has been indeed sublime, giving to their words wonderfulpower. 

The Court of History and Literature superintends public education, examines those who aspire to the degree of mandarins, and decides on thepecuniary subsidies, which the government usually grants for defraying theexpenses of the publication of great works on history and science. 

8. INVENTION OF PRINTING. --At the close of the sixth century B. C. It wasordained that various texts in circulation should be engraved on wood tobe printed and published. At first comparatively little use seems to havebeen made of the invention, which only reached its full development in theeleventh century, when movable types were first invented by a Chineseblacksmith, who printed books with them nearly five hundred years beforeGutenberg appeared. 

In the third century B. C. , one of the emperors conceived the mad scheme ofdestroying all existing records, and writing a new set of annals in hisown name, in order that posterity might consider him the founder of theempire. Sixty years after this barbarous decree had been carried intoexecution, one of his successors, who desired as far as possible to repairthe injury, caused these books to be re-written from a copy which hadescaped destruction. 

9. SCIENCE, HISTORY, AND GEOGRAPHY. --Comparing the scientific developmentof the Chinese with that of the Western world, it may be said that theyhave made little progress in any branch of science. There are, however, tobe found in almost every department some works of no indifferent merit. Inmathematics they begin only now to make some progress, since themathematical works of Europe have been introduced into their country. Astrology still takes the place of astronomy, and the almanacs prepared atthe observatory of Peking are made chiefly by foreigners. Books on naturalphilosophy abound, some of which are written by the emperors themselves. Medicine is imperfectly understood. They possess several valuable works onChinese jurisprudence, on agriculture, economy, mechanics, trades, manycyclopaedias and compendia, and several dictionaries, composed withextraordinary skill and patience. 

To this department may be referred all educational books, the most of themwritten in rhyme, and according to a system of intellectual gradation. 

The historical and geographical works of China are the most valuable andinteresting department of its literature. Each dynasty has its officialchronicle, and the celebrated collection of twenty-one histories forms analmost unbroken record of the annals from, the third century B. C. To themiddle of the seventeenth century, and contains a vast amount ofinformation to European readers. The edition of this huge work, in sixty-six folio volumes, is to be found in the British Museum. This and manysimilar works of a general and of a local character unite in renderingthis department rich and important for those who are interested in thehistory of Asiatic civilization. "The General Geography of the ChineseEmpire" is a collection of the statistics of the country, with maps andtables, in two hundred and sixty volumes. The "Statutes of the ReigningDynasty, " from the year 1818, form more than one thousand volumes. Chinesetopographical works are characterized by a minuteness of detail rarelyequaled. 

Historical and literary encyclopaedias form a very notable feature in allChinese libraries. These works show great research, clearness, andprecision, and are largely drawn upon by European scholars. Early in thelast century one of the emperors appointed a commission to reprint in onegreat collection all the works they might think worthy of preservation. The result was a compilation of 6, 109 volumes, arranged under thirty-twoheads, embracing works on every subject contained in the nationalliterature. This work is unique of its kind, and the largest in the world. 

10. POETRY. --The first development of literary talent in China, aselsewhere, is found in poetry, and in the earliest days songs and balladswere brought as offerings from the various principalities to the heads ofgovernment. At the time of Confucius there existed a collection of threethousand songs, from which he selected those contained in the "Book ofOdes. " There is not much sublimity or depth of thought in these odes, butthey abound in touches of nature, and are exceedingly interesting andcurious, as showing how little change time has effected in the manners andcustoms of this singular people. Similar in character are the poems of theTshian-teng-shi, another collection of lyrics published at the expense ofthe emperor, in several thousand volumes. Among modern poets may bementioned the Emperor Khian-lung, who died at the close of the lastcentury. 

After the time of Confucius the change in Chinese poetry became verymarked, and, instead of the peaceful tone of his day, it reflected theunsettled condition of social and political affairs. The simple, monotheistic faith was exchanged for a superstitious belief in a host ofgods and goddesses, a contempt for life, and an uncertainty of all beyondit. The period between 620 and 907 A. D. , was one of great prosperity, andis looked upon as the golden age. 

11. DRAMATIC LITERATURE AND FICTION. --Chinese literature affords noinstance of real dramatic poetry or sustained effort of the imagination. The "Hundred Plays of the Yuen Dynasty" is the most celebrated collection, and many have been translated into European languages. One of them, "TheOrphan of China, " served as the groundwork of Voltaire's tragedy of thatname. The drama, however, constitutes a large department in Chineseliterature, though there are, properly speaking, no theatres in China. Aplatform in the open air is the ordinary stage, the decorations arehangings of cotton supported by a few poles of bamboo, and the action isfrequently of the coarsest kind. When an actor comes on the stage, hesays, "I am the mandarin so-and-so. " If the drama requires the actor toenter a house, he takes some steps and says, "I have entered;" and if heis supposed to travel, he does so by rapid running on the stage, crackinghis whip, and saying afterwards, "I have arrived. " The dialogue is writtenpartly in verse and partly in prose, and the poetry is sometimes sung andsometimes recited. Many of their dramas are full of bustle and abound inincident. They often contain the life and adventures of an individual, some great sovereign or general, a history, in fact, thrown into action. Two thousand volumes of dramatic compositions are known, and the best ofthese amount to five hundred pieces. Among them may be mentioned the"Orphan of the House of Tacho, " and the "Heir in Old Age, " which have muchforce and character, and vividly describe the habits of the people. 

The Chinese are fond of historical and moral romances, which, however, arefounded on reason and not on imagination, as are the Hindu and Persiantales. Their subjects are not submarine abysses, enchanted palaces, giantsand genii, but man as he is in his actual life, as he lives with hisfellow-men, with all his virtues and vices, sufferings and joys. But theChinese novelists show more skill in the details than in the conception oftheir works; the characters are finished and developed in every respect. The pictures with which they adorn their works are minute and thedescriptions poetical, though they often sacrifice to these qualities theunity of the subject. The characters of their novels are principally drawnfrom the middle class, as governors, literary men, etc. The episodes are, generally speaking, ordinary actions of common life--all the quietincidents of the phlegmatic life of the Chinese, coupled with the regularand mechanical movements which distinguish that people. Among thenumberless Chinese romances there are several which are consideredclassic. Such are the "Four Great Marvels' Books, " and the "Stories of thePirates on the Coast of Kiangnan. "

12. EDUCATION IN CHINA. Most of the Chinese people have a knowledge of therudiments of education. There is scarcely a man who does not know how toread the hooks of his profession. Public schools are everywhereestablished; in the cities there are colleges, in which pupils are taughtthe Chinese literature; and in Peking there is an imperial college for theeducation of the mandarins. The offices of the empire are only attained byscholarship. There are four literary degrees, which give title todifferent positions in the country. The government fosters the higherbranches of education and patronizes the publication of literary works, which are distributed among the libraries, colleges, and functionaries. The press is restricted only from publishing licentious and revolutionarybooks. 

The future literature of China in many branches will be greatly modifiedby the introduction of foreign knowledge and influences. 

JAPANESE LITERATURE

1. The Language. --2. The Religion. --3. The Literature. Influence ofWomen. --4. History. --5. The Drama and Poetry. --6. Geography. Newspapers. Novels. Medical Science. --7. Position of Woman. 

1. THE LANGUAGE. --The Japanese is considered as belonging to the isolatedlanguages, as philologists have thus far failed to classify it. It isagglutinative in its syntax, each word consisting of an unchangeable rootand one or several suffixes. Before the art of writing was known, poems, odes to the gods, and other fragments which still exist had been composedin this tongue, and it is probable that a much larger literature existed. During the first centuries of writing in Japan, the spoken and writtenlanguage was identical, but with the study of the Chinese literature andthe composition of native works almost exclusively in that language, theregrew up differences between the colloquial and literary idiom, and theinfusion of Chinese words steadily increased. In writing, the Chinesecharacters occupy the most important place. But all those words whichexpress the wants, feelings, and concerns of everyday life, all that isdeepest in the human heart, are for the most part native. If we wouldtrace the fountains of the musical and beautiful language of Japan, wemust seek them in the hearts and hear them flow from the lips of themothers of the Island Empire. Among the anomalies with which Japan hassurprised and delighted the world may be claimed that of woman'sachievements in the domain of letters. It was woman's services, not man's, that made the Japanese a literary language, and under her influence themobile forms of speech crystallized into perennial beauty. 

The written language has heretofore consisted mainly of charactersborrowed from the Chinese, each character representing an idea of its own, so that in order to read and write the student must make himselfacquainted with several thousand characters, and years are required togain proficiency in these elementary arts. There also exists in Japan asyllabary alphabet of forty-seven characters, used at present as anauxiliary to the Chinese. Within a very recent period, since theacquisition of knowledge has become a necessity in Japan, a society hasbeen formed by the most prominent men of the empire, for the purpose ofassimilating the spoken and written language, taking the forty-sevennative characters as the basis. 

2. RELIGION. --The two great religions of Japan are Shintoism and Buddhism. The chief characteristic of the Shinto religion is the worship ofancestors, the deification of emperors, heroes, and scholars, and theadoration of the personified forces of nature. It lays down no precepts, teaches no morals or doctrines, and prescribes no ritual. 

The number of Shinto deities is enormous. In its higher form the chiefobject of the Shinto faith is to enjoy this life; in its lower forms itconsists in a blind obedience to governmental and priestly dictates. 

On the recent accession of the Mikado to his former supreme power, anattempt was made to restore this ancient faith, but it failed, and Japancontinues as it has been for ten centuries in the Buddhist faith. 

The religion of Buddha was introduced into Japan 581 A. D. , and has exerteda most potent influence in forming the Japanese character. 

The Protestants of Japanese Buddhism are the followers of Shinran, 1262A. D. , who have wielded a vast influence in the religious development ofthe people both for good and evil. In this creed prayer, purity, andearnestness of life are insisted upon. The Scriptures of other sects arewritten in Sanskrit and Chinese which only the learned are able to read, those of the Shin sect are in the vernacular Japanese idiom. After thedeath of Shinran, Rennio, who died in 1500 A. D. , produced sacred writingsnow daily read by the disciples of this denomination. 

Though greatly persecuted, the Shin sect have continually increased innumbers, wealth, and power, and now lead all in intelligence andinfluence. Of late they have organized their theological schools on themodel of foreign countries that their young men may be trained to resistthe Shinto and Christian faiths. 

3. THE LITERATURE. INFLUENCE OF WOMEN. --Previous to the fourteenth centurylearning in Japan was confined to the court circle. The fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries are the dark ages when militarydomination put a stop to all learning except with, a few priests. With theseventeenth century begins the modern period of general culture. Thepeople are all fond of reading, and it is very common to see circulatinglibraries carried from house to house on the backs of men. 

As early as the tenth century, while the learned affected a pedantic styleso interlarded with Chinese as to be unintelligible, the cultivation ofthe native tongue was left to the ladies of the court, a task which theynobly discharged. It is a remarkable fact, without parallel in the historyof letters, that a very large proportion of the best writings of the bestages was the work of women, and their achievement in the domain of lettersis one of the anomalies with which Japan has surprised and delighted theworld. It was their genius that made the Japanese a literary language. Thenames and works of these authoresses are quoted at the present day. 

4. HISTORY. --The earliest extant Japanese record is a work entitled"Kojiki, " or book of ancient traditions. It treats of the creation, thegods and goddesses of the mythological period, and gives the history ofthe Mikados from the accession of Jimmu, year 1 (660 B. C. ), to 1288 of theJapanese year. It was supposed to date from the first half of the eighthcentury, and another work "Nihonghi, " a little later, also treats of themythological period. It abounds in traces of Chinese influence, and in ameasure supersedes the "Kojiki. " These are the oldest books in thelanguage. They are the chief exponents of the Shinto faith, and form thebases of many commentaries and subsequent works. 

The "History of Great Japan, " composed in the latter part of theseventeenth century, by the Lord of Mito (died 1700), is the standardhistory of the present day. The external history of Japan, in twenty-twovolumes, by Rai Sanyo (died 1832), composed in classical Chinese, is mostwidely read by men of education. 

The Japanese are intensely proud of their history and take great care inmaking and preserving records. Memorial stones are among the most strikingsights on the highways and in the towns, villages, and temple yards, inhonor of some noted scholar, ruler, or benefactor. Few people are morethoroughly informed as to their own history. Every city, town, and villagehas its annals. Family records are faithfully copied from generation togeneration. Almost every province has its encyclopaedic history, and everyhigh-road its itineraries and guide-books, in which famous places andevents are noted. In the large cities professional story-tellers andreaders gain a lucrative livelihood by narrating both legendary andclassical history, and the theatre is often the most faithful mirror ofactual history. There are hundreds of child's histories in Japan. Many ofthe standard works are profusely illustrated, are models of style andeloquence, and parents delight to instruct their children in the nationallaws and traditions. 

5. THE DRAMA. --The theatre is a favorite amusement, especially among thelower classes; the pieces represented are of a popular character andwritten in colloquial language, and generally founded on national historyand tradition, or on the lives and adventures of the heroes and gods; andthe scene is always laid in Japan. The play begins in the morning andlasts all day, spectators bringing their food with them. No classicaldramatic author is known. 

Poetry has always been a favorite study with the Japanese. The mostancient poetical fragment, called a "Collection of Myriad Leaves, " datesfrom the eighth century. The collection of "One Hundred Persons" is muchlater, and contains many poems written by the emperors themselves. TheJapanese possess no great epic or didactic poems, although some of theirlyrics are happy examples of quaint modes of thought and expression. It isdifficult to translate them into a foreign tongue. 

6. GEOGRAPHY. NEWSPAPERS AND NOVELS. --The largest section of Japaneseliterature is that treating of the local geography of the country itself. These works are minute in detail and of great length, describing eventsand monuments of historic interest. 

Before the recent revolution bat one newspaper existed in Japan, but atpresent the list numbers several hundred. Freedom of the press is unknown, and fines and imprisonment for violation of the stringent laws are veryfrequent. 

Novels constitute a large section of Japanese literature. Fairy tales andstory books abound. Many of them are translated into English; "The RoyalRonans" and other works have recently been published in New York. 

Medical science was borrowed from China, but upon this, as upon othermatters, the Japanese improved. Acupuncture, or the introduction ofneedles into the living tissues for remedial purposes, was invented by theJapanese, as was the moxa, or the burning of the flesh for the samepurpose. 

7. POSITION OF WOMAN. --Women in Japan are treated with far more respectand consideration than elsewhere in the East. According to Japanesehistory the women of the early centuries were possessed of moreintellectual and physical vigor, filling the offices of state andreligion, and reaching a high plane of social dignity and honor. Of theone hundred and twenty-three Japanese sovereigns, nine have been women. The great heroine of Japanese history and tradition was the Empress Jingu, renowned for her beauty, piety, intelligence, and martial valor, who, about 200 A. D. , invaded and conquered Corea. 

The female children of the lower classes receive tuition in privateschools so generally established during the last two centuries throughoutthe country, and those of the higher classes at the hands of privatetutors or governesses; and in every household may be found a great numberof books exclusively on the duties of women. 

SANSKRIT LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. The Social Constitution of India. Brahmanism. --3. Characteristics of the Literature and its Divisions. --4. The Vedas andother Sacred Books. --5. Sanskrit Poetry; Epic; The Ramayana andMahabharata. Lyric Poetry. Didactic Poetry; the Hitopadesa. DramaticPoetry. --6. . History and Science. --7. Philosophy. 8. Buddhism. --9. MoralPhilosophy. The Code of Manu. --10. Modern Literatures of India. --11. Education. The Brahmo Somaj. 

1. THE LANGUAGE. --Sanskrit is the literary language of the Hindus, and fortwo thousand years has served as the means of learned intercourse andcomposition. The name denotes _cultivated_ or _perfected_, in distinctionto the Prakrit or _uncultivated_, which sprang from it and wascontemporary with it. 

The study of Sanskrit by European scholars dates less than a century back, and it is important as the vehicle of an immense literature which laysopen the outward and inner life of a remarkable people from a remote epochnearly to the present day, and as being the most ancient and original ofthe Indo-European languages, throwing light upon them all. The Aryan orIndo-European race had its ancient home in Central Asia. Colonies migratedto the west and founded the Persian, Greek, and Roman civilization, andsettled in Spain and England. Other branches found their way through thepasses of the Himalayas and spread themselves over India. Wherever theywent they asserted their superiority over the earlier people whom theyfound in possession of the soil, and the history of civilization iseverywhere the history of the Aryan race. The forefathers of the Greek andRoman, of the Englishman and the Hindu, dwelt together in India, spoke thesame language, and worshiped the same gods. The languages of Europe andIndia are merely different forms of the original Aryan speech. This isespecially true of the words of common family life. _Father, mother, brother, sister_, and _widow_, are substantially the same in most of theAryan languages, whether spoken on the banks of the Ganges, the Tiber, orthe Thames. The word _daughter_, which occurs in nearly all of them, isderived from the Sanskrit word signifying _to draw milk_, and preservesthe memory of the time when the daughter was the little milkmaid in theprimitive Aryan household. 

It is probable that as late as the third or fourth century B. C. It wasstill spoken. New dialects were engrafted upon it which at lengthsuperseded it, though it has continued to be revered as the sacred andliterary language of the country. Among the modern tongues of India, theHindui and the Hindustani may be mentioned; the former, the language ofthe pure Hindu population, is written in Sanskrit characters; the latteris the language of the Mohammedan Hindus, in which Arabic letters areused. Many of the other dialects spoken and written in Northern India arederived from the Sanskrit. Of the more important among them there areEnglish grammars and dictionaries. 

2. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF INDIA. --Hindu literature takes its characterboth from the social and the religious institutions of the country. Thesocial constitution is based on the distinction of classes into which thepeople, from the earliest times, have been divided, and which were thenatural effect of the long struggle between the aboriginal tribes and thenew race which had invaded India. These castes are four: 1st. The Brahminsor priests; 2d. The warriors and princes; 3d. The husbandmen; 4th. Thelaborers. There are, besides, several impure classes, the result of anintermingling of the different castes. Of these lower classes some areconsidered utterly abominable--as that of the Pariahs. The differentcastes are kept distinct from each other by the most rigorous laws; thoughin modern times the system has been somewhat modified. 

THE RELIGION. 

In the period of the Vedas the religion of the Hindus was founded on thesimple worship of Nature. But the Pantheism of this age was graduallysuperseded by the worship of the one Brahm, from which, according to thisbelief, the soul emanated, and to which it seeks to return. Brahm is animpersonality, the sum of all nature, the germ of all that is. Existencehas no purpose, the world is wholly evil, and all good persons shoulddesire to be taken out of it and to return to Brahm. This end is to beattained only by transmigration of the soul through all previous stages oflife, migrating into the body of a higher or lower being according to thesins or merits of its former existence, either to finish or begin anew itspurification. This religion of the Hindus led to the growth of aphilosophy the precursor of that of Greece, whose aims were loftier andwhose methods more ingenious. 

From Brahm, the impersonal soul of the universe, emanated the personal andactive Brahma, who with Siva and Vishnu constitute the Trimurti or godunder three forms. 

Siva is the second of the Hindu deities, and represents the primitiveanimating and destroying forces of nature. His symbols relate to thesepowers, and are worshiped more especially by the Sivaites--a numerous sectof this religion. The worshipers of Vishnu, called the Preserver, thefirst-born of Brahma, constitute the most extensive sect of India, andtheir ideas relating to this form of the Divinity are represented bytradition and poetry, and are particularly developed in the greatmonuments of Sanskrit literature. The myths connected with Vishnu referespecially to his incarnations or corporeal apparitions both in men andanimals, which he submits to in order to conquer the spirit of evil. 

These incarnations are called Avatars, or descendings, and form animportant part of Hindu epic poetry. Of the ten Avatars which areattributed to Vishnu, nine have already taken place; the last is yet tocome, when the god shall descend again from heaven, to destroy the presentworld, and to restore peace and parity. The three forms of the Deity, emanating mutually from each other, are expressed by the three symbols, AU M, three letters in Sanskrit having but one sound, forming the mysticalname _Om_, which never escapes the lips of the Hindus, but is meditated onin silence. The predominant worship of one or the other of these formsconstitutes the peculiarities of the numerous sects of this religion. 

There are other inferior divinities, symbols of the forces of nature, guardians of the world, demi-gods, demons, and heroes, whose worship, however, is considered as a mode of reaching that divine rest, immersionand absorption in Brahm. To this end are directed the sacrifices, theprayers, the ablutions, the pilgrimages, and the penances, which occupy solarge a place in the Hindu worship. 

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --A greater part ofthe Sanskrit literature, which counts its works by thousands, stillremains in manuscript. It was nearly all composed in metre, even works oflaw, morality, and science. Every department of knowledge and every branchof inquiry is represented, with the single exception of history, and thisforms the most striking general characteristic of the literature, and onewhich robs it of a great share of worth and interest. Its place is in theintellectual rather than in the political history of the world. 

The literary monuments of the Sanskrit language correspond to the greateras in the history of India. The first period reaches back to that remoteage, when those tribes of the Aryan race speaking Sanskrit emigrated tothe northwestern portion of the Indian Peninsula, and establishedthemselves there, an agricultural and pastoral people. That was the age inwhich were composed the prayers, hymns, and precepts afterwards collectedin the form of the Vedas, the sacred books of the country. In the secondperiod, the people, incited by the desire of conquest, penetrated into thefertile valleys lying between the Indus and the Ganges; and the strugglewith the aboriginal inhabitants, which followed their invasion, gave birthto epic poetry, in which the wars of the different races were celebratedand the extension of Hindu civilization related. The third period embracesthe successive ages of the formation and development of a learned andartistic literature. It contains collections of the ancient traditions, expositions of the Vedas, works on grammar, lexicography, and science; andits conclusion forms the golden age of Sanskrit literature, when, thecountry being ruled by liberal princes, poetry, and especially the drama, reached its highest degree of perfection. 

The chronology of these periods varies according to the systems ofdifferent orientalists. It is, however, admitted that the Vedas are thefirst literary productions of India, and that their origin cannot be laterthan the fifteenth century B. C. The period of the Vedas embraces the othersacred books, or commentaries founded upon them, though written severalcenturies afterwards. The second period, to which belong the two greatepic poems, the "Ramayana" and the "Mahabharata, " according to the bestauthorities ends with the sixth or seventh century B. C. The third periodembraces all the poetical and scientific works written from that time tothe third or fourth century B. C. , when the language, having beenprogressively refined, became fixed in the writings of Kalidasa, Jayadeva, and other poets. A fourth period, including the tenth century A. D. , may beadded, distinguished by its erudition, grammatical, rhetorical, andscientific disquisitions, which, however, is not considered as belongingto the classical age. From the Hindu languages, originating in theSanskrit, new literatures have sprung; but they are essentially founded onthe ancient literature, which far surpasses them in extent and importance, and is the great model of them all. Indeed, its influence has not beenlimited to India; all the poetical and scientific works of Asia, China, and Japan included, have borrowed largely from it, and in Southern Russiathe scanty literature of the Kalmucks is derived entirely from Hindusources. The Sanskrit literature, known to Europe only recently, throughthe researches of the English and German orientalists, has now become theauxiliary and foundation of all philological studies. 

4. THE VEDAS AND OTHER SACRED BOOKS. --The Vedas (knowledge or science) arethe Bible of the Hindus, the most ancient book of the Aryan family, andcontain the revelation of Brahm which was preserved by tradition andcollected by Vyasa, a name which means compiler. The word Veda, however, should be taken, as a collective name for the sacred literature of theVedic age which forms the background of the whole Indian world. Many worksbelonging to that age are lost, though a large number still exists. 

The most important of the Vedas are three in number. First, The "Rig-Veda, " which is the great literary memorial of the settlement of theAryans in the Punjaub, and of their religious hymns and songs. Second, The"Yajur-Veda. " Third, The "Sama-Veda. "

Each Veda divided into two parts: the first contains prayers andinvocations, most of which are of a rhythmical character; the secondrecords the precepts relative to those prayers and to the ceremonies ofthe sacrifices, and describes the religious myths and symbols. 

There are many commentaries on the Vedas of an ancient date, which areconsidered as sacred books, and relate to medicine, music, astronomy, astrology, grammar, philosophy, jurisprudence, and, indeed, to the wholecircle of Hindu science. 

They represent a period of unknown antiquity, when the Aryans were dividedinto tribes of which the chieftain was the father and priest, and whenwomen held a high position. Some of the most beautiful hymns of this agewere composed by ladies and queens. The morals of Avyan, a woman of anearly age, are still taught in the Hindu schools as the golden rule oflife. 

India to-day acknowledges no higher authority in matters of religion, ceremonial, customs, and law than the Vedas, and the spirit of Vedantism, which is breathed by every Hindu from his earliest youth, pervades theprayers of the idolater, the speculations of the philosopher, and theproverbs of the beggar. 

The "Puranas" (ancient writings) hold an eminent rank in the religion andliterature of the Hindus. Though of a more recent date than the Vedas, they possess the credit of an ancient and divine origin, and exercise anextensive and practical influence upon the people. They comprise vastcollections of ancient traditions relating to theology, cosmology, and tothe genealogy of gods and heroes. There are eighteen acknowledged Puranas, which altogether contain 400, 000 stanzas. The "Upapuranas, " also eighteenin number, are commentaries on the Puranas. Finally, to the sacred books, and next to the Vedas both in antiquity and authority, belong the"Manavadharmasastra, " or the ordinances of Manu, spoken of hereafter. 

5. SANSKRIT POETRY. --This poetry, springing from the lively and powerfulimagination of the Hindus, is inspired by their religious doctrines, andembodied in the most harmonious language. Exalted by their peculiar beliefin pantheism and metempsychosis, they consider the universe and themselvesas directly emanating from Brahm, and they strive to lose their ownindividuality, in its infinite essence. Yet, as impure beings, they feeltheir incapacity to obtain the highest moral perfection, except through acontinual atonement, to which all nature is condemned. Hence Hindu poetryexpresses a profound melancholy, which pervades the character as well asthe literature of that people. This poetry breathes a spirit of perpetualsacrifice of the individual self, as the ideal of human life. The bards ofIndia, inspired by this predominant feeling, have given to poetry nearlyevery form it has assumed in the Western world, and in each and all theyhave excelled. 

Sanskrit poetry is both metrical and rhythmical, equally free from theconfused strains of unmoulded genius and from the servile pedantry ofconventional rules. The verse of eight syllables is the source of allother metres, and the _sloka_ or double distich is the stanza mostfrequently used. Though this poetry presents too often extravagance ofideas, incumbrance of episodes, and monstrosity of images, as a generalrule it is endowed with simplicity of style, pure coloring, sublime ideas, rare figures, and chaste epithets. Its exuberance must be attributed tothe strange mythology of the Hindus, to the immensity of the fables whichconstitute the groundwork of their poems, and to the gigantic strength oftheir poetical imaginations. A striking peculiarity of Sanskrit poetry isits extensive use in treating of those subjects apparently the mostdifficult to reduce to a metrical form--not only the Vedas and Manu's codeare composed in verse, but the sciences are expressed in this form. Evenin the few works which may be called prose, the style is so modulated andbears so great a resemblance to the language of poetry as scarcely to bedistinguished from it. The history of Sanskrit poetry is, in reality, thehistory of Sanskrit literature. 

The subjects of the epic poems of the Hindus are derived chiefly fromtheir religious tenets, and relate to the incarnations of the gods, who, in their human forms, become the heroes of this poetry. The idea of anAlmighty power warring against the spirit of evil destroys the possibilityof struggle, and impairs the character of epic poetry; but the Hindupoets, by submitting their gods both to fate and to the condition of men, diminish their power and give them the character of epic heroes. 

The Hindu mythology, however, is the great obstacle which must everprevent this poetry from becoming popular in the Western world. The greatpersonifications of the Deity have not been softened down, as in themythology of the Greeks, to the perfection of human symmetry, but are hereexhibited in their original gigantic forms. Majesty is often expressed byenormous stature; power, by multitudinous hands; providence, by countlesseyes; and omnipresence, by innumerable bodies. 

In addition to this, Hindu epic poetry departs so far from what may becalled the vernacular idiom of thought and feeling, and refers to a peoplewhose political and religious institutions, as well as moral habits, areso much at variance with our own, that no labor or skill could render itsassociations familiar. 

The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the most important and sublimecreations of Hindu literature, and the most colossal epic poems to befound in the literature of the world. They surpass in magnitude the Iliadand Odyssey, the Jerusalem Delivered and the Lusiad, as the pyramids ofEgypt tower above the temples of Greece. 

The Ramayana (_Rama_ and _yana_, expedition) describes the exploits ofRama, an incarnation of Vishnu, and the son of Dasaratha, king of Oude. Ravana, the prince of demons, bad stolen from the gods the privilege ofbeing invulnerable, and had thus acquired an equality with them. He couldnot be overcome except by a man, and the gods implored Vishnu to becomeincarnate in order that Ravana might be conquered. The origin and thedevelopment of this Avatar, the departing of Rama for the battlefield, thedivine signs of his mission, his love and marriage with Sita, the daughterof the king Janaka, the persecution of his step-mother, by which the herois sent into exile, his penance in the desert, the abduction of his brideby Ravana, the gigantic battles that ensue, the rescue of Sita, and thetriumph of Rama constitute the principal plot of this wonderful poem, fullof incidents and episodes of the most singular and beautiful character. Among these may be mentioned the descent of the goddess Ganga, whichrelates to the mythological origin of the river Ganges, and the story ofYajnadatta, a young penitent, who through mistake was killed by Dasaratha;the former splendid for its rich imagery, the latter incomparable for itselegiac character, and for its expression of the passionate sorrow ofparental affection. 

The Ramayana was written by Valmiki, a poet belonging to an unknownperiod. It consists of seven cantos, and contains twenty-five thousandverses. The original, with its translation into Italian, was published inParis by the government of Sardinia about the middle of this century. 

The Mahabharata (the great Bharata) has nearly the same antiquity as theRamayana. It describes the greatest Avatar of Vishnu, the incarnation ofthe god in Krishna, and it presents a vast picture of the Hindu religion. It relates to the legendary history of the Bharata dynasty, especially tothe wars between the Pandus and Kurus, two branches of a princely familyof ancient India. Five sons of Pandu, having been unjustly exiled by theiruncle, return, after many wonderful adventures, with a powerful army tooppose the Kurus, and being aided by Krishna, the incarnated Vishnu, defeat their enemies and become lords of all the country. The poemdescribes the birth of Krishna, his escape from the dangers whichsurrounded his cradle, his miracles, his pastoral life, his rescue ofsixteen thousand young girls who had become prisoners of a giant, hisheroic deeds in the war of the Pandus, and finally his ascent to heaven, where he still leads the round dances of the spheres. This work is notmore remarkable for the grandeur of its conceptions than for theinformation it affords respecting the social and religious systems of theancient Hindus, which are here revealed with majestic and sublimeeloquence. Five of its most esteemed episodes are called the Five PreciousStones. First among these may be mentioned the "Bhagavad-Gita, " or theDivine Song, containing the revelation of Krishna, in the form of adialogue between the god and his pupil Arjuna. Schlegel calls this episodethe most beautiful, and perhaps the most truly philosophical, poem thatthe whole range of literature has produced. 

The Mahabharata is divided into eighteen cantos, and it contains twohundred thousand verses. It is attributed to Vyasa, the compiler of theVedas, but it appears that it was the result of a period of literaturerather than the work of a single poet. Its different incidents andepisodes were probably separate poems, which from the earliest age weresung by the people, and later, by degrees, collected in one complete work. Of the Mahabharata we possess only a few episodes translated into English, such as the Bhagavad-Gita, by Wilkins. 

At a later period other epic poems were written, either as abridgments ofthe Ramayana and the Mahabharata, or founded on episodes contained inthem. These, however, belong to a lower order of composition, and cannotbe compared with the great works of Valmiki and Vyasa. 

In the development of lyric poetry the Hindu bards, particularly those ofthe third period, have been eminently successful; their power is great inthe sublime and the pathetic, and manifests itself more particularly inawakening the tender sympathies of our nature. Here we find many poemsfull of grace and delicacy, and splendid for their charming descriptionsof nature. Such are the "Meghaduta" and the "Ritusanhara" of Kalidasa, the"Madhava and Radha" of Jayadeva, and especially the "Gita-Govinda" of thesame poet, or the adventures of Krishna as a shepherd, a poem in which thesoft languors of love are depicted in enchanting colors, and which isadorned with all the magnificence of language and sentiment. 

Hindu poetry has a particular tendency to the didactic style and to embodyreligious and historical knowledge; every subject is treated in the formof verse, such as inscriptions, deeds, and dictionaries. Splendid examplesof didactic poetry may be found in the episodes of the epic poems, andmore particularly in the collections of fables and apologues in which theSanskrit literature abounds. Among these the Hitopadesa is the mostcelebrated, in which Vishnu-saima instructs the sons of a king committedto his care. Perhaps there is no book, except the Bible, which has beentranslated into so many languages as these fables. They have spread in twobranches over nearly the whole civilized world. The one, under theoriginal name of the Hitopadesa, remains almost confined to India, whilethe other, under the title of "Calila and Dimna, " has become famous overall western Asia and in all the countries of Europe, and has served as themodel of the fables of all languages. To this department belong also the"Adventures of the Ten Princes, " by Dandin, which, in an artistic point ofview, is far superior to any other didactic writings of Hindu literature. 

The drama is the most interesting branch of Hindu literature. No otherancient people, except the Greeks, has brought forth anything so admirablein this department. It had its most flourishing period probably in thethird or fourth century B. C. Its origin is attributed to Brahm, and itssubjects are selected from the mythology. Whether the drama represents thelegends of the gods, or the simple circumstances of ordinary life; whetherit describes allegorical or historical subjects, it bears always the samecharacter of its origin and of its tendency. Simplicity of plot, unity ofepisodes, and purity of language, unite in the formation of the Hindudramas. Prose and verse, the serious and the comic, pantomime and musicare intermingled in their representations. Only the principal characters, the gods, the Brahmins, and the kings, speak Sanskrit; women and the lessimportant characters speak Prakrit, more or less refined according totheir rank. Whatever may offend propriety, whatever may produce anunwholesome excitement, is excluded; for the hilarity of the audience, there is an occasional introduction on the stage of a parasite or abuffoon. The representation is usually opened by an apologue and alwaysconcluded with a prayer. 

Kalidasa, the Hindu Shakespeare, has been called by his countrymen theBridegroom of Poetry. His language is harmonious and elevated, and in hiscompositions he unites grace and tenderness with grandeur and sublimity. Many of his dramas contain episodes selected from the epic poems, and arefounded on the principles of Brahmanism. The "Messenger Cloud" of thisauthor, a monologue rather than a drama, is unsurpassed in beauty ofsentiment by any European poet. "Sakuntala, " or the Fatal Ring, isconsidered one of the best dramas of Kalidasa. It has been translated intoEnglish by Sir W. Jones. 

Bhavabhuti, a Brahmin by birth, was called by his contemporaries the SweetSpeaking. He was the author of many dramas of distinguished merit, whichrank next to those of Kalidasa. 

6. HISTORY AND SCIENCE. --History, considered as the development of mankindin relation to its ideal, is unknown to Sanskrit literature. Indeed, theonly historical work thus far discovered is the "History of Cashmere, " aseries of poetical compositions, written by different authors at differentperiods, the last of which brings down the annals to the sixteenth centuryA. D. , when Cashmere became a province of the Mogul empire. 

In the scientific department, the works on Sanskrit grammar andlexicography are models of logical and analytical research. There are alsovaluable works on jurisprudence, on rhetoric, poetry, music, and otherarts. The Hindu system of decimal notation made its way through the Arabsto modern nations, our usual figures being, in their origin, letters ofthe Sanskrit alphabet. Their medical and surgical knowledge is deservingof study. 

7. PHILOSOPHY. --The object of Hindu philosophy consists in obtainingemancipation from metempsychosis, through the absorption of the soul intoBrahm, or the universal being. According to the different principles whichphilosophers adopt in attaining this supreme object, their doctrines aredivided into the four following systems: 1st, Sensualism; 2d, Idealism;3d, Mysticism; 4th, Eclecticism. 

Sensualism is represented in the school of Kapila, according to whosedoctrine the purification of the soul must be effected through knowledge, the only source of which lies in sensual perception. In this system, nature, eternal and universal, is considered as the first cause, whichproduces intelligence and all the other principles of knowledge andexistence. This philosophy of nature leads some of its followers to seektheir purification in the sensual pleasures of this life, and in the lossof their own individuality in nature itself, in which they strive to beabsorbed. Materialism, fatalism, and atheism are the natural consequencesof the system of Kapila. 

Idealism is the foundation of three philosophical schools: the Dialectic, the Atomic, and the Vedanta. The Dialectic school considers the principlesof knowledge as entirely distinct from nature; it admits the existence ofuniversal ideas in the human mind; it establishes the syllogistic form asthe complete method of reasoning, and finally, it holds as fundamental theduality of intelligence and nature. In this theory, the soul is consideredas distinct from Brahm and also from the body. Man can approach Brahm, canunite himself to the universal soul, but can never lose his ownindividuality. 

The Atomic doctrine explains the origin of the world through thecombination of eternal, simple atoms. It belongs to Idealism, for thepredominance which it gives to ideas over sensation, and for theindividuality and consciousness which it recognizes in man. 

The Vedanta is the true ideal pantheistic philosophy of India. Itconsiders Brahm in two different states: first, as a pure, simple, abstract, and inert essence; secondly, as an active individuality. Naturein this system is only a special quality or quantity of Brahm, having noactual reality, and he who turns away from ail that is unreal andchangeable and contemplates Brahm unceasingly, becomes one with it, andattains liberation. 

Mysticism comprehends all doctrines which deny authority to reason, andadmit no other principles of knowledge or rule of life than supernaturalor direct revelation. To this system belong the doctrines of Patanjali, which teach that man must emancipate himself from metempsychosis throughcontemplation and ecstasy to be attained by the calm of the senses, bycorporeal penance, suspension of breath, and immobility of position. Thefollowers of this school pass their lives in solitude, absorbed in thismystic contemplation. The forests, the deserts, and the environs of thetemples are filled with these mystics, who, thus separated from externallife, believe themselves the subjects of supernatural illumination andpower. The Bhagavad-Gita, already spoken of, is the best exposition ofthis doctrine. 

The Eclectic school comprises all theories which deny the authority of theVedas, and admit rational principles borrowed both from sensualism andidealism. Among these doctrines Buddhism is the principal. 

8. BUDDHISM. --Buddhism is so called from Buddha, a name meaning deifiedteacher, which was given to Sakyamuni, or Saint Sakya, a reformer ofBrahmanism, who introduced into the Hindu religion a more simple creed, and a milder and more humane code of morality. The date of the origin ofthis reform is uncertain. It is probably not earlier than the sixthcentury B. C. Buddhism, essentially a proselyting religion, spread overCentral Asia and through the island of Ceylon. Its followers in Indiabeing persecuted and expelled from the country, penetrated into Thibet, and pushing forward into the wilderness of the Kalmucks and Mongols, entered China and Japan, where they introduced their warship under thename of the religion of Fo. Buddhism is more extensively diffused than anyother form of religion in the world. Though it has never extended beyondthe limits of Asia, its followers number over four hundred millions. 

As a philosophical school, Buddhism partakes both of sensualism andidealism; it admits sensual perception as the source of knowledge, but itgrants to nature only an apparent existence. On this universal illusion, Buddhism founded a gigantic system of cosmogony, establishing an infinityof degrees in the scale of existences from that of pure being without formor quality to the lowest emanations. According to Buddha, the object ofphilosophy, as well as of religion, is the deliverance of the soul frommetempsychosis, and therefore from all pain and illusion. He teaches thatto break the endless rotation of transmigration the soul must be preventedfrom being born again, by purifying it even from the desire of existence. He denied the authority of the Vedas, and abolished or ignored thedivision of the people into castes, admitting whoever desired it to thepriesthood. Notwithstanding the doctrine of metempsychosis, and the beliefthat life is only an endless round of birth and death, sin and suffering, the most sacred Buddhistic books teach a pure and elevated morality, andthat the highest happiness is only to be reached through self-abnegation, universal benevolence, humility, patience, courage, self-knowledge, andcontemplation. Much has been added to the original doctrines of Buddha inthe way of mythology, sacrifices, penances, mysticism, and hierarchy. 

Buddhism possesses a literature of its own; its language and style aresimple and intelligible to the common people, to whom it is particularlyaddressed. For this reason the priests of this religion prefer to write inthe dialects used by the people, and indeed some of their principal worksare written in Prakrit or in Pali. Among these are many legends, andchronicles, and books on theology and jurisprudence. The literary men ofBuddhism are generally the priests, who receive different names indifferent countries. A complete collection of the sacred books of Buddhismforms a theological body of one hundred and eight volumes. 

9. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. --The moral philosophy of India is contained in theSacred Book of Manavadharmasastra, or Code of Manu. This embraces apoetical account of Brahma and other gods, of the origin of the world andman, and of the duties arising from the relation of man towards Brahma andtowards his fellow-men. Whether regarded for its great antiquity andclassic beauty, or for its importance as being considered of divinerevelation by the Hindu people, this Code must ever claim the attention ofthose who devote themselves to the study of the Sanskrit literature. Though inferior to the Vedas in antiquity, it is held to be equallysacred; and being more closely connected with the business of life, it hasdone so much towards moulding the opinions of the Hindus that it would beimpossible to comprehend the literature or local usages of India withoutbeing master of its contents. 

It is believed by the Hindus that Brahma taught his laws to Manu in onehundred thousand verses, and that they were afterwards abridged for theuse of mankind to four thousand. It is most probable that the workattributed to Manu is a collection made from various sources and atdifferent periods. 

Among the duties prescribed by the laws of Manu man is enjoined to exert afull dominion over his senses, to study sacred science, to keep his heartpure, without which sacrifices are useless, to speak only when necessityrequires, and to despise worldly honors. His principal duties toward hisneighbor are to honor old age, to respect parents, the mother more than athousand fathers, and the Brahmins more than father or mother, to injureno one, even in wish. Woman is taught that she cannot aspire to freedom, agirl is to depend on her father, a wife on her husband, and a widow on herson. The law forbids her to marry a second time. 

The Code of Manu is divided into twelve books or chapters, in which aretreated separately the subjects of creation, education, marriage, domesticeconomy, the art of living, penal and civil laws, of punishments andatonements, of transmigration, and of the final blessed state. Theseordinances or institutes contain much to be admired and much to becondemned. They form a system of despotism and priestcraft, both limitedby law, but artfully conspiring to give mutual support, though with mutualchecks. A spirit of sublime elevation and amiable benevolence pervades thewhole work, sufficient to prove the author to have adored not the visiblesun, but the incomparably greater light, according to the Vedas, whichilluminates all, delights all, from which all proceed, to which all mustreturn, and which alone can irradiate our souls. 

10. MODERN LITERATURES OF INDIA. --The literature of the modern tongues ofthe Hindus consists chiefly of imitations and translations from theSanskrit, Persian, Arabic, and from European languages. There is, however, an original epic poem, written in Hindui by Tshand, under the title of the"Adventures of Prithivi Raja, " which is second only to the great Sanskritpoems. This work, which relates to the twelfth century A. D. , describes thestruggle of the Hindus against their Mohammedan conquerors. The poem of"Ramayana, " by Tulsi-Das, and that of the "Ocean of Love, " are extremelypopular in India. The modern dialects contain many religious and nationalsongs of exquisite beauty and delicacy. Among the poets of India, who havewritten in these dialects, Sauday, Mir-Mohammed Taqui, Wali, and Azad arethe principal. 

The Hindi, which dates from the eleventh century A. D. , is one of thelanguages of Aryan stock still spoken in Northern India. One of itsprincipal dialects is the Hindustani, which is employed in the literatureof the northern country. Its two divisions are the Hindi and Urdu, whichrepresent the popular side of the national culture, and are almostexclusively used at the present day; the first chiefly by writers notbelonging to the Brahminical order, while those of the Urdu dialect followPersian models. The writings in each, though numerous, and not withoutpretension, have little interest for the European reader. 

11. EDUCATION IN INDIA. --For the education of the Brahmins and of thehigher classes, there was founded, in 1792, a Sanskrit College at Benares, the Hindu capital. The course of instruction embraces Persian, English, and Hindu law, and general literature. In 1854 universities wereestablished at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. Of late public instructionhas become a department of the government, and schools and colleges forhigher instruction have been established in various parts of the country, and books and newspapers in English and in the vernacular are everywhereincreasing. As far back as 1824 the American and English missionaries werethe pioneers of female education. The recent report of the IndianCommission of Education deals particularly with this question, andattributes the wide difference between the extent of male and femaleacquirements to no inferiority in the mental capacities of women; on thecontrary, they find their intellectual activity very keen, and oftenoutlasting the mental energies of men. According to the traditions ofpre-historic times, women occupied a high place in the early civilizationof India, and their capacity to govern is shown by the fact, that at thepresent day one of the best administered States has been ruled by nativeladies during two generations, and that the most ably managed of the greatlanded properties are entirely in the hands of women. The chief causeswhich retard their education are to be found in the social customs of thecountry, the seclusion in which women live, the appropriation of theeducational fund to the schools for boys, and the need of trainedteachers. 

Notwithstanding all these disadvantages, the first Asiatic writer in thelanguages of the West who has made a literary fame in Europe is a youngHindu girl, Tora Dutt (1856-1877), whose writings in prose and verse inEnglish, as well as in French, have called forth admiration andastonishment from the critics, and a sincere lament for her early death. 

12. THE BRAMO-SOMAJ. --In 1830, under this name (Worshiping Assembly), Rammohun Roy founded a religious society in India, of which, after him, Keshub Chunder Sen (died 1884) was the most eminent member. Their aim isto establish a new religion for India and the world, founded on a beliefin one God, which shall be freed from all the errors and corruptions ofthe past. They propose many important reforms, such as the abolition ofcaste, the remodeling of marriage customs, the emancipation and educationof women, the abolition of infanticide and the worship of ancestors, and ageneral moral regeneration. Their chief aid to spiritual growth may besummed up in four words, self-culture, meditation, personal purity, anduniversal beneficence. Their influence has been already felt in thelegislative affairs of India. 

BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN LITERATURE

1. The Accadians and Babylonians. --2. The Cuneiform Letters. --3. Babylonian and Assyrian Remains. 

1. ACCADIANS AND BABYLONIANS. --Geographically, as well as historically andethnographically, the district lying between the Tigris and Euphratesforms but one country, though the rival kingdoms of Assyria and Babyloniabecame, each in turn, superior to the other. The primitive inhabitants ofthis district were called Accadians, or Chaldeans, but little or nothingwas known of them until within the last fifteen or twenty years. Theirlanguage was agglutinative, and they were the inventors of the cuneiformsystem of writing. The Babylonians conquered this people, borrowed theirsigns, and incorporated their literature. Soon after their conquest by theBabylonians, they established priestly caste in the state and assumed theworship, laws, and manners of their conquerors. They were devoted to thescience of the stars, and determined the equinoctial and solstitialpoints, divided the ecliptic into twelve parts and the day into hours. Thesigns, names, and figures of the Zodiac, and the invention of the dial aresome of the improvements in astronomy attributed to this people. With thedecline of Babylon their influence declined, and they were afterwardsknown to the Greeks and Romans only as astrologers, magicians, andsoothsayers. 

2. THE CUNEIFORM LETTERS. --These characters, borrowed by the Semiticconquerors of the Accadians, the Babylonians, and Assyrians, wereoriginally hieroglyphics, each denoting an object or an idea, but theywere gradually corrupted into the forms we see on Assyrian monuments. Theyunderwent many changes, and the various periods are distinguished asArchaic, hieratic, Assyrian, and later Babylonian. 

3. BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN REMAINS. --The origin and history of thiscivilization have only been made known to us by the very recentdecipherment of native monuments. Before these discoveries the principalsource of information was found in the writings of Borosus, a priest ofBabylon, who lived about 300 B. C. , and who translated the records ofastronomy into Greek. Though his works have perished, we have quotationsfrom them in Eusebius and other writers, which have been strikinglyverified by the inscriptions. The chief work on astronomy, compiled forSargon, one of the earliest Babylonian monarchs, is inscribed on seventytablets, a copy of which is in the British Museum. The Babyloniansunderstood the movements of the heavenly bodies, and Calisthenes, whoaccompanied Alexander on his eastern expedition, brought with him on hisreturn the observations of 1903 years. The main purpose of all Babylonianastronomical observation, however, was astrological, to cast horoscopes, or to predict the weather. Babylon retained for a long time its ancientsplendor after the conquest by Cyrus and the final fall of the empire, andin the first period of the Macedonian sway. But soon after that time itsfame was extinguished, and its monuments, arts, and sciences perished. 

Assyria was a land of soldiers and possessed little native literature. Themore peaceful pursuits had their home in Babylonia, where the universitiesof Erech and Borsippa were renowned down to classical times. The largerpart of this literature was stamped in clay tablets and baked, and thesewere numbered and arranged in order. Papyrus was also used, but none ofthis fragile material has been preserved. 

In the reign of Sardanapalus (660-647 B. C. ) Assyrian art and literaturereached their highest point. In the ruins of his palace have been foundthree chambers the floors of which were covered a foot deep with tabletsof all sizes, from an inch to nine inches long, bearing inscriptions manyof them so minute as to be read only by the aid of a magnifying glass. Though broken they have been partially restored and are among the mostprecious cuneiform inscriptions. They have only been deciphered within thepresent century, and thousands of inscriptions are yet buried among theruins of Assyria. The most interesting of these remains yet discovered arethe hymns to the gods, some of which strikingly resemble the HebrewPsalms. Of older date is the collection of formulas which consists ofomens and hymns and tablets relating to astronomy. Later than the hymnsare the mythological poems, two of which are preserved intact. They are"The Deluge" and "The Descent of Istar into Hades. " They form part of avery remarkable epic which centred round the adventures of a solar hero, and into which older and independent lays were woven as episodes. Copiesare preserved in the British Museum. The literature on the subject ofthese remains is very extensive and rapidly increasing. 

PHOENICIAN LITERATURE. 

The Language. --The Remains. 

The Phoenician language bore a strong affinity to the Hebrew, throughwhich alone the inscriptions on coins and monuments can be interpreted, and these constitute the entire literary remains, though the Phoenicianshad doubtless their archives and written laws. The inscriptions engravedon stone or metal are found chiefly in places once colonies, remote fromPhoenicia itself. The Phoenician alphabet forms the basis of the Semiticand Indo-European graphic systems, and was itself doubtless based on theEgyptian hieratic writing. Sanchuniathon is the name given as that of theauthor of a history of Phoenicia which was translated into Greek andpublished by Philo, a grammarian of the second century A. D. A considerablefragment of this work is preserved in Eusebius, but after much learnedcontroversy it is now believed that it was the work of Philo himself. 

SYRIAC LITERATURE. 

The Language. --Influence of the Literature In the Eighth and NinthCentury. 

THE LANGUAGE. --The Aramaic language, early spoken in Syria andMesopotamia, is a branch of the Semitic, and of this tongue the Chaldaicand Syriac were dialects. Chaldaic is supposed to be the language ofBabylonia at the time of the captivity, and the earliest remains are apart of the Books of Daniel and Ezra, and the paraphrases or freetranslations of the Old Testament. The Hebrews having learned thislanguage during the Babylonian exile, it continued in use for some timeafter their return, though the Hebrew remained the written and sacredtongue. Gradually, however, it lost this prerogative, and in the secondcentury A. D. The Chaldaic was the only spoken language of Palestine. It isstill used by the Nestorians and Maronites in their religious services andin their literary works. The spoken language of Syria has undergone manychanges corresponding to the political changes of the country. 

The most prominent Syriac author is St. Ephraem, or Ephraem Syrus (350A. D. ), with whom begins the best period of Syriac literature, whichcontinued until the ninth century. A great part of this literature hasbeen lost, and what remains is only partially accessible. Its principalwork was in the eighth and ninth centuries in introducing classicallearning to the knowledge of the Arabs. In the seventh century, Jacob ofEdessa gave the classical and sacred dialect its final form, and from thistime the series of native grammarians and lexicographers continuedunbroken to the time of its decline. The study of Syriac was introducedinto Europe in the fifteenth century. Valuable collections of MSS. , inthis language, are to be found in the British Museum, and grammars anddictionaries have been published in Germany and in New York. 

PERSIAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Persian language and its Divisions. --2. Zendic Literature; TheZendavesta. --3. Pehlvi and Parsee Literatures. --4. The Ancient Religion ofPersia; Zoroaster. --5. Modern Literature. --6. The Sufis. --7. PersianPoetry. --8. Persian Poets; Ferdasi; Essedi of Tus; Togray, etc. --9. History and Philosophy. --10. Education in Persia. 

1. THE PERSIAN LANGUAGE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --The Persian language and itsvarieties, as far as they are known, belong to the great Indo-Europeanfamily, and this common origin explains the affinities that exist betweenthem and those of the ancient and modern languages of Europe. Duringsuccessive ages, four idioms have prevailed in Persia, and Persianliterature may be divided into four corresponding periods. 

First. The period of the Zend (living), the most ancient of the Persianlanguages; it was from a remote, unknown age spoken in Media, Bactria, andin the northern part of Persia. This language partakes of the characterboth of the Sanskrit and of the Chaldaic. It is written from right toleft, and it possesses, in its grammatical construction and its radicalwords, many elements in common with the Sanskrit and the German languages. 

Second. The period of the Pehlvi, or language of heroes, anciently spokenin the western part of the country. Its alphabet is closely allied withthe Zendic, to which it bears a great resemblance. It attained a highdegree of perfection under the Parthian kings, 246 B. C. To 229 A. D. 

Third. The period of the Parsee or the dialect of the southwestern part ofthe country. It reached its perfection under the dynasty of theSassanides, 229-636 A. D. It has great analogy with the Zend, Pehlvi, andSanskrit, and is endowed with peculiar grace and sweetness. 

Fourth. The period of the modern Persian. After the conquest of Persia, and the introduction of the Mohammedan faith in the seventh century A. D. , the ancient Parsee language became greatly modified by the Arabic. Itadopted its alphabet, adding to it, however, four letters and threepoints, and borrowed from it not only words but whole phrases, and thusfrom the union of the Parsee and the Arabic was formed the modern Persian. Of its various dialects, the Deri is the language of the court and ofliterature. 

2. ZENDIC LITERATURE. --To the first period belong the ancient sacred booksof Persia, collected under the name of _Zendavesta_ (living word), whichcontain the doctrines of Zoroaster, the prophet and lawgiver of ancientPersia. The Zendavesta is divided into two parts, one written in Zend, theother in Pehlvi; it contains traditions relating to the primitivecondition and colonization of Persia, moral precepts, theological dogmas, prayers, and astronomical observations. The collection originallyconsisted of twenty-one chapters or treatises, of which only three havebeen preserved. Besides the Zendavesta there are two other sacred books, one containing prayers and hymns, and the other prayers to the Genii whopreside over the days of the month. To this first period some writersrefer the fables of Lokman, who is supposed to have lived in the tenthcentury B. C. , and to have been a slave of Ethiopic origin; his apologueshave been considered the model on which Greek fable was constructed. Thework of Lokman, however, existing now only in the Arabic language, isbelieved by other writers to be of Arabic origin. It has been translatedinto the European languages, and is still read in the Persian schools. Among the Zendic books preserved in Arabic translations may also bementioned the "Giavidan Kird, " or the Eternal Reason, the work of Hushang, an ancient priest of Persia, a book full of beautiful and sublime maxims. 

3. PEHLVI AHD PARSEE LITERATURES. --The second period of Persian literatureincludes all the books written in Pehlvic, and especially all thetranslations and paraphrases of the works of the first period. There arealso in this language a manual of the religion of Zoroaster, dictionariesof Pehlvi explained by the Parsee, inscriptions, and legends. 

When the seat of the Persian empire was transferred to the southern statesunder the Sassanides, the Pehlvi gave way to the Parsee, which became theprevailing language of Persia in the third period of its literature. Thesacred books were translated into this tongue, in which many records, annals, and treatises on astronomy and medicine were also written. But allthese monuments of Persian literature were destroyed by the conquest ofAlexander the Great, and by the fury of the Mongols and Arabs. Thislanguage, however, has been immortalized by Ferdusi, whose poems containlittle of that admixture of Arabic which characterizes the writings of themodern poets of Persia. 

4. THE ANCIENT RELIGION OF PERSIA. --The ancient literature of Persia ismainly the exposition of its religion. Persia, Media, and Bactriaacknowledged as their first religious prophet Honover, or Hom, symbolizedin the star Sirius, and himself the symbol of the first eternal word, andof the tree of knowledge. In the numberless astronomical and mysticpersonifications under which Hom was represented, his individuality waslost, and little is known of his history or of his doctrines. It appears, however, that he was the founder of the magi (priests), the conservatorsand teachers of his doctrine, who formed a particular order, like that ofthe Levites of Israel and of the Chaldeans of Assyria. They did notconstitute a hereditary caste like the Brahmins of India, but they werechosen from among the people. They claimed to foretell future events. Theyworshiped fire and the stars, and believed in two principles of good andevil, of which light and darkness were the symbols. 

Zoroaster, one of these magi, who probably lived in the eighth centuryB. C. , undertook to elevate and reform this religion, which had then fallenfrom its primitive purity. Availing himself of the doctrines of theChaldeans and of the Hebrews, Zoroaster, endowed by nature withextraordinary powers, sustained by popular enthusiasm, and aided by thefavor of powerful princes, extended his reform throughout the country, andfounded a new religion on the ancient worship. According to this religionthe two great principles of the world were represented by Ormuzd andAhriman, both born from eternity, and both contending for the dominion ofthe world. Ormuzd, the principle of good, is represented by light, andAhriman, the principle of evil, by darkness. Light, then, being the bodyor symbol of Ormuzd, is worshiped in the sun and stars, in fire, andwherever it is found. Men are either the servants of Ormuzd, throughvirtue and wisdom, or the slaves of Ahriman, through folly and vice. Zoroaster explained the history of the world as the long contest of thesetwo principles, which was to close with the conquest of Ormuzd overAhriman. 

The moral code of Zoroaster is pure and elevated. It aims to assimilatethe character of man to light, to dissipate the darkness of ignorance; itacknowledges Ormuzd as the ruler of the universe; it seeks to extend thetriumph of virtue over the material and spiritual world. 

The religion of Zoroaster prevailed for many centuries in Persia. TheGreeks adopted some of its ideas into their philosophy, and through theschools of the Gnostics and Neo-Platonists, its influence extended overEurope. After the conquest of Persia by the Mohammedans, the Fire-worshipers were driven to the deserts of Kerman, or took refuge in India, where, under the name of Parsees or Guebers, they still keep alive thesacred fire, and preserve the code of Zoroaster. 

5. MODERN LITERATURE. --Some traces of the modern literature of Persiaappeared shortly after the conquest of the country by the Arabians in theseventh century A. D. ; but the true era dates from the ninth or tenthcentury. It may be divided into the departments of Poetry, History, andPhilosophy. 

6. THE SUFIS. --After the introduction of Mohammedanism into Persia, therearose a sect of pantheistic mystics called Sufis, to which most of thePersian poets belong. They teach their doctrine under the images of love, wine, intoxication, etc. , by which, with them, a divine sentiment isalways understood. The doctrines of the Sufis are undoubtedly of Hinduorigin. Their fundamental tenets are, that nothing exists absolutely butGod; that the human soul is an emanation from his essence and will finallybe restored to him; that the great object of life should be a constantapproach to the eternal spirit, to form as perfect a union with the divinenature as possible. Hence all worldly attachments should be avoided, andin all that we do a spiritual object should be kept in view. The great endwith these philosophers is to attain to a state of perfection inspirituality and to be absorbed in holy contemplation, to the exclusion ofall worldly recollections or interests. 

7. PERSIAN POETRY. --The Persian tongue is peculiarly adapted to thepurposes of poetry, which in that language is rich in forcibleexpressions, in bold metaphors, in ardent sentiments, and in descriptionsanimated with the most lively coloring. In poetical composition there ismuch art exercised by the Persian poets, and the arrangement of theirlanguage is a work of great care. One favorite measure which frequentlyends a poem is called the Suja, literally the _cooing of doves_. 

The poetical compositions of the Persians are of several kinds; the gazelor ode usually treats of love, beauty, or friendship. The poet generallyintroduces his name in the last couplet. The idyl resembles the gazel, except that it is longer. Poetry enters as a universal element into allcompositions; physics, mathematics, medicine, ethics, natural history, astronomy, grammar--all lend themselves to verse in Persia. 

The works of favorite poets are generally written on fine, silky paper, the ground of which is often powdered with gold or silver dust, themargins illuminated, and the whole perfumed with some costly essence. Themagnificent volume containing the poem of Tussuf and Zuleika in the publiclibrary at Oxford affords a proof of the honors accorded to poeticalcomposition. One of the finest specimens of caligraphy and illumination isthe exordium to the life of Shah Jehan, for which the writer, besides thestipulated remuneration, had _his mouth stuffed with pearls_. 

There are three principal love stories in Persia which, from the earliesttimes, have been the themes of every poet. Scarcely one of the greatmasters of Persian literature but has adopted and added celebrity to thesebeautiful and interesting legends, which can never be too often repeatedto an Oriental ear. They are, the "History of Khosru and Shireen, " the"Loves of Yussuf and Zuleika, " and the "Misfortunes of Mejnoun and Leila. "So powerful is the charm attached to these stories, that it appears tohave been considered almost the imperative duty of all the poets tocompose a new version of the old, familiar, and beloved traditions. Evendown to a modern date, the Persians have not deserted their favorites, andthese celebrated themes of verse reappear, from time to time, under newauspices. Each of these poems is expressive of a peculiar character. Thatof Khosru and Shireen may be considered exclusively the Persian romance;that of Mejnoun the Arabian; and that of Yussuf and Zuleika the sacred. The first presents a picture of happy love and female excellence inShireen; Mejnoun is a representation of unfortunate love carried tomadness; the third romance contains the ideal of perfection in Yussuf(Joseph) and the most passionate and imprudent love in Zuleika (the wifeof Potiphar), and exhibits in strong relief the power of love and beauty, the mastery of mind, the weakness of overwhelming passion, and thevictorious spirit of holiness. 

8. PERSIAN POETS. --The first of Persian poets, the Homer of his country, is Abul Kasim Mansur, called Ferdusi or "Paradise, " from the exquisitebeauty of his compositions. He flourished in the reign of the Shah Mahmud(940-1020 A. D. ). Mahmud commissioned him to write in his faultless verse ahistory of the monarchs of Persia, promising that for every thousandcouplets he should receive a thousand pieces of gold. For thirty years hestudied and labored on his epic poem, "the Shah Namah, " or Book of Kings, and when it was completed he sent a copy of it, exquisitely written, tothe sultan, who received it coldly, and treated the work of the aged poetwith contempt. Disappointed at the ingratitude of the Shah, Ferdusi wrotesome satirical lines, which soon reached the ear of Mahmud, who, piquedand offended at the freedom of the poet, ordered sixty thousand smallpieces of money to be sent to him, instead of the gold which he hadpromised. Ferdusi was in the public bath when the money was given to him, and his rage and amazement exceeded all bounds when he found himself thusinsulted. He distributed the paltry sum among the attendants of the bathand the slaves who brought it. 

He soon after avenged himself by writing a satire full of stinginginvective, which he caused to be transmitted to the favorite vizier whohad instigated the sultan against him. It was carefully sealed up, withdirections that it should be read to Mahmud on some occasion when his mindwas perturbed with affairs of state, and his temper ruffled, as it was apoem likely to afford him entertainment. Ferdusi having thus prepared hisvengeance, quitted the ungrateful court without leave-taking, and was at asafe distance when news reached him that his lines had fully answeredtheir intended purpose. Mahmud had heard and trembled, and too latediscovered that he had ruined his own reputation forever. After the satirehad been read by Shah Mahmud, the poet sought shelter in the court of thecaliph of Bagdad, in whose honor he added a thousand couplets to the poemof the Shah Namah, and who rewarded him with the sixty thousand goldpieces, which had been withheld by Mahmud. Meantime, Ferdusi's poem ofYussuf, and his magnificent verses on several subjects, had received thefame they deserved. Shah Mahmud's late remorse awoke. Thinking by a tardyact of liberality to repair his former meanness, he dispatched to theauthor of the Shah Namah the sixty thousand pieces he had promised, a robeof state, and many apologies and expressions of friendship and admiration, requesting his return, and professing great sorrow for the past. But whenthe message arrived, Ferdusi was dead, and his family devoted the wholesum to the benevolent purpose he had intended, --the erection of publicbuildings, and the general improvement of his native village, Tus. He diedat the age of eighty. The Shah Namah contains the history of the kings ofPersia down to the death of the last of the Sassanide race, who wasdeprived of his kingdom by the invasion of the Arabs during the caliphatof Omar, 636 A. D. The language of Ferdusi may be considered as the purestspecimen of the ancient Parsee: Arabic words are seldom introduced. Thereare many episodes in the Shah Namah of great beauty, and the power andelegance of its verse are unrivaled. 

Essedi of Tus is distinguished as having been the master of Ferdusi, andas having aided his illustrious pupil in the completion of his great work. Among many poems which he wrote, the "Dispute between Day and Night" isthe most celebrated. 

Togray was a native of Ispahan and contemporary with Ferdusi. He became socelebrated as a writer, that the title of Honor of Writers was given him. He was an alchemist, and wrote a treatise on the philosopher's stone. 

Moasi, called King of Poets, lived about the middle of the eleventhcentury. He obtained his title at the court of Ispahan, and rose to highdignity and honor. So renowned were his odes, that more than a hundredpoets endeavored to imitate his style. 

Omar Kheyam, who was one of the most distinguished of the poets of Persia, lived toward the close of the eleventh century. He was remarkable for thefreedom of his religious opinions and the boldness with which he denouncedhypocrisy and intolerance. He particularly directed his satire against themystic poets. 

Nizami, the first of the romantic poets, flourished in the latter part ofthe twelfth century A. D. His principal works are called the "FiveTreasures, " of which the "Loves of Khosru and Shireen" is the mostcelebrated, and in the treatment of which he has succeeded beyond allother poets. 

Sadi (1194-1282) is esteemed among the Persians as a master in poetry andin morality. He is better known in Europe than any other Eastern author, except Hafiz, and has been more frequently translated. Jami calls him thenightingale of the groves of Shiraz, of which city he was a native. Hespent a part of his long life in travel and in the acquisition ofknowledge, and the remainder in retirement and devotion. His works aretermed the salt-mine of poets, being revered as unrivaled models of thefirst genius in the world. His philosophy enabled him to support all theills of life with patience and fortitude, and one of his remarks, arisingfrom the destitute condition in which he once found himself, deservespreservation: "I never complained of my condition but once, when my feetwere bare, and I had not money to buy shoes; but I met a man without feet, and I became contented with my lot. " The works of Sadi are very numerous, and are popular and familiar everywhere in the East. His two greatestworks are the "Bostan" and "Gulistan" (Bostan, the rose garden, andGulistan, the fruit garden). They abound in striking beauties, and showgreat knowledge of human nature. 

Attar (1119-1233) was one of the great Sufi masters, and spent his life indevotion and contemplation. He died at the advanced age of 114. It wouldseem that poetry in the East was favorable to human life, so many of itsprofessors attained to a great age, particularly those who professed theSufi doctrine. The great work of Attar is a poem containing useful moralmaxims. 

Roumi (1203-1272), usually called the Mulah, was an enthusiastic followerof the doctrine of the Sufis. His son succeeded him at the head of thesect, and surpassed his father not only in the virtues and attainments ofthe Sufis, but by his splendid poetical genius. His poems are regarded asthe most perfect models of the mystic style. Sir William Jones says, "There is a depth and solemnity in his works unequaled by any poet of thisclass; even Hafiz must be considered inferior to him. "

Among the poets of Persia the name of Hafiz (d. 1389), the prince ofPersian lyric poets, is most familiar to the English reader. He was bornat Shiraz. Leading a life of poverty, of which he was proud, for heconsidered poverty the companion of genius, he constantly refused theinvitation, of monarchs to visit their courts. There is endless variety inthe poems of Hafiz, and they are replete with surpassing beauty ofthought, feeling, and expression. The grace, ease, and fancy of hisnumbers are inimitable, and there is a magic in his lays which few even ofhis professed enemies have been able to resist. To the young, the gay, andthe enthusiastic his verses are ever welcome, and the sage discovers inthem a hidden mystery which reconciles him to their subjects. His tomb, near Shiraz, is visited as a sacred spot by pilgrims of all ages. Theplace of his birth is held in veneration, and there is not a Persian whoseheart does not echo his strains. 

Jami (d. 1492) was born in Khorassan, in the village of Jam, from whencehe is named, --his proper appellation being Abd Arahman. He was a Sufi, andpreferred, like many of his fellow-poets, the meditations and ecstasies ofmysticism to the pleasures of a court. His writings are very voluminous;he composed nearly forty volumes, all of great length, of which twenty-twoare preserved at Oxford. The greater part of them treat of Mohammedantheology, and are written in the mystic style. He collected the mostinteresting under the name of the "Seven Stars of the Bear, " or the "SevenBrothers, " and among these is the famous poem of Yussuf and Zuleika. Thisfavorite subject, which every Persian poet has touched with more or lesssuccess, has never been so beautifully rendered as by Jami. Nothing canexceed the admiration which this poem inspires in the East. 

Hatifi (d. 1520) was the nephew of the great poet Jami. It was hisambition to enter the lists with his uncle, by composing poems on similarsubjects. Opinions are divided as to whether he succeeded as well as hismaster, but none can exceed him in sweetness and pathos. His version ofthe sad tale of Mejnoun and Leila, the Romeo and Juliet of the East, isconfessedly superior to that of Nizami. 

The lyrical compositions of Sheik Feizi (d. 1575) are highly valued. Inhis mystic poems he approaches to the sublimity of Attar. His ideas aretinged with the belief of the Hindus, in which he was educated. When a boyhe was introduced to the Brahmins by the Sultan Mohammed Akbar, as anorphan of their tribe, in order that he might learn their language andobtain possession of their religions secrets. He became attached to thedaughter of the Brahmin who protected him, and she was offered to him--inmarriage by the unsuspecting parent. After a struggle between inclinationand honor, the latter prevailed, and he confessed the fraud. The Brahmin, struck with horror, attempted to put an end to his own existence, fearingthat he had betrayed his oath and brought danger and disgrace on his sect. Feizi, with tears--and protestations, besought him to forbear, promisingto submit to any command he might impose on him. The Brahmin consented tolive, on condition that Feizi should take an oath never to translate theVedas nor to repeat to any one the creed of the Hindus. Feizi entered intothe desired obligations, parted with his adopted father, bade adieu to hislove, and with a sinking heart returned home. Among his works the mostimportant is the "Mahabarit, " which contains the chronicles of the Hinduprinces, and abounds in romantic episodes. 

The most celebrated recent Persian poet is Blab Phelair (1729-1825). Heleft many astronomical, moral, political, and literary works. He is calledthe Persian Voltaire. 

Among the collections of novels and fables, the "Lights of Canope" may bementioned, imitated from the Hitopadesa. Persian literature is alsoenriched by translations of the standard works in Sanskrit, among whichare the epic poems of Valmiki and Vyasa. 

9. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY. --Among the most celebrated of the Persianhistorians is Mirkhond, who lived in the middle of the fifteenth century. His great work on universal history contains an account of the origin ofthe world, the life of the patriarchs, prophets, and philosophers ofPersia, and affords valuable materials, especially for the history of theMiddle Ages. His son, Khondemir, distinguished himself in the same branchof literature, and wrote two works which, for their historical correctnessand elegance of style, are in great favor among the Persians. Ferischta, who flourished in the beginning of the seventeenth century, is the authorof a valuable history of India. Mirgholah, a historian of the eighteenthcentury, gives a contemporary history of Hindustan and of his own country, under the title of "A Glance at Recent Affairs, " and in another work hetreats of the causes which, at some future time, will probably lead to thefall of the British power in India. The "History of the Reigning Dynasty"is among the principal modern historical works of Persia. 

The Persians possess numerous works on rhetoric, geography, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy, few of which are entitled to muchconsideration. In philosophy may be mentioned the "Essence of Logic, " anexposition in the Arabic language of the doctrines of Aristotle on logic;and the "Moral System of Nasir, " published in the thirteenth century A. D. , a valuable treatise on morals, economy, and politics. 

10. EDUCATION IN PERSIA. --There are established, in every town and city, schools in which the poorer children can be instructed in the rudiments ofthe Persian and Arabic languages. The pupil, after he has learned thealphabet, reads the Koran in Arabic; next, fables in Persian; and lastlyis taught to write a beautiful hand, which is considered a greataccomplishment. The Persians are fond of poetry, and the lowest artisanscan read or repeat the finest passages of their most admired poets. Forthe education of the higher classes there are in Persia many colleges anduniversities where the pupils are taught grammar, the Turkish and Arabiclanguages, rhetoric, philosophy, and poetry. The literary men arenumerous; they pursue their studies till they are entitled to the honorsof the colleges; afterwards they devote themselves to copying andilluminating manuscripts. 

Of late many celebrated European works have been translated and publishedin Persia. 

HEBREW LITERATURE. 

1. Hebrew Literature; its Divisions. --2. The Language; its Alphabet; itsStructure; Peculiarities, Formation, and Phases. --3. The Old Testament. --4. Hebrew Education. --5. Fundamental Idea of Hebrew Literature. --6. HebrewPoetry. --7. Lyric Poetry; Songs; the Psalms; the Prophets. --8. PastoralPoetry and Didactic Poetry; the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. --9. Epic andDramatic Poetry; the Book of Job. --10. Hebrew History; the Pentateuch andother Historical Books. --11. Hebrew Philosophy. --12. Restoration of theSacred Books. --13. Manuscripts and Translations. --14. RabbinicalLiterature. --15. The New Revision of the Bible, and the New BiblicalManuscript. 

1. HEBREW LITERATURE. --In the Hebrew literature we find expressed thenational character of that ancient people who, for a period of fourthousand years, through captivity, dispersion, and persecution of everykind, present the wonderful spectacle of a race preserving itsnationality, its peculiarities of worship, of doctrine, and of literature. Its history reaches back to an early period of the world, its code of lawshas been studied and imitated by the legislators of all ages andcountries, and its literary monuments surpass in originality, poeticstrength, and religious importance those of any other nation before theChristian era. 

The literature of the Hebrews may be divided into the four followingperiods:--

The first, extending from remote antiquity to the time of David, 1010B. C. , includes all the records of patriarchal civilization transmitted bytradition previous to the age of Moses, and contained in the Pentateuch orfive books attributed to him after he had delivered the people from thebondage of Egypt. 

The second period extends from the time of David to the death of Solomon, 1010-940 B. C. , and to this are referred some of the Psalms, Joshua, theJudges, and the Chronicles. 

The third period extends from the death of Solomon to the return from theBabylonian captivity, 940-532 B. C. , and to this age belong the writings ofmost of the Prophets, The Song of Solomon, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, thebooks of Samuel, of Kings, and of Ruth. 

The fourth period extends from their return from the Babylonian Captivityto the present time, and to this belong some of the Prophets, theChronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, the final completion of the Psalms, the Septuagint translation of the Bible, the writings of Josephus, ofPhilo of Alexandria, and the rabbinical literature. 

2. THE LANGUAGE. --The Hebrew language is of Semitic origin; its alphabetconsists of twenty-two letters. The number of accents is nearly forty, some of which distinguish the sentences like the punctuation of ourlanguage, and others serve to determine the number of syllables, or tomark the tone with which they are to be sung or spoken. 

The Hebrew character is of two kinds, the ancient or square, and themodern or rabbinical. In the first of these the Scriptures were originallywritten. The last is deprived of most of its angles, and is more easy andflowing. The Hebrew words as well as letters are written from right toleft in common with, the Semitic tongues generally, and the language isregular, particularly in its conjugations. Indeed, it has but oneconjugation, but with seven or eight variations, having the effect of asmany different conjugations, and giving great variety of expression. Thepredominance of these modifications over the noun, the idea of timecontained in the roots of almost all its verbs, so expressive and sopicturesque, and even the scarcity of its prepositions, adjectives, andadverbs, make this language in its organic structure breathe life, vigor, and emotion. If it lacks the flowery and luxuriant elements of the otheroriental idioms, no one of these can be compared with the Hebrew tonguefor the richness of its figures and imagery, for its depth, and for itsmajestic and imposing features. 

In the formation, development, and decay of this language, the followingperiods may be distinguished:--

First. From Abraham to Moses, when the old stock was changed by theinfusion of the Egyptian and Arabic. Abraham, residing in Chaldea, spokethe Chaldaic language, then traveling through Egypt, and establishinghimself in Canaan or Palestine, his language mingled its elements with thetongues spoken by those nations, and perhaps also with that of thePhoenicians, who early established commercial intercourse with him and hisdescendants. It is probable that the Hebrew language sprung from themixture of these elements. 

Second. From Moses and the composition of the Pentateuch to Solomon, whenit attained its perfection, not without being influenced by thePhoenician. This is the Golden Age of the Hebrew language. 

Third. From Solomon to Ezra, when, although increasing in beauty andsweetness, it became less pure by the adoption of foreign ideas andidioms. 

Fourth. From Ezra to the end of the reign of the Maccabees, when it wasgradually lost in the Aramaean or Chaldaic tongue, and became a deadlanguage. 

The Jews of the Middle Ages, incited by the learning of the Arabs inSpain, among whom they received the protection denied them by Christiannations, endeavored to restore their language to something of its originalpurity, and to render the Biblical Hebrew again a written language; butthe Chaldaic idioms had taken too deep root to be eradicated, and besides, the ancient language was found insufficient for the necessities of anadvancing civilization. Hence arose a new form of written Hebrew, calledrabbinical from its origin and use among the rabbins. It borrowed largelyfrom many contemporary languages, and though it became richer and moreregular in its structure, it retained little of the strength and purity ofthe ancient Hebrew. 

3. THE OLD TESTAMENT. --The literary productions of the Hebrews arecollected in the sacred books of the Old Testament, in which, according tothe celebrated orientalist, Sir William Jones, we can find more eloquence, more historical and moral truth, more poetry, --in a word, more beautiesthan we could gather from all other books together, of whatever country orlanguage. Aside from its supernatural claims, this book stands alone amongthe literary monuments of other nations, for the sublimity of itsdoctrine, as well as for the simplicity of its style. 

It is the book of all centuries, countries, and conditions, and affordsthe best solution of the most mysterious problems concerning God and theworld. It cultivates the taste, it elevates the mind, it nurses the soulwith the word of life, and it has inspired the best productions of humangenius. 

4. HEBREW EDUCATION. --Religion, morals, legislation, history, poetry, andmusic were the special objects to which the attention of the Levites andProphets was particularly directed. The general education of the people, however, was rather simple and domestic. They were trained in husbandry, and in military and gymnastic exercises, and they applied their mindsalmost exclusively to religious and moral doctrines and to divine worship;they learned to read and write their own language correctly, but theyseldom learned foreign languages or read foreign books, and they carefullyprevented strangers from obtaining a knowledge of their own. 

5. FUNDAMENTAL IDEA OF HEBREW LITERATURE. --Monotheism was the fundamentalidea of the Hebrew literature, as well as of the Hebrew religion, legislation, morals, politics, and philosophy. The idea of the unity ofGod constitutes the most striking characteristic of Hebrew poetry, andchiefly distinguishes it from that of all mythological nations. Otherancient literatures have created their divinities, endowed them with humanpassions, and painted their achievements in the glowing colors of poetry. The Hebrew poetry, on the contrary, makes no attempt to portray the Deityby the instruments of sensuous representation, but simple, majestic, andsevere, it pours forth a perpetual anthem of praise and thanksgiving. Theattributes of God, his power, his paternal love and wisdom, are describedin the most sublime language of any age or nation. His seat is theheavens, the earth is his footstool, the heavenly hosts his servants; thesea is his, and he made it, and his hands prepared the dry land. 

Placed under the immediate government of Jehovah, having with Him commonobjects of aversion and love, the Hebrews reached the very source ofenthusiasm, the fire of which burned in the hearts of the prophets sofervently as to cause them to utter the denunciations and the promises ofthe Eternal in a tone suited to the inspired of God, and to sing hisattributes and glories with a dignity and authority becoming them, as thevicegerents of God upon earth. 

6. HEBREW POETRY. --The character of the people and their language, itsmission, the pastoral life of the patriarchs, the beautiful and grandscenery of the country, the wonderful history of the nation, the feelingof divine inspiration, the promise of a Messiah who should raise thenation to glory, the imposing solemnities of the divine worship, andfinally, the special order of the prophets, gave a strong impulse to thepoetical genius of the nation, and concurred in producing a form of poetrywhich cannot be compared with any other for its simplicity and clearness, for its depth and majesty. 

These features of Hebrew poetry, however, spring from its internal forcerather than from any external form. Indeed, the Hebrew poets soar farabove all others in that energy of feeling, impetuous and irresistible, which penetrates, warms, and moves the very soul. They reveal theiranxieties as well as their hopes; they paint with truth and love theactual condition of the human race, with its sorrows and consolations, itshopes and fears, its love and hate. They select their images from thehabitual ideas of the people, and personify inanimate objects--themountains tremble and exult, deep cries unto deep. Another characteristicof Hebrew poetry is the strong feeling of nationality it expresses. Oftheir two most sublime poets, one was their legislator, the other theirgreatest king. 

7. LYRIC POETRY. --In their national festivals the Hebrews sang the hymnsof their lyric poets, accompanied by musical instruments. The art ofsinging, as connected with poetry, flourished especially under David, whoinstituted twenty-four choruses, composed of four thousand Levites, whoseduty it was to sing in the public solemnities. It is generally believedthat the Hebrew lyric poetry was not ruled by any measure, either ofsyllables or of time. Its predominant form was a succession of thoughtsand a rhythmic movement, less of syllables and words than of ideas andimages systematically arranged. The Psalms, especially, are essentiallysymmetrical, according to the Hebrew ritual, their verses being sungalternately by Levites and people, both in the synagogues and morefrequently in the open air. The song of Moses after the passage of the BedSea is the most sublime triumphal hymn in any language, and of equal meritis his song of thanksgiving in Deuteronomy. Beautiful examples of the sameorder of poetry may be found in the song of Judith (though not canonical), and the songs of Deborah and Balaam. But Hebrew poetry attained itsmeridian splendor in the Psalms of David. The works of God in the creationof the world, and in the government of men; the illustrious deeds of theHouse of Jacob; the wonders and mysteries of the new Covenant are sung byDavid in a fervent out-pouring of an impulsive, passionate spirit, thatalternately laments and exults, bows in contrition, or soars to thesublimest heights of devotion. The Psalms, even now, reduced to prose, after three thousand years, present the best and most sublime collectionof lyrical poems, unequaled for their aspiration, their living imagery, their grand ideas, and majesty of style. 

When at length the Hebrews, forgetful of their high duties and calling, trampled on their institutions and laws, prophets were raised up to recallthe wandering people to their allegiance. ISAIAH, whether he foretells thefuture destiny of the nation, or the coming of the Messiah, in hismajestic eloquence, sweetness, and simplicity, gives us the most perfectmodel of lyric poetry. He prophesied during the reigns of Azariah andHezekiah, and his writings bear the mark of true inspiration. 

JEREMIAH flourished during the darkest period in the history of thekingdom of Judah, and under the last four kings, previous to theCaptivity. The Lamentations, in which he pours forth his grief for thefate of his country, are full of touching melancholy and piousresignation, and, in their harmonious and beautiful tone, show his ardentpatriotism and his unshaken trust in the God of his fathers. He does notequal Isaiah in the sublimity of his conceptions and the variety of hisimagery, but whatever may be the imperfections of his style, they are lostin the passion and vehemence of his poems. 

DANIEL, after having straggled against the corruptions of Babylon, boldlyforetells the decay of that empire with terrible power. His conceptionsand images are truly sublime; but his style is less correct and regularthan that of his predecessors, his language being a mixture of Hebrew andChaldaic. 

Such is also the style of EZEKIEL, who sings the development of theobscure prophesies of his master. His writings abound in dreams andvisions, and convey rather the idea of the terrible than of the sublime. 

These four, from the length of their writings, are called the GreaterProphets, to distinguish them from the twelve Minor Prophets: HOSEA, JOEL, AMOS, OBADIAH, JONAH, MICAH, NAHUM, HABAKKUK, ZEPHANIAH, HAGGAI, ZECHARIAH, and MALACHI, all of whom, though endowed with differentcharacteristics and genius, show in their writings more or less of thatfire and vigor which can only be found in writers who were moved andwarmed by the very spirit of God. 

8. PASTORAL POETRY AND DIDACTIC POETRY. --The Song of Solomon and thehistory of Ruth are the best specimens of the Hebrew idyl, and breathe allthe simplicity of pastoral life. 

The books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes contain treatises on moralphilosophy, or rather, are didactic poems. The Proverb, which is a maximof wisdom, greatly used by the ancients before the introduction ofdissertation, is, as the name indicates, the prevalent form of the firstof these books. In Ecclesiastes we have described the trials of a mindwhich has lost itself in undefined wishes and in despair, and theefficacious remedies for these mental diseases are shown in the picturesof the vanity of the world and in the final divine judgment, in which theproblem of this life will have its complete solution. SOLOMON, the authorof these works, adds splendor to the sublimity of his doctrines by thedignity of his style. 

9. EPIC AND DRAMATIC POETRY. --The Book of Job may be considered asbelonging either to epic or to dramatic poetry. Its exact date isuncertain; some writers refer it to the primitive period of Hebrewliterature, and others to a later age; and, while some contend that Jobwas but an ideal, representing human suffering, whose story was sung by ananonymous poet, others, with more probability, regard him as an actualperson, exposed to the trials and temptations described in this wonderfulbook. However this may be, it is certain that this monument of wisdomstands alone, and that it can be compared to no other production for thesublimity of its ideas, the vivacity and force of its expressions, thegrandeur of its imagery, and the variety of its characters. No other workrepresents, in more true and vivid colors, the nobility and misery ofhumanity, the laws of necessity and Providence, and the trials to whichthe good are subjected for their moral improvement. Here the greatstraggle between evil and good appears in its true light, and human virtueheroically submits itself to the ordeal of misfortune. Here we learn thatthe evil and good of this life are by no means the measure of morality, and here we witness the final triumph of justice. 

10. HEBREW HISTORY. --Moses, the most ancient of all historians, was alsothe first leader and legislator of the Hebrews. When at length thetraditions of the patriarchs had become obscured and confused among thedifferent nations of the earth, Moses was inspired to write the history ofthe human race, and especially of the chosen people, in order to bequeathto coming centuries a memorial of revealed truths and of the divine worksof eternal Wisdom. Thus in the first chapters of Genesis, without aimingto write the complete annals of the first period of the world, he summedup the general history of man, and described, more especially, thegenealogy of the patriarchs and of the generations previous to the time ofthe dispersion. 

The subject of the book of Exodus is the delivery of the people from theEgyptian bondage, and it is not less admirable for the importance of theevents which it describes, than for the manner in which they are related. In this, and in the following book of Numbers, the record of patriarchallife gives place to the teachings of Moses and to the history of thewanderings in the deserts of Arabia. 

In Leviticus the constitution of the priesthood is described, as well asthe peculiarities of a worship. 

Deuteronomy records the laws of Moses, and concludes with his sublime hymnof thanksgiving. 

The historical books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, etc. , contain the history of the Hebrew nation for nearly a thousandyears, and relate the prosperity and the disasters of the chosen people. Here are recorded the deeds of Joshua, of Samson, of Samuel, of David, andof Solomon, the building of the Temple, the division of the tribes intotwo kingdoms, the prodigies of Elijah and Elisha, the impieties of Ahab, the calamities of Jedekiah, the destruction of Jerusalem and of the firstTemple, the dispersion and the Babylonish captivity, the deliverance underCyrus, and the rebuilding of the city and Temple under Ezra, and othergreat events in Hebrew history. 

The internal evidence derived from the peculiar character of each of thehistorical books is decisive of their genuineness, which is supportedabove all suspicion of alteration or addition by the scrupulousconscientiousness and veneration with which the Hebrews regarded theirsacred writings. Their authenticity is also proved by the uniformity ofdoctrine which pervades them all, though written at different periods, bythe simplicity and naturalness of the narrations, and by the sincerity ofthe writers. 

These histories display neither vanity nor adulation, nor do they attemptto conceal from the reader whatever might be considered as faults in theirauthors or their heroes. While they select facts with a nice judgment, andpresent the most luminous picture of events and of their causes, theyabstain from reasoning or speculation in regard to them. 

11. HEBREW PHILOSOPHY. --Although the Hebrews, in their different sacredwritings, have transmitted to us the best solution of the ancientphilosophical questions on the creation of the world, on the Providencewhich rules it, on monotheism, and on the origin of sin, yet they havenowhere presented us with a complete system of philosophy. 

During the Captivity, their doctrines were influenced by those ofZoroaster, and later, when many of the Jews established themselves inEgypt, they acquired some knowledge of the Greek philosophy, and thetenets of the sects of the Essenes bear a strong resemblance to thePythagorean and Platonic schools. This resemblance appears most clearly inthe writings of Philo of Alexandria, a Jew, born a few years before thebirth of our Saviour. Though not belonging to the sect of the Essenes, hefollowed their example in adopting the doctrines of Plato and taking themas the criterion in the interpretation of the Scriptures. So, also, Flavius Josephus, born in Jerusalem, 37 A. D. , and Numenius, born in Syria, in the second century A. D. , adopted the Greek philosophy, and by itsdoctrines amplified and expanded the tenets of Judaism. 

12. RESTORATION OF THE SACRED BOOKS. --One of the most important eras inHebrew literature is the period of the restoration of the Mosaicinstitutions, after the return from the Captivity. According to tradition, at that time Ezra established the great Synagogue, a college of onehundred and twenty learned men, who were appointed to collect copies ofthe ancient sacred books, the originals of which had been lost in thecapture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and Nehemiah soon after placedthis, or a new collection, in the Temple. The design of these reformers togive the people a religious canon in their ancient tongue induces thebelief that they engaged in the work with the strictest fidelity to theold Mosaic institutions, and it is certain that the canon of the OldTestament, in the time of the Maccabees, was the same as that which wehave at present. 

13. MANUSCRIPTS AND TRANSLATIONS. --Of the canonical books of the OldTestament we have Hebrew manuscripts, printed editions, and translations. The most esteemed manuscripts are those of the Spanish Jews, of which themost ancient belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The printededitions of the Bible in Hebrew are numerous. The earliest are those ofItaly. Luther made his German translation from the edition of Brescia, printed in 1494. The earliest and most famous translation of the OldTestament is the Septuagint, or Greek translation, which was made about283 B. C. It may, probably, be attributed to the Alexandrian Jews, who, having lost the knowledge of the Hebrew, caused the translation to be madeby some of their learned countrymen for the use of the Synagogues ofEgypt. It was probably accomplished under the authority of the Sanhedrim, composed of seventy elders, and therefore called the Septuagint version, and from it the quotations in the New Testament are chiefly taken. It wasregarded as canonical by the Jews to the exclusion of other books writtenin Greek, but not translated from the Hebrew, which we now call, by theGreek name, the Apocrypha. 

The Vulgate or Latin translation, which has official authority in theCatholic Church, was made gradually from the eighth to the sixteenthcentury, partly from an old translation which was made from the Greek inthe early history of the Church, and partly from translations from theHebrew made by St. Jerome. 

The English version of the Bible now in use in England and America wasmade by order of James I. It was accomplished by forty-seven distinguishedscholars, divided into six classes, to each of which a part of the workwas assigned. This translation occupied three years, and was printed in1611. 

14. RABBINICAL LITERATURE. --Rabbinical literature includes all thewritings of the rabbins, or teachers of the Jews in the later period ofHebrew letters, who have interpreted and developed the literature of theearlier ages. The language made use of by them has its foundation in theHebrew and Chaldaic, with various alterations and modifications in the useof words, the meaning of which they have considerably enlarged andextended. They have frequently borrowed from the Arabic, Greek, and Latin, and from those modern tongues spoken where they severally resided. 

The Talmud, from the Hebrew word signifying _he has learned_, is acollection of traditions illustrative of the laws and usages of the Jews. The Talmud consists of two parts, the Mishna and the Gemara. The Mishna, or _second law_, is a collection of rabbinical rules and precepts made inthe second century. The Gemara (_completion_ or _doctrine_) was composedin the third century. It is a collection of commentaries and explanationsof the Mishna, and both together formed the Jerusalem Talmud. 

The Babylonian rabbins composed new commentaries on the Mishna, and thisformed the Babylonian Talmud. Both Talmuds were first committed to writingabout 500 A. D. At the period of the Christian Era, the civil constitution, language, and mode of thinking among the Jews had undergone a completerevolution, and were entirely different from what they had been in theearly period of the commonwealth. The Mosaic books contained rules nolonger adapted to the situation of the nation, and many difficultquestions arose to which their law afforded no satisfactory solution. Therabbins undertook to supply this defect, partly by commentaries on theMosaic precepts, and partly by the composition of new rules. 

The Talmud requires that wherever twelve adults reside together in oneplace, they shall erect a synagogue and serve the God of their fathers bya multitude of prayers and formalities, amidst the daily occupations oflife. It allows usury, treats agricultural pursuits with contempt, andrequires strict separation from the other races, and commits thegovernment to the rabbins. The Talmud is followed by the Rabbinites, towhich sect nearly all the European and American Jews belong. The sect ofthe Caraites rejects the Talmud and holds to the law of Moses only. It isless numerous, and its members are found chiefly in the East, or in Turkeyand Eastern Russia. 

The Cabala, or oral tradition, is, according to the Jews, a perpetualdivine revelation, preserved among the Jewish people by secrettransmission. It sometimes denotes the doctrines of the prophets, but mostcommonly the mystical philosophy, which was probably introduced intoPalestine from Egypt and Persia. It was first committed to writing in thesecond century A. D. The Cabala is divided into the symbolical and thereal, of which the former gives a mystical signification to letters. Thelatter comprehends doctrines, and is divided into the theoretical andpractical. The first aims to explain the Scriptures according to thesecret traditions, while the last pretends to teach the art of performingmiracles by an artificial use of the divine names and sentences of thesacred Scriptures. 

The Jews of the Middle Ages acquired great reputation for learning, especially in Spain, where they were allowed to study astronomy, mathematics, and medicine in the schools of the Moors. Granada and Cordovabecame the centres of rabbinical literature, which was also cultivated inFrance, Italy, Portugal, and Germany. In the sixteenth century the studyof Hebrew and rabbinical literature became common among Christianscholars, and in the following centuries it became more interesting andimportant from the introduction of comparative philology in the departmentof languages. Rabbinical literature still has its students andinterpreters. In Padua, Berlin, and Metz there are seminaries for theeducation of rabbins, which supply with able doctors the synagogues ofItaly, Germany, and France. There is also a rabbinical school inCincinnati, Ohio. The Polish rabbins and Talmudists, however, are the mostcelebrated. 

15. THE NEW REVISION OF THE BIBLE. --The convocation of the English Houseof Bishops, which met at Canterbury in 1870, recommended a revised versionof the Scriptures, and appointed a committee for the work of sixty-sevenmembers from various ecclesiastical bodies of England, to which anAmerican committee of thirty-five was added, and by their joint labors therevised edition of the New Testament was issued in 1881. The revised OldTestament is expected to appear during 1884. The advantages claimed forthese new versions are: a more accurate rendering of the text, acorrection of the errors of former translations, the removal of misleadingarchaisms and obsolete terms, better punctuation, arrangement in sectionsas well as chapters and verses, the metrical arrangement of poetry, and anincreased number of marginal readings. 

In 1875, Bryennios, a metropolitan of the Greek Church, discovered in thelibrary of the Most Holy Sepulchre at Constantinople a manuscriptbelonging to the second century A. D. , which contains, among other valuableand interesting documents, one on the "Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, "many points of which bear on the usages of the church, such as the mode ofbaptism, the celebration of the Eucharist, and the orders of the ministry. It was at first considered authentic and highly important, but moredeliberate study tends to discredit its authority. 

EGYPTIAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. The Writing. --3. The Literature. --4. The Monuments. --5. The Discovery of Champollion. --6. Literary Remains; Historical;Religious; Epistolary; Fictitious; Scientific; Epic; Satirical andJudicial. --7. The Alexandrian Period. --8. The Literary Condition of ModernEgypt. 

1. THE LANGUAGE. --From the earliest times the language of Egypt wasdivided into three dialects: the Memphitic, spoken in Memphis and LowerEgypt; the Theban, or Sahidic, spoken in Upper Egypt; and the Bashmuric, aprovincial variety belonging to the oases of the Lybian Desert. 

The Coptic tongue, which arose from a union of ancient Egyptian with thevulgar vernacular, later became mingled with Greek and Arabic words, andwas written in the Greek alphabet. It was used in Egypt until the tenthcentury A. D. , when it gave way to the Arabic; but the Christians stillpreserve it in their worship and in their translation of the Bible. Byrejecting its foreign elements Egyptologists have been enabled to studythis language in its purity, and to establish its grammar andconstruction. It is the exclusive character of the Christian Egyptianliterature, and marks the last development and final decay of the Egyptianlanguage. 

2. THE WRITING. --Four distinct graphic systems were in use in ancientEgypt: the hieroglyphic, the hieratic, the demotic, and Coptic. The firstexpresses words partly by representation of the object and partly by signsindicating sounds, and was used chiefly for inscriptions. The hieraticcharacters presented a flowing and abbreviated form of the hieroglyphic, and were used more particularly in the papyri. The great body of Egyptianliterature has reached us through this character, the reading of which canonly be determined by resolving it into its prototype, hieroglyphics. 

The demotic writing indicates the rise of the vulgar tongue, which tookplace about the beginning of the seventh century B. C. It was used totranscribe hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions and papyri into thecommon idiom until the second century A. D. , when the Coptic generallysuperseded it. 

3. THE LITERATURE. --The literary history of ancient Egypt presents aremarkable exception to that of any other country. While the languageunderwent various modifications, and the written characters changed, theliterature remained the same in all its principal features. Thisliterature consists solely of inscriptions painted or engraved onmonuments, or of written manuscripts on papyrus buried in the tombs orbeneath the ruins of temples. It is so deficient in style, and sounsystematic in its construction, that it has taxed the labors of theablest critics for the last fifty years to construct a whole from itsdisjointed materials, and these are so imperfect that many periods ofEgyptian history are complete literary blanks. In the great period of theRameses, novels or works of amusement predominated; under the Ptolemies, historical records, and in the Coptic or Christian stage, homolies andchurch rituals prevailed; but through every epoch the same general typeappears. Notwithstanding these deficiencies, however, Egypt offers a mostattractive field for the archaeologist, and new discoveries are constantlyadding to our knowledge of this interesting country. 

4. THE MONUMENTS. --The monuments of Egypt are religious, as the temples, sepulchral, as the necropoles, or triumphal, as the obelisks. The templeswere the principal structures of the Egyptian cities, and their splendidruins, covered with inscriptions, are among the most interesting remainsof antiquity. Life after death, the leading idea of the religion of Egypt, was expressed in the construction of the tombs, so numerous in thevicinity of all the large cities. These necropoles, excavated in the rocksor hillsides, or built within the pyramids, consist of rows of chamberswith halls supported by columns, which, with the walls, are often coveredwith paintings, historical or monumental, representing scenes fromdomestic or civil life. The great pyramids were probably built for thesepulchres of kings and their families, and the smaller ones for personsof inferior rank. 

The most magnificent of the triumphal monuments are the obelisks, giganticmonoliths of red or white granite, some of which are more than two hundredfeet high, covered with inscriptions, and bearing the image of thetriumphant king, painted or engraved. The splendid obelisk in the Place dela Concorde, at Paris, celebrates the glories of Rameses II. 

The obelisk now in New York is one of a pair erected at Heliopolis, beforethe Temple of the Sun, about 1600 B. C. In the reign of Augustus both wereremoved to Alexandria, and were known in modern times as Cleopatra'sNeedles. One was presented by the Khedive to the city of London in 1877, and the other to the city of New York the same year. The shaft on thelatter bears two inscriptions, one celebrating Thothmes III. , and theother Rameses II. 

One of the most characteristic monuments of Egypt is the statue of theSphinx, so often found in the temples and necropoles. It is a recumbentfigure, having a human head and breast and the body of a lion. Whateveridea the Egyptians may have attached to this symbol, it represents mosttruly the character of that people and the struggle of mind to free itselffrom the instincts of brutal nature. 

5. THE DISCOVERY OF CHAMPOLLION. --During the expedition into Egypt, in1799, in throwing up some earthworks near Rosetta, a town on the westernarm of the Nile, an officer of the French army discovered a block ortablet of black basalt, upon which were engraved inscriptions in Egyptianand Greek characters. This tablet, called the Rosetta Stone, was sent toFrance and submitted to the orientalists for interpretation. Theinscription was found to be a decree of the Egyptian priests in honor ofPtolemy Epiphanes (196 B. C. ), which was ordered to be engraved on stone insacred (hieroglyphic), common (demotic), and in Greek characters. Throughthis interpretation, Champollion (1790-1832), after much study, discoveredand established the alphabetic system of Egyptian writing, and applyinghis discovery more extensively, he was able to decipher the names of thekings of Egypt from the Roman emperors back, through the Ptolemies, to thePharaohs of the elder dynasties. This discovery was the key to theinterpretation of all the ancient monuments of Egypt; by it the history ofthe country was thrown open for a period of twenty-six centuries, theannals of the neighboring nations were rendered more intelligible, thereligion, arts, sciences, life, and manners of the ancient Egyptians wererevealed to the modern world, and the obelisks, the innumerable papyri, and the walls of the temples and tombs were transformed into inexhaustiblemines of historical and scientific knowledge. 

6. LITERARY REMAINS; HISTORICAL; RELIGIOUS; EPISTOLARY; FICTITIOUS;SCIENTIFIC; EPIC; SATIRICAL AND JUDICIAL. --The Egyptian priests from theearliest times must have preserved the annals of their country, thoughobscured by myths and symbols. These annals, however, were destroyed byCambyses (500 B. C. ), who, during his invasion of the country, burned thetemples where they were preserved, although they were soon rewritten, according to the testimony of Herodotus, who visited Egypt 450 B. C. In thethird century B. C. , Manetho, a priest and librarian of Heliopolis, wrotethe succession of kings, and though the original work was lost, importantfragments of it have been preserved by other writers. There seem to havebeen four periods in this history of ancient Egypt, marked by greatchanges in the social and political constitution of the country. In thefirst epoch, under the rule of the gods, demigods, and heroes, accordingto Manetho, it was probably colonized and ruled by the priests, in thename of the gods. The second period extends from Menes, the supposedfounder of the monarchy, to the invasion of the Shepherd Kings, about 2000B. C. In the third period, under this title, the Phoenicians probably ruledEgypt for three centuries, and it was one of these kings or Pharaohs ofwhom Joseph was the prime minister. In the fourth period, from 1180 to 350B. C. , the invaders were expelled and native rule restored, until thecountry was again conquered, first by the Persians, about 500 B. C. , andagain by the Greeks under Alexander, 350 B. C. From that time to thepresent no native ruler has sat on the throne of that country. After theconquest by Alexander the Great, who left it to the sway of the Ptolemies, it was successively conquered by the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamelukes, and the Turks. Since 1841 it has been governed by a viceroy under nominalallegiance to the Sultan of Turkey. In 1865 the title of khedive wassubstituted for that of viceroy. 

Early Egyptian chronology is in a great measure merely conjectural, andnew information from the monuments only adds to the obscurity. Thehistorical papyri are records of the kings or accounts of contemporaryevents. These, as well as the inscriptions on the monuments, generally inthe form of panegyric, are inflated records of the successes of the heroesthey celebrate, or explanations of the historical scenes painted orsculptured on the monuments. 

The early religion of Egypt was founded on a personification of the lawsof Nature, centred in a mysterious unity. Egyptian nature, however, supplied but few great objects of worship as symbols of divine power, the desert, a natural enemy, the fertilizing river, and the sun, theall-pervading presence, worshiped as the source of life, the lord of time, and author of eternity. Three great realms composed the Egyptian cosmos; theheavens, where the sun, moon, and stars paced their daily round, the abodeof the invisible king, typified by the sun and worshiped as Ammon Ra, theearth and the under-world, the abode of the dead. Here, too, reigned theuniversal lord under the name of Osiris, whose material manifestation, thesun, as he passed beneath the earth, lightened up the under-world, wherethe dead were judged, the just recompensed, and the guilty punished. 

Innumerable minor divinities, which originally personified attributes ofthe one Supreme Deity, were represented under the form of such animals aswere endowed with like qualities. Every god was symbolized by some animal, which thus became an object of worship; but by confounding symbols withrealities this worship soon degenerated into gross materialism andidolatry. 

The most important religious work in this literature is the "Book of theDead, " a funeral ritual. The earliest known copy is in hieratic writing ofthe oldest type, and was found in the tomb of a queen, who lived probablyabout 3000 B. C. The latest copy is of the second century A. D. , and iswritten in pure Coptic. This work, consisting of one hundred and sixty-sixchapters, is a collection of prayers of a magical character, an account ofthe adventures of the soul after death, and directions for reaching theHall of Osiris. It is a marvel of confusion and poverty of thought. Acomplete translation may be found in "Egypt's Place in Universal History, "by Bunsen (second edition), and specimens in almost every museum ofEurope. There are other theological remains, such as the Metamorphoses ofthe gods and the Lament of Isis, but their meaning is disguised inallegory. The hymns and addresses to the sun abound in pure and loftysentiment. 

The epistolary writings are the best known and understood branch ofEgyptian literature. From the Ramesid era, the most literary of all, wehave about eighty letters on various subjects, interesting asillustrations of manners and specimens of style. The most important ofthese is the "Anastasi Papyri" in the British Museum, written about thetime of the Exodus. 

Two valuable and tolerably complete relics represent the fictitiouswriting of Egyptian literature; they are "The Tale of Two Brothers, " nowin the British Museum, and "The Romance of Setna, " recently discovered inthe tomb of a Coptic monk. The former was evidently intended for theamusement of a royal prince. One of its most striking features is the lowmoral tone of the women introduced. "The Romance of Setna" turns upon thedanger of acquiring possession of the sacred books. The opening and dateof the story are missing. 

Fresh information is being constantly acquired as to the knowledge ofscience possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Geometry originated with them, or from remote ages they were acquainted with the principles of thisscience, as well as with those of hydrostatics and mechanics, as is provedby the immense structures which remain the wonder of the modern world. They cultivated astronomy from the earliest times, and they havetransmitted to us their observations on the movements of the sun, thestars, the earth, and other planets. The obelisks served them as sundials, and the pyramids as astronomical observatories. They had greatskill in medicine and much knowledge of anatomy. The most remarkablemedical papyri are to be found in the Berlin Museum. 

The epics and biographical sketches are narratives of personal adventurein war or travel, and are distinguished by some effort at grace of style. The epic of Pentaur, or the achievements of Rameses II. , has been calledthe Egyptian Iliad. It is several centuries older than the Greek Iliad, and deserves admiration for its rapid narrative and epic unity. 

The history of Mohan (by some thought to be Moses) has been called theEgyptian Odyssey, in contrast to the preceding. Mohan was a high official, and this narrative describes his travels in Syria and Palestine. Thispapyrus is in the British Museum, and both epics have been translated. 

The satirical writings and beast fables of the Egyptians caricature thefoibles of all classes, not sparing the sacred person of the king, and areoften illustrated with satirical pictures. Besides these strictly literaryremains, a large number of judicial documents, petitions, decrees, andtreaties has been recovered. 

7. THE ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. --Egypt, in its flourishing period, havingcontributed to the civilization of Greece, became, in its turn, the pupilof that country. In the century following the age of Alexander the Great, under the rule of the Ptolemies, the philosophy and literature of Athenswere transferred to Alexandria. Ptolemy Philadelphus, in the third centuryB. C. , completed the celebrated Alexandrian Library, formed for the mostpart of Greek books, and presided over by Greek librarians. The school ofAlexandria had its poets, its grammarians, and philosophers; but itspoetry lacked the fire of genius, and its grammatical productions weremore remarkable for sophistry and subtlety, than for soundness and depthof research. In the philosophy of Alexandria, the Eastern and Westernsystems combined, and this school had many distinguished disciples. 

In the first century of the Christian era, Egypt passed from the Greekkings to the Roman emperors, and the Alexandrian school continued to beadorned by the first men of the age. This splendor, more Grecian thanEgyptian, was extinguished in the seventh century by the Saracens, whoconquered the country, and, it is believed, burned the great AlexandrianLibrary. After the wars of the immediate successors of Mohammed, theArabian princes protected literature, Alexandria recovered its schools, and other institutions of learning were established; but in the conquestof the country by the Turks, in the thirteenth century, all literary lightwas extinguished. 

8. LITERARY CONDITION OF MODERN EGYPT. --For more than nine hundred yearsCairo has possessed a university of high rank, which greatly increased inimportance on the accession of Mehemet Ali, in 1805, who established manyother schools, primary, scientific, medical, and military, though theywere suffered to languish under his two successors. In 1865, when Ismail-Pacha mounted the throne as Khedive (tributary king), he gave powerful aidto the university and to public instruction everywhere. The number ofstudents at the University of Cairo advanced to eleven thousand. The wifeof the Khedive, the Princess Cachma-Afet, founded in 1873, and maintainedfrom her privy purse, a school for the thorough instruction of girls, which led to the establishment of a similar institution by the Ministry ofPublic Instruction. This princess is the first in the history of Islamwho, from the interior of the harem, has exerted her influence to educateand enlighten her sex. 

When the Khedive was driven into exile in 1879, the number of schools, nearly all the result of his energetic rule, was 4, 817 and of pupils170, 000. Since the European intervention and domination the number of bothhas sensibly diminished, and a serious retrograde movement has takenplace. 

The higher literature of Egypt at the present time is written in pureArabic. The popular writing in magazines, periodicals, etc. , is in Arabicmixed with Syriac and Egyptian dialects. Newspaper literature has greatlyincreased during the past eight years. 

GREEK LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Greek Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language. --3. The Religion. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Ante-Homeric Songs and Bards. --2. Poems of Homer; theIliad; the Odyssey. --3. The Cyclic Poets and the Homeric Hymns. --4. Poemsof Hesiod; the Works and Days; the Theogony. --5. Elegy and Epigram;Tyrtaeus; Archilochus; Simonides. --6. Iambic Poetry, the Fable, andParody; Aesop. --7. Greek Music and Lyric Poetry; Terpander. --8. AeolicLyric Poets; Alcasus; Sappho; Anacreon. --9. Doric, or Choral Lyric Poets;Alcman; Stesichorus; Pindar. --10. The Orphic Doctrines and Poems. --11. Pre-Socratic Philosophy; Ionian, Eleatic, Pythagorean Schools. --12. History; Herodotus. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. Literary Predominance of Athens. --2. Greek Drama. --3. Tragedy. --4. The Tragic Poets; Aeschylus; Sophocles; Euripides. --5. Comedy; Aristophanes; Menander. --6. Oratory, Rhetoric, and History;Pericles; the Sophists; Lysias; Isocrates; Demosthenes; Thucydides;Xenophon. --7. Socrates and the Socratic Schools; Plato; Aristotle. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. Origin of the Alexandrian Literature. --2. TheAlexandrian Poets; Philetas; Callimachus; Theocritus; Bion; Moschus. --3. The Prose Writers of Alexandria; Zenodotus; Aristophanes; Aristarchus;Eratosthenes; Euclid; Archimedes. --4. Philosophy of Alexandria; Neo-Platonism. --5. Anti-Neo-Platonic Tendencies; Epictetus; Lucian; Longinus. --6. Greek Literature in Rome; Dionysius of Halicarnassus; FlaviusJosephus; Polybius; Diodorus; Strabo; Plutarch. --7. Continued Decline ofGreek Literature. --8. Last Echoes of the Old Literature; Hypatia; Nonnus;Musaeus; Byzantine Literature. --9. The New Testament and the GreekFathers. Modern Literature; the Brothers Santsos and Alexander Rangabé. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. GREEK LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --The literary histories thus farsketched, with the exception of the Hebrew, occupy a subordinate position, and constitute but a small part of the general and continuous history ofliterature. As there are states whose interests are so detached fromforeign nations and so centred in themselves that their history seems toform no link in the great chain of political events, so there are bodiesof literature cut off from all connection with the course of generalrefinement, and bearing no relation to the development of mental power inthe most civilized portions of the globe. Thus, the literature of India, with its great antiquity, its language, which, in fullness of expression, sweetness of tone, and regularity of structure, rivals the most perfect ofthose Western tongues to which it bears such an affinity, with all itsaffluence of imagery and its treasures of thought, has hitherto beendestitute of any direct influence on the progress of general literature, and China has contributed still less to its advancement. Other branches ofOriental literature, as the Persian and Arabian, were equally isolated, until they were brought into contact with the European mind through themedium of the Crusaders and of the Moorish empire in Spain. 

We come now to speak of the literature of the Greeks; a literature whosecontinuous current has rolled down from remote ages to our own day, andwhose influence has been more extensive and lasting than that of any othernation of the ancient or modern world. Endowed with profound sensibilityand a lively imagination, surrounded by all the circumstances that couldaid in perfecting the physical and intellectual powers, the Greeks earlyacquired that essentially literary and artistic character which became thesource of the greatest productions of literature and art. This excellencewas, also, in some measure due to their institutions; free from the systemof castes which prevailed in India and Egypt, and which confined alllearning by a sort of hereditary right to the priests, the tendency of theGreek mind was from the first liberal, diffusive, and aesthetic. Themanifestation of their genius, from the first dawn of their intellectualculture, was of an original and peculiar character, and their plasticminds gave a new shape and value to whatever materials they drew fromforeign sources. The ideas of the Egyptians and Orientals, which theyadopted into their mythology, they cast in new moulds, and reproduced inmore beautiful forms. The monstrous they subdued into the vast, thegrotesque they softened into the graceful, and they diffused a fine spiritof humanity over the rude proportions of the primeval figures. So with thedogmas of their philosophy, borrowed from the same sources; all that couldbeautify the meagre, harmonize the incongruous, enliven the dull, orconvert the crude materials of metaphysics into an elegant department ofliterature, belongs to the Greeks themselves. The Grecian mind became thefoundation of the Roman and of all modern literatures, and its master-pieces afford the most splendid examples of artistic beauty and perfectionthat the world has ever seen. 

The history of Greek literature may be divided into three periods. Thefirst, extending from remote antiquity to the age of Herodotus (484 B. C. ), includes the earliest poetry of Greece, the ante-Homeric and the Homericeras, the origin of Greek elegy, epigram, iambic, and lyric poetry, andthe first development of Greek philosophy. 

The second, or Athenian period, the golden age of Greek literature, extends from the age of Herodotus (484 B. C. ) to the death of Alexander theGreat (323 B. C. ), and comprehends the development of the Greek drama inthe works of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, and of politicaloratory, history, and philosophy, in the works of Demosthenes, Thucydides, Xenophon, Plato, and Aristotle. 

The third, or the period of the decline of Greek literature, extendingfrom the death of Alexander the Great (323 B. C. ) to the fall of theByzantine empire (1453 A. D. ), is characterized by the removal of Greeklearning and literature from Athens to Alexandria, and by its gradualdecline and extinction. 

2. THE LANGUAGE. --Of all known languages none has attained so high adegree of perfection as that of the Greeks. Belonging to the great Indo-European family, it is rich in significant words, strong and elegant inits combinations and phrases, and extremely musical, not only in itspoetry, but in its prose. The Greek language must have attained greatexcellence at a very early period, for it existed in its essentialperfection in the time of Homer. It was, also, early divided intodialects, as spoken by the various Hellenic tribes that inhabiteddifferent parts of the country. The principal of these found in writtencomposition are the Aeolic, Doric, Ionic, and Attic, of which the Aeolic, the most ancient, was spoken north of the Isthmus, in the Aeolic coloniesof Asia Minor, and in the northern islands of the Aegean Sea. It waschiefly cultivated by the lyric poets. The Doric, a variety of the Aeolic, characterized by its strength, was spoken in Peloponnesus, and in theDoric colonies of Asia Minor, Lower Italy, and Sicily. The Ionic, the mostsoft and liquid of all the dialects, belonged to the Ionian colonies ofAsia Minor and the islands of the Archipelago. It was the language ofHomer, Hesiod, and Herodotus. The Attic, which was the Ionic developed, enriched, and refined, was spoken in Attica, and prevailed in theflourishing period of Greek literature. 

After the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, the Greek language, which hadbeen gradually declining, became entirely extinct, and a dialect, whichhad long before sprung up among the common people, took the place of theancient, majestic, and refined tongue. This popular dialect in turncontinued to degenerate until the middle of the last century. Recentlyinstitutions of learning have been established, and a new impulse given toimprovement in Greece. Great progress has been made in the cultivation ofthe language, and great care is taken by modern Greek writers to avoid theuse of foreign idioms and to preserve the ancient orthography. Manynewspapers, periodicals, original works, and translations are publishedevery year in Greece. The name Romaic, which has been applied to modernGreek, is now almost superseded by that of Neo-Hellenic. 

3. THE RELIGION. --In the development of the Greek religion two periods maybe distinguished, the ante-Homeric and the Homeric. As the heroic age ofthe Greek nation was preceded by one in which the cultivation of the landchiefly occupied the attention of the inhabitants, so there are traces andremnants of a state of the Greek religion, in which the gods wereconsidered as exhibiting their power chiefly in the changes of theseasons, and in the operations and phenomena of outward nature. Imagination led these early inhabitants to discover, not only in thegeneral phenomena of vegetation, the unfolding and death of the leaf andflower, and in the moist and dry seasons of the year, but also in thepeculiar physical character of certain districts, a sign of thealternately hostile or peaceful, happy or ill-omened interference ofcertain deities. There are still preserved in the Greek mythology manylegends of charming and touching simplicity, which had their origin atthis period, when the Greek religion bore the character of a worship ofthe powers of nature. 

Though founded on the same ideas as most of the religions of the East, andparticularly of Asia Minor, the earliest religion of the Greeks was richerand more various in its forms, and took a loftier and a wider range. TheGrecian worship of nature, in all the various forms which it assumed, recognized one deity, as the highest of all, the head of the entiresystem, Zeus, the god of heaven and light; with him, and dwelling in thepure expanse of ether, is associated the goddess of the earth, who, indifferent temples, was worshiped under different names, as Hera, Demeter, and Dione. Besides this goddess, other beings are united with the supremegod, who are personifications of certain of his energies powerful deitieswho carry the influence of light over the earth, and destroy the opposingpowers of darkness and confusion as Athena, born from the head of herfather, and Apollo, the pure and shining god of light. There are otherdeities allied with earth and dwelling in her dark recesses; and as lifeappears not only to spring from the earth, but to return whence it sprung, these deities are, for the most part, also connected with death; asHermes, who brings up the treasures of fruitfulness from the depths of theearth, and Cora, the child, now lost and now recovered by her mother, Demeter, the goddess both of reviving and of decaying nature. The elementof water, Poseidon, was also introduced into this assemblage of thepersonified powers of nature, and peculiarly connected with the goddess ofthe earth; fire, Hephaestus, was represented as a powerful principlederived from heaven, having dominion over the earth, and closely alliedwith the goddess who sprang from the head of the supreme god. Otherdeities form less important parts of this system, as Dionysus, whosealternate joys and sufferings show a strong resemblance to the form whichreligious notions assumed in Asia Minor. Though not, like the gods ofOlympus, recognized by all the races of the Greeks, Dionysus exerted animportant influence on the spirit of the Greek nation, and in sculptureand poetry gave rise to bold flights of imagination, and to powerfulemotions, both of joy and sorrow. 

These notions concerning the gods must have undergone many changes beforethey assumed the form under which they appear in the poems of Homer andHesiod. The Greek religion, as manifested through them, reached the secondperiod of its development, belonging to that time when the mostdistinguished and prominent part of the people devoted their lives to theaffairs of the state and the occupation of arms, and in which the heroicspirit was manifested according to these ideas. On Olympus, lying near thenorthern boundary of Greece, the highest mountain of that country, whosesummit seems to touch the heavens, there rules the assembly or family ofthe gods; the chief of which, Zeus, summons at his pleasure the other godsto council, as Agamemnon summons the other princes. He is acquainted withthe decrees of fate, and able to control them, and being himself kingamong the gods, he gives the kings of the earth their powers and dignity. By his side his wife, Hera, whose station entitles her to a large share ofhis rank and dominion; and a daughter of masculine character, Athena, aleader of battles and a protectress of citadels, who, by her wisecounsels, deserves the confidence which her father bestows on her; besidesthese, there are a number of gods with various degrees of kindred, whohave each their proper place and allotted duty on Olympus. The attentionof this divine council is chiefly turned to the fortunes of nations andcities, and especially to the adventures and enterprises of the heroes, who being themselves, for the most part, sprung from the blood of thegods, form the connecting link between them and the ordinary herd ofmankind. At this stage the ancient religion of nature had disappeared, andthe gods who dwelt on Olympus scarcely manifested any connection withnatural phenomena. Zeus exercises his power as a ruler and a king; Hera, Athena, and Apollo no longer symbolize the fertility of the earth, theclearness of the atmosphere, and the arrival of the serene spring;Hephaestus has passed from the powerful god of fire in heaven and earthinto a laborious smith and worker of metals; Hermes is transformed intothe messenger of Zeus; and the other deities which stood at a greaterdistance from the affairs of men are entirely forgotten, or scarcelymentioned in the Homeric mythology. 

These deities are known to us chiefly through the names given to them bythe Romans, who adopted them at a later period, or identified them withdeities of their own. _Zeus_ was called by them Jupiter; _Hera_; Juno;_Athena_, Minerva; _Ares_, Mars; _Artemis_, Diana; _Hermes_, Mercury;_Cora_, Proserpine; _Hephaestus_, Vulcan; _Poseidon_, Neptune;_Aphrodite_, Venus; _Dionysus_, Bacchus. 

PERIOD FIRST. 

FROM REMOTE ANTIQUITY TO HERODOTUS (484 B. C. ), 1. ANTE-HOMERIC SONGS AND BARDS. --Many centuries must have elapsed beforethe poetical language of the Greeks could have attained the splendor, copiousness, and fluency found in the poems of Homer. The firstoutpourings of poetical enthusiasm were, doubtless, songs describing, infew and simple verses, events which powerfully affected the feelings ofthe hearers. It is probable that the earliest were those that referred tothe seasons and their phenomena, and that they were sung by the peasantsat their corn and wine harvests, and had their origin in times of ancientrural simplicity. Songs of this kind had often a plaintive and melancholycharacter. Such was the song "Linus" mentioned by Homer, which wasfrequently sung at the grape-picking. This Linus evidently belongs to aclass of heroes or demi-gods, of which many instances occur in thereligions of Asia Minor. Boys of extraordinary beauty and in the flower ofyouth were supposed to have been drowned, or devoured by raging dogs, andtheir death was lamented at the harvests and other periods of the hotseason. According to the tradition, Linus sprang from a divine origin, grew up with the shepherds among the lambs, and was torn in pieces by wilddogs, whence arose the festival of the lambs, at which many dogs wereslain. The real object of lamentation was the tender beauty of spring, destroyed by the summer heat, and other phenomena of the same kind whichthe imagination of those times invested with a personal form, andrepresented as beings of a divine nature. Of similar meaning are manyother songs, which were sung at the time of the summer heat or at thecutting of the corn. Such was the song called "Bormus" from its subject, abeautiful boy of that name, who, having gone to fetch water for thereapers, was, while drawing it, borne down by the nymphs of the stream. Such were the cries for the youth Hylas, swallowed up by the waters of afountain, and the lament for Adonis, whose untimely death was celebratedby Sappho. 

The Paeans were songs originally dedicated to Apollo, and afterwards toother gods; their tune and words expressed hope and confidence toovercome, by the help of the god, great and imminent danger, or gratitudeand thanksgiving for victory and safety. To this class belonged the vernalPaeans, which were sung at the termination of winter, and those sung inwar before the attack on the enemy. The Threnos, or lamentations for thedead, were songs containing vehement expressions of grief, sung byprofessional singers standing near the bed upon which the body was laid, and accompanied by the cries and groans of women. The Hymenaeos was thejoyful bridal song of the wedding festivals, in which there wereordinarily two choruses, one of boys bearing burning torches and singingthe hymenaeos to the clear sound of the pipe, and another of young girlsdancing to the notes of the harp. The Chorus originally referred chieflyto dancing. The most ancient sense of the word is a _place for dancing_, and in these choruses young persons of both sexes danced together in rows, holding one another by the hand, while the citharist, or the player on thelyre, sitting in their midst, accompanied the sound of his instrument withsongs, which took their name from the choruses in which they were sung. 

Besides these popular songs, there were the religious and heroic poems ofthe bards, who were, for the most part, natives of that portion of thecountry which surrounds the mountains of Helicon and Parnassus, distinguished as the home of the Muses. Among the bards devoted to theworship of Apollo and other deities, were Marsyas, the inventor of theflute, Musaeus and Orpheus. Many names of these ancient poets arerecorded, but of their poetry, previous to Homer, not even a fragmentremains. 

The bards or chanters of epic poetry were called Rhapsodists, from themanner in which they delivered their compositions; this name was appliedequally to the minstrel who recited his own poems, and to him whodeclaimed anew songs that had been heard a thousand times before. The formof these heroic songs, probably settled and fixed by tradition, was thehexameter, as this metre gave to the epic poetry repose, majesty, a loftyand solemn tone, and rendered it equally adapted to the pythoness whoannounced the decrees of the deity, and to the rhapsodist who recited thebattles of heroes. The bards held an important post in the festalbanquets, where they flattered the pride of the princes by singing theexploits of their forefathers. 

2. POEMS OF HOMER. --Although seven cities contended for the honor ofgiving birth to Homer, it was the prevalent belief, in the flourishingtimes of Greece, that he was a native of Smyrna. He was probably born inthat city about 1000 B. C. Little is known of his life, but the power ofhis transcendent genius is deeply impressed upon his works. He was calledby the Greeks themselves, _the poet_; and the Iliad and the Odyssey werewith them the ultimate standard of appeal on all matters of religiousdoctrine and early history. They were learned by boys at school, andbecame the study of men in their riper years, and in the time of Socratesthere were Athenians who could repeat both poems by heart. In whateverpart of the world a Greek settled, he carried with him a love for thegreat poet, and long after the Greek people had lost their independence, the Iliad and the Odyssey continued to maintain an undiminished hold upontheir affections. The peculiar excellence of these poems lies in theirsublimity and pathos, in their tenderness and simplicity, and they show intheir author an inexhaustible vigor, that seems to revel in an endlessdisplay of prodigious energies. The universality of the powers of Homer istheir most astonishing attribute. He is not great in any one thing; he isgreatest in all things. He imagines with equal ease the terrible, thebeautiful, the mean, the loathsome, and he paints them all with equalforce. In his descriptions of external nature, in his exhibitions of humancharacter and passion, no matter what the subject, he exhausts itscapabilities. His pictures are true to the minutest touch; his men andwomen are made of flesh and blood. They lose nothing of their humanity forbeing cast in a heroic mould. He transfers himself into the identity ofthose whom he brings into action; masters the interior springs of theirspiritual mechanism; and makes them move, look, speak, and do exactly asthey would in real life. 

In the legends connected with the Trojan war, the _anger of Achilles_ andthe _return of Ulysses_, Homer found the subjects of the Iliad andOdyssey. The former relates that Agamemnon had stolen from Achilles, Briseis, his beloved slave, and describes the fatal consequences which thesubsequent anger of Achilles brought upon the Greeks; and how the loss ofhis dearest friend, Patroclus, suddenly changed his hostile attitude, andbrought about the destruction of Troy and of Hector, its magnanimousdefender. The Odyssey is composed on a more artificial and complicatedplan than the Iliad. The subject is the return of Ulysses from a landbeyond the range of human knowledge to a home invaded by bands of insolentintruders, who seek to kill his son and rob him of his wife. The poembegins at that point where the hero is considered to be farthest from hishome, in the central portion of the sea, where the nymph Calypso has kepthim hidden from all mankind for seven years. Having by the help of thegods passed through innumerable dangers, after many adventures he reachesIthaca, and is finally introduced into his own house as a beggar, where heis made to suffer the harshest treatment from the suitors of his wife, inorder that he may afterwards appear with the stronger right as a terribleavenger. In this simple story a second was interwoven by the poet, whichrenders it richer and more complete, though more intricate and lessnatural. It is probable that Homer, after having sung the Iliad in thevigor of his youthful years, either composed the Odyssey in his old age, or communicated to some devoted disciple the plan of this poem. 

In the age immediately succeeding Homer, his great poems were doubtlessrecited as complete wholes, at the festivals of the princes; but when thecontests of the rhapsodists became more animated, and more weight was laidon the art of the reciter than on the beauty of the poem he recited, andwhen other musical and poetical performances claimed a place, then theywere permitted to repeat separate parts of poems, and the Iliad andOdyssey, as they had not yet been reduced to writing, existed for a timeonly as scattered and unconnected fragments; and we are still indebted tothe regulator of the poetical contests (either Solon or Pisistratus) forhaving compelled the rhapsodists to follow one another according to theorder of 'the poem, and for having thus restored these great works totheir pristine integrity. The poets, who either recited the poems of Homeror imitated him in their compositions, were called Homerides. 

3. THE CYCLIC POETS AND THE HOMERIC HYMNS. --The poems of Homer, as theybecame the foundation of all Grecian literature, are likewise the centralpoint of the epic poetry of Greece. All that is most excellent in thisline originated from them, and was connected with them in the way ofcompletion or continuation. After the time of Homer, a class of poetsarose who, from their constant endeavor to connect their poems with thoseof this master, so that they might form a great cycle, were called theCyclic Poets. They were probably Homeric rhapsodists by profession, towhom the constant recitation of the ancient Homeric poems would naturallysuggest the idea of continuing them by essays of their own. The poemsknown as Homeric hymns formed an essential part of the epic style. Theywere hymns to the gods, bearing an epic character, and were called_proemia_, or preludes, and served the rhapsodists either as introductorystrains for their recitation, or as a transition from the festivals of thegods to the competition of the singers of heroic poetry. 

4. POEMS OF HESIOD. --Nothing certain can be affirmed respecting the dateof Hesiod; a Boeotian by birth, he is considered by some ancientauthorities as contemporary with Homer, while others suppose him to haveflourished two or three generations later. The poetry of Hesiod is afaithful transcript of the whole condition of Boeotian life. It hasnothing of that youthful and inexhaustible fancy of Homer which lights upthe sublime images of a heroic age and moulds them into forms ofsurpassing beauty. The poetry of Hesiod appears struggling to emerge outof the narrow bounds of common life, which he strives to ennoble and torender more endurable. It is purely didactic, and its object is todisseminate knowledge, by which life may be improved, or to diffusecertain religious notions as to the influence of a superior destiny. Hispoem entitled "Works and Days" is so entirely occupied with the events ofcommon life, that the author would not seem to have been a poet byprofession, but some Boeotian husbandman whose mind had been moved bycircumstances to give a poetical tone to the course of his thoughts andfeelings. The unjust claim of Perses, the brother of Hesiod, to the smallportion of their father's land which had been allotted to him, calledforth this poem, in which he seeks to improve the character and habits ofPerses, to deter him from acquiring riches by litigation, and to incitehim to a life of labor, as the only source of permanent prosperity. Hepoints out the succession in which his labors must follow if he determinesto lead a life of industry, and gives wise rules of economy for themanagement of a family; and to illustrate and enforce the principal idea, he ingeniously combines with his precepts mythical narratives, fables, anddescriptions. The "Theogony" of Hesiod is a production of the highestimportance, as it contains the religious faith of Greece. It was throughit that Greece first obtained a religious code, which, although withoutexternal sanction or priestly guardians and interpreters, must haveproduced the greatest influence on the religious condition of the Greeks. 

5. ELEGY AND EPIGRAM. --Until the beginning of the seventh century B. C. , the epic was the only kind of poetry cultivated in Greece, with theexception of the early songs and hymns, and the hexameter the only metreused by the poets. This exclusive prevalence of epic poetry was doubtlessconnected with the political state of the country. The ordinary subjectsof these poems must have been highly acceptable to the princes who derivedtheir race from the heroes, as was the case with all the royal families ofearly times. The republican movements, which deprived these families oftheir privileges, were favorable to the stronger development of each man'sindividuality, and the poet, who in the most perfect form of the epos wascompletely lost in his subject, now came before the people as a man withthoughts and objects of his own, and gave free vent to the emotions of hissoul in elegiac and iambic strains. The word _elegeion_ means nothing morethan the combination of a hexameter and a pentameter, making together adistich, and an elegy is a poem of such verses. It was usually sung at theSymposia or literary festivals of the Greeks; in most cases its mainsubject was political; it afterwards assumed a plaintive or amatory tone. The elegy is the first regularly cultivated branch of Greek poetry, inwhich the flute alone and neither the cithara nor lyre was employed. Itwas not necessary that lamentations should form the subject of it, butemotion was essential, and excited by events or circumstances of the timeor place the poet poured forth his heart in the unreserved expression ofhis fears and hopes. 

Tyrtaeus (fl. 694 B. C. ), who went from Athens to Sparta, composed the mostcelebrated of his elegies on the occasion of the Messenian war, and whenthe Spartans were on a campaign, it was their custom after the eveningmeal, when the paean had been sung in honor of the gods, to recite thesepoems. From this time we find a union between the elegiac and iambicpoetry; the same poet, who employs the elegy to express his joyous andmelancholy emotions, has recourse to the iambus when his cool senseprompts him to censure the follies of mankind. The relation between thesetwo metres is observable in Archilochus (fl. 688 B. C. ) and Simonides (fl. 664 B. C. ). The elegies of Archilochus, of which many fragments are extant(while of Simonides we only know that he composed elegies), had nothing ofthat spirit of which his iambics were full, but they contain the frankexpression of a mind powerfully affected by outward circumstances. Withthe Spartans, wine and the pleasures of the feast became the subject ofthe elegy, and it was also recited at the solemnities held in honor of allwho had fallen for their country. The elegies of Solon (592-559 B. C. ) werepure expressions of his political feelings. Simonides of Scios, therenowned lyric poet, the contemporary of Pindar and Aeschylus, was one ofthe great masters of elegiac song. 

The epigram was originally an inscription on a tombstone, or a votiveoffering in a temple, or on any other thing which required explanation. The unexpected turn of thought and pointedness of expression, which themoderns consider the essence of this species of composition, were notrequired in the ancient Greek epigram, where nothing was wanted but thatthe entire thought should be conveyed within the limit of a few distichs, and thus, in the hands of the early poets, the epigram was remarkable forthe conciseness and expressiveness of its language and differed in thisrespect from the elegy, in which full expression was given to the feelingsof the poet. 

It was Simonides who first gave to the epigram all the perfection of whichit was capable, and he was frequently employed by the states which foughtagainst the Persians to adorn with inscriptions the tombs of their fallenwarriors. The most celebrated of these is the inimitable inscription onthe Spartans who died at Thermopylae: "Foreigner, tell the Lacedaemoniansthat we are lying here in obedience to their laws. " On the Rhodian lyricpoet, Timocreon, an opponent of Simonides in his art, he wrote thefollowing in the form of an epitaph: "Having eaten much and drank much andsaid much evil of other men, here I lie, Timocreon the Rhodian. "

6. IAMBIC POETRY, THE FABLE AND PARODY. --The kind of poetry known by theancients as Iambic was created among the Athenians by Archilochus at thesame time as the elegy. It arose at a period when the Greeks, accustomedonly to the calm, unimpassioned tone of the epos, had but just found atemperate expression of lively emotion in the elegy. It was a light, tripping measure, sometimes loosely constructed, or purposely halting andbroken, well adapted to vituperation, unrestrained by any regard tomorality and decency. At the public tables of Sparta keen and pointedraillery was permitted, and some of the most venerable and sacred of theirreligious rites afforded occasion for their unsparing and audacious jests. This raillery was so ancient and inveterate a custom, that it had givenrise to a peculiar word, which originally denoted nothing but the jestsand banter used at these festivals, namely, _Iambus_. All the wantonextravagance which was elsewhere repressed by law or custom, here, underthe protection of religion, burst forth with boundless license, and thesescurrilous effusions were at length reduced by Archilochus into thesystematic form of iambic metre. 

Akin to the iambic are two sorts of poetry, the fable and the parody, which, though differing widely from each other, have both their source inthe turn for the delineation of the ludicrous, and both stand in closehistorical relation to the iambic. The fable in Greece originated in anintentional travesty of human affairs. It is probable that the taste forfables of beasts and numerous similar inventions found its way from theEast, since this sort of symbolical narrative is more in accordance withthe Oriental than with the Greek character. Aesop (fl. 572 B. C. ) was veryfar from being regarded by the Greeks as one of their poets, and stillless as a writer. They considered him merely as an ingenious fabulist, towhom, at a later period, nearly all fables, that were invented or derivedfrom any other source, were attributed. He was a slave, whose wit andpleasantry procured him his freedom, and who finally perished in Delphi, where the people, exasperated by his sarcastic fables, put him to death ona charge of robbing the temple. No metrical versions of these fables areknown to have existed in early times. 

The word "parody" means an adoption of the form of some celebrated poemwith such changes as to produce a totally different effect, and generallyto substitute mean and ridiculous for elevated and poetical sentiments. "The Battle of the Frogs and Mice, " attributed to Homer, but bearingevident traces of a later age, belongs to this species of poetry. 

7. GREEK MUSIC AND LYRIC POETRY. --It was not until the minds of the Greekshad been elevated by the productions of the epic muse, that the genius oforiginal poets broke loose from the dominion of the epic style, andinvented new forms for expressing the emotions of a mind profoundlyagitated by passing events; with few innovations in the elegy, but withgreater boldness in the iambic metre. In these two forms, Greek poetryentered the domain of real life. The elegy and iambus contain the germ ofthe lyric style, though they do not themselves come under that head. TheGreek lyric poetry was characterized by the expression of deeper and moreimpassioned feeling, and a more impetuous tone than the elegy and iambus, and at the same time the effect was heightened by appropriate vocal andinstrumental music, and often by the figures of the dance. In this unionof the sister arts, poetry was indeed predominant, yet music, in its turn, exercised a reciprocal influence on poetry, so that as it became morecultivated, the choice of the musical measure decided the tone of thewhole poem. 

The history of Greek music begins with Terpander the Lesbian (fl. 670B. C. ), who was many times the victor in the musical contests at thePythian temple of Delphi. He added three new strings to the cithara, whichhad consisted only of four, and this heptachord was employed by Pindar, and remained long in high repute; he was also the first who marked thedifferent tones in music. With other musicians, he united the music ofAsia Minor with that of the ancient Greeks, and founded on it a system inwhich each style had its appropriate character. By the efforts ofTerpander and one or two other masters, music was brought to a high degreeof excellence, and adapted to express any feeling to which the poet couldgive a more definite character and meaning, and thus they had solved thegreat problem of their art. It was in Greece the constant endeavor of thegreat poets, thinkers, and statesmen who interested themselves in theeducation of youth, to give a good direction to this art; they all dreadedthe increasing prevalence of a luxuriant style of instrumental music andan unrestricted flight into the boundless realms of harmony. 

The lyric poetry of the Greeks was of two kinds, and cultivated by twodifferent schools of poets. One, called the Aeolic, flourished among theAeolians of Asia Minor, and particularly in the island of Lesbos; theother, the Doric, which, although diffused over the whole of Greece, wasat first principally cultivated by the Dorians. These two schools differedessentially in the subjects, as in the form and style of their poems. TheDoric was intended to be executed by choruses', and to be sung to choraldances; while the Aeolic was recited by a single person, who accompaniedhis recitation with a stringed instrument, generally the lyre. 

8. AEOLIC LYRIC POETS. --Alcaeus (fl. 611 B. C. ), born in Mytilene in theisland of Lesbos, being driven out of his native city for politicalreasons, wandered about the world, and, in the midst of troubles andperils, struck the lyre and gave utterance to the passionate emotions ofhis mind. His war-songs express a stirring, martial spirit; and a noblenature, accompanied with strong passions, appears in all his poems, especially in those in which he sings the praises of love and wine, thoughlittle of his erotic poetry has reached our time. It is evident thatpoetry was not with him a mere pastime or exercise of skill, but a meansof pouring out the inmost feelings of the soul. Sappho (fl. 600 B. C. ) theother leader of the Aeolic school of poetry, was the object of theadmiration of all antiquity. She was contemporary with Alcaeus, and in herverses to him we plainly discern the feeling of unimpeached honor properto a free-born and well-educated maiden. Alcaeus testifies that theattractions and loveliness of Sappho did not derogate from her moral worthwhen he calls her "violet-crowned, pure, sweetly smiling Sappho. " Thistestimony is, indeed, opposed to the accounts of later writers, but theprobable cause of the false imputations in reference to Sappho seems to bethat the refined Athenians were incapable of appreciating the franksimplicity with which she poured forth her feelings, and therefore theyconfounded them with unblushing immodesty. While the men of Athens weredistinguished for their perfection in every branch of art, none of theirwomen emerged from the obscurity of domestic life. "That woman is thebest, " says Pericles, "of whom the least is said among men, whether forgood or for evil. " But the Aeolians had in some degree preserved theancient Greek manners, and their women enjoyed a distinct individualexistence and moral character. They doubtless participated in the generalhigh state of civilization, which not only fostered poetical talents of ahigh order among women, but produced in them a turn for philosophicalreflection. This was so utterly inconsistent with Athenian manners, thatwe cannot wonder that women, who had in any degree overstepped the boundsprescribed to their sex at Athens, should be represented by the licentiouspen of Athenian comic writers as lost to every sense of shame and decency. Sappho, in her odes, made frequent mention of a youth to whom she gave herwhole heart, while he requited her love with cold indifference; but thereis no trace of her having named the object of her passion. She may havecelebrated the beautiful and mythical Phaon in such a manner that theverses were supposed to refer to a lover of her own. The account of herleap from the Leucadian rock is rather a poetical image, than a real eventin the life of the poetess. The true conception of the erotic poetry ofSappho can only be drawn from the fragments of her odes, which, thoughnumerous, are for the most part very short. Among them, we mustdistinguish the Epithalamia or hymeneals, which were peculiarly adapted tothe genius of the poetess from the exquisite perception she seems to havehad of whatever was attractive in either sex. From the numerous fragmentsthat remain, these poems appear to have had great beauty and much of thatexpression which the simple and natural manners of the times allowed, andthe warm and sensitive heart of the poetess suggested. That Sappho's famewas spread throughout Greece, may be seen from the history of Solon, whowas her contemporary. Hearing his nephew recite one of her poems, he saidthat he would not willingly die until he had learned it by heart. And, doubtless, from that circle of accomplished women, of whom she formed thebrilliant centre, a flood of poetic light was poured forth on every side. Among them may be mentioned the names of Damophila and Erinna, whose poem, "The Spindle, " was highly esteemed by the ancients. 

The genius of Anacreon (fl. 540 B. C. ), though akin to that of Alcaeus andSappho, had an entirely different bent. He seems to consider life asvaluable only so far as it can be spent in wine, love, and socialenjoyment. The Ionic softness and departure from strict rule may also beperceived in his versification. The different odes preserved under hisname are the productions of poets of a much later date. With Anacreonceased the species of lyric poetry in which he excelled; indeed, he standsalone in it, and the tender softness of his song was soon drowned by thelouder tones of the choral poetry. 

The Scolia were a kind of lyric songs sung at social meals, when thespirit was raised by wine and conversation to a lyrical pitch. The lyre ora sprig of myrtle was handed round the table and presented to any one whocould amuse the company by a song or even a good sentence in a lyricalform. 

9. DORIC, OR CHORAL LYRIC POETS. --The chorus was in general use in Greecebefore the time of Homer, and nearly every variety of the choral poetry, which was afterwards so brilliantly developed, existed at that remoteperiod in a rude, unfinished state. After the improvements made byTerpander and others in musical art, choral poetry rapidly progressedtowards perfection. The poets during the period of progress were Alcmanand Stesichorus, while finished lyric poetry is represented by Ibycus, Simonides, his disciple Bacchylides and Pindar. These great poets wereonly the representatives of the fervor with which the religious festivalsinspired all classes. Choral dances were performed by the whole peoplewith great ardor and enthusiasm; every considerable town had its poet, whodevoted his whole life to the training and exhibition of choruses. 

Alcman (b. 660 B. C. ) was a Lydian of Sardis, and an emancipated slave. Hispoems exhibit a great variety of metre, of dialect, and of poetic tone. Heis regarded as having overcome the difficulties presented by the roughdialect of Sparta, and as having succeeded in investing it with a certaingrace. He is one of the poets whose image is most effaced by time, and ofwhom we can obtain little accurate knowledge. The admiration awarded himby antiquity is scarcely justified by the extant remains of his poems. 

Stesichorus (fl. 611 B. C. ) lived at a time when the predominant tendencyof the Greek mind was towards lyric poetry. His special business was thetraining and direction of the choruses, and he assumed the name ofStesichorus, or leader of choruses, his real name being Tesias. His metresapproach more nearly to the epos than those of Aleman. As Quintilian says, he sustained the weight of epic poetry with the lyre. His languageaccorded with the tone of his poetry, and he is not less remarkable inhimself, than as the precursor of the perfect lyric poetry of Pindar. 

Arion (625-585 B. C. ) was chiefly known in Greece as the perfecter of the"Dithyramb, " a song of Bacchanalian festivals, doubtless of greatantiquity. Its character, like the worship to which it belonged, wasalways impassioned and enthusiastic; the extremes of feeling, rapturouspleasure, and wild lamentation were both expressed in it. 

Ibycus (b. 528 B. C. ) was a wandering poet, as is attested by the story ofhis death having been avenged by the cranes. His poetical style resemblesthat of Stesichorus, as also his subjects. The erotic poetry of Ibycus ismost celebrated, and breathes a fervor of passion far exceeding that ofany similar production of Greek literature. 

Simonides (556-468 B. C. ) has already been described as one of the greatmasters of the elegy and epigram. In depth and novelty of ideas, and inthe fervor of poetic feeling, he was far inferior to his contemporaryPindar, but he was probably the most prolific lyric poet of Greece. According to the frequent reproach of the ancients, he was the first thatsold his poems for money. His style was not as lofty as that of Pindar, hut what he lost in sublimity he gained in pathos. 

Bacchylides (fl. 450 B. C. ), the nephew of Simonides, devoted his geniuschiefly to the pleasures of private life, love, and wine, and hisproductions, when compared with those of Simonides, are marked by lessmoral elevation. 

Timocreon the Rhodian (fl. 471 B. C. ) owes his chief celebrity among theancients to the hate he bore to Themistocles in political life, and toSimonides on the field of poetry. 

Pindar (522-435 B. C. ) was the contemporary of Aeschylus, but as the causeswhich determined his poetical character are to be sought in an earlierage, and in the Doric and Aeolic parts of Greece, he may properly beplaced at the close of the early period, while Aeschylus stands at thehead of the new epoch of literature. Like Hesiod, Pindar was a native ofBoeotia, and that there was still much love for music and poetry there isproved by the fact that two women, Myrtis and Corinna, had obtained greatcelebrity in these arts during the youth of this poet. Myrtis (fl. 490B. C. ) strove with him for the prize at the public games, and Corinna (fl. 490 B. C. ) is said to have gained the victory over him five times. Toolittle of the poetry of Corinna has been preserved to allow a judgment onher style of composition. Pindar made the arts of poetry and music thebusiness of his life, and his fame soon spread throughout Greece and theneighboring countries. He excelled in all the known varieties of choralpoetry, but the only class of poems that enable us to judge of his generalstyle is his triumphal odes. When a victory was gained in a contest at afestival by the speed of horses, the strength and dexterity of the humanbody, or by skill in music, such a victory, which shed honor not only onthe victor, but also on his family, and even on his native city, demandeda public celebration. An occasion of this kind had always a religiouscharacter, and often began with a procession to an altar or temple, wherea sacrifice was offered, followed by a banquet, and the solemnityconcluded with a merry and boisterous revel. At this sacred and at thesame time joyous festival, the chorus appeared and recited the triumphalhymn, which was considered the fairest ornament of the triumph. Such anoccasion, a victory in the sacred games and its end, the ennobling of aceremony connected with the worship of the gods, required that the odeshould be composed in a lofty and dignified style. Pindar does not contenthimself with celebrating the bodily prowess of the victor alone, but heusually adds some moral virtue which he has shown, and which he recommendsand extols. Sometimes this virtue is moderation, wisdom, or filial love, more often piety to the gods, and he expounds to the victor his destiny, by showing him the dependence of his exploits on the higher order ofthings. Mythical narratives occupy much space in these odes, for in thetime of Pindar the mythical past was invested with a splendor andsublimity, of which even the faint reflection was sufficient to embellishthe present. 

10. ORPHIC DOCTRINES AND POEMS. --The interval between Homer and Pindar isan important period in the history of Greek civilization. In Homer weperceive that infancy of the mind which lives in seeing and imagining, andwhose moral judgments are determined by impulses of feeling rather than byrules of conduct, while with Pindar the chief effort of his genius is todiscover the true standard of moral government. This great change ofopinion must have been affected by the efforts of many sages and poets. All the Greek religious poetry, treating of death and of the world beyondthe grave, refers to the deities whose influence was supposed to beexercised in the dark regions at the centre of the earth, and who hadlittle connection with the political and social relations of human life. They formed a class apart from the gods of Olympus; the mysteries of theGreeks were connected with their worship alone, and the love ofimmortality first found support in a belief in these deities. Themysteries of Demeter, especially those celebrated at Eleusis, inspired themost animating hopes with regard to the soul after death. These mysteries, however, had little influence on the literature of the nation; but therewas a society of persons called the followers of Orpheus, who publishedtheir notions and committed them to literary works. Under the guidance ofthe ancient mystical poet, Orpheus, they dedicated themselves to theworship of Bacchus or Dionysus, in which they sought satisfaction for anardent longing after the soothing and elevating influences of religion, and upon the worship of this deity they founded their hopes of an ultimateimmortality of the soul. Unlike the popular worshipers of Bacchus, theydid not indulge in unrestrained pleasure or frantic enthusiasm, but ratheraimed at an ascetic purity of life and manners. It is difficult to tellwhen this association was formed in Greece, but we find in Hesiodsomething of the Orphic spirit, and the beginning of higher and morehopeful views of death. 

The endeavor to obtain a knowledge of divine and human things was inGreece slowly and with difficulty evolved from their religious notions, and it was for a long time confined to the refining and rationalizing oftheir mythology. An extensive Orphic literature first appeared at the timeof the Persian war, when the remains of the Pythagorean order in MagnaGraecia united themselves to the Orphic associations. The philosophy ofPythagoras, however, had no analogy with the spirit of the Orphicmysteries, in which the worship of Dionysus was the centre of allreligious ideas, while the Pythagorean philosophers preferred the worshipof Apollo and the Muses. In the Orphic theogony we find, for the firsttime, the idea of creation. Another difference between the notions of theOrphic poets and those of the early Greeks was that the former did notlimit their views to the present state of mankind, still less did theyacquiesce in Hesiod's melancholy doctrine of successive ages, each oneworse than the preceding; but they looked for a cessation of strife, astate of happiness and beatitude at the end of all things. Their hopes ofthis result were founded on Dionysus, from the worship of whom all theirpeculiar religious ideas were derived. This god, the son of Zeus, is tosucceed him in the government of the world, to restore the Golden Age, andto liberate human souls, who, according to an Orphic notion, are punishedby being confined in the body as in a prison. The sufferings of the soulin its prison, the steps and transitions by which it passes to a higherstate of existence, and its gradual purification and enlightenment, wereall fully described in these poems. Thus, in the poetry of the first fivecenturies of Greek literature, especially at the close of this period, wefind, instead of the calm enjoyment of outward nature which characterizedthe early epic poetry, a profound sense of the misery of human life, andan ardent longing for a condition of greater happiness. This feeling, indeed, was not so extended as to become common to the whole Greek nation, but it took deep root in individual minds, and was connected with moreserious and spiritual views of human nature. 

11. PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHY. --Philosophy was early cultivated by theGreeks, who first among all nations distinguished it from religion andmythology. For some time, however, after its origin, it was as far removedfrom the ordinary thoughts and occupations of the people as poetry wasintimately connected with them. Poetry idealizes all that is mostcharacteristic of a nation; its religion, mythology, political and socialinstitutions, and manners. Philosophy, on the other hand, begins bydetaching the mind from the opinions and habits in which it has been bredup, from the national conceptions of the gods and the universe, and fromtraditionary maxims of ethics and politics. The philosophy of Greece, antecedent to the time of Socrates, is contained in the doctrines of theIonic, Eleatic, and Pythagorean. Schools. Thales of Miletus (639-548B. C. ) was the first in the series of the Ionic philosophers. He was one ofthe Seven Sages, who by their practical wisdom nobly contributed to theflourishing condition of Greece. Thales, Solon, Bion (fl. 570 B. C. ), Cleobulus (fl. 542 B. C. ), Periander (fl. 598 B. C. ), Pittacus of Mytilene(579 B. C. ), and Chilon (fl. 542 B. C. ), were the seven philosophers calledthe seven sages by their countrymen. Thales is said to have foretold aneclipse of the sun, for which he doubtless employed astronomical formulae, which he had obtained from the Chaldeans. His tendency was practical, andwhere his own knowledge was insufficient, he applied the discoveries ofother nations more advanced than his own. He considered all nature asendowed with life, and sought to discover the principles of external formsin the powers which lie beneath; he taught that water was the principle ofthings. Anaximander (fl. 547 B. C. ), and Anaximenes (fl. 548 B. C. ) were theother two most distinguished representatives of the Ionic school. Theformer believed that chaotic matter was the principle of all things, thelatter taught that it was air. The Eleatic school is represented byXenophanes, Parmenides, and Zeno. As the philosophers of the first schoolwere called Ionians from the country in which they resided, so these werenamed from Elea, a Greek colony of Italy. Xenophanes (fl. 538 B. C. ), thefounder of this school, adopted a different principle from that of theIonic philosophers, and proceeded upon an ideal system, while that of thelatter was exclusively founded upon experience. He began with the idea ofthe godhead, and showed the necessity of considering it as an eternal andunchanging existence, and represented the anthropomorphic conceptions ofthe Greeks concerning their gods as mere prejudices. In his works heretained the poetic form of composition, some fragments of which hehimself recited at public festivals, after the manner of the rhapsodists. Parmenides flourished 504 years B. C. His philosophy rested upon the ideaof existence which excluded the idea of creation, and thus fell intopantheism. His poem on "Nature" was composed in the epic metre, and in ithe expressed in beautiful forms the most abstract ideas. Zeno of Elea (fl. 500 B. C. ) was a pupil of Parmenides, and the earliest prose writer amongthe Greek philosophers. He developed the doctrines of his master byshowing the absurdities involved in the ideas of variety and of creation, as opposed to one and universal substance. Other philosophers belonging toIona or Elea may be referred to these schools, as Heraclitus, Empedocles, Democritus, and Anaxagoras, whose doctrines, however, vary from those ofthe representatives of the philosophical systems above named. Heraclitus(fl. 505 B. C. ) dealt rather in intimations of important truths than inpopular exposition of them; his cardinal doctrine seems to have been thateverything is in perpetual motion, that nothing has any permanentexistence, and that everything is assuming a new form or perishing: theprinciple of this perpetual motion he supposed to be _fixe_, thoughprobably he did not mean material fire, but some higher and more universalagent. Like nearly all the philosophers, he despised the popular religion. Empedocles (fl. 440 B. C. ) wrote a doctrinal poem concerning nature, fragments of which have been preserved. He denied the possibility ofcreation, and held the doctrine of an eternal and imperishable existence;but he considered this existence as having different natures, and admittedthat fire, earth, air, and water were the four elements of all things. These elements he supposed to be governed by two principles, one positiveand one negative, that is to say, connecting love and dissolving discord. Democritus (fl. 460 B. C. ) embodied his extensive knowledge in a series ofwritings, of which only a few fragments have been preserved. Cicerocompared him with Plato for rhythm and elegance of language. He derivedthe manifold phenomena of the world from the different form, disposition, and arrangement of the innumerable elements or atoms as they becomeunited. He is the founder of the atomic doctrine. Anaxagoras (fl. 456B. C. ) rejected all popular notions of religion, excluded the idea ofcreation and destruction, and taught that atoms were unchangeable andimperishable; that spirit, the purest and subtlest of all things, gave tothese atoms the impulse by which they took the forms of individual thingsand beings; and that this impulse was given in circular motion, which keptthe heavenly bodies in their courses. But none of his doctrines gave somuch offence or was considered so clear a proof of his atheism as hisopinion that the sun, the bountiful god Helios, who shines both uponmortals and immortals, was a mass of red-hot iron. His doctrines tendedpowerfully by their rapid diffusion to undermine the principles on whichthe worship of the ancient gods rested, and they therefore prepared theway for the subsequent triumph of Christianity. 

The Pythagorean or Italic School was founded by Pythagoras, who is said tohave flourished between 540 and 500 B. C. Pythagoras was probably an Ionianwho emigrated to Italy, and there established his school. His principalefforts were directed to practical life, especially to the regulation ofpolitical institutions, and his influence was exercised by means oflectures, or sayings, or by the establishment and direction of thePythagorean associations. He encouraged the study of mathematics andmusic, and considered singing to the cithara as best fitted to producethat mental repose and harmony of soul which he regarded as the highestobject of education. 

12. HISTORY. --It is remarkable that a people so cultivated as the Greeksshould have been so long without feeling the want of a correct record oftheir transactions in war and peace. The difference between this nationand the Orientals, in this respect, is very great. But the division of thecountry into numerous small states, and the republican form of thegovernments, prevented a concentration of interest on particular eventsand persons, and owing to the dissensions between the republics, theirhistorical traditions could not but offend some while they flatteredothers; it was not until a late period that the Greeks consideredcontemporary events as worthy of being thought or written of. But for thisabsence of authentic history, Greek literature could never have becomewhat it was. By the purely fictitious character of its poetry, and itsfreedom from the shackles of particular truths, it acquired that generalprobability which led Aristotle to consider poetry as more philosophicalthan history. Greek art, likewise, from the lateness of the period atwhich it descended from the representation of gods and heroes to theportraits of real men, acquired a nobleness and beauty of form which itcould not otherwise have obtained. This poetical basis gave the literatureof the Greeks a noble and liberal turn. 

Writing was probably known in Greece some centuries before the time ofCadmus of Miletus (fl. 522 B. C. ), but it had not been employed for thepurpose of preserving any detailed historical record, and even when, towards the end of the age of the Seven Sages (550 B. C. ), some writers ofhistorical narratives began to appear, they did not select recenthistorical events, but those of distant times and countries; so entirelydid they believe that oral tradition and the daily discussions of commonlife were sufficient records of the events of their own time and country. Cadmus of Miletus is mentioned as the first historian, but his works seemto have been early lost. To him, and other Greek historians before thetime of Herodotus, scholars have given the name of Logographers, fromLogos, signifying any discourse in prose. 

The first Greek to whom it occurred that a narrative of facts might bemade intensely interesting was Herodotus (484-432 B. C. ), a native ofHalicarnassus in Asia Minor, the Homer of Greek history. Obliged, forpolitical reasons, to leave his native land, he visited many countries, such as Egypt, Babylon, and Persia, and spent the latter years of his lifein one of the Grecian settlements in Italy, where he devoted himself tothe composition of his work. His travels were undertaken from the purespirit of inquiry, and for that age they were very extensive andimportant. It is probable that his great and intricate plan, hithertounknown in the historical writings of the Greeks, did not at first occurto him, and that it was only in his later years that he conceived thecomplete idea of a work so far beyond those of his predecessors andcontemporaries. It is stated that he recited his history at differentfestivals, which is quite credible, though there is little authority forthe story that at one of these Thucydides was present as a boy, and shedtears, drawn forth by his own desire for knowledge and his intenseinterest in the narrative. His work comprehends a history of nearly allthe nations of the world at that time known. It has an epic character, notonly from the equable and uninterrupted flow of the narrative, but alsofrom certain pervading ideas which give a tone to the whole. The principalof these is the idea of a fixed destiny, of a wise arrangement of theworld, which has prescribed to every being his path, and which allots ruinand destruction not only to crime and violence, but to excessive power andriches and the overweening pride which is their companion. In thisconsists the envy of the gods so often mentioned by Herodotus, and usuallycalled by the other Greeks the divine Nemesis. He constantly adverts inhis narrative to the influence of this divine power, the Daemonion, as hecalls it. He shows how the Deity visits the sins of the ancestors upontheir descendants, how man rushes, as it were, wilfully upon his owndestruction, and how oracles mislead by their ambiguity, when interpretedby blind passion. He shows his awe of the divine Nemesis by his moderationand the firmness with which he keeps down the ebullitions of nationalpride. He points out traits of greatness of character in the hostile kingsof Persia, and shows his countrymen how often they owed their successes toProvidence and external advantages rather than to their own valor andability. Since Herodotus saw the working of a divine agency in all humanevents, and considered the exhibition of it as the main object of hishistory, his aim is totally different from that of a historian who regardsthe events of life merely with reference to men. He is, in truth, atheologian and a poet as well as a historian. It is, however, vain to denythat when Herodotus did not see himself the events which he describes, heis often deceived by the misrepresentations of others; yet, without hissingle-hearted simplicity, his disposition to listen to every remarkableaccount, and his admiration for the wonders of the Eastern world, Herodotus would never have imparted to us many valuable accounts. Moderntravelers, naturalists, and geographers have often had occasion to admirethe truth, and correctness of the information contained in his simple andmarvelous narratives. But no dissertation on this writer can convey anyidea of the impression made by reading his work; his language closelyapproximates to oral narration; it is like hearing a person speak who hasseen and lived through a variety of remarkable things, and whose greatestdelight consists in recalling these images of the past. Though a Dorian bybirth, he adopted the Ionic dialect, with its uncontracted terminations, its accumulated vowels, and its soft forms. These various elementsconspire to render the work of Herodotus a production as perfect in itskind as any human work can be. 

PERIOD SECOND. 

THE EPOCH OF THE ATHENIAN LITERATURE (484-322 B. C. ). 

1. LITERARY PREDOMINANCE OF ATHENS. --Among the Greeks a nationalliterature was early formed. Every literary work in the Greek language, inwhatever dialect it might be composed, was enjoyed by the whole nation, and the fame of remarkable writers soon spread throughout Greece. Certaincities were considered almost as theatres, where the poets and sages couldbring their powers and acquirements into public notice. Among these, Sparta stood highest down to the time of the Persian war. But when Athens, raised by her political power and the mental qualities of her citizens, acquired the rank of the capital of Greece, literature assumed a differentform, and there is no more important epoch in the history of the Greekintellect than the time when she obtained this pre-eminence over hersister states. The character of the Athenians peculiarly fitted them totake this lead; they were Ionians, and the boundless resources andmobility of the Ionian spirit are shown by their astonishing productionsin Asia Minor and in the islands, in the two centuries previous to thePersian war; in their iambic and elegiac poetry, and in the germs ofphilosophic inquiry and historical composition. The literature of thosewho remained in Attica seemed poor and meagre when compared with thatluxuriant outburst; nor did it appear, till a later period, that theprogress of the Athenian intellect was the more sound and lasting. TheIonians of Asia Minor, becoming at length enfeebled and corrupted by theluxuries of the East, passed easily under the power of the Persians, whilethe inhabitants of Attica, encompassed and oppressed by the manly tribesof Greece, and forced to keep the sword constantly in their hands, exertedall their talents and thus developed all their extraordinary powers. 

Solon, the great lawgiver, arose to combine moral strictness and orderwith freedom of action. After Solon came the dominion of thePisistratidae, which lasted from about 560 to 510 B. C. They showed afondness for art, diffused a taste for poetry among the Athenians, andnaturalized at Athens the best literary productions of Greece. They wereunquestionably the first to introduce the entire recital of the Iliad andOdyssey; they also brought to Athens the most distinguished lyric poets ofthe time, Anacreon, Simonides, and others. But, notwithstanding theirpatronage of literature and art, it was not till after the fall of theirdynasty that Athens shot up with a vigor that can only be derived from theconsciousness of every citizen that he has a share in the common weal. 

It is a remarkable fact that Athens produced her most excellent works inliterature and art in the midst of the greatest political convulsions, andof her utmost efforts for conquest and self-preservation. The longdominion of the Pisistratids produced nothing more important than thefirst rudiments of the tragic drama, for the origin of comedy at thecountry festivals of Bacchus falls in the time before Pisistratus. On theother hand, the thirty years between the expulsion of Hippias, the last ofthe Pisistratids, and the battle of Salamis (510-480 B. C. ), was a periodmarked by great events both in politics and literature. Athens contendedwith success against her warlike neighbors, supported the Ionians in theirrevolt against Persia, and warded off the first powerful attack of thePersians upon Greece. During the same period, the pathetic tragedies ofPhrynichus and the lofty tragedies of Aeschylus appeared on the stage, political eloquence was awakened in Themistocles, and everything seemed togive promise of future greatness. 

The political events which followed the Persian war gradually gave toAthens the dominion over her allies, so that she became the sovereign of alarge and flourishing empire, comprehending the islands and coasts of theAegean and a part of the Euxine sea. In this manner was gained a widebasis for the lofty edifice of political glory, which was raised by herstatesmen. The completion of this splendid structure was due to Pericles(500-429 B. C. ). Through his influence Athens became a dominant community, whose chief business it was to administer the affairs of an extensiveempire, flourishing in agriculture, industry, and commerce. Pericles, however, did not make the acquisition of power the highest object of hisexertions; his aim was to realize in Athens the idea which he hadconceived of human greatness, that great and noble thoughts should pervadethe whole mass of the ruling people; and this was, in fact, the case aslong as his influence lasted, to a greater degree than has occurred in anyother period of history. The objects to which Pericles directed thepeople, and for which he accumulated so much power and wealth at Athens, may be best seen in the still extant works of architecture and sculpturewhich originated under his administration. He induced the Athenian peopleto expend on the decoration of Athens a larger part of its ample revenuesthan was ever applied to this purpose in any other state, eitherrepublican or monarchical. Of the surpassing skill with which he collectedinto one focus the rays of artistic genius at Athens, no stronger proofcan be afforded, than the fact that no subsequent period, through thepatronage of Macedonian or Roman princes, produced works of equalexcellence, Indeed, it may be said that the creations of the age ofPericles are the only works of art which completely satisfy the mostrefined and cultivated taste. 

But this brilliant exhibition of human excellence was not without its darkside, nor the flourishing state of Athenian civilization exempt from theelements of decay. The political position of Athens soon led to a conflictbetween the patriotism and moderation of her citizens, and their interestsand passions. From the earliest times, this city had stood in anunfriendly relation to the rest of Greece, and her policy of compelling somany cities to contribute their wealth in order to make her the focus ofart and civilization was accompanied with offensive pride and selfishpatriotism. The energy in action, which distinguished the Athenians, degenerated into a restless love of adventure; and that dexterity in theuse of words, which they cultivated more than the other Greeks, inducedthem to subject everything to discussion, and destroyed the habits foundedon unreasoning faith. The principles of the policy of Pericles wereclosely connected with the demoralization which followed hisadministration. By founding the power of the Athenians on the dominion ofthe sea, he led them to abandon land war and the military exercisesrequisite for it, which had hardened the old warriors at Marathon. As hemade them a dominant people, whose time was chiefly devoted to thebusiness of governing their widely-extended empire, it was necessary forhim to provide that the common citizens of Athens should be able to gain alivelihood by their attention to public business, and accordingly, a largerevenue was distributed among them in the form of wages for attendance inthe courts of justice and other public assemblies. These payments tocitizens for their share in the public business were quite new in Greece, and many considered the sitting and listening in these assemblies as anidle life in comparison with the labor of the plowman and vine-grower inthe country, and for a long time the industrious cultivators, the bravewarriors, and the men of old-fashioned morality were opposed, among thecitizens of Athens, to the loquacious, luxurious, and dissolute generationwho passed their whole time in the market-place and courts of justice. Thecontests between these two parties are the main subject of the early Atticcomedy. 

Literature and art, however, were not, during the Peloponnesian war, affected by the corruption of morals. The works of this period exhibit notonly a perfection of form but also an elevation of soul and a grandeur ofconception, which fill us with admiration not only for those who producedthem, but for those who could enjoy such works of art. A step farther, andthe love of genuine beauty gave place to a desire for evil pleasures, andthe love of wisdom degenerated into an idle use of words. 

2. THE DRAMA. --The spirit of an age is more completely represented by itspoetry than by its prose composition, and accordingly we may best tracethe character of the three different stages of civilization among theGreeks in the three grand divisions of their poetry. The epic belongs totheir monarchical period, when the minds of the people were impregnatedand swayed by legends handed down from antiquity. Elegiac, iambic, andlyric poetry arose in the more stirring and agitated times whichaccompanied the development of republican governments, times in which eachindividual gave vent to his personal aims and wishes, and all the depthsof the human breast were unlocked by the inspirations of poetry. And now, when at the summit of Greek civilization, in the very prime of Athenianpower and freedom, we see dramatic poetry spring up as the organ of theprevailing thoughts and feelings of the time, we are naturally led to askhow it comes that this style of poetry agreed so well with the spirit ofthe age, and so far outstripped its competitors in the contest for publicfavor. 

Dramatic poetry, as its name implies, represents _actions_, which are not, as in the epos, merely narrated, but seem to take place before the eyes ofthe spectator. The epic poet appears to regard the events, which herelates from afar, as objects of calm contemplation and admiration, and isalways conscious of the great interval between him and them, while thedramatist plunges with his entire soul into the scenes of human life, andseems himself to experience the events which he exhibits to our view. Thedrama comprehends and develops the events of human life with a force anddepth which no other style of poetry can reach. 

If we carry ourselves in imagination back to a time when dramaticcomposition was unknown, we must acknowledge that its creation requiredgreat boldness of mind. Hitherto the bard had only sung of gods andheroes; it was, therefore, a great change for the poet himself to comeforward all at once in the character of the god or hero, in a nationwhich, even in its amusements, had always adhered closely to establishedusages. It is true that there is much in human nature which impels it todramatic representations, such as the universal love of imitating otherpersons, and the child-like liveliness with which a narrator, stronglyimpressed with his subject, delivers a speech which he has heard orperhaps only imagined. Yet there is a wide step from these disjointedelements to the genuine drama, and it seems that no nation, except theGreeks, ever made this step. The dramatic poetry of the Hindus belongs toa time when there had been much intercourse between Greece and India; evenin ancient Greece and Italy, dramatic poetry, and especially tragedy, attained to perfection only in Athens, and here it was exhibited only at afew festivals of a single god, Dionysus, while epic rhapsodies and lyricodes were recited on various occasions. All this is incomprehensible, ifwe suppose dramatic poetry to have originated in causes independent of thepeculiar circumstances of time and place. If a love of imitation and adelight in disguising the real person under a mask were the basis uponwhich this style of poetry was raised, the drama would have been asnatural and as universal among men as these qualities are common to theirnature. 

A more satisfactory explanation of the origin of the Greek drama may befound in its connection with the worship of the gods, and particularlythat of Bacchus. The gods were supposed to dwell in their temples and toparticipate in their festivals, and it was not considered presumptuous orunbecoming to represent them as acting like human beings, as wasfrequently done by mimic representations. The worship of Bacchus had onequality which was more than any other calculated to give birth to thedrama, and particularly to tragedy, namely, the enthusiasm which formed anessential part of it, and which proceeded from an impassioned sympathywith the events of nature in connection with the course of the seasons. The original participators in these festivals believed that they perceivedthe god to be really affected by the changes of nature, killed or dying, flying and rescued, or reanimated, victorious, and dominant. Although thegreat changes, which took place in the religion and cultivation of theGreeks, banished from their minds the conviction that these events reallyoccurred, yet an enthusiastic sympathy with the god and his fortunes, aswith real events, always remained. The swarm of subordinate beings by whomBacchus was surrounded--satyrs, nymphs, and a variety of beautiful andgrotesque forms--were ever present to the fancy of the Greeks, and it wasnot necessary to depart very widely from the ordinary course of ideas toimagine them visible to human eyes among the solitary woods and rocks. Thecustom, so prevalent at the festivals of Bacchus, of taking the disguiseof satyrs, doubtless originated in the desire to approach more nearly tothe presence of their divinity. The desire of escaping from self intosomething new and strange, of living in an imaginary world, broke forth ina thousand instances in those festivals. It was seen in the coloring ofthe body, the wearing of skins and masks of wood or bark, and in thecomplete costume belonging to the character. 

The learned writers of antiquity agree in stating that tragedy, as well ascomedy, was originally a choral song. The action, the adventures of thegods, was presupposed or only symbolically indicated; the chorus expressedtheir feelings upon it. This choral song belonged to the class of the_dithyramb_, an enthusiastic ode to Bacchus, capable of expressing everyvariety of feeling excited by the worship of that god. It was first sungby revelers at convivial meetings, afterwards it was regularly executed bya chorus. The subject of these tragic choruses sometimes changed fromBacchus to other heroes distinguished for their misfortunes and suffering. The reason why the dithyramb and afterwards tragedy was transferred fromthat god to heroes and not to other gods of the Greek Olympus, was thatthe latter were elevated above the chances of fortune and the alternationsof joy and grief to which both Bacchus and the heroes were subject. 

It is stated by Aristotle, that tragedy originated with the chief singersof the dithyramb. It is probable that they represented Bacchus himself orhis messengers, that they came forward and narrated his perils andescapes, and that the chorus then expressed their feeling, as at passingevents. The chorus thus naturally assumed the character of satellites ofBacchus, whence they easily fell into the parts of satyrs, who were hiscompanions in sportive adventures, as well as in combats and misfortunes. The name of tragedy, or goat's song, was derived from the resemblance ofthe singers, in their character of satyrs, to goats. 

Thus far tragedy had advanced among the Dorians, who, therefore, considered themselves the inventors of it. All its further developmentbelongs to the Athenians. In the time of Pisistratus, Thespis (506 B. C. )first caused tragedy to become a drama, though a very simple one. Heconnected with the choral representation a regular dialogue, by joiningone person to the chorus who was the _first actor_. He introduced linenmasks, and thus the one actor might appear in several characters. In thedrama of Thespis we find the satyric drama confounded with tragedy, andthe persons of the chorus frequently representing satyrs. The dances ofthe chorus were still a principal part of the performance; the ancienttragedians, in general, were teachers of dancing, as well as poets andmusicians. 

In Phrynichus (fl. 512 B. C. ) the lyric predominated over the dramaticelement. Like Thespis, he had only one actor, but he used this actor fordifferent characters, and he was the first who brought female parts uponthe stage, which, according to the manners of the ancients, could be actedonly by men. In several instances it is remarkable that Phrynichusdeviated from mythical subjects to those taken from contemporary history. 

3. TRAGEDY. --The tragedy of antiquity was entirely different from thatwhich, in progress of time, arose among other nations; a picture of humanlife, agitated by the passions, and corresponding as accurately aspossible to its original in all its features. Ancient tragedy departsentirely from ordinary life; its character is in the highest degree ideal, and its development necessary, and essentially directed by the fate towhich gods and men were subjected. As tragedy and dramatic exhibitions, generally, were seen only at the festivals of Bacchus, they retained asort of Bacchic coloring, and the extraordinary excitement of all minds atthese festivals, by raising them above the tone of every-day existence, gave both to the tragic and comic muse unwonted energy and fire. 

The Bacchic festal costume, which the actors wore, consisted of longstriped garments reaching to the ground, over which were thrown uppergarments of some brilliant color, with gay trimmings and gold ornaments. The choruses also vied with each other in the splendor of their dress, aswell as in the excellence of their singing and dancing. The chorus, whichalways bore a subordinate part in the action of the tragedy, was in norespect distinguished from the stature and appearance of ordinary men, while the actor, who represented the god or hero, required to be raisedabove the usual dimensions of mortals. A tragic actor was a strange, and, according to the taste of the ancients themselves at a later period, avery monstrous being. His person was lengthened out considerably beyondthe proportions of the human figure by the very high soles of the tragicshoe, and by the length of the tragic mask, and the chest, body, legs, andarms were stuffed and padded to a corresponding size; the body thus lostmuch of its natural flexibility, and the gesticulation consisted of stiff, angular movements, in which little was left to the emotion or theinspiration of the moment. Masks, which had originated in the taste formumming and disguises of all sorts, prevalent at the Bacchic festivals, were an indispensable accompaniment to tragedy. They not only concealedthe individual features of well-known actors, and enabled the spectatorsentirely to forget the performer in his part, but gave to his whole aspectthat ideal character which the tragedy of antiquity demanded. The tragicmask was not intentionally ugly and caricatured like the comic, but thehalf-open mouth, the large eye-sockets, and sharply-defined features, inwhich every characteristic was presented in its utmost strength, and thebright and hard coloring were calculated to make the impression of a beingagitated by the emotions and passions of human nature in a degree farabove the standard of common life. The masks could, however, be changedbetween the acts, so as to represent the necessary changes in the state oremotions of the persons. 

The ancient theatres were stone buildings of enormous size, calculated toaccommodate the whole free and adult population of a great city at thespectacles and festal games. These theatres were not designed exclusivelyfor dramatic poetry; choral dances, processions, revels, and all sorts ofrepresentations were held in them. We find theatres in every part ofGreece, though dramatic poetry was the peculiar growth of Athens. 

The whole structure of the theatre, as well as the drama itself, may betraced to the chorus, whose station was the original centre of the wholeperformance. The orchestra, which occupied a circular level space in thecentre of the building, grew out of the chorus or dancing-place of theHomeric times. The altar of Bacchus, around which the dithyrambic chorusdanced in a circle, had given rise to a sort of raised platform in thecentre of the orchestra, which served as a resting-place for the chorus. 

The chorus sang alone when the actors had quitted the stage, oralternately with the persons of the drama, and sometimes entered intodialogues with them. These persons represented heroes of the mythicalworld, whose whole aspect bespoke something mightier and more sublime thanordinary humanity, and it was the part of the chorus to show theimpression made by the incidents of the drama on lower and feebler minds, and thus, as it were, to interpret them to the audience, with whom theyowned a more kindred nature. The ancient stage was remarkably long, and oflittle depth; it was called the _proscenium_, because it was in front ofthe _scene_. _Scene_ properly means _tent_ or _hut_, such as originallymarked the dwelling of the principal person. This hut at length gave placeto a stately scene, enriched with architectural decorations, yet itspurpose remained the same. 

We have seen how a single actor was added to the chorus by Thespis, whocaused him to represent in succession all the persons of the drama. Aeschylus added a second actor in order to obtain the contrast of twoacting persons on the stage; even Sophocles did not venture beyond theintroduction of a third. But the ancients laid more stress upon theprecise number and mutual relations of these actors than can here beexplained. 

4. THE TRAGIC POETS. --Aeschylus (525-477 B. C. ), like almost all the greatmasters of poetry in ancient Greece, was a poet by profession, and fromthe great improvements which he introduced into tragedy he was regarded bythe Athenians as its founder. Of the seventy tragedies which he is said tohave written, only seven are extant. Of these, the "Prometheus" is beyondall question his greatest work. The genius of Aeschylus inclined rather tothe awful and sublime, than to the tender and pathetic. He excels inrepresenting the superhuman, in depicting demigods and heroes, and intracing the irresistible march of fate. The depth of poetical feeling inhim is accompanied with intense and philosophical thought; he does notmerely represent individual tragical events, but he recurs to the greaterelements of tragedy--the subjection of the gods and Titans, and theoriginal dignity and greatness of nature and of man. He delights toportray this gigantic strength, as in his Prometheus chained and tortured, but invincible; and these representations have a moral sublimity far abovemere poetic beauty. His tragedies were at once political, patriotic, andreligious. 

Sophocles (495-406 B. C. ), as a poet, is universally allowed to havebrought the drama to the highest degree of perfection of which it wassusceptible. Indeed, the Greek mind may be said to have culminated in him;his writings overflow with that indescribable charm which only flashesthrough those of other poets. His plots are worked up with more skill andcare than those of either of his great rivals, Aeschylus or Euripides, andhe added the last improvement to the form of the drama by the introductionof a third actor, --a change which greatly enlarged the scope of theaction. Of the many tragedies which he is said to have written, only sevenare extant. Of these, the "Oedipus Tyrannus" is particularly remarkablefor its skillful development, and for the manner in which the interest ofthe piece increases through each succeeding act. Of all the poets ofantiquity, Sophocles has penetrated most deeply into the recesses of thehuman heart. His tragedies appear to us as pictures of the mind, aspoetical developments of the secrets of our souls, and of the laws towhich their nature makes them amenable. 

In Euripides (480-407 B. C. ) we discover the first traces of decline in theGreek tragedy. He diminished its dignity by depriving it of its idealcharacter, and by bringing it down to the level of every-day life. All thecharacters of Euripides have that loquacity and dexterity in the use ofwords which distinguished the Athenians of his day; yet in spite of allthese faults he has many beauties, and is particularly remarkable forpathos, so that Aristotle calls him the most tragic of poets. Eighteen ofhis tragedies are still extant. 

The contemporaries of the three great tragic poets, Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, must be regarded for the most part as far frominsignificant, since they maintained their place on the stage beside them, and not unfrequently gained the tragic prize in competition with them; yetthe general character of these poets must have been deficient in thatdepth and peculiar force of genius by which these great tragedians weredistinguished. If this had not been the case, their works would assuredlyhave attracted greater attention, and would have been read mere frequentlyin later times. 

5. COMEDY. --Greek comedy was distinguished as the Old, the Middle, and theNew. As tragedy arose from the winter feast of Bacchus, which fostered anenthusiastic sympathy with the apparent sorrows of the god of nature, comedy arose from the concluding feast of the vintage, at which anexulting joy over the inexhaustible riches of nature manifested itself inwantonness of every kind. In such a feast, the Comus, or Bacchanalianprocession, was a principal ingredient. This was a tumultuous mixture ofthe wild carouse, the noisy song, and the drunken dance; and the meaningof the word comedy is a comus _song_. It was from this lyric comedy thatthe dramatic comedy was gradually produced. It received its fulldevelopment from Cratinus, who lived in the age of Pericles. Cratinus andhis younger contemporaries, Eupolis (431 B. C. ) and Aristophanes (452-380B. C. ), were the great poets of the old Attic comedy. Of their works, onlyeleven dramas of Aristophanes are extant. The chief object of thesecomedies was to excite laughter by the boldest and most ludicrouscaricature, and, provided that end was obtained, the poet seems to havecared little about the justice of the picture. It is scarcely possible toimagine the unmeasured and unsparing license of attack assumed by thesecomedies upon the gods, the institutions, the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens, and women of Athens. With this universal libertyof subject there is combined a poignancy of derision and satire, afecundity of imagination, and a richness of poetical expression such ascannot be surpassed. Towards the end of the career of Aristophanes, however, this unrestricted license of the comedy began gradually todisappear. 

The Old comedy was succeeded by the Middle Attic comedy, in which thesatire was no longer directed against the influential men or rulers of thepeople, but was rich in ridicule of the Platonic Academy, of the newlyrevived sect of the Pythagoreans, and of the orators, rhetoricians, andpoets of the day. In this transition from the Old to the Middle comedy, wemay discern at once the great revolution that had taken place in thedomestic history of Athens, when the Athenians, from a nation ofpoliticians, became a nation of literary men; when it was no longer theopposition of political ideas, but the contest of opposing schools ofphilosophers and rhetoricians, which set all heads in motion. The poets ofthis comedy were very numerous. 

The last poets of the Middle comedy were contemporaries of the writers ofthe New, who rose up as their rivals, and who were only distinguished fromthem by following the new tendency more decidedly and exclusively. Menander (342-293 B. C. ) was one of the first of these poets, and he isalso the most perfect of them. The Athens of his day differed from that ofthe time of Pericles, in the same way that an old man, weak in body butfond of life, good-humored and self-indulgent, differs from the vigorous, middle-aged man at the summit of his mental strength and bodily energy. Since there was so little in politics to interest or to employ the mind, the Athenians found an object in the occurrences of social life and thecharm of dissolute enjoyment. Dramatic poetry now, for the first time, centred in love, as it has since done among all nations to whom the Greekcultivation has descended. But it certainly was not love in those noblerforms to which it has since elevated itself. Menander painted truly thedegenerate world in which he lived, actuated by no mighty impulses, nonoble aspirations. He was contemporary with Epicurus, and their charactershad much in common; both were deficient in the inspiration of high moralideas. 

The comedy of Menander and his contemporaries completed what Euripides hadbegun on the tragic stage a hundred years before their time. They deprivedtheir characters of that ideal grandeur which had been most conspicuous inthe creations of Aeschylus and the earlier poets, and thus tragedy andcomedy, which had started from such different beginnings, here met as atthe same point. The comedies of Menander may be considered as almost theconclusion of Attic literature; he was the last original poet of Athens;those who arose at a later period were but gleaners after the rich harvestof Greek poetry had been gathered. 

6. ORATORY, RHETORIC, AND HISTORY. --We may distinguish three epochs in thehistory of Attic prose from Pericles to Alexander the Great: first, thatof Pericles and Thucydides; second, that of Lysias, Socrates, and Plato;and, third, that of Demosthenes and Aeschines. Public speaking had beencommon in Greece from the earliest times, but as the works of Athenianorators alone have come down to us, we may conclude that oratory wascultivated in a much higher degree at Athens than elsewhere. No speech ofPericles has been preserved in writing; only a few of his emphatic andnervous expressions were kept in remembrance; but a general impression ofthe grandeur of his oratory long prevailed among the Greeks, from which wemay form a clear conception of his style. The sole object of the oratoryof Pericles was to produce conviction; he did not aim to excite any suddenor transient burst of passion by working on the emotions of the heart; nordid he use any of those means employed by the orators of a later age toset in motion the unruly impulses of the multitude. His manner wastranquil, with hardly any change of feature; his garments were undisturbedby any oratorical gesticulations, and his voice was equable and sustained. He never condescended to flatter the people, and his dignity never stoopedto merriment. Although there was more of reasoning than imagination in hisspeeches, he gave a vivid and impressive coloring to his language by theuse of striking metaphors and comparisons, as when, at the funeral of anumber of young persons who had fallen in battle, he used the beautifulfigure, that "the year had lost its spring. "

The cultivation of the art of oratory among the Athenians was due to acombination of the natural eloquence displayed by the Athenian statesmen, and especially by Pericles, with the rhetorical studies of the sophists, who exercised a greater influence on the culture of the Greek mind thanany other class of men, the poets excepted. The sophists, as their nameindicates, were persons who made knowledge their profession, and undertookto impart it to every one who was willing to place himself under theirguidance; they were reproached with being the first to sell knowledge formoney, for they not only demanded pay from those who came to hear theirlectures, but they undertook, for a certain sum, to give young men acomplete sophistical education. Pupils flocked to them in crowds, and theyacquired such riches as neither art nor science had ever before earnedamong the Greeks. If we consider their doctrines philosophically, theyamounted to a denial or renunciation of all true science. They were ableto speak with equal plausibility for and against the same position; not inorder to discover the truth, but to show the nothingness of truth. In theimprovement of written composition, however, a high value must be set ontheir services. They made language the object of their study; they aimedat correctness and beauty of style, and they laid the foundation for thepolished diction of Plato and Demosthenes. They taught that the sole aimof the orator is to turn the minds of his hearers into such a train as maybest suit his own interest; that, consequently, rhetoric is the agent ofpersuasion, the art of all arts, because the rhetorician is able to speakwell and convincingly on every subject, though he may have no accurateknowledge respecting it. 

The Peloponnesian war, which terminated in the downfall of Athens, wassucceeded by a period of exhaustion and repose. The fine arts were checkedin their progress, and poetry degenerated into empty bombast. Yet at thisvery time prose literature began a new career, which led to its fairestdevelopment. 

Lysias and Isocrates gave an entirely new form to oratory by the happyalterations which they in different ways introduced into the old prosestyle. Lysias (fl. 359 B. C. ), in the fiftieth year of his age, began tofollow the trade of writing speeches for such private individuals as couldnot trust their own skill in addressing a court; for this object, a plain, unartificial style was best suited, because citizens who called in the aidof the speech-writer had no knowledge of rhetoric, and thus Lysias wasobliged to originate a style, which became more and more confirmed byhabit. The consequence was, that for his contemporaries and for all ageshe stands forth as the first and in many respects the perfect pattern of aplain style. The narrative part of the speech, for which he wasparticularly famous, is always natural, interesting, and lively, and oftenrelieved by mimic touches which give it a wonderful air of reality. Theproofs and confutations are distinguished by a clearness of reasoning anda boldness of argument which leave no room for doubt; in a word, thespeeches are just what they ought to be in order to obtain a favorabledecision, an object in which, it seems, he often succeeded. Of his manyorations, thirty-five have come down to us. 

Isocrates (fl. 338 B. C. ) established a school for political oratory, whichbecame the first and most flourishing in Greece. His orations were mostlydestined for this school. Though neither a great statesman nor philosopherin himself, Isocrates constitutes an epoch as a rhetorician or artist oflanguage. His influence extended far beyond the limits of his own school, and without his reconstruction of the style of Attic oratory we could havehad no Demosthenes and no Cicero; through these, the school of Isocrateshas extended its influence even to the oratory of our own day. 

The verdict of his contemporaries, ratified by posterity, has pronouncedDemosthenes (380-322 B. C. ) the greatest orator that has ever lived, yet hehad no natural advantages for oratory. A feeble frame and a weak voice, ashy and awkward manner, the ungraceful gesticulations of one whose limbshad never been duly exercised, and a defective articulation, would havedeterred most men from even attempting to address an Athenian assembly;but the ambition and perseverance of Demosthenes enabled him to triumphover every disadvantage. He improved his bodily powers by running, hisvoice by speaking aloud as he walked up hill, or declaimed against theroar of the sea; he practiced graceful delivery before a looking-glass, and controlled his unruly articulation by speaking with pebbles in hismouth. His want of fluency he remedied by diligent composition, and bycopying and committing to memory the works of the best authors. By thesemeans he came forth as the acknowledged leader of the assembly, and, evenby the confession of his deadliest enemies, the first orator of Greece. His harangues to the people, and his speeches on public and privatecauses, which have been preserved, form a collection of sixty-oneorations. The most important efforts of Demosthenes, however, were theseries of public speeches referring to Philip of Macedon, and known as thetwelve Philippics, a name which has become a general designation forspirited invectives. The main characteristic of his eloquence consisted inthe use of the common language of his age and country. He took great painsin the choice and arrangement of his words, and aimed at the utmostconciseness, making epithets, even common adjectives, do the work of awhole sentence, and thus, by his perfect delivery and action, a sentencecomposed of ordinary terms sometimes smote with the weight of a sledge-hammer. In his orations there is not any long or close train of reasoning, still less any profound observations or remote and ingenious allusions, but a constant succession of remarks, bearing immediately on the matter inhand, perfectly plain, and as readily admitted as easily understood. Theseare intermingled with the most striking appeals either to feelings whichall were conscious of, and deeply agitated by, though ashamed to own, orto sentiments which every man was panting to utter and delighted to hearthundered forth, --bursts of oratory, which either overwhelmed or relievedthe audience. Such characteristics constituted the principal glory of thegreat orator. 

The most eminent of the contemporaries of Demosthenes were Isaeus (420-348B. C. ), an artificial and elaborate orator; Lycurgus (393-328 B. C. ), acelebrated civil reformer of Athens; Hypereides, contemporary of Lycurgus;and, above all, Aeschines (389-314 B. C. ), the great rival of Demosthenes, of whose numerous speeches only three have been preserved. At a laterperiod we find two schools of rhetoric, the Attic, founded by Aeschines, and the Asiatic, established by Hegesias of Magnesia. The former proposedas models of oratory the great Athenian orators, the latter depended onartificial manners, and produced speeches distinguished rather byrhetorical ornaments and a rapid flow of diction than by weight and forceof style. 

In the historical department, Thucydides (471-391 B. C. ) began an entirelynew class of historical writing. While Herodotus aimed at giving a vividpicture of all that fell under the cognizance of the senses, andendeavored to represent a superior power ruling over the destinies ofprinces and people, the attention of Thucydides was directed to humanaction, as it is developed from the character and situation of theindividual. His history, from its unity of action, may be considered as ahistorical drama, the subject being the Athenian domination over Greece, and the parties the belligerent republics. Clearness in the narrative, harmony and consistency of the details with the general history, are thecharacteristics of his work; and in his style he combines the concise andpregnant oratory of Pericles with the vigorous but artificial style of therhetoricians. Demosthenes was so diligent a student of Thucydides that hecopied out his history eight times. 

Xenophon (445-391 B. C. ) may also be classed among the great historians, his name being most favorably known from the "Anabasis, " in which hedescribes the retreat of the ten thousand Greek mercenaries in the serviceof Cyrus, the Persian king, among whom he himself played a prominent part. The minuteness of detail, the picturesque simplicity of the style, and theair of reality which pervades it, have made it a favorite with every age. In his memorials of Socrates, he records the conversations of a man whomhe had admired and listened to, but whom he did not understand. In thelanguage of Xenophon we find the first approximation to the commondialect, which became afterwards the universal language of Greece. Hewrote several other works, in which, however, no development of one greatand pervading idea can be found; but in all of them there is a singularclearness and beauty of description. 

7. SOCRATES AND THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS. --Although Socrates (468-399 B. C. )left no writings behind him, yet the intellect of Greece was powerfullyaffected by the principles of his philosophy, and the greatest literarygenius that ever appeared in Hellas owed most of his mental training tohis early intercourse with him. It was by means of conversation, by asearching process of question and answer, that Socrates endeavored to leadhis pupils to a consciousness of their own ignorance, and thus to awakenin their minds an anxiety to obtain more exact views. This method ofquestioning he reduced to a scientific process, and "dialectics" became aname for the art of reasoning and the science of logic. The subject-matterof this method was moral science considered with special reference topolitics. To him may be justly attributed induction and generaldefinitions, and he applied this practical logic to a common-senseestimate of the duties of man both as a moral being and as a member of acommunity, and thus he first treated moral philosophy according toscientific principles. No less than ten schools of philosophers claimedhim as their head, though the majority of them imperfectly represented hisdoctrines. By his influence on Plato, and through him on Aristotle, heconstituted himself the founder of the philosophy which is stillrecognized in the civilized world. 

From the doctrine held by Socrates, that virtue was dependent onknowledge, Eucleides of Megara (fl. 398 B. C. ), the founder of the Megaricschool, submitted moral philosophy to dialectical reasoning and logicalrefinements; and from the Socratic principle of the union between virtueand happiness, Aristippus of Cyrene (fl. 396 B. C. ) deduced the doctrinewhich became the characteristic of the Cyrenian school, affirming thatpleasure was the ultimate end of life and the higher good; whileAntisthenes (fl. 396 B. C. ) constructed the Cynic philosophy, which placedthe ideal of virtue in the absence of every need, and hence in thedisregarding of every interest, wealth, honor, and enjoyment, and in theindependence of any restraints of life and society. Diogenes of Sinope(fl. 300 B. C. ) was one of the most prominent followers of this school. He, like his master, Antisthenes, always appeared in the most beggarlyclothing, with the staff and wallet of mendicancy; and this ostentation ofself-denial drew from Socrates the exclamation, that he saw the vanity ofAntisthenes through the holes in his garments. 

Plato (429-348 B. C. ) was the only--one of the disciples of Socrates whorepresented the whole doctrines of his teacher. We owe to him that theideas which Socrates awakened have been made the germ of one of thegrandest systems of speculation that the world has ever seen, and that ithas been conveyed to us in literary compositions which are unequaled inrefinement of conception, or in vigor and gracefulness of style. At theage of nineteen he became one of the pupils and associates of Socrates, and did not leave him until that martyr of intellectual freedom drank thefatal cup of hemlock. He afterwards traveled in Asia Minor, in Egypt, inItaly, and Sicily, and made himself acquainted with all contemporaryphilosophy. During the latter part of his life he was engaged as a publiclecturer on philosophy. His lectures were delivered in the gardens of theAcademia, and they have left proof of their celebrity in the structure oflanguage, which has derived from them a term now common to all places ofinstruction. Of the importance of the Socratic and Pythagorean elements inPlato's philosophy there can be no doubt; but he transmuted all he touchedinto his own forms of thought and language, and there was no branch ofspeculative literature which he had not mastered. By adopting the form ofdialogue, in which all his extant works have come down to us, he wasenabled to criticise the various systems of philosophy then current inGreece, and also to gratify his own dramatic genius, and his almostunrivaled power of keeping up an assumed character. The works of Platohave been divided into three classes: first, the elementary dialogues, orthose which contain the germs of all that follows, of logic as theinstrument of philosophy, and of ideas as its proper object; second, progressive dialogues, which treat of the distinction betweenphilosophical and common knowledge, in their united application to theproposed and real sciences, ethics, and physics; third, the constructivedialogues, in which the practical is completely united with thespeculative, with an appendix containing laws, epistles, etc. 

The fundamental principle of Plato's philosophy is the belief in aneternal and self-existent cause, the origin of all things. From thisdivine Being emanate not only the souls of men, which are immortal, butthat of the universe itself, which is supposed to be animated by a divinespirit. The material objects of our sight, and other senses, are merefleeting emanations of the divine idea; it is only this idea itself thatis really existent; the objects of sensuous perception are mereappearances, taking their forms by participation in the idea; hence itfollows, that in Plato's philosophy all knowledge is innate, and acquiredby the soul before birth, when it was able to contemplate real existences, and all our ideas of this world are mere reminiscences of their true andeternal patterns. The belief of Plato in the immortality of the soulnaturally led him to establish a high standard of moral excellence, and, like his great teacher, he constantly inculcates temperance, justice, andpurity of life. His political views are developed in the "Republic" and inthe "Laws, " in which the main feature of his system is the subordination, or rather the entire sacrifice of the individual to the state. 

The style of Plato is in every way worthy of his position in universalliterature, and modern scholars have confirmed the encomium of Aristotle, that all his dialogues exhibit extraordinary acuteness, elaborateelegance, bold originality, and curious speculation. In Plato, the powersof imagination were just as conspicuous as those of reasoning andreflection; he had all the chief characteristics of a poet, especially ofa dramatic poet, and if his rank as a philosopher had been lower than itis, he would still have ranked high among dramatic writers for his life-like representations of the personages whose opinions he wished to combator to defend. 

Aristotle (384-322 B. C. ) occupies a position among the leaders of humanthought not inferior to that of his teacher, Plato. He was a native ofStagyra, in Macedonia, and is hence often called the Stagyrite. He earlyrepaired to Athens, and became a pupil of Plato, who called him the soulof his school. He was afterwards invited by Philip of Macedon to undertakethe literary education of Alexander, at that time thirteen years old. Thischarge continued about three years. He afterwards returned to Athens, where he opened his school in a gymnasium called the Lyceum, deliveringhis lessons as he walked to and fro, and from these saunters his scholarswere called Peripatetics, or saunterers. During this period he composedmost of his extant works. Alexander placed at his disposal a large sum forhis collections in natural history, and employed some thousands of men inprocuring specimens for his museum. After the death of Alexander, he wasaccused of blasphemy to the gods, and, warned by the fate of Socrates, hewithdrew from Athens to Chalcis, where he afterwards died. 

In looking at the mere catalogue of the works of Aristotle, we are struckwith his vast range of knowledge. He aimed at nothing less than thecompletion of a general encyclopedia of philosophy. He was the author ofthe first scientific cultivation of each science, and there was hardly anyquality distinguishing a philosopher as such, which he did not possess inan eminent degree. Of all the philosophical systems of antiquity, that ofAristotle was the best adapted to the physical wants of mankind. His worksconsisted of treatises on natural, moral, and political philosophy, history, rhetoric, criticism, --indeed, there was scarcely a branch ofknowledge which his vast and comprehensive genius did not embrace. Hisgreatest claim to our admiration is as a logician. He perfected andbrought into form those elements of the dialectic art which had beenstruck out by Socrates and Plato, and wrought them, by his additions, intoso complete a system, that he may be regarded as, at once, the founder andperfecter of logic as an art, which has since, even down to our own days, been but very little improved. The style of Aristotle has nothing toattract those who prefer the embellishments of a work to its subject-matter and the scientific results which it presents. 

PERIOD THIRD. 

EPOCH OF THE DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE, 322 B. C. -1453 A. D. 

1. ORIGIN OF THE ALEXANDRIAN LITERATURE. --As the literary predominance ofAthens was due mainly to the political importance of Attica, the downfallof Athenian independence brought with it a deterioration, and ultimatelyan extinction of that intellectual centralization which for more than acentury had fostered and developed the highest efforts of the genius andculture of the Greeks. While the living literature of Greece was thusdying away, the conquests of Alexander prepared a new home for the museson the coast of that wonderful country, to which all the nations ofantiquity had owed a part of their science and religious belief. In Egypt, as in other regions, Alexander gave directions for the foundation of acity to be called after his own name, which became the magnificentmetropolis of the Hellenic world. This capital was the residence of afamily who attracted to their court all the living representatives of theliterature of Greece, and stored up in their enormous library all the bestworks of the classical period. It was chiefly during the reigns of thefirst three Ptolemies that Alexandria was made the new home of Greekliterature. Ptolemy Soter (306-285 B. C. ) laid the foundations of thelibrary, and instituted the museum, or temple of the muses, where theliterary men of the age were maintained by endowments. This encouragementof literature was continued by Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 B. C. ). He hadthe celebrated Callimachus for his librarian, who bought up not only thewhole of Aristotle's great collection of works, but transferred the nativeannals of Egypt and Judea to the domain of Greek literature by employingthe priest Manetho to translate the hieroglyphics of his own temple-archives into the language of the court, and by procuring from theSanhedrim of Jerusalem the first part of that celebrated version of theHebrew sacred books, which was afterwards completed and known as theSeptuagint, or version of the Seventy. Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B. C. )increased the library by depriving the Athenians of their authenticeditions of the great dramatists. In the course of time the libraryfounded at Pergamos was transferred to Egypt, and thus we are indebted tothe Ptolemies for preserving to our times all the best specimens of Greekliterature which have come down to us. This encouragement of letters, however, called forth no great original genius; but a few eminent men ofscience, many second-rate and artificial poets, and a host of grammariansand literary pedants. 

2. THE ALEXANDRIAN POETS. --Among the poets of the period, Philetas, Callimachus, Lycophron, Apollonius, and the writers of idyls, Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus are the most eminent. The founder of a school of poetryat Alexandria, and the model for imitation with the Roman writers ofelegiac poetry, was Philetas of Cos (fl. 260 B. C), whose extremeemaciation of person exposed him to the imputation of wearing lead in thesoles of his shoes, lest he should be blown away. He was chieflycelebrated as an elegiac poet, in whom ingenious, elegant, and harmoniousversification took the place of higher poetry. Callimachus (fl. 260 B. C. )was the type of an Alexandrian man of letters, distinguished by skillrather than genius, the most finished specimen of what might be effectedby talent, learning, and ambition, backed by the patronage of a court. Hewas a living representative of the great library over which he presided;he was not only a writer of all kinds of poetry, but a critic, grammarian, historian, and geographer. Of his writings, a few poems only are extant. Next to Callimachus, as a representative of the learned poetry ofAlexandria, stands the dramatist Lycophron (fl. 250 B. C. ). All his worksare lost, with the exception of the oracular poem called the "Alexandra, "or "'Cassandra, " on the merits of which very opposite opinions areentertained. Apollonius, known as the Rhodian (fl. 240 B. C. ), was a nativeof Alexandria, and a pupil of Callimachus, through whose influence he wasdriven from his native city, when he established himself in the island ofRhodes, where he was so honored and distinguished that he took the name ofthe Rhodian. On the death of Callimachus, he was appointed to succeed himas librarian at Alexandria. His reputation depends on his epic poem, the"Argonautic Expedition. "

Of all the writers of the Alexandrian period, the bucolic poets haveenjoyed the most popularity. Their pastoral poems were called Idyls, fromtheir pictorial and descriptive character, that is, little pictures ofcommon life, a name for which the later writers have sometimes substitutedthe term Eclogues, that is, _selections_, which is applicable to any shortpoem, whether complete and original, or appearing as an extract. The nameof Idyls, however, was afterwards applicable to pastoral poems. Theocritus(fl. 272 B. C. ) gives his name to the most important of these extantbucolics. He had an original genius for poetry of the highest kind; theabsence of the usual affectation of the Alexandrian school, constantappeals to nature, a fine perception of character, and a keen sense ofboth the beautiful and the ludicrous, indicate the high order of hisliterary talent, and account for his universal and undiminishedpopularity. The two other bucolic poets of the Alexandrian school wereBion (fl. 275 B. C. ), born near Smyrna, and his pupil Moschus of Syracuse(fl. 273 B. C. ). It appears, from an elegy by Moschus, that Bion migratedfrom Asia Minor to Sicily, where he was poisoned. He wrote harmoniousverses with a good deal of pathos and tenderness, but he is as inferior toTheocritus as he is superior to Moschus, whose artificial stylecharacterizes him rather as a learned versifier than a true poet. 

3. PROSE WRITERS OF ALEXANDRIA. --Many of the most eminent poets were alsoprose writers, and they exhibited their versatility by writing on almostevery subject of literary interest. The progress of prose writingmanifested itself from grammar and criticism to the more elaborate andlearned treatment of history and chronology, and to observations andspeculations in pure and mixed mathematics. Demetrius the Phalerian (fl. 295 B. C. ), Zenodotus (fl. 279 B. C. ), Aristophanes (fl. 200 B. C. ), andAristarchus (fl. 156 B. C. ), the three last of whom were successivelyintrusted with the management of the Library, were the representatives ofthe Alexandrian school of grammar and criticism. They devoted themselveschiefly to the revision of the text of Homer, which was finallyestablished by Aristarchus. 

In the historical department may be mentioned Ptolemy Soter, who wrote thehistory of the wars of Alexander the Great; Apollodorus (fl. 200 B. C. ), whose "Bibliotheca" contains a general sketch of the mystic legends of theGreeks; Eratosthenes (fl. 235 B. C. ), the founder of scientific chronologyin Greek history; Manetho (fl. 280 B. C. ), who introduced the Greeks to aknowledge of the Egyptian religion and annals; and Berosus of Babylon, hiscontemporary, whose work, fragments of which were preserved by Josephus, was known as the "Babylonian Annals. " While the Greeks of Alexandria thusgained a knowledge of the religious books of the nations conquered byAlexander, the same curiosity, combined with the necessities of the Jewsof Alexandria, gave birth to the translation of the Bible into Greek, known under the name of Septuagint, which has exercised a more lastinginfluence on the civilized world than that of any book that has everappeared in a new tongue. The beginning of that translation was probablymade in the reigns of the first Ptolemies (320-249 B. C. ), while theremainder was completed at a later period. 

The wonderful advance, which took place in pure and applied mathematics, is chiefly due to the learned men who settled in Alexandria; the greatestmathematicians and the most eminent founders of scientific geography wereall either immediately or indirectly connected with the school ofAlexandria. Euclid (fl. 300 B. C. ) founded a famous school of geometry inthat city, in the reign of the first Ptolemy. Almost the only incident ofhis life which is known to us is a conversation between him and that king, who, having asked if there was no easier method of learning the science, is said to have been told by Euclid, that "there was no royal path togeometry. " His most famous work is his "Elements of Pure Mathematics, " atthe present time a manual of instruction and the foundation of allgeometrical treatises. Archimedes (287-212 B. C. ) was a native of Syracuse, in Sicily, but he traveled to Egypt at an early age, and studiedmathematics there in the school of Euclid. He not only distinguishedhimself as a pure mathematician and astronomer, and as the founder of thetheory of statics, but he discovered the law of specific gravity, andconstructed some of the most useful machines in the mechanic arts, such asthe pulley and the hydraulic screw. His works are written in the Doricdialect. Apollonius of Perga (221-204 B. C. ) distinguished himself in themathematical department by his work on "Conic Elements. " Eratosthenes wasnot only prominent in the science of chronology, but was also the founderof astronomical geography, and the author of many valuable works invarious branches of philosophy. Hipparchus (fl. 150 B. C. ) is consideredthe founder of the science of exact astronomy, from his great work, the"Catalogue of the Fixed Stars, " his discovery of the precession of theequinoxes, and many other valuable astronomical observations andcalculations. 

4. ALEXANDRIAN PHILOSOPHY. --Athens, which had been the centre of Greekliterature during the second or classical period of its development, hadnow, in all respects but one, resigned the intellectual leadership to thecity of the Ptolemies. While Alexandria was producing a series of learnedpoets, scholars, and discoverers in science, Athenian literature wasmainly represented by the establishment of certain forms of mental andmoral philosophy founded on the various Socratic schools. Two schools ofphilosophy were established at Athens at the time of the death ofAristotle: that of the Academy, in which he himself had studied, and thatof the Lyceum, which he had founded, as the seat of his peripateticsystem. But the older schools soon reappeared under new names: theMegarics, with an infusion of the doctrines of Democritus, revived in theskeptic philosophy of Pyrrhon (375-285 B. C. ). Epicurus (342-370 B. C. )founded the school to which he gave his name, by a similar combination ofDemocritean philosophy with the doctrines of the Cyrenaics; the Cynicswere developed into Stoics by Zeno (341-260 B. C. ), who borrowed much fromthe Megaric school and from the Old Academy; and, finally, the Middle andNew Academy arose from a combination of doctrines which were peculiar tomany of these sects. 

Though these different schools, which flourished at Athens, had earlyrepresentatives in Alexandria, their different doctrines, coming incontact with the ancient religious systems of the Persians, Jews, andHindus, underwent essential modifications, and gave birth to a kind ofelecticism, which became later an important element in the development ofChristian history. The rationalism of the Platonic school and thesupernaturalism of the Jewish Scriptures were chiefly mingled together, and from this amalgamation sprang the system of Neo-Platonism. When theearly teachers of Christianity at Alexandria strove to show the harmony ofthe Gospel with the great principles of the Greco-Jewish philosophy, itunderwent new modifications, and the Neo-Platonic school, which sprang upin Alexandria three centuries B. C. , was completed in the first and secondcenturies of the Christian era. The common characteristic of the Neo-Platonists was a tendency to mysticism. Some of them believed that theywere the subjects of divine inspiration and illumination; able to lookinto the future and to work miracles. Philo-Judaeus (fl. 20 B. C. ), Numenius (fl. 150 A. D. ), Ammonius Saccas (fl. 200 A. D. ), Plotinus (fl, 260A. D. ), Porphyry (fl. 260 A. D. ), and several fathers of the Greek Churchare among the principal disciples of this school. 

5. ANTI-NEO-PLATONIC TENDENCIES. --While the Neo-Platonism of Alexandriaintroduced into Greek philosophy Oriental ideas and tendencies, otherpositive and practical doctrines also prevailed, founded on common senseand conscience. First among these were the tenets of the Stoics, who owedtheir system mainly and immediately to the teaching of Epictetus (fl. 60A. D. ), who opposed the Oriental enthusiasm of the Neo-Platonists. He wasoriginally a slave, and became a prominent teacher of philosophy in Rome, in the reign of Domitian. He left nothing in writing, and we are indebtedfor a knowledge of his doctrines to Arrian, who compiled his lectures orphilosophical dissertations in eight books, of which only four arepreserved, and the "Manual of Epictetus, " a valuable compendium of thedoctrines of the Stoics. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius not only lectured atRome on the principles of Epictetus, but he left us his privatemeditations, composed in the midst of a camp, and exhibiting the serenityof a mind which had made itself independent of outward actions and warringpassions within. Lucian (fl. 150 A. D. ) may be compared to Voltaire, whomhe equaled in his powers both of rhetoric and ridicule, and surpassed inhis more conscientious and courageous love of truth. Though the results ofhis efforts against heathenism were merely negative, he prepared the wayfor Christianity by giving the death-blow to declining idolatry. Lucian, as a man of letters, is on many accounts interesting, and in reference tohis own age and to the literature of Greece he is entitled to an importantposition both with regard to the religious and philosophical results ofhis works, and to the introduction of a purer Greek style, which he taughtand exemplified. Longinus (fl. 230 A. D. ), both as an opponent of Neo-Platonism and as a sound and sensible critic, occupies a position similarto that of Lucian, in the declining period of Greek literary history. During a visit to the East, he became known to Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who adopted the celebrated scholar as her instructor in the language andliterature of Greece, her adviser and chief minister; and when Palmyrafell before the Roman power he was put to death by the Roman emperor. Tohis treatise on "The Sublime" he is chiefly indebted for his fame. WhenFrance, in the reign of Louis XIV. , gave a tone to the literary judgmentsof Europe, this work was translated by Boileau, and received by the witsof Paris as an established manual in all that related to the sublime andbeautiful. 

6. GREEK LITERATURE IN ROME. --After the subjugation of Greece by theRomans, Greek authors wrote in their own language and published theirworks in Rome; illustrious Romans chose the idiom of Plato as the bestmedium for the expression of their own thoughts; dramatic poets gained areputation by imitating the tragedies and comedies of Athens, and everyversifier felt compelled by fashion to revive the metres of ancientGreece. This naturalization of Greek literature at Rome was due to therudeness and poverty of the national literature of Italy, to the influenceexerted by the Greek colonies, and to the political subjugation of Greece. In Rome, Greek libraries were established by the Emperor Augustus and hissuccessors; and the knowledge of the Greek language was considered anecessary accomplishment. Cicero made his countrymen acquainted with thephilosophical schools of Athens, and Rome became more and more the rivalof Alexandria, both as a receptacle for the best Greek writings and as aseat of learning, where Greek authors found appreciation and patronage. The Greek poets, who were fostered and encouraged at Rome, were chieflywriters of epigrams, and their poems are preserved in the collectionscalled "Anthologies. " The growing demand for forensic eloquence naturallyled the Roman orators to find their examples in those of Athens, and tothe study of rhetoric in the Grecian writers. 

Among the writers on rhetoric whose works seem to have produced the, greatest effect at the beginning of the Roman period, we mention Dionysiusof Halicarnassus (fl. 7 B. C. ). As a critic, he occupies the first rankamong the ancients. Besides his rhetorical treatises, he wrote a work on"Roman Archaeology, " the object of which was to show that the Romans werenot, after all, barbarians, as was generally supposed, but a pure Greekrace, whose institutions, religion, and manners were traceable to anidentity with those of the noblest Hellenes. 

What Dionysius endeavored to do for the gratification of his owncountrymen, by giving them a Greek version of Roman history, anaccomplished Jew, who lived about a century later, attempted, from theopposite point of view, for his own fallen race, in a work which was adirect imitation of that just described. Flavius Josephus (fl. 60 A. D. )wrote the "Jewish Archaeology" in order to show the Roman conquerors ofJerusalem that the Jews did not deserve the contempt with which they wereuniversally regarded. His "History of the Jewish Wars" is an able andvaluable work. 

At an earlier period, Polybius (204-122 B. C. ) wrote to explain to theGreeks how the power of the Romans had established itself in Greece. Hisgreat work was a universal history, but of the forty books of which itconsisted only five have been preserved; perhaps no historical work hasever been written with such definiteness of purpose or unity of plan, orwith such self-consciousness on the part of the writer. The object towhich he directs attention is the manner in which fortune or providenceuses the ability and energy of man as instruments in carrying out what ispredetermined, and specially the exemplification of these principles inthe wonderful growth of the Roman power during the fifty-three years ofwhich he treats. Taking his history as a whole, it is hardly possible tospeak in too high terms of it, though the style has many blemishes, suchas endless digressions, wearisome repetition of his own principles andcolloquial vulgarisms. 

Diodorus, a native of Sicily, generally known as the Sicilian (Siculus), flourished in the time of the first two Caesars. In his great work, the"Historical Library, " it was his object to write a history of the worlddown to the commencement of Caesar's Gallic wars. He is content to give abare recital of the facts, which crowded upon him and left him no time tobe diffuse or ornamental. 

The geography of Strabo (fl. 10 A. D. ), which has made his name familiar tomodern scholars, has come down to us very nearly complete. Its merits areliterary rather than scientific. His object was to give an instructive andreadable account of the known world, from the point of view taken by aGreek man of letters. His style is simple, unadorned, and unaffected. 

Plutarch (40-120 A. D. ) may be classed among the philosophers as well asamong the historians. Though he has left many essays and works ondifferent subjects, he is best known as a biographer. His lives ofcelebrated Greeks and Romans have made his name familiar to the readers ofevery country. The universal popularity of his biographies is due to thefact that they are dramatic pictures, in which each personage isrepresented as acting according to his leading characteristics. 

Pausanias (fl. 184 A. D. ), a professed describer of countries and of theirantiquities and works of art, in his "Gazetteer of Hellas" has left thebest repertory of information for the topography, local history, religiousobservances, architecture, and sculpture of the different states ofGreece. 

Among the scientific men of this period we find Ptolemy, whose name formore than a thousand years was coextensive with the sciences of astronomyand geography. He was a native of Alexandria, and flourished about thelatter part of the second century. The best known of his works is his"Great Construction of Astronomy. " He was the first to indicate the trueshape of Spain, Gaul, and Ireland; as a writer, he deserves to be held inhigh estimation. Galen (fl. 130 A. D. ) was a writer on philosophy andmedicine, with whom few could vie in productiveness. It was his object tocombine philosophy with medical science, and his works for fifteencenturies were received as oracular authorities throughout the civilizedworld. 

7. CONTINUED DECLINE OF GREEK LITERATURE. --The adoption of the Christianreligion by Constantine, and his establishment of the seat of governmentin his new city of Constantinople, concurred in causing the rapid declineof Greek literature in the fourth and following centuries. Christianity, no longer the object of persecution, became the dominant religion of thestate, and the profession of its tenets was the shortest road to influenceand honor. The old literature, with its mythological allusions, becameless and less fashionable, and the Greek poets, philosophers, and oratorsof the better periods gradually lost their attractions. Greek, theofficial language of Constantinople, was spoken there, with differentdegrees of corruption, by Syrians, Bulgarians, and Goths; and thus, asChristianity undermined the old classical literature, the politicalcondition of the capital deteriorated the language itself. Other causesaccelerated the decadence of Greek learning: the great library atAlexandria, and the school which had been established in connection withit, were destroyed at the end of the fourth century by the edict ofTheodosius, and the conquest of Egypt by the Saracens in the seventhcentury only completed the work of destruction. Justinian closed theschools of Athens, and prohibited the teaching of philosophy; the Arabsoverthrew those established elsewhere, and there remained only theinstitutions of Constantinople. But long before the establishment of theTurks on the ruins of the Byzantine empire, Greek literature had ceased toclaim any original or independent existence. The opposition between theliterary spirit of heathen Greece and the Christian scholarship of thetime of Constantine and his immediate successors, which grew up verygradually, was the result of the Oriental superstitions which distortedChristianity and disturbed the old philosophy. The abortive attempt of theEmperor Julian to create a reaction in favor of heathenism was the causeof the open antagonism between the classical and Christian forms ofliterature. The church, however, was soon enabled not only to dictate itsown rules of literary criticism, but to destroy the writings of its mostformidable antagonists. The last rays of heathen cultivation in Italy wereextinguished in the gloomy dungeon of Boethius, and the period so justlydesignated as the Dark Ages began both in eastern and western Europe. 

8. LAST ECHOES OF THE OLD LITERATURE--From the time when Christianityplaced itself in opposition to the old culture of heathen Greece and Rome, down to the period of the revival of classical literature in the fifteenthand sixteenth centuries, the classical spirit was nearly extinct both ineastern and western Europe. In Italy, the triumph of barbarism was moresudden and complete. In the eastern empire there was a certain literaryactivity, and in the department of history, Byzantine literature wasconspicuously prolific. 

The imperial family of the Comneni, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the Palaeologi, who reigned from the thirteenth century to the end ofthe eastern empire, endeavored to revive the taste for literature andlearning. But the echoes of the past became fainter and fainter, and whenConstantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, 1453 A. D. , the wanderingGreeks who found their way into Italy could only serve as language-mastersto a race of scholars, who thus recovered the learning that had ceased toexist among the Greeks themselves. 

The last manifestations of the old classical learning by the Alexandrianschool, which had done so much in the second and first centuries beforeour era, may he divided into three classes. In the first are placed themathematical and geographical studies, which had been brought to suchperfection by Euclid, his successors, and after them by Ptolemy. In thesecond class we have the substitution of prose romances for the bucolicand erotic poetry of the Alexandrian and Sicilian writers. In the thirdclass the revival, by Nonnus and his followers, of a learned epos, of muchthe same kind as the poems of Callimachus. Among the representatives ofthe mathematical school of Alexandria was Theon, whose celebrity isobscured by that of his daughter Hypatia (fl. 415 A. D. ), whose sex, youth, beauty, and cruel fate have made her a most interesting martyr ofphilosophy. She presided in the public school at Alexandria, where shetaught mathematics and the philosophy of Ammonius and Plotinus. Herinfluence over the educated classes of that city excited the jealousy ofthe archbishop. She was given up to the violence of a superstitious andbrutal mob, attacked as she was passing through the streets in herchariot, torn in pieces, and her mutilated body thrown to the flames. 

When rhetorical prose superseded composition in verse, the greaterfacility of style naturally led to more detailed narratives, and thesophist who would have been a poet in the time of Callimachus, became awriter of prose romances in the final period of Greek literature. Thefirst ascertained beginning of this style of light reading, which occupiesso large a space in the catalogues of modern libraries, was in the time ofthe Emperor Trajan, when a Syrian or Babylonian freedman, namedIamblichus, published a love story called the "Babylonian Adventures. "Among his successors is Longus, of whose work, "The Lesbian Adventure, " itis sufficient to say, that it was the model of the "Diana" of Montemayor, the "Aminta" of Tasso, the "Pastor Fido" of Guarini, and the "GentleShepherd" of Allan Ramsay. 

While the sophists were amusing themselves by clothing erotic and bucolicsubjects in rhetorical prose, an Egyptian boldly revived the epos whichhad been cultivated at Alexandria in the earliest days of the Museum. Nonnus probably flourished at the commencement of the fifth century A. D. His epic poem, which, in accordance with the terminology of the age, iscalled "Dionysian Adventures, " is an enormous farrago of learning on thewell-worked subject of Bacchus. The most interesting of the epicproductions of the school of Nonnus is the story of "Hero and Leander, " in340 verses, which bears the name of Musaeus. For grace of diction, metrical elegance, and simple pathos, this little canto stands far beforethe other poems of the same age. The Hero and Leander of Musaeus is thedying swan-note of Greek poetry, the last distinct note of the old musicof Hellas. 

In the Byzantine literature, there are works which claim no originality, but have a higher value than their contemporaries, because they giveextracts or fragments of the lost writings of the best days of Greece. Next in value follow the lexicographers, the grammarians, andcommentators. The most voluminous department, however, of Byzantineliterature, was that of the historians, annalists, chroniclers, biographers, and antiquarians, whose works form a continuous series ofByzantine annals from the time of Constantine the Great to the taking ofthe capital by the Turks. This literature was also enlivened by severalpoets, and enriched by some writers on natural history and medicine. 

9. THE NEW TESTAMENT AND THE GREEK FATHERS. --The history of Greekliterature would be imperfect without some allusion to a class of writingsnot usually included in the range of classical studies. The first of theseworks, the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, before mentioned, andthe Greek Apocrypha, may properly be termed Hebrew-Grecian. Their spiritis wholly at variance with that of pagan literature, and it cannot bedoubted that they exerted great influence when made known to the pagans ofAlexandria. Many of the books termed the Apocrypha were originally writtenin Greek, and mostly before the Christian era. Many of them containauthentic narratives, and are valuable as illustrating the circumstancesof the age to which they refer. The other class of writings alluded tocomprehends the works of the Christian authors. As the influence ofChristianity became more diffused during the first and second centuries, its regenerating power became visible. After the time of Christ, thereappeared, in both the Greek and Latin tongues, works wholly different intheir spirit and character from all that is found in pagan literature. Thecollection of sacred writings contained in the New Testament and the worksof the early fathers constitute a distinct and interesting feature in theliterature of the age in which they appeared. The writings of the NewTestament, considered simply in their literary aspect, are distinguishedby a simplicity, earnestness, naturalness, and beauty that find noparallel in the literature of the world. But the consideration must not beoverlooked, that they were the work of those men who wrote as they weremoved of the Holy Ghost, that they contain the life and the teachings ofthe great Founder of our faith, and that they come to us invested withdivine authority. Their influence upon the ages which have succeeded themis incalculable, and it is still widening as the knowledge of Christianityincreases. The composition of the New Testament is historical, epistolary, and prophetic. The first five books, or the historical division, containan account of the life and death of our Saviour, and some account of thefirst movements of the Apostles. The epistolary division consists ofletters addressed by the Apostles to the different churches or toindividuals. The last, the book of Revelation, the only part that isconsidered prophetic, differs from the others in its use of thatsymbolical language which had been common to the Hebrew prophets, in thesublimity and majesty of its imagery, and in its prediction of the finaland universal triumph of Christianity. 

The writings of the Apostolic Fathers, or the immediate successors of theApostles, were held in high estimation by the primitive Christians. Ofthose who wrote under this denomination, the venerable Polycarp andIgnatius, after they had both attained the age of eighty years, sealedtheir faith in the blood of martyrdom. The former was burned at the stakein Smyrna, and the latter devoured by lions in the amphitheatre of Rome, In the second and third centuries, Christianity numbered among itsadvocates many distinguished scholars and philosophers, particularly amongthe Greeks. Their productions may be classed under the heads of biblical, controversial, doctrinal, historical, and homiletical. Among the mostdistinguished of the Greek fathers were Justin Martyr (fl. 89 A. D. ), aneminent Christian philosopher and speculative thinker; Clement ofAlexandria (fl. 190 A. D. ), who has left us a collection of works, which, for learning and literary talent, stand unrivaled among the writings ofthe early Christian fathers; Origen (184-253 A. D. ), who, in his numerousworks, attempted to reconcile philosophy with Christianity; Eusebius (fl. 325 A. D. ), whose ecclesiastical history is ranked among the most valuableremains of Christian antiquity; Athanasius, famous for his controversywith Arius; Gregory Nazianzen (329-390 A. D. ), distinguished for his rareunion of eloquence and piety, a great orator and theologian; Basil (329-379 A. D. ) whose works, mostly of a purely theological character, exhibitoccasionally decided proofs of his strong feeling for the beauties ofnature; and John Chrysostom (347-407 A. D. ), the founder of the art ofpreaching, whose extant homilies breathe a spirit of sincere earnestnessand of true genius. To these may be added Nemesius (fl. 400 A. D. ), whosework on the "Nature of Man" is distinguished by the purity of its styleand by the traces of a careful study of classical authors, and Synesius(378-430 A. D. ), who maintained the parallel importance of pagan andChristian literature, and who has always been held in high estimation forhis epistles, hymns, and dramas. 

MODERN LITERATURE. 

At the time of the fall of Constantinople, ancient Greek was still thevehicle of literature, and as such it has been preserved to our day. Afterthe political changes of the present century, however, it was felt by thebest Greek writers that the old forms were no longer fitted to expressmodern ideas, and hence it has become transfused with those better adaptedto the clear and rapid expression of modern literature, though at the sametime the body and substance, as well as the grammar, of the language havebeen retained. 

From an early age, along with the literary language of Greece, thereexisted a conversational language, which varied in different localities, and out of this grew the Modern Greek or Neo-Hellenic. 

After the fall of Constantinople, the Greeks were prominent in spreading aknowledge of their language through Europe, and but few works ofimportance were produced. During the eighteenth century a revival ofenthusiasm for education and literature took place, and a period of greatliterary activity has since followed. Perhaps no nation now produces somuch literature in proportion to its numbers, although the number ofreaders is small and there are great difficulties in publishing. In thesecircumstances, the Ralli and other distinguished Greeks have nobly comeforward and published books at their own expense, and great activityprevails in every department of letters. 

Since the establishment of Greek independence, three writers have securedfor themselves a permanent place in literature as men of true genius: thetwo brothers Panagiotis and Alexander Santsos, and Alexander Rangabé. Thebrothers Santsos threw all their energies into the war for independenceand sang of its glories. Panagiotis (d. 1868) was always lyrical, andAlexander (d. 1863) always satirical. Both were highly ideal in theirconceptions, and both had a rich command of musical language. The othergreat poet of regenerated Greece is Alexander Rangabé, whose works rangethrough almost every department of literature, though it is on his poemsthat his claim to remembrance will specially rest. They are distinguishedby fine poetic feeling, rare command of exquisite and harmonious language, and singular beauty and purity of thought. His poetical works consist ofhymns, odes, songs, narrative poems, ballads, tragedies, comedies, andtranslations. There is no department in prose literature which is not wellrepresented in modern Greek, and many women have particularlydistinguished themselves. 

ROMAN LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Roman Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language;Ethnographical Elements of the Latin Language; the Umbrian; Oscan;Etruscan; the Old Roman Tongue; Saturnian Verse; Peculiarities of theLatin Language. --3. The Roman Religion. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Early Literature of the Romans; the Fescennine Songs;the Fabulae Atellanae. --2. Early Latin Poets; Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Ennius. --3. Roman Comedy. --4. Comic Poets; Plautus, Terence, andStatius. --5. Roman Tragedy. --6. Tragic Poets; Pacuvius and Attius. --7. Satire; Lucilius. --8. History and Oratory; Fabius Pictor; CenciusAlimentus; Cato; Varro; M. Antonius; Crassus; Hortensius. --9. RomanJurisprudence. --10. Grammarians. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. Development of the Roman Literature. --2. Mimes, Mimographers, Pantomime; Laberius and P. Lyrus. --3. Epic Poetry; Virgil;The Aeneid. --4. Didactic Poetry; the Bucolics; the Georgics; Lucretius. --5. Lyric Poetry; Catullus; Horace. --6. Elegy; Tibullus; Propertius; Ovid. --7. Oratory and Philosophy; Cicero. --8. History; J. Caesar; Sallust;Livy. --9. Other Prose Writers. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. Decline of Roman Literature. --2. Fable; Phaedrus. --3. Satire and Epigram; Persius, Juvenal, Martial. --4. Dramatic Literature;the Tragedies of Seneca. --5. Epic Poetry; Lucan; Silius Italicus; ValeriusFlaccus; P. Statius. --6. History; Paterculus; Tacitus; Suetonius; Q. Curtius; Valerius Maximus. --7. Rhetoric and Eloquence; Quintilian; Plinythe Younger. --8. Philosophy and Science; Seneca; Pliny the Elder; Celsus;P. Mela; Columella; Frontinus. --9. Roman Literature from Hadrian toTheodoric; Claudian; Eutropius; A. Marcellinus; S. Sulpicius; Gellius;Macrobius; L. Apuleius; Boethius; the Latin Fathers. --10. RomanJurisprudence. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. ROMAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --Inferior to Greece in the geniusof its inhabitants, and, perhaps, in the intrinsic greatness of the eventsof which it was the theatre, unquestionably inferior in the fruits ofintellectual activity, Italy holds the second place in the classicliterature of antiquity. Etruria could boast of arts, legislation, scientific knowledge, a fanciful mythology, and a form of dramaticspectacle, before the foundations of Rome were laid. But, like the ancientEgyptians, the Etrurians made no progress in composition. Verses of anirregular structure and rude in sense and harmony appear to have formedthe highest limit of their literary achievements. Nor did even the opulentand luxurious Greeks of Southern Italy, while they retained theirindependence, contribute much to the glory of letters in the West. It wasonly in their fall that they did good service to the cause, when theyredeemed the disgrace of their political humiliation by the honor ofcommunicating the first impulse towards intellectual refinement to thebosoms of their conquerors. When, in the process of time, Sicily, Macedonia, and Achaia had become Roman provinces, some acquaintance withthe language of their new subjects proved to be a matter almost ofnecessity to the victorious people; but the first impression made at Romeby the productions of the Grecian Muse, and the first efforts to create asimilar literature, must be traced to the conquest of Tarentum (272 B. C. ). From that memorable period, the versatile talents which distinguished theGreeks in every stage of national decline began to exercise a powerfulinfluence on the Roman mind, which was particularly felt in thedepartments of education and amusement. The instruction of the Roman youthwas committed to the skill and learning of Greek slaves; the spirit of theGreek drama was transferred into the Latin tongue, and, somewhat later, Roman genius and ambition devoted their united energies to the study ofGreek rhetoric, which long continued to be the guide and model of thoseschools, in whose exercises the abilities of Cicero himself were trained. Prejudice and patriotism were powerless to resist this flood of foreigninnovation; and for more than a century after the Tarentine war, legislative influence strove in vain to counteract the predominance ofGreek philosophy and eloquence. But this imitative tendency was temperedby the pride of Roman citizenship. That sentiment breaks out, not merelyin the works of great statesmen and warriors, but quite as strikingly inthe productions of those in whom the literary character was all in all. Itis as prominent in Virgil and Horace as in Cicero and Caesar; and if thelanguage of Rome, in other respects so inferior to that of Greece, has anyadvantage over the sister tongue, it lies in that accent of dignity andcommand which seems inherent in its tones. The austerity of power is notshaded down by those graceful softenings so agreeable to the dispositionof the most polished Grecian communities. In the Latin forms and syntax weare everywhere conscious of a certain energetic majesty and forciblecompression. We hear, as it were, the voice of one who claims to berespected, and resolves to be obeyed. 

The Roman classical literature may be divided into three periods. Thefirst embraces its rise and progress, oral and traditional compositions, the rude elements of the drama, the introduction of Greek literature, andthe construction and perfection of comedy. To this period the first fivecenturies of the republic may be considered as introductory, for Rome had, properly speaking, no literature until the conclusion of the first Punicwar (241 B. C. ), and the first period, commencing at that time, extendsthrough 160 years--that is, to the first appearance of Cicero in publiclife, 74 B. C. 

The second period ends with the death of Augustus, 14 A. D. It comprehendsthe age of which Cicero is the representative as the most accomplishedorator, philosopher, and prose-writer of his time, as well as that ofAugustus, which is commonly called the Golden Age of Latin poetry. 

The third and last period terminates with the death of Theodoric, 526 A. D. Notwithstanding the numerous excellences which distinguished theliterature of this time, its decline had evidently commenced, and, as theage of Augustus has been distinguished by the epithet "golden, " thesucceeding period, to the death of Hadrian, 138 A. D. , on account of itscomparative inferiority, has been designated "the Silver Age. " From thistime to the close of the reign of Theodoric, only a few distinguishednames are to be found. 

2. THE LANGUAGE. --The origin of the Latin language is necessarilyconnected with that of the Romans themselves. In the most distant ages towhich tradition extends, Italy appears to have been inhabited by threestocks or tribes of the great Indo-European family. One of these iscommonly known by the name of Oscans; another consisted of two branches, the Sabelians or Sabines, and the Umbrians; the third was called Sikeli, sometimes Vituli or Itali. 

The original settlements of the Umbrians extended over the districtbounded on one side by the Tiber, and on the other by the Po. All thecountry to the south was in possession of the Oscans, with the exceptionof Latium, which was inhabited by the Sikeli. But, in process of time, theOscans, pressed upon by the Sabines, invaded the abodes of this peacefuland rural people, some of whom submitted, and amalgamated with theirconquerors; the rest were driven across the narrow sea into Sicily, andgave their name to the island. 

These tribes were not left in undisturbed possession of their richinheritance. More than 1000 B. C. There arrived in the northern part ofItaly the Pelasgians (or dark Asiatics), an enterprising race, famed fortheir warlike spirit and their skill in the arts of peace, who became thecivilizers of Italy. They were far advanced in the arts of civilizationand refinement, and in the science of politics and social life. Theyenriched their newly acquired country with commerce, and filled it withstrongly fortified and populous cities, and their dominion rapidly spreadover the whole peninsula. Entering the territory of the Umbrians, theydrove them into the mountainous districts, or compelled them to live amongthem as a subject people, while they possessed themselves of the rich andfertile plains. The headquarters of the invaders was Etruria, and thatportion of them who settled there were known as Etrurians. Marchingsouthward, they vanquished the Oscans and occupied the plains of Latium. They did not, however, remain long at peace in the districts which theyhad conquered. The old inhabitants returned from the neighboring highlandsto which they had been driven, and subjugated the northern part of Latium, and established a federal anion between the towns of the north, of whichAlba was the capital, while of the southern confederacy the chief city wasLavinium. 

At a later period, a Latin tribe, belonging to the Alban federation, established itself on the Mount Palatine, and founded Rome, while a Sabinecommunity occupied the neighboring heights of the Quirinal. Mutualjealousy of race kept them, for some time, separate from each other; butat length the two communities became one people, called the Romans. Thesewere, at an early period, subjected to Etruscan rule, and when theEtruscan dynasty passed away, its influence still remained, andpermanently affected the Roman language. 

The Etruscan tongue being a compound of Pelasgian and Umbrian, thelanguage of Latium may be considered as the result of those two elementscombined with the Oscan, and brought together by the mingling of thosedifferent tribes. These elements, which entered into the formation of theLatin, may be classified under two heads: the one which has, the otherwhich has not a resemblance to the Greek. All Latin words which resemblethe Greek are Pelasgian, and all which do not are Etruscan, Oscan, orUmbrian. From the first of these classes must be excepted those wordswhich are directly derived from the Greek, the origin of which datespartly from the time when Rome began to have intercourse with the Greekcolonies of Magna Graecia, partly after the Greeks exercised a directinfluence on Roman literature. 

Of the ancient languages of Italy, which concurred in the formation of theLatin, little is known. The Eugubine Tables are the only extant fragmentsof the Umbrian language. These were found in the neighborhood of Ugubio, in the year 1414 A. D. ; they date as early as 354 B. C. , and contain prayersand rules for religious ceremonies. Some of these tables were engraved inEtruscan or Umbrian characters, others in Latin letters. The remains whichhave come down to us of the Oscan language belong to a composite idiommade up of the Sabine and Oscan, and consist chiefly of an inscriptionengraved on a brass plate, discovered in 1793 A. D. As the word Bansaeoccurs in this inscription, it has been supposed to refer to the town ofBantia, which was situated not far from the spot where the tablet wasfound, and it is, therefore, called the Bantine Table. The similaritybetween some of the words found in the Eugubine Tables and in Etruscaninscriptions, shows that the Etruscan language was composed of thePelasgian and Umbrian, and from the examples given by ethnographers, it isevident that the Etruscan element was most influential in the formation ofthe Latin language. 

The old Roman tongue, or _lingua prisca_, as it was composed of thesematerials, and as it existed previous to coming in contact with the Greek, has almost entirely perished; it did not grow into the new, like theGreek, by a process of intrinsic development, but it was remoulded byexternal and foreign influences. So different was the old Roman from theclassical Latin, that some of those ancient fragments were with difficultyintelligible to the cleverest and best educated scholars of the Augustanage. 

An example of the oldest Latin extant is contained in the sacred chant ofthe Fratres Arvales. These were a college of priests, whose function wasto offer prayers for plenteous harvests, in solemn dances and processionsat the opening of spring. Their song was chanted in the temple with closeddoors, accompanied by that peculiar dance which was termed the tripudium, from its containing three beats. The inscription which embodied thislitany was discovered in Rome in 1778 A. D. The monument belongs to thereign of Heliogabalus, 218 A. D. , but although the date is so recent, thepermanence of religious formulas renders it probable that the inscriptioncontains the exact words sung by this priesthood in the earliest times. The "Carmen Saliare, " or the Salian hymn, the _leges regiae_, theTiburtine inscription, the inscription on the sarcophagus of L. CorneliusScipio Barbatus, the great-grandfather of the conqueror of Hannibal, theepitaph of Lucius Scipio, his son, and, above all, the Twelve Tables, arethe other principal extant monuments of ancient Latin. The laws of theTwelve Tables were engraven on tablets of brass, and publicly set up inthe comitium; they were first made public 449 B. C. 

Most of these literary monuments were written in Saturnian verse, theoldest measure used by the Latin poets. It was probably derived from theEtruscans, and until Ennius introduced the heroic hexameter, the strainsof the Italian bards flowed in this metre. The structure of the Saturnianis very simple, and its rhythmical arrangement is found in the poetry ofevery age and country. Macaulay adduces, as an example of this measure, the following line from the well-known nursery song, ----

 "The queén was ín her párlor, | eáting breád and hóney. "

From this species of verse, which probably prevailed among the natives ofProvence (the Roman Provincia), and into which, at a later period, rhymewas introduced as an embellishment, the Troubadours derived the metre oftheir ballad poetry, and thence introduced it into the rest of Europe. 

A wide gap separates this old Latin from the Latin of Ennius, whose stylewas formed by Greek taste; another not so wide is interposed between theage of Ennius and that of Plautus and Terence, and lastly, Cicero and theAugustan poets mark another age. But in all its periods of development, the Latin bears a most intimate relation with the Greek. This similarityis the result both of their common origin from the primitive Pelasgian andof the intercourse which the Romans at a later period held with theGreeks. Latin, however, had not the plastic property of the Greek, thefaculty of transforming itself into every variety of form and shapeconceived by the fancy and imagination; it partook of the spirit of Romannationality, of the conscious dignity of the Roman citizen, of theindomitable will that led that people to the conquest of the world. In itsconstruction, instead of conforming to the thought, it bends the thoughtto its own genius. It is a fit language for expressing the thoughts of anactive and practical, but not of an imaginative and speculative people. Itwas propagated, like the dominion of Rome, by conquest. It either took theplace of the language of the conquered nation, or became ingrafted uponit, and gradually pervaded its composition; hence its presence isdiscernible in all European languages. 

3. THE RELIGION. --The religion and mythology of Etruria left an indeliblestamp on the rites and ceremonies of the Roman people. At first theyworshiped heaven and earth, personified in Saturn and Ops, by whom Juno, Vesta, and Ceres were generated, symbolizing marriage, family, andfertility; soon after, other Etruscan divinities were introduced, such asJupiter, Minerva, and Janus; and Sylvanus and Faunus, who delighted in thesimple occupations of rural and pastoral life. From the Etrurians theRomans borrowed, also, the institution of the Vestals, whose duty was towatch and keep alive the sacred fire of Vesta; the Lares and Penates, thedomestic gods, which presided over the dwelling and family; Terminus, thegod of property and the rites connected with possession; and the orders ofAugurs and Aruspices, whose office was to consult the flight of birds orto inspect the entrails of animals offered in sacrifice, in order toascertain future events. The family of the Roman gods continued toincrease by adopting the divinities of the conquered nations, and moreparticularly by the introduction of those of Greece. The general divisionof the gods was twofold, --the superior and inferior deities. The firstclass contained the Consentes and the Selecti; the second, the Indigetesand Semones. The Consentes, so called because they were supposed to formthe great council of heaven, consisted of twelve: Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan, Juno, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, andVesta. The Selecti were nearly equal to them in rank, and consisted ofeight: Saturn, Pluto, Bacchus, Janus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna. TheIndigites were heroes who were ranked among the gods, and includedparticularly Hercules, Castor and Pollux, and Quirinus or Romulus. TheSemones comprehended those deities that presided over particular objects, as Pan, the god of shepherds; Flora, the goddess of flowers, etc. Besidesthese, there were among the inferior gods a numerous class of deities, including the virtues and vices and other objects personified. 

The religion of the Romans was essentially political, and employed as ameans of promoting the designs of the state. It was prosaic in itscharacter, and in this respect differed essentially from the artistic andpoetical religion of the Greeks. The Greeks conceived religion as a freeand joyous worship of nature, a centre of individuality, beauty, andgrace, as well as a source of poetry, art, and independence. With theRomans, on the contrary, religion conveyed a mysterious and hidden idea, which gave to this sentiment a gloomy and unattractive character, withouteither moral or artistic influence. 

PERIOD FIRST. 

FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE FIRST PUNIC WAR TO THE AGE OF CICERO(241-74 B. C. )

1. EARLY LITERATURE OF THE ROMANS. --The Romans, like all other nations, had oral poetical compositions before they possessed any writtenliterature. Cicero speaks of the banquet being enlivened by the songs ofbards, in which the exploits of heroes were recited and celebrated. Bythese lays national pride and family vanity were gratified, and theanecdotes, thus preserved, furnished sources of early legendary history. But these legends must not be compared to those of Greece, in which thereligious sentiment gave a supernatural glory to the effusions of thebard, painted men as heroes and heroes as deities, and, while it was thenatural growth of the Greek intellect, twined itself around the affectionsof the people. The Roman religion was a ceremonial for the priests, andnot for the people, and in Roman tradition there are no traces of elevatedgenius or poetical inspiration. The Romans possessed the germs of thosefaculties which admit of cultivation and improvement, such as taste andgenius, and the appreciation of the beautiful; but they did not possessthose natural gifts of fancy and imagination which formed part of theGreek mind, and which made that nation in a state of infancy, almost ofbarbarism, a poetical people. With them literature was not of spontaneousgrowth; it was chiefly the result of the influence exerted by theEtruscans, who were their teachers in everything mental and spiritual. 

The tendency of the Roman mind was essentially utilitarian. Even Cicero, with all his varied accomplishments, will recognize but one end and objectof all study, namely, those sciences which will render man useful to hiscountry, and the law of literary development is modified according to thisruling principle. From the very beginning, the first cause of Romanliterature will be found to have been a view to utility and not to thesatisfaction of an impulsive feeling. 

In other nations, poetry has been the first spontaneous production. Withthe Romans, the first written literary effort was history; but even theirearly history was a simple record of facts, not of ideas or sentiments, and valuable only for its truth and accuracy. Their original documents, mere records of memorable events anterior to the capture of Rome by theGauls, perished in the conflagration of the city. 

The earliest attempt at versification made by the rude inhabitants ofLatium was satire in a somewhat dramatic form. The Fescennine songs weremetrical, for the accompaniments of music and dancing necessarilyrestricted them to measure, and, like the dramatic exhibitions of theGreeks, they had their origin among the rural population, not like them inany religious ceremonial, but in the pastimes of the village festival. Atfirst they were innocent and gay, but liberty at length degenerated intolicense, and gave birth to malicious and libelous attacks upon persons ofirreproachable character. This infancy of song illustrates the characterof the Romans in its rudest and coarsest form. They loved strife, bothbodily and mental, and they thus early displayed that taste which, in morepolished ages, and in the hands of cultivated poets, was developed in thesharp, cutting wit, and the lively but piercing points of Roman satire. 

In the Fescennine songs the Etruscans probably furnished the spectacle, all that which addresses itself to the eye, while the habits of Italianrural life supplied the sarcastic humor and ready extemporaneous gibe, which are the essence of the true comic. The next advance in point of artmust be attributed to the Oscans, whose entertainments were most popularamong the Italian nations. They represented in broad caricature nationalpeculiarities. Their language was, originally, Oscan, as well as thecharacters represented. The principal one resembled the clown of modernpantomime; another was a kind of pantaloon or charlatan, and much of therest consisted of practical jokes, like that of the Italian Polincinella. After their introduction at Rome, they received many improvements; theylost their native rusticity; their satire was good-natured; their jestswere seemly, and kept in check by the laws of good taste. They were notacted by common professional performers, and even a Roman citizen mighttake part in them without disgrace. They were known by the name of"Fabulae Atellanae, " from Attela, a town in Campania, where they werefirst performed. They remained in favor with the Roman people forcenturies. Sylla amused his leisure hours in writing them, and Suetoniusbears testimony to their having been a popular amusement under the empire. 

Towards the close of the fourth century, the Etruscan _histriones_ wereintroduced, whose entertainments consisted of graceful national dances, accompanied with the music of the flute, but without either songs ordramatic action. With these dances the Romans combined the old Fescenninesongs, and the varied metres, which their verse permitted to the vocalparts, gave to this mixed entertainment the name of Satura (a hodge-podgeor potpourri), from which, in after times, the word satire was derived. 

2. EARLY LATIN POETS. --At the conclusion, of the first Punic war, when theinfluence of Greek intellect, which had already long been felt in Italy, had extended to the capital, the Romans were prepared for the reception ofa more regular drama. But not only did they owe to Greece the principlesof literary taste; their earliest poet was one of that nation. LiviusAndronicus (fl. 240 B. C. ), though born in Italy, and educated at Rome, issupposed to have been a native of the Greek colony of Tarentum. He was atfirst a slave, probably a captive taken in war, but was finallyemancipated by his master, in whose family he occupied the position ofinstructor to his children. He wrote a translation, or perhaps animitation of the Odyssey, in the old Saturnian metre, and also a fewhymns. His principal works, however, were tragedies; but, from the fewfragments of his writings extant, it is impossible to form an estimate ofhis ability as a poet. According to Livy, Andronicus was the first whosubstituted, for the rude extemporaneous effusions of the Fescennineverse, plays with a regular plot and fable. In consequence of losing hisvoice, from being frequently encored, he obtained permission to introducea boy to sing the ode or air to the accompaniment of the flute, while hehimself represented the action of the song by his gestures and dancing. 

Naevius (fl. 235 B. C. ) was the first poet who really deserves the name ofRoman. He was not a servile imitator, but applied Greek taste andcultivation to the development of Roman sentiments, and was a true Romanin heart, unsparing in his censure of immorality and his admiration forheroic self-devotion. His honest principles cemented the strong friendshipbetween him and the upright and unbending Cato, a friendship whichprobably contributed to form the political and literary character of thatstern old Roman. The comedies of Naevius had undoubted pretensions tooriginality; he held up to public scorn the vices and follies of his day, and, being a warm supporter of the people against the encroachments of thenobility, and unable to resist indulgence in his satiric vein, he wasexiled to Utica, where he died. He was the author of an epic poem on thePunic war. Ennius and Virgil unscrupulously copied and imitated him, andHorace writes that in his day the poems of Naevius were in the hands andhearts of everybody. The fragments of his writings extant are not morenumerous than those of Livius. 

Naevius, the last of the older school of writers, by introducing newprinciples of taste to his countrymen, altered their standards; and Greekliterature having now driven out its predecessor, a new school of poetryarose, of which Ennius (239-169 B. C. ) was the founder. He earned asubsistence as a teacher of Greek, was the friend of Scipio, and, at hisdeath, was buried in the family tomb of the Scipio, at the request of thegreat conqueror of Hannibal, whose fame he contributed to hand down toposterity. Cicero always uses the appellation, "our own Ennius, " when hequotes his poetry. Horace calls him "Father Ennius, " a term which impliesreverence and regard, and that he was the founder of Latin poetry. He was, like his friends Cato the censor, and Scipio Africanus the elder, a man ofaction as well as philosophical thought, and not only a poet, but a bravesoldier, with all the singleness of heart and simplicity of manners whichmarked the old times of Roman virtue. Ennius possessed great power overwords, and wielded that power skillfully. He improved the language in itsharmony and its grammatical forms, and increased its copiousness andpower. What he did was improved upon, but was never undone; and upon thefoundations he laid, the taste of succeeding ages erected an elegant andbeautiful superstructure. His great epic poem, the "Annals, " gained himthe attachment and admiration of his countrymen. In this he firstintroduced the hexameter to the notice of the Romans, and detailed therise and progress of their national glory, from the earliest legendaryperiod down to his own times. The fragments of this work which remain areamply sufficient to show that he possessed picturesque power, both insketching his narratives and in portraying his characters, which seem tolive and breathe; his language, dignified, chaste, and severe, rises ashigh as the most majestic eloquence, but it does not soar to the sublimityof poetry. As a dramatic poet, Ennius does not deserve a high reputation. In comedy, as in tragedy, he never emancipated himself from the Greekoriginals. 

3. ROMAN COMEDY. --The rude comedy of the early Romans made little progressbeyond personal satire, burlesque extravagance and licentious jesting, butupon this was ingrafted the new Greek comedy, and hence arose that phaseof the drama, of which the representatives were Plautus, Statius, andTerence. The Roman comedy was calculated to produce a moral result, although the morality it inculcated was extremely low. Its standard wasworldly prudence, its lessons utilitarian, and its philosophy Epicurean. There is a want of variety in the plots, but this defect is owing to thesocial and political condition of ancient Greece, which was represented inthe Greek comedies and copied by the Romans. There is also a sameness inthe _dramatis personae_, the principal characters being always a morose ora gentle father, who is sometimes also the henpecked husband of a richwife, an affectionate or domineering wife, a good-natured profligate, aroguish servant, a calculating slave-dealer and some others. 

The actors wore appropriate masks, the features of which were not onlygrotesque, but much exaggerated and magnified. This was rendered necessaryby the immense size of the theatre and stage, and the mouth of the maskanswered the purpose of a speaking trumpet, to assist in conveying thevoice to every part of the vast building. The characters were known by aconventional costume; old men wore robes of white, young men were attiredin gay clothes, rich men in purple, soldiers in scarlet, poor men andslaves in dark and scanty dresses. The comedy had always a musicalaccompaniment of flutes of different kinds. 

In order to understand the principles which regulated the Roman comicmetres, it is necessary to observe the manner in which the language itselfwas affected by the common conversational pronunciation. Latin, as it waspronounced, was very different from Latin as it is written; thisdifference consisted in abbreviation, either by the omission of soundsaltogether, or by the contraction of two sounds into one, and in thisrespect the conversational language of the Romans resembled that of modernnations; with them, as with us, the mark of good taste was ease and theabsence of pedantry and affectation. In the comic writers we have acomplete representation of Latin as it was commonly pronounced and spoken, and but little trammeled or confined by a rigid adhesion to Greek metricallaws. 

4. COMIC POETS. --Plautus (227-184 B. C. ) was a contemporary of Ennius; hewas a native of Umbria, and of humble origin. Education did not overcomehis vulgarity, although it produced a great effect upon his language andstyle. He must have lived and associated with the people whose manners hedescribes, hence his pictures are correct and truthful. The class fromwhich his representations are taken consisted of clients, the sons offreedmen and the half-enfranchised natives of Italian towns. He had noaristocratic friends, like Ennius and Terence; the Roman public were hispatrons, and notwithstanding their faults, his comedies retained theirpopularity even in the Augustan age, and were acted as late as the reignof Diocletian. Life, bustle, surprise, unexpected situations, sharp, sparkling raillery that knew no restraint nor bound, left his audience notime for dullness or weariness. Although Greek was the fountain from whichhe drew his stores, his wit, thought, and language were entirely Roman, and his style was Latin of the purest and most elegant kind--not, indeed, controlled by much deference to the laws of metrical harmony, but full ofpith and sprightliness, bearing the stamp of colloquial vivacity, andsuitable to the general briskness of his scenes. Yet in the tone of hisdialogue we miss all symptoms of deference to the taste of the morepolished classes of society. Almost all his comedies were adopted from thenew comedy of the Greeks, and though he had studied both the old and themiddle comedy, Menander and others of the same school furnished him theoriginals of his plots. The popularity of Plautus was not confined toRome, either republican or imperial. Dramatic writers of modern times, asShakspeare, Dryden, and Molière, have recognized the effectiveness of hisplots, and have adopted or imitated them. About twenty of his plays areextant, among which the Captivi, the Epidicus, the Cistellaria, theAulularia, and the Rudens are considered the best. 

Terence (193-158 B. C. ) was a slave in the family of a Roman senator, andwas probably a native of Carthage. His genius presented the rarecombination of all the fine and delicate qualities which characterizedAttic sentiment, without corrupting the native purity of the Latinlanguage. The elegance and gracefulness of his style show that theconversation of the accomplished society, in which he was a welcome guest, was not lost upon his correct ear and quick intuition. So far as it can beso, comedy was, in the hands of Terence, an instrument of moral teaching. Six of his comedies only remain, of which the Andrian and the Adelphi arethe most interesting. If Terence was inferior to Plautus in life, bustle, and intrigue, and in the delineation of national character, he is superiorin elegance of language and refinement of taste. The justness of hisreflections more than compensates for the absence of his predecessor'shumor; he touches the heart as well as gratifies the intellect. 

Of the few other writers of comedy among the Romans, Statius may bementioned, who flourished between Plautus and Terence. He was anemancipated slave, born in Milan. Cicero and Varro have pronouncedjudgment upon his merits, the substance of which appears to be, that hisexcellences consisted in the conduct of the plot, in dignity, and inpathos, while his fault was too little care in preserving the purity ofthe Latin style. The fragments, however, of his works, which remain arenot sufficient to test the opinion of the ancient critics. 

5. ROMAN TRAGEDY. --While Roman comedy was brought to perfection under theinfluence of Greek literature, Roman tragedy, on the other hand, wastransplanted from Athens, and, with few exceptions, was never anythingmore than translation or imitation. In the century during which, togetherwith comedy, it flourished and decayed, it boasted of five distinguishedwriters, Livius, Naevius, Ennius (already spoken of), Pacuvius, andAttius. In after ages, Rome did not produce one tragic poet, unless Variusbe considered an exception. The tragedies attributed to Seneca were neveracted, and were only composed for reading and recitation. 

Among the causes which prevented tragedy from flourishing at Rome was thelittle influence the national legends exerted over the people. Theselegends were more often private than public property, and ministered moreto the glory of private families than to that of the nation at large. Theywere embalmed by their poets as curious records of antiquity, but they didnot, like the venerable traditions of Greece, twine themselves around theheart of the nation. Another reason why Roman legends had not the power tomove the affections of the Roman populace is to be found in the changesthe masses had undergone. The Roman people were no longer the descendantsof those who had maintained the national glory in the early period; thepatrician families were almost extinct; war and poverty had extinguishedthe middle classes and miserably thinned the lower orders. Into thevacancy thus caused, poured thousands of slaves, captives in the bloodywars of Gaul, Spain, Greece, and Africa. These and their descendantsreplaced the ancient people, and while many of them by their talents andenergy arrived at wealth and station, they could not possibly be Romans atheart, or consider the past glories of their adopted country as their own. It was to the rise of this new element of population, and the displacementor absorption of the old race, that the decline of patriotism was owing, and the disregard of everything except daily sustenance and dailyamusement, which paved the way for the empire and marked the downfall ofliberty. With the people of Athens, tragedy formed a part of the nationalreligion. By it the people were taught to sympathize with their heroicancestors; the poet was held to be inspired, and poetry the tongue inwhich the natural held communion with the supernatural. With the Romans, the theatre was merely a place for secular amusement, and poetry only anexercise of the fancy. Again, the religion of the Romans was not ideal, like that of the Greeks. The old national faith of Italy, not being rootedin the heart, soon became obsolete, and readily admitted the ingrafting offoreign superstitions, which had no hold on the belief or love of thepeople. Nor was the genius of the Roman people such as to sympathize withthe legends of the past; they lived only in the present and the future;they did not look back on their national heroes as demigods; they werepressing forward to extend the frontiers of their empire, to bring undertheir yoke nations which their forefathers had not known. If they regardedtheir ancestors at all, it was not in the light of men of heroic statureas compared with themselves, but as those whom they could equal or evensurpass. 

The scenes of real life, the bloody combats of the gladiators, thecaptives, and malefactors stretched on crosses, expiring in excruciatingagonies or mangled by wild beasts, were the tragedies which most deeplyinterested a Roman audience. 

The Romans were a rough people, full of physical rather than ofintellectual energy, courting peril and setting no value on human life orsuffering. Their very virtues were stern and severe; they were strangersto both the passions which it was the object of tragedy to excite--pityand terror. In the public games of Greece, the refinements of poetrymingled with those exercises which were calculated to invigorate thephysical powers, and develop manly beauty. Those of Rome were sanguinaryand brutalizing, the amusements of a nation to whom war was a pleasure anda pastime. 

It cannot be asserted, however, that tragedy was never to a certain extentan acceptable entertainment at Rome, but only that it never flourishedthere as it did at Athens, and that no Roman tragedies can be comparedwith those of Greece. 

6. TRAGIC POETS. --Three separate eras produced tragic poets. In the firstflourished Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Ennius; in the second, Pacuviusand Attius; in the third, Asinius Pollio wrote tragedies, the plots ofwhich seem to have been taken from Roman history. Ovid attempted a"Medea, " and even the Emperor Augustus, with other men of genius, triedhis hand, though unsuccessfully, at tragedy. 

In the second of the eras mentioned, Roman tragedy reached its highestdegree of perfection simultaneously with that of comedy. While Terence wassuccessfully reproducing the wit and manners of the new Attic comedy, Pacuvius (220-130 B. C. ) was enriching the Roman drama with freetranslations of the Greek tragedians. He was a native of Brundusium and agrandson of the poet Ennius. At Rome he distinguished himself as a painteras well as a dramatic poet. His tragedies were not mere translations, butadaptations of Greek tragedies to the Roman stage. The fragments which areextant are full of new and original thoughts, and the very roughness ofhis style and audacity of his expressions have somewhat of the solemngrandeur and picturesque boldness which distinguish the father of Attictragedy. 

Attius (fl. 138 B. C. ), though born later than Pacuvius, was almost hiscontemporary, and a competitor for popular applause. He is said to havewritten more than fifty tragedies, of which fragments only remain. Histaste is chastened, his sentiments noble, and his versification elegant. With him, Latin tragedy disappeared. The tragedies of the third periodwere written expressly for reading and recitation, and not for the stage:they were dramatic poems, not dramas. Amidst the scenes of horror andviolence which followed, the voice of the tragic muse was hushed. Massacreand rapine raged through the streets of Rome, itself a theatre where themost terrible scenes were daily enacted. 

7. SATIRE. --The invention of satire is universally attributed to theRomans, and this is true as far as the external form is concerned, but thespirit is found in many parts of the literature of Greece. Ennius was theinventor of the name, but Lucilius (148-102 B. C. ) was the father ofsatire, in the proper sense. His satires mark an era in Roman literature, and prove that a love for this species of poetry had already made greatprogress. Hitherto, literature, science, and art had been considered theprovince of slaves and freedmen. The stern old Roman virtue despised suchsedentary employment as intellectual cultivation, and thought it unworthyof the warrior and statesman. Some of the higher classes loved literatureand patronized it, but did not make it their pursuit. Lucilius was a Romanknight, as well as a poet. His satires were comprised in thirty books, numerous fragments of which are still extant. He was a man of high moralprinciple, though stern and stoical; a relentless enemy of vice andprofligacy, and a gallant and fearless defender of truth and honesty. After the death of Lucilius satire languished, until half a century later, when it assumed a new garb in the descriptive scenes of Horace, and putforth its original vigor in the burning thoughts of Persius and Juvenal. 

8. HISTORY AND ORATORY. --Prose was far more in accordance with the geniusof the Romans than poetry. As a nation, they had little or no imaginativepower, no enthusiastic love of natural beauty, and no acute perception ofthe sympathy between man and the external world. The favorite civilpursuit of an enlightened Roman was statesmanship, and the subjects akinto it, history, jurisprudence, and oratory, the natural language of whichwas prose, not poetry. And their practical statesmanship gave an earlyencouragement to oratory, which is peculiarly the literature of activelife. As matter was more valued than manner by this utilitarian people, itwas long before it was thought necessary to embellish prose compositionwith the graces of rhetoric. The fact that Roman literature was imitativerather than inventive, gave a historical bias to the Roman intellect, anda tendency to study subjects from an historical point of view. But even inhistory, they never attained that comprehensive and philosophical spiritwhich distinguished the Greek historians. 

The most ancient writer of Roman history was Fabius Pictor (fl. 219 B. C. ). His principal work, written in Greek, was a history of the first andsecond Punic war, to which subsequent writers were much indebted. Contemporary with Fabius was Cincius Alimentus, also an annalist of thePunic war, in which he was personally engaged. He was a prisoner ofHannibal, who delighted in the society of literary men, and treated himwith great kindness and consideration, and himself communicated to him thedetails of his passage across the Alps. Like Fabius, he wrote his work inGreek, and prefixed to it a brief abstract of Roman history. Though theworks of these annalists are valuable as furnishing materials for morephilosophical minds, they are such as could have existed only in theinfancy of a national literature. They were a bare compilation of facts--the mere framework of history--diversified by no critical remarks orpolitical reflections, and meagre and insipid in style. 

The versatility of talent displayed by Cato the censor (224-144 B. C. )entitles him to a place among orators, jurists, economists, andhistorians. His life extends over a wide and important period of literaryhistory, when everything was in a state of change, --morals, social habits, and literary taste. Cato was born in Tusculum, and passed his boyhood inthe pursuits of rural life at a small Sabine farm belonging to his father. The skill with which he pleaded the causes of his clients before the ruralmagistracy made his abilities known, and he rose rapidly to eminence as apleader. He filled many high offices of state. His energies were notweakened by advancing age, and he was always ready as the advocate ofvirtue, the champion of the oppressed, and the punisher of vice. With manydefects, Cato was morally and intellectually one of the greatest men Romeever produced. He had the ability and the determination to excel ineverything which he undertook. His style is rude, unpolished, ungraceful, because to him polish was superficial, and, therefore, unreal. Hisstatements, however, were clear, his illustrations striking; the wordswith which he enriched his native tongue were full of meaning; his wit waskeen and lively, and his arguments went straight to the intellect, andcarried conviction with them. 

Cato's great historical and antiquarian work, "The Origins, " was a historyof Italy and Rome from the earliest times to the latest events whichoccurred in his own lifetime. It was a work of great research andoriginality, but only brief fragments of it remain. In the "De ReRustica, " which has come down to us in form and substance as it waswritten, Cato maintains, in the introduction, the superiority ofagriculture over other modes of gaining a livelihood. The work itself is acommonplace book of agriculture and domestic economy; its object isutility, not science: it serves the purpose of a farmer's and gardener'smanual, a domestic medicine, herbal, and cookery book. Cato teaches hisreaders, for example, how to plant osier beds, to cultivate vegetables, topreserve the health of cattle, to pickle pork, and to make savory dishes. 

Of the "Orations" of Cato, ninety titles are extant, together withnumerous fragments. In style he despised art. He was too fearless andupright, too confident in the justness of his cause to be a rhetorician;he imitated no one, and no one was ever able to imitate him. Niebuhrpronounces him to be the only great man in his generation, and one of thegreatest and most honorable characters in Roman history. 

Varro (116-28 B. C. ) was an agriculturist, a grammarian, a critic, atheologian, a historian, a philosopher, a satirist. Of his miscellaneousworks considerable portions are extant, sufficient to display hiserudition and acuteness, yet, in themselves, more curious than attractive. 

Eloquence, though of a rude, unpolished kind, must have been, in the veryearliest times, a characteristic of the Roman people. It is a plantindigenous to a free soil. As in modern times it has flourished especiallyin England and America, fostered by the unfettered freedom of debate, soit found a congenial home in free Greece and republican Rome. Oratory was, in Rome, the unwritten literature of active life, and recommended itselfto a warlike and utilitarian people by its utility and its antagonisticspirit. Long before the art of the historian was sufficiently advanced torecord a speech, the forum, the senate, the battlefield, and the thresholdof the jurisconsult had been nurseries of Roman eloquence, or schools inwhich oratory attained a vigorous youth, and prepared for its subsequentmaturity. 

While the legal and political constitution of the Roman people gave directencouragement to deliberative and judicial oratory, respect for theillustrious dead furnished opportunities for panegyric. The song of thebard in honor of the departed warrior gave place to the funeral oration. Among the orators of this time were the two Scipios, and Galba, whomCicero praises as having been the first Roman who understood how to applythe theoretical principles of Greek rhetoric. 

All periods of political disquiet are necessarily favorable to eloquence, and the era of the Gracchi was especially so. After a struggle of nearlyfour centuries the old distinction of plebeian and patrician no longerexisted. Plebeians held high offices, and patricians, like the Gracchi, stood forward as champions of popular rights. These stirring timesproduced many celebrated orators. The Gracchi themselves were botheloquent and possessed of those qualities and endowments which wouldrecommend their eloquence to their countrymen. Oratory began now to bestudied more as an art, and the interval between the Gracchi and Ciceroboasted of many distinguished names; the most illustrious among them areM. Antonius, Crassus, and Cicero's contemporary and most formidable rival, Hortensius. 

M. Antonius (fl. 119 B. C. ) entered public life as a pleader, and thus laidthe foundation of his brilliant career; but he was through life greater asa judicial than as a deliberative orator. He was indefatigable inpreparing his case, and made every point tell. He was a great master ofthe pathetic, and knew the way to the heart. Although he did not himselfgive his speeches to posterity, some of his most pointed expressions andfavorite passages left an indelible impression on the memories of hishearers, and many of them were preserved by Cicero. In the prime of lifehe fell a victim to political fury, and his bleeding head was placed uponthe rostrum, which was so frequently the scene of his eloquent triumphs. 

L. Licinius Crassus was four years younger than Antonius, and acquiredgreat reputation for his knowledge of jurisprudence, for his eminence as apleader, and, above all, for his powerful and triumphant orations insupport of the restoration of the judicial office to the senators. Fromamong the crowd of orators, who were then flourishing in the last days ofexpiring Roman liberty, Cicero selected Crassus to be the representativeof his sentiments in his imaginary conversation in "The Orator. " Like LordChatham, Crassus almost died on the floor of the Senate house, and hislast effort was in support of the aristocratic party. 

Q. Hortensius was born 114 B. C. He was only eight years senior to thegreatest of all Roman orators. He early commenced his career as a pleader, and he was the acknowledged leader of the Roman bar, until the star ofCicero arose. His political connection with the faction of Sylla, and hisunscrupulous support of the profligate corruption which characterized thatadministration, both at home and abroad, enlisted his legal talents indefense of the infamous Verres; but the eloquence of Cicero, together withthe justice of the cause which he espoused, prevailed; and from that timeforward his superiority over Hortensius was established and complete. Thestyle of Hortensius was Asiatic--more florid and ornate than polished andrefined. 

9. ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE. --The framework of their jurisprudence the Romansderived from Athens, but the complete structure was built up by their ownhands. They were the authors of a system possessing such stability thatthey bequeathed it, as an inheritance, to modern Europe, and traces ofRoman law are visible in the legal systems of the whole civilized world. 

The complicated principles of jurisprudence of the Roman constitutionbecame, in Rome, a necessary part of a liberal education. When a Romanyouth had completed his studies, under his teacher of rhetoric, he notonly frequented the forum, in order to learn the application of therhetorical principles he had acquired, and frequently took some celebratedorator as a model, but also studied the principles of jurisprudence undereminent jurists, and attended the consultations in which they gave totheir clients their expositions of law. 

The earliest systematic works on Roman law were the "Manual" of Pomponius, and the "Institutes" of Gaius, who flourished in the time of Hadrian andthe Antonines. Both of these works were, for a long time, lost, thoughfragments were preserved in the pandects of Justinian. In 1816, however, Niebuhr discovered a palimpsest MS. , in which the epistles of St. Jeromewere written over the erased "Institutes" of Gaius. From the numerousmisunderstandings of the Roman historians respecting the laws andconstitutional history of their country, the subject continued long in astate of confusion, until Vico, in his "Scienza nuova, " dispelled theclouds of error, and reduced it to a system; and he was followed sosuccessfully by Niebuhr, that modern students can have a morecomprehensive and antiquarian knowledge of the subject than the writers ofthe Augustan age. 

The earliest Roman laws were the "Leges Regiae, " which were collected andcodified by Sextus Papirius, and were hence called the Papirian code; butthese were rude and unconnected--simply a collection of isolatedenactments. The laws of the "Twelve Tables" stand next in point ofantiquity. They exhibited the first attempt at regular system, andembodied not only legislative enactments, but legal principles. So popularwere they that when Cicero was a child every Roman boy committed them tomemory, as our children do their catechism, and the great orator lamentsthat in the course of his lifetime this practice had become obsolete. 

The oral traditional expositions of these laws formed the groundwork ofthe Roman civil law. To these were added, from time to time, the decreesof the people, the acts of the senate, and praetorian edicts, and fromthese various elements the whole body of Roman law was composed. So earlywas the subject diligently studied, that the age preceding the first twocenturies of our era was rich in jurists whose powers are celebrated inhistory. 

The most eminent jurists who adorned this period were the Scaevolae, afamily in whom the profession seems to have been hereditary. After themflourished Aelius Gallus (123-67 B. C. ), eminent as a law reformer, C. Juventius, Sextus Papirius, and L. Lucilius Balbus, three distinguishedjurists, who were a few years senior to Cicero. 

10. GRAMMARIANS. --Towards the conclusion of this literary period a greatincrease took place in the numbers of those learned men whom the Romans atfirst termed _literati_, but afterwards, following the custom of theGreeks, grammarians. To them literature was under great obligations. Although few of them were authors, and all of them possessed acquiredlearning rather than original genius, they exercised a powerful influenceover the public mind as professors, lecturers, critics, and schoolmasters. By them the youths of the best families not only were imbued with a tastefor Greek philosophy and poetry, but were also taught to appreciate theliterature of their own country. Livius Andronicus and Ennius may beplaced at the head of this class, followed by Crates Mallotes, C. OctaviusLampadio, Laelius, Archelaus, and others, most of whom were emancipatedslaves, either from Greece or from other foreign countries. 

PERIOD SECOND. 

FROM THE AGE OF CICERO TO THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS (74 B. C. -14 A. D. )

1. DEVELOPMENT OF THE ROMAN LITERATURE. --Latin literature, at first rude, and, for five centuries, unable to reach any high excellence, was, as wehave seen, gradually developed by the example and tendency of the Greekmind, which moulded Roman civilization anew. The earliest Latin poets, historians, and grammarians were Greeks. The metre which was brought tosuch perfection by the Latin poets was formed from the Greek, and theLatin language more and more assimilated to the Hellenic tongue. 

As civilization advanced, the rude literature of Rome was compared withthe great monuments of Greek genius, their superiority was acknowledged, and the study of them encouraged. The Roman youth not only attended theschools of the Greeks, in Rome, but their education was consideredincomplete, unless they repaired to those of Athens, Rhodes, and Mytilene. Thus, whatever of national character existed in the literature wasgradually obliterated, and what it gained in harmony and finish it lost inoriginality. The Roman writers imitated more particularly the writers ofthe Alexandrian school, who, being more artificial, were more congenialthan the great writers of the age of Pericles. 

Roman genius, serious, majestic, and perhaps more original than at a laterperiod, was manifest even at the time of the Punic wars, but it had notyet taken form; and while thought was vigorous and powerful, expressionremained weak and uncertain. But, under the Greek influence, and aided bythe vigor imparted by free institutions, the union of thought and form wasat length consummated, and the literature reached its culminating point inthe great Roman orator. The fruits which had grown and matured in thecenturies preceding were gathered by Augustus; but the influences thatcontributed to the splendor of his age belong rather to the republic thanthe empire, and with the fall of the liberties of Rome, Roman literaturedeclined. 

2. MIMES, MIMOGRAPHERS, AND PANTOMIME. --Amidst all the splendor of theLatin literature of this period, dramatic poetry never recovered from thetrance into which it had fallen, though the stage had not altogether lostits popularity. Aesopus and Roscius, the former the great tragic actor, and the latter the favorite comedian, in the time of Cicero, enjoyed hisfriendship and that of other great men, and both amassed large fortunes. But although the standard Roman plays were constantly represented, dramatic literature had become extinct. The entertainments, which had nowtaken the place of comedy and tragedy, were termed _mimes_. These werelaughable imitations of manners and persons, combining the features ofcomedy and farce, for comedy represents the characters of a class, farcethose of individuals. Their essence was that of the modern pantomime, andtheir coarseness, and even indecency, gratified the love of broad humorwhich characterized the Roman people. After a time, when they becameestablished as popular favorites, the dialogue occupied a more prominentposition, and was written in verse, like that of tragedy and comedy. During the dictatorship of Caesar, a Roman knight named Laberius (107-45B. C. ) became famous for his mimes. The profession of an actor of mimes wasinfamous, but Laberius was a writer, not an actor. On one occasion, Caesaroffered him a large sum of money to enter the lists in a trial of hisimprovisatorial skill. Laberius did not submit to the degradation for thesake of the money, but he was afraid to refuse. The only method ofretaliation in his power was sarcasm. His part was that of a slave; andwhen his master scourged him, he exclaimed: "Porro, Quirites, libertatemperdimus!" His words were received with a round of applause, and all eyeswere fixed on Caesar. The dictator restored him to the rank of which hisact had deprived him, but he could never recover the respect of hiscountrymen. As he passed the orchestra, on his way to the stalls of theknights, Cicero cried out: "If we were not so crowded, I would make roomfor you here. " Laberius replied, alluding to Cicero's lukewarmness as apolitical partisan: "I am astonished that you should be crowded, as yougenerally sit on two stools. "

Another writer and actor of mimes was Publius Syrus, originally a Syrianslave. Tradition has recorded a _bon mot_ of his which is as witty as itis severe. Seeing an ill-tempered man named Mucius in low spirits, heexclaimed: "Either some ill fortune has happened to Mucius, or some goodfortune to one of his friends!"

The Roman pantomime differed somewhat from the mime. It was a ballet ofaction, performed by a single dancer, who not only exhibited the humanfigure in its most graceful attitudes, but represented every passion andemotion with such truth that the spectators could, without difficulty, understand the story. The pantomime was licentious in its character, andthe actors were forbidden by Tiberius to hold any intercourse with Romansof equestrian or senatorial dignity. 

These were the exhibitions which threw such discredit on the stage, whichcalled forth the well-deserved attacks of the early Christian fathers, andcaused them to declare that whoever attended them was unworthy of the nameof Christian. Had the drama not been so abused, had it retained itsoriginal purity, and carried out the object attributed to it by Aristotle, they would have seen it, not a nursery of vice, but a school of virtue;not only an innocent amusement, but a powerful engine to form the taste, to improve the morals, and to purify the feelings of a people. 

3. EPIC POETRY. --The epic poets of this period selected their subjectseither from the heroic age and the mythology of Greece, or from their ownnational history. The Augustan age abounds in representatives of these twopoetical schools, though possessing little merit. But the Romans, essentially practical and positive in their character, felt littleinterest in the descriptions of manners and events remote from theirassociations, and poetry, restrained within the limits of their history, could not rise to that height of imagination demanded by the epic muse. Virgil united the two forms by selecting his subject from the nationalhistory, and adorning the ancient traditions of Rome with the splendor ofGreek imagination. 

Virgil (70-19 B. C. ) was born at Andes, near Mantua; he was educated atCremona and at Naples, where he studied Greek literature and philosophy. After this he came to Rome, where, through Maecenas, he became known toOctavius, and basked in the sunshine of court favor. His favoriteresidence was Naples. On his return from Athens, in company with Augustus, he was seized with an illness of which he died. He was buried about a milefrom Naples, on the road to Pozzuoli; and a tomb is still pointed out tothe traveler which is said to be that of the poet. Virgil was deservedlypopular both as a poet and as a man. The emperor esteemed him and peoplerespected him; he was constitutionally pensive and melancholy, temperate, and pure-minded in a profligate age, and his popularity never spoiled hissimplicity and modesty. In his last moments he was anxious to burn thewhole manuscript of the Aeneid, and directed his executors either toimprove it or commit it to the flames. 

The idea and plan of the Aeneid are derived from Homer. As the wrath ofAchilles is the mainspring of the Iliad, so the unity of the Aeneidresults from the anger of Juno. The arrival of Aeneas in Italy after thedestruction of Troy, the obstacles that opposed him through theintervention of Juno, and the adventures and the victories of the heroform the subject of the poem. Leaving Sicily for Latium, Aeneas is drivenon the coast of Africa by a tempest raised against him by Juno; atCarthage he is welcomed by the queen, Dido, to whom he relates his pastadventures and sufferings. By his narrative he wins her love, but at thecommand of Jupiter abandons her. Unable to retain him, Dido, in thedespair of her passion, destroys herself. After passing through manydangers, under the guidance of the Sibyl of Cumae, he descends into thekingdom of the dead to consult the shade of his father. There appear tohim the souls of the future heroes of Rome. On his return, he becomes afriend of the king of Latium, who promises to him the hand of hisdaughter, which is eagerly sought by King Turnus. A fearful war ensuesbetween the rival lovers, which ends in the victory of Aeneas. 

Though the poem of Virgil is in many passages an imitation from the Iliadand the Odyssey, the Roman element predominates in it, and the Aeneid isthe true national poem of Rome. There was no subject more adapted toflatter the vanity of the Romans, than the splendor and antiquity of theirorigin. Augustus is evidently typified under the character of Aeneas;Cleopatra is boldly sketched as Dido; and Turnus as the popular Antony. The love and death of Dido, the passionate victim of an unrequited love, give occasion to the poet to sing the victories of his countrymen overtheir Carthaginian rivals; the Pythagorean metempsychosis, which he adoptsin the description of Elysium, affords an opportunity to exalt the heroesof Rome; and the wars of Aeneas allow him to describe the localities andthe manners of ancient Latium with such truthfulness as to give to hisverses the authority of historical quotations. In style, the Aeneid is amodel of purity and elegance, and for the variety and the harmony of itsincidents, for the power of its descriptions, and for the interest of itsplot and episodes, second only to the Iliad. It has been observed thatVirgil's descriptions are more like landscape painting than those of anyof his predecessors, whether Greek or Roman, and it is a remarkable fact, that landscape painting was first introduced in his time. 

4. DIDACTIC POETRY. --The poems, which first established the reputation ofVirgil as a poet, belong to didactic poetry. They are his Bucolics andGeorgics. The Bucolics are pastoral idyls; the characters are Italian inall their sentiments and feelings, acting, however, the unreal and assumedpart of Greek shepherds. The Italians never possessed the elements ofpastoral life, and could not furnish the poet with originals and modelsfrom which to draw his portraits. When represented as Virgil representsthem in his Bucolics, they are in masquerade, and the drama in which theyform the characters is of an allegorical kind. Even the scenery isSicilian, and does not truthfully describe the tame neighborhood ofMantua. In fact, these poems are imitations of Theocritus; but, divestingourselves of the idea of the outward form which the poet has chosen toadopt, we are touched by the simple narrative of disappointed loves andchildlike woes; we appreciate the delicately-veiled compliments paid bythe poet to his patron; we enjoy the inventive genius and poetical powerwhich they display, and we are elevated by the exalted sentiments whichthey sometimes breathe. 

The Georgics are poems on the labors and enjoyments of rural life, asubject for which Rome offered a favorable field. Though in this styleHesiod was the model of Virgil, his system is perfectly Italian, so muchso, that many of his rules may be traced in modern Italian husbandry, justas the descriptions of implements in the Greek poet are frequently foundto agree with those in use in modern Greece. The great merit of theGeorgics consists in their varied digressions, interesting episodes, andin the sublime bursts of descriptive vigor which are interspersedthroughout them. They have frequently been taken as models for imitationby the didactic poets of all nations, and more particularly of England. The "Seasons, " for instance, is a thoroughly Virgilian poem. 

Lucretius (95-51 B. C. ) belongs to the class of didactic poets. He mightclaim a place among philosophers as well as poets, for his poem marks anepoch both in poetry and philosophy. But his philosophy is a merereflection from that of Greece, while his poetry is bright with the raysof original genius. His poem on "The Nature of Things" is in imitation ofthat of Empedocles. Its subject is philosophical and its purpose didactic;but its unity of design gives to it almost the rank of an epic. Itsstructure prevents it from being a complete and systematic survey of thewhole Epicurean philosophy, but as far as the form of the poem permitted, it presents an accurate view of the philosophy which then enjoyed thehighest popularity. 

The object of the poem of Lucretius is to emancipate mankind from thedebasing effects of superstition by an exposition of philosophy, andthough a follower of Epicurus, he is not entirely destitute of thereligious sentiment, for he deifies nature and has a veneration for herlaws. His infidelity must be viewed rather in the light of a philosophicalprotest against the results of heathen superstition, than a totalrejection of the principles of religious faith. 

Lucretius valued the capabilities of the Latin language. He wielded atwill its power of embodying the noblest thoughts, and showed how itscopious and flexible properties could overcome the hard technicalities ofscience. The great beauty of his poetry is its variety; his fancy isalways lively, his imagination has always free scope. He is sublime, as aphilosopher who penetrates the secrets of the natural world, and disclosesto the eyes of man the hidden causes of its wonderful phenomena. Hisobject was a lofty one; for although the absurdities of the national creeddrove him into skepticism, his aim was to set the intellect free from thetrammels of superstition. But besides grandeur and sublimity, we find thetotally different qualities of softness and tenderness. Rome had longknown nothing but war, and was now rent by civil dissension. Lucretiusyearned for peace; and his prayer, that the fabled goddess of all that isbeautiful in nature would heal the wounds which discord had made, isdistinguished by tenderness and pathos even more than by sublimity. He issuperior to Ovid in force, though inferior in facility; not so smooth orharmonious as Virgil, his poetry always falls upon the ear with a swellingand sonorous melody. Virgil appreciated his excellence, and imitated notonly single expressions, but almost entire verses and passages; and Ovidexclaims, that the sublime strains of Lucretius shall never perish untilthe world shall be given up to destruction. 

5. LYRIC POETRY. --The Romans had not the ideality and the enthusiasm whichare the elements of lyric poetry, and in all the range of their literaturethere are only two poets who, greatly inferior to the lyric poets ofGreece, have a positive claim to a place in this department, Catullus andHorace. Catullus (86-46 B. C. ) was born near Verona. At an early age hewent to Rome, where he plunged into all the excesses of the capital, andwhere his sole occupation was the cultivation of his literary tastes andtalents. A career of extravagance and debauchery terminated in the ruin ofhis fortune, and he died at the age of forty. The works of Catullusconsist of numerous short pieces of a lyrical character, elegies and otherpoems. He was one of the most popular of the Roman poets, because hepossessed those qualities which the literary society at Rome most valued, polish and learning, and because, although an imitator, there was a trulyRoman nationality in all that he wrote. His satire was the bitterresentment of a vindictive spirit; his love and his hate were both purelyselfish, but his excellences were of the most alluring and captivatingkind. He has never been surpassed in gracefulness, melody, and tenderness. 

Horace (65-8 B. C. ), like Virgil and other poets of his time, enjoyed thefriendship and intimacy of Maecenas, who procured for him the public grantof his Sabine farm, situated about fifteen miles from Tivoli. At Rome heoccupied a house on the beautiful heights of the Esquiline. The rapidalternation of town and country life, which the fickle poet indulged in, gives a peculiar charm to his poetry. His "Satires" were followed by thepublication of the "Odes" and the "Epistles. " The satires of Horaceoccupied the position of the fashionable novel of our day. In them issketched boldly, but good-humoredly, a picture of Roman social life, withits vices and follies. They have nothing of the bitterness of Lucilius, the love of purity and honor that adorns Persius, or the burningindignation of Juvenal at the loathsome corruption of morals. Vice, in hisday, had not reached that appalling height which it attained in the timeof the emperors who succeeded Augustus. Deficient in moral purity, nothingwould strike him as deserving censure, except such excess as wouldactually defeat the object which he proposed to himself, namely, theutmost enjoyment of life. In the "Epistles, " he lays aside the characterof a moral teacher or censor, and writes with the freedom with which hewould converse with an intimate friend. But it is in his inimitable "Odes"that the genius of Horace as a poet is especially displayed; they havenever been equaled in beauty of sentiment, gracefulness of language, andmelody of versification; they comprehend every variety of subject suitableto the lyric muse; they rise without effort to the most elevated topics;and they descend to the simplest joys and sorrows of every-day life. 

The life of Horace is especially instructive, as a mirror in which isreflected a faithful image of the manners of his day. He is therepresentative of Roman refined society, as Virgil is of the nationalmind. His morals were lax, but not worse than those of his contemporaries. He looked at virtue and vice from a worldly, not from a moral point ofview, and with him the one was prudence and the other folly. 

In connection with Horace, we may mention Maecenas, who, by his good tasteand munificence, exercised a great influence upon literature, and literarymen of Rome were much indebted to him for the use he made of hisfriendship with Augustus, to whom, probably, his love of literature and ofpleasure and his imperturbable temper recommended him as an agreeablecompanion. He had wealth enough to gratify his utmost wishes, and his mindwas so full of the delights of refined society, of palaces, gardens, wit, poetry, and art, that there was no room in it for ambition. All the mostbrilliant men of Rome were found at his table, --Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Varius were among his friends and constant associates. Hewas a fair specimen of the man of pleasure and society, --liberal, kind-hearted, clever, refined, but luxurious, self-indulgent, indolent, andvolatile, with good impulses, but without principle. 

6. ELEGY. --Tibullus (b. 54 B. C. ) was the father of the Roman elegy. He wasa contemporary of Virgil and Horace. The style of his poems and their toneof thought are like his character, deficient in vigor and manliness, butsweet, smooth, polished, tender, and never disfigured by bad taste. Hepassed his short life in peaceful retirement, and died soon after Virgil. The poems ascribed to Tibullus consist of four books, of which only twoare genuine. 

Propertius (b. 150 B. C. ), although a contemporary and friend of theAugustan poets, may be considered as belonging to a somewhat differentschool of poetry. While Horace, Virgil, and Tibullus imitated the noblestpoets of the Greek age, Propertius, like the minor Roman poets, aspired tonothing more than the imitation of the graceful, but feeble strains of theAlexandrian poets. If he excels Tibullus in vigor of fancy, expression, and coloring, he is inferior to him in grace, spontaneity, and delicacy;he cannot, also, be compared with Catullus, who greatly surpasses him inhis easy and effective style. 

Ovid (43 B. C. -6 A. D. ), the most fertile of the Latin poets, not only inelegy, but also in other kinds of poetry, was enabled by his rank, fortune, and talents to cultivate the society of men of congenial tastes. A skeptic and an epicurean, he lived a life of continual indulgence andintrigue. He was a universal admirer of the female sex, and a favoriteamong women. He was popular as a poet, successful in society, andpossessed all the enjoyments that wealth could bestow; but later in lifehe incurred the anger of Augustus, and was banished to the very frontierof the Roman empire, where he lingered for a few years and died in greatmisery. The "Epistles to and from Women of the Heroic Age" are a series oflove-letters; with the exception of the "Metamorphoses, " they have beengreater favorites than any other of his works. Love, in the days of Ovid, had in it nothing pure or chivalrous. The age in which he lived wasmorally polluted, and he was neither better nor worse than hiscontemporaries; hence grossness is the characteristic of his "Art ofLove. " His "Metamorphoses" contain a series of mythological narrativesfrom the earliest times to the translation of the soul of Julius Caesarfrom earth to heaven, and his metamorphosis into a star. In this poemespecially may be traced that study and learning by which the Roman poetsmade all the treasures of Greek literature their own. "The Fasti, " a poemon the Roman calendar, is a beautiful specimen of simple narrative inverse, and displays, more than any of his works, his power of telling astory without the slightest effort, in poetry as well as prose. The fivebooks of the "Tristia, " and the "Epistles from Pontus, " were theoutpourings of his sorrowful heart during the gloomy evening of his days. 

7. ORATORY AND PHILOSOPHY. --As oratory gave to Latin prose-writing itselegance and dignity, Cicero (106-43 B. C. ) is not only the representativeof the flourishing period of the language, but also the instrumental causeof its arriving at perfection. He gave a fixed character to the Latintongue; showed his countrymen what vigor it possessed, and of whatelegance and polish it was susceptible. The influence of Cicero on thelanguage and literature of his day was not only extensive, but permanent, and it survived almost until the language was corrupted by barbarism. After traveling in Greece and Asia, and holding a high office in Sicily, he returned to Rome, resumed his forensic practice, and was made consul. The conspiracy of Catiline was the great event of his consulship. Theprudence and tact with which he crushed this gained him the applause andgratitude of his fellow-citizens, who hailed him as the father of hiscountry; but he was obliged, by the intrigues of his enemies, to fly fromRome; his exile was decreed, and his town and country houses given up toplunder. He was, however, recalled, and appointed to a seat in the collegeof Augurs. In the struggle between Pompey and Caesar, he followed thefortunes of the former; but Caesar, after his triumph, granted him a fulland free pardon. After the assassination of Caesar, Cicero delivered thattorrent of indignant and eloquent invective, his twelve Philippicorations, and became again the popular idol; but when the secondtriumvirate was formed, and each member gave up his friends to thevengeance of his colleagues, Octavius did not hesitate to sacrificeCicero. Betrayed by a treacherous freedman, he would not permit hisattendants to make any resistance, but courageously submitted to the swordof the assassins, who cut off his head and hands, and carried them toAntony, whose wife, Julia, gloated with inhuman delight upon the pallidfeatures, and in petty spite pierced with a needle the once eloquenttongue. Cicero had numerous faults; he was vain, vacillating, inconstant, timid, and the victim of morbid sensibility; but he was candid, truthful, just, generous, pure-minded, and warm-hearted. Gentle, sympathizing, andaffectionate, he lived as a patriot and died as a philosopher. 

The place which Cicero occupies in the history of Roman literature is thatof an orator and philosopher. The effectiveness of his oratory was mainlyowing to his knowledge of the human heart, and of the nationalpeculiarities of his countrymen. Its charm was owing to his extensiveacquaintance with the stores of literature and philosophy, which hissprightly wit moulded at will; to the varied learning, which hisunpedantic mind made so pleasant and popular; and to his fund ofillustration, at once interesting and convincing. He carried his hearerswith him; senate, judges, and people understood his arguments, and felthis passionate appeals. Compared with the dignified energy and majesticvigor of Demosthenes, the Asiatic exuberance of some of his orations maybe fatiguing to the more sober and chaste taste of modern scholars; but inorder to form a just appreciation, we must transport ourselves mentally tothe excitements of the thronged forum, to the senate, composed ofstatesmen and warriors in the prime of life, maddened with the party-spirit of revolutionary times. Viewed in this light, his most floridpassages will appear free from affectation--the natural flow of a speakercarried away with the torrent of his enthusiasm. Among his numerousorations, in which, according to the criticisms of Quintilian, he combinedthe force of Demosthenes, the copiousness of Plato, and the elegance ofIsocrates, we mention the six celebrated Verrian harangues, which areconsidered masterpieces of Tullian eloquence. In the speech for the poetArchias, he had evidently expended all his resources of art, taste, andskill; and his oration in defense of Milo, for force, pathos, and theexternals of eloquence, deserves to be reckoned among his most wonderfulefforts. The oratory of Cicero was essentially judicial; even hispolitical orations are rather judicial than deliberative. He was not bornfor a politician; he did not possess that analytical character of mindwhich penetrates into the remote causes of human action, nor thesynthetical power which enables a man to follow them out to their farthestconsequences. Of the three qualities necessary for a statesman, hepossessed only two, --honesty and patriotism; he had not political wisdom. Hence, in the finest specimens of his political orations, hisCatilinarians and Philippics, we look in vain for the calm, practicalweighing of the subject which is necessary in addressing a deliberativeassembly. Nevertheless, so irresistible was the influence which heexercised upon the minds of his hearers, that all his political speecheswere triumphs. His panegyric on Pompey carried his appointment ascommander-in-chief of the armies of the East; he crushed in Catiline oneof the most formidable traitors that had ever menaced the safety of therepublic, and Antony's fall followed the complete exposure of hisdebauchery in private life, and the factiousness of his public career. 

In his rhetorical works, Cicero left a legacy of practical instruction toposterity. The treatise "On Invention" is merely interesting as thejuvenile production of a future great man. "The Orator, " "Brutus, or theillustrious Orators, " and "The Orator to Marius Brutus, " are the resultsof his matured experience. They form together one series, in which theprinciples are laid down, and their development carried out andillustrated; and in the "Orator" he places before the eyes of Brutus themodel of ideal perfection. In his treatment of that subject, he shows amind imbued with the spirit of Plato; he invests it with dramaticinterest, and transports the reader into the scene which he so graphicallydescribes. 

Roman philosophy was neither the result of original investigation, nor thegradual development of the Greek system. It arose rather from a study ofancient philosophical literature, than from an emanation of philosophicalprinciples. It consisted in a kind of eclecticism with an ethicaltendency, bringing together doctrines and opinions scattered over a widefield in reference to the political and social relations of man. Greekphilosophy was probably first introduced into Rome 166 B. C. But althoughthe Romans could appreciate the majestic dignity and poetical beauty ofthe style of Plato, they were not equal to the task of penetrating hishidden meaning; neither did the peripatetic doctrines meet with muchfavor. The philosophical system which first arrested the attention of theRomans, and gained an influence over their minds, was the Epicurean. Thatof the Stoics also, the severe principles of which were in harmony withthe stern old Roman virtues, had distinguished disciples. The part whichCicero's character qualified him to perform in the philosophicalinstruction of his countrymen was scarcely that of a guide; he could givethem a lively interest in the subject, but he could not mould and formtheir belief, and train them in the work of original investigation. Notbeing devoutly attached to any system of philosophical belief, he would becautious of offending the philosophical prejudices of others. He wasessentially an eclectic in accumulating stores of Greek erudition, whilehis mind had a tendency, in the midst of a variety of inconsistentdoctrines, to leave the conclusion undetermined. He brought everything toa practical standard; he admired the exalted purity of stoical morality, but he feared that it was impractical. He believed in the existence of onesupreme creator, in his spiritual nature, and the immortality of the soul;but his belief was rather the result of instinctive conviction, than ofproof derived from philosophy. 

The study of Cicero's philosophical works is invaluable, in order tounderstand the minds of those who came after him. Not only all Romanphilosophy after his time, but a great part of that of the Middle Ages, was Greek philosophy filtered through Latin, and mainly founded on that ofCicero. Among his works on speculative philosophy are "The Academics, or ahistory and defense of the belief of the new Academy;" "Dialogues on theSupreme Good, the end of all moral action;" "The Tusculan Disputations, "containing five treatises on the fear of death, the endurance of pain, power of wisdom over sorrow, the morbid passions, and the relation ofvirtue to happiness. His moral philosophy comprehends the "Duties, " astoical treatise on moral obligations, and the unequaled little essays on"Friendship and Old Age. " His political works are "The Republic" and "TheLaw;" but these remains are fragmentary. 

The extent of Cicero's correspondence is almost incredible. Even thoseepistles which remain number more than eight hundred. In them we find theeloquence of the heart, not of the rhetorical school. They are models ofpure Latinity, elegant without stiffness, the natural outpourings of amind which could not give birth to an ungraceful idea. In his letters toAtticus he lays bare the secret of his heart; he trusts his life in hishands; he is not only his friend but his confidant, his second self. Inthe letters of Cicero we have the description of the period of Romanhistory, and the portrait of the inner life of Roman society in his day. 

8. HISTORY. --In their historical literature the Romans exhibited afaithful transcript of their mind and character. History at once gratifiedtheir patriotism, and its investigations were in accordance with theirlove of the real and the practical. In this department, they were enabledto emulate the Greeks and to be their rivals, and sometimes theirsuperiors. The elegant simplicity of Caesar is as attractive as that ofHerodotus; none of the Greek historians surpasses Livy in talent for thepicturesque and in the charm with which he invests his spirited and livingstories; while for condensation of thought, terseness of expression, andpolitical and philosophical acumen, Tacitus is not inferior to Thucydides. The catalogue of Roman historians contains many writers whose works arelost; such as L. Lucretius, the friend and correspondent of Cicero, L. Lucullus, the illustrious conqueror of Mithridates, and Cornelius Nepos, of whom only one work was preserved, the "Lives of Eminent Generals. " Theauthenticity of this work is, however, disputed. But at the head of thisdepartment, as the great representatives of Roman history, stand JuliusCaesar, Sallust, Livy, and Tacitus, all of whom, except the last, belongto the Augustan age. 

Julius Caesar (100-44 B. C. ) was descended from one of the oldest among thepatrician families of Rome. He attached himself to the popular party, andhis good taste, great tact, and pleasing manners contributed, togetherwith his talents, to insure his popularity. He became a soldier in thenineteenth year of his age, and hence his works display all the bestqualities which are fostered by a military education--frankness, simplicity, and brevity. His earliest literary triumph was as an orator, and, according to Quintilian, he was a worthy rival of Cicero. When heobtained the office of Pontifex Maximus, he diligently examined thehistory and nature of the Roman belief in augury, and published hisinvestigations. When his career as a military commander began, whateverleisure his duties permitted him to enjoy he devoted to the composition ofhis memoirs, or commentaries of the Gallic and civil wars. He wrote, also, some minor works on different subjects, and he left behind him variousletters, some of which are extant. 

But by far the most important of the works of Caesar is his"Commentaries, " which have come down to us in a tolerably perfect state. They are sketches taken on the spot, in the midst of action, while themind was full, and they have all the graphic power of a master-mind andthe vigorous touches of a master-hand. The Commentaries are the materialsfor history, notes jotted down for future historians. The very faultswhich may justly be found with the style of Caesar are such as reflect theman himself. The majesty of his character consists chiefly in theimperturbable calmness and equanimity of his temper; he had no suddenbursts of energy and alternations of passion and inactivity. The elevationof his character was a high one, but it was a level table-land. Thiscalmness and equability pervades his writings, and for this reason theyhave been thought to want life and energy. The beauty of his language is, as Cicero says, statuesque rather than picturesque. Simple and severe, itconveys the idea of perfect and well-proportioned beauty, while itbanishes all thoughts of human passion. In relating his own deeds, he doesnot strive to add to his own reputation by detracting from the merits ofthose who served under him. He is honest, generous, and candid, not onlytowards them, but also towards his brave enemies. He recounts hissuccesses without pretension or arrogance, though he has evidently noobjection to be the hero of his own tale. His Commentaries are notconfessions, although he is the subject of them; not a record of aweakness appears, nor even a defect, except that which the Romans wouldreadily forgive, cruelty. His savage waste of human life he recounts withperfect self-complacency. Vanity, the crowning error in his career as astatesman, though hidden by the reserve with which he speaks of himself, sometimes discovers itself in the historian. 

The Commentaries of Caesar have been compared with the work of the greatsoldier-historian of Greece, Xenophon. Both are eminently simple andunaffected, but there the parallel ends. The severe contempt of ornament, which characterizes the stern Roman, is totally unlike the mellifluoussweetness of the Attic writer. 

Sallust (85-35 B. C. ) was born of a plebeian family, but, having filled theoffices of tribune and quaestor, attained senatorial rank. He was expelledfrom the Senate for his profligacy, but restored again to his rank throughthe influence of Caesar, whose party he espoused. He accompanied hispatron in the African war, and was made governor of Numidia. While in thatcapacity, he accumulated by rapacity and extortion enormous wealth, whichhe lavished in expensive but tasteful luxury. The gardens on the Quirinalwhich bore his name were celebrated for their beauty; and there, surrounded by the choicest works of art, he devoted his retirement tocomposing the historical records which survived him. As a politician, hewas a mere partisan of Caesar, and therefore a strenuous opponent of thehigher classes and of the supporters of Pompey. The object of his hatredwas not the old patrician blood of Rome, but the new aristocracy, whichhad of late years been rapidly rising up and displacing it. That newnobility was utterly corrupt, and its corruption was encouraged by thevenality of the masses, whose poverty and destitution tempted them to bethe tools of unscrupulous ambition. Sallust strove to place that party inthe unfavorable light which it deserved; but, notwithstanding thetruthfulness of the picture which he draws, selfishness and not patriotismwas the mainspring of his politics; he was not an honest champion ofpopular rights, but a vain and conceited man, who lived in an immoral andcorrupt age, and had not the strength of principle to resist the force ofexample and temptation. If, however, we make some allowance for thepolitical bias of Sallust, his histories have not only the charms of thehistorical romance, but are also valuable political studies. Hischaracters are vigorously and naturally drawn, and the more his historiesare read, the more obvious it is that he always writes with an object, anduses his facts as the means of enforcing a great political lesson. 

His first work is on the "Jugurthine War;" the next related to the periodfrom the consulship of Lepidus to the praetorship of Cicero, and isunfortunately lost. This was followed by a history of the conspiracy ofCatiline, "The War of Catiline, " in which he paints in vivid colors thedepravity of that order of society which, bankrupt in fortune and honor, still plumes itself on its rank and exclusiveness. To Sallust must beconceded the praise of having first conceived the notion of a history, inthe true sense of the term. He was the first Roman historian, and theguide of future historians. He had always an object to which he wished allhis facts to converge, and he brought them forward as illustrations anddevelopments of principles. He analyzed and exposed the motives ofparties, and laid bare the inner life of those great actors on the publicstage, in the interesting historical scenes which he describes. His style, although ostentatiously elaborate and artificial, is, upon the whole, pleasing, and almost always transparently clear. Following Thucydides, whom he evidently took as his model, he strives to imitate his brevity;but while this quality with the Greek historian is natural andinvoluntary, with the Roman it is intentional and studied. The brevity ofThucydides is the result of condensation, that of Salust is ellipticalexpression. 

Livy (59-18 B. C. ) was born in Padua, and came to Rome during the reign ofAugustus, where he resided in the enjoyment of the imperial favor andpatronage. He was a warm and open admirer of the ancient institutions ofthe country, and esteemed Pompey as one of its greatest heroes; butAugustus did not allow political opinions to interfere with the regardwhich he entertained for the historian. His great work is a history ofRome, which he modestly terms "Annals, " in one hundred and forty-twobooks, of which thirty-five are extant. Besides his history, Livy is saidto have written treatises and dialogues, which were partly philosophicaland partly historical. 

The great object of Livy's history was to celebrate the glories of hisnative country, to which he was devotedly attached. He was a patriot: hissympathy was with Pompey, called forth by the disinterestedness of thatgreat man, and perhaps by his sad end. He delights to put forth his powersin those passages which relate to the affections. He is a biographer quiteas much as a historian; he anatomizes the moral nature of his heroes, andshows the motive springs of their noble exploits. His characters standbefore us like epic heroes, and he tells his story like a bard singing hislay at a joyous festive meeting, checkered by alternate successes andreverses, though all tending to a happy result at last. But while thesefeatures constitute his charm as a narrator, they render him less valuableas a historian. Although he would not be willfully inaccurate, if thelegend he was about to tell was interesting, he would not stop to inquirewhether or not it was true. Taking upon trust the traditions which hadbeen handed down from generation to generation, the more flattering andpopular they were, the more suitable would he deem them for his purposes. He loved his country, and he would scarcely believe anything derogatory tothe national glory. Whenever Rome was false to treaties, unmerciful invictory, or unsuccessful in arms, he either ignores the facts or isanxious to find excuses. He does not appear to have made researches intothe many original documents which were extant at his time, but he trustedto the annalists, and took advantage of the investigations of precedinghistorians. His descriptions of military affairs are often vague andindistinct, and he often shows himself ignorant of the localities which hedescribes. Such are the principal defects of Livy, who otherwise charmshis readers with his romantic narratives, and his lively, fresh, andfascinating style. 

9. OTHER PROSE WRITERS. --Though the grammarians of this period werenumerous, they added little or nothing to its literary reputation. Themost conspicuous among them were Atteius, a friend of Sallust; Epirota, the correspondent of Cicero; Julius Hyginus, a friend of Ovid; andNigidius Figulus, an orator as well as grammarian. M. Vitruvius Pollio, the celebrated architect, deserves to be mentioned for his treatise onarchitecture. He was probably native of Verona, and served under JuliusCaesar in Africa, as a military engineer. Notwithstanding the defects ofhis style, the language of Vitruvius is vigorous, and his descriptionsbold; his work is valuable as exhibiting the principles of Greekarchitectural taste and beauty, of which he was a devoted admirer. 

PERIOD THIRD. 

FROM THE DEATH OF AUGUSTUS TO THE CLOSE OF THE REIGN OF THEODORIC(14-526 A. D. ). 

1. DECLINE OF ROMAN LITERATURE. --With the death of Augustus began thedecline of Roman literature, and a few names only rescue the first yearsof this period from the charge of a corrupt and vitiated taste. After awhile, indeed, political circumstances again became more favorable; thedangers, which paralyzed genius and talent, and prevented their freeexercise under Tiberius and his tyrannical successors, diminished, and amore liberal system of administration ensued under Vespasian and Titus. Juvenal and Tacitus then stood forth, as the representatives of the oldRoman independence. Vigor of thought communicated itself to the language;a taste for the sublime and beautiful, to a certain extent, revived, although it did not attain to the perfection which shed a lustre over theAugustan age. Between the ages of Horace and Juvenal, Cicero and Tacitus, there was a gap of half a century, in which Roman genius was slumbering. The gradual growth of a spirit of adulation deterred all who werequalified for the task of the historian from attempting it. Fear, duringthe lifetime of Tiberius and Caligula, Claudius and Nero, and hatred, still fresh after their deaths, rendered all accounts of their reignsfalse. And the same causes which silenced the voice of historyextinguished the genius of poetry and oratory. As liberty declined, natural eloquence decayed; the orator sought only to please the corrupttaste of his audiences with strange and exaggerated statements; the poetaimed to win public admiration through a style over-laden with ornament, and florid and diffuse descriptions. Literature, in order to flourish, requires the genial sunshine of human sympathy; it needs either thepatronage of the great, or the favor of the people. Immediately after thedeath of Augustus, patronage was withdrawn, and there was no publicsympathy to supply its place. In the reign of Nero, literature partiallyrevived; for, though the bloodiest of tyrants, he had a taste for art andpoetry, and an ambition to excel in refinement. 

2. FABLE. --In fable, as in other fields of literature, Rome was animitator of Greece, but nevertheless Phaedrus struck out a new line forhimself, and, through his fables, became not only a moral instructor, buta political satirist. Phaedrus (fl. 16 A. D. ), the originator and onlyauthor of Roman fable, though born in the reign of Augustus, wrote whenthe Augustan age had passed away. His works are, as it were, isolated; hehad no contemporaries. Nevertheless, his solitary voice was lifted up whenthose of the poet, the historian, and the philosopher were silenced. Themoral and political lessons conveyed in his fables were suggested by theevils of the times in which he lived. Some of them illustrate the dangerof riches and the comparative safety of obscurity and poverty, in an agewhen the rich were marked for destruction, in order that the confiscationof their property might glut the avarice of the emperor and of hisservants; others were suggested by historical events, being neverthelesssatirical strictures on individuals. The style of Phaedrus is pure andclassical, and combines the simple neatness and graceful elegance of thegolden age with the vigor and terseness of the silver one. He has thefacility of Ovid and the brevity of Tacitus. In the construction of hisfables, he displays observation and ingenuity; but he is deficient inimagination. He makes his animals the vehicles of his wisdom, but he doesnot throw himself into them, or identify himself with them; while theylook and act like animals, they talk like human beings. In this consiststhe great superiority of Aesop to his Roman imitator; his brutes are asuperior race, but they are still brutes, and it would seem that thefabulist had lived among them as one of themselves, had adopted their modeof life, and conversed with them in their own language. In Phaedrus wehave human sentiments translated into the language of beasts, while inAesop we have beasts giving utterance to such sentiments as would benaturally theirs if they were placed in the position of men. 

3. SATIRE AND EPIGRAM. --Roman satire, subsequently to Horace, isrepresented by Persius and Juvenal. Persius (34-62 A. D. ) early attachedhimself to the Stoic philosophy. He was pure in mind, and free from thecorrupt taint of an immoral age. Although Lucilius was, to a certainextent, his model, he does not attack vice with the biting severity of theold satirist, nor do we find in his writings the enthusiastic indignationwhich burns in the verses of Juvenal. His purity of mind and kindliness ofheart disinclined him to portray vice in its hideous and loathsome forms, and to indulge in that bitterness of invective which the prevalentenormities of his times deserved. His uprightness and love of virtue areshown by the uncompromising severity with which he rebukes sins of not sodeep a dye; and the heart which was capable of being moulded by hisexample, and influenced by his purity, would have shrunk from the fearfulcrimes which deform the pages of Juvenal. The greatest defect in Persius, as a satirist, is that the Stoic philosophy in which he was educatedrendered him indifferent to the affairs of the world. His contemplativehabits led him to criticise, as his favorite subjects, false taste inpoetry and empty pretensions to philosophy. Horace mingled in the societyof the profligate and considering them as fools, laughed their folly toscorn. Juvenal looked down upon the corruption of the age from theeminence of his virtue, and punished it like an avenging deity. Persius, pure in heart and passionless by education, while he lashes wickedness inthe abstract, almost ignores its existence, and shrinks from probing tothe bottom the vileness of the human heart. His works comprise sixsatires, all of which breathe the natural amiability and placidcheerfulness of his temper. 

Juvenal flourished in the reign of Domitian, towards the close of thefirst century A. D. , a dark period, which saw the utter moral degradationof the people, and the bloodiest tyranny and oppression on the part oftheir rulers. The picture of Roman manners, as painted by his glowingpencil, is truly appalling. The fabric of society was in ruins, thepopular religion was rejected with scorn, and the creed of naturalreligion had not occupied its place. The emperors took part in publicscenes of folly and profligacy, and exposed themselves as charioteers, asdancers, and as actors. Nothing was respected but wealth, nothing provokedcontempt but poverty. Players and dancers had all honors and offices attheir disposal; the city swarmed with informers, who made the rich theirprey; every man feared his most intimate friend, and the only bond offriendship was to be an accomplice in crime. The teacher would corrupt hispupil, and the guardian defraud his ward. Crimes which cannot be namedwere common, and the streets of Rome were the constant scene of robbery, assault, and assassination. The morals of women were as depraved as thoseof men, and there was no public amusement so immoral or so cruel as not tobe countenanced by their presence. In this period of moral dearth, thefountains of genius and literature were dried up. There was criticism, declamation, panegyric, and verse writing, but no oratory, history, orpoetry. Juvenal, though himself not free from the declamatory affectationof the day, attacked the false literary taste of his contemporaries asunsparingly as he did their depraved morality. His sixteen satires exhibitan enlightened, truthful, and comprehensive view of Roman manners, and ofthe inevitable result of such depravity. The two finest of them are thosewhich Dr. Johnson has thought worthy of imitation. 

The historical value of these satires must not be forgotten. Tacitus livedin the same perilous times as Juvenal, and when they had come to an endand it was not unsafe to speak, he wrote their public history, which thepoet illustrates by displaying the social and inner life of the Romans. Their works are parallel, and each forms a commentary upon the other. Thestyle of Juvenal is vigorous and lucid; his morals were pure in the midstof a debased age, and his language shines forth in classic elegance, inthe midst of specimens of declining and degenerate taste. 

Juvenal closes the list of Roman satirists, properly speaking. Thesatirical spirit animates the piquant epigrams of his friend Martial, buttheir purpose is not moral or didactic. They sting the individual, andrender him an object of scorn and disgust, but they do not hold up viceitself to ridicule and detestation. 

Martial (43-104 A. D. ) was born in Spain. He early emigrated to Rome, wherehe became a favorite of Titus and Domitian, and in the reign of the latterhe was appointed to the office of court-poet. During thirty-five years, helived at Rome the life of a flatterer and a dependent, and then hereturned to his native town, where his death was hastened by his distastefor provincial life. Measured by the corrupt standard of morals whichdisgraced the age in which he lived, Martial was probably not worse thanmost of his contemporaries; for the fearful profligacy, which his powerfulpen describes in such hideous terms, had spread through Rome its loathsomeinfection. Had he lived in better times, his talents might have beendevoted to a purer object; as it was, no language is strong enough todenounce the impurities of his page, and his moral taste must have beenthoroughly depraved not to have turned with disgust from the contemplationof such subjects. But not all his poems are of this character. Amidst someobscurity of style and want of finish, many are redolent of Greeksweetness and elegance. Here and there are pleasing descriptions of thebeauties of nature, and many are kind-hearted and full of varied wit, poetical imagination, and graceful expression. To the originalcharacteristics of the Greek epigram, Martial, more than any other poet, added that which constitutes an epigram in the modern sense of the term:pointedness either in jest or earnest, and the bitterness of personalsatire. 

4. DRAMATIC LITERATURE. --Dramatic literature never flourished in Rome, andstill less under the empire. During this period there were not wantingsome imitators of Greece in this noble branch of poetry, but theirproductions were rather literary than dramatic; they were poems composedin a dramatic form, intended to be read, not acted. They contain noblephilosophical sentiments, lively descriptions, and passages full oftenderness and pathos, but they are deficient in dramatic effect, andpositively offend against those laws of good taste which regulated theAthenian stage. In the Augustan age, a few writers attained someexcellence in tragedy, at least in the opinion of ancient critics. 

Under the tyrant Nero, dramatic literature reappeared, specimens of whichare extant in the ten tragedies attributed to Seneca. But the genius ofthe author never grasps, in their wholeness, the characters which heattempts to copy; they are distorted images of the Greek originals, andthe shadowy grandeur of the godlike heroes of Aeschylus stands forth incorporeal vastness, and appears childish and unnatural, like the giants ofa story-book. The Greeks believed in the gods and heroes whose agency andexploits constituted the machinery of tragedy, but the Romans did not, andwe cannot sympathize with them, because we see that they are insincere. 

An awful belief in destiny, and the hopeless yet patient struggle of agreat and good man against this all-ruling power, are the mainspring ofGreek tragedy. This belief the Romans did not transfer into theirimitations, but they supplied its place with the stern fatalism of theStoics. The principle of destiny entertained by the Greek poets is amythological, even a religious one. It is the irresistible will of God. God is at the commencement of the chain of causes and effects, by whichthe event is brought about which God has ordained; his inspired prophetshave power to foretell, and mortals cannot resist or avoid. It is ratherpredestination than destiny. The fatalism of the Stoics, on the otherhand, is the doctrine of practical necessity. It ignores the almightypower of the Supreme Being, and although it does not deny his existence, it strips him of his attributes as the moral governor of the universe. These doctrines, expressed equally in the writings of Seneca thephilosopher, and in the tragedies attributed to him, lead to theprobability, amounting almost to certainty, that he was their author. Butwhatever be the case in regard to their authorship, it is certain that, notwithstanding their false rhetorical taste and the absence of all idealand creative genius, they have found many admirers and imitators in moderntimes. The French school of tragic poets took them for their model;Corneille evidently considered them the ideal of tragedy, and Racineservilely imitated them. 

5. EPIC POETRY. --At the head of the epic poets who flourished during theSilver Age, stands Lucan (39-66 A. D. ). He was born at Cordova, in Spain, and probably came to Rome when very young, where his literary reputationwas soon established. But Nero, who could not bear the idea of a rival, forbade him to recite his poems, then the common mode of publication. Neither would he allow him to plead as an advocate. Smarting under thisprovocation, he joined in a conspiracy against the emperor's life. Theplot failed, but Lucan was pardoned on condition of pointing out hisconfederates, and in the vain hope of saving himself from the monster'svengeance, he actually impeached his mother. This noble woman wasincapable of treason. Tacitus says, "the scourge, the flames, the rage ofthe executioners who tortured her the more savagely, lest they should bescorned by a woman, were powerless to extort a false confession. " Lucannever received the reward which he purchased by treachery. When thewarrant for his death was issued, he caused his veins to be cut asunder, and expired in the twenty-seventh year of his age. 

The only one of his works which survives is the "Pharsalia, " an epic poemon the subject of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. It bearsevident marks of having been left unfinished; it has great faults and atthe same time great beauties. The sentiments contained in this poembreathe a love of freedom and an attachment to the old Romanrepublicanism. Its subject is a noble one, full of historic interest, andit is treated with spirit, brilliancy, and animation. The characters ofCaesar and Pompey are masterpieces; but while some passages are scarcelyinferior to any written by the best Latin poets, others have neither thedignity of prose, nor the melody of poetry. Description forms theprincipal feature in the poetry of Lucan; in fact, it constitutes one ofthe characteristic features of Roman literature in its decline, becausepoetry had become more than ever an art, and the epoch one of erudition. 

Silius Italicus (fl. 54 A. D. ) was the favorite and intimate of twoemperors, Nero and Vitellius. He left a poem, the "Punica, " which containsthe history in heroic verse of the second Punic war. The Aeneid of Virgilwas his model, and the narrative of Livy furnished his materials. It isconsidered the dullest and most tedious poem in the Latin language thoughits versification is harmonious, and will often, in point of smoothness, bear comparison with that of Virgil. 

Valerius Flaccus flourished in the reign of Vespasian. He is author of the"Argonautica, " an imitation and in some parts a translation of the Greekpoem of Apollonius Rhodius on the same subject. He evidently did not liveto complete his original design. In the Argonautica there are no glaringfaults or blemishes, but there is also no genius, no inspiration. He hassome talents as a descriptive poet; his versification is harmonious andhis style graceful. 

P. Statius (61-95 A. D. ) was the author of the Silviae, Thebaid, andAchilleid. The "Silviae" are the rude materials of thought springing upspontaneously in all their wild luxuriance, from the rich, natural soil ofthe imagination of the poet. The subject of the "Thebaid" is the ancientGreek legend respecting the war of the Seven against Thebes, and the"Achilleid" was intended to embrace all the exploits of Achilles, but onlytwo books were completed. The poems of Statius contain many poeticalincidents, which might stand by themselves as perfect fugitive pieces. Inthese we see his natural and unaffected elegance, his harmonious ear, andthe truthfulness of his perceptions. But, as an epic poet, he has neithergrasp of mind nor vigor of conception; his imaginary heroes do not inspireand warm his imagination; and his genius was unable to rise to the highestdepartments of art. 

6. HISTORY. --For the reasons already stated, Rome for a long period couldboast of no historian; the perilous nature of the times, and the personalobligations under which learned men frequently were to the emperors, rendered contemporary history a means of adulation and servility. To thisclass of historians belongs Paterculus (fl. 30 A. D. ), who wrote a historyof Rome which is partial, prejudiced, and adulatory. He was a man oflively talents, and his taste was formed after the model of Sallust, ofwhom he was an imitator. His style is often overstrained and unnatural. 

Under the genial and fostering influence of the Emperor Trajan, the finearts, especially architecture, flourished, and literature revived. Thesame taste and execution which are visible in the bas-reliefs on thecolumn of Trajan adorn the literature of his age as illustrated by its twogreat lights, Tacitus and the younger Pliny. There is not the rich, graceful manner which invests with such a charm the writers of the GoldenAge, but the absence of these qualities is amply compensated by dignity, gravity, and honesty. Truthfulness beams throughout the writings of thesetwo great contemporaries, and incorruptible virtue is as visible in thepages of Tacitus as benevolence and tenderness are in the letters ofPliny. They mutually influenced each other's characters and principles;their tastes and pursuits were similar; they loved each other dearly, corresponded regularly, corrected each other's works, and acceptedpatiently and gratefully each other's criticism. 

Tacitus (60-135 A. D. ) was of equestrian rank, and served in severalimportant offices of the empire. His works now extant are a life of hisfather-in-law, Agricola, a tract on the manners and nations of theGermans, a small portion of a voluminous work entitled "Histories, " abouttwo thirds of another historical work, entitled "Annals, " and a dialogueon the decline of eloquence. The life of Agricola, though a panegyricrather than a biography, is a beautiful specimen of the vigor and force ofexpression with which this greatest painter of antiquity could throw offany portrait which he attempted. Even if the likeness be somewhatflattered, the qualities which the writer possessed, his insight intocharacter, his pathetic power, and his affectionate heart, render thisshort piece one of the most attractive biographies extant. The treatise onthe "Geography, Manners, and Nations of Germany, " though containinggeographical descriptions often vague and inaccurate, and accountsevidently founded on mere tales of travelers, bears the impress of truthin the salient points and characteristic features of the national mannersand institutions of Teutonic nations. The "Histories, " his earliesthistorical work, of which only four books and a portion of the fifth areextant, extended from the year 69 to 96 A. D. , and it was his intention toinclude the reigns of Nero and Trajan. In this work he proposed toinvestigate the political state of the commonwealth, the feeling of itsarmies, the sentiments of its provinces, the elements of its strength andweakness, and the causes and reasons for each historical phenomenon. Theprincipal fault which diminishes the value of his history as a record ofevents is his too great readiness to accept evidence unhesitatingly, andto record popular rumors without taking sufficient pains to examine intotheir truth. His incorrect account of the history, constitution, andmanners of the Jewish people is one among the few instances of this fault, scattered over a vast field of faithful history. The "Annals" consist ofsixteen books; they begin with the death of Augustus, and conclude withthat of Nero (14-68 A. D. ). The object of Tacitus was to describe theinfluence which the establishment of tyranny on the ruins of libertyexercised for good or for evil in bringing out the character of theindividual. In the extinction of freedom there still existed in Romebright examples of heroism and courage, and instances not less prominentof corruption and degradation. In the annals of Tacitus these individualsstand out in bold relief, either singly or in groups upon the stage, whilethe emperor forms the principal figure, and the moral sense of the readeris awakened to admire instances of patient suffering and determinedbravery, or to witness abject slavery and remorseless despotism. 

Full of sagacious observation and descriptive power, Tacitus engages themost serious attention of the reader by the gravity of his condensed andcomprehensive style, as he does by the wisdom and dignity of hisreflections. Living amidst the influences of a corrupt age, he wasuncontaminated. By his virtue and integrity, and his chastened politicalliberality, he commands our admiration as a man, while his love of truthis reflected in his character as a historian. In his style, the form isalways subordinate to the matter; his sentences are suggestive of far morethan they express, and his brevity is enlivened by copiousness, variety, and poetry; his language is highly figurative; his descriptions of sceneryand incidents are eminently picturesque, his characters dramatic, and theexpression of his own sentiments almost lyrical. 

Suetonius was born about 69 A. D. His principal extant works are the "Livesof the Twelve Caesars, " "Notices of Illustrious Grammarians andRhetoricians, " and the Lives of the Poets Terence, Horace, Persius, Lucan, and Juvenal. The use which he makes of historical documents proves that hewas a man of diligent research, and, as a biographer, industrious andcareful. He indulges neither in ornament of style nor in romanticexaggeration. The pictures which he draws of some of the Caesars areindeed terrible, but they are fully supported by the contemporaryauthority of Juvenal and Tacitus. As a historian, Suetonius had not thatcomprehensive and philosophical mind which would qualify him for taking anenlarged view of his subject; he has no definite plan or method, andwanders at will from one subject to another just as the idea seizes him. 

Curtius is considered by some writers as belonging to the Silver Age, andby others to a later period. His biography of Alexander the Great isdeeply interesting. It is a romance rather than a history. He never losesan opportunity, by the coloring which he gives to historical facts, ofelevating the Macedonian conqueror to a super-human standard. His floridand ornamented style is suitable to the imaginary orations which areintroduced in the narrative, and which constitute the most strikingportions of the work. 

Valerius Maximus flourished during the reign of Tiberius. His work is acollection of anecdotes entitled "Memorable Sayings and Deeds, " the objectof which was to illustrate by examples the beauty of virtue and thedeformity of vice. The style is prolix and declamatory, and characterizedby awkward affectation and involved obscurity. 

7. RHETORIC AND ELOQUENCE. --Under the empire, schools of rhetoric weremultiplied, as harmless as tyranny could desire. In these the Roman youthlearned the means by which the absence of natural endowments could becompensated. The students composed their speeches according to the rulesof rhetoric; they were then corrected, committed to memory, and recited, partly with a view to practice, partly in order to amuse an admiringaudience. Nor were these declamations confined to mere students. Publicrecitations had, since the days of Juvenal, been one of the cryingnuisances of the times. Seneca, the father of the philosopher of the samename, a famous rhetorician himself, left two works containing a series ofexercises in oratory, which show the hollow and artificial system of thoseschools. He was born in Cordova in Spain (61 A. D. ), and as a professionalrhetorician amassed a considerable fortune. 

Quintilian (40-118 A. D. ) was the most distinguished teacher of rhetoric ofthis age. He attempted to restore a purer and more classical taste, but, although to a certain extent he was successful, the effect which heproduced was only temporary. For the instruction of his elder son he wrotehis great work, "Institutes of Oratory, " a complete system of instructionin the art of oratory; and in it he shows himself far superior to Ciceroas a teacher, though he was inferior to him as an orator. 

His work is divided into twelve books, in which he traces the progress ofthe orator from the very cradle until he arrives at perfection. In thismonument of his taste and genius he fully and completely exhausted thesubject, and left a text-book of the science and art of nations, as wellas a masterly sketch of the eloquence of antiquity. 

The disposition of Quintilian was as affectionate and tender as his geniuswas brilliant and his taste pure; few passages throughout the whole rangeof Latin literature can be compared to that in which he mourns the loss ofhis wife and children. It is the touching eloquence of one who could notwrite otherwise than gracefully. 

Among the pupils of Quintilian, Pliny the younger took the highest placein the literature of his age. He was born in Como, 61 A. D. , and adoptedand educated by his maternal uncle, the elder Pliny. He attained greatcelebrity as a pleader, and stood high in favor with the emperor. Hisworks consist of a panegyric on Trajan, and a collection of letters in tenbooks. The panegyric is a piece of courtly flattery in accordance with thecringing and fawning manners of the times. The letters are very valuable, not only for the insight which they give into his own character, but alsointo the manners and modes of thought of his illustrious contemporaries, as well as the politics of the day. For liveliness, descriptive power, elegance, and simplicity of style, they are scarcely inferior to those ofCicero, whom he evidently took for his model. These letters show howaccurate and judicious was the mind of Pliny, how prudent hisadministration in the high offices which he filled under the reign ofTrajan, and how refined his taste for the beautiful. The tenth book, whichconsists of the letters to Trajan, together with the emperor's rescripts, will be read with the greatest interest. The following passages from hisdispatch respecting the Christians, written while he was procurator of theprovince of Bithynia, and the emperor's answer, are worthy of beingtranscribed, both because reference is so often made to them, and becausethey throw light upon the marvelous and rapid propagation of the gospel, the manners of the early Christians, the treatment to which theirconstancy exposed them, and the severe jealousy with which they wereregarded:--

"It is my constant practice, sire, to refer to you all subjects on which Ientertain doubt. For who is better able to direct my hesitation, or toinstruct my ignorance? I have never been present at the trials ofChristians, and, therefore, I do not know in what way, or to what extentit is usual to question or to punish them. I have also felt no smalldifficulty in deciding whether age should make any difference, or whetherthose of the tenderest and those of mature years should be treated alike;whether pardon should be accorded to repentance, or whether, where a manhas once been a Christian, recantation should profit him; whether, if thename of Christian does not imply criminality, still the crimes peculiarlybelonging to the name should be punished. Meanwhile, in the case of thoseagainst whom informations have been laid before me, I have pursued thefollowing line of conduct: I have put to them, personally, the questionwhether they were Christians. If they confessed, I interrogated them asecond and third time, and threatened them with punishment. If they stillpersevered, I ordered their commitment; for I had no doubt whatever, thatwhatever they confessed, at any rate, dogged and inflexible obstinacydeserved to be punished. There were others who displayed similar madness;but, as they were Roman citizens, I ordered them to be sent back to thecity. Soon, persecution itself, as is generally the case, caused the crimeto spread, and it appeared in new forms. An anonymous information was laidagainst a large number of persons, but they deny that they are, or everhave been, Christians. As they invoked the gods, repeating the form afterme, and offered prayer with incense and wine, to your image, which I hadordered to be brought together with those of the deities, and besides, cursed Christ, while those who are true Christians, it is said, cannot becompelled to do any one of these things, I thought it right to set them atliberty. Others, when accused by an informer, confessed that they wereChristians, and soon after denied the fact. They said they had been, buthad ceased to be, some three, some more, not a few even twenty yearspreviously. All these worshiped your image and those of the gods, andcursed Christ. But they affirmed that the sum-total of their fault, ortheir error, was that they were accustomed to assemble on a fixed day, before dawn, and sing an antiphonal hymn to Christ as God; that they boundthemselves by an oath, not to the commission of any wickedness, but toabstain from theft, robbery, and adultery; never to break a promise, or todeny a deposit, when it was demanded back. When these ceremonies wereconcluded, it was their custom to depart, and again assemble together totake food harmlessly and in common. That after my proclamation, in which, in obedience to your command, I had forbidden associations, they haddesisted from this practice. For these reasons, I the more thought itnecessary to investigate the real truth, by putting to the torture twomaidens who were called deaconesses; but I discovered nothing, but aperverse and excessive superstition. I have, therefore, deferred takingcognizance of the matter until I had consulted you; for it seemed to me acase requiring advice, especially on account of the number of those inperil. For many of every age, sex, and rank are, and will continue to becalled in question. The infection, in fact, has spread not only throughthe cities, but also through the villages and open country; but it seemsthat its progress can be arrested. At any rate, it is clear that thetemples, which were almost deserted, begin to be frequented; and solemnsacrifices, which had been long intermitted, are again performed, andvictims are being sold everywhere, for which, up to this time, a purchasercould rarely be found. It is, therefore, easy to conceive that crowdsmight be reclaimed, if an opportunity for repentance were given. "

Trajan to Pliny: "In sifting the cases of those who have been indicted onthe charge of Christianity, you have adopted, my dear Secundus, the rightcourse of proceeding; for no certain rule can be laid down which will meetall cases. They must not be sought after, but if they are informedagainst, and convicted, they must be punished; with this proviso, however, that if any deny that he is a Christian, and proves the point by offeringprayers to our deities, notwithstanding the suspicions under which he haslabored, he shall be pardoned on his repentance. On no account should anyanonymous charges be attended to, for it would be the worst possibleprecedent, and is inconsistent with the habits of our time. "

8. PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. --Philosophy, and particularly moral philosophy, became a necessary study at this time, when the popular religion had lostits influence. In the general ruin of public and private morals, virtuousmen found in this science a guide in the dangers by which they werecontinually threatened, and a consolation in all their sorrows. The Stoicamong the other schools met with most favor from this class of men, for itoffered better security against the evils of life, and taught men how totake shelter from baseness and profligacy under the influence of virtueand courage. The doctrines of the Stoics suited the rigid sternness of theRoman character. They embodied that spirit of self-devotion and self-denial with which the Roman patriot, in the old times of simple republicanvirtue, threw himself into his public duties, and they enabled him to meetdeath with a courageous spirit in this degenerate age, in which many ofthe best and noblest willingly died by their own hands, at the imperialmandate, in order to save their name from infamy, and their inheritancefrom confiscation. 

Seneca, (12-69 A. D. ), a native of Cordova in Spain, was the greatestphilosopher of this age. He early displayed great talent as a pleader, butin the reign of Claudius he was banished to Corsica, where he solaced hisexile with the study of the Stoic philosophy; and though its severeprecepts exercised no moral influence on his conduct, he not onlyprofessed himself a Stoic, but imagined that he was one. A few yearsafter, he was recalled by Agrippina, to become tutor to her son Nero. Hewas too unscrupulous a man of the world to attempt the correction of thevicious propensities of his pupil, or to instill into him high principles. After the accession of Nero, he endeavored to arrest his depraved career, but it was too late. Seneca had, by usury and legacy-hunting, amassed oneof those large fortunes of which so many instances are met with in Romanhistory; feeling the dangers of wealth, he offered his property to Nero, who refused it, but resolved to rid himself of his former tutor, andeasily found a pretext for his destruction. In adversity the character ofSeneca shone with brighter lustre. Though he had lived ill, he could diewell. He met the messengers of death without trembling. His noble wife, Paulina, determined to die with him. The veins of both were opened at thesame time, but the little blood which remained in his emaciated framerefused to flow. He suffered excruciating agony. A warm bath was tried, but in vain; and a draught of poison was equally ineffectual. At last hewas suffocated by the vapor of a stove. 

Seneca lived in a perilous atmosphere. He had not firmness to act up tothe high moral standard which he proposed to himself. He was avaricious, but avarice was the great sin of his times. The education of one who was abrute rather than a man was a task to which no one would have been equal;he therefore retained the influence which he had not the uprightness tocommand, by miserable and sinful expedients. He had great abilities, andsome of the noble qualities of the old Romans; and had he lived in thedays of the republic, he would have been a great man. 

Seneca was the author of twelve ethical treatises, the best of which areentitled, "On Providence, " "On Consolation, " and "On the Perseverance ofWise Men. " He cared little for abstract speculation, and delighted toinculcate precepts rather than to investigate principles. He was always afavorite with Christian writers, and some of his sentiments are trulyChristian. There is even a tradition that he was acquainted with St. Paul. He may unconsciously have imbibed some of the principles of Christianity. The gospel had already made great and rapid strides over the civilizedworld, and thoughtful minds may have been enlightened by some of the raysof divine truth dispersed by the moral atmosphere, just as we arebenefited by the light of the sun, even when its disk is obscured byclouds. His epistles, of which there are one hundred and twenty-four, aremoral essays, and are the most delightful of his works. They are evidentlywritten for the public eye; they are rich in varied thought, and theirreflections flow naturally, and without effort. They contain a free andunconstrained picture of his mind, and we see in them how he despisedverbal subtleties, the external badges of a sect or creed, and insistedthat the great end of science is to learn how to live and how to die. Thestyle of Seneca is too elaborate to please. It is affected, often florid, and bombastic; there is too much sparkle and glitter, too little reposeand simplicity. 

Pliny the elder (A. D. 23-79) was born probably at Como, the familyresidence. He was educated at Rome, where he practiced at the bar, andfilled different civil offices. He perished a martyr to the cause ofscience, in the eruption of Vesuvius, which took place in the reign ofTitus, the first of which there is any record in history. Thecircumstances of his death are described by his nephew, Pliny the younger, in two letters to Tacitus. He was at Misenum, in command of the fleet, when, observing the first indications of the eruption, and wishing toinvestigate it more closely, he fitted out a light galley, and sailedtowards the villa of a friend at Stabiae. He found his friend in greatalarm, but Pliny remained tranquil and retired to rest. Meanwhile, broadflames burst forth from the volcano, the blaze was reflected from the sky, and the brightness was enhanced by the darkness of the night. Repeatedshocks of an earthquake made the houses rock to and fro, while in the airthe fall of half burnt pumice-stones menaced danger. He was awakened, andhe and his friend, with their attendants, tied cushions over their headsto protect them from the falling stones, and walked out to see if theymight venture on the water. It was now day, but the darkness was denserthan the darkest night, the sea was a waste of stormy waters, and when atlast the flames and the sulphureous smell could no longer be endured, Pliny fell dead, suffocated by the dense vapor. 

The natural history of Pliny is an unequaled monument of studiousdiligence and persevering industry. It consists of thirty-seven books, andcontains 20, 000 facts (as he believed them to be) connected with natureand art, the result not of original research, but, as he honestlyconfessed, culled from the labors of other men. 

Owing to the extent of his reading, his love of the marvelous, and hiswant of judgment in comparing and selecting, he does not present us with acorrect view of the science of his own age. He reproduces errors evidentlyobsolete and inconsistent with facts and theories which had afterwardsreplaced them. With him, mythological traditions appeared to have almostthe same authority as modern discoveries; the earth teems with monsters, not exceptions to the regular order of nature, but specimens of heringenuity. His peculiar pantheistic belief prepared him to considernothing incredible, and his temper inclined him to admit all that wascredible as true. 

He tells us of men whose feet were turned backwards, of others whose feetwere so large as to shade them when they lay in the sun; others withoutmouths, who fed on the fragrance of fruits and flowers. Among the loweranimals, he enumerates horned horses furnished with wings; the mantichora, with the face of a man, three rows of teeth, a lion's body, and ascorpion's tail; the basilisk, whose very glance is fatal; and an insectwhich cannot live except in the midst of the flames. But notwithstandinghis credulity and his want of judgment, this elaborate work contains manyvaluable truths and much entertaining information. The prevailingcharacter of his philosophical belief, though tinctured with the stoicismof the day, is querulous and melancholy. Believing that nature is an all-powerful principle, and the universe instinct with deity, he saw more ofevil than of good in the divine dispensation, and the result was a gloomyand discontented pantheism. 

Celsus probably lived in the reign of Tiberius. He was the author of manyworks, on various subjects, of which one, in eight books, on medicine, isnow extant. The independence of his views, the practical, as well as thescientific nature of his instructions, and above all, his knowledge ofsurgery, and his clear exposition of surgical operations, have given hiswork great authority; the highest testimony is borne to its merits by thefact of its being used as a text-book, even in the present advanced stateof medical science. The taste of the age in which he lived turned hisattention also to polite literature, and to that may be ascribed theAugustan purity of his style. 

Pomponius Mela lived in the reign of Claudius. He is considered as therepresentative of the Roman geographers. Though his book, "The Place ofthe World, " is but an epitome of former treatises, it is interesting forthe simplicity of its style and the purity of its language. 

Columella flourished in the reigns of Claudius and Nero. He is author ofan agricultural work, "De Re Rustica, " in which he gives, in smooth andfluent, though somewhat too diffuse a style, the fullest and completestinformation on practical agriculture among the Romans in the first centuryof the Christian era. 

Frontinus (fl. 78 A. D. ) left two valuable works, one on military tactics, the other a descriptive architectural treatise on those wonderfulmonuments of Roman art, the aqueducts. Besides these, there are extantfragments of other works on surveying, and on the laws and customsrelating to landed property, which assign Frontinus an important place inthe estimation of the students of Roman history. 

9. ROMAN LITERATURE FROM HADRIAN TO THEODORIC (138-526 A. D. ). --From thedeath of Augustus, Roman literature had gradually declined, and though itshone forth for a time with classic radiance in the writings of Persius, Juvenal, Quintilian, Tacitus, and the Plinies, with the death of freedom, the extinction of patriotism, and the decay of the national spirit, nothing could avert its fall. Poetry had become declamation; history haddegenerated either into fulsome panegyric or the fleshless skeletons ofepitomes; and at length the Romans seemed to disdain the use of theirnative tongue, and wrote again in Greek, as they had in the infancy of thenational literature. The Emperor Hadrian resided long at Athens, andbecame imbued with a taste and admiration for Greek; and thus theliterature of Rome became Hellenized. From this epoch the term classicalcan no longer be applied to it, for it no longer retained its purity. ToGreek influence succeeded the still more corrupting one of foreignnations. With the death of Nerva, the uninterrupted succession of emperorsof Roman or Italian birth ceased. Trajan himself was a Spaniard, and afterhim not only foreigners of every European race, but even Orientals andAfricans were invested with the imperial purple, and the huge empire overwhich they ruled was one unwieldy mass of heterogeneous materials. Theliterary influence of the capital was not felt in the interior portions ofthe Roman dominions. Schools were established in the very heart of nationsjust emerging from barbarism; and though the blessings of civilization andintellectual culture were thus distributed far and wide, still literarytaste, as it flowed through the minds of foreigners, became corrupted, andthe language of the imperial city, exposed to the infecting contact ofbarbarous idioms, lost its purity. 

The Latin authors of this age were numerous, but few had taste toappreciate and imitate the literature of the Augustan age. They may beclassified according to their departments of poetry, history, grammar andoratory, philosophy and science. 

The brightest star of the poetry of this period was Claudian (365-404A. D. ), in whom the graceful imagination of classical antiquity seems tohave revived. He enjoyed the patronage of Stilicho, the guardian andminister of Honorius, and in the praise and honor of him and of his pupil, he wrote "The Rape of Proserpine, " the "War of the Giants, " and severalother poems. 

His descriptions indicate a rich and powerful imagination, but, neglectingsubstance for form, his style is often declamatory and affected. Among theearliest authors of Christian hymns were Hilarius and Prudentius, Those ofthe former were expressly designed to be sung, and are said to have beenset to music by the author himself. Prudentius (fl. 348 A. D. ) wrote manyhymns and poems in defense of the Christian faith, more distinguished fortheir pious and devotional character than for their lyric sublimity orparity of language. To this age belong also the hymns of Damasus and ofAmbrose. 

Among the historians are Flavius Eutropius, who lived in the fourthcentury, and by the direction of the Emperor Valens composed an "Epitomeof Roman History, " which was a favorite book in the Middle Ages. AmmianusMarcellinus, his contemporary, wrote a Roman history in continuation ofTacitus and Suetonius. Though his style is affected and often rough andinaccurate, his work is interesting for its digressions and observations. Severus Sulpicius wrote the history of the Hebrews, and of the fourcenturies of the church. His "Sacred History, " for its language and style, is one of the best works of that age. 

In the department of oratory may be mentioned Cornelius Fronto, whoflourished under Domitian and Nerva, and was endowed with a richimagination and a mind stored with vast erudition in Greek and Latinliterature, Symmachus, distinguished for his opposition to Christianity, and Cassiodorus, minister and secretary of the Emperor Theodoric. 

In the decline of Roman, as of Greek literature, grammarians took theplace of poets and of historians; they commented on and interpreted theancient classics, and transmitted to us valuable information concerningthe Augustan writers. Among the most important works of this kind are the"Attic Nights" of Gellius, who was born in Rome, and lived under Hadrianand the Antonines. In this work are preserved many valuable passages ofthe classics which would otherwise have been lost. Macrobius, whoflourished in the middle of the fifth century, was the author of differentworks in which the doctrines of the Neo-Platonic school are expounded. Hisstyle, however, is very defective. 

A striking characteristic of the writings, both in Greek and Latin, of thelast ages of the empire, is the prevalence of principles and opinionsimported from the East. The Neo-Platonic school, imbued with Orientalmysticism, had diffused the belief in spirits and magic, and thephilosophy of this age was a mixture of ancient wisdom with newsuperstitions belonging to the ages of transition between the decadence ofthe ancient faith and the development of a new religion. The bestrepresentative of the philosophy of this age is Apuleius, born in Africain the reign of Hadrian. After having received his education in Carthageand Athens, he came to Rome, where he acquired great reputation as aliterary man, and as the possessor of extraordinary supernatural powers. To this extensive philosophical knowledge and immense erudition he unitedgreat polish of manner and remarkable beauty of person. He wrote much onphilosophy; but his most important work is a romance known as"Metamorphoses, or the Golden Ass, " containing his philosophical andmystic doctrines. In this book, the object of which is to encourage thebelief in mysticism, the writer describes the transformation of a youngman into an ass, who is allowed to take his primitive human form onlythrough a knowledge of the mysteries of Isis. The story is well told, andthe romance is full of interest and sprightliness; but its style isincorrect, florid, and bombastic. 

Boethius (470-524), the last of the Roman philosophers, was the descendantof an illustrious family. He made Greek philosophy the principal object ofhis meditations. He was raised to the highest honors and offices in theempire by Theodoric, but finally, through the artifices of enemies whoenvied his reputation, he lost the favor of his patron, was imprisoned, and at length beheaded. Of his numerous works, founded on the peripateticphilosophy, that which has gained him the greatest celebrity is entitled"On the Consolations of Philosophy, " composed while he was in prison. Itis in the form of a dialogue, in which philosophy appears to console himwith the idea of Divine Providence. The poetical part of the book iswritten with elegance and grace, and his prose, though not pure, is fluentand full of tranquil dignity. The work of Boethius, which is known in allmodern languages, was translated into Anglo-Saxon by King Alfred, 900 A. D. 

The fathers of the church followed more particularly the philosophy ofPlato, which was united and adapted to Christianity. St. Augustine is themost illustrious among the Christian Platonists. 

The most eloquent orators and writers of this period were found among theadvocates of Christianity; and among the most celebrated of these Latinfathers of the Christian church we may mention the following names. Tertullian (160-285), in his apology for the Christians, gives muchinformation on the manners and conduct of the early Christians; his styleis concise and figurative, but harsh, unpolished, and obscure. St. Cyprian(200-258), beheaded at Carthage for preaching the gospel contrary to theorders of the government, wrote an explanation of the Lord's Prayer, whichaffords a valuable illustration of the ecclesiastical history of the time. Arnobius (fl. 300) refuted the objections of the heathen againstChristianity with spirit and learning, in his "Disputes with theGentiles, " a work rich in materials for the understanding of Greek andRoman mythology. Lactantius (d. 335), on account of his fine and eloquentlanguage, is frequently called the Christian Cicero; his "DivineInstitutes" are particularly celebrated. St. Ambrose (340-397) obtainedgreat honor by his conduct as Bishop of Milan, and his writings bear thestamp of his high Christian character. St. Augustine (360-430) was one ofthe most renowned of all the Latin fathers. Though others may have beenmore learned or masters of a purer style, none more powerfully touched andwarmed the heart towards religion. His "City of God" is one of the greatmonuments of human genius. St. Jerome (330-420) wrote many epistles fullof energy and affection, as well as of religious zeal. He made a Latinversion of the Old Testament, which was the foundation of the Vulgate, andwhich gave a new impulse to the study of the Holy Scriptures. Leo theGreat (fl. 440) is the first pope whose writings have been preserved. Theyconsist of sermons and letters. His style is finished and rhetorical. 

10. ROMAN JURISPRUDENCE. --In the period which followed, from the death ofAugustus to the time of the Antonines, Roman civilians and legal writerscontinued to be numerous, and as a professional body they seem to haveenjoyed high consideration until the close of the reign of AlexanderSeverus, 385* A. D. After that time they were held in much less estimation, as the science fell into the hands of freedmen and plebeians, whopracticed it as a sordid and pernicious trade. With the reign ofConstantine, the credit of the profession revived, and the youth of theempire were stimulated to pursue the study of the law by the hope of beingultimately rewarded by honorable and lucrative offices, the magistratesbeing almost wholly taken from the class of lawyers. Two jurists of thisreign, Gregorianus and Hermogenianus, are particularly distinguished asauthors of codes which are known by their names, and which were recognizedas standard authorities in courts of justice. The "Code of Theodosius" wasa collection of laws reduced by that emperor, and promulgated in bothempires 438 A. D. It retained its authority in the western empire until itsfinal overthrow, 476 A. D. , and even after this, though modified by theinstitutions of the conquerors. In the eastern empire, it was onlysuperseded by the code of Justinian. This emperor undertook the task ofreducing to order and system the great confusion and perplexity in whichthe whole subject of Roman jurisprudence was involved. For this purpose heemployed the most eminent lawyers, with the celebrated Tribonian at theirhead, to whom he intrusted the work of forming and publishing a completecollection of the preceding laws and edicts, and who devoted several yearsof unwearied labor and research to this object. They first collected andreduced the imperial constitutions from the time of Hadrian downwards, which was promulgated as the "Justinian Code. " Their next labor was toreduce the writings of the jurisconsults of the preceding ages, especiallythose who had lived under the empire, and whose works are said to haveamounted to two thousand volumes. This work was published 533 A. D. , underthe title of "Pandects, " or "Digest, " the former title referring to theircompleteness as comprehending the whole of Roman jurisprudence, and thelatter to their methodical arrangement. At the same time, a work preparedby Tribonian was published by the order of the emperor, on the elements orfirst principles of Roman law, entitled "Institutes, " and anothercollection consisting of constitutions and edicts, under the title of"Novels, " chiefly written in Greek, but known to the moderns by a Latintranslation. These four works, the Code, the Pandects, the Institutes, andthe Novels, constituted what is now called the Body of Roman Law. 

The system of jurisprudence established by Justinian remained in force inthe eastern empire until the taking of Constantinople, 1453 A. D. After thefall of the western empire, these laws had little sway until the twelfthcentury, when Irnerius, a German lawyer who had studied at Constantinople, opened a school at Bologna, and thus revived and propagated in the West aknowledge of Roman civil law. Students flocked to this school from allparts, and by them Roman jurisprudence, as embodied in the system ofJustinian, was transmitted to most of the countries of Europe. 

During the fourth and fifth centuries, the process of the debasement ofthe Roman tongue went on with great rapidity. The influence of theprovincials began what the irruptions of the northern tribes consummated. In many scattered parts of the empire it is probable that separate Latindialects arose, and the strain upon the whole structure of the tongue wasprodigious, when the Goths poured into Italy, established themselves inthe capital, and began to speak and write in a language previously foreignto them. With the close of the reign of Theodoric the curtain falls uponancient literature. 

ARABIAN LITERATURE. 

1. European Literature in the Dark Ages. --2. The Arabian language. --3. Arabian Mythology and the Koran. --4. Historical Development of ArabianLiterature. --5. Grammar and Rhetoric. --6. Poetry. --7. The Arabian Tales. --8. History and Science. --9. Education. 

1. EUROPEAN LITERATURE IN THE DARK AGES. --The literature, arts, andsciences of the Arabs formed the connecting link between the civilizationsof ancient and modern times. To them we owe the revival of learning inWestern Europe, and many of the inventions and useful arts perfected bylater nations. 

From the middle of the sixth century A. D. To the beginning of theeleventh, the interval between the decline of ancient and the developmentof modern literature is known in history as the Dark Ages. The sudden riseof the Arabian Empire and the rapid development of its literature were thegreat events which characterize the period. 

At the beginning of this epoch classical genius was already extinct, andthe purity of the classical tongues was yielding rapidly to thecorruptions of the provinces and of the new dialects. Many other causesconspired to work great changes in the fabric of society, and in themanifestations of human intellect. Throughout this period the treasures ofGreek and Latin literature, exposed to the danger of perishing andimpaired by much actual loss, exerted no influence on the minds of thosewho still used the tongues to which they belong. Greek letters, as we haveseen, decayed with the Byzantine power, and the vital principle in bothbecame extinct long before the sword of the Turkish conqueror inflictedthe final blow. The fate of Latin literature was not less deplorable. Whenprovince after province of the Roman dominions was overrun by the northernhordes, when the imperial schools were suppressed and the monuments ofancient genius destroyed, an enfeebled people and a debased language couldnot withstand such adverse circumstances. During the seventh and eighthcenturies Latin composition degenerated into the rudeness of the monkishstyle. The care bestowed by Charlemagne upon education in the ninthcentury produced some purifying effect upon the writings of the cloister;the tenth was distinguished by an increased zeal in the task oftranscribing the classical authors, and in the eleventh the Latin works ofthe Normans display some masculine force and freedom. Latin was therepository of such knowledge as the times could boast; it was used in theservice of the church, and in the chronicles that supplied the place ofhistory, but it was not the vehicle of any great production stamped withtrue genius and impressing the minds of posterity. Still, genius was notaltogether extinguished in every part of Europe. The north, which sent outits daring tribes to change the aspect of civil life, furnished a freshsource of mental inspiration, which was destined, with the recoveredinfluence of the classic spirit and other prolific causes, to give birthto some of the best portions of modern literature. 

At the memorable epoch of the overthrow of the Roman dominion in the West(476 A. D. ), the seats of the Teutonic race extended from the banks of theRhine and the Danube to the rock-bound coasts of Norway. The victoriousinvaders who occupied the southern provinces of Europe speedily lost theirown forms of speech, which were broken down, together with those of thevanquished, into a jargon unfit for composition. But in Germany andScandinavia, where the old language retained its purity, song continued toflourish. There, from the most distant eras described by Tacitus and otherLatin writers, the favorite attendants of kings and chiefs were thosecelebrated bards who preserved in their traditionary strains the memory ofgreat events, the praises of the gods, the glory of warriors, and the lawsand customs of their countrymen. Intrusted, like the Grecian heroicminstrelsy, to oral recitation, it was not until the propitious reign ofCharlemagne that these verses were collected. But, through the bigotry ofhis successor or the ravages of time, not a fragment of this collectionremains. We are enabled, however, to form an idea of the general tone andtenor of this early Teutonic poetry from other interesting remains. The"Nibelungen-Lied" (_Lay of the Nibelungen_) and "Heldenbuch" (_Book ofHeroes_) may be regarded as the Homeric poems of Germany. After anexamination of their monuments, the ability of the ancient bards, thehonor in which they were held, and the enthusiasm which they produced, will not be surprising. 

Equally distinguished were the Scalds of Scandinavia. Ever in the train ofprinces and gallant adventurers, they chanted their rhymeless verse forthe encouragement and solace of heroes. Their oldest songs, or sagas, aremostly of a historical import. In the Icelandic Edda, however, the richestmonument of this species of composition, the theological element of theirpoetry is shadowed out in the most picturesque and fanciful legends. 

Such was the intellectual state of Europe down to the age of Charlemagne. While in the once famous seats of arts and arms scarcely a ray of nativegenius or courage was visible, the light of human intellect still burnedin lands whose barbarism had furnished matter for the sarcasm of classicalwriters. 

Charlemagne encouraged learning, established schools, and filled his courtwith men of letters; while in England, the illustrious Alfred, himself ascholar and an author, improved and enriched the Anglo-Saxon dialect, andexerted the most beneficial influence on his contemporaries. 

The confusion and debasement of language in the south of Europe hasalready been alluded to. But the force and activity of mind, that formedan essential characteristic of the conquering race, were destinedultimately to evolve regularity and harmony out of the concussion ofdiscordant elements. The Latin and Teutonic tongues were blended together, and hence proceeded all the chief dialects of modern Europe. Over thesouth, from Portugal to Italy, the Latin element prevailed; but even wherethe Teutonic was the chief ingredient, as in the English and German, therehas also been a large infusion of the Latin. To these two languages, andto the Provençal, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, called, fromtheir Roman origin, the Romance or Romanic languages, all that isprominent and precious in modern letters belongs. But it is not until theeleventh century that their progress becomes identified with the historyof literature. Up to this period there had been little repose, freedom, orpeaceful enjoyment of property. The independence and industry of themiddle classes were almost unknown, and the chieftain, the vassal, and theslave were the characters which stood out in the highest relief. Throughout the whole of the eleventh century, the social chaos seemedresolving itself into some approach to order and tranquillity. The gradualabolition of personal servitude, hardly accomplished in three successivecenturies, now began. A third estate arose. The rights of cities, and thecorporation-spirit, the result of the necessity that drove men to combinefor mutual defense, led to intercourse among them and to consequentimprovement in language. Chivalry, also, served to mitigate theoppressions of the nobles, and to soften and refine their manners. Fromthe date of the first crusade (1093 A. D. ) down to the close of the twelfthcentury, was the golden age of chivalry. The principal thrones of Europewere occupied by her foremost knights. The East formed a point of unionfor the ardent and adventurous of different countries, whose courteousrivalry stimulated the growth of generous sentiments and the passion forbrave deeds. The genius of Europe was roused by the passage of thousandsof her sons through Greece into Asia and Egypt, amidst the ancient seatsof art, science, and refinement; and the minds of men received a fresh andpowerful impulse. It was during the eleventh century that the brilliancyof the Arabian literature reached its culminating point, and, through theintercourse of the Troubadours with the Moors of the peninsula, and of theCrusaders with the Arabs in the East, began to influence the progress ofletters in Europe. 

2. THE ARABIAN LANGUAGE. --The Arabian language belongs to the Semiticfamily; it has two principal dialects--the northern, which has, forcenturies, been the general tongue of the empire, and is best representedin literature, and the southern, a branch of which is supposed to be themother of the Ethiopian language. The former, in degenerated dialects, isstill spoken in Arabia, in parts of western Asia, and throughout northernAfrica, and forms an important part of the Turkish, Persian, and otherOriental languages. The Arabic is characterized by its guttural sounds, bythe richness and pliability of its vowels, by its dignity, volume ofsound, and vigor of accentuation and pronunciation. Like all Semiticlanguages, it is written from right to left; the characters are of Syrianorigin, and were introduced into Arabia before the time of Mohammed. Theyare of two kinds, the Cufic, which were first used, and the Neskhi, whichsuperseded them, and which continue in use at the present day. The Arabicalphabet was, with a few modifications, early adopted by the Persians andTurks. 

3. ARABIAN MYTHOLOGY AND THE KORAN. --Before the time of Mohammed, theArabians were gross idolaters. They had some traditionary idea of theunity and perfections of the Deity, but their creed embraced an immensenumber of subordinate divinities, represented by images of men and women, beasts and birds. The essential basis of their religion was Sabeism, orstar-worship. The number and beauty of the heavenly luminaries, and thesilent regularity of their motions, could not fail deeply to impress theminds of this imaginative people, living in the open air, under the clearand serene sky, and wandering among the deserts, oases, and picturesquemountains of Arabia. They had seven celebrated temples dedicated to theseven planets. Some tribes exclusively reverenced the moon; others thedog-star. Some had received the religion of the Magi, or fire-worshipers, while others had become converts to Judaism. 

Ishmael is one of the most venerated progenitors of the nation; and it isthe common faith that Mecca, then an arid wilderness, was the spot wherehis life was providentially saved, and where Hagar, his mother, wasburied. The well pointed out by the angel, they believe to be the famousZemzem, of which all pious Mohammedans drink to this day. To commemoratethe miraculous preservation of Ishmael, God commanded Abraham to build atemple, and he erected and consecrated the Caaba, or sacred house, whichis still venerated in Mecca; and the black stone incased within its wallsis the same on which Abraham stood. 

Mohammed (569-632 A. D. ) did not pretend to introduce a new religion; hisprofessed object was merely to restore the primitive and only true faith, such as it had been in the days of the patriarchs; the fundamental idea ofwhich was the unity of God. He made the revelations of the Old and NewTestaments the basis of his preaching. He maintained the authority of thebooks of Moses, admitted the divine mission of Jesus, and he enrolledhimself in the catalogue of inspired teachers. This doctrine wasproclaimed in the memorable words, which for so many centuries constitutedthe war-cry of the Saracens, --_There is no God but God, and Mohammed ishis prophet_. Mohammed preached no dogmas substantially new, but headorned, amplified, and adapted to the ideas, prejudices, and inclinationsof the Orientals, doctrines which were as old as the race. He enjoined theablutions suited to the manners and necessities of hot climates. Heordained five daily prayers, that man might learn habitually to elevatehis thoughts above the outward world. He instituted the festival of theRamadan, and the pilgrimage to Mecca, and commanded that every man shouldbestow in alms the hundredth part of his possessions; observances which, for the most part, already existed in the established customs of thecountry. 

The Koran (Reading), the sacred book of the Mohammedans, is, according totheir belief, the revelation of God to their prophet Mohammed. It containsnot only their religious belief, but their civil, military, and politicalcode. It is divided into 114 chapters, and 1, 666 verses. It is written inrhythmical prose, and its materials are borrowed from the Jewish andChristian scriptures, the legends of the Talmud, and the traditions andfables of the Arabian and Persian mythologies. Confusion of ideas, obscurity, and contradictions destroy the unity and even the interest ofthis work. The chapters are preposterously distributed, not according totheir date or connection, but according to their length, beginning withthe longest, and ending with the shortest; and thus the work becomes oftenthe more unintelligible by its singular arrangement. But notwithstandingthis, there is scarcely a volume in the Arabic language which containspassages breathing more sublime poetry, or more enchanting eloquence; andthe Koran is so far important in the history of Arabian letters, that whenthe scattered leaves were collected by Abubeker, the successor of Mohammed(635 A. D. ) and afterwards revised, in the thirtieth year of the Hegira, they fixed at once the classic language of the Arabs, and became theirstandard in style as well as in religion. 

This work and its commentaries are held in the highest reverence by theMohammedans. It is the principal book taught in their schools; they nevertouch it without kissing it, and carrying it to the forehead, in token oftheir reverence; oaths before the courts are taken upon it; it is learnedby heart, and repeated every forty days; many believers copy it severaltimes in their lives, and often possess one or more copies ornamented withgold and precious stones. 

The Koran treats of death, resurrection, the judgment, paradise, and theplace of torment, in a style calculated powerfully to affect theimagination of the believer. The joys of paradise, promised to all whofall in the cause of religion, are those most captivating to an Arabianfancy. When Al Sirat, or the Bridge of Judgment, which is as slender asthe thread of a famished spider, and as sharp as the edge of a sword, shall be passed by the believer, he will be welcomed into the gardens ofdelight by black-eyed Houris, beautiful nymphs, not made of common clay, but of pure essence and odors, free from all blemish, and subject to nodecay of virtue or of beauty, and who await their destined lovers in rosybowers, or in pavilions formed of a single hollow pearl. The soil ofparadise is composed of musk and saffron, sprinkled with pearls andhyacinths. The walls of its mansions are of gold and silver; the fruits, which bend spontaneously to him who would gather them, are of a flavor anddelicacy unknown to mortals. Numerous rivers flow through this blissfulabode; some of wine, others of milk, honey, and water, the pebbly beds ofwhich are rubies and emeralds, and their banks of musk, camphor, andsaffron. In paradise the enjoyment of the believers, which is subjectneither to satiety nor diminution, will be greater than the humanunderstanding can compass. The meanest among them will have eightythousand servants, and seventy-two wives. Wine, though forbidden on earth, will there be freely allowed, and will not hurt or inebriate. Theravishing songs of the angels and of the Houris will render all the grovesvocal with harmony, such as mortal ear never heard. At whatever age theymay have died, at their resurrection all will be in the prime of manly andeternal vigor. It would be a journey of a thousand years for a trueMohammedan to travel through paradise, and behold all the wives, servants, gardens, robes, jewels, horses, camels, and other things, which belongexclusively to him. 

The hell of Mohammed is as full of terror as his heaven is of delight. Thewicked, who fall into the gulf of torture from the bridge of Al Sirat, will suffer alternately from cold and heat; when they are thirsty, boilingwater will be given them to drink; and they will be shod with shoes offire. The dark mansions of the Christians, Jews, Sabeans, Magians, andidolaters are sunk below each other with increasing horrors, in the orderof their names. The seventh or lowest hell is reserved for the faithlesshypocrites of every religion. Into this dismal receptacle the unhappysufferer will be dragged by seventy thousand halters, each pulled byseventy thousand angels, and exposed to the scourge of demons, whosepastime is cruelty and pain. 

It is a portion of the faith inculcated in the Koran, that both angels anddemons exist, having pure and subtle bodies, created of fire, and freefrom human appetites and desires. The four principal angels are Gabriel, the angel of revelation; Michael, the friend and protector of the Jews;Azrael, the angel of death; and Izrafel, whose office it will be to soundthe trumpet at the last day. Every man has two guardian angels to attendhim and record his actions, good and evil. The doctrine of the angels, demons, and jins or genii, the Arabians probably derived from the Hebrews. The demons are fallen angels, the prince of whom is _Eblis_; he was atfirst one of the angels nearest to God's presence, and was called_Azazel_. He was cast out of heaven, according to the Koran, for refusingto pay homage to Adam at the time of the creation. The genii areintermediate creatures, neither wholly spiritual nor wholly earthly, someof whom are good and entitled to salvation, and others infidels anddevoted to eternal torture. Among them are several ranks and degrees, asthe _Peris_, or fairies, beautiful female spirits, who seek to do goodupon the earth, and the _Deev_, or giants, who frequently make war uponthe Peris, take them captive, and shut them up in cages. The genii, bothgood and bad, have the power of making themselves invisible at pleasure. Besides the mountain o£ Kaf, which is their chief place of resort, theydwell in ruined cities, uninhabited houses, at the bottom of wells, inwoods, pools of water, and among the rocks and sandhills of the desert. Shooting stars are still believed by the people of the East to be arrowsshot by the angels against the genii, who transgress these limits andapproach too near the forbidden regions of bliss. Many of the geniidelight in mischief; they surprise and mislead travelers, raisewhirlwinds, and dry up springs in the desert. The _Ghoul_ lives on theflesh of men and women, whom he decoys to his haunts in wild and barrenplaces, in order to kill and devour them, and when he cannot thus obtainfood, he enters the graveyards and feeds upon the bodies of the dead. 

The fairy mythology of the Arabians was introduced into Europe in theeleventh century by the Troubadours and writers of the romances ofchivalry, and through them it became an important element in theliterature of Europe. It constituted the machinery of the _Fabliaux_ ofthe Trouvères, and of the romantic epics of Boccaccio, Ariosto, Tasso, Spenser, Shakspeare, and others. 

The three leading Mohammedan sects are the Sunnees, the Sheahs, and theWahabees. The Sunnees acknowledge the authority of the first Caliphs, fromwhom most of the traditions were derived. The Sheahs assert the divineright of Ali to succeed to the prophet; consequently they consider thefirst Caliphs, and all their successors, as usurpers. The Wahabees are asect of religious reformers, who took their name from Abd al Wahab (1700-1750), the Luther of the Mohammedans. They became a formidable power inArabia, but they were finally overcome by Ibrahim Pacha in 1816. 

4. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARABIAN LITERATURE. --The literature ofthe Arabians has, properly speaking, but one period; although from remoteantiquity poetry was with them a favorite occupation, and long before thetime of Mohammed the roving tribes of the desert had their annualconventions, where they defended their honor and celebrated their heroicdeeds. As early as the fifth century A. D. , at the fair of Ochadh, thirtydays every year were employed not only in the exchange of merchandise, butin the nobler display of rival talents. A place was set apart for thecompetitions of the bards, whose highest ambition was to conquer in thisliterary arena, and the victorious compositions were inscribed in goldenletters upon Egyptian paper, and suspended upon the doors of the Caaba, the ancient national sanctuary of Mecca. Seven of the most famous of theseancient poets have been celebrated by Oriental writers under the title ofthe Arabian Pleiades, and their songs, still preserved, are full ofpassion, manly pride, and intensity of imagination and feeling. These andsimilar effusions constituted the entire literature of Arabia, and werethe only archives of the nation previous to the age of Mohammed. 

The peninsula of Arabia, hitherto restricted to its natural boundaries, and peopled by wandering tribes, had occupied but a subordinate place inthe history of the world. But the success of Mohammed and the preaching ofthe Koran were followed by the union of the tribes who, inspired by thefeelings of national pride and religious fervor, in less than a centurymade the Arabian power, tongue, and religion predominant over a third partof Asia, almost one half of Africa, and a part of Spain; and, from theninth to the sixteenth century, the literature of the Arabians farsurpassed that of any contemporary nation. 

After the fall of the Roman empire in the fifth century A. D. , when thewestern world sank into barbarism, and the inhabitants, ever menaced byfamine or the sword, found full occupation in struggling against civilwars, feudal tyranny, and the invasion of barbarians; when poetry wasunknown, philosophy was proscribed as rebellion against religion, andbarbarous dialects had usurped the place of that beautiful Latin languagewhich had so long connected the nations of the West, and preserved to themso many treasures of thought and taste, the Arabians, who by theirconquests and fanaticism had contributed more than any other nation toabolish the cultivation of science and literature, having at lengthestablished their empire, in turn devoted themselves to letters. Mastersof the country of the magi and the Chaldeans, of Egypt, the firststorehouse of human science, of Asia Minor, where poetry and the fine artshad their birth, and of Africa, the country of impetuous eloquence andsubtle intellect--they seemed to unite in themselves the advantages of allthe nations which they had thus subjugated. Innumerable treasures had beenthe fruit of their conquests, and this hitherto rude and uncultivatednation now began to indulge in the most unbounded luxury. Possessed of allthe delights that human industry, quickened by boundless riches, couldprocure, with all that could flatter the senses and attach the heart tolife, they now attempted to mingle with these the pleasures of theintellect, the cultivation of the arts and sciences, and all that is mostexcellent in human knowledge. In this new career, their conquests were notless rapid than they had been in the field; nor was the empire which theyfounded less extended. With a celerity equally surprising, it rose to agigantic height, but it rested on a foundation no less insecure, and itwas quite as transitory in its duration. 

The Hegira, or flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, corresponds withthe year 622 of our era, and the supposed burning of the Alexandrianlibrary by Amrou, the general of the Caliph Omar, with the year 641. Thisis the period of the deepest barbarism among the Saracens, and this event, doubtful as it is, has left a melancholy proof of their contempt forletters. A century had scarcely elapsed from the period to which thisbarbarian outrage is referred, when the family of the Abassides, whomounted the throne of the Caliphs in 750, introduced a passionate love ofart, of science, and of poetry. In the literature of Greece, nearly eightcenturies of progressive cultivation succeeding the Trojan war hadprepared the way for the age of Pericles. In that of Rome, the age ofAugustus was also in the eighth century after the foundation of the city. In French literature, the age of Louis XIV. Was twelve centuriessubsequent to Clovis, and eight after the development of the firstrudiments of the language. But, in the rapid progress of the Arabianempire, the age of Al Mamoun, the Augustus of Bagdad, was not removed morethan one hundred and fifty years from the foundation of the monarchy. Allthe literature of the Arabians bears the marks of this rapid development. 

Ali, the fourth Caliph from Mohammed, was the first who extended anyprotection to letters. His rival and successor, Moawyiah, the first of theOmmyiades (661-680), assembled at his court all who were mostdistinguished by scientific acquirements; he surrounded himself withpoets; and as he had subjected to his dominion many of the Grecian islandsand provinces, the sciences of Greece under him first began to obtain anyinfluence over the Arabians. 

After the extinction of the dynasty of the Ommyiades, that of theAbassides bestowed a still more powerful patronage on letters. Thecelebrated Haroun al Raschid (786-809) acquired a glorious reputation bythe protection he afforded to letters. He never undertook a journeywithout carrying with him at least a hundred men of science in his train, and he never built a mosque without attaching to it a school. 

But the true protector and father of Arabic literature was Al Mamoun, theson of Haroun al Raschid (813-833), who rendered Bagdad the centre ofliterature. He invited to his court from every part of the world all thelearned men with whose existence he was acquainted, and he retained themby rewards, honors, and distinctions of every kind. He exacted, as themost precious tribute from the conquered provinces, all the importantbooks and literary relics that could be discovered. Hundreds of camelsmight be seen entering Bagdad, loaded with nothing but manuscripts andpapers, and those most proper for instruction were translated into Arabic. Instructors, translators, and commentators formed the court of Al Mamoun, which appeared to be rather a learned academy, than the seat of governmentin a warlike empire. The Caliph himself was much attached to the study ofmathematics, which he pursued with brilliant success. He conceived thegrand design of measuring the earth, which was accomplished by hismathematicians, at his own expense. Not less generous than enlightened, AlMamoun, when he pardoned one of his relatives who had revolted againsthim, exclaimed, "If it were known what pleasure I experience in grantingpardon, all who have offended against me would come and confess theircrimes. "

The progress of the Arabians in science was proportioned to the zeal ofthe sovereign. In every town of the empire schools, colleges, andacademies were established. Bagdad was the capital of letters as well asof the Caliphs, but Bassora and Cufa almost equaled that city inreputation, and in the number of celebrated poems and treatises that theyproduced. Balkh, Ispahan, and Samarcand were equally the homes of science. Cairo contained a great number of colleges; in the towns of Fez andMorocco the most magnificent buildings were appropriated to the purposesof instruction, and in their rich libraries were preserved those preciousvolumes which had been lost in other places. 

What Bagdad was to Asia, Cordova was to Europe, where, particularly in thetenth and eleventh centuries, the Arabs were the pillars of literature. Atthis period, when learning found scarcely anywhere either rest orencouragement, the Arabians were employed in collecting and diffusing itin the three great divisions of the world. Students traveled from Franceand other European countries to the Arabian schools in Spain, particularlyto learn medicine and mathematics. Besides the academy at Cordova, therewere established fourteen others in different parts of Spain, exclusive ofthe higher schools. The Arabians made the most rapid advancement in allthe departments of learning, especially in arithmetic, geometry, andastronomy. In the various cities of Spain, seventy libraries were openedfor public instruction at the period when all the rest of Europe, withoutbooks, without learning, without cultivation, was plunged in the mostdisgraceful ignorance. The number of Arabic authors which Spain producedwas so prodigious, that many Arabian bibliographers wrote learnedtreatises on the authors born in particular towns, or on those among theSpaniards who devoted themselves to a single branch of study, asphilosophy, medicine, mathematics, or poetry. Thus, throughout the vastextent of the Arabian empire, the progress of letters had followed that ofarms, and for five centuries this literature preserved all its brilliancy. 

5. GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC. --The perfection of the language was one of thefirst objects of the Arabian scholars, and from the rival schools of Cufaand Bassora a number of distinguished men proceeded, who analyzed with thegreatest subtlety all its rules and aided in perfecting it. As early as inthe age of Ali, the fourth Caliph, Arabian literature boasted of a numberof scientific grammarians. Prosody and the metric art were reduced tosystems. Dictionaries of the language were composed, some of which arehighly esteemed at the present day. Among these may be mentioned the "AlSehah, " or Purity, and "El Kamus, " or the Ocean, which is considered thebest dictionary of the Arabian language. The study of rhetoric was unitedto that of grammar, and the most celebrated works of the Greeks on thisart were translated and adapted to the Arabic. After the age of Mohammedand his immediate successors, popular eloquence was no longer cultivated. Eastern despotism having supplanted the liberty of the desert, the headsof the state or army regarded it beneath them to harangue the people orthe soldiers; they called upon them only for obedience. But thoughpolitical eloquence was of short duration among the Arabians, on the otherhand they were the inventors of that species of rhetoric most cultivatedat the present day, that of the academy and the pulpit. Their philosophersin these learned assemblies displayed all the measured harmony of whichtheir language was susceptible. Mohammed had ordained that his faithshould be preached in the mosques;--many of the harangues of these sacredorators are still preserved in the Escurial, and the style of them is verysimilar to that of the Christian orators. 

6. POETRY. --Poetry still more than eloquence was the favorite occupationof the Arabians from their origin as a nation. It is said that this peoplealone have produced more poets than all others united. Mohammed himself, as well as some of his first companions, cultivated this art, but it wasunder Haroun al Raschid and his successor, Al Mamoun, and more especiallyunder the Ommyïades of Spain that Arabic poetry attained its highestsplendor. But the ancient impetuosity of expression, the passionatefeeling, and the spirit of individual independence no longer characterizedthe productions of this period, nor is there among the numerousconstellations of Arabic poets any star of distinguished magnitude. Withthe exception of Mohammed and a few of the Saracen conquerors andsovereigns, there is scarcely an individual of this nation whose name isfamiliar to the nations of Christendom. 

The Arabians possess many heroic poems composed for the purpose ofcelebrating the praises of distinguished men, and of animating the courageof their soldiers. They do not, however, boast of any epics; their poetryis entirely lyric and didactic. They have been inexhaustible in their lovepoems, their elegies, their moral verses, --among which their fables may bereckoned, --their eulogistic, satirical, descriptive, and above all, theirdidactic poems, which have graced even the most abstruse science, asgrammar, rhetoric, and arithmetic. But among all their poems, thecatalogue alone of which, in the Escurial, consists of twenty-fourvolumes, there is not a single epic, comedy, or tragedy. 

In those branches of poetry which they cultivated they displayedsurprising subtlety and great refinement of thought, but the fame of theircompositions rests, in some degree, on their bold metaphors, theirextravagant allegories, and their excessive hyperboles. The Arabs despisedthe poetry of the Greeks, which appeared to them timid, cold, andconstrained, and among all the books, which, with almost superstitiousveneration, they borrowed from them, there is scarcely a single poem whichthey judged worthy of translation. The object of the Arabian poets was tomake a brilliant use of the boldest and most gigantic images, and toastonish the reader by the abruptness of their expressions. They burdenedtheir compositions with riches, under the idea that nothing which wasbeautiful could be superfluous. They neglected natural sentiment, and themore they could multiply the ornaments of art, the more admirable in theireyes did the work appear. 

The nations who possessed a classical poetry, in imitating nature, haddiscovered the use of the epic and the drama, in which the poet endeavorsto express the true language of the human heart. The people of the East, with the exception of the Hindus, never made this attempt--their poetry isentirely lyric; but under whatever name it may be known, it is alwaysfound to be the language of the passions. The poetry of the Arabians isrhymed like our own, and the rhyming is often carried still farther in theconstruction of the verse, while the uniformity of sound is frequentlyechoed throughout the whole expression. The collection made by Aboul Teman(fl. 845 A. D. ) containing the Arabian poems of the age anterior toMohammed, and that of Taoleti, which embraces the poems of the subsequentperiods, are considered the richest and most complete anthologies ofArabian poetry. Montanebbi, a poet who lived about 1050, has been comparedto the Persian Hafiz. 

7. THE ARABIAN TALES. --If the Arabs have neither the epic nor the drama, they have been, on the other hand, the inventors of a style of compositionwhich is related to the epic, and which supplies among them the place ofthe drama. We owe to them those tales, the conception of which is sobrilliant and the imagination so rich and varied: tales which have beenthe delight of our infancy, and which at a more advanced age we can neverread without feeling their enchantment anew. Every one is acquainted withthe "Arabian Nights Entertainments;" but in our translation we possess buta very small part of the Arabian collection, which is not confined merelyto books, but forms the treasure of a numerous class of men and women, who, throughout the East, find a livelihood in reciting these tales tocrowds, who delight to forget the present, in the pleasing dreams ofimagination. In the coffee-houses of the Levant, one of these men willgather a silent crowd around him, and picture to his audience thosebrilliant and fantastic visions which are the patrimony of Easternimaginations. The public squares abound with men of this class, and theirrecitations supply the place of our dramatic representations. Thephysicians frequently recommend them to their patients in order to soothepain, to calm agitation, or to produce sleep; and these story-tellers, accustomed to sickness, modulate their voices, soften their tones, andgently suspend them as sleep steals over the sufferer. 

The imagination of the Arabs in these tales is easily distinguished fromthat of the chivalric nations. The supernatural world is the same in both, but the moral world is different. The Arabian tales, like the romances ofchivalry, convey us to the fairy realms, but the human personages whichthey introduce are very dissimilar. They had their birth after theArabians had devoted themselves to commerce, literature, and the arts, andwe recognize in them the style of a mercantile people, as we do that of awarlike nation in the romances of chivalry. Valor and militaryachievements here inspire terror but no enthusiasm, and on this accountthe Arabian tales are often less noble and heroic than we usually expectin compositions of this nature. But, on the other hand, the Arabians areour masters in the art of producing and sustaining this kind of fiction. They are the creators of that brilliant mythology of fairies and geniiwhich extends the bounds of the world, and carries us into the realms ofmarvels and prodigies. It is from them that European nations have derivedthat intoxication of love, that tenderness and delicacy of sentiment, andthat reverential awe of women, by turns slaves and divinities, which haveoperated so powerfully on their chivalrous feelings. We trace theireffects in all the literature of the south, which owes to this cause itsmental character. Many of these tales had separately found their way intothe poetic literature of Europe, long before the translation of theArabian Nights. Some are to be met with in the old _fabliaux_, inBoccaccio, and in Ariosto, and these very tales which have charmed ourinfancy, passing from nation to nation through channels frequentlyunknown, are now familiar to the memory and form the delight of theimagination of half the inhabitants of the globe. 

The author of the original Arabic work is unknown, as is also the periodat which it was composed. It was first introduced into Europe from Syria, where it was obtained, in the latter part of the seventeenth century, byGalland, a French traveler, who was sent to the East by the celebratedColbert, to collect manuscripts, and by him first translated andpublished. 

8. HISTORY AND SCIENCE. --As early as the eighth century A. D. , historybecame an important department in Arabian literature. At later periods, historians who wrote on all subjects were numerous. Several authors wroteuniversal history from the beginning of the world to their own time; everystate, province, and city possessed its individual chronicle, Many, inimitation of Plutarch, wrote the lives of distinguished men; and there wassuch a passion for every species of composition, and such a desire toleave no subject untouched, that there was a serious history written ofcelebrated horses, and another of camels that had risen to distinction. They possessed historical dictionaries, and made use of all thoseinventions which curtail labor and dispense with the necessity ofresearch. Every art and science had its history, and of these this nationpossessed a more complete collection than any other, either ancient ormodern. The style of the Arabian historians is simple and unadorned. 

Philosophy was passionately cultivated by the Arabians, and upon it wasfounded the fame of many ingenious and sagacious men, whose names arestill revered in Europe. Among them were Averrhoes of Cordova (d. 1198), the great commentator on the works of Aristotle, and Avicenna (d. 1037), aprofound philosopher as well as a celebrated writer on medicine. Arabianphilosophy penetrated rapidly into the West, and had greater influence onthe schools of Europe than any branch of Arabic literature; and yet it wasthe one in which the progress was, in fact, the least real. The Arabians, more ingenious than profound, attached themselves rather to the subtletiesthan to the connection of ideas; their object was more to dazzle than toinstruct, and they exhausted their imaginations in search of mysteries. Aristotle was worshiped by them, as a sort of divinity. In their opinionall philosophy was to be found in his writings, and they explained everymetaphysical question according to the scholastic standard. 

The interpretation of the Koran formed another important part of theirspeculative studies, and their literature abounds with exegetic works ontheir sacred book, as well as with commentaries on Mohammedan law. Thelearned Arabians did not confine themselves to the studies which theycould only prosecute in their closets; they undertook, for the advancementof science, the most perilous journeys, and we owe to Aboul Feda (1273-1331) and other Arabian travelers the best works on geography written inthe Middle Ages. 

The natural sciences were cultivated by them with great ardor, and manynaturalists among them merit the gratitude of posterity. Botany andchemistry, of which they were in some sort the inventors, gave them abetter acquaintance with nature than the Greeks or Romans ever possessed, and the latter science was applied by them to all the necessary arts oflife. Above all, agriculture was studied by them with a perfect knowledgeof the climate, soil, and growth of plants. From the eighth to theeleventh century, they established medical schools in the principal citiesof their dominions, and published valuable works on medical science. Theyintroduced more simple principles into mathematics, and extended the useand application of that science. They added to arithmetic the decimalsystem, and the Arabic numerals, which, however, are of Hindu origin; theysimplified the trigonometry of the Greeks, and gave algebra more usefuland general applications. Bagdad and Cordova had celebrated schools ofastronomy, and observatories, and their astronomers made importantdiscoveries; a great number of scientific words are evidently Arabic, suchas algebra, alcohol, zenith, nadir, etc. , and many of the inventions, which at the present day add to the comforts of life, are due to theArabians. Paper, now so necessary to the progress of intellect, wasbrought by them from Asia. In China, from all antiquity, it had beenmanufactured from silk, but about the year 30 of the Hegira (649 A. D. ) themanufacture of it was introduced at Samarcand, and when that city wasconquered by the Arabians, they first employed cotton in the place ofsilk, and the invention spread with rapidity throughout their dominions. The Spaniards, in fabricating paper, substituted flax for cotton, whichwas more scarce and dear; but it was not till the end of the thirteenthcentury that paper mills were established in the Christian states ofSpain, from whence the invention passed, in the fourteenth century only, to Treviso and Padua. Tournaments were first instituted among theArabians, from whom they were introduced into Italy and France. Gunpowder, the discovery of which is generally attributed to a German chemist, wasknown to the Arabians at least a century before any trace of it appearedin European history. The compass, also, the invention of which has beengiven alternately to the Italians and French in the thirteenth century, was known to the Arabians in the eleventh. The number of Arabicinventions, of which we enjoy the benefit without suspecting it, isprodigious. 

Such, then, was the brilliant light which literature and science displayedfrom the ninth to the fourteenth century of our era in those vastcountries which had submitted to the yoke of Islamism. In this immenseextent of territory, twice or thrice as large as Europe, nothing is nowfound but ignorance, slavery, terror, and death. Few men are there capableof reading the works of their illustrious ancestors, and few who couldcomprehend them are able to procure them. The prodigious literary richesof the Arabians no longer exist in any of the countries where the Arabiansor Mussulmans rule. It is not there that we must seek for the fame oftheir great men or for their writings. What has been preserved is in thehands of their enemies, in the convents of the monks, or in the royallibraries of Europe. 

9. EDUCATION. --At present there is little education, in our sense of theword, in Arabia. In the few instances where public schools exist, writing, grammar, and rhetoric sum up the teaching. The Bedouin children learn fromtheir parents much more than is common in other countries. Great attentionis paid to accuracy of grammar and purity of diction throughout thecountry, and of late literary institutions have been established atBeyrout, Damascus, Bagdad, and Hefar. 

Such is the extent of Arabic literature, that, notwithstanding the laborsof European scholars and the productions of native presses, in Boulak andCairo, in India, and recently in England, where Hassam, an Arabian poet, has devoted himself to the production of standard works, the greater partof what has been preserved is still in manuscript and still more hasperished. 

ITALIAN LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Italian Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Dialects. --3. The Italian Language. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Latin Influence. --2. Early Italian Poetry and Prose. --3. Dante. --4. Petrarch. --5. Boccaccio and other Prose Writers. --6. FirstDecline of Italian Literature. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. The Close of the Fifteenth Century; Lorenzo de'Medici. --2. The Origin of the Drama and Romantic Epic; Poliziano, Pulci, Boiardo. --3. Romantic Epic Poetry; Ariosto. --4. Heroic Epic Poetry;Tasso. --5. Lyric Poetry; Bembo, Molza, Tarsia, V. Colonna. --6. DramaticPoetry; Trissino, Rucellai; the Writers of Comedy. --7. Pastoral Drama andDidactic Poetry; Beccari, Sannazzaro, Tasso, Guarini, Rucellai, Alamanni. --8. Satirical Poetry, Novels, and Tales; Berni, Grazzini, Firenzuola, Bandello, and others. --9. History; Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Nardi, andothers. --10. Grammar and Rhetoric; the Academy della Crusca, Della Casa, Speroni, and others. --11. Science, Philosophy, and Politics; the Academydel Cimento, Galileo, Torricelli, Borelli, Patrizi, Telesio, Campanella, Bruno, Castiglione, Machiavelli, and others. --12. Decline of theLiterature in the Seventeenth Century. --13. Epic and Lyric Poetry; Marini, Filicaja. --14. Mock Heroic Poetry, the Drama, and Satire; Tassoni, Bracciolini, Andreini, and others. --15. History and Epistolary Writings;Davila, Bentivoglio, Sarpi, Redi. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. Historical Development of the Third Period. --2. TheMelodrama; Rinuccini, Zeno, Metastasio. --3. Comedy; Goldoni, C. Gozzi, andothers. --4. Tragedy; Maffei, Alfieri, Monti, Manzoni, Nicolini, andothers. --5. Lyric, Epic, and Didactic Poetry; Parini, Monti, Ugo Foscolo, Leopardi, Grossi, Lorenzi, and others. --6. Heroic-Comic Poetry, Satire, and Fable; Fortiguerri, Passeroni, G. Gozzi, Parini, Giusti, and others. --7. Romances; Verri, Manzoni, D'Azeglio, Cantù, Guerrazzi, and others. --8. History; Muratori, Vico, Giannone, Botta, Colletta, Tiraboschi, andothers. --9. Aesthetics, Criticism, Philology, and Philosophy; Baretti, Parini, Giordani, Gioja, Romagnosi, Gallupi, Rosmini, Gioberti. --From 1860to 1885. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. ITALIAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --The fall of the Western Empire, the invasions of the northern tribes, and the subsequent wars andcalamities, did not entirely extinguish the fire of genius in Italy. As wehave seen, the Crusades had opened the East and revealed to Europe itsliterary and artistic treasures; the Arabs had established a celebratedschool of medicine in Salerno, and had made known the ancient classics; aschool of jurisprudence was opened in Bologna, where Roman law wasexpounded by eminent lecturers; and the spirit of chivalry, while itsoftened and refined human character, awoke the desire of distinction inarms and poetry. The origin of the Italian republics, giving scope toindividual agency, marked another era in civilization; while theappearance of the Italian language quickened the national mind and led toa new literature. The spirit of freedom, awakened as early as the eleventhcentury, received new life in the twelfth, when the Lombard cities, becoming independent, formed a powerful league against FrederickBarbarossa. The instinct of self-defense thus developed increased thenecessity of education. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, Italian literature acquired its national character and rose to its highestsplendor, through the writings of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, whoseinfluence has been more or less felt in succeeding centuries. 

The literary history of Italy may be divided into three periods, each ofwhich presents two distinct phases, one of progress and one of decline. The first period, extending from 1100 to 1475, embraces the origin of theliterature, its development through the works of Dante, Petrarch, andBoccaccio, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and its firstdecline in the fifteenth, when it was supplanted by the absorbing study ofthe Greek and Latin classics. 

The second period, commencing 1475, embraces the age of Lorenzo de' Mediciand Leo X. , when literature began to revive; the age of Ariosto, Tasso, Machiavelli, and Galileo, when it reached its meridian splendor; itssubsequent decline, through the school of Marini; and its last revivaltowards the close of the seventeenth century. 

The third period, extending from the close of the seventeenth century tothe present time, includes the development of Italian literature, itsdecline under French influence, and its subsequent national tendency, through the writings of Metastasio, Goldoni, Alfieri, Parini, Monti, Manzoni, and Leopardi. 

2. THE DIALECTS. --The dialects of the ancient tribes inhabiting thepeninsula early came in contact with the rustic Latin, and were mouldedinto new tongues, which, at a later period, were again modified by theinfluence of the barbarians who successively invaded the country. Thesetongues, elaborated by the action of centuries, are still in use, especially with the lower classes, and many of them have a literature oftheir own, with grammars and dictionaries. The more important of thesedialects are divided into three groups: 1st. The Northern, including theLigurian, Piedmontese, Lombard, Venetian, and Emilian. 2d. The Central, containing the Tuscan, Umbrian, the dialects of the Marches and of theRoman Provinces. 3d. The Southern, embracing those of the Neapolitanprovinces and of Sicily. Each is distinguished from the other and from thetrue Italian, although they all rest on a common basis, the rustic Latin, the plebeian tongue of the Romans, as distinct from the official andliterary tongue. 

3. THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. --The Tuscan or Florentine dialect, which earlybecame the literary language of Italy, was the result of the naturaldevelopment of the popular Latin and a native dialect probably akin to therustic Roman idiom. Tuscany suffering comparatively little from foreigninvasion, the language lost none of its purity, and remained free fromheterogeneous elements. The great writers, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, who appeared so early, promoted its perfection, secured its prevailinginfluence, and gave it a national character. Hence, in the literaturethere is no old Italian as distinct from the modern; the language of Dantecontinues to be that of modern writers, and becomes more perfect the moreit approaches the standard fixed by the great masters of the fourteenthcentury. Of this language it may he said that for flexibility, copiousness, freedom of construction, and harmony and beauty of sound, itis the most perfect of all the idioms of the Neo-Latin or Romanic tongues. 

PERIOD FIRST. 

FROM THE ORIGIN OF ITALIAN LITERATURE TO ITS FIRST DECLINE (1100-1475). 

1. LATIN INFLUENCE. --During the early part of the Middle Ages Latin wasthe literary language of Italy, and the aim of the best writers of thetime was to restore Roman culture. The Gothic kingdom of Ravenna, established by Theodoric, was the centre of this movement, under theinfluence of Cassiodorus, Boethius, and Symmachus. It was due to theprevailing affection for the memories of Rome, that through all the DarkAges the Italian mind kept alive a spirit of freedom unknown in othercountries of Europe, a spirit active, later, in the establishment of theItalian republics, and showing itself in the heroic resistance of thecommunes of Lombardy to the empire of the Hohenstaufens. While theliteratures of other countries were drawn almost exclusively from sacredand chivalric legends, the Italians devoted themselves to the study ofRoman law and history, to translations from the philosophers of Greece, and, above all, to the establishment of those great universities whichwere so powerful in extending science and culture throughout thePeninsula. 

While the Latin language was used in prose, the poets wrote in Provençaland in French, and many Italian troubadours appeared at the courts ofEurope. 

2. EARLY ITALIAN POETRY AND PROSE. --The French element became graduallylessened, and towards the close of the thirteenth century there arose theTuscan school of lyric poetry, the true beginning of Italian art, of whichLapo Gianni, Guido Cavalcanti, Cino da Pistoia, and Dante Alighieri werethe masters. It is mainly inspired by love, and takes a popular courtly orscholastic form. The style of Gianni had many of the faults of hispredecessors. That of Cavalcanti, the friend and precursor of Dante, showed a tendency to stifle poetic imagery under the dead weight ofphilosophy. But the love poems of Cino are so mellow, so sweet, somusical, that they are only surpassed by those of Dante, who, as theauthor of the "Vita Nuova, " belongs to this lyric school. In this book hetells the story of his love for Beatrice, which was from the first a highidealization in which there was apparently nothing human or earthly. Everything is super-sensual, aerial, heavenly, and the real Beatrice meltsmore and more into the symbolic, passing out of her human nature into thedivine. 

Italian prose writing is of a later date, and also succeeded a period whenItalian authors wrote in Latin and French. It consists chiefly ofchronicles, tales, and translations. 

3. DANTE (1265-1331). --No poet had yet arisen gifted with absolute powerover the empire of the soul; no philosopher had pierced into the depths offeeling and of thought, when Dante, the greatest name of Italy and thefather of Italian literature, appeared in the might of his genius, andavailing himself of the rude and imperfect materials within his reach, constructed his magnificent work. Dante was born in Florence, of the noblefamily of Alighieri, which was attached to the papal, or Guelph party, inopposition to the imperial, or Ghibelline. He was but a child when deathdeprived him of his father; but his mother took the greatest pains withhis education, placing him under the tuition of Brunetto Latini, and othermasters of eminence. He early made great progress, not only in anacquaintance with classical literature and politics, but in music, drawing, horsemanship, and other accomplishments suitable to his station. As he grew up, he pursued his studies in the universities of Padua, Bologna, and Paris. He became an accomplished scholar, and at the sametime appeared in public as a gallant and high-bred man of the world. Atthe age of twenty-five, he took arms on the side of the FlorentineGuelphs, and distinguished himself in two battles against the Ghibellinesof Arezzo and Pisa. But before Dante was either a student or a soldier, hehad become a lover; and this character, above all others, was impressedupon him for life. At a May-day festival, when only nine years of age, hehad singled out a girl of his own age, by the name of Bice, or Beatrice, who thenceforward became the object of his constant and passionateaffection, or the symbol of all human wisdom and perfection. Before histwenty-fifth year she was separated from him by death, but his passion wasrefined, not extinguished by this event; not buried with her body buttranslated with her soul, which was its object. On the other hand, theaffection of Beatrice for the poet troubled her spirit amid the bliss ofParadise, and the visions of the eternal world with which he was favoredwere a device of hers for reclaiming him from sin, and preparing him foreverlasting companionship with herself. 

At the age of thirty-five he was elected prior, or supreme magistrate ofFlorence, an honor from which he dates all his subsequent misfortunes. During his priorship, the citizens were divided into two factions calledthe Neri and Bianchi, as bitterly opposed to each other as both had beento the Ghibellines. In the absence of Dante on an embassy to Rome, apretext was found by the Neri, his opponents, for exciting the populaceagainst him. His dwelling was demolished, his property confiscated, himself and his friends condemned to perpetual exile, with the provisionthat, if taken, they should be burned alive. After a fruitless attempt, byhimself and his party, to surprise Florence, he quitted his companions indisgust, and passed the remainder of his life in wandering from one courtof Italy to another, eating the bitter bread of dependence, which wasgranted him often as an alms. The greater part of his poem was composedduring this period; but it appears that till the end of his life hecontinued to retouch the work. 

The last and most generous patron of Dante was Guido di Polenta, lord ofRavenna, and father of Francesca da Rimini, whose fatal love forms one ofthe most beautiful episodes of this poem. Polenta treated him, not as adependent but as an honored guest, and in a dispute with the Republic ofVenice he employed the poet as his ambassador, to effect a reconciliation;but he was refused even an audience, and, returning disappointed andbroken-hearted to Ravenna, he died soon after at the age of fifty-six, having been in exile nineteen years. 

His fellow-citizens, who had closed their hearts and their gates againsthim while living, now deeply bewailed his death; and, during the twosucceeding centuries, embassy after embassy was vainly sent from Florenceto recover his honored remains. Not long after his death, those who hadexiled him and confiscated his property provided that his poem should beread and expounded to the people in a church. Boccaccio was appointed tothis professorship. Before the end of the sixteenth century, the "DivineComedy" had gone through sixty editions. 

The Divine Comedy is one of the greatest monuments of human genius. It isan allegory conceived in the form of a vision, which was the most popularstyle of poetry at that age. At the close of the year 1300 Danterepresents himself as lost in a forest at the foot of a hill, nearJerusalem. He wishes to ascend it, but is prevented by a panther, a lion, and a she-wolf which beset the way. He is met by Virgil, who tells himthat he is sent by Beatrice as a guide through the realm of shadows, hell, and purgatory, and that she will afterwards lead him up to heaven. Theypass the gates of hell, and penetrate into the dismal region beyond. This, as represented by Dante, consists of nine circles, forming an invertedcone, of the size of the earth, each succeeding circle being lower andnarrower than the former, while Lucifer is chained in the centre and atthe bottom of the dreadful crater. Each circle contains various cavities, where the punishments vary in proportion to the guilt, and the sufferingincreases in intensity as the circles descend and contract. In the firstcircle were neither cries nor tears, but the eternal sighs of those who, having never received Christian baptism, were, according to the poet'screed, forever excluded from the abodes of bliss. In the next circle, appropriated to those whose souls had been lost by the indulgence ofguilty love, the poet recognizes the unhappy Francesca da Rimini, whosehistory forms one of the most beautiful episodes of the poem. The thirdcircle includes gluttons; the fourth misers and spendthrifts; eachsucceeding circle embracing what the poet deems a deeper shade of guilt, and inflicting appropriate punishment. The Christian and heathen systemsof theology are here freely interwoven. We have Minos visiting the StygianLake, where heretics are burning; we meet Cerberus and the harpies, and weaccompany the poet across several of the fabulous rivers of Erebus. Afearful scene appears in the deepest circle of the infernal abodes. Here, among those who have betrayed their country, and are entombed in eternalice, is Count Ugolino, who, by a series of treasons, had made himselfmaster of Pisa. He is gnawing with savage ferocity the skull of thearchbishop of that state, who had condemned him and his children to die bystarvation. The arch-traitor, Satan, stands fixed in the centre of helland of the earth. All the streams of guilt keep flowing back to him astheir source, and from beneath his threefold visage issue six giganticwings with which he vainly struggles to raise himself, and thus produceswinds which freeze him more firmly in the marsh. 

After leaving the infernal regions, and entering purgatory, they find animmense cone divided into seven circles, each of which is devoted to theexpiation of one of the seven mortal sins. The proud are overwhelmed withenormous weights; the envious are clothed in garments of horse-hair, theireye-lids closed; the choleric are suffocated with smoke; the indolent arecompelled to run about continually; the avaricious are prostrated upon theearth; epicures are afflicted with hunger and thirst; and the incontinentexpiate their crimes in fire. In this portion of the work, however, whilethere is much to admire, there is less to excite and sustain the interest. On the summit of the purgatorial mountain is the terrestrial paradise, whence is the only assent to the celestial. Beatrice, the object of hisearly and constant affection, descends hither to meet the poet. Virgildisappears, and she becomes his only guide. She conducts him through thenine heavens, and makes him acquainted with the great men who, by theirvirtuous lives, have deserved the highest enjoyments of eternity. In theninth celestial sphere, Dante is favored with a manifestation of divinity, veiled, however, by three hierarchies of attending angels. He sees theVirgin Mary, and the saints of the Old and New Testament, and by thesepersonages, and by Beatrice, all his doubts and difficulties are finallysolved, and the conclusion leaves him absorbed in the beatific vision. 

The allegorical meaning of the poem is hidden under the literal one. Dante, traveling through the invisible world, is a symbol of mankindaiming at the double object of temporal and eternal happiness. The foresttypifies the civil and religious confusion of society deprived of its twojudges, the pope and the emperor. The three beasts are the powers whichoffered the greatest obstacles to Dante's designs, Florence, France, andthe papal court. Virgil represents reason and the empire, and Beatricesymbolizes the supernatural aid, without which man cannot attain thesupreme end, which is God. 

But the merit of the poem is that for the first time classic art istransferred into a Romance form. Dante is, above all, a great artist. Whether he describes nature, analyzes passions, curses the vices, or singshymns to the virtues, he is always wonderful for the grandeur and delicacyof his art. He took his materials from mythology, history, and philosophy, but more especially from his own passions of hatred and love, breathedinto them the breath of genius and produced the greatest work of moderntimes. 

The personal interest that he brings to bear on the historicalrepresentation of the three worlds is that which most interests and stirsus. The Divine Comedy is not only the most lifelike drama of the thoughtsand feelings that moved men at that time, but it is also the mostspontaneous and clear reflection of the individual feelings of the poet, who remakes history after his own passions, and who is the real chastiserof the sins and rewarder of the virtues. He defined the destiny of Italianliterature in the Middle Ages, and began the great era of the Renaissance. 

4. PETRARCH. --Petrarch (1304-1374) belonged to a respected Florentinefamily. His father was the personal friend of Dante, and a partaker of thesame exile. While at Avignon, then the seat of the papal court, on oneoccasion he made an excursion to the fountain of Vaucluse, taking with himhis son, the future poet, then in the tenth year of his age. The wild andsolitary aspect of the place inspired the boy with an enthusiasm beyondhis years, leaving an impression which was never afterwards effaced, andwhich affected his future life and writings. As Petrarch grew up, unlikethe haughty, taciturn, and sarcastic Dante, he seems to have made friendswherever he went. With splendid talents, engaging manners, a handsomeperson, and an affectionate and generous disposition, he became thedarling of his age, a man whom princes delighted to honor. At the age oftwenty-three, he first met Laura de Sade in a church at Avignon. She wasonly twenty years of age, and had been for three years the wife of apatrician of that city. Laura was not more distinguished for her beautyand fortune than for the unsullied purity of her manners in a licentiouscourt, where she was one of the chief ornaments. The sight of her beautyinspired the young poet with an affection which was as pure and virtuousas it was tender and passionate. He poured forth in song the fervor of hislove and the bitterness of his grief. Upwards of three hundred sonnets, written at various times, commemorate all the little circumstances of thisattachment, and describe the favors which, during an acquaintance offifteen or twenty years, never exceeded a kind word, a look less severethan usual, or a passing expression of regret at parting. He was notpermitted to visit at Laura's house; he had no opportunity of seeing herexcept at mass, at the brilliant levees of the pope, or in privateassemblies of beauty and fashion: but she forever remained the dominantobject of his existence. He purchased a house at Vaucluse, and there, shutin by lofty and craggy heights, the river Sorgue traversing the valley onone side, amidst hills clothed with umbrageous trees, cheered only by thesong of birds, the poet passed his lonely days. Again and again he madetours through Italy, Spain, and Flanders, during one of which he wascrowned with the poet's laurel at Rome, but he always returned toVaucluse, to Avignon, to Laura. Thus years passed away. Laura became themother of a numerous family, and time and care made havoc of her youthfulbeauty. Meanwhile, the sonnets of Petrarch had spread her fame throughoutFrance and Italy, and attracted many to the court of Avignon, who weresurprised and disappointed at the sight of her whom they had believed tobe the loveliest of mortals. In 1347, during the absence of the poet fromAvignon, Laura fell a victim to the plague, just twenty-one years from theday that Petrarch first met her. Now all his love was deepened andconsecrated, and the effusions of his poetic genius became moremelancholy, more passionate, and more beautiful than ever. He declined theoffices and honors that his countrymen offered him, and passed his life inretirement. He was found one morning by his attendants dead in hislibrary, his head resting on a book. 

The celebrity of Petrarch at the present day depends chiefly on hislyrical poems, which served as models to all the distinguished poets ofsouthern Europe. They are restricted to two forms: the sonnet, borrowedfrom the Sicilians, and the canzone, from the Provençals. The subject ofalmost all these poems is the same--the hopeless affection of the poet forthe high-minded Laura. This love was a kind of religious and enthusiasticpassion, such as mystics imagine they feel towards the Deity, or such asPlato believes to be the bond of union between elevated minds. There is nopoet in any language more perfectly pure than Petrarch--more completelyabove all reproach of laxity or immorality. This merit, which is equallydue to the poet and to his Laura, is the more remarkable, considering themodels which he followed and the court at which Laura lived. The labor ofPetrarch in polishing his poems did much towards perfecting the language, which through him became more elegant and more melodious. He introducedinto the lyric poetry of Italy the pathos and the touching sweetness ofOvid and Tibullus, as well as the simplicity of Anacreon. 

Petrarch attached little value to his Italian poems; it was on his Latinworks that he founded his hopes of renown. But his highest title toimmortal fame is his prodigious labor to promote the study of ancientauthors. Wherever he traveled, he sought with the utmost avidity forclassic manuscripts, and it is difficult to estimate the effect producedby his enthusiasm. He corresponded with all the eminent literati of hisday, and inspired them with his own tastes. Now for the first time thereappeared a kind of literary republic in Europe united by the magic bond ofPetrarch's influence, and he was better known and exercised a moreextensive and powerful influence than many of the sovereigns of the day. He treated with various princes rather in the character of an arbitratorthan an ambassador, and he not only directed the tastes of his own age, but he determined those of succeeding generations. 

5. BOCCACCIO AND OTHER PROSE WRITERS. --The fourteenth century forms abrilliant era in Italian literature, distinguished beyond any other periodfor the creative powers of genius which it exhibited. In this century, Dante gave to Europe his great epic poem, the lyric muse awoke at the callof Petrarch, while Boccaccio created a style of prose, harmonious, flexible, and engaging, and alike suitable to the most elevated and to themost playful subjects. 

Boccaccio (1313-1875) was the son of a Florentine merchant; he early gaveevidence of superior talents, and his father vainly attempted to educatehim to follow his own profession. He resided at Naples, where he becameacquainted with a lady celebrated in his writings under the name ofFiammetta. It was at her desire that most of his early pieces werewritten, and the very exceptionable moral character which attaches to themmust be attributed, in part, to her depraved tastes. The source ofBoccaccio's highest reputation, and that which entitles him to rank as thethird founder of the national literature, is his "Decameron, " a collectionof tales written during the period when the plague desolated the south ofEurope, with a view to amuse the ladies of the court during that dreadfulvisitation. The tales are united under the supposition of a party of tenwho had retired to one of the villas in the environs of Naples to strive, in the enjoyment of innocent amusement, to escape the danger of contagion. It was agreed that each person should tell a new story during the space often days, whence the title Decameron. The description of the plague, inthe introduction, is considered not only the finest piece of writing fromBoccaccio's pen, but one of the best historical descriptions that havedescended to us. The stories, a hundred in number, are varied withconsiderable art, both in subject and in style, from the most pathetic andsportive to the most licentious. The great merit of Boccaccio'scomposition consists in his easy elegance, his _naïveté_, and, above all, in the correctness of his language. 

The groundwork of the Decameron has been traced to an old Hindu romance, which, after passing through all the languages of the East, was translatedinto Latin as early as the twelfth century; the originals of several ofthese tales have been found in the ancient French _Fabliaux_, while othersare believed to have been borrowed from popular recitation or from realoccurrences. But if Boccaccio cannot boast of being the inventor of all, or even any of these tales, he is still the father of this class of modernItalian literature, since he was the first to transplant into the world ofletters what had hitherto been only the subject of social mirth. Thesetales have in their turn been repeated anew in almost every language ofEurope, and have afforded reputations to numerous imitators. One of themost beautiful and unexceptionable tales in the Decameron is that of"Griselda, " the last in the collection. It is to be regretted that theauthor did not prescribe to himself the same purity in his images that hedid in his phraseology. Many of these tales are not only immoral butgrossly indecent, though but too faithful a representation of the mannersof the age in which they were written. The Decameron was published towardsthe middle of the fourteenth century; and, from the first invention ofprinting, it was freely circulated in Italy, until the Council of Trentproscribed it in the middle of the sixteenth century. It was, however, again published in 1570, purified and abridged. 

Boccaccio is the author of two romances, one called "Fiammetta, " the otherthe "Filocopo;" the former distinguished for the fervor of its expression, the latter for the variety of its adventures and incidents. He wrote alsotwo romantic poems, in which he first introduced the _ottava rima_, or thestanza composed of six lines, which rhyme interchangeably with each other, and are followed by a couplet. In these he strove to revive ancientmythology, and to identify it with modern literature. His Latincompositions are voluminous, and materially contributed to the advancementof letters. 

While Boccaccio labored so successfully to reduce the language to elegantand harmonious forms, he strove like Petrarch to excite his contemporariesto the study of the ancient classics. He induced the senate of Florence toestablish a professorship of Greek, entered his name among the first ofthe students, and procured manuscripts at his own expense. Thus Hellenicliterature was introduced into Tuscany, and thence into the rest ofEurope. 

Boccaccio, late in life, assumed the ecclesiastical habit, and entered onthe study of theology. When the Florentines founded a professorship forthe reading and exposition of the Divine Comedy, Boccaccio was made thefirst incumbent. The result of his labors was a life of Dante, and acommentary on the first seventeen cantos of the Inferno. With the death ofPetrarch, who had been his most intimate friend, his last tie to earth wasloosed; he died at Certaldo a few months later, in the sixty-third year ofhis age. His dwelling is still to be seen, situated on a hill, and lookingdown on the fertile and beautiful valley watered by the river Elsa. 

Of the other prose writers of the fourteenth century the most remarkableare the three Florentine historians named Villani, the eldest of whom(1310-1348) wrote a history of Florence, which was continued afterwards byhis brother and by his nephew; a work highly esteemed for its historicalinterest, and for its purity of language and style; and Franco Sacchetti(1335-1400), who approaches nearest to Boccaccio. His "Novels and Tales"are valuable for the purity and eloquence of their style, and for thepicture they afford of the manners of his age. 

Among the ascetic writers of this age St. Catherine of Siena occupies animportant place, as one who aided in preparing the way for the greatreligious movement of the sixteenth century. The writings of thisextraordinary woman, who strove to bring back the Church of Rome toevangelical virtue, are the strongest, clearest, most exalted religiousutterance that made itself heard in Italy in the fourteenth century. 

6. THE FIRST DECLINE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE. --The passionate study of theancients, of which Petrarch and Boccaccio had given an example, suspendedthe progress of Italian literature in the latter part of the fourteenthcentury, and through almost all the fifteenth. The attention of theliterary men of this time was wholly engrossed by the study of the deadlanguages, and of manners, customs, and religious systems equally extinct. They present to our observation boundless erudition, a just spirit ofcriticism, and nice sensibility to the beauties and defects of the greatauthors of antiquity; but we look in vain for that true eloquence which ismore the fruit of an intercourse with the world than of a knowledge ofbooks. They were still more unsuccessful in poetry, in which theirattempts, all in Latin, are few in number, and their verses harsh andheavy, without originality or vigor. It was not until the period whenItalian poetry began to be again cultivated, that Latin verse acquired anyof the characteristics of genuine inspiration. 

But towards the close of the fifteenth century the dawn of a new literaryera appeared, which soon shone with meridian light. At this time, theuniversities had become more and more the subjects of attention to thegovernments; the appointment of eminent professors, and the privilegesconnected with these institutions, attracted to them large numbers ofstudents, and the concourse was often so great that the lectures weredelivered in the churches and in public squares. Those republics whichstill existed, and the princes who had risen on the ruins of the moreephemeral ones, rivaled each other in their patronage of literary men; thepopes, who in the preceding ages had denounced all secular learning, nowbecame its munificent patrons; and two of them, Nicholas V. And Pius II. , were themselves scholars of high distinction. The Dukes of Milan, and theMarquises of Mantua and Ferrara, surrounded themselves in their capitalswith men illustrious in science and letters, and seemed to vie with eachother in the favors which they lavished upon them. In the hitherto freerepublic of Florence, which had given birth to Dante, Petrarch, andBoccaccio, literature found support in a family which, at no distantperiod, employed it to augment their power, and to rule the city with analmost despotic sway. The Medici had been long distinguished for thewealth they had acquired by commercial enterprise, and for the highoffices which they held in the republic. Cosmo de' Medici had acquired adegree of power which shook the very foundations of the state. He wasmaster of the moneyed credit of Europe, and almost the equal of the kingswith whom he negotiated; but in the midst of the projects of his ambitionhe opened his palace as an asylum to the scholars and artists of the age, turned its gardens into an academy, and effected a revolution inphilosophy by setting up the authority of Plato against that of Aristotle. His banks, which were scattered over Europe, were placed at the service ofliterature as well as commerce. His agents abroad sold spices and boughtmanuscripts; the vessels which returned to him from Constantinople, Alexandria, and Smyrna were often laden with volumes in the Greek, Syriac, and Chaldaic languages. Being banished to Venice, he continued hisprotection of letters, and on his return to Florence he devoted himselfmore than ever to the cause of literature. In the south of Italy, AlphonsoV. , and, indeed, all the sovereigns of that age, pursued the same course, and chose for their chancellors and ambassadors the same scholars whoeducated their sons and expounded the classics in their literary circles. 

This patronage, however, was confined to the progress of ancient letters, while the native literature, instead of redeeming the promise of itsinfancy, remained at this time mute and inglorious. Yet the resources ofpoets and orators were multiplying a thousand fold. The exaltedcharacters, the austere laws, the energetic virtues, the gracefulmythology, the thrilling eloquence of antiquity, were annihilating thepuerilities of the old Italian rhymes, and creating purer and noblertastes. The clay which was destined for the formation of great men wasundergoing a new process; a fresh mould was cast, the forms at firstappeared lifeless, but ere the end of the fifteenth century the breath ofgenius entered into them, and a new era of life began. 

PERIOD SECOND. 

REVIVAL OF ITALIAN LITERATURE AND ITS SECOND DECLINE (1476-1675). 

1. THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. --The first man who contributed tothe restoration of Italian poetry was Lorenzo de' Medici (1448-1492), thegrandson of Cosmo. In the brilliant society that he gathered around him, anew era was opened in Italian literature. Himself a poet, he attempted torestore poetry to the condition in which Petrarch had left it; althoughsuperior in some respects to that poet, he had less power ofversification, less sweetness, and harmony, but his ideas were morenatural, and his style was more simple. He attempted all kinds of poeticalcomposition, and in all he displayed the versatility of his talents andthe exuberance of his imagination. But to Lorenzo poetry was but anamusement, scarcely regarded in his brilliant political career. Heconcentrated in himself all the power of the republic--he was the arbiterof the whole political state of Italy, and from the splendor with which hesurrounded himself, and his celebrity, he received the title of Lorenzothe Magnificent. He continued to collect manuscripts, and to employlearned men to prepare them for printing. His Platonic Academy extendedits researches into new paths of study. The collection of antiquesculpture, the germ of the gallery of Florence, which had been establishedby Cosmo, he enriched, and gave to it a new destination, which was theoccasion of imparting fresh life and vigor to the liberal arts. Heappropriated a part of his gardens to serve as a school for the study ofthe antique, and placed his statues, busts, and other models of art in theshrubberies, terraces, and buildings. Young men were liberally paid forthe copies which they made while pursuing their studies. It was thisinstitution that kindled the flame of genius in the breast of MichaelAngelo, and to it must be attributed the splendor which was shed by thefine arts over the close of the fifteenth century, and which extendedrapidly from Florence throughout Italy, and over a great part of Europe. Among the friends of Lorenzo may be mentioned Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), one of the most prominent men of his age, who left in his Latin andItalian works monuments of his vast erudition and exuberant talent. 

The fifteenth century closed brightly on Florence, but it was otherwisethroughout Italy. Some of its princes still patronized the sciences, butmost of them were engaged in the intrigues of ambition; and the stormswhich were gathering soon burst on Florence itself. Shortly after thedeath of Lorenzo, nearly the whole of Italy fell under the rule of CharlesVIII. , and the voice of science and literature was drowned in the clash ofarms; military violence dispersed the learned men, and pillage destroyedor scattered the literary treasures. Literature and the arts, banishedfrom their long-loved home, sought another asylum. We find them again atRome, cherished by a more powerful and fortunate protector, Pope Leo X. , the son of Lorenzo (1475-1521). Though his patronage was confined to thefine arts and to the lighter kinds of composition, yet owing to theinfluence of the newly-invented art of printing, the discovery ofColumbus, and the Reformation, new energies were imparted to the age, theItalian mind was awakened from its slumber, and prepared for a new era inliterature. 

2. THE ORIGIN OF THE DRAMA AND ROMANTIC EPIC. --Among the giftedindividuals in the circle of Lorenzo, the highest rank may be assigned toPoliziano (1454-1494). He revived on the modern stage the tragedies of theancients, or rather created a new kind of pastoral tragedy, on which Tassodid not disdain to employ his genius. His "Orpheus, " composed within tendays, was performed at the Mantuan court in 1483, and may be considered asthe first dramatic composition in Italian. The universal homage paid toVirgil had a decided influence on this kind of poetry. His Bucolics werelooked upon as dramas more poetical than those of Terence and Seneca. Thecomedies of Plautus were represented, and the taste for theatricalperformances was eagerly renewed. In these representations, however, theobject in view was the restoration of the classics rather than theamusement of the public; and the new dramatists confined themselves to afaithful copy of the ancients. But the Orpheus of Poliziano caused arevolution. The beauty of the verse, the charm of the music, and thedecorations which accompanied its recital, produced an excitement offeeling and intellect that combined to open the way for the true dramaticart. 

At the same time, several eminent poets devoted their attention to thatstyle of composition which was destined to form the glory of Ariosto. Thetrouvères chose Charlemagne and his paladins as the heroes of their poemsand romances, and these, composed for the most part in French in thetwelfth and thirteenth centuries, were early circulated in Italy. Theirorigin accorded with the vivacity of the prevailing religious sentiment, the violence of the passions and the taste for adventures whichdistinguished the first crusades; while from the general ignorance of thetimes, their supernatural agency was readily admitted. But at the close ofthe fifteenth century, when the poets possessed themselves of these oldromances, in order to give a variety to the adventures of their heroes, the belief in the marvelous was much diminished, and they could not berecounted without a mixture of mockery. The spirit of the age did notadmit in the Italian language a subject entirely serious. He who madepretensions to fame was compelled to write in Latin, and the choice of thevulgar tongue was the indication of a humorous subject. The language haddeveloped since the time of Boccaccio a character of _naïveté_ mingledwith satire, which still remains, and which is particularly remarkable inAriosto. 

The "Morgante Maggiore" of Pulci (1431-1470) is the first of theseromantic poems. It is alternately burlesque and serious, and it aboundswith passages of great pathos and beauty. The "Orlando Innamorato" ofBoiardo (1430-1494) is a poem somewhat similar to that of Pulci. It was, however, remodeled by Berni, sixty years after the death of the author, and from the variety and novelty of the adventures, the richness of itsdescriptions, the interest excited by its hero, and the honor rendered tothe female sex, it excels the Morgante. 

3. ROMANTIC EPIC POETRY. --The romances of chivalry, which had been thusversified by Pulci and Boiardo, were elevated to the rank of epic poetryby the genius of Ariosto (1474-1533). He was born at Reggio, of whichplace his father was governor. As the means of improving his resources, heearly attached himself to the service of Cardinal D'Este, and afterwardsto that of the Duke of Ferrara. At the age of thirty years he commencedhis "Orlando Furioso, " and continued the composition for eleven years. While the work was in progress, he was in the habit of reading the cantos, as they were finished, at the courts of the cardinal and duke, which mayaccount for the manner in which this hundred-fold tale is told, as ifdelivered spontaneously before scholars and princes, who assembled tolisten to the marvelous adventures of knights and ladies, giants andmagicians, from the lips of the story-teller. Ariosto excelled in thepractice of reading aloud with distinct utterance and animated elocution, an accomplishment of peculiar value at a time when books were scarce, andthe emoluments of authors depended more on the gratuities of their patronsthan the sale of their works. In each of the four editions which hepublished, he improved, corrected, and enlarged the original. No poet, perhaps, ever evinced more fastidious taste in adjusting the nicer pointsthat affected the harmony, dignity, and fluency of his composition, yetthe whole seems as natural as if it had flowed extemporaneously from hispen. Throughout life it was the lot of Ariosto to struggle against thedifficulties inseparable from narrow and precarious circumstances. Hispatrons, among them Leo X. , were often culpable in exciting expectations, and afterwards disappointing them. The earliest and latest works ofAriosto, though not his best, were dramatic. He wrote also some satires inthe form of epistles. He died in the fifty-eighth year of his age, and hisashes now rest under the magnificent monument in the new church of theBenedictines in Ferrara. The house in which the poet lived, the chair inwhich he was wont to study, and the inkstand whence he filled his pen, arestill shown as interesting memorials of his life and labors. 

Ariosto, like Pulci and Boiardo, undertook to sing the paladins and theiramours at the court of Charlemagne, during the fabulous wars of thisemperor against the Moors. In his poem he seems to have designedly thrownoff the embarrassment of a unity of action. The Orlando Furioso is foundedon three principal narratives, distinct but often intermingled; thehistory of the war between Charlemagne and the Saracens, Orlando's lovefor Angelica, his madness on hearing of her infidelity, and Ruggiero'sattachment to Bradamante. These stories are interwoven with so manyincidents and episodes, and there is in the poem such a prodigiousquantity of action, that it is difficult to assign it a central point. Indeed, Ariosto, playing with his readers, seems to delight in continuallymisleading them, and allows them no opportunity of viewing the generalsubject of the poem. This want of unity is essentially detrimental to thegeneral impression of the work, and the author has succeeded in throwingaround its individual parts an interest which does not attach to it as awhole. The world to which the poet transports his readers is truly poetic;all the factitious wants of common life, its cold calculations and itsimaginary distinctions, disappear; love and honor reign supreme, and theprompting of the one and the laws of the other are alone permitted tostimulate and regulate a life, of which war is the only business andgallantry the only pastime. The magic and sorcery, borrowed from the East, which pervade these chivalric fictions, lead us still farther from theworld of realities. Nor is it the least charm that all the wonders andprodigies here related are made to appear quite probable from theapparently artless, truthful style of the narration. The versification ofthe Orlando is more distinguished for sweetness and elegance than forstrength; but, in point of harmony, and in the beauty, pathos, and graceof his descriptions, no poet surpasses Ariosto. 

4. HEROIC EPIC POETRY. --While, in the romantic epic of the Middle Ages, unity of design was considered unnecessary, and truthfulness of detail, fertility of imagination, strength of coloring, and vivacity of narrationwere alone required, heroic poetry was expected to exhibit, on the mostextensive scale, those laws of symmetry which adapt all the parts to oneobject, which combine variety with unity, and, as it were, initiate usinto the secrets of creation, by disclosing the single idea which governsthe most dissimilar actions, and harmonizes the most opposite interests. It was reserved to Torquato Tasso to raise the Italian language to thiskind of epic poetry. 

Tasso (1544-1595) was born in Sorrento, and many marvels are told by hisbiographers of the precocity of his genius. Political convulsions earlydrove his father into exile. He went to Rome and sent for his son, thenten years of age. When the exiles were no longer safe at Rome, an asylumwas offered them at Pesaro by the Duke of Urbino. Here young Tasso pursuedhis studies in all the learning and accomplishments of the age. In hisseventeenth year he had completed the composition of an epic poem on theadventures of Rinaldo, which was received with passionate admirationthroughout Italy. The appearance of this poem proved not only thebeginning of the author's fame, but the dawn of a new day in Italianliterature. In 1565, Tasso was nominated by the Cardinal D'Este asgentleman of his household, and his reception at the court was in everyrespect most pleasing to his youthful ambition. He was honored by theintimate acquaintance of the accomplished princesses Lucretia and Leonora, and to this dangerous friendship must be attributed most of his subsequentmisfortunes, if it be true that he cherished a secret attachment forLeonora. 

During this prosperous period of his life, Tasso prosecuted his great epicpoem, the "Jerusalem Delivered, " and as canto after canto was completedand recited to the princesses, he found in their applause repeatedstimulus to proceed. While steadily engaged in his great work, his fancygave birth to numerous fugitive poems, the most remarkable of which is the"Aminta. " After its representation at the court of Ferrara, all Italyresounded with the poet's fame. It was translated into all the languagesof Europe, and the name of Tasso would have been immortal even though hehad never composed an epic. The various vexations he endured regarding thepublication of his work at its conclusion, the wrongs he suffered fromboth patrons and rivals, together with disappointed ambition, rendered himthe subject of feverish anxiety and afterwards the prey of restless fearand continual suspicion. His mental malady increased, and he wandered fromplace to place without finding any permanent home. Assuming the disguiseof a shepherd, he traveled to Sorrento, to visit his sister; but soon, tired of seclusion, he obtained permission to return to the court ofFerrara. He was coldly received by the duke, and was refused an interviewwith the princesses. He left the place in indignation, and wandered fromone city of Italy to another, reduced to the appearance of a wretcheditinerant, sometimes kindly received, sometimes driven away as a vagabond, always restless, suspicious, and unhappy. In this mood he again returnedto Ferrara, at a moment when the duke was too much occupied with thesolemnities of his own marriage to attend to the complaints of the poet. Tasso became infuriated, retracted all the praises he had bestowed on thehouse of Este, and indulged in the bitterest invectives against the duke, by whose orders he was afterwards committed to the hospital for lunatics, where he was closely confined, and treated with extreme rigor. If he hadnever been insane before, he certainly now became so. To add to hismisfortune, his poem was printed without his permission, from an imperfectcopy, and while editors and printers enriched themselves with the fruit ofhis labors, the poet himself was languishing in a dungeon, despised, neglected, sick, and destitute of the common conveniences of life, andabove all, deafened by the frantic cries with which the hospitalcontinually resounded. When the first rigors of his imprisonment wererelaxed, Tasso pursued his studies, and poured forth his emotions in everyform of verse. Some of his most beautiful minor poems were composed duringthis period. After more than seven years' confinement, the poet wasliberated at the intercession of the Duke of Mantua. Prom this time hewandered from city to city; the hallucinations of his mind never entirelyceased. Towards the close of the year 1594 he took up his residence atRome, where he died at the age of fifty-two. 

Tasso was particularly happy in choosing the most engaging subject thatcould inspire a modern poet--the struggle between the Christians and theSaracens. The Saracens considered themselves called on to subjugate theearth to the faith of Mohammed; the Christians to enfranchise the sacredspot where their divine founder suffered death. The religion of the agewas wholly warlike. It was a profound, disinterested, enthusiastic, andpoetic sentiment, and no period has beheld such a brilliant display ofvalor. The belief in the supernatural, which formed a strikingcharacteristic of the time, seemed to have usurped the laws of nature andthe common course of events. 

The faith against which the crusaders fought appeared to them the worshipof the powers of darkness. They believed that a contest might existbetween invisible beings as between different nations, and when Tassoarmed the dark powers of enchantment against the Christian knights, heonly developed and embellished a popular idea. 

The scene of the Jerusalem Delivered, so rich in recollections andassociations with all our religious feelings, is one in which naturedisplays her riches and treasures, and where descriptions, in turn themost lovely and the most austere, attract the pen of the poet. All thenations of Christendom send forth their warriors to the army of the cross, and the whole world thus becomes his patrimony. Whatever interest thetaking of Troy might possess for the Greeks, or the vanity of the Romansmight attach to the adventures of AEneas, whom they adopted as theirprogenitor, it may be asserted that neither the Iliad nor the Aeneidpossesses the dignity of subject, the interest at the same time divine andhuman, and the varied dramatic action which are peculiar to the JerusalemDelivered. 

The whole course of the poem is comprised in the campaign of 1093, whenthe Christian army, assembled on the plain of Tortosa, marched towardsJerusalem, which they besieged and captured. From the commencement of thepoem, the most tender sentiments are combined with the action, and lovehas been assigned a nobler part than had been given to it in any otherepic poem. Love, enthusiastic, respectful, and full of homage, was anessential characteristic of chivalry and the source of the noblestactions. While with the heroes of the classic epic it was a weakness, withthe Christian knights it was a devotion. In this work are happily combinedthe classic and romantic styles. It is classic in its plan, romantic inits heroes; it is conceived in the spirit of antiquity, and executed inthe spirit of medieval romance. It has the beauty which results from unityof design and from the harmony of all its parts, united with the romanticform, which falls in with the feelings, the passions, and therecollections of Europeans. Notwithstanding some defects, which must beattributed rather to the taste of his age than to his genius, in thehistory of literature Tasso may be placed by the side of Homer and Virgil. 

5. LYRIC POETRY. --Lyric poetry, which had been brought to such perfectionby Petrarch in the fourteenth century, but almost lost sight of in thefifteenth, was cultivated by all the Italian poets of this period. Petrarch became the model, which every aspirant endeavored to imitate. Hence arose a host of poetasters, who wrote with considerable elegance, but without the least power of imagination. We must not, however, confoundwith the servile imitators of Petrarch those who took nothing from hisschool but purity of language and elegance of style, and who consecratedthe lyre not to love alone, but to patriotism and religion. First of theseare Poliziano and Lorenzo de' Medici, in whose ballads and stanzas thelanguage of Petrarch reappeared with all its beauty and harmony. Later, Cardinal Bembo (1470-1547), Molza (1489-1544), Tarsia (1476-1535), Guidiccioni (1480-1541), Della Casa (1503-1556), Costanzo (1507-1585), andlater still, Chiabrera (1552-1637), attempted to restore Italian poetry toits primitive elegance. Their sonnets and canzoni contributed much to therevival of a purer style, although their elegance is often too elaborateand their thoughts and feelings too artificial. Besides these, Ariosto, Tasso, Machiavelli, and Michael Angelo, whose genius was practiced in moreambitious tasks, did not disdain to shape and polish such diminutive gemsas the canzone, the madrigal, and the sonnet. 

This reform of taste in lyric composition was also promoted by severalwomen, among whom the most distinguished at once for beauty, virtue, andtalent was Vittoria Colonna (1490-1547). She was daughter of the highconstable of Naples, and married to the Marquis of Pescara. Early left awidow, she abandoned herself to sorrow. That fidelity which made herrefuse the hand of princes in her youth, rendered her incapable of asecond attachment in her widowhood. The solace of her life was to mournthe loss and cherish the memory of Pescara. After passing several years inretirement, Vittoria took up her residence at Rome, and became theintimate friend of the distinguished men of her time. Her verses, thoughdeficient in poetic fancy, are full of tenderness and absorbing passion. Vittoria Colonna was reckoned by her contemporaries as a being almost morethan human, and the epithet divine was usually prefixed to her name. Byher death-bed stood Michael Angelo, who was considerably her junior, butwho enjoyed her friendship and regarded her with enthusiastic veneration. He wrote several sonnets in her praise. Veronica Gambara, Tulliad'Aragona, and Giulia Gonzaga may also be named as possessing superiorgenius to many literary men of their time. 

6. DRAMATIC POETRY. --Tragedy, in the hands of the Romans, had exhibited nonational characteristics, and disappeared with the decline of theirliterature. When Europe began to breathe again, the natural taste of themultitude for games and spectacles revived; the church entertained thepeople with its representations, which, however, were destitute of allliterary character. At the commencement of the fourteenth century we findtraces of Latin tragedies, and these, during the fifteenth century, werefrequently represented, as we have seen, more as a branch of ancient artand learning than as matter of recreation. After the "Orpheus" ofPoliziano had appeared on the stage, the first drama in the Italiantongue, Latin tragedies and comedies were translated into the Italian, butas yet no one had ventured beyond mere translation. 

Leo X. Shed over the dramatic art the same favor which he bestowed on theother liberal arts, and the theatricals of the Vatican were of the mostsplendid description. During his pontificate, Trissino (1478-1550)dedicated to him the tragedy of "Sofonisba, " formed on the Greek model, the first regular tragedy which had appeared since the revival of letters. Its subject is found entire in the work of Livy, and the invention of thepoet has added little to the records of the historian. The piece is notdivided into acts and scenes, and the only repose given to the action isby the chorus, who sing odes and lyric stanzas. The story is wellconducted, the characters are all dramatic, and the incidents arisespontaneously out of each other; but the style of the tragedy has neitherthe sublimity nor the originality which becomes this kind of composition, and which distinguished the genius of the dramatic poets of Athens. 

The example of Trissino was followed by Rucellai (1475-1525), who left twodramas, "Rosamunda" and "Orestes, " written in blank verse, with a chorus, much resembling the Greek tragedies. This poet used much more license withhis subject than Trissino; his plot is less simple and pathetic, butabounds in horror, and his style is florid and rhetorical. Tasso, Speroni(1500-1588), Giraldi (1504-1573), and others, attempted also this speciesof composition, and their dramas are considered the best of the age. 

As the tragic poets of this century servilely imitated Sophocles andEuripides, the comic writers copied Plautus and Terence. The comedies ofAriosto, of which there are five, display considerable ingenuity ofinvention and an elegant vivacity of language. The dramatic works ofMachiavelli approach more nearly to the middle comedy of the Greeks. Theydepict and satirize contemporaneous rather than obsolete manners, but thecharacters and plots awaken little interest. 

Bentivoglio (1506-1573), Salviati (1540-1589), Firenzuola (1493-1547), Caro (1507-1566), Cardinal Bibiena, (1470-1520), Aretino (1492-1556), andothers, are among the principal comic writers of the age, who displayedmore or less dramatic talent. Of all the Italian comedies composed in thesixteenth century, however, scarcely one was the work of eminent genius. Aspecies of comic drama, known under the name of _Commedia dell' arte_, took its rise in this century. The characteristic of these plays is thatthe story only belongs to the poet, the dialogue being improvised by theactors. The four principal characters, denominated masks, were_Pantaloon_, a merchant of Venice, a doctor of laws from Bologna, and twoservants, known to us as _Harlequin_ and _Columbine_. When we add to thesea couple of sons, one virtuous and the other profligate; a couple ofdaughters, and a pert, intriguing chambermaid, we have nearly the whole_dramatis personae_ of these plays. The extempore dialogue by which theplot was developed was replete with drollery and wit, and there was no endto the novelty of the jests. 

7. PASTORAL DRAMA AND DIDACTIC POETRY. --The pastoral drama, whichdescribes characters and passions in their primitive simplicity, is thusdistinguished from tragedy and comedy. It is probable that the idyls ofthe Greeks afforded the first germ of this species of composition, butBeccari, a poet of Ferrara (1510-1590), is considered the father of thegenuine pastoral drama. Before him Sannazzaro (1458-1530) had written the"Arcadia, " which, however, bears the character of an eclogue rather thanthat of a drama. It is written in the choicest Italian; its versificationis melodious, and it abounds with beautiful descriptions; as an imitationof the ancients, it is entitled to the highest rank. The beauty of theItalian landscape and the softness of the Italian climate seem naturallyfitted to dispose the poetic soul to the dreams of rural life, and thelanguage seems, by its graceful simplicity, peculiarly adapted to expressthe feelings of a class of people whom we picture to ourselves asingenuous and infantine in their natures. The manners of the Italianpeasantry are more truly pastoral than those of any other people, and abucolic poet in that fair region need not wander to Arcadia. ButSannazzaro, like all the early pastoral poets of Italy, proposed tohimself, as the highest excellence, a close imitation of Virgil; he tookhis shepherds from the fabulous ages of antiquity, borrowed the mythologyof the Greeks, and completed the machinery with fauns, nymphs, and satyrs. Like Sannazzaro, Beccari places his shepherds in Arcadia, and invests themwith ancient manners; but he goes beyond mere dialogue; he connects theirconversations by a series of dramatic actions. The representation of oneof these poems incited Tasso to the composition of his "Aminta, " thesuccess of which was due less to the interest of the story than to thesweetness of the poetry, and the soft voluptuousness which breathes inevery line. It is written in flowing verse of various measures, withoutrhyme, and enriched with lyric choruses of uncommon beauty. 

The imitations of the Aminta were numerous, but, with one exception, whichhas disputed the palm with its model, they had an ephemeral existence. Guarini (1537-1612) was the author of the "Pastor Fido, " which is theprincipal monument of his genius; its chief merit lies in the poetry inwhich the tale is embodied, the simplicity and clearness of the diction, the tenderness of the sentiments, and the vehement passion which giveslife to the whole. This drama was first performed in 1585, at Turin, during the nuptial festivities of the Prince of Savoy. Its success wastriumphant, and Guarini was justly considered as second only to Tassoamong the poets of the age. Theatrical music, which was now beginning tobe cultivated, found its way into the acts of the pastoral drama, and inone scene of the Pastor Fido it is united with dancing; thus was openedthe way for the Italian opera. 

Among the didactic poets, Rucellai may be first mentioned. His poem of"The Bees" is an imitation of the fourth book of the Georgics; he doesnot, however, servilely follow his model, but gives an original coloringto that which he borrowed. Alamanni (1495-1556) occupies a secondary rankamong epic, tragic, and comic poets, but merits a distinguished place indidactic poetry. His poem entitled "Cultivation" is pure and elegant inits style. 

8. SATIRICAL POETRY, NOVELS, AND TALES. --In an age when every kind ofpoetry that had flourished among the Greeks and Romans appeared again withnew lustre, satire was not wanting. There is much that is satirical in the"Divine Comedy" of Dante. Three of Petrarch's sonnets are satires on thecourt of Rome; those of Ariosto are valuable not only for their flowingstyle, but for the details they afford of his character, taste, andcircumstances. The satires of Alamanni are chiefly political, and ingeneral are characterized by purity of diction and by a high moraltendency. 

There is a kind of jocose or burlesque satire peculiar to Italy, in whichthe literature is extremely rich. If it serves the cause of wisdom, it isalways in the mask of folly. The poet who carried this kind of writing tothe highest perfection was Berni (1499-1536). Comic poetry, hitherto knownin Italy as burlesque, of which Burchiello was the representative in thefifteenth century, received from Berni the name of Bernesque, in its morerefined and elegant character. His satirical poems are full of light andelegant mockery, and his style possesses nature and comic truth. In hishand, everything was transformed into ridicule; his satire is almostalways personal, and his laughter is not always restrained by respect formorals or for decency. To burlesque poetry may be referred also theMacaronic style, a ludicrous mixture of Latin and Italian, introduced byMerlino Coccajo (1491-1544). His poems are as full of lively descriptionsand piquant satire as they are wanting in decorum and morality. 

The story-tellers of the sixteenth century are numerous. Sometimes theyappear as followers of Boccaccio; sometimes they attempt to open new pathsfor themselves. The class of productions, of which the "Decameron" was theearliest example in the fourteenth century, is called by the Italians"Novelle. " In general, the interest of the tale depends rather on a numberof incidents slightly touched, than on a few carefully delineated; fromthe difficulty of developing character in a few isolated scenes, thestory-teller trusts for effect to the combination of incident and style, and the delineation of character, which is the nobler part of fiction, isneglected. Italian novelists, too, have often regarded the incidentsthemselves but as a vehicle for fine writing. An interesting view of theseproductions is, that they form a vast repository of incident, in which werecognize the origin of much that has since appeared in our own and otherlanguages. 

Machiavelli was one of the first novelists of this age. His little tale, "Belfagor, " is pleasantly told, and has been translated into alllanguages. The celebrated "Giulietta" of Luigi da Porta is the soleproduction of the author, but it has served to give him a high place amongItalian novelists. This is Shakspeare's Romeo and Juliet in another shape, though it is not probable that it was the immediate source from which thegreat dramatist collected the materials for his tragedy. The "HundredTales" of Cinzio Giraldi (1504-1573) are distinguished by great boldnessof conception, and by a wild and tragic horror which commands theattention, while it is revolting to the feelings. He appears to haveransacked every age and country, and to have exhausted the catalogue ofhuman crimes in procuring subjects for his novels. 

Grazzini, called Lasca (1503-1583), is perhaps the best of the Italiannovelists after Boccaccio. His manner is light and graceful. His storiesdisplay much ingenuity, but are often improbable and cruel in theirnature. The Fairy Tales of Strapparola (b. 1500) are the earliestspecimens of the kind in the prose literature of Italy, and this work hasbeen a perfect storehouse from which succeeding writers have derived avast multitude of their tales. To this, also, we are indebted for thelegend of "Fair Star, " "Puss in Boots, " "Fortunio, " and others which adornour nursery libraries. 

Firenzuola (1493-1547) occupies a high rank among the Italian novelists;his "Golden Ass, " from Apuleius, and his "Discourses of Animals" aredistinguished for their originality and purity of style. 

Bandello (1480-1562) is the novelist best known to foreigners afterBoccaccio. Shakspeare and other English dramatists have drawn largely fromhis voluminous writings. His tales are founded upon history rather thanfancy. 

9. HISTORY. --Historical composition was cultivated with much success bythe Italians of the sixteenth century; yet such was the altered state ofthings, that, except at Venice and Genoa, republics had been superseded byprinces, and republican authority by the pomp of regal courts. Home was anest of intrigue, luxury, and corruption; Tuscany had become the prey of apowerful family; Lombardy was but a battle-field for the rival powers ofFrance and Germany, and the lot of the people was oppression andhumiliation. High independence of mind, one of the most valuable qualitiesin connection with historical research, was impossible under thesecircumstances, and yet, some of the Italian writers of this age exhibitgenius, strength of character, and a conscientious sense of the sacredcommission of the historian. 

Machiavelli (1469-1527) was born in Florence of a family which had enjoyedthe first offices in the republic. At the age of thirty, he was madechancellor of the state, and from that time he was constantly employed inpublic affairs, and particularly in embassies. Among those to the smallerprinces of Italy, the one of the longest duration was to Caesar Borgia, whom he narrowly observed at the very important period when thisillustrious villain was elevating himself by his crimes, and whosediabolical policy he had thus an opportunity of studying. He had aconsiderable share in directing the counsels of the republic, and theinfluence to which he owed his elevation was that of the free party, whichcensured the power of the Medici, and at that time held them in exile. When the latter were recalled, Machiavelli was deprived of all his officesand banished. He then entered into a conspiracy against the usurpers, which was discovered, and he was put to the torture, but without wrestingfrom him any confession which could impeach either himself or those whohad confided in his honor. Leo X. , on his elevation to the pontificate, restored him to liberty. At this time he wrote his "History of Florence, "in which he united eloquence of style with depth of reflection, andalthough an elegant, animated, and picturesque composition, it is not thefruit of much research or criticism. 

Besides this history, Machiavelli wrote his discourses on the first decadeof Livy, considered his best work, and "The Art of War, " which is aninvaluable commentary on the history of the times. These works had thedesired effect of inducing the Medici family to use the political servicesof the author, and at the request of Leo X. He wrote his essay "On theReform of the Florentine Government. "

Guicciardini (1483-1541), the friend of Machiavelli, is considered thegreatest historian of this age. He attached himself to the service of LeoX. , and was raised to high offices and honors by him and the twosucceeding popes. On the expulsion of the Medici from Florence, therepublican party having obtained the ascendency, he was obliged to flyfrom the city. From this time he manifested an utter abhorrence of allpopular institutions, and threw himself heart and soul into the interestsof the Medici. He displayed his zeal at the expense of the lives andliberties of the most virtuous among his fellow-citizens. Having aided inthe elevation of Cosmo, afterwards Grand Duke of Tuscany, and beingrequited with ingratitude and neglect, he retired in disgust from publiclife, and devoted himself wholly to the completion of his history ofItaly. This work, which is a monument of his genius and industry, commences with the coming of Charles VIII. To Italy, and concludes withthe year 1534, embracing one of the most important periods of Italianhistory. His powerfully-drawn pictures exhibit the men and the times sovividly, that they seem to pass before our eyes. His delineations ofcharacter, his masterly views of the course of events, the conduct ofleaders, and the changes of war, claim our highest admiration. Hislanguage is pure and his style elegant, though sometimes too Latinized;his letters are considered as a most valuable contribution to the historyof his times. 

Numberless historians, of more or less merit, stimulated by the renown ofMachiavelli and Guicciardini, composed annals of the states to which theybelonged, while others undertook to write the histories of foreignnations. Nardi (1496-1556), one of the most ardent and pure patriots ofhis age, takes the first place. He wrote the history of the FlorentineRevolution of 1527, a work which, though defective in style, isdistinguished for its truthfulness. The histories of Florence by Adriani, Varchi, and Segni (1499-1559), are considered the best works of theirkind, for elegance of style and for interest of the narrative. Almost allthe other cities of Italy had their historians, but the palm must beawarded to the Florentine writers, not only on account of their number, but for the elegance and purity of their style, for their impartiality andthe sagacity of their research into matters of fact. Among the writers ofthe second class may be mentioned Davanzati (1519), the translator ofTacitus, who wrote, in the Florentine dialect, a history of the schism ofEngland; Giambullari (1495-1564), who wrote a history of Europe;D'Anghiera (fl. 1536), who, after having examined the papers ofChristopher Columbus, and the official reports transmitted from America toSpain, compiled an interesting work on "Ocean Navigation and the NewWorld. " His style is incorrect; but this is compensated for by thefidelity of his narration. Several of the German States, France, theNetherlands, Poland, Hungary, and the East Indies, found Italian authorsin this age to digest and arrange their chronicles, and give themhistorical form. 

To this period belong also the "Lives of the Most Celebrated Artists, "written by Vasari (1512-1574), himself a distinguished artist, a workhighly interesting for its subject and style, and the Autobiography ofBenvenuto Cellini (b. 1500), one of the most curious works which was everwritten in any language. 

10. GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC. --The Italian language was used both in writingand conversation for three centuries before its rules and principles werereduced to a scientific form. Bembo was the first scholar who establishedthe grammar. Grammatical writings and researches were soon multiplied andextended. Salviati was one of the most prominent grammarians of thesixteenth century, and Buonmattei and Cinonio of the seventeenth. But theprogress in this study was due less to the grammarians than to the_Dictionary della Crusca_. Among the scholars who took part in theexercises of the Florentine Academy, founded by Cosmo de' Medici, therewere some who, dissatisfied with the philosophical disputations which werethe object of this institution, organized another association for thepurpose of giving a new impulse to the study of the language. Thisacademy, inaugurated in 1587, was called _della Crusca_, literally, _ofthe bran_. The object of this new association being to sift all impuritiesfrom the language, a sieve, the emblem of the academy, was placed In thehall; the members at their meetings sat on flour-barrels, and the chair ofthe presiding officer stood on three mill-stones. The first work of theacademy was to compile a universal dictionary of the Italian language, which was published in 1612. Though the Dictionary della Crusca wasconceived in an exclusive spirit, and admitted, as linguistic authorities, only writers of the fourteenth century, belonging to Tuscany, itcontributed greatly to the progress of the Italian tongue. 

Every university of Italy boasted in the sixteenth century of somecelebrated rhetoricians, all of whom, however, were overshadowed byVettori (1499-1585), distinguished for the editions of the Greek and Latinclassics published under his superintendence, and for his commentaries onthe rhetorical books of Aristotle. B. Cavalcanti (1503-1562) was alsocelebrated in this department, and his "Rhetoric" is the best work of theage on that subject. 

The oratory of this period is very imperfect. Orations were written in thestyle of Boccaccio, which, however suitable for the narration of merrytales, is entirely unfit for oratorical compositions. Among those who mostdistinguished themselves in this department are Della Casa (1503-1556), whose harangues against the Emperor Charles V. Are full of eloquence;Speroni (1500-1588), whose style is more perfect than that of any otherwriter of the sixteenth century; and Lollio (d. 1568), whose orations arethe most polished. At that time, in the forum of Venice, eloquent oratorspleaded the causes of the citizens, and at the close of the precedingcentury, Savonarola (1452-1498), a preacher of Florence, thundered againstthe abuses of the Roman church, and suffered death in consequence. Amongthe models of letter-writing, Caro takes the first place. His familiarletters are written with that graceful elegance which becomes this kind ofcomposition. The letters of Tasso are full of eloquence and philosophy, and are written in the most select Italian. 

11. SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, AND POLITICS. --The sciences, during this period, went hand in hand with poetry and history. Libraries and other aids tolearning were multiplied, and academies were organized with other objectsthan those of enjoyment of mere poetical triumphs or dramatic amusements. The Academy del Cimento was founded at Florence in 1657 by Leopold de'Medici, for promoting the study of the natural sciences, and similarinstitutions were established in Rome, Bologna, and Naples, and othercities of Italy, besides the Royal Academy of London (1660), and theAcademy of Sciences in Paris (1666). From the period of the firstinstitution of universities, that of Bologna had maintained itspreëminence. Padua, Ferrara, Pavia, Turin, Florence, Siena, Pisa, and Romewere also seats of learning. The men who directed the scientific studiesof their country and of Europe were almost universally attached asprofessors to these institutions. Indeed, at this period, through thegenius of Galileo and his school, European science first dawned in Italy. Galileo (1564-1641) was a native of Pisa, and professor of mathematics inthe university of that city. Being obliged to leave it on account ofscientific opinions, at that time at variance with universally receivedprinciples, he removed to the university of Padua, where for eighteenyears he enjoyed the high consideration of his countrymen. He returned toPisa, and at the age of seventy was summoned to Rome by the Inquisition, and required to renounce his doctrines relative to the Copernican system, of which he was a zealous defender, and his life was spared only oncondition of his abjuring his opinions. It is said that on rising from hisknees, after making the abjuration of his belief that the earth movedround the sun, he stamped his foot on the floor and said, "It does move, though. " To Galileo science is indebted for the discovery of the laws ofweight, the scientific construction of the system of Copernicus, thependulum, the improvement of many scientific instruments, the invention ofthe hydrostatic balance, the thermometer, proportional compasses, and, above all, the telescope. He discovered the satellites of Jupiter, thephases of Venus, the mountains of the moon, the spots and the rotation ofthe sun. Science, which had consisted for centuries only of scholasticsubtleties and barren dialectics, he established on an experimental basis. In his works he unites delicacy and purity with vivacity of style. 

Among the scholars of Galileo, who most efficaciously contributed to theprogress of science, may be mentioned Torricelli (1608-1647), the inventorof the barometer, an elegant and profound writer; Borelli (1608-1679), thefounder of animal mechanics, or the science of the movements of animals, distinguished for his works on astronomy, mathematics, anatomy, andnatural philosophy; Cassini (1625-1712), a celebrated astronomer, to whomFrance is indebted for its meridian; Cavalieri (1598-1648), distinguishedfor his works on geometry, which paved the way to the discovery of theinfinitesimal calculus. 

In the scientific department of the earlier part of this period may alsobe mentioned Tartaglia (d. 1657) and Cardano (1501-1576), celebrated fortheir researches on algebra and geometry; Vignola (1507-1573) and Palladio(1518-1580), whose works on architecture are still held in highestimation, as well as the work of Marchi (fl. 1550) on militaryconstruction. Later, Redi (1626-1697) distinguished himself as a naturalphilosopher, a physician and elegant writer, both in prose and verse, andMalpighi (1628-1694) and Bellini (1643-1704) were anatomists of highrepute. Scamozzi (1550-1616) emulated the glory formerly won by Palladioin architecture, and Montecuccoli (1608-1681), a great general of the age, ably illustrated the art of strategy. 

The sixteenth century abounds in philosophers who, abandoning thedoctrines of Plato, which had been in great favor in the fifteenth, adopted those of Aristotle. Some, however, dared to throw off the yoke ofphilosophical authority, and to walk in new paths of speculation. Patrizi(1529-1597) was one of the first who undertook to examine for himself thephenomena of nature, and to attack the authority of Aristotle. Telesio(1509-1588), a friend of Patrizi, joined him in the work of overthrowingthe Peripatetic idols; but neither of them dared to renounce entirely theauthority of antiquity. The glory of having claimed absolute freedom inphilosophical speculation belongs to Cardano, already mentioned, toCampanella (1568-1639), who for the boldness of his opinions was put tothe torture and spent thirty years in prison, and to Giordano Bruno (1550-1600), a sublime thinker and a bold champion of freedom, who was burned atthe stake. 

Among the moral philosophers of this age may be mentioned Speroni, whosewritings are distinguished by harmony, freedom, and eloquence of style;Tasso, whose dialogues unite loftiness of thought with elegance of style;Castiglione (1468-1529), whose "Cortigiano" is in equal estimation as amanual of elegance of manners and as a model of pure Italian; and DellaCasa, whose "Galateo" is a complete system of politeness, couched inelegant language, and a work to which Lord Chesterfield was much indebted. 

Political science had its greatest representative in Machiavelli, whowrote on it with that profound knowledge of the human heart which he hadacquired in public life, and with the habit of unweaving, in all itsintricacies, the political perfidy which then prevailed in Italy. The"Prince" is the best known of his political works, and from the infamousprinciples which he has here developed, though probably with goodintentions, his name is allied with everything false and perfidious inpolitics. The object of the treatise is to show how a new prince mayestablish and consolidate his power, and how the Medici might not onlyconfirm their authority in Florence, but extend it over the whole of thePeninsula. At the time that Machiavelli wrote, Italy had been forcenturies a theatre where might was the only right. He was not a man givento illusive fancies, and throughout a long political career nothing hadbeen permitted to escape his keen and penetrating eye. In all the affairsin which he had taken part he had seen that success was the only thingstudied, and therefore to succeed in an enterprise, by whatever means, hadbecome the fundamental idea of his political theory. His Prince reduced toa science the art, long before known and practiced by kings and tyrants, of attaining absolute power by deception and cruelty, and of maintainingit afterwards by the dissimulation of leniency and virtue. It does notappear that any exception was at first taken to the doctrines which havesince called forth such severe reprehension, and from the moment of itsappearance the Prince became a favorite at every court. But soon after thedeath of Machiavelli a violent outcry was raised against him, and althoughit was first heard with amazement, it soon became general, The Prince waslaid under the ban of several successive popes, and the name ofMachiavelli passed into a proverb of infamy. His bones lay undistinguishedfor nearly two centuries, when a monument was erected to his memory in thechurch of Santa Croce, through the influence of an English nobleman. 

12. PERIOD OF DECADENCE. --The sixteenth century reaped the fruits that hadbeen sown in the fifteenth, but it scattered no seeds for a harvest in theseventeenth, which was therefore doomed to general sterility. In thereigns of Charles V. And Philip II. The chains of civil and religiousdespotism were forged which subdued the intellect and arrested the geniusof the people. The Spanish viceroys ruled with an iron hand over Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. Poverty and superstition wasted and darkenedthe minds of the people, and indolence and love of pleasure introducedalmost universal degeneracy. But the Spanish yoke, which weighed soheavily at both extremities of the Peninsula, did not extend to therepublic of Venice, or to the duchy of Tuscany; and the heroic characterof the princes of Savoy alone would have served to throw a lustre overthis otherwise darkened period. In literature, too, there were a few whoresisted the torrent of bad taste, amidst many who opened the way for acrowd of followers in the false route, and gave to the age that characterof extravagance for which it is so peculiarly distinguished. 

The literary works of the seventeenth century may be divided into threeclasses, the first of which, under the guidance of Marini, attained thelowest degree of corruption, and remain in the annals of literature asmonuments of bombastic style and bad taste. The second embraces thosewriters who were aware of the faults of the school to which they belonged, and who, aiming to bring about a reform in literature, while theyendeavored to follow a better style, partook more or less of the characterof the age. To this class may be referred Chiabrera already named, andmore particularly Filicaja and other poets of the same school. The thirdclass is composed of a few writers who preserved themselves faithful tothe principles of true taste, and among them are Menzini, Salvator Rosa, Redi, and more particularly Tassoni. 

13. EPIC AND LYRIC POETRY. --Marini (1569-1625), the celebrated innovatoron classic Italian taste, is considered as the first who seduced the poetsof the seventeenth century into a labored and affected style. He was bornat Naples and educated for the legal profession, for which he had littletaste, and on publishing a volume of poems, his indignant father turnedhim out of doors. But his popular qualities never left him withoutfriends. He was invited to the Court of France, obtained the favor of Maryde' Medici, and the situation of gentleman to the king. He becameexceedingly popular among the French nobility, many of whom learnedItalian for the sole purpose of reading his works. It was here that hepublished the most celebrated of his poems, entitled "Adonis. " Heafterwards purchased a beautiful villa near Naples, to which he retired, and where he soon after died. The Adonis of Marini is a mixture of theepic and the romantic style, the subject being taken from the well-knownstory of Venus and Adonis. He renounced all keeping and probability, bothin his incidents and descriptions; if he could present a series ofenchanted pictures, he was little solicitous as to the manner of theirarrangement. But the work has much beauty and imagination, and is oftenanimated by the true spirit of poetry. Its principal faults are that it issadly wire-drawn, and abounds in puns, endless antitheses, and inventionsfor surprising or bewildering the reader; graces which were greatlyadmired by the contemporaries of the poet. Marini was a voluminous writer, and was not only extolled in his own country above its classic authors, and in France, but the Spaniards held him in the highest esteem, andimitated and even surpassed him in his own eccentric career. He had alsoinnumerable imitators in Italy, many of whom attained a high reputationduring their lives, and afterwards sank into complete oblivion. 

Filicaja (1642-1709) stands at the head of the lyric poets of theseventeenth century. His inspiration seems first to have been awakenedwhen Vienna was besieged by the Turks in 1683, and gallantly defended bythe Christian powers. His verses on this occasion awoke the mostenthusiastic admiration, and called forth the eulogies of princes andpoets. The admiration which he excited in his day is scarcely to bewondered at; for, though this judgment has not been ratified by posterity, Filicaja has at least the merit of having raised the poetry of Italy fromthe abject service of mere amorous imbecility to the noble office ofembodying the more manly and virtuous sentiments; and though his style isinfected with the bombastic spirit of the age, it is even in this respectsingularly moderate, compared with that of his contemporaries. 

14. MOCK-HEROIC POETRY, THE DRAMA, AND SATIRE. --The full maturity of thestyle of mock-heroic poetry is due to Tassoni (1565-1635). He firstattracted public notice by disputing the authority of Aristotle, and thepoetical merits of Petrarch. In 1622 he published his "Rape of theBucket, " a burlesque poem on the petty wars which were so common betweenthe towns of Italy in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The heroesof Modena had, in 1325, discomfited the Bolognese, and pursued them to thevery heart of their city, whence they carried off, as a trophy of theirvictory, the bucket belonging to the public well. The expeditionundertaken by the Bolognese for its recovery forms the basis of the twelvemock-heroic cantos of Tassoni. To understand this poem requires aknowledge of the vulgarisms and idioms which are frequently introduced init. 

About the same period, Bracciolini (1566-1645) produced another comic-heroic poem, entitled the "Ridicule of the Gods, " in which the ancientdeities are introduced as mingling with the peasants, and declaiming inthe low, vulgar dialect, and making themselves most agreeably ridiculous. Somewhat later appeared one more example of the same species of epic, "TheMalmantile, " by Lippi (1606-1664). This poem is considered a pure model ofthe dialect of the Florentines, which is so graceful and harmonious evenin its homeliness. 

The seventeenth century was remarkable for the prodigious number of itsdramatic authors, but few of them equaled and none excelled those of thepreceding age. The opera, or melodrama, which had arisen out of thepastoral, seemed to monopolize whatever talent was at the disposal of thestage, and branches formerly cultivated sank below mediocrity. Amid thecrowd of theatrical corrupters, the name of Andreini (1564-1652) deservespeculiar mention, not from any claim to exemption from the generalcensure, but because his comedy of "Adam" is believed to have been thefoundation of Milton's "Paradise Lost. " Andreini was but one of the commonthrong of dramatic writers, and it has been fiercely contended by some, that it is impossible that the idea of so sublime a poem should have beentaken from so ordinary a composition as his Adam. His piece wasrepresented at Milan as early as 1613, and so has at least a claim ofpriority, Menzini (1646-1708) and Salvator Rosa (1615-1675) were the representativesof the satire of this century; the former distinguished for the purity ofhis language and the harmony of his verse; the latter for his vivacity andsprightliness. 

15. HISTORY AND EPISTOLARY WRITINGS. --The number of historical works inthis century is much greater than in that of the preceding, but they aregenerally far from possessing the same merit or commanding the sameinterest. The historians seem to have lost all feeling of nationaldignity; they do not venture to unveil the causes of public events, or toindicate their results. Even those that dared treat of Italy or itsprovinces, confined themselves to the reigning dynasties, and overlookingthe causes which most deeply affected the happiness of the people, described only the festivities, battles, and triumphs of their princes. Alarge number of historians chose foreign subjects; the history of Francewas remarkable for the number of Italians who endeavored to relate it inthis age. The work of Davila (1576-1630) on "The Civil Wars of France, "however, throws all the rest into the shade. What gives to it peculiarvalue is the carefulness with which the materials were collected, inconnection with the opportunities its author enjoyed for gaininginformation. This history is considered as superior to that ofGuicciardini in its matter, as the latter excels it in style. It iswanting in that elegance which characterized the Florentine historians ofthe sixteenth century. Bentivoglio (1579-1644) was an eminent rival ofDavila; he wrote the history of the civil wars of Flanders; a workremarkable for the elegance and correctness of its style. Above all standthe works of Sarpi, who lived between 1552 and 1623, and who defended withgreat courage the authority of the Senate of Venice against the power ofthe Popes, notwithstanding their excommunication and continuedpersecution. His history of the Council of Trent contains a curiousaccount of the intrigues of the Court of Rome at the period of theReformation. 

It was chiefly in the more showy departments of literature that theextravagance of the Marinists was most conspicuous, and the decay ofnative genius was most apparent. But this genius had turned into otherpaths, which it pursued with a steady, though less brilliant course. Ofall branches of prose composition, the epistolary was the most carefullycultivated. The talent for letter-writing was often the means ofconsiderable emolument, as all the petty princes of Italy and thecardinals of Rome were ambitious of having secretaries who would give them_éclat_ in their correspondence, and these situations, which were steps tohigher preferment, were eagerly sought; hence the prodigious number ofcollections of letters which have at all times inundated Italy--specimensby which those who believed themselves elegant writers endeavored to makeknown their talent. The letters of Bentivoglio have obtained Europeancelebrity. They are distinguished for elegance of style as well as for theinterest of those historical recollections which they transmit; they areconsidered superior to his history. But of all the letters of this or ofthe preceding age, none are more rich, more varied, or more pleasing thanthose of Redi, who threw into this form his discoveries in naturalhistory. The driest subjects, even those of language and grammar, are heretreated in an interesting and agreeable manner. 

PERIOD THIRD. 

THE SECOND REVIVAL OF ITALIAN LITERATURE, AND ITS PRESENT CONDITION(1675-1885). 

1. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE THIRD PERIOD. --At the close of theseventeenth century, a new dawn arose in the history of Italian letters, and the general corruption which had extended to every branch ofliterature and paralyzed the Italian mind began to be arrested by theappearance of writers of better taste; the affectations of the Marinistsand of the so-called Arcadian poets were banished from literature; sciencewas elevated and its dominion extended, the melodrama, comedy, and tragedyrecreated, and a new spirit infused into every branch of composition. Amidst the clash of arms and the vicissitudes of long and bloody wars, Italy began to awake from her lethargy to the aspiration for greater andbetter things, and her intellectual condition soon underwent importantchanges and improvements. In the eighteenth century, in Naples, Vicotransformed history into a new science. Filangeri contended withMontesquieu for the palm of legislative philosophy; and new light wasthrown on criminal science by Mario Pagano. In Rome, letters and scienceflourished under the patronage of Benedict XIV. , Clement XIV. , and PiusVI. , under whose auspices Quirico Visconti undertook his "Pio ClementineMuseum" and his "Greek and Roman Iconography, " the two greatestarchaeological works of all ages. Padua was immortalized by the works ofCesarotti, Belzoni, and Stratico; Venice by Goldoni; Verona by Maffei, thecritic and the antiquarian, as well as the first reformer of Italiantragedy. Tuscany took the lead of the intellectual movement of the countryunder Leopold and his successor Ferdinand, when Florence, Pisa, and Sienaagain became seats of learning and of poetry and the arts. Maria Theresaand Joseph II. Fostered the intellectual progress of Lombardy; Spallanzanipublished his researches on natural philosophy; Volta discovered the pilewhich bears his name; a new era in poetry was created by Parinl; anotherin criminal jurisprudence by Beccaria; history was reconstructed byMuratori; mathematics promoted by Lagrange, and astronomy by Oriani; andAlfieri restored Italian letters to their primitive splendor. 

But at the close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of thenineteenth, Italy became the theatre of political and militaryrevolutions, whose influence could not fail to arrest the development ofthe literature of the country. The galleries, museums, and libraries ofRome, Florence, and other cities suffered from the military occupation, and many of their treasures, manuscripts, and masterpieces of art werecarried to Paris by command of Napoleon. The entire peninsula was subjectto French influence, which, though beneficial to its material progress, could not fail to be detrimental to national literature. All new workswere composed in French, and indifferent or bad translations from theFrench were widely circulated; the French language was substituted for theItalian, and the national literature seemed about to disappear. ButItalian genius was not wholly extinguished; a few writers powerfullyopposed this new tendency, and preserved in its purity the language ofDante and Petrarch. Gradually the national spirit revived, and literaturewas again moulded in accordance with the national character. Notwithstanding the political calamities of which, for some time after thetreaty of Vienna in 1815, Italy was continually the victim, the literatureof the country awakened and fostered a sentiment of nationality, andItalian independence is at this present moment already achieved. 

2. THE MELODRAMA. --The first result of the revival of letters at the closeof the seventeenth century was the reform of the theatre. The melodrama, or Italian opera, arose out of the pastoral drama, which it superseded. The astonishing progress of musical science succeeded that of poetry andsculpture, which fell into decline with the decay of literature. Music, rising into excellence and importance at a time when poetry was on thedecline, acquired such superiority that verse, instead of being itsmistress, became its handmaid. The first occasion of this inversion was inthe year 1594, when Rinuccini, a Florentine poet, associated himself withthree musicians to compose a mythological drama. This and several otherpieces by the same author met with a brilliant reception. Poetry, writtenonly in order to be sung, thus assumed a different character; Rinuicciniabandoned the form of the canzone which had hitherto been used in thelyrical part of the drama, and adopted the Pindaric ode. Many poetsfollowed in the same path; more action was given to the dramatic parts, and greater variety to the music, in which the airs were agreeably blendedwith the recitative duets; other harmonized pieces were also added, andafter the lapse of a century Apostolo Zeno (1669-1750) still furtherimproved the melodrama. But it was the spirit of Metastasio that breatheda soul of fire into this ingenious and happy form created by others. 

Metastasio (1698-1782) gave early indications of genius, and when only tenyears of age used to collect an audience in his father's shop, by histalent for improvisation. He thus attracted the notice of Gravina, acelebrated patron of letters, who adopted him as his son, changed hissomewhat ignoble name of Trepassi to Metastasio, and had him educated inevery branch necessary for a literary career. He still continued toimprovise verses on any given subject for the amusement of company. Hisyouth, his harmonious voice, and prepossessing appearance, added greatlyto the charm of his talent. It was one generally cultivated in Italy atthis time, and men of mature years often presented themselves as rivals ofthe hoy. This occupation becoming injurious to the youth, Gravina forbadehim to compose extempore verses any more, and this rule, imposed on him atsixteen, he never afterwards infringed. When Metastasio was in histwentieth year Gravina died, leaving to him his fortune, most of which hesquandered in two years. He afterwards went to Naples, where, under asevere master, he devoted himself to the closest study and for two yearsresisted every solicitation to compose verses. At length, under promise ofsecrecy, he wrote a drama. All Naples resounded with its praise, and theauthor was soon discovered. Metastasio from this time followed the careerfor which nature seemed to have formed him, and devoted himself to theopera, which he considered to be the natural drama of Italy. An invitationto become the court poet of Vienna made his future life both stable andprosperous. On the death of Charles VI. , in 1740, several other Europeansovereigns made advantageous overtures to the poet, but as Maria Theresawas disposed to retain him, he would not leave her in her adversecircumstances. The remainder of his life he passed in Germany, and hislatter years were as monotonous as they were prosperous. 

Metastasio seized with a daring hand the true spirit of the melodrama, andscorning to confine himself to unity of place, opened a wide field for thedisplay of theatrical variety, on which the charm of the opera so muchdepends. The language in which he clothed the favorite passion of hisdrama exhibits all that is delicate and yet ardent, and he develops themost elevated sentiments of loyalty, patriotism, and filial love. The flowof his verse in the recitative is the most pure and harmonious known inany language, and the strophes at the close of each scene are scarcelysurpassed by the first masters in lyric poetry. Metastasio is one of themost pleasing, at the same time one of the least difficult of the Italianpoets, and the tyro in the study of Italian classics may begin with hisworks, and at once enjoy the pleasures of poetic harmony at their highestsource. 

3. COMEDY. --The revolution, so frequently attempted in Italian comedy bymen whose genius was unequal to the task, was reserved for Goldoni (1707-1772) to accomplish. His life, written by himself, presents a picture ofItalian manners in their gayest colors. He was a native of Venice, andfrom his early youth was constantly surrounded by theatrical people. Ateight years of age he composed a comedy, and at fourteen he ran away fromschool with a company of strolling players. He afterwards prepared for themedical, then for the legal profession, and finally, at the age of twenty-seven, he was installed poet to a company of players. He now attempted tointroduce the reforms that he had long meditated; he attained a purerstyle, and became a censor of the manners and a satirist of the follies ofhis country. His dialogue is extremely animated, earnest, and full ofmeaning; with a thorough knowledge of national manners, he possessed therare faculty of representing them in the most life-like manner on thestage. The language used by the inferior characters of his comedies is theVenetian dialect. 

In his latter days Goldoni was rivaled by Carlo Gozzi (1722-1806), whoparodied his pieces, and, it is thought, was the cause of his retirement, in the decline of life, to Paris. Gozzi introduced a new style of comedy, by reviving the familiar fictions of childhood; he selected and dramatizedthe most brilliant fairy tales, such as "Blue Beard, " "The King of theGenii, " etc. , and gave them to the public with magnificent decorations andsurprising machinery. If his comedies display little resemblance tonature, they at least preserve the kind of probability which is looked forin a fairy tale. Many years elapsed after Goldoni and Gozzi disappearedfrom the arena before there was any successor to rival their compositions. 

Among those who contributed to the perfection of Italian comedy may bementioned Albergati (fl. 1774), Gherardo de' Rossi (1754-1827), and aboveall, Nota (d. 1847), who is preeminent among the new race of comicauthors; although somewhat cold and didactic, he at least fulfils theimportant office of holding the mirror up to nature. He exhibits afaithful picture of Italian society, and applies the scourge of satire toits most prevalent faults and follies. 

4. TRAGEDY. --The reform of Italian tragedy was early attempted by Martelli(d. 1727) and by Scipione Maffei (1675-1755). But Martelli was only a tameimitator of French models, while Maffei, possessing real talent andfeeling, deserved the extended reputation he acquired. His "Merope" isconsidered as the last and the best specimen of the elder school ofItalian tragedy. 

The honor of raising tragedy to its highest standard was reserved forAlfieri (1749-1803), whose remarkable personal character exercised apowerful influence over his works. He was possessed of an impetuositywhich continually urged him towards some indefinite object, a craving forsomething more free in politics, more elevated in character, more ardentin love, and more perfect in friendship; of desires for a better state ofthings, which drove him from one extremity of Europe to another, butwithout discovering it in the realities of this everyday world. Finally, he turned to the contemplation of a new universe in his own poeticalcreations, and calmed his agitations by the production of those master-pieces which have secured his immortality. His aim in life, in the pursuitof which he never deviated, was that of founding a new and classic schoolof tragedy. He proposed to himself the severe simplicity of the Greekswith respect to the plot, while he rejected the pomp of poetry whichcompensates for interest among the classic writers of antiquity. Energyand conciseness are the distinguishing features of his style; and this, inhis earlier dramas, is carried to the extreme. He brings the whole actioninto one focus; the passion he would exhibit is introduced into the firstverse and kept in view to the last. No event, no character, noconversation unconnected with the advancement of the plot is permitted toappear; all confidants and secondary personages are, therefore, excluded, and there seldom appear more than four interlocutors. These tragediesbreathe the spirit of patriotism and freedom, and for this, evenindependently of their intrinsic merit, Alfieri is considered as thereviver of the national character in modern times, as Dante was in thefourteenth century. "Saul" is regarded as his masterpiece; it represents anoble character suffering under those weaknesses which sometimes accompanygreat virtues, and are governed by the fatality, not of destiny, but ofhuman nature. 

Among the earliest and most distinguished of those who followed in thepath of Alfieri was Monti (1754-1828). Though endowed with a sublimeimagination and exquisite taste, his character was weak and vain, and he, in turn, celebrated every party as it became the successful one. Educatedin the school of Dante, he introduced into Italian poetry those bold andsevere beauties which adorned its infancy. His "Aristodemus" is one of themost affecting tragedies in Italian literature. The story is founded onthe narrative of Pausanias. It is simple in its construction, and itsinterest is confined almost entirely to the principal personage. In theloftiness of the characters of his tragedies, and the energy of sentimentand simplicity of action which characterize them, we recognize the schoolof Alfieri, while in harmony and elegance of style and poetical language, Monti is superior. 

Another follower of the school of Alfieri is Ugo Foscolo (1778-1827), oneof the greatest writers of this age, in whom inspiration was derived froma lofty patriotism. At the time of the French revolution he joined theItalian army, with the object of restoring independence to his country. Disappointed in this hope, he left Italy for England, where hedistinguished himself by his writings. The best of his tragedies, "Ricciarda, " is founded on events supposed to have occurred in the MiddleAges. While some of its scenes and situations are forced and unnatural, some of the acts are wrought with consummate skill and effect, and theconception of the characters is tragic and original. Foscolo adopts in histragedies a concise and pregnant style, and displays great mastery overhis native language. Marenco (d. 1846) is distinguished for the noble andmoral ideas, lofty images, and affections of his tragedies; but he lacksunity of design and vigor of style. Silvio Pellico (1789-1854) was born inPiedmont. As a writer he is best known as the author of "My Prisons, " anarrative full of simplicity and resignation, in which he relates hissufferings during ten years in the fortress of Spielberg. His tragediesare good specimens of modern art; they abound in fine thoughts and tenderaffections, but they lack that liveliness of dialogue and rapidity ofaction which give reality to the situations, and that knowledge of thehuman heart and unity and grandeur of conception which are thecharacteristics of true genius. 

Manzoni (1785-1873) and Nicolini (1782-1861) are the last of the modernrepresentatives of the tragic drama of Italy. The tragedies of Manzoni, and especially his "Conte di Carmagnola, " and "Adelchi, " abound inexquisite beauties. His style is simple and noble, his verse easy andharmonious, and his object elevated. The merits of these tragedies, however, belong rather to parts, and while the reading of them is alwaysinteresting, on the stage they fail to awaken the interest of theaudience. After Manzoni, Nicolini was the most popular literary man ofItaly of his time. Lofty ideas, generous passions, splendor and harmony ofpoetry, purity of language, variety of characters, and warmth ofpatriotism, constitute the merit of his tragedies; while his faultsconsist in a style somewhat too exuberant and lyrical, in ideas sometimestoo vague, and characters often too ideal. 

5. LYRIC, EPIC, AND DIDACTIC POETRY. --In the latter part of the eighteenthcentury, a class of poets who called themselves "The Arcadians" attemptedto overthrow the artificial and bombastic school of Marini; but theirfrivolous and insipid productions had little effect on the literature. Thefirst poets who gave a new impulse to letters were Parini and Monti. Parini (1729-1799) was a man of great genius, integrity, and taste; hecontributed more than any other writer of his age to the progress ofliterature and the arts. His lyrical poems abound in noble thoughts, andbreathe a pure patriotism and high morality. His style is forcible, chaste, and harmonious. The poems of Monti have much of the fire andelevation of Pindar. Whatever object employs his thoughts, his eyesimmediately behold; and, as it stands before him, a flexible andharmonious language is ever at his command to paint it in the brightestcolors. His "Basvilliana" is the most celebrated of his lyric poems, and, beyond every other, is remarkable for majesty, nobleness of expression, and richness of coloring. 

The poetical writings of Pindemonte (1753-1828) are stamped with themelancholy of his character. Their subjects are taken from contemporaryevents, and his inspiration is drawn from nature and rural life. His"Sepulchres" breathes the sweetest and most pathetic tenderness, and thebrightest hopes of immorality. The poems of Foscolo have the grace andelegance of the Greek poets; but in his "Sepulchres" the gloom of hismelancholy imagination throws a funereal light over the nothingness of allthings, and the silence of death is unbroken by any voice of hope in afuture life. Torti (1774-1852), a pupil of Parini, rivaled his master inthe simplicity of style and purity of his images; while Leopardi (1798-1837) impressed upon his lyric poems the peculiarities of his owncharacter. A sublime poet and a profound scholar, his muse was inspired bya deep sorrow, and his poems pour out a melancholy that is terrible andgrand, the most agonizing cry in modern literature uttered with a solemnquietness that elevates and terrifies. The poetry of despair has never hada more powerful voice than his. He is not only the first poet since Dante, but perhaps the most perfect prose writer. Berchet (1790-1851) isconsidered as the Italian Béranger, and his songs glow with patrioticfire. Those of Silvio Pellico, always sweet and truthful, bear the stampof a calm resignation, hope, and piety. The list of modern lyric poetscloses with Manzoni, whose hymns are models of this style of poetry. 

In the epic department the third period does not afford any poems of ahigh order. But the translation of the Iliad by Monti, that of the Odysseyby Pindemonte, for their purity of language and beauty of style, may beconsidered as epic additions to Italian literature. "The Longobards of theFirst Crusade, " written by Grossi (1791-1853), excels in beauty andsplendor of poetry all the epic poems of this age, though it lacks unityof design and comprehensiveness of thought. 

Among the didactic poems may be mentioned the "Invitation of Lesbia, " byMascheroni (1750-1800), a distinguished poet as well as a celebratedmathematician. This poem, which describes the beautiful productions ofnature in the Museum of Pavia, is considered a masterpiece of didacticpoetry. The "Riseide, " or cultivation of rice, by Spolverini (1695-1762), and the "Silkworm, " by Betti (1732-1788), are characterized by poeticalbeauties. The poem on the "Immortality of the Soul, " by Filorentino (1742-1815), though defective in style, is distinguished by its elevation ofideas and sentiments. "The Cultivation of Mountains, " by Lorenzi (1732-1822), is rich in beautiful images and thoughts. "The Cultivation of OliveTrees, " by Arici (1782-1836), his "Corals, " and other poems, especially intheir descriptions, are graceful and attractive. "The Seasons" of Barbieri(1774-1852), though bearing marks of imitation from Pope, is written in apure and elegant style. 

6. HEROIC-COMIC POETRY, SATIRE, AND FABLE. --The period of heroic-comicpoetry closes in the eighteenth century. The "Ricciardetto" of Fortiguerri(1674-1735) is the last of the poems of chivalry, and with it terminatedthe long series of romances founded on the adventures of Charlemagne andhis paladins. The "Cicero" of Passeroni (1713-1803) is a ramblingcomposition in a style similar to Sterne's "Tristram Shandy, " which, itappears, was suggested by this work. 

Satiric poetry, which had flourished in the preceding period, was enrichedby new productions in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. G. Gozzi(1713-1789) attacked in his satires the vices and prejudices of hisfellow-citizens, in a forcible and elegant style; and Parini, the greatsatirist of the eighteenth century, founded a school of satire, whichproved most beneficial to the country. His poem, "The Day, " isdistinguished by fine irony and by the severity with which he attacks theeffeminate habits of his age. He lashes the affectations and vices of theMilanese aristocracy with a sarcasm worthy of Juvenal. The satires ofD'Elei, Guadagnali, and others are characterized by wit and beauty ofversification. Those of Leopardi are bitter and contemptuous, while Giusti(1809-1850), the political satirist of his age, scourged the petty tyrantsof his country with biting severity and pungent wit; the circulation ofhis satires throughout Italy, in defiance of its despotic governments, greatly contributed to the revolution of 1848. 

In the department of fable may be mentioned Roberti (1719-1786), Passeroni, Pignotti (1739-1812), and Clasio (1754-1825), distinguished forinvention, purity, and simplicity of style. 

7. ROMANCES. --Though the tales of Boccaccio and the story tellers of thesixteenth century paved the way to the romances of the present time, itwas only at a late period that the Italians gave their attention to thiskind of composition. In the eighteenth century we find only two specimensof romance, "The Congress of Citera, " by Algarotti, of which Voltaire saidthat it was written with a feather drawn from the wings of love; and the"Roman Nights, " by Alexander Verri (1741-1816). In his romance heintroduces the shades of celebrated Romans, particularly of Cicero, and aningenious comparison of ancient and modern institutions is made. The styleis picturesque and poetical, though somewhat florid. 

This kind of composition has found more favor in the nineteenth century. First among the writers of this age is Manzoni, whose "Betrothed" is amodel of romantic literature. The variety, originality, and truthfulnessof the characters, the perfect knowledge of the human heart it displays, the simplicity and vivacity of its style, form the principal merits ofthis work. The "Marco Visconti" of Grossi is distinguished for its pathosand for the purity and elegance of its style. 

The "Ettore Fieramosca" of Massimo d'Azeglio is distinguished from theworks already spoken of by its martial and national spirit. His "Nicolò deLapi, " though full of beauties, partakes in some degree of the faultscommon to the French school. After these, the "Margherita Pusterla" ofCantil, the "Luisa Strozzi" of Rosini, the "Lamberto Malatesta" of Rovani, the "Angiola Maria" of Carcano, are the best historical romances ofItalian literature. Both in an artistic and moral point of view, they farexcel those of Guerrazzi, which represent the French school of George Sandin Italy, and whose "Battle of Benevento, " "Isabella Orsini, " "Siege ofFlorence, " and "Beatrice Cenci, " while they are written in pure languageand abound in minor beauties, are exaggerated in their characters, bombastic and declamatory in style, and overloaded in description. 

The "Last Letters of Jacopo Ortis, " by Foscolo, belongs to that kind ofromance which is called sentimental. Overcome by the calamities of hiscountry, with his soul full of fiery passion and sad disappointment, Foscolo wrote this romance, the protest of his heart against evils whichhe could not heal. 

8. HISTORY. --Among the most prominent of the numerous historians of thisperiod, a few only can be named. Muratori (1672-1750), for his vasterudition and profound criticism, has no rivals. He made the most accurateand extensive researches and discoveries relating to the history of Italyfrom the fifth to the sixteenth century, which he published in twenty-seven folio volumes; the most valuable collection of historical documentswhich ever appeared in Italy. He wrote, also, a work on "ItalianAntiquities, " illustrating the history of the Middle Ages through ancientmonuments, and the "Annals of Italy, " a history of the country from thebeginning of the Christian era to his own age. Though its style issomewhat defective, the richness and abundance of its erudition, itsclearness, and arrangement, impart to this work great value and interest. 

Maffei, already spoken of as the first reformer of Italian tragedy, surpassed Muratori in the purity of his style, and was only second to himin the extent and variety of his erudition. He wrote several works on theantiquities and monuments of Italy. 

Bianchini (1662-1729), a celebrated architect and scholar, wrote a"Universal History, " which, though not complete, is characterized as awork of great genius. It is founded exclusively on the interpretations ofancient monuments in marble and metal. 

Vico (1670-1744), the founder of the philosophy of history, embraced withhis comprehensive mind the history of all nations, and from the darknessof centuries he created the science of humanity, which he called "ScienzaNuova. " Vico does not propose to illustrate any special historical epoch, but follows the general movement of mankind in the most remote and obscuretimes, and establishes the rules which must guide us in interpretingancient historians. By gathering from different epochs, remote from eachother, the songs, symbols, monuments, laws, etymologies, and religious andphilosophical doctrines, --in a word, the infinite elements which form thelife of mankind, --he establishes the unity of human history. The "ScienzaNuova" is one of the great monuments of human genius, and it has inspiredmany works on the philosophy of history, especially among the Germans, such as those of Hegel, Niebuhr, and others. 

Giannone (1676-1748) is the author of a "Civil History of the Kingdom ofNaples, " a work full of juridical science as well as of historicalinterest. Having attacked with much violence the encroachments of theChurch of Rome on the rights of the state, he became the victim of apersecution which ended in his death in the fortress of Turin. Giannone, in his history, gave the first example in modern times of that intrepidityand courage which belong to the true historian. 

Botta (1766-1837) is among the first historians of the present age. He wasa physician and a scholar, and devoted to the freedom of his country. Hefilled important political offices in Piedmont, under the administrationof the French government. In 1809 he published, in Paris, his "History ofthe American Revolution, " a work held in high estimation both in thiscountry and in Italy. In the political changes which followed the fall ofNapoleon, Botta suffered many pecuniary trials, and was even obliged tosell, by weight, to a druggist, the entire edition of his history, inorder to pay for medicines for his sick wife. Meanwhile, he wrote ahistory of Italy, from 1789 to 1814, which was received with greatenthusiasm through Italy, and for which the Academy della Crusca, in 1830, granted to him a pecuniary reward. This was followed by the "History ofItaly, " in continuation of Guicciardini, from the fall of the FlorentineRepublic to 1789, a gigantic work, with which he closed his historicalcareer. The histories of Botta are distinguished by clearness ofnarrative, vividness and beauty of description, by the prominence he givesto the moral aspect of events and characters, and by purity, richness, andvariety of style. 

Colletta (1775-1831) was born in Naples; under the government of Murat herose to the rank of general, and fell with his patron. His "History of theKingdom of Naples, " from 1734 to 1825, is modeled after the annals ofTacitus. The style is simple, clear, and concise, the subject is treatedwithout digressions or episodes; it is conceived in a partial spirit, andis a eulogium of the administration of Joachim; but no writer can rivalColletta in his descriptions of strategic movements, of sieges andbattles. 

Balbo (1789-1853) was born in Turin; during the administration of Napoleonhe filled many important political offices, and afterwards entered upon amilitary career. Devoted to the freedom of his country, he strove topromote the progress of Italian independence. In 1847 he published the"Hopes of Italy, " the first political work that had appeared in thepeninsula since the restoration of 1814; it was the spark which kindledthe movements of 1848. In the events of that and of the succeeding year, he ranked among the most prominent leaders of the national party. Hishistorical works are a "Life of Dante, " considered the best on thesubject; "Historical Contemplations, " in which he developed the history ofmankind from a philosophical point of view; and "The Compendium of theHistory of Italy, " which embraces in a synthetic form all the history ofthe country from the earliest times to 1814. His style is pure, clear, andsometimes eloquent, though often concise and abrupt. 

Cantù, a living historian, has written a universal history, in which heattempts the philosophical style. Though vivid in his narratives, descriptions, and details, he is often incorrect in Ms statements, andrash in his judgments; his work, though professing liberal views, isessentially conservative in its tendency. The same faults may bediscovered in his more recent "History of the Italians. "

Tiraboschi (1731-1794) is the great historian of Italian literature; hiswork is biographical and critical, and is the most extensive literaryhistory of Italy. His style is simple and elegant, and his criticismprofound; but he gives greater prominence to the biographies of writersthan to the consideration of their works. This history was continued byCorniani (1742-1813), and afterwards by Ugoni (1784-1855). 

9. AESTHETICS, CRITICISM, PHILOLOGY, AND PHILOSOPHY. --Italian literatureis comparatively deficient in aesthetics, the science of the beautiful. The treatise of Gioberti on the "Beautiful, " the last work which hasappeared on this subject, is distinguished for its profound doctrines andbrilliant style. Philology and criticism first began to flourish at theclose of the seventeenth century, and are well represented at the presenttime. The revival of letters was greatly promoted by the criticism ofGravina (1664-1718), one of the most celebrated jurisconsults and scholarsof his age, who, through his work, "The Poetical Reason, " greatlycontributed to the reform of taste. Zeno, Maffei, and Muratori alsodistinguished themselves in the art of criticism, and by their works aidedin overthrowing the school of Marini. At a later date, Gaspar Gozzi, through his "Observer, " a periodical publication modeled after the"Spectator" of Addison, undertook to correct the literary taste of thecountry; for its invention, pungent wit, and satire, and the purity andcorrectness of its style, it is considered one of the best compositions ofthis kind. Baretti (1716-1789) propagated in England the taste for Italianliterature, and at the same time published his "Literary Scourge, " acriticism of the ancient and modern writers of Italy. His style, thoughalways pure, is often caustic. He wrote several books in the Englishlanguage, one of which is in defense of Shakspeare against Voltaire. Cesarotti (1730-1808), though eminent as a critic, introduced into theItalian language some innovations, which contributed to its corruption;while the nice judgment, good taste, and pure style of Parini place him atthe head of this department. In the latter part of this period we find, inthe criticisms of Monti, vigorous logic and a splendid and attractivestyle. Foscolo is distinguished for his acumen and pungent wit. The worksof Perticari (1779-1822) are written with extreme polish, erudition, judgment, and dignity. In Leopardi, philosophical acumen equals theelegance of his style. Giordani (d. 1848), as a critic and an epigraphist, deserves notice for his fine judgment and pure taste, as do Tommaseo andCattaneo, who are both epigrammatic, witty, and pungent. 

The golden age of philology dates from the time of Lorenzo de' Medici tothe seventeenth century. It then declined until the eighteenth, butrevived in the works of Maffei, Muratori, Zeno, and others. In the samecentury this study was greatly promoted by Foscolo, Monti, and Cesari(1760-1828), who, among other philological works, published a new editionof the Dictionary della Crusca, revised and augmented. Of the modernwriters on philology, Gherardini, Tommaseo, and Ascoli are the mostprominent. 

The revival of philosophy in Italy dates from the age of Galileo, when theauthority of the Peripatetics was overthrown, and a new method introducedinto scientific researches. From that time to the present, this sciencehas been represented by opposite schools, the one characterized bysensualism and the other by rationalism. The experimental method ofGalileo paved the way to the first, which holds that experience is theonly source of knowledge, a doctrine which gained ground in theseventeenth century, became universally accepted in the eighteenth, through the influence of Locke and Condillac, and continued to prevailduring the first part of the nineteenth. Gioja (1767-1829), and Romagnosi(1761-1835) are the greatest representatives of this system, in the lastpart of this period. But while the former developed sensualism inphilosophy and economy, the latter applied it to political science andjurisprudence. The numerous Works of Gioja are distinguished for theirpractical value and clearness of style, though they lack eloquence andpurity; those of Romagnosi are more abstract, and couched in obscure aridoften incorrect language, but they are monuments of vast erudition, acuteand profound judgment, and powerful dialectics. 

Galluppi (1773-1846), though unable to extricate himself entirely from thesensualistic school, attempted the reform of philosophy, which resulted ina movement in Italy similar to that produced by Reid and Dugald Stewart inScotland. 

While sensualism was gaining ground in the seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies, rationalism, having its roots in the Platonic system which hadprevailed in the fifteenth and sixteenth, was remodeled under theinfluence of Descartes, Leibnitz, and Wolf, and opposed to the invadingtendencies of its antagonist. From causes to be found in the spirit of theage and the political condition of the country, this system was unable totake the place to which it was entitled, though it succeeded in purifyingsensualism from its more dangerous consequences, and infusing into it someof its own elements. But the overthrow of that system was completed onlyby the works of Rosmini and Gioberti. Rosmini (1795-1855) gave a newimpulse to metaphysical researches, and created a new era in the historyof Italian philosophy. His numerous works embrace all philosophicalknowledge in its unity and universality, founded on a new basis, anddeveloped with deep, broad, and original views. His philosophy, bothinductive and deductive, rests on experimental method, reaches the highestproblems of ideology and ontology, and infuses new life into alldepartments of science. This philosophical progress was greatly aided byGioberti (1801-1851), whose life, however, was more particularly devotedto political pursuits. His work on "The Regeneration of Italy" containshis latest and soundest views on Italian nationality. Anotherdistinguished philosophical and political writer is Mamiani, whose work on"The Rights of Nations" deserves the attention of all students of historyand political science. As a statesman, he belongs to the National party, of which Count Cavour (1810-1861), himself an eminent writer on politicaleconomy, was the great representative, and to whose commanding influenceis to be attributed the rapid progress which the Italian nation was makingtowards unity and independence at the time of his death. 

FROM 1860 TO 1885. 

During the last twenty-five years the rapid progress of political eventsin Italy seems to have absorbed the energies of the people, who have madelittle advance in literature. For the first time since the fall of theRoman empire the country has become a united kingdom, and in the nationaladjustment to the new conditions, and in the material and industrialdevelopment which has followed, the new literature has not yet, to anygreat extent, found voice. Yet this period of national formation andconsolidation, however, has not been without its poets, among whom a fewmay be here named. Aleardo Aleardi (d. 1882) is one of the finest poeticalgeniuses that Italy has produced within the last century, but his writingsshow the ill effects of a poet sacrificing his art to a political cause, and when the patriot has ceased to declaim the poet ceases to sing. Prati(1815-1884), on the other hand, in his writings exemplifies the evil of apoet refusing to take part in the grand movement of his nation. He severshimself from all present interests and finds his subjects in sources whichhave no interest for his contemporaries. He has great metrical facilityand his lyrics are highly praised. Carducci, like Aleardi, is a poet whohas written on political subjects; he belongs to the class of closetdemocrats. His poems display a remarkable talent for the picturesque, forcible, and epigrammatic. The poems of Zanella are nearly all onscientific subjects connected with human feeling, and entitle him to adistinguished place among the refined poets of his country. A poet ofgreater promise than those already spoken of is Arnaboldi, who has theendowment requisite to become the first Italian poet of a new school, butwho endangers his position by devoting his verse to utilitarian purposes. 

The tendency of the younger poets is to realism and to representing itsmost materialistic features as beautiful. Against this current of the newpoetry Alessandro Rizzi, Guerzoni, and others have uttered a strongprotest in poetry and prose. 

Among historians, Capponi is the author of a history of Florence; Zini hascontinued Farina's history of Italy; Bartoli, Settembrini, and De Sanctishave written histories of Italian literature; Villari is the author ofable works on the life of Machiavelli and of Savonarola, and Berti haswritten the life of Giordano Bruno. In criticism philosophic, historical, and literary, Fiorentino, De Sanctis, Massarani, and Trezza aredistinguished. Barili, Farina, Bersezio, and Giovagnoli are writers offiction, and Cossa, Ferrari, and Giacosa are the authors of many dramaticworks. The charming books of travel by De Amicis are extensivelytranslated and very popular. 

FRENCH LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. French Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. The Troubadours. --2. The Trouvères French Literature inthe Fifteenth Century. --4. The Mysteries and Moralities: Charles ofOrleans, Villon, Ville-Hardouin, Joinville, Froissart, Philippe deCommines. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. The Renaissance and the Reformation: Marguerite deValois, Marot, Rabelais, Calvin, Montaigne, Charron and others. --2. LightLiterature: Ronsard Jodelle, Hardy, Malherbe, Scarron, Madame deRambouillet, and others. --3. The French Academy. --4. The Drama:Corneille. --5. Philosophy: Descartes, Pascal; Port Royal. --6. The Rise ofthe Golden Age of French Literature: Louis XIV. --7. Tragedy: Racine. --8. Comedy: Molière. --9. Fables, Satires, Mock-Heroic, and other Poetry: LaFontaine, Boileau. --10. Eloquence of the Pulpit and of the Bar:Bourdaloue, Bossuet, Massillon, Fléchier, Le Maître, D'Aguesseau, andothers. --11. Moral Philosophy: Rochefoucault La Bruyère, Nicole. --12. History and Memoirs: Mézeray, Fleury, Rollin, Brantôme the Duke of Sully, Cardinal de Retz. --13. Romance and Letter Writing: Fénelon, Madame deSévigné. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. The Dawn of Skepticism: Bayle, J. B. Rousseau, Fontenelle, Lamotte. --2. Progress of Skepticism: Montesquieu, Voltaire. --3. French Literature during the Revolution: D'Holbach, D'Alembert, Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Buffon, Beaumarchais, St. Pierre, and others. --4. French Literature under the Empire: Madame de Staël, Châteaubriand, Royer-Collard, Ronald, De Maistre. --5. French Literature from the Age of theRestoration to the Present Time. History: Thierry, Sismondi, Thiers, Mignet, Martin, Michelet, and others. Poetry and the Drama; Rise of theRomantic School: Béranger, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, and others; LesParnassiens. Fiction: Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée, Balzac, Sand, Sandeauand others. Criticism: Sainte-Beuve, Taine, and others. Miscellaneous. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. FRENCH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --Towards the middle of the fifthcentury the Franks commenced their invasions of Gaul, which ended in theconquest of the country, and the establishment of the French monarchyunder Clovis. The period from Clovis to Charlemagne (487-768) is the mostobscure of the Dark Ages. The principal writers, whose names have beenpreserved, are St. Rémy, the archbishop of Rheims (d. 535), distinguishedfor his eloquence, and Gregory of Tours (d. 595), whose contemporaryhistory is valuable for the good faith in which it is written, in spite ofthe ignorance and credulity which it displays. The genius of Charlemagne(r. 768-814) gave a new impulse to learning. By his liberality heattracted the most distinguished scholars to his court, among othersAlcuin, from England, whom he chose for his instructor; he establishedschools of theology and science, and appointed the most learned professorsto preside over them. But in the century succeeding his death the countryrelapsed into barbarism. 

In the south of France, Provence early became an independent kingdom, andconsolidating its language, laws, and manners, at the close of theeleventh century it gave birth to the literature of the Troubadours; whilein the north, the language and literature of the Trouvères, which were thegerms of the national literature of France, were not developed until acentury later. 

In the schools established by Charlemagne for the education of the clergy, the scholastic philosophy originated, which prevailed throughout Europe inthe Middle Ages. The most distinguished schoolmen or scholastics in Franceduring this period are Roscellinus (fl. 1092), the originator of thecontroversy between the Nominalists and Realists, which occupied soprominent a place in the philosophy of the time; Abelard (1079-1142), equally celebrated for his learning, and for his unfortunate love forHéloïse; St. Bernard (1091-1153), one of the most influentialecclesiastics of the Middle Ages; and Thomas Aquinas (1227-1274) andBonaventure (1221-1274), Italians who taught theology and philosophy atParis, and who powerfully influenced the intellect of the age. 

Beginning with the Middle Ages, the literary history of France may bedivided into three periods. The first period extends from 1000 to 1500, and includes the literature of the Troubadours, the Trouvères, and of thefifteenth century. 

The second period extends from 1500 to 1700, and includes the revival ofthe study of classical literature, or the Renaissance, and the golden ageof French literature under Louis XIV. 

The third period, extending from 1700 to 1885, comprises the age ofskepticism introduced into French literature by Voltaire, theEncyclopaedists and others, the Revolutionary era, the literature of theEmpire and of the Restoration, of the Second Empire, and of the presenttime. 

2. THE LANGUAGE. --After the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, Latinbecame the predominant language of the country; but on the overthrow ofthe Western Empire it was corrupted by the intermixture of elementsderived from the northern invaders of the country, and from the generalignorance and barbarism of the times. At length a distinction was drawnbetween the language of the Gauls who called themselves Romans, and thatof the Latin writers; and the _Romance_ language arose from the former, while the Latin was perpetuated by the latter. At the commencement of thesecond race of monarchs, German was the language of Charlemagne and hiscourt, Latin was the written language, and the Romance, still in a stateof barbarism, was the dialect of the people. The subjects of Charlemagnewere composed of two different races, the Germans, inhabiting along andbeyond the Rhine, and the Wallons, who called themselves Romans. The nameof _Welsch_ or _Wallons_, given them by the Germans, was the same as_Galli_, which they had received from the Latins, and as _Keltai_ orCelts, which they themselves acknowledged. The language which they spokewas called after them the _Romance-Wallon_, or rustic Romance, which wasat first very much the same throughout France, except that as it extendedsouthward the Latin prevailed, and in the north the German was moreperceptible. These differences increased, and the languages rapidly grewmore dissimilar. The people of the south called themselves _Romans-provençaux_, while the northern tribes added to the name of Romans, whichthey had assumed, that of _Wallons_, which they had received from theneighboring people. The Provençal was called the _Langue d'oc_, and theWallon the _Langue d'oui_, from the affirmative word in each language, asthe Italian was then called the _Langue de sí_, and the German the _Languede ya_. 

The invasion of the Normans, in the tenth century, supplied new elementsto the Romance Wallon. They adopted it as their language, and stamped uponit the impress of their own genius. It thus became Norman-French. In 1066, William the Conqueror introduced it into England, and enforced its useamong his new subjects by rigorous laws; thus the popular French becamethere the language of the court and of the educated classes, while it wasstill the vulgar dialect in France. 

From the beginning of the twelfth century, the two dialects were known asthe _Provençal_ and the _French_. The former, though much changed, isstill the dialect of the common people in Provence, Languedoc, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca, and Minorca. In the thirteenth century, the northernFrench dialect gained the ascendency, chiefly in consequence of Parisbecoming the centre of refinement and literature for all France. The_Langue d'oui_ was, from its origin, deficient in that rhythm which existsin the Italian and Spanish languages. It was formed rather by anabbreviation than by a harmonious transformation of the Latin, and themetrical character of the language was gradually lost. The French becamethus more accustomed to rhetorical measure than to poetical forms, and thelanguage led them rather to eloquence than poetry. Francis I. Establisheda professorship of the French language at Paris, and banished Latin fromthe public documents and courts of justice. The Academy, established byCardinal Richelieu (1635), put an end to the arbitrary power of usage, andfixed the standard of pure French, though at the same time it restrictedthe power of genius over the language. Nothing was approved by the Academyunless it was received at court, and nothing was tolerated by the publicthat had not been sanctioned by the Academy. The language now acquired themost admirable precision, and thus recommended itself not only as thelanguage of science and diplomacy, but of society, capable of conveyingthe most discriminating observations on character and manners, and themost delicate expressions of civility which involve no obligation. Henceits adoption as the court language in so many European countries. Amongthe dictionaries of the French language, that of the Academy holds thefirst rank. 

PERIOD FIRST. 

PROVENÇAL AND FRENCH LITERATURES IN THE MIDDLE AGES (1000-1500). 

1. THE TROUBADOURS. --When, in the tenth century, the nations of the southof Europe attempted to give consistency to the rude dialects which hadbeen produced by the mixture of the Latin with the northern tongues, theProvencal, or _Langue d'oc_, was the first to come to perfection. Thestudy of this language became the favorite recreation of the higherclasses during the tenth and eleventh centuries, and poetry the elegantoccupation of those whose time was not spent in the ruder pastimes of thefield. Thousands of poets, who were called troubadours (from _trobar_, tofind or invent), flourished in this new language almost contemporaneously, and spread their reputation from the extremity of Spain to that of Italy. All at once, however, this ephemeral reputation vanished. The voice of thetroubadours was silent, the Provençal was abandoned and sank into a meredialect, and after a brilliant existence of three centuries (950-1250), its productions were ranked among those of the dead languages. The highreputation of the Provençal poets, and the rapid decline of theirlanguage, are two phenomena equally striking in the history of humanculture. This literature, which gave models to other nations, yet amongits crowds of agreeable poems did not produce a single masterpiecedestined to immortality, was entirely the offspring of the age, and not ofindividuals. It reveals to us the sentiments and imagination of modernnations in their infancy; it exhibits what was common to all and pervadedall, and not what genius superior to the age enabled a single individualto accomplish. 

Southern France, having been the inheritance of several of the successorsof Charlemagne, was elevated to the rank of an independent kingdom in 879, by Bozon, and under his sovereignty, and that of his successors for 213years, it enjoyed a paternal government. The accession of the Count ofBarcelona to the crown, in 1092, introduced into Provence the spirit bothof liberty and chivalry, and a taste for elegance and the arts, with allthe sciences of the Arabians. The union of these noble sentiments addedbrilliancy to that poetical spirit which shone out at once over Provenceand all the south of Europe, like an electric flash in the midst ofprofound darkness, illuminating all things with the splendor of its flame. 

At the same time with Provençal poetry, chivalry had its rise; it was, ina manner, the soul of the new literature, and gave to it a characterdifferent from anything in antiquity. Love, in this age, while it was notmore tender and passionate than among the Greeks and Romans, was morerespectful, and women were regarded with something of that religiousveneration which the Germans evinced towards their prophetesses. To thiswas added that passionate ardor of feeling peculiar to the people of theSouth, the expression of which was borrowed from the Arabians. Butalthough among individuals love preserved this pure and religiouscharacter, the license engendered by the feudal system, and the disordersof the time, produced a universal corruption of manners which foundexpression in the literature of the age. Neither the _sirventes_ nor the_chanzos_ of the troubadours, nor the _fabliaux_ of the trouvères, nor theromances of chivalry, can be read without a blush. On every page thegrossness of the language is only equaled by the shameful depravity of thecharacters and the immorality of the incidents. In the south of France, more particularly, an extreme laxity of manners prevailed among thenobility. Gallantry seems to have been the sole object of existence. Ladies were proud of the celebrity conferred upon their charms by thesongs of the troubadours, and they themselves often professed the "GayScience, " as poetry was called. They instituted the Courts of Love wherequestions of gallantry were gravely discussed and decided by theirsuffrages; and they gave, in short, to the whole south of France thecharacter of a carnival. No sooner had the Gay Science been established inProvence, than it became the fashion in surrounding countries. Thesovereigns of Europe adopted the Provençal language, and enlistedthemselves among the poets, and there was soon neither baron nor knightwho did not feel himself bound to add to his fame as a warrior thereputation of a gentle troubadour. Monarchs were now the professors of theart, and the only patrons were the ladies. Women, no longer beautifulciphers, acquired complete liberty of action, and the homage paid to themamounted almost to worship. 

At the festivals of the haughty barons, the lady of the castle, attendedby youthful beauties, distributed crowns to the conquerors in the joustsand tournaments. She then, in turn, surrounded by her ladies, opened herCourt of Love, and the candidates for poetical honors entered with theirharps and contended for the prize in extempore verses called _tensons_. The Court of Love then entered upon a grave discussion of the merits ofthe question, and a judgment or _arrêt d'amour_ was given, frequently inverse, by which the dispute was supposed to be decided. These courts oftenformally justified the abandonment of moral duty, and assuming the formsand exercising the power of ordinary tribunals, they defined andprescribed the duties of the sexes, and taught the arts of love and songaccording to the most depraved moral principles, mingled, however, with anaffected display of refined sentimentality. Whatever may have been theirutility in the advancement of the language and the cultivation of literarytaste, these institutions extended a legal sanction to vice, andinculcated maxims of shameful profligacy. 

The songs of the Provençals were divided into _chanzos_ and _sirventes_;the object of the former was love, and of the latter war, politics, orsatire. The name of _tenson_ was given to those poetical contests in versewhich took place in the Courts of Love, or before illustrious princes. Thesongs were sung from château to château, either by the troubadoursthemselves, or by the _jongleur_ or instrument player by whom they wereattended; they often abounded in extravagant hyperboles, trivial conceits, and grossness of expression. Ladies, whose attractions were estimated bythe number and desperation of their lovers, and the songs of theirtroubadours, were not offended if licentiousness mingled with gallantry inthe songs composed in their praise. Authors addressed prayers to thesaints for aid in their amorous intrigues, and men, seemingly rational, resigned themselves to the wildest transports of passion for individualswhom, in some cases, they had never seen. Thus, religious enthusiasm, martial bravery, and licentious love, so grotesquely mingled, formed thevery life of the Middle Ages, and impossible as it is to transfuse into atranslation the harmony of Provençal verse, or to find in it, whenstripped of this harmony, any poetical idea, these remains are valuablesince they present us with a picture of the life and manners of the times. 

The intercourse of the Provençals with the Moors of Spain, which, as wehave seen, was greatly increased by the union of Catalonia and Provence(1092), introduced into the North an acquaintance with the arts andlearning of the Arabians. It was then that rhyme, the essentialcharacteristic of Arabian poetry, was adopted by the troubadours into theProvençal language, and thence communicated to the nations of modernEurope. 

The poetry of the troubadours borrowed nothing from history, mythology, orfrom foreign manners, and no reference to the sciences or the learning ofthe schools mingled with their simple effusions of sentiment. This factenables us to comprehend how it was possible for princes and knights, whowere often unable to read, to be yet ranked among the most ingenioustroubadours. Several public events, however, materially contributed toenlarge the sphere of intellect of the knights of the _Langue d'oc_. Thefirst was the conquest of Toledo and Castile by Alphonso VI. , in which hewas seconded by the Cid Rodriguez, the hero of Spain, and by a number ofFrench Provençal knights; the second was the preaching of the Crusades. Ofall the events recorded in the history of the world, there is, perhaps, not one of a nature so highly poetical as these holy wars; not one whichpresents a more powerful picture of the grand effects of enthusiasm, ofnoble sacrifices of self-interest to faith, sentiment, and passion, whichare essentially poetical. Many of the troubadours assumed the cross;others were detained in Europe by the bonds of love, and the conflictbetween passion and religious enthusiasm lent its influence to the poemsthey composed. The third event was the succession of the kings of Englandto the sovereignty of a large part of the countries where the _Langued'oc_ prevailed, which influenced the manners and opinions of thetroubadours, and introduced them to the courts of the most powerfulmonarchs; while the encouragement given to them by the kings of the houseof Plantagenet had a great influence on the formation of the Englishlanguage, and furnished Chaucer, the father of English literature, withhis first models for imitation. 

The troubadours numbered among their ranks the most illustrious sovereignsand heroes of the age. Among others, Richard Coeur de Lion, who, as a poetand knight, united in his own person all the brilliant qualities of thetime. A story is told of him, that when he was detained a prisoner inGermany, the place of his imprisonment was discovered by Blondel, hisminstrel, who sang beneath the fortress a _tenson_ which he and Richardhad composed in common, and to which Richard responded. Bertrand de Born, who was intimately connected with Richard, and who exercised a powerfulinfluence over the destinies of the royal family of England, has left anumber of original poems; Sordello of Mantua was the first to adopt theballad form of writing, and many of his love songs are expressed in a pureand delicate style. Both of these poets are immortalized in the DivineComedy of Dante. The history of Geoffrey Rudel illustrates the wildness ofthe imagination and manners of the troubadours. He was a gentleman ofProvence, and hearing the knights who had returned from the Holy Landspeak with enthusiasm of the Countess of Tripoli, who had extended to themthe most generous hospitality, and whose grace and beauty equaled hervirtues, he fell in love with her without ever having seen her, and, leaving the Court of England, he embarked for the Holy Land, to offer toher the homage of his heart. During the voyage he was attacked by a severeillness, and lost the power of speech. On his arrival in the harbor, thecountess, being informed that a celebrated poet was dying of love for her, visited him on shipboard, took him kindly by the hand, and attempted tocheer his spirits. Rudel revived sufficiently to thank the lady for herhumanity and to declare his passion, when his voice was silenced by theconvulsions of death. He was buried at Tripoli, and, by the orders of thecountess, a tomb of porphyry was erected to his memory. It is unnecessaryto mention other names among the multitude of these poets, who all holdnearly the same rank. An extreme monotony reigns throughout their works, which offer little individuality of character. 

After the thirteenth century, the troubadours were heard no more, and theefforts of the counts of Provence, the magistrates of Toulouse, and thekings of Arragon to awaken, their genius by the Courts of Love and theFloral Games were vain. They themselves attributed their decline to thedegradation into which the jongleurs, with whom at last they wereconfounded, had fallen. But their art contained within itself a moreimmediate principle of decay in the profound ignorance of its professors. They had no other models than the songs of the Arabians, which pervertedtheir taste. They made no attempt at epic or dramatic poetry; they had noclassical allusions, no mythology, nor even a romantic imagination, and, deprived of the riches of antiquity, they had few resources withinthemselves. The poetry of Provence was a beautiful flower springing up ona sterile soil, and no cultivation could avail in the absence of itsnatural nourishment. From the close of the twelfth century the languagebegan to decline, and public events occurred which hastened its downfall, and reduced it to the condition of a provincial dialect. 

Among the numerous sects which sprang up in Christendom during the MiddleAges, there was one which, though bearing different names at differenttimes, more or less resembled what is now known as Protestantism; in thetwelfth and thirteenth centuries it was called the faith of theAlbigenses, as it prevailed most widely in the district of Albi. It easilycame to be identified with the Provençal language, as this was the chosenvehicle of its religious services. This sect was tolerated and protectedby the Court of Toulouse. It augmented its numbers; it devoted itself tocommerce and the arts, and added much to the prosperity which had longdistinguished the south of France. The Albigenses had lived long andpeaceably side by side with the Catholics in the cities and villages; butInnocent III. Sent legates to Provence, who preached, discussed, andthreatened, and met a freedom of thought and resistance to authority whichRome was not willing to brook. Bitter controversy was now substituted forthe amiable frivolity of the _tensons_, and theological disputessuperseded those on points of gallantry. The long struggle between thepoetry of the troubadours and the preaching of the monks came to a crisis;the severe satires which the disorderly lives of the clergy called forthbecame severer still, and the songs of the troubadours wounded the powerand pride of Rome more deeply than ever, while they stimulated theAlbigenses to a valiant resistance or a glorious death. A crusadefollowed, and when the dreadful strife was over, Provençal poetry hadreceived its death-blow. The language of Provence was destined to sharethe fate of its poetry; it became identified in the minds of the orthodoxwith heresy and rebellion. When Charles of Anjou acquired the kingdom ofNaples, he drew thither the Provençal nobility, and thus drained thekingdom of those who had formerly maintained its chivalrous manners. Inthe beginning of the fourteenth century, when the Court of Rome wasremoved to Avignon, the retinues of the three successive popes wereItalians, and the Tuscan language entirely superseded the Provençal amongthe higher classes. 

2. THE TROUVÈRES. --While the Provençal was thus relapsing into a meredialect, the north of France was maturing a new language and literature ofan entirely different character. Normandy, a province of France, wasinvaded in the tenth century by a new northern tribe, who, under thecommand of Rollo or Raoul the Dane, incorporated themselves with theancient inhabitants. The victors adopted the language of the vanquished, stamped upon it the impress of their own genius, and gave it a fixed form. It was from Normandy that the first writers and poets in the Frenchlanguage sprang. While the Romance Provençal spoken in the South wassweet, and expressive of effeminate manners, the Romance-Wallon wasenergetic and warlike, and represented the severer manners of the Germans. Its poetry, too, was widely different from the Provençal. It was no longerthe idle baron sighing for his lady-love, but the songs of a nation ofhardy warriors, celebrating the prowess of their ancestors with all theexaggerations that fancy could supply. The _Langue d'oui_ became thevehicle of literature only in the twelfth century, --a hundred yearssubsequent to the Romance Provençal. The poets and reciters of tales, giving the name of Troubadour a French termination, called themselvesTrouvères. They originated the brilliant romances of chivalry, the_fabliaux_ or tales of amusement, and the dramatic invention of theMysteries. The first literary work in this tongue is the versified romanceof a fabulous history of the early kings of England, beginning withBrutus, the grandson of AEneas, who, after passing many enchanted isles, at length establishes himself in England, where he finds King Arthur, thechivalric institution of the Round Table, and the enchanter Merlin, one ofthe most popular personages of the Middle Ages. Out of this legend arosesome of the boldest creations of the human fancy. The word "romance, " nowsynonymous with fictitious composition, originally meant only a work inthe modern dialect, as distinguished from the scholastic Latin. There islittle doubt that these tales were originally believed to be strictlytrue. One of the first romances of chivalry was "Tristam de Léonois, "written in 1190. This was soon followed by that of the "San Graal" and"Lancelot;" and previously to 1213 Ville-Hardouin had written in theFrench language a "History of the Conquest of Constantinople. " The poem of"Alexander, " however, which appeared about the same time, has enjoyed thegreatest reputation. It is a series of romances and marvelous histories, said to be the result of the labors of nine celebrated poets of the time. Alexander is introduced, surrounded not by the pomp of antiquity, but bythe splendors of chivalry. The high renown of this poem has given the nameof _Alexandrine verse_ to the measure in which it is written. 

The spirit of chivalry which burst forth in the romances of the trouvères, the heroism of honor and love, the devotion of the powerful to the weak, the supernatural fictions, so novel and so dissimilar to everything inantiquity or in later times, the force and brilliancy of imagination whichthey display, have been variously attributed to the Arabians and theGermans, but they were undoubtedly the invention of the Normans. Of allthe people of ancient Europe, they were the most adventurous and intrepid. They established a dynasty in Russia; they cut their way through aperfidious and sanguinary nation to Constantinople; they landed on thecoasts of England and France, and surprised nations who were ignorant oftheir existence; they conquered Sicily, and established a principality inthe heart of Syria. A people so active, so enterprising, and so intrepid, found no greater delight in their leisure hours than listening to tales ofadventures, dangers, and battles. The romances of chivalry are dividedinto three distinct classes. They relate to three different epochs in theearly part of the Middle Ages, and represent three bands of fabulousheroes. In the romances of the first class, the exploits of Arthur, son ofPendragon, the last British king who defended England against the invasionof the Anglo-Saxons, are celebrated. In the second we find the Amadises, but whether they belong to French literature has been reasonably disputed. The scene is placed nearly in the same countries as in the romances of theRound Table, but there is a want of locality about them, and the name andthe times are absolutely fabulous. "Amadis of Gaul, " the first of theseromances, and the model of all the rest, is claimed as the work of VascoLobeira, a Portuguese (1290-1325); but no doubt exists with regard to thecontinuations and numerous imitations of this work, which areincontestably of Spanish origin, and were in their highest repute whenCervantes produced his inimitable "Don Quixote. " The third class ofchivalric romances, relating to the court of Charlemagne and his Paladins, is entirely French, although their celebrity is chiefly due to therenowned Italian poet who availed himself of their fictions. The mostancient monument of the marvelous history of Charlemagne is the chronicleof Turpin, of uncertain date, and which, though fabulous, can scarcely beconsidered as a romance. This and other similar narratives furnishedmaterials for the romances, which appeared at the conclusion of theCrusades, when a knowledge of the East had enriched the French imaginationwith all the treasures of the Arabian. The trouvères were not only theinventors of the romances of chivalry, but they originated the allegories, and the dramatic compositions of southern Europe. Although none of theirworks have obtained a high reputation or deserve to be ranked among themasterpieces of human intellect, they are still worthy of attention asmonuments of the progress of mind. 

The French possessed, above every other nation of modern times, aninventive spirit, but they were, at the same time, the originators ofthose tedious allegorical poems which have been imitated by all theromantic nations. The most ancient and celebrated of these is the "Romanceof the Rose, " though not a romance in the present sense of the word. Atthe period of its composition, the French language was still called theRomance, and all its more voluminous productions Romances. The "Romance ofthe Rose" was the work of two authors, Guillaume de Lorris, who commencedit in the early part of the thirteenth century, and Jean de Meun (b. 1280), by whom it was continued. Although it reached the appalling lengthof twenty thousand verses, no book was ever more popular. It was admiredas a masterpiece of wit, invention, and philosophy; the highest mysteriesof theology were believed to be concealed in this poetical form, andlearned commentaries were written upon its veiled meaning by preachers, who did not scruple to cite passages from it in the pulpit. But thetedious poem and its numberless imitations are nothing but rhymed prose, which it would be impossible to recognize as poetry, if the measure of theverse were taken away. 

In considering the popularity of these long, didactic works, it must notbe forgotten that the people of that day were almost entirely withoutbooks. A single volume was the treasure of a whole household. Inunfavorable weather it was read to a circle around the fire, and when itwas finished the perusal was again commenced. No comparison with otherbooks enabled men to form a judgment upon its merits. It was reverencedlike holy writ, and they accounted themselves happy in being able tocomprehend it. 

Another species of poetry peculiar to this period had at least the meritof being exceedingly amusing. This was the _fabliaux_, tales written inverse in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They are treasures ofinvention, simplicity, and gayety, of which other nations can furnish noinstances, except by borrowing from the French. A collection of Indiantales, translated into Latin in the tenth or eleventh century, was thefirst storehouse of the trouvères. The Arabian tales, transmitted by theMoors to the Castilians, and by the latter to the French, were in turnversified. But above all, the anecdotes collected in the towns and castlesof France, the adventures of lovers, the tricks of gallants, and thenumerous subjects gathered from the manners of the age, affordedinexhaustible materials for ludicrous narratives to the writers of thesetales. They were treasures common to all. We seldom know the name of thetrouvère by whom these anecdotes were versified. As they were related, each one varied them according to the impression he wished to produce. Atthis period there were neither theatrical entertainments nor games atcards to fill up the leisure hours of society, and the trouvères orrelators of the tales were welcomed at the courts, castles, and privatehouses with an eagerness proportioned to the store of anecdotes which theybrought with them to enliven conversation. Whatever was the subject oftheir verse, legends, miracles, or licentious anecdotes, they were equallyacceptable. These tales were the models of those of Boccaccio, LaFontaine, and others. Some of them have had great fame, and have passedfrom tongue to tongue, and from age to age, down to our own times. Severalof them have been introduced upon the stage, and others formed theoriginals of Parnell's "Hermit, " of the "Zaïre" of Voltaire, and of the"Renard, " which Goethe has converted into a long poem. But perhaps themost interesting and celebrated of all the _fabliaux_ is that of "Aucassinand Nicolette, " which has furnished the subject for a well-known opera. 

It was at this period, when the ancient drama was entirely forgotten, thata dramatic form was given to the great events which accompanied theestablishment of the Christian religion. The first to introduce thisgrotesque species of composition, were the pilgrims who had returned fromthe Holy Land. In the twelfth or thirteenth centuries, their dramaticrepresentations were first exhibited in the open streets; but it was onlyat the conclusion of the fourteenth that a company of pilgrims undertookto amuse the public by regular dramatic entertainments. They were calledthe Fraternity of the Passion, from the passion of our Saviour being oneof their most celebrated representations. This mystery, the most ancientdramatic work of modern Europe, comprehends the whole history of our Lord, from his baptism to his death. The piece was too long for onerepresentation, and was therefore continued from day to day. Eighty-sevencharacters successively appear in this mystery, among whom are the threepersons of the Trinity, angels, apostles, devils, and a host of otherpersonages, the invention of the poet's brain. To fill the comic parts, the dialogues of the devils were introduced, and their eagerness tomaltreat one another always produced much laughter in the assembly. Extravagant machinery was employed to give to the representation the pompwhich we find in the modern opera; and this drama, placing before the eyesof a Christian assembly all those incidents for which they felt thehighest veneration, must have affected them much more powerfully than eventhe finest tragedies can do at the present day. 

The mystery of the Passion was followed by a crowd of imitations. Thewhole of the Old Testament, and the lives of all the saints, were broughtupon the stage. The theatre on which these mysteries were represented wasalways composed of an elevated scaffold divided into three parts, --heaven, hell, and the earth between them. The proceedings of the Deity and Lucifermight be discerned in their respective abodes, and angels descended anddevils ascended, as their interference in mundane affairs was required. The pomp of these representations went on increasing for two centuries, and, as great value was set upon the length of the piece, some mysteriescould not be represented in less than forty days. 

The "Clerks of the Revels, " an incorporated society at Paris, whose dutyit was to regulate the public festivities, resolved to amuse the peoplewith dramatic representations themselves, but as the Fraternity of thePassion had obtained a royal license to represent the mysteries, they werecompelled to abstain from that kind of exhibition. They therefore inventeda new one, to which they gave the name of "Moralities, " and which differedlittle from the mysteries, except in name. They were borrowed from theParables, or the historical parts of the Bible, or they were purelyallegorical. To the Clerks of the Revels we also owe the invention ofmodern comedy. They mingled their moralities with farces, the sole objectof which was to excite laughter, and in which all the gayety and vivacityof the French character were displayed. Some of these plays still retaintheir place upon the French stage. At the commencement of the fifteenthcentury another comic company was established, who introduced personal andeven political satire upon the stage. Thus every species of dramaticrepresentation was revived by the French. This was the result of thetalent for imitation so peculiar to the French people, and of that pliancyof thought and correctness of intellect which enables them to conceive newcharacters. All these inventions, which led to the establishment of theRomantic drama in other countries, were known in France more than acentury before the rise of the Spanish or Italian theatre, and even beforethe classical authors were first studied and imitated. At the end of thesixteenth century, these new pursuits acquired a more immediate influenceover the literature of France, and wrought a change in its spirit andrules, without, however, altering the national character and taste whichhad been manifested in the earliest productions of the trouvères. 

3. FRENCH LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. --French had as yet beenmerely a popular language; it varied from province to province, and fromauthor to author, because no masterpiece had inaugurated any one of itsnumerous dialects. It was disdained by the more serious writers, whocontinued to employ the Latin. In the fifteenth century literature assumeda somewhat wider range, and the language began to take precision andforce. But with much general improvement and literary industry there wasstill nothing great or original, nothing to mark an epoch in the historyof letters. The only poets worthy of notice were Charles, Duke of Orleans(1391-1465), and Villon, a low ruffian of Paris (1431-1500). Charles wastaken prisoner at the battle of Agincourt, and carried to England, wherehe was detained for twenty-five years, and where he wrote a volume ofpoems in which he imitated the allegorical style of the Romance of theRose. The verses of Villon were inspired by the events of his not verycreditable life. Again and again he suffered imprisonment for pettylarcenies, and at the age of twenty-five was condemned to be hanged. Hislanguage is not that of the court, but of the people; and his poetry marksthe first sensible progress after the Romance of the Rose. 

It has been well said that literature begins with poetry; but it isestablished by prose, which fixes the language. The earliest work inFrench prose is the chronicle of Ville-Hardouin (1150-1213), written inthe thirteenth century. It is a personal narrative and relates withgraphic particularity the conquest of Constantinople by the knights ofChristendom. This ancient chronicle traces out for us some of therealities, of which the mediaeval romances were the ideal, and enables usto judge in a measure how far these romances embody substantial truth. 

A great improvement in style is apparent in Joinville (1223-1317), theamiable and light-hearted ecclesiastic who wrote the Life of St. Louis, whom he had accompanied to the Holy Land, and whose pious adventures heaffectionately records. Notwithstanding the anarchy which prevailed inFrance during the fourteenth century, some social progress was made; butwhile public events were hostile to poetry, they gave inspiration to thehistoric muse, and Froissart arose to impart vivacity of coloring tohistoric narrative. 

Froissart (1337-1410) was an ecclesiastic of the day, but little in hislife or writings bespeaks the sacred calling. Having little taste for theduties of his profession, he was employed by the Lord of Montfort tocompose a chronicle of the wars of the time; but there were no books totell him of the past, no regular communication between nations to informhim of the present; so he followed the fashion of knights errant, and setout on horseback, not to seek adventures, but, as an itinerant historian, to find materials for his chronicle. He wandered from town to town, andfrom castle to castle, to see the places of which he would write, and tolearn events on the spot where they occurred. His first journey was toEngland; here he was employed by Queen Philippa of Hainault to accompanythe Duke of Clarence to Milan, where he met Boccaccio and Chaucer. Heafterwards passed into the service of several of the princes of Europe, towhom he acted as secretary and poet, always gleaning material for historicrecord. His book is an almost universal history of the different states ofEurope, from 1322 to the end of the fourteenth century. He troubleshimself with no explanations or theories of cause and effect, nor with thephilosophy of state policy; he is simply a graphic story-teller. SirWalter Scott called Froissart his master. 

Philippe de Commines (1445-1509) was a man of his age, but in advance ofit, combining the simplicity of the fifteenth century with the sagacity ofa later period. An annalist, like Froissart, he was also a statesman, anda political philosopher; embracing, like Machiavelli and Montesquieu, theremoter consequences which flowed from the events he narrated and theprinciples he unfolded. He was an unscrupulous diplomat in the service ofLouis XI. , and his description of the last years of that monarch is astriking piece of history, whence poets and novelists have borrowed themesin later times. But neither the romance of Sir Walter Scott nor the songof Béranger does justice to the reality, as presented by the faithfulCommines. 

PERIOD SECOND. 

THE RENAISSANCE AND THE GOLDEN AGE OF FRENCH LITERATURE (1500-1700). 

1. THE RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION. --During the preceding ages, erudition and civilization had not gone hand-in-hand. On the one sidethere was the bold, chivalric mind of young Europe, speaking with thetongues of yesterday, while on the other was the ecclesiastical mind, expressing itself in degenerate Latin. The one was a life of gayety andrude disorder--the life of court and castle as depicted in the literaturejust scanned; the other, that of men separated from the world, who hadbeen studying the literary remains of antiquity, and transcribing andtreasuring them for future generations. Hitherto these two sections hadheld their courses apart; now they were to meet and blend in harmony. Thevernacular poets, on the one hand, borrowing thought and expression fromthe classics, and the clergy, on the other, becoming purveyors of lightliterature to the court circles. 

The fifteenth century, though somewhat barren, had prepared for thefecundity of succeeding ages. The revival of the study of ancientliterature, which was promoted by the downfall of Constantinople, theinvention of printing, the discovery of the new world, the decline offeudalism, and the consequent elevation of the middle classes, --allconcurred to promote a rapid improvement of the human intellect. 

During the early part of the sixteenth century, all the ardor of theFrench mind was turned to the study of the dead languages; men of geniushad no higher ambition than to excel in them, and many in their decliningyears went in their gray hairs to the schools where the languages of Homerand Cicero were taught. In civil and political society, the sameenthusiasm manifested itself in the imitation of antique manners; peopledressed in the Greek and Roman fashions, borrowed from them the usages oflife, and made a point of dying like the heroes of Plutarch. 

The religious reformation came soon after to restore the Christian, as therevival of letters had brought back the pagan antiquity. Ignorance wasdissipated, and religion was disengaged from philosophy. The Renaissance, as the revival of antique learning was called, and the Reformation, atfirst made common cause. One of those who most eagerly imbibed the spiritof both was the Princess Marguerite de Valois (1492-1549), elder sister ofFrancis I. , who obtained the credit of many generous actions which weretruly hers. The principal work of this lady was "L'Heptaméron, " or theHistory of the Fortunate Lovers, written on the plan and in the spirit ofthe Decameron of Boccaccio, a work which a lady of our times would beunwilling to own acquaintance with, much more to adopt as a model; but theapology for Marguerite must be found in the manners of the times. L'Heptaméron is the earliest French prose that can be read without aglossary. 

In 1518, when Margaret was twenty-six years of age, she received from herbrother a gifted poet as valet-de-chambre; this was Marot (1495-1544), between whom and the learned princess a poetical intercourse wasmaintained. Marot had imbibed the principles of Calvin, and had also drankdeeply of the spirit of the Renaissance; but he displayed the poet moretruly before he was either a theologian or a classical scholar. He may beconsidered the last type of the old French school, of that combination ofgrace and archness, of elegance and simplicity, of familiarity andpropriety, which is a national characteristic of French poetic literature, and in which they have never been imitated. 

Francis Rabelais (1483-1553) was one of the most remarkable persons thatfigured in the Renaissance, a learned scholar, physician, and philosopher, though known to posterity chiefly as an obscene humorist. He is called byLord Bacon "the great jester of France. " He was at first a monk of theFranciscan order, but he afterwards threw off the sacerdotal character, and studied medicine. From about the year 1534, Rabelais was in theservice of the Cardinal Dubellay, and a favorite in the court circles ofParis and Rome. It was probably during this period that he published, insuccessive parts, the work on which his popular fame has rested, the"Lives of Gargantua and Pantagruel. " It consists of the lives andadventures of these two gigantic heroes, father and son, with thewaggeries and practical jokes of Panurge, their jongleur, and theblasphemies and obscenities of Friar John, a fighting, swaggering, drinking monk. With these are mingled dissertations, sophistries, andallegorical satires in abundance. The publication of the work created aperfect uproar at the Sorbonne, and among the monks who were its principalvictims; but the cardinals enjoyed its humor, and protected its author, while the king, Francis I. , pronounced it innocent and delectable. Itbecame the book of the day, and passed through countless editions andendless commentaries; and yet it is agreed on all hands that there existsnot another work, admitted as literature, that would bear a moment'scomparison with it, for indecency, profanity, and repulsive and disgustingcoarseness. His work is now a mere curiosity for the student of antiqueliterature. 

As Rabelais was the leading type of the Renaissance, so was Calvin (1509-1564) of the Reformation. Having embraced the principles of Luther, hewent considerably farther in his views. In 1532 he established himself atGeneva, where he organized a church according to his own ideas. In 1535he published his "Institutes of the Christian Religion, " distinguishedfor great severity of doctrine. His next most celebrated work is acommentary on the Scriptures. 

Intellect continued to struggle with its fetters. Many, like Rabelais, mistrusted the whole system of ecclesiastical polity established by law, and yet did not pin their faith on the dictates of the austere Calvin. The almost inevitable consequence was a wide and universal skepticism, replacing the former implicit subjection to Romanism. 

The most eminent type of this school was Montaigne (1533-1592), who, inhis "Essays, " shook the foundations of all the creeds of his day, withoutoffering anything to replace them. He is considered the earliestphilosophical writer in French prose, the first of those who contributedto direct the minds of his countrymen to the study of human nature. Indoing so, he takes himself as his subject; he dissects his feelings, emotions, and tendencies with the coolness of an operating surgeon. To asingular power of self-investigation and an acute observation of theactions of men, he added great affluence of thought and excursiveness offancy, which render him, in spite of his egotism, a most attractivewriter. As he would have considered it dishonest to conceal anything abouthimself, he has told much that our modern ideas of decorum would deembetter untold. 

Charron (1541-1603), the friend and disciple of Montaigne, was as bold athinker, though inferior as a writer. In his book, "De la Sagesse, " hetreats religion as a mere matter of speculation, a system of dogmaswithout practical influence. Other writers followed in the same steps, and affected, like him, to place skepticism at the service of good morals. "License, " says a French writer, "had to come before liberty, skepticismbefore philosophical inquiry, the school of Montaigne before that ofDescartes. " On the other hand, St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), in his"Introduction to a Devout Life, " and other works, taught that the onlycure for the evils of human nature was to be found in the grace which wasrevealed by Christianity. 

In these struggles of thought, in this conflict of creeds, the languageacquired vigor and precision. In the works of Calvin, it manifested aseriousness of tone, and a severe purity of style which commanded generalrespect. An easy, natural tone was imparted to it by Amyot (1513-1593), professor of Greek and Latin at the University of Paris, who enriched theliterature with elegant translations, in which he blended Hellenic graceswith those strictly French. 

2. LIGHT LITERATURE. --Ronsard (1524-1585), the favorite poet of Mary Queenof Scots, flourished at the time that the rage for ancient literature wasat its height. He traced the first outlines of modern French poetry, andintroduced a higher style of poetic thought and feeling than had hithertobeen known. To him France owes the first attempt at the ode and the heroicepic; in the former, he is regarded as the precursor of Malherbe, who isstill looked on as a model in this style, But Ronsard, and the numerousschool which he formed, not only imitated the spirit and form of theancients, but aimed to subject his own language to combinations andinversions like those of the Greek and Latin, and foreign roots andphrases began to overpower the reviving flexibility of the French idiom. 

Under this influence, the drama was restored by Jodelle (1532-1573) andothers, in the shape of imitations and translations. Towards the end ofthe century, however, there appeared a reaction against this learnedtragedy, led by Alexander Hardy (1560-1631), who, with little or nooriginal genius, produced about twelve hundred plays. He borrowed in everydirection, and imitated the styles of all nations. But the general taste, however, soon returned to the Greek and Roman school. 

The glorious reign of Henry IV. Had been succeeded by the stormy minorityof Louis XIII. , when Malherbe (1556-1628), the tyrant of words andsyllables, appeared as the reformer of poetry. He attracted attention byridiculing the style of Ronsard. He became the laureate of the court, andfurnished for it that literature in which it was beginning to takedelight. In the place of Latin and Greek French, he inaugurated theextreme of formality; the matter of his verse was made subordinate to themanner; he substituted polish for native beauty, and effect for genuinefeeling. 

I. De Balzac (1594-1624), in his frivolous epistles, used prose asMalherbe did verse, and a numerous school of the same character was soonformed. The works of Voiture (1598-1648) abound in the pleasantries andaffected simplicity which best befit such compositions. The most triflingadventure--the death of a cat or a dog--was transformed into a poem, inwhich there was no poetry, but only a graceful facility, which wasconsidered perfectly charming. Then, as though native affectation were notenough, the borrowed wit of Italian Marinism, which had been eagerlyadopted in Spain, made its way thence into France, with Spanishexaggeration superadded. A disciple of this school declares that the eyesof his mistress are as "large as his grief, and as black as his fate. "Malherbe and his school fell afterwards into neglect, for fashionablecaprice had turned its attention to burlesque, and every one believedhimself capable of writing in this style, from the lords and ladies of thecourt down to the valets and maid-servants. It was men like Scarron (1610-1660), familiar with literary study, and, from choice, with the lowestsociety, who introduced this form, the pleasantry of which was increasedby contrast with the finical taste that had been in vogue. Fashion ruledthe light literature of France during the first half of the seventeenthcentury, and through all its diversities, its great characteristic is theabsence of all true and serious feeling, and of that inspiration which isdrawn from realities. In the productions of half a century, we find notone truly elevated, energetic, or pathetic work. 

It is during this time, that is, between the death of Henry IV (1610), andthat of Richelieu (1642), that we mark the beginning of literary societiesin France. The earliest in point of date was headed by Madame deRambouillet (1610-1642), whose hotel became a seminary of female authorsand factious politicians. This lady was of Italian origin, of fine tasteand education. She had turned away in disgust from the rude manners of thecourt of Henry IV, and devoted herself to the study of the classics. Afterthe death of the king, she gathered a distinguished circle round herself, combining the elegances of high life with the cultivation of literarytaste. While yet young, Madame de Rambouillet was attacked with a maladywhich obliged her to keep her bed the greater part of every year. Anelegant alcove was formed in the great _salon_ of the house, where her bedwas placed, and here she received her friends. The choicest wits of Parisflocked to her levées; the Hotel de Rambouillet became the fashionablerendezvous of literature and taste, and _bas-bleu_-ism was the rage. Eventhe infirmities of this accomplished lady were imitated. An alcove wasessential to every fashionable belle, who, attired in a coquettishdishabille, and reclining on satin pillows, fringed with lace, gaveaudience to whispered gossip in the _ruelle_, as the space around the bedwas called. 

Among the personages renowned in their day, who frequented the Hotel deRambouillet, were Mademoiselle de Scudery (1607-1701), then in the zenithof her fame, Madame de Sévigné (1627-1696), Mademoiselle de la Vergne, afterwards Madame de Lafayette (1655-1693), eminent as literarycharacters; the Duchess de Longueville, the Duchess de Chevreuse, andMadame Deshoulières, afterwards distinguished for their political ability. At the feet of these noble ladies reclined a number of young seigneurs, dangling their little hats surcharged with plumes, while their mantles ofsilk and gold were spread loosely on the floor. And there, in more graveattire, were the professional littérateurs, such as Balzac, Voiture, Ménage, Scudery, Chaplain, Costart, Conrad, and the Abbé Bossuet. TheCupid of the hotel was strictly Platonic. The romances of Mademoiselle deScudery were long-spun disquisitions on love; her characters were drawnfrom the individuals around her, who in turn attempted to sustain thecharacters and adopt the language suggested in her books. One folly led onanother, till at last the vocabulary of the _salon_ became so artificial, that none but the initiated could understand it. As for Mademoiselle deScudery herself, applying, it would seem, the impracticable tests she hadinvented for sounding the depths of the tender passion, though not withoutsuitors, she died an old maid, at the advanced age of ninety-four. 

The civil wars of the Fronde (1649-1654) were unfavorable to literarymeetings. The women who took the most distinguished part in these troubleshad graduated, so to say, from the Hotel de Rambouillet, which, perhapsfor this reason, declined with the ascendency of Louis XIV. The agitationsof the Fronde taught him to distrust clever women, and he always showed amarked dislike for female authorship. 

3. THE FRENCH ACADEMY. --The taste for literature, which had become sogenerally diffused, rendered the men whose province it was to define itslaws the chiefs of a brilliant empire. Scholars, therefore, frequently mettogether for critical discussion. About the year 1629 a certain number ofmen of letters agreed to assemble one day in each week. It was a union offriendship, a companionship of men of kindred tastes and occupations; andto prevent intrusion, the meetings were for some time kept secret. WhenRichelieu came to hear of the existence of the society, desirous to makeliterature subservient to his political glory, he proposed to thesegentlemen to form themselves into a corporation, established by letterspatent, at the same time hinting that he had the power to put a stop totheir secret meetings. The argument was irresistible, and the littlesociety consented to receive from his highness the title of the FrenchAcademy, in 1635. The members of the Academy were to occupy themselves inestablishing rules for the French language, and to take cognizance ofwhatever books were written by its members, and by others who desired itsopinions. 

4. THE DRAMA. --The endeavor to imitate the ancients in the tragic artdisplayed itself at a very early period among the French, and theyconsidered that the surest method of succeeding in this endeavor was toobserve the strictest outward regularity of form, of which they derivedtheir ideas more from Aristotle, and especially from Seneca, than from anyintimate acquaintance with the Greek models themselves. Three of the mostcelebrated of the French tragic poets, Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire, have given, it would seem, an immutable shape to the tragic stage ofFrance by adopting this system, which has been considered by the Frenchcritics universally as alone entitled to any authority, and who haveviewed every deviation from it as a sin against good taste. The treatiseof Aristotle, from which they have derived the idea of the far-famed threeunities, of action, time, and place, which have given rise to so manycritical wars, is a mere fragment, and some scholars have been of theopinion that it is not even a fragment of the true original, but of anextract which some person made for his own improvement. From this anxiousobservance of the Greek rules, under totally different circumstances, itis obvious that great inconveniences and incongruities must arise; and thecriticism of the Academy on a tragedy of Corneille, "that the poet, fromthe fear of sinning against the rules of art, had chosen rather to sinagainst the rules of nature, " is often applicable to the dramatic writersof France. 

Corneille (1606-1684) ushered in a new era in the French drama. It hasbeen said of him that he was a man greater in himself than in his works, his genius being fettered by the rules of the French drama and theconventional state of French verse. The day of mysteries and moralitieswas past, and the comedies of Hardy, the court poet of Henry IV. , had, intheir turn, been consigned to oblivion, yet there was an increasing tastefor the drama. The first comedy of Corneille, "Mélite, " was followed bymany others, which, though now considered unreadable, were better thananything then known. The appearance of the "Cid, " in 1635, a dramaconstructed on the foundation of the old Spanish romances, constituted anera in the dramatic history of France. Although not without great faults, resulting from strict adherence to the rules, it was the first time thatthe depths of passion had been stirred on the stage, and its success wasunprecedented. For years after, his pieces followed each other in rapidsuccession, and the history of the stage was that of Corneille's works. Inthe "Cid, " the triumph of love was exhibited; in "Les Horaces, " love wasrepresented as punished for its rebellion against the laws of honor; in"Cinna, " all more tender considerations are sacrificed to the implacableduty of avenging a father; while in "Polyeucte, " duty triumphs alone. Corneille did not boldly abandon himself to the guidance of his genius; hefeared criticism, although he defied it. His success proved the signal forenvy and detraction; he became angry at being obliged to fight his way, and therefore withdrew from the path in which he was likely to meetenemies. His decline was as rapid as his success had been brilliant. "Thefall of the great Corneille, " says Fontenelle, "may be reckoned as amongthe most remarkable examples of the vicissitudes of human affairs. Eventhat of Belisarius asking alms is not more striking. " As his yearsincreased, he became more anxious for popularity; having been so long inpossession of undisputed superiority, he could not behold withoutdissatisfaction the rising glory of his successors; and, towards the closeof his life, this weakness was greatly increased by the decay of hisbodily organs. 

5. PHILOSOPHY. --During this period, in a region far above court favor, Descartes (1596-1650) elaborated his system of philosophy, in creating anew method of philosophizing. The leading peculiarity of his system wasthe attempt to deduce all moral and religious truth from self-consciousness. _I think, therefore I am_, was the famous axiom on whichthe whole was built. From this he inferred the existence of two distinctnatures in man, the mental and the physical, and the existence of certainideas which he called innate in the mind, and serving to connect it withthe spiritual and invisible. Besides these new views in metaphysics, Descartes made valuable contributions to mathematical and physicalscience; and though his philosophy is now generally discarded, it is notforgotten that he opened the way for Locke, Newton, and Leibnitz, and thathis system was in reality the base of all those that superseded it. Thereis scarcely a name on record, the bearer of which has given a greaterimpulse to mathematical and philosophical inquiry than Descartes, and heembodied his thoughts in such masterly language, that it has been justlysaid of him, that his fame as a writer would have been greater if hiscelebrity as a thinker had been less. 

The age of Descartes was an interesting era in the annals of the humanmind. The darkness of scholastic philosophy was gradually clearing awaybefore the light which an improved method of study was shedding over thenatural sciences. A system of philosophy, founded on observation, waspreparing the downfall of those traditional errors which had long held themastery in the schools. Geometricians, physicians, and astronomers taught, by their example, the severe process of reasoning which was to regenerateall the sciences; and minds of the first order, scattered in various partsof Europe, communicated to each other the results of their labors, andstimulated each other to new exertions. 

One of the most eminent contemporaries of Descartes was Pascal (1628-1662). At the age of sixteen he wrote a treatise on conic sections, whichwas followed by several important discoveries in arithmetic and geometry. His experiments in natural science added to his fame, and he wasrecognized as one of the most eminent geometricians of modern times. Buthe soon formed the design of abandoning science for pursuits exclusivelyreligious, and circumstances arose which became the occasion of those"Provincial Letters, " which, with the "Pensées de la Religion, " areconsidered among the finest specimens of French literature. 

The abbey of Port Royal occupied a lonely situation about six leagues fromParis. Its internal discipline had recently undergone a thoroughreformation, and the abbey rose to such a high reputation, that men ofpiety and learning took up their abode in its vicinity, to enjoy literaryleisure. The establishment received pupils, and its system of educationbecame celebrated in a religious and intellectual point of view. The greatrivals of the Port Royalists were the Jesuits. Pascal, though not a memberof the establishment, was a frequent visitor, and one of his friendsthere, having been drawn into a controversy with the Sorbonne on thedoctrines of the Jansenists, had recourse to his aid in replying. Pascalpublished a series of letters in a dramatic form, in which he brought hisadversaries on the stage with himself, and fairly cut them up for thepublic amusement. These letters, combining the comic pleasantry of Molièrewith the eloquence of Demosthenes, so elegant and attractive in style, andso clear and popular that a child might understand them, gained immediateattention; but the Jesuits, whose policy and doctrines they attacked, finally induced the parliament of Provence to condemn them to be burned bythe common hangman; and the Port Royalists, refusing to renounce theiropinions, were driven from their retreat, and the establishment broken up. Pascal's masterpiece is the "Pensées de la Religion;" it consists offragments of thought, without apparent connection or unity of design. These thoughts are in some places obscure; they contain repetitions, andeven contradictions, and require that arrangement that could only havebeen supplied by the hand of the writer. It has often been lamented thatthe author never constructed the edifice which it is believed he haddesigned, and of which these thoughts were the splendid materials. 

6. THE RISE OF THE GOLDEN AGE OF FRENCH LITERATURE. --When Louis XIV. Cameto the throne (1638-1715), France was already subject to conditionscertain to produce a brilliant period in literature. She had been broughtinto close relations with Spain and Italy, the countries then the mostadvanced in intellectual culture; and she had received from the study ofthe ancient masters the best correctives of whatever might have beenextravagant in the national genius. She had learned some useful lessonsfrom the polemical distractions of the sixteenth century. The religiousearnestness excited by controversy was gratified by preachers of highendowments, and the political ascendency of France, among the kingdoms ofEurope, imparted a general freedom and buoyancy. But of all the influenceswhich contributed to perfect the literature of France in the latter halfof the seventeenth century, none was so powerful as that of the monarchhimself, who, by his personal power, rendered his court a centre ofknowledge, and, by his government, imparted a feeling of security to thosewho lived under it. The predominance of the sovereign became the mostprominent feature in the social character of the age, and the whole circleof the literature bears its impress. Louis elevated and improved, in nosmall degree, the position of literary men, by granting pensions to some, while he raised others to high offices of state; or they were recompensedby the public, through the general taste, which the monarch so largelycontributed to diffuse. 

The age, unlike that which followed it, was one of order and specialty inliterature; and in classifying its literary riches, we shall find theprincipal authors presenting themselves under the different subjects:Racine with tragedy, Molière with comedy, Boileau with satirical and mock-heroic, La Fontaine with narrative poetry, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, andMassillon with pulpit eloquence; Patru, Pellisson, and some others withthat of the bar; Bossuet, de Retz, and St. Simon with history and memoirs;Rochefoucauld and La Bruyère with moral philosophy; Fénelon and Madame deLafayette with romance; and Madame de Sévigné with letter-writing. 

The personal influence of the king was most marked on pulpit eloquence anddramatic poetry. Other branches found less favor, from his dislike tothose who chiefly treated them. The recollections of the Fronde had leftin his mind a distrust of Rochefoucauld. A similar feeling of politicaljealousy, with a thorough hatred of _bel esprit_, especially in a woman, prevented him from appreciating Madame de Sévigné; and he seems not evento have observed La Bruyère, in his modest functions as teacher of historyto the Duke of Burgundy. He had no taste for the pure mental speculationsof Malebranche or Fénelon; and in metaphysics, as in religion, had littlepatience for what was beyond the good sense of ordinary individuals. Thesame hatred of excess rendered him equally the enemy of refiners and free-thinkers, so that the like exile fell to the lot of Arnauld and Bayle, theone carrying to the extreme the doctrines of grace, and the other those ofskeptical inquiry. Nor did he relish the excessive simplicity of LaFontaine, or deem that his talent was a sufficient compensation for hisslovenly manners and inaptitude for court life. Of all these writers itmay be said, that they flourished rather in spite of the personalinfluence of the monarch than under his favor. 

7. TRAGEDY. --The first dramas of Racine (1639-1699) were but feebleimitations of Corneille, who advised the young author to attempt no moretragedy. He replied by producing "Andromaque, " which had a most powerfuleffect upon the stage. The poet had discovered that sympathy was a morepowerful source of tragic effect than admiration, and he accordinglyemployed the powers of his genius in a truthful expression of feeling andcharacter, and a thrilling alternation of hope and fear, anger and pity. "Andromaque" was followed almost every year by a work of similarcharacter. Henrietta of England induced Corneille and Racine, unknown toeach other, to produce a tragedy on Berenice, in order to contrast thepowers of these illustrious rivals. They were represented in the year1670; that of Corneille proved a failure, but Racine's was honored; by thetears of the court and the city. Soon after, partly disgusted at theintrigues against him, and partly from religious principle, Racineabandoned his career while yet in the full vigor of his life and genius. He was appointed historiographer to the king, conjointly with Boileau, andafter twelve years of silence he was induced by Madame de Maintenon tocompose the drama of "Esther" for the pupils in the Maison de St. Cyr, which met with prodigious success. "Athalie, " considered the most perfectof his works, was composed with similar views; theatricals having beenabandoned at the school, however, the play was published, but found noreaders. Discouraged by this second injustice, Racine finally abandonedthe drama. "Athalie" was but little known till the year 1716, since whenits reputation has considerably augmented. Voltaire pronounced it the mostperfect work of human genius. The subject of this drama is taken from thetwenty-second and twenty-third chapter of II. Chronicles, where it iswritten that Athaliah, to avenge the death of her son, destroyed all theseed royal of the house of Judah, but that the young Joash was stolen fromamong the rest by his aunt Jehoshabeath, the wife of the high-priest, andhidden with his nurse for six years in the temple. Besides numeroustragedies, Racine composed odes, epigrams, and spiritual songs. By a rarecombination of talents he wrote as well in prose as in verse. His "Historyof the Reign of Louis XIV. " was destroyed by a conflagration, but thereremain the "History of Port Royal, " some pleasing letters, and someacademic discourses. The tragedies of Racine are more elegant than thoseof Corneille, though less bold and striking. Corneille's principalcharacters are heroes and heroines thrown into situations of extremity, and displaying strength of mind superior to their position. Racine'scharacters are men, not heroes, --men such as they are, not such as theymight possibly be. 

France produced no other tragic dramatists of the first class in this age. Somewhat later, Crébillon (1674-1762), in such wild tragedies as "Atrea, ""Electra, " and "Rhadamiste, " introduced a new element, that of terror, asa source of tragic effect. 

Cardinal Mazarin had brought from Italy the opera or lyric tragedy, whichwas cultivated with success by Quinault (1637-1688). He is said to havetaken the bones out of the French language by cultivating an art in whichthought, incident, and dialogue are made secondary to the development oftender and voluptuous feeling. 

8. COMEDY. --The comic drama, which occupied the French stage till themiddle of the seventeenth century, was the comedy of intrigue, borrowedfrom Spain, and turning on disguises, dark lanterns, and trap-doors tohelp or hinder the design of personages who were types, not of individualcharacter, but of classes, as doctors, lawyers, lovers, and confidants. Itwas reserved for Molière (1622-1673) to demolish all this childishness, and enthrone the true Thalia on the French stage. Like Shakspeare, he wasboth an author and an actor. The appearance of the "Précieuses Ridicules"was the first of the comedies in which the gifted poet assailed thefollies of his age. The object of this satire was the system of solemnsentimentality which at this time was considered the perfection ofelegance. It will be remembered that there existed at Paris a coterie offashionable women who pretended to the most exalted refinement both offeeling and expression, and that these were waited upon and worshiped by aset of nobles and littérateurs, who used towards them a peculiar strain ofhigh-flown, pedantic gallantry. These ladies adopted fictitious names forthemselves and gave enigmatical ones to the commonest things. Theylavished upon each other the most tender appellations, as though incontrast to the frigid tone in which the Platonism of the Hotel requiredthem to address the gentlemen of their circle. _Ma chère, ma précieuse_, were the terms most frequently used by the leaders of this world of folly, and a _précieuse_ came to be synonymous with a lady of the clique; hencethe title of the comedy. The piece was received with unanimous applause; amore signal victory could not have been gained by a comic poet, and fromthe time of its first representation this bombastic nonsense was given up. Molière, perceiving that he had struck the true vein, resolved to studyhuman nature more and Plautus and Terence less. Comedy after comedyfollowed, which were true pictures of the follies of society; but whateverwas the theme of his satire, all proved that he had a falcon's eye fordetecting vice and folly in every shape, and talons for pouncing upon allas the natural prey of the satirist. On the boards he always took theprincipal character himself, and he was a comedian in every look andgesture. The "Malade Imaginaire" was the last of his works. When it wasproduced upon the stage, the poet himself was really ill, but repressingthe voice of natural suffering, to affect that of the hypochondriac forpublic amusement, he was seized with a convulsive cough, and carried homedying. Though he was denied the last offices of the church, and hisremains were with difficulty allowed Christian burial, in the followingcentury his bust was placed in the Academy, and a monument erected to hismemory in the cemetery of Père la Chaise. The best of Molière's works are, "Le Misanthrope, " "Les Femmes Savantes, " and "Tartuffe;" these areconsidered models of high comedy. Other comedians followed, but at a greatdistance from him in point of merit. 

9. FABLE, SATIRE, MOCK-HEROIC, AND OTHER POETRY. --La Fontaine (1621-1695)was the prince of fabulists; his fables appeared successively in threecollections, and although the subjects of some of these are borrowed, thedress is entirely new. His versification constitutes one of the greatestcharms of his poetry, and seems to have been the result of an instinctivesense of harmony, a delicate taste, and rapidity of invention. There arefew authors in France more popular, none so much the familiar genius ofevery fireside. La Fontaine himself was a mere child of nature, indolent, and led by the whim of the moment, rather than by any fixed principle. Hewas desired by his father to take charge of the domain of which he was thekeeper, and to unite himself in marriage with a family relative. Withunthinking docility he consented to both, but neglected alike his officialduties and domestic obligations with an innocent unconsciousness of wrong. He was taken to Paris by the Duchess of Bouillon and passed his days inher coteries, and those of Racine and Boileau, utterly forgetful of hishome and family, except when his pecuniary necessities obliged him toreturn to sell portions of his property to supply his wants. When this wasexhausted, he became dependent on the kindness of female discerners ofmerit. Henrietta of England attached him to her suite; and after herdeath, Madame de la Sablière gave him apartments at her house, suppliedhis wants, and indulged his humors for twenty years. When she retired to aconvent, Madame d'Hervart, the wife of a rich financier, offered him asimilar retreat. While on her way to make the proposal, she met him in thestreet, and said, "La Fontaine, will you come and live in my house?" "Iwas just going, madame, " he replied, as if his doing so had been thesimplest and most natural thing in the world. And here he remained therest of his days. France has produced numerous writers of fables since thetime of La Fontaine, but none worthy of comparison with him. 

The writings of Descartes and Pascal, with the precepts of the Academy andPort Royal, had established the art of prose composition, but the destinyof poetry continued doubtful. Corneille's masterpieces afforded modelsonly in one department; there was no specific doctrine on the idea of whatpoetry ought to be. To supply this was the mission of Boileau (1636-1711);and he fulfilled it, first by satirizing the existing style, and then bycomposing an "Art of Poetry, " after the manner of Horace. In the midst ofmen who made verses for the sake of making them, and composed languishinglove-songs upon the perfections of mistresses who never existed except intheir own imaginations, Boileau determined to write nothing but whatinterested his feelings, to break with this affected gallantry, and drawpoetry only from the depths of his own heart. His début was made inunmerciful satires on the works of the poetasters, and he continued toplead the cause of reason against rhyme, of true poetry against false. Despite the anger of the poets and their friends, his satires enjoyedimmense favor, and he consolidated his victory by writing the "Art ofPoetry, " in which he attempted to restore it to its true dignity. Thiswork obtained for him the title of Legislator of Parnassus. The mock-heroic poem of the "Lutrin" is considered as the happiest effort of hismuse, though inferior to the "Rape of the Lock, " a composition of asimilar kind. The occasion of this poem was a frivolous dispute betweenthe treasurer and the chapter of a cathedral concerning the placing of areading-desk (_lutrin_). A friend playfully challenged Boileau to write aheroic poem on the subject, to verify his own theory that the excellenceof a heroic poem depended upon the power of the inventor to sustain andenlarge upon a slender groundwork. Boileau was the last of the great poetsof the golden age. 

The horizon of the poets was at this time somewhat circumscribed. Confinedto the conventional life of the court and the city, they enjoyed littleopportunity for the contemplation of nature. The policy of Louis XIV. Proscribed national recollections, so that the social life of the day wasalone open to them. Poetry thus became abstract and ideal, or limited tothe delineation of those passions which belong to a highly artificialstate of society. Madame Deshoulières (1634-1694) indeed wrote somegraceful idyls, but she by no means entered into the spirit of rural lifeand manners, like La Fontaine. 

10. ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT AND OF THE BAR. --Louis XIV. Afforded toreligious eloquence the most efficacious kind of encouragement, that ofpersonal attendance. The court preachers had no more attentive auditorthan their royal master, who was singularly gifted with that tenderness ofconscience which leads a man to condemn himself for his sins, yet indulgein their commission; to feel a certain pleasure in self-accusation, and toenjoy that reaction of mind which consists in occasionally holding hispassions in abeyance. This attention on the part of a great monarch, theliberty of saying everything, the refined taste of the audience, who couldon the same day attend a sermon of Bourdaloue and a tragedy of Racine, alltended to lead pulpit eloquence to a high degree of perfection; and, accordingly, we find the function of court preacher exercised successivelyby Bossuet (1627-1704), Bourdaloue (1632-1704), and Massillon (1663-1742), the greatest names that the Roman Catholic Church has boasted in any ageor country. Bossuet addressed the conscience through the imagination, Bourdaloue through the judgment, and Massillon through the feelings. Fléchier (1632-1710), another court preacher, renowned chiefly as arhetorician, was not free from the affectation of Les Précieuses; butBossuet was perhaps the most distinguished type of the age of Louis XIV. , in all save its vices. For the instruction of the Dauphin, to whom he hadbeen appointed preceptor, he wrote his "Discourse upon Universal History, "by which he is chiefly known to us. The Protestant controversy elicitedhis famous "Exposition of the Catholic Doctrine. " A still more celebratedwork is the "History of the Variations, " the leading principle of whichis, that to forsake the authority of the church leads one knows notwhither, that there can be no new religious views except false ones, andthat there can be no escape from the faith transmitted from age to age, save in the wastes of skepticism. In his controversy with Fénelon, inrelation to the mystical doctrines of Madame Guyon, Bossuet showed himselfirritated, and at last furious, at the moderate and submissive tone of hisopponent. He procured the banishment of Fénelon from court, and thedisgrace of his friends; and through his influence the pope condemned the"Maxims of the Saints, " in which Fénelon endeavored to show that the viewsof Madame Guyon were those of others whom the church had canonized. Thesermons of Bossuet were paternal and familiar exhortations; he seldomprepared them, but, abandoning himself to the inspiration of the moment, was now simple and touching, now energetic and sublime, His familiaritywith the language of inspiration imparted to his discourses a tone ofalmost prophetic authority; his eloquence appeared as a native instinct, agift direct from heaven, neither marred nor improved by the study of humanrules. France does not acknowledge the Protestant Saurin (1677-1730), asthe Revocation of the Edict of Nantes expatriated him in childhood; buthis sermons occupy a distinguished place in the theological literature ofthe French language. 

Political or parliamentary oratory was as yet unknown, for the parliamentno sooner touched on matters of state and government, than Louis XIVentered, booted and spurred, with whip in hand, and not figuratively, butliterally, lashed the refractory assembly into silence and obedience. Butthe eloquence of the bar enjoyed a considerable degree of freedom in thisage. Law and reason, however, were too often overlaid by worthlessconceits and a fantastic abuse of classic and scriptural citations. LeMaitre (1608-1658), Patru (1604-1681), Pellisson (1624-1693), Cochin(1687-1749), and D'Aguesseau (1668-1751), successively purified andelevated the language of the tribunals. 

11. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. --The most celebrated moralist of the age was theDuke de Rochefoucauld (1613-1680). He was early drawn into those conflictsknown as the wars of the Fronde, though he seems to have had little motivefor fighting or intriguing, except his restlessness of spirit and hisattachment to the Duchess de Longueville. He soon quarreled with theduchess, dissolved his alliance with Condé, and being afterwards includedin the amnesty, he took up his residence at Paris, where he was one of thebrightest ornaments of the court of Louis XIV. His chosen friends, in hisdeclining years, were Madame de Sévigné, one of the most accomplishedwomen of the age, and Madame de Lafayette, who said of him, "He gave meintellect, and I reformed his heart. " But if the taint was removed fromhis heart, it continued in the understanding. His famous "Maxims, "published in 1665, gained for the author a lasting reputation, not lessfor the perfection of his style, than for the boldness of his paradoxes. The leading peculiarity of this work is the principle that self-interestis the ruling motive in human nature, placing every virtue, as well asevery vice, under contribution to itself. It is generally agreed thatRochefoucauld's views of human nature were perverted by the specimens ofit which he had known in the wars of the Fronde, which were stimulated byvice, folly, and a restless desire of power. His "Memoirs of the Reign ofAnne of Austria" embody the story of the Fronde, and his "Maxims" themoral philosophy he deduced from it. 

While Pascal, in proving all human remedies unworthy of confidence, hadsought to drive men upon faith by pursuing them with despair, andRochefoucauld, by his pitiless analysis of the disguises of the humanheart, led his readers to suspect their most natural emotions, and well-nigh took away the desire of virtue by proving its impossibility, LaBruyère (1639-1696) endeavored to make the most of our nature, such as itis, to render men better, even with their imperfections, to assist them bya moral code suited to their strength, or rather to their weakness. His"Characters of our Age" is distinguished for the exactness and variety ofthe portraits, as well as for the excellence of its style. The philosophyof La Bruyère is unquestionably based on reason, and not on revelation. 

In the moral works of Nicole, the Port Royalist (1611-1645), we find asystem of truly Christian ethics, derived from the precepts of revelation;they are elegant in style, though they display little originality. 

The only speculative philosopher of this age, worthy of mention, isMalebranche (1631-1715), a disciple of Descartes; but, unlike his master, instead of admitting innate ideas, he held that we see all in Deity, andthat it is only by our spiritual union with the Being who knows all thingsthat we know anything. He professed optimism, and explained the existenceof evil by saying that the Deity acts only as a universal cause. Hisobject was to reconcile philosophy with revelation; his works, thoughmodels of style, are now little read. 

12. HISTORY AND MEMOIRS. --History attained no degree of excellence duringthis period. Bossuet's "Discourse on Universal History" was a sermon, withgeneral history as the text. At a somewhat earlier date, Mézeray (1610-1683) compiled a history of France. The style is clear and nervous, andthe spirit which pervades it is bold and independent, but the facts arenot always to be relied on. The "History of Christianity, " by the AbbéFleury (1640-1723), was pronounced by Voltaire to be the best work of thekind that had ever appeared. Rollin (1661-1741) devoted his decliningyears to the composition of historical works for the instruction of youngpeople. His "Ancient History" is more remarkable for the excellence of hisintentions than for the display of historical talent. Indeed, thehistorical writers of this period may be said to have marked, rather thanfilled a void. 

The writers of memoirs were more happy. At an earlier period, Brantôme(1527-1614), a gentleman attached to the suite of Charles IX. And HenryIII. , employed his declining years in describing men and manners as he hadobserved them; and his memoirs are admitted to embody but too faithfully arepresentation of that singular mixture of elegance and grossness, ofsuperstition and impiety, of chivalrous feelings and licentious morals, which characterized the sixteenth century. The Duke of Sully (1559-1641), the skillful financier of Henry IV. , left valuable memoirs of the stirringevents of his day. The "Memoirs" of the Cardinal de Betz (1614-1679), whotook so active a part in the agitations of the Fronde, embody the enlargedviews of the true historian, and breathe the impetuous spirit of a manwhose native element is civil commotion, and who looks on thechieftainship of a party as worthy to engage the best powers of his headand heart; but his style abounds with negligences and irregularities whichwould have shocked the littérateurs of the day. 

The Duke de St. Simon (1675-1755) is another of those who made nopretensions to classical writing. All the styles of the seventeenthcentury are found in him. His language has been compared to a torrent, which appears somewhat incumbered by the debris which it carries, yetmakes its way with no less rapidity. 

Count Hamilton (1646-1720) narrates the adventures of his brother-in-law, Count de Grammont, of which La Harpe says, "Of all frivolous books, it isthe most diverting and ingenious. " Much lively narration is here expendedon incidents better forgotten. 

13. ROMANCE AND LETTER-WRITING. --The growth of kingly power, the orderwhich it established, and the civilization which followed in its train, restrained the development of public life and increased the interests ofthe social relations. From this new state of things arose a modified kindof romance, in which elevated sentiments replaced the achievements ofmediaeval fiction and the military exploits of Mademoiselle de Scudery'stales. Madame de Lafayette introduced that kind of romance in which theabsorbing interest is that of conflicting passion, and external eventswere the occasion of developing the inward life of thought and feeling. She first depicted manners as they really were, relating natural eventswith gracefulness, instead of narrating those that never could have hadexistence. 

The illustrious Fénelon (1651-1715) was one of the few authors of thisperiod who belonged exclusively to no one class. He appears as a divine inhis "Sermons" and "Maxims;" as a rhetorician in his "Dialogues onEloquence;" as a moralist in his "Education of Girls;" as a politician inhis "Examination of the Conscience of a King;" and it may be said that allthese characters are combined in "Telemachus, " which has procured for hima widespread fame, and which classes him among the romancers. Telemachuswas composed with the intention of its becoming a manual for his pupil, the young Duke of Burgundy, on his entrance into manhood. Though itspublication caused him the loss of the king's favor, it went throughnumerous editions, and was translated into every language of Europe. Itwas considered, in its day, a manual for kings, and it became a standardbook, on account of the elegance of its style, the purity of its morals, and the classic taste it was likely to foster in the youthful mind. 

Madame de Sévigné made no pretensions to authorship. Her letters werewritten to her daughter, without the slightest idea that they would beread, except by those to whom they were addressed; but they haveimmortalized their gifted author, and have been pronounced worthy tooccupy an eminent place among the classics of French literature. Thematter which these celebrated letters contain is multifarious; they aresketches of Madame de Sévigné's friends, Madame de Lafayette, MadameScarron, and all the principal personages of that brilliant court, fromwhich, however, she was excluded, in consequence of her early alliancewith the Fronde, her friendship for Fouquet, and her Jansenist opinions. All the occurrences, as well as the characters of the day, are touched inthese letters; and so graphic is the pen, so clear and easy the style, that we seem to live in those brilliant days, and to see all that wasgoing on. Great events are detailed in the same tone as court gossip;Louis XIV. , Turenne, Condé, the wars of France and of the empire arefreely mingled with details of housewifery, projects of marriage, --inshort, the seventeenth century is depicted in the correspondence of twowomen who knew nothing so important as their own affairs. 

Considerable interest attaches also to the letters of Madame de Maintenon(1635-1719), a lady whose life presents singular contrasts, worthy of thetime. To her influence on the king, after her private marriage to him, isattributed much that is inauspicious in the latter part of his reign, thecombination of ascetic devotion and religious bigotry with the mostflagrant immorality, the appointment of unskillful generals and weak-minded ministers, the persecution of the Jansenists, and, above all, therevocation of the Edict of Nantes, which had secured religious freedom tothe Protestants. 

PERIOD THIRD. 

LITERATURE OF THE AGE OF THE REVOLUTION AND OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY(1700-1885). 

1. THE DAWN OF SKEPTICISM. --In the age just past we have seen religion, antiquity, and the monarchy of Louis XIV. , each exercising a distinct andpowerful influence over the buoyancy of French genius, which cheerfullysubmitted to their restraining power. A school of taste and elegance hadbeen formed, under these circumstances, which gave law to the rest ofEurope and constituted France the leading spirit of the age. On the otherhand, the dominant influences of the eighteenth century were a skepticalphilosophy, a preference for modern literature, and a rage for politicalreform. The transition, however, was not sudden nor immediate, and we comenow to the consideration of those works which occupy the midway positionbetween the submissive age of Louis XIV. And the daring infidelity andrepublicanism of the eighteenth century. 

The eighteenth century began with the first timid protestation against thesplendid monarchy of Louis XIV. , the domination of the Catholic Church, and the classical authority of antiquity, and it ended when words came todeeds, in the sanguinary revolution of 1789. When the first generation ofgreat men who sunned themselves in the glance of Louis XIV. Had passedaway, there were none to succeed them; the glory of the monarch began tofade as the noble _cortège_ disappeared, and admiration and enthusiasmwere no more. The new generation, which had not shared the glory andprosperity of the old monarch, was not subjugated by the recollections ofhis early splendor, and was not, like the preceding, proud to wear hisyoke. A certain indifference to principle began to prevail; men venturedto doubt opinions once unquestioned; the habit of jesting with everythingand unblushing cynicism appeared almost under the eyes of the aged Louis;even Massillon, who exhorted the people to obedience, at the same timereminded the king that it was necessary to merit it by respecting theirrights. The Protestants, exiled by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, revenged themselves by pamphlets against the monarch and the church, andthese works found their way into France, and fostered there the risingdiscontent and contempt for the authority of the government. 

Among these refugees was Bayle (1647-1706), the coolest and boldest ofdoubters. He wrote openly against the intolerance of Louis XIV. , and heaffords the first announcement of the characteristics of the century. His"Historical and Critical Dictionary, " a vast magazine of knowledge andincredulity, was calculated to supersede the necessity of study to alively and thoughtless age. His skepticism is learned and philosophical, and he ridicules those who reject without examination still more thanthose who believe with docile credulity. Jean Baptiste Rousseau (1670-1741), the lyric poet of this age, displayed in his odes considerableenergy, and a kind of pompous harmony, which no other had imparted to thelanguage, yet he fails to excite the sympathy. In his writings we findthat free commingling of licentious morals with a taste for religioussublimities which characterized the last years of Louis XIV. The AbbéChaulieu (1639-1720) earned the appellation of the Anacreon of the Temple, but he did not, like Rousseau, prostitute poetry in strains of lowdebauchery. 

The tragedians followed in the footsteps of Racine with more or lesssuccess, and comedy continued, with some vigor, to represent the corruptmanners of the age. Le Sage (1668-1747) applied his talent to romance;and, like Molière, appreciated human folly without analyzing it. "GilBlas" is a picture of the human heart under the aspect at once of thevicious and the ridiculous. 

Fontenelle (1657-1757), a nephew of the great Corneille, is regarded asthe link between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, he havingwitnessed the splendor of the best days of Louis XIV. , and lived longenough to see the greatest men of the eighteenth century. He made hisdébut in tragedy, in which, however, he found little encouragement. In his"Plurality of Worlds, " and "Dialogues of the Dead, " there is much thatindicates the man of science. His other works are valued rather for theirdelicacy and impartiality than for striking originality. 

Lamotte (1672-1731) was more distinguished in criticism than in any othersphere of authorship. He raised the standard of revolt against the worshipof antiquity, and would have dethroned poetry itself on the ground of itsinutility. Thus skepticism began by making established literary doctrinesmatters of doubt and controversy. Before attacking more serious creeds itfastened on literary ones. 

Such is the picture presented by the earlier part of the eighteenthcentury. Part of the generation had remained attached to the traditions ofthe great age. Others opened the path into which the whole country wasabout to throw itself. The faith of the nation in its politicalinstitutions, its religious and literary creed, was shaken to itsfoundation; the positive and palpable began to engross every interesthitherto occupied by the ideal; and this disposition, so favorable to thecultivation of science, brought with it a universal spirit of criticism. The habit of reflecting was generally diffused, people were not afraid toexercise their own judgment, every man had begun to have a higher estimateof his own opinions, and to care less for those hitherto received asundoubted authority. Still, literature had not taken any positivedirection, nor had there yet appeared men of sufficiently powerful geniusto give it a decisive impulse. 

2. PROGRESS OF SKEPTICISM. --The first powerful attack on the manners, institutions, and establishments of France, and indeed of Europe ingeneral, is that contained in the "Persian Letters" of the Baron deMontesquieu (1689-1755); in which, under the transparent veil ofpleasantries aimed at the Moslem religion, he sought to consign toridicule the belief in every species of dogma. But the celebrity ofMontesquieu is founded on his "Spirit of Laws, " the greatest monument ofhuman genius in the eighteenth century. It is a profound analysis of lawin its relation with government, customs, climate, religion, and commerce. The book is inspired with a spirit of justice and humanity; but it placesthe mind too much under the dominion of matter, and argues for necessityrather than liberty, thus depriving moral obligation of much of itsabsolute character. It is an extraordinary specimen of argument, terseness, and erudition. 

The maturity of the eighteenth century is found in Voltaire (1694-1778);he was the personification of its rashness, its zeal, its derision, itsardor, and its universality. In him nature had, so to speak, identifiedthe individual with the nation, bestowing on him a character in thehighest degree elastic, having lively sensibility but no depth of passion, little system of principle or conduct, but that promptitude of self-direction which supplies its place, a quickness of perception amountingalmost to intuition, and an unexampled degree of activity, by which he wasin some sort many men at once. No writer, even in the eighteenth century, knew so many things or treated so many subjects. That which was the ruinof some minds was the strength of his. Rich in diversified talent and inthe gifts of fortune, he proceeded to the conquest of his age with thecombined power of the highest endowments under the most favorablecircumstances. He was driven again and again, as a moral pest, from thecapital of France by the powers that fain would have preserved the peoplefrom his opinions, yet ever gaining ground, his wit always welcome, andhis opinions gradually prevailing, one audacious sentiment after anotherbroached, and branded with infamy, yet secretly entertained, till thefutile struggle was at length given in, and the nation, as with one voice, avowed itself his disciple. 

It has been said that Voltaire showed symptoms of infidelity from infancy. When at college he gave way to sallies of wit, mirth, and profanity whichastonished his companions and terrified his preceptors. He was twiceimprisoned in the Bastile, and many times obliged to fly from the country. In England he became acquainted with Bolingbroke and all the mostdistinguished men of the time, and in the school of English philosophy helearned to use argument, as well as ridicule, in his war with religion. In1740 we find him assisting Frederick the Great to get up a refutation ofMachiavelli; again, he is appointed historiographer of France, Gentlemanof the Bed-chamber, and Member of the Academy; then he accepts aninvitation to reside at the Court of Prussia, where he soon quarrels withthe king. After many vicissitudes he finally purchased the estate ofFerney, near the Lake of Geneva, where he resided during the rest of hisdays. From this retreat he poured out an exhaustless variety of books, which were extensively circulated and eagerly perused. He had theadmiration of all the wits and philosophers of Europe, and included amonghis pupils and correspondents some of the greatest sovereigns of the age. At the age of eighty-four he again visited Paris. Here his levees weremore crowded than those of any emperor; princes and peers thronged hisante-chamber, and when he rode through the streets a train attended himwhich stretched far over the city. He was made president of the Academy, and crowned with laurel at the theatre, where his bust was placed on thestage and adorned with palms and garlands. He died soon after, without therites of the church, and was interred secretly at a Benedictine abbey. 

The national enthusiasm which decreed Voltaire, as he descended to thetomb, such a triumph as might have honored a benefactor of the race, gaveplace to doubt and disputation as to his merits. In tragedy he is admittedto rank after Corneille and Racine; in "Zaïre, " which is his masterpiece, there is neither the lofty conception of the one, nor the perfectversification of the other, but there is a warmth of passion, anenthusiasm of feeling, and a gracefulness of expression which fascinateand subdue. As an epic poet he has least sustained his renown; though the"Henriade" has unquestionably some great beauties, its machinery is tame, and the want of poetic illusion is severely felt. His poetry, especiallythat of his later years, is by no means so disgraceful to the author asthe witticisms in prose, the tales, dialogues, romances, and pasquinadeswhich were eagerly sought for and readily furnished, and which are, withlittle exception, totally unworthy of an honorable man. As a historian, Voltaire lacked reflection and patience for investigation. His "History ofCharles XII. , " however, was deservedly successful; the reason being thathe chose for his hero the most romantic and adventurous of sovereigns, todescribe whom there was more need of rapid narrative and brilliantcoloring than of profound knowledge and a just appreciation of humannature. In his history of the age of Louis XIV. , Voltaire sought not onlyto present a picture, but a series of researches destined to instruct thememory and exercise the judgment. The English historians, imitating hismode, have surpassed him in erudition and philosophic impartiality. Stilllater, his own countrymen have carried this species of writing to a highdegree of perfection. Throughout the "Essay on the Manners of Nations" wefind traces of that hatred of religion which he openly cherished in thelatter part of his life. The style, however, is pleasing, the facts wellarranged, and the portraits traced with originality and vivacity. 

Some have attributed to Voltaire the serious design of overturning thethree great bases of society, religion, morality, and civil government, but he had not the genius of a philosopher, and there is no system ofphilosophy in his works. That he had a design to amuse and influence hisage, and to avenge himself on his enemies, is obvious enough. Envy andhatred employed against him the weapons of religion, hence he viewed itonly as an instrument of persecution. His great powers of mind werecontinually directed by the opinions of the times, and the desire ofpopularity was his ruling motive. The character of his earlier writingsshows that he did not bring into the world a very independent spirit; theydisplay the lightness and frivolity of the time with the submission of acourtier for every kind of authority, but as his success increasedeverything encouraged him to imbue his works with that spirit which foundso general a welcome. In vain the authority of the civil governmentendeavored to arrest the impulse which was gaining strength from day today; in vain this director of the public mind was imprisoned and exiled;the farther he advanced in his career and the more audaciously hepropagated his views on religion and government, the more he was rewardedwith the renown which he sought. Monarchs became his friends and hisflatterers; opposition only increased his energy, and made him oftenforget moderation and good taste. 

3. FRENCH LITERATURE DURING THE REVOLUTION. --The names of Voltaire andMontesquieu eclipse all others in the first half of the eighteenthcentury, but the influence of Voltaire was by far the most immediate andextensive. After he had reached the zenith of his glory, about the middleof the century, there appeared in France a display of various talent, evoked by his example and trained by his instructions, yet boasting anindependent existence. In the works of these men was consummated theliterary revolution of which we have marked the beginnings, a revolutionmore striking than any other ever witnessed in the same space of time. Itwas no longer a few eminent men that surrendered themselves boldly to theskeptical philosophy which is the grand characteristic of the eighteenthcentury; writers of inferior note followed in the same path; the newopinions took entire possession of all literature and cooperated with thestate of the morals and the government to bring about a fearfulrevolution. The whole strength of the literature of this age beingdirected towards the subversion of the national institutions and religion, formed a homogeneous body of science, literature, and the arts, and acompact phalanx of all writers under the common name of philosophers. Women had their share in the maintenance of this league; the salons ofMesdames du Deffand (1696-1780), Geoffrin (b. 1777), and De l'Espinasse(1732-1776) were its favorite resorts; but the great rendezvous was thatof the Baron d'Holbach, whence its doctrines spread far and wide, blasting, like a malaria, whatever it met with on its way that had anyconnection with religion, morals, or venerable social customs. BesidesVoltaire, who presided over this coterie, at least in spirit, the dailycompany included Diderot, an enthusiast by nature and a cynic and sophistby profession; D'Alembert, a genius of the first order in mathematics, though less distinguished in literature; the malicious Marmontel, thephilosopher Helvétius, the Abbé Raynal, the furious enemy of all moderninstitutions; the would-be sentimentalist Grimm, and D'Holbach himself. Hume, Gibbon, Bolingbroke, and others were affiliated members. Their planwas to write a book which would in some sense supersede all others, itselfforming a library containing the most recent discoveries in philosophy, and the best explanations and details on every topic, literary andscientific. 

The project of this great enterprise of an Encyclopaedia as an immensevehicle for the development of the opinions of the philosophers, alarmedthe government, and the parliament and the clergy pronounced itscondemnation. The philosophy of Descartes and the eminent thinkers of theseventeenth century assumed the soul of man as the starting-point in theinvestigation of physical science. The men of the eighteenth century hadbecome tired of following out the sublimities and abstractions of theCartesians, and they took the opposite course; beginning from sensation, they did not stop short of the grossest materialism and positive atheism. 

Such were the principles of the Encyclopaedia, more fully developed andexplained in the writings of Condillac (1715-1780), the head of thisschool of philosophy. His first work, "On the Origin of Human Knowledge, "contains the germ of all that he afterwards published. In his "Treatise onSensation, " he endeavored, but in vain, to derive the notion of duty fromsensation, and expert as he was in logic, he could not conceal the greatgulf which his theory left between these two terms. Few writers haveenjoyed more success; he brought the science of thought within the reachof the vulgar by stripping it of everything elevated, and every one wassurprised and delighted to find that philosophy was so easy a thing. Having determined not to establish morality on any innate principles ofthe soul, these philosophers founded it on the fact common to all animatednature, the feeling of self-interest. Already deism had rejected theevidence of a divine revelation. Now atheism raised a more audaciousfront, and proclaimed that all religious sentiment was but the reverie ofa disordered mind. The works in which this opinion is most expresslyannounced, date from the period of the Encyclopaedia. 

D'Alembert (1717-1773) is now chiefly known as the author of thepreliminary discourse of the Encyclopaedia, which is ranked among theprincipal works of the age. 

Diderot (1714-1784), had he devoted himself to any one sphere, instead ofwandering about in the chaos of opinions which rose and perished aroundhim, might have left a lasting reputation, and posterity, instead ofmerely repeating his name, would have spoken of his works. He may beregarded as a writer injurious at once to literature and to morals. 

The most faithful disciple of the philosophy of this period was Helvétius(1715-1771), known chiefly by his work, "On the Mind, " the object of whichis to prove that physical sensibility is the origin of all our thoughts. Of all the writers who maintained this opinion, none have represented itin so gross a manner. His work was condemned by the Sorbonne, the pope, and the parliament; it was burned by the hand of the hangman, and theauthor was compelled to retract it. 

Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a writer who marched under none ofthe recognized banners of the day. The Encyclopaedists had flatteredthemselves that they had tuned the opinion of all Europe to theirphilosophical strain, when suddenly they heard his discordant note. Without family, without friends, without home, wandering from place toplace, from one condition in life to another, he conceived a species ofrevolt against society, and a feeling of bitterness against those civilorganizations in which he could never find a suitable place. He combatedthe atheism of the Encyclopaedists, their materialism and contempt formoral virtue, for pure deism was his creed. He believed in a SupremeBeing, a future state, and the excellence of virtue, but denying allrevealed religion, he would have men advance in the paths of virtue, freely and proudly, from love of virtue itself, and not from any sense ofduty or obligation. In the "Social Contract" he traced the principles ofgovernment and laws in the nature of man, and endeavored to show the endwhich they proposed to themselves by living in communities, and the bestmeans of attaining this end. 

The two most notable works of Rousseau are "Julie, " or the "NouvelleHéloïse, " and "Emile. " The former is a kind of romance, owing its interestmainly to development of character, and not to incident or plot. Emileembodies a system of education in which the author's thoughts are digestedand arranged. He gives himself an imaginary pupil, the representative ofthat life of spontaneous development which was the writer's ideal. In thiswork there is an episode, the "Savoyard Vicar's Confession of Faith, "which is a declaration of pure deism, leveled especially against theerrors of Catholicism. It raised a perfect tempest against the author fromevery quarter. The council of Geneva caused his book to be burned by theexecutioner, and the parliament of Paris threatened him with imprisonment. Under these circumstances he wrote his "Confessions, " which he believedwould vindicate him before the world. The reader, who may expect to findthis book abounding with at least as much virtue as a man may possesswithout Christian principle, will find in it not a single feature ofgreatness; it is a proclamation of disagreeable faults; and yet he wouldpersuade us that he was virtuous, by giving the clearest proofs that hewas not. 

To the names of Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Rousseau, must be added that ofBuffon (1707-1788), and we have the four writers of this age who left alltheir contemporaries far behind. Buffon having been appointedsuperintendent of the Jardin des Plantes, and having enriched this fineestablishment, and gathered into it, from all parts of the world, variousproductions of nature, conceived the project of composing a naturalhistory, which should embrace the whole immensity of being, animate andinanimate. He first laid down the theory of the earth, then treated thenatural history of man, afterwards that of viviparous quadrupeds andbirds. The first volumes of his work appeared in 1749; the most importantof the supplementary matter which followed was the "Epochs of Nature. " Hegave incredible attention to his style, and is one of the most brilliantwriters of the eighteenth century. No naturalist has ever equaled him inthe magnificence of his theories, or the animation of his descriptions ofthe manners and habits of animals. It is said that he wrote the "Epochs ofNature" eleven times over. He not only recited his compositions aloud, inorder to judge of the rhythm and cadence, but he made a point of being infull dress before he sat down to write, believing that the splendor of hishabiliments impressed his language with that pomp and elegance which he somuch admired, and which is his distinguishing characteristic. Buffon, while maintaining friendship with the celebrated men of his age, did notidentify himself with the party of the encyclopaedists, or the sects intowhich they were divided. But he lived among men who deemed physical naturealone worthy of study, and the wits of the age who had succeeded indiscovering how a Supreme Being might be dispensed with. Buffon evaded thesubject entirely, and amid all his lofty soarings showed no disposition torise to the Great First Cause. After his time, science lost itscontemplative and poetical character, and acquired that of intelligentobservation. It became a practical thing, and entered into close alliancewith the arts. The arts and sciences, thus combined, became the glory ofFrance, as literature had been in the preceding age. 

The declining years of Voltaire and Rousseau witnessed no rising genius ofsimilar power, but some authors of a secondary rank deserve notice. Marmontel (1728-1799) is distinguished as the writer of "Belisarius, " aphilosophical romance, "Moral Tales, " and "Elements of Literature. " Heendeavors to lead his readers to the enjoyments of literature, instead ofdetaining them with frigid criticisms. 

La Harpe (1739-1803) displayed great eloquence in literary criticism, andsome of his works maintain their place, though they have little claim tooriginality. 

Many writers devoted themselves to history, but the spirit of Frenchphilosophy was uncongenial to this species of composition, and the agedoes not afford one remarkable historian. The fame of the Abbé Raynal(1718-1796) rests chiefly on his "History of the Two Indies. " It isdifficult to conceive how a sober man could have arrived at such deliriumof opinion, and how he could so complacently exhibit principles whichtended to overthrow the whole system of society. Scarcely a crime wascommitted during the revolution, with which this century closes, but couldfind its advocate in this declaimer. When, however, Raynal found himselfin the midst of the turmoils he had suggested, he behaved with justice, moderation, and courage; thus proving that his opinions were not theresult of experience. 

The days of true religious eloquence were past; faith was extinct amongthe greater part of the community, and cold and timid among the rest. Preachers, in deference to their audience, kept out of view whatever waspurely religious, and enlarged on those topics which coincided with merehuman morality. Religion was introduced only as an accessory which it wasnecessary to disguise skillfully, in order to escape derision. Genuinepulpit eloquence was out of the question under these circumstances. 

Forensic eloquence had been improving in simplicity and seriousness sincethe commencement of the eighteenth century, and men of the law were nowled by the circumstances of the times to trace out universal principles, rather than to discuss isolated facts. The eloquence of the bar thusacquired more extensive influence; the measures of the governmentconverted it into a hostile power, and it furnished itself with weapons ofreason and erudition which had not been thought of before. 

We come now close upon the epoch when the national spirit was no longer tobe traced in books, but in actions. The reign of Louis XV. Had been markedwith general disorder, and while he was sinking into the grave, amid thescorn of the people, the magistrates were punished for opposing the royalauthority, and the public were indignant at the arbitrary proceeding. Beaumarchais (1732-1799) became the organ of this feeling, and hismemoirs, like his comedies, are replete with enthusiasm, cynicism, andbuffoonery. Literature was never so popular; it was regarded as theuniversal and powerful instrument which it behooved every man to possess. All grades of society were filled with authors and philosophers; thepublic mind was tending towards some change, without knowing what it wouldhave; from the monarch on the throne to the lowest of the people, allperceived the utter discordance that prevailed between existing opinionsand existing institutions. 

In the midst of the dull murmur which announced the approaching storm, literature, as though its work of agitation had been completed, took upthe shepherd's reed for public amusement. "Posterity would scarcelybelieve, " says an eminent historian, "that 'Paul and Virginia' and the'Indian Cottage' were composed at this juncture by Bernardin de St, Pierre, (1737-1814), as also the 'Fables of Florian' which are the onlyones that have been considered readable since those of La Fontaine. " Aboutthe same time appeared the "Voyage of Anacharsis, " in which the AbbéBarthélemy (1716-1795) embodied his erudition in an attractive form, presenting a lively picture of Greece in the time of Pericles. 

Among the more moral writers of this age was Necker (1732-1804), thefinancial minister of Louis XVI. , who maintained the cause of religionagainst the torrent of public opinion in works distinguished for delicacyand elevation, seriousness and elegance. 

When the storm at length burst, the country was exposed to every kind ofrevolutionary tyranny. The first actors in the work of destruction were, for the most part, actuated by good intentions; but these were soonsuperseded by men of a lower class, envious of all distinctions of rankand deeply imbued with the spirit of the philosophers. Some derived, fromthe writings of Rousseau, a hatred of everything above them; others hadtaken from Mably his admiration of the ancient republics of Greece andRome, and would reproduce them in France; others had borrowed from Raynalthe revolutionary torch which he had lighted for the destruction of allinstitutions; others, educated in the atheistic fanaticism of Diderot, trembled with rage at the very name of a priest or religion; and thus theRevolution was gradually handed over to the guidance of passion andpersonal interest. 

In hurrying past these years of anarchy and bloodshed, we cast a glanceupon the poet, André Chénier (1762-1794), who dared to write against theexcesses of his countrymen, in consequence of which he was cited beforethe revolutionary tribunal, condemned, and executed. 

4. FRENCH LITERATURE UNDER THE EMPIRE. --Napoleon, on the establishment ofthe empire, gave great encouragement to the arts, but none to literature. Books were in little request; old editions were sold for a fraction oftheir original price; but new works were dear, because the demand for themwas so limited. When literature again lifted its head, it appeared that inthe chaos of events a new order of thought had been generated. Thefeelings of the people were for the freer forms of modern literature, introduced by Madame de Staël and Châteaubriand, rather than the ancientclassics and the French models of the seventeenth century. 

Madame de Staël (1766-1817) has been pronounced by the general voice to beamong the greatest of all female authors. She was early introduced to thesociety of the cleverest men in Paris, with whom her father's house was afavorite resort; and before she was twelve years of age, such men asRaynal, Marmontel, and Grimm used to converse with her as though she weretwenty, calling out her ready eloquence, inquiring into her studies, andrecommending new books. She thus imbibed a taste for society anddistinction, and for bearing her part in the brilliant conversation of thesalon. At the age of twenty she became the wife of the Baron de Staël, theSwedish minister at Paris. On her return, after the Reign of Terror, Madame de Staël became the centre of a political society, and her drawing-rooms were the resort of distinguished foreigners, ambassadors, andauthors. On the accession of Napoleon, a mutual hostility arose betweenhim and this celebrated woman, which ended in her banishment and thesuppression of her works. 

"The Six Years of Exile" is the most simple and interesting of herproductions. Her "Considerations on the French Revolution" is the mostvaluable of her political articles. Among her works of fiction, "Corinne"and "Delphine" have had the highest popularity. But of all her writings, that on "Germany" is considered worthy of the highest rank, and it wascalculated to influence most beneficially the literature of her country, by opening to the rising generation of France unknown treasures ofliterature and philosophy. Writers like Delavigne, Lamartine, Béranger, DeVigny, and Victor Hugo, though in no respect imitators of Madame de Staël, are probably much indebted to her for the stimulus to originality whichher writings afforded. 

Another female author, who lived, like Madame de Staël through theRevolution, and exercised an influence on public events, was Madame deGenlis (1746-1830). Her works, which extend to at least eighty volumes, are chiefly educational treatises, moral tales, and historical romances. Her political power depended rather on her private influence in theOrleans family than upon her pen. 

Châteaubriand (1769-1848) must be placed side by side with Madame deStaël, as another of those brilliant and versatile geniuses who havedazzled the eyes of their countrymen, and exerted a permanent influence onFrench literature. While the eighteenth century had used against religionall the weapons of ridicule, he defended it by poetry and romance. Christianity he considered the most poetical of all religions, the mostattractive, the most fertile in literary, social, and artistic results, and he develops his theme with every advantage of language and style inthe "Genius of Christianity" and the "Martyrs. " Some of thecharacteristics of Châteaubriand, however, have produced a seriouslyinjurious effect on French literature, and of these the most contagiousand corrupting is his passion for the glitter of words and the pageantryof high-sounding phrases. 

The salutary reaction against skepticism, produced in literature by Madamede Staël and Châteaubriand was carried into philosophy by Maine de Biran(1766-1824), and more particularly by Royer-Collard (1763-1846) who took adecided stand against the school of Condillac and the materialists of theeighteenth century. Royer-Collard restored its spiritual character to thescience of the human mind, by introducing into it the psychologicaldiscoveries of the Scotch school. Benjamin Constant (1767-1830) infusedinto political science a spirit of freedom before quite unknown. In hisworks he attempted to limit the authority of the government, to build upsociety on personal freedom, and on the guaranties of individual right. His writings combine extraordinary power of logic with great variety andbeauty of style. 

Proceeding in another direction, Bonald (1753-1846) opposed the spirit ofthe French Revolution, by establishing the authority of the church as theonly criterion of truth and morality. As Rousseau had placed sovereignpower in the will of the people, Bonald placed it in that of God, as it ismanifested to man through language and revelation, and of this revelationhe regarded the Catholic church as the interpreter. He develops hisdoctrines in numerous works, especially in his "Primitive Legislation, "which is characterized by boldness, dogmatism, sophistry in argument, andby severity and purity of style. 

The peculiarities of Bonald were carried still farther by De Maistre(1755-1852), whose hatred of the Revolution led him into the system of anabsolute theocracy, such as was dreamed of by Gregory VII. And InnocentIII. 

5. FRENCH LITERATURE FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE PRESENT TIME. --Theinfluences already spoken of, in connection with the literary progresswhich began in Germany and England towards the close of the eighteenthcentury, produced in the beginning of the nineteenth century a revival inFrench literature; but the conflict of opinions, the immense number ofauthors, and their extraordinary fecundity, render it difficult to examineor classify them. We first notice the great advances in history andbiography. Among the earlier specimens may be mentioned the voluminousworks of Sismondi and the "Biographie Universelle, " in fifty-two closelyprinted volumes, the most valuable body of biography that any modernliterature can boast. Since 1830, historians and literary critics haveoccupied the foreground in French literature. The historians have dividedthemselves into two schools, the descriptive and the philosophical. Withthe one class history consists of a narration of facts in connection witha picture of manners, bringing scenes of the past vividly before the mindof the reader, leaving him to deduce general truths from the particularones brought before him. The style of these writers is simple and manly, and no opinions of their own shine through their statements. The chiefrepresentatives of this class, who regard Sir Walter Scott as theirmaster, are Thierry, Villemain, Barante, and in historical sketches andnovels, Dumas and De Vigny. 

The philosophical school, on the other hand, consider this scenicnarrative more suitable to romance than to history; they seek in theevents of the past the chain of causes and effects in order to arrive atgeneral conclusions which may direct the conduct of men in the future. Atthe head of this school is Guizot (1787-1876), who has developed hishistorical views in his essays on the "History of France, " and moreparticularly in his "History of European Civilization, " in which he pointsout the origin of modern civilization, and follows the progress of thehuman mind from the fall of the Roman Empire. The philosophical historianshave been again divided according to their different theories, but themost eminent of them are those whom Châteaubriand calls fatalists; menwho, having surveyed the course of public events, have come to theconclusion that individual character has had little influence on thepolitical destinies of mankind, that there is a general and inevitableseries of events which regularly succeed each other with the certainty ofcause and effect, and that it is as easy to trace it as it is impossibleto resist or divert it from its course. A tendency to these views isvisible in almost every French historian and philosopher of the presenttime. The philosophy of history thus grounded has, in their hands, assumedthe aspect of a science. 

HISTORY. --Among the celebrated writers who have combined the philosophicaland narrative styles are the brothers Amadée and Augustine Thierry (1787-1873), (1795-1856), who produced a "History of the Gauls, " of "The NormanConquest, " and other excellent works; Sismondi (1773-1842), whose historyof the "Italian Republics" and of the "French People" are characterized byimmense erudition; Thiers (1797-1877), whose clearness of style iscombined with comprehensiveness and eloquence; Mignet (1796-1884), celebrated for his history of the French Revolution. The voluminous"History of France, " by Henri Martin (1810-1884), is perhaps the best andmost important work treating the whole subject in detail. 

The downfall of the July Monarchy brought forth works of importance onthis subject, the most noted of which are those by Lamartine, Michelet, and Louis Blanc. Lamartine's "History of the Girondins" was written from aconstitutional and republican point of view, and was not without influencein producing the Revolution of 1848, but it is the work of an orator andpoet rather than that of a historian. The historical and political worksof Michelet (1778-1873) are of a more original character; his imaginativepowers are of the highest order, and his style is striking andpicturesque. The work of Louis Blanc (1813-1883) is that of a sincere andardent republican, and is useful from that point of view, as is that ofQuinet (1803-1875). Lanfrey places the character of Napoleon in a new andfar from favorable light. Taine, so distinguished in literary criticism, has discussed elaborately the causes of the Revolution. 

POETRY AND THE DRAMA; RISE OF THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL. --During the Middle Agesmen of letters followed each other in the cultivation of certain literaryforms, often with little regard to their adaptation to the subject. Thevast extension of thought and knowledge in the sixteenth century broke upthe old forms and introduced the practice of treating each subject in amanner more or less appropriate to it. The seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies witnessed a return to the observance of arbitrary rules, thoughthe evil effects were somewhat counterbalanced by the enlargement ofthought and the increasing knowledge of other literature, ancient andmodern. The great Romantic movement, which began in the second quarter ofthe nineteenth century, repeated on a larger scale the movement of thesixteenth to break up and discard many stiff and useless literary forms, to give strength and variety to such as were retained, and to enrich thelanguage by new inventions and revivals. The supporters of this reformlong maintained an animated controversy with the adherents of theclassical school, and it was only after several years that the youngercombatants came out victorious. The objects of the school were soviolently opposed that the king was petitioned to forbid the admission ofany Romantic drama at the Théâtre Français, the petitioners asserting thatthe object of their adversaries was to burn everything that had beenadored and to adore everything that had been burned. The representation ofVictor Hugo's "Hernani" was the culmination of the struggle, and sincethat time all the greatest men of letters in France have been on theinnovating side. In _belles-lettres_ and history the result has been mostremarkable. Obsolete rules which had so long regulated the French stagehave been abolished; poetry not dramatic has been revived; prose romanceand literary criticism have been brought to a degree of perfectionpreviously unknown; and in history more various and remarkable works havebeen produced than ever before, while the modern French language, if itlacks the precision and elegance to which from 1680 to 1800 all else hadbeen sacrificed, has become a much more suitable instrument for theaccurate and copious treatment of scientific subjects. At the time of theaccession of Charles X. (1824), the only writers of eminence were Béranger(1780-1857), Lamartine (1790-1869), and Lamennais (1782-1854), and theymark the transition between the old and new. Béranger was the poet of thepeople; most of his earlier compositions were political, extolling thegreatness of the fallen empire or bewailing the low state of France underthe restored dynasty. They were received with enthusiasm and sung from oneend of the country to the other. His later songs exhibit a not unpleasingchange from the audacious and too often licentious tone of his earlierdays. In the hands of Lamartine the language, softened and harmonized, loses that clear epigrammatic expression which, before him, had appearedinseparable from French poetry. His works are pervaded by an earnestreligious feeling and a rare delicacy of expression. "Jocelyn, " a romancein verse, the "Meditations, " and "Harmonies" are among his best works. 

Victor Hugo (b. 1800) at the age of twenty-five was the acknowledgedmaster in poetry as in the drama, and this position he still holds. In himall the Romantic characteristics are expressed and embodied, --disregard ofarbitrary rules, free choice of subjects, variety and vigor of metre, andbeauty of diction. His poetical influence has been represented in threedifferent schools, corresponding in point of time with the first outburstof the movement, a brief period of reaction, and the closing years of thesecond empire. Of the first, Théophile Gautier (1811-1872) was the mostdistinguished member. The next generation produced those remarkable poets, Theodore de Banville (b. 1820), who composed a large amount of versefaultless in form and exquisite in shade and color, but so neutral in tonethat it has found few admirers, and Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867), whooffends by the choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of hisanalysis. 

The poems of De Vigny are sweet and elegant, though somewhat lacking inthe energy belonging to lyric composition. Those of Alfred de Musset(1800-1857) are among the finest in the language. 

The Gascon poet Jasmin has produced a good deal of verse in the westerndialect of the _Langue d'oc_, and recently a more cultivated and literaryschool of poets has arisen in Provence, the chief of whom is Mistral. 

The effect of the Romantic movement on the drama has been the introductionof a species of play called the _drame_, as opposed to regular comedy andtragedy, and admitting of freer treatment. Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas(1803-1874), Victorien Sardou (b. 1831), Alexandre Dumas _fils_ (b. 1821), Legouvé (b. 1807), Scribe (1791-1861), Octave Feuillet (b. 1812), haveproduced works of this class. 

The literature of France during the last generation has been prolific indramas and romances, all of which indicate a chaos of opinion. It is notprofessedly infidel, like that of the eighteenth century, nor professedlypietistic, like that of the seventeenth. It seems to have no general aim, the opinions and efforts of the authors being seldom consistent withthemselves for any length of time. No one can deny that this literatureengages the reader's most intense interest by the seductive sagacity ofthe movement, the variety of incident, and the most perfect command ofthose means calculated to produce certain ends. 

In 1866 appeared a collection of poems, "Le Parnasse Contemporain, " whichincluded contributions of many poets already named, and of others unknown. Two other collections followed, one in 1869 and one in 1876, by numerouscontributors, who have mostly published separate works. They are calledcollectively, half seriously and half in derision, "Les Parnassiens. "Their cardinal principle is a devotion to poetry as an art, with diversityof aim and subject. Of these, Coppée devotes himself to domestic andsocial subjects; Louise Siefert indulges in the poetry of despair;Glatigny excels all in individuality of poetical treatment. TheParnassiens number three or four score poets; the average of their work ishigh, though to none can be assigned the first rank. 

FICTION. --Previous to 1830 no writer of fiction had formed a school, norhad this form of literature been cultivated to any great extent. From theimmense influence of Walter Scott, or from other causes, there suddenlyappeared a remarkable group of novelists, Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, Mérimée, Balzac, George Sand, Sandeau, Charles de Bernard, and others scarcelyinferior. It is remarkable that the excellence of the first group has beenmaintained by a new generation, Murger, About, Feuillet, Flaubert, Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbulliez, Gaboriau, Dumas _fils_, andothers. 

During this period the romance-writing of France has taken two differentdirections. The first, that of the novel of incident, of which Scott wasthe model; the second, that of analysis and character, illustrated by thegenius of Balzac and George Sand. The stories of Hugo are novels ofincident with ideal character painting. Dumas's works are dramatic incharacter and charming for their brilliancy and wit. His "TroisMousquetaires" and "Monte Christo" are considered his best novels. Of asimilar kind are the novels of Eugene Sue. Both writers were followed by acrowd of companions and imitators. The taste for the novel of incident, which had nearly died out, was renewed in another form, with the admixtureof domestic interest, by the literary partners, Erckmann-Chatrian. 

Théophile Gautier modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kindof writing for which the French have always been famous, and of which thewritings of Gautier were masterpieces. With him may be classed ProsperMérimée (1803-1871), one of the most exquisite masters of the language. 

Since 1830 the tendency has been towards novels of contemporary life. Thetwo great masters of the novel of character and manners, as opposed tothat of history and incident, are Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850) and AuroreDudevant, commonly called George Sand (d. 1876), whose early writings arestrongly tinged with the spirit of revolt against moral and socialarrangements: later she devoted herself to studies of country life andmanners, involving bold sketches of character and dramatic situations. Oneof the most remarkable characteristics of her work is the apparentlyinexhaustible imagination with which she continued to the close of herlong life to pour forth many volumes of fiction year after year. Balzac, as a writer, was equally productive. In the "Comédie Humaine" he attemptedto cover the whole ground of human, or at least of French life, and thesuccess he attained was remarkable. The influence of these two writersaffected the entire body of those who succeeded them with very fewexceptions. Among these are Jules Sandeau, whose novels are distinguishedby minute character-drawing in tones of a sombre hue. 

Saintine, the author of "Picciola, " Mme. Craven (Reçit d'une Soeur), HenriBeyle, who, under the _nom de plume_ of _Stendhal_, wrote the "Chartreusede Parme, " a powerful novel of the analytical kind, and Henri Murger, apainter of Bohemian life. Octave Feuillet has attained great popularity inromances of fashionable life. Gustave Flaubert (b. 1821), with greatacuteness and knowledge of human nature, combines scholarship and a powerover the language not surpassed by any writer of the century. Edmond About(b. 1828) is distinguished by his refined wit. One of the most popularwriters of the second empire is Ernest Feydeau (1821-1874), a writer ofgreat ability, but morbid and affected in the choice and treatment of hissubjects. Of late, many writers of the realist school have striven tooutdo their predecessors in carrying out the principles of Balzac; amongthese are Gaboriau, Cherbulliez, Droz, Bélot, Alphonse Daudet. 

CRITICISM. --Previous to the Romantic movement in France the office ofcriticism had been to compare all literary productions with certainestablished rules, and to judge them accordingly. The theory of the newschool was, that a work should be judged by itself alone or by theauthor's ideal. The great master of this school was Sainte-Beuve (1804-1869), who possessed a rare combination of great and accurate learning, compass and profundity of thought, and above all sympathy in judgment. Hippolyte Taine (b. 1828), the most brilliant of living French critics, Théophile Gautier, Arsène Houssaye, Jules Janin (d. 1874), Sarcey, andothers, are distinguished in this branch of letters. 

MISCELLANEOUS. --Among earlier writers of the nineteenth century areSismondi, whose "Literature of Southern Europe" remains without a rival, the work of Ginguené on "Italian Literature, " and of Renouard on"Provençal Poetry. " In intellectual philosophy Jouffroy and Damironcontinued the work begun by Royer-Collard, that of destroying theinfluence of sensualism and materialism. The philosophical writings ofCousin (1792-1867) are models of didactic prose, and in his work on "TheBeautiful, True, and Good" he raises the science of aesthetics to itshighest dignity. Lamennais (1782-1854) exhibits in his writings variousphases of religious thought, ending in rationalism. Comte (1798-1857), inhis "Positive Philosophy, " shows power of generalization and force oflogic, though tending to atheism and socialism. De Tocqueville andChevalier are distinguished in political science, the former particularlyfor his able work on "Democracy in America. " Renan (b. 1823) is aprominent name in theological writing, and Montalembert (1810-1870) ahistorian with strong religious tendencies. 

Among the orators Lacordaire, Père Felix, Père Hyacinthe, and Coquerel arebest known. 

Among the women of France distinguished for their literary abilities areMme. Durant, who, under the name of Henri Greville, has given, in a seriesof tales, many charming pictures of Russian life, Mlle. Clarisse Bader, who has produced valuable historical works on the condition of women inall ages, and Mme. Adam, a brilliant writer and journalist. 

In science, Pasteur and Milne-Edwards hold the first rank in biology, PaulBert in physiology, and Quatrefages in anthropology of races. 

SPANISH LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. Spanish Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Language. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Early National Literature; the Poem of the Cid; Berceo, Alfonso the Wise, Segura; Don Juan Manuel, the Archpriest of Hita, Santob, Ayala. --2. Old Ballads. --3. The Chronicles. --4. Romances of Chivalry. --5. The Drama. --6. Provençal Literature in Spain. --7. The Influence of ItalianLiterature in Spain. --8. The Cancioneros and Prose Writing. --9. TheInquisition. 

PERIOD SECOND. --1. The Effect of Intolerance on Letters. --2. Influence ofItaly on Spanish Literature; Boscan, Garcilasso de la Vega, Diego deMendoza. --3. History; Cortez, Gomara, Oviedo, Las Casas. --4. The Drama, Rueda, Lope de Vega, Calderon de la Barca. --5. Romances and Tales;Cervantes, and other Writers of Fiction. --6. Historical Narrative Poems;Ercilla. --7. Lyric Poetry; the Argensolas; Luis de Leon, Quevedo, Herrera, Gongora, and others. --8. Satirical and other Poetry. --9. History and otherProse Writing; Zurita, Mariana, Sandoval, and others. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. French Influence on the Literature of Spain. --2. TheDawn of Spanish Literature in the Eighteenth Century; Feyjoo, Isla, Moratin the elder, Yriarte, Melendez, Gonzalez, Quintana, Moratin theyounger. --3. Spanish Literature in the Nineteenth Century. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. SPANISH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --At the period of the subversionof the Empire of the West, in the fifth century, Spain was invaded by theSuevi, the Alans, the Vandals, and the Visigoths. The country which hadfor six centuries been subjected to the dominion of the Romans, and had, adopted the language and arts of its masters, now experienced thosechanges in manners, opinions, military spirit, and language, which tookplace in the other provinces of the empire, and which, were, in fact, theorigin of the nations which arose on the overthrow of the Roman power. Among the conquerors of Spain, the Visigoths were the most numerous; theancient Roman subjects were speedily confounded with them, and theirdominion soon extended over nearly the whole country. In the year 710 thepeninsula was invaded by the Arabs or Moors, and from that time the activeand incessant struggles of the Spanish Christians against the invaders, and their necessary contact with Arabian civilization, began to elicitsparks of intellectual energy. Indeed, the first utterance of that popularfeeling which became the foundation of the national literature was heardin the midst of that extraordinary contest, which lasted for more thanseven centuries, so that the earliest Spanish poetry seems but a breathingof the energy and heroism which, at the time it appeared, animated theSpanish Christians throughout the peninsula. Overwhelmed by the Moors, they did not entirely yield; a small but valiant band, retreating beforethe fiery pursuit of their enemies, established themselves in the extremenorthwestern portion of their native land, amidst the mountains and thefastnesses of Biscay and Asturias, while the others remained under theyoke of the conquerors, adopting, in some degree, the manners and habitsof the Arabians. On the destruction of the caliphat of Cordova, in theyear 1031, the dismemberment of the Moslem territories into pettyIndependent kingdoms, often at variance with each other, afforded theChristians a favorable opportunity of reconquering their country. Oneafter another the Moorish states fell before them. The Moors were drivenfarther and farther to the south, and by the middle of the thirteenthcentury they had no dominion in Spain except the kingdom of Granada, whichfor two centuries longer continued the splendid abode of luxury andmagnificence. 

As victory inclined more and more to the Spanish arms, the Castiliandialect rapidly grew into a vehicle adequate to express the pride anddignity of the prevailing people, and that enthusiasm for liberty whichwas long their finest characteristic. The poem of the Cid early appeared, and in the thirteenth century a numerous family of romantic balladsfollowed, all glowing with heroic ardor. As another epoch drew near, thelyric form began to predominate, in which, however, the warm expressionsof the Spanish heart were restricted by a fondness for conceit andallegory. The rudiments of the drama, religious, pastoral, and satiric, soon followed, marked by many traits of original thought and talent. Thusthe course of Spanish literature proceeded, animated and controlled by thenational character, to the end of the fifteenth century. 

In the sixteenth, the original genius of the Spaniards, and their proudconsciousness of national greatness, contributed to the maintenance andimprovement of their literature in the face of the Inquisition itself. Released by the conquest of Granada (1492) from the presence of internalfoes, prosperous at home and powerful abroad, Spain naturally rose to highmental dignity; and with all that she gathered from foreign contributions, her writers kept much of their native vein, more free than at first fromOrientalism, but still breathing of their own romantic land. A closeconnection, however, for more than one hundred years with Italy, familiarized the Spanish mind with eminent Italian authors and with theancient classics. 

During the seventeenth century, especially from the middle to the close, the decay of letters kept pace with the decline of Spanish power, untilthe humiliation of both seemed completed in the reign of Charles II. Aboutthat time, however, the Spanish drama received a full development andattained its perfection. In the eighteenth century, under the governmentof the Bourbons, and partly through the patronage of Philip V. , there wasa certain revival of literature; but unfortunately, parties divided, andmany of the educated Spaniards were so much attracted by French glitter asto turn with disgust from their own writers. The political convulsions, ofwhich Spain has been the victim since the time of Ferdinand VII. , havegreatly retarded the progress of national literature, and the nineteenthcentury has thus far produced little which is worthy of mention. 

The literary history of Spain may be divided into three periods:--

The first, extending from the close of the twelfth century to thebeginning of the sixteenth, will contain the literature of the countryfrom the first appearance of the present written language to the earlypart of the reign of Charles V. , and will include the genuinely nationalliterature, and that portion which, by imitating the refinement ofProvence or of Italy, was, during the same interval, more or lessseparated from the popular spirit and genius. 

The second, the period of literary success and national glory, extendingfrom the beginning of the sixteenth century to the close of theseventeenth, will embrace the literature from the accession of theAustrian family to its extinction. 

The third, the period of decline, extends from the beginning of theeighteenth to the middle of the nineteenth century, or from the accessionof the Bourbon family to the present time. 

2. THE LANGUAGE. --The Spanish Christians who, after the Moorish conquest, had retreated to the mountains of Asturias, carried with them the Latinlanguage as they had received it corrupted from the Romans, and still moreby the elements introduced into it by the invasion of the northern tribes. In their retreat they found themselves amidst the descendants of theIberians, the earliest race which had inhabited Spain, who appeared tohave shaken off little of the barbarism that had resisted alike theinvasion of the Romans and of the Goths, and who retained the originalIberian or Basque tongue. Coming in contact with this, the language ofthose Christians underwent new modifications; later, when they advanced intheir conquest toward the south and the east, and found themselvessurrounded by those portions of their race that had remained among theArabs, known as Muçárabes, they felt that they were in the presence of acivilization and refinement altogether superior to their own. As theGoths, between the fifth and eighth centuries, had received a vast numberof words from the Latin, because it was the language of a people with whomthey were intimately mingled, and who were much more intellectual andadvanced than themselves, so, for the same reason, the whole nation, between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, received another increase oftheir vocabulary from the Arabic, and accommodated themselves in aremarkable degree to the advanced culture of their southern countrymen, and of their new Moorish subjects. 

It appears that about the middle of the twelfth century this new dialecthad risen to the dignity of being a written language; and it spreadgradually through the country. It differed from the pure or the corruptedLatin, and still more from the Arabic; yet it was obviously formed by aunion of both, modified by the analogies and spirit of the Gothicconstructions and dialects, and containing some remains of thevocabularies of the Iberians, the Celts, the Phoenicians, and of theGerman tribes, who at different periods had occupied the peninsula. This, like the other languages of Southern Europe, was called originally theRomance, from the prevalence of the Roman and Latin elements. 

The territories of the Christian Spaniards were divided into threelongitudinal sections, having each a separate dialect, arising from themixture of different primitive elements. The Catalan was spoken in theeast, the Castilian in the centre, while the Galician, which originatedthe Portuguese, prevailed in the west. 

The Catalan or Limousin, the earliest dialect cultivated in the peninsula, bore a strong resemblance to the Provençal, and when the bards were drivenfrom Provence they found a home in the east of Spain, and numerouscelebrated troubadours arose in Aragon and Catalonia. But many elementsconcurred to produce a decay of the Catalan, and from the beginning of thesixteenth century it rapidly declined. It is still spoken in the BalearicIslands and among the lower classes of some of the eastern parts of Spain, but since the sixteenth century the Castilian alone has been the vehicleof literature. 

The Castilian dialect followed the fortune of the Castilian arms, until itfinally became the established language, even of the most southernprovinces, where it had been longest withstood by the Arabic. Its clear, sonorous vowels and the beautiful articulation of its syllables, give it agreater resemblance to the Italian than any other idiom of the peninsula. But amidst this euphony the ear is struck with the sound of the German andArabic guttural, which is unknown in the other languages in which Latinroots predominate. 

PERIOD FIRST. 

FROM THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF THE WRITTEN LANGUAGE TO THE EARLY PART OF THEREIGN OF CHARLES V. (1200-1500). 

1. EARLY NATIONAL LITERATURE. --There are two traits of the earliestSpanish literature which so peculiarly distinguish it that they deserve tobe noticed from the outset--religious faith and knightly loyalty. TheSpanish national character, as it has existed from the earliest times tothe present day, was formed in that solemn contest which began when theMoors landed beneath the rock of Gibraltar, and which did not end untileight centuries after, when the last remnants of the race were driven fromthe shores of Spain. During this contest, especially that part of it whenthe earliest Spanish poetry appeared, nothing but an invincible faith anda not less invincible loyalty to their own princes could have sustainedthe Christian Spaniards in their struggles against their infideloppressors. It was, therefore, a stern necessity which made these two highqualities elements of the Spanish national character, and it is notsurprising that we find submission to the church and loyalty to the kingconstantly breathing through every portion of Spanish literature. 

The first monument of the Spanish, or, as it was oftener called, theCastilian tongue, the most ancient epic in any of the Romance languages, is "The Poem of the Cid. " It consists of more than three thousand lines, and was probably not composed later than the year 1200. This poemcelebrates the achievements of the great hero of the chivalrous age ofSpain, Rodrigo Diaz (1020-1099), who obtained from five Moorish kings, whom he had vanquished in battle, the title of El Seid, or my lord. He wasalso called by the Spaniards El Campeador or El Cid Campeador, theChampion or the Lord Champion, and he well deserved the honorable title, for he passed almost the whole of his life in the field against theoppressors of his country, and led the conquering arms of the Christiansover nearly a quarter of Spain. No hero has been so universally celebratedby his countrymen, and poetry and tradition have delighted to attach tohis name a long series of fabulous achievements, which remind us as oftenof Amadis and Arthur, as they do of the sober heroes of history. Hismemory is so sacredly dear to the Spanish nation, that to say "by thefaith of Rodrigo, " is still considered the strongest vow of loyalty. 

The poem of the Cid is valuable mainly for the living picture it presentsof manners and character in the eleventh century. It is a contemporary andspirited exhibition of the chivalrous times of Spain, given occasionallywith an admirable and Homeric simplicity. It is the history of the mostromantic hero of Spanish tradition, continually mingled with domestic andpersonal details, that bring the character of the Cid and his age verynear to our own sympathies and interests. The language is the same whichhe himself spoke--still only imperfectly developed--it expresses the boldand original spirit of the time, and the metre and rhyme are rude andunsettled; but the poem throughout is striking and original, and breatheseverywhere the true Castilian spirit. During the thousand years whichelapsed from the time of the decay of Greek and Roman culture down to theappearance of the Divine Comedy, no poetry was produced so original in itstone, or so full of natural feeling, picturesqueness, and energy. 

There are a few other poems, anonymous, like that of the Cid, whoselanguage and style carry them back to the thirteenth century. The nextpoetry we meet is by a known author, Gonzalo (1220-1260), a priestcommonly called Berceo, from the place of his birth. His works, all onreligious subjects, amount to more than thirteen thousand lines. Hislanguage shows some advance from that in which the Cid was written, butthe power and movement of that remarkable legend are entirely wanting inthese poems. There is a simple-hearted piety in them, however, that isvery attractive, and in some of them a story-telling spirit that isoccasionally vivid and graphic. 

Alfonso, surnamed the Wise (1221-1284), united the crowns of Leon andCastile, and attracted to his court many of the philosophers and learnedmen of the East. He was a poet closely connected with the Provençaltroubadours of his time, and so skilled in astronomy and the occultsciences that his fame spread throughout Europe. He had more political, philosophical, and elegant learning than any man of his age, and madefurther advances in some of the exact sciences. At one period hisconsideration was so great, that he was elected Emperor of Germany; buthis claims were set aside by the subsequent election of Rudolph ofHapsburg. The last great work undertaken by Alfonso was a kind of codeknown as "Las Siete Partidas, " or The Seven Parts, from the divisions ofthe work itself. This is the most important legislative monument of theage, and forms a sort of Spanish common law, which, with the decisionsunder it, has been the basis of Spanish jurisprudence ever since. Becominga part of the Constitution of the State in all Spanish colonies, it has, from the time Louisiana and Florida were added to the United States, become in some cases the law in our own country. 

The life of Alfonso was full of painful vicissitudes. He was driven fromhis throne by factious nobles and a rebellious son, and died in exile, leaving behind him the reputation of being the wisest fool in Christendom. Mariana says of him: "He was more fit for letters than for the governmentof his subjects; he studied the heavens and watched the stars, but forgotthe earth and lost his kingdom. " Yet Alfonso is among the chief foundersof his country's intellectual fame, and he is to be remembered alike forthe great advancement Castilian prose composition made in his hands, forhis poetry, for his astronomical tables--which all the progress of modernscience has not deprived of their value--and for his great work onlegislation, which is at this moment an authority in both hemispheres. 

Juan Lorenzo Segura (1176-1250) was the author of a poem containing morethan ten thousand lines, on the history of Alexander the Great. In thispoem the manners and customs of Spain in the thirteenth century aresubstituted for those of ancient Greece, and the Macedonian hero isinvested with all the virtues and even equipments of European chivalry. 

Don Juan Manuel, (1282-1347), a nephew of Alfonso the Wise, was one of themost turbulent and dangerous Spanish barons of his time. His life was fullof intrigue and violence, and for thirty years he disturbed his country byhis military and rebellious enterprises. But in all these circumstances, so adverse to intellectual pursuits, he showed himself worthy of thefamily in which for more than a century letters had been honored andcultivated. Don Juan is known to have written twelve works, but it isuncertain how many of these are still in existence; only one, "CountLucanor, " has been placed beyond the reach of accident by being printed. The Count Lucanor is the most valuable monument of Spanish literature inthe fourteenth century, and one of the earliest prose works in theCastilian tongue, as the Decameron, which appeared about the same time, was the first in the Italian. Both are collections of tales; but theobject of the Decameron is to amuse, while the Count Lucanor is theproduction of a statesman, instructing a grave and serious nation inlessons of policy and morality in the form of apologues. These storieshave suggested many subjects for the Spanish stage, and one of themcontains the groundwork of Shakspeare's "Taming of the Shrew. "

Juan Ruiz, arch-priest of Hita (1292-1351), was a contemporary of DonManuel. His works consist of nearly seven thousand verses, forming aseries of stories which appear to be sketches from his own history, mingled with fictions and allegories. The most curious is "The Battle ofDon Carnival with Madame Lent, " in which Don Bacon, Madame Hungbeef, and atrain of other savory personages, are marshaled in mortal combat. Thecause of Madame Lent triumphs, and Don Carnival is condemned to solitaryimprisonment and one spare meal each day. At the end of forty days theallegorical prisoner escapes, raises new followers, Don Breakfast andothers, and re-appears in alliance with Don Amor. The poetry of the arch-priest is very various in tone. In general, it is satirical and pervadedby a quiet humor. His happiest success is in the tales and apologues whichillustrate the adventures that constitute a framework for his poetry, which is natural and spirited; and in this, as in other points, hestrikingly resembles Chaucer. Both often sought their materials inNorthern French poetry, and both have that mixture of devotion and oflicentiousness belonging to their age, as well as to the personalcharacter of each. 

Rabbi Santob, a Jew of Carrion (fl. 1350), was the author of many poems, the most important of which is "The Dance of Death, " a favorite subject ofthe painters and poets of the Middle Ages, representing a kind ofspiritual masquerade, in which persons of every rank and age appeardancing with the skeleton form of Death. In this Spanish version it isperhaps more striking and picturesque than in any other--the ghastlynature of the subject being brought into very lively contrast with thefestive tone of the verses. This grim fiction had for several centuriesgreat success throughout Europe. 

Pedro Lopez Ayala (1332-1407), grand chancellor of Castile under foursuccessive sovereigns, was both a poet and a historian. His poem, "CourtRhymes, " is the most remarkable of his productions. His style is grave, gentle, and didactic, with occasional expressions of poetic feeling, whichseem, however, to belong as much to their age as to their author. 

2. OLD BALLADS. --From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century, the periodwe have just gone over, the courts of the different sovereigns of Europewere the principal centres of refinement and civilization, and this waspeculiarly the case in Spain during this period, when literature wasproduced or encouraged by the sovereigns and other distinguished men. Butthis was not the only literature of Spain. The spirit of poetry diffusedthroughout the peninsula, excited by the romantic events of Spanishhistory, now began to assume the form of a popular literature, and toassert for itself a place which in some particulars it has maintained eversince. This popular literature may be distributed into four differentclasses. The first contains the _Ballads_, or the narrative and lyricalpoetry of the common people from the earliest times; the second, the_Chronicles_, or the half-genuine, half-fabulous histories of the greatevents and heroes of the national annals; the third class comprises the_Romances of Chivalry_, intimately connected with both the others, and, after a time, as passionately admired by the whole nation; and the fourthincludes the _Drama_, which in its origin has always been a popular andreligious amusement, and was hardly less so in Spain than it was in Greeceor in France. These four classes compose what was generally most valued inSpanish literature during the latter part of the fourteenth century, thewhole of the fifteenth, and much of the sixteenth. They rested on the deepfoundations of the national character, and therefore by their very naturewere opposed to the Provençal, the Italian, and the courtly schools, whichflourished during the same period. 

The metrical structure of the old Spanish ballad was extremely simple, consisting of eight-syllable lines, which are composed with great facilityin other languages as well as the Castilian. Sometimes they were brokeninto stanzas of four lines each, thence called _redondillas_, orroundelays, but their prominent peculiarity is that of the _asonante_, animperfect rhyme that echoes the same vowel, but not the same finalconsonant in the terminating syllables. This metrical form was at a laterperiod adopted by the dramatists, and is now used in every department ofSpanish poetry. 

The old Spanish ballads comprise more than a thousand poems, firstcollected in the sixteenth century, whose authors and dates are alikeunknown. Indeed, until after the middle of that century, it is difficultto find ballads written by known authors. These collections, arrangedwithout regard to chronological order, relate to the fictions of chivalry, especially to Charlemagne and his peers, to the traditions and history ofSpain, to Moorish adventures, and to the private life and manners of theSpaniards themselves; they belong to the unchronicled popular life andcharacter of the age which gave them birth. The ballads of chivalry, withthe exception of those relating to Charlemagne, occupy a less importantplace than those founded on national subjects. The historical ballads areby far the most numerous and the most interesting; and of those the firstin the order of time are those relating to Bernardo del Carpio, concerningwhom there are about forty. Bernardo (fl. 800) was the offspring of asecret marriage between the Count de Saldaña and a sister of Alfonso theChaste, at which the king was so much offended that he sent the Infanta toa convent, and kept the Count in perpetual imprisonment, educatingBernardo as his own son, and keeping him in ignorance of his birth. Theachievements of Bernardo ending with the victory of Roncesvalles, hisefforts to procure the release of his father, the falsehood of the king, and the despair and rebellion of Bernardo after the death of the Count inprison, constitute the romantic incidents of these ballads. 

The next series is that on Fernan Gonzalez, a chieftain who, in the middleof the tenth century, recovered Castile from the Moors and became itsfirst sovereign count. The most romantic are those which describe hisbeing twice rescued from prison by his heroic wife, and his contest withKing Sancho, in which he displayed all the turbulence and cunning of arobber baron of the Middle Ages. 

The Seven Lords of Lara form the next group; some of them are beautiful, and the story they contain is one of the most romantic in Spanish history. The Seven Lords of Lara are betrayed by their uncle into the hands of theMoors, and put to death, while their father, by the basest treason, isconfined in a Moorish prison. An eighth son, the famous Mudarra, whosemother is a noble Moorish lady, at last avenges all the wrongs of hisrace. 

But from the earliest period, the Cid has been the occasion of moreballads than any other of the great heroes of Spanish history or fable. They were first collected in 1612, and have been continually republishedto the present day. There are at least a hundred and sixty of them, forming a more complete series than any other, all strongly marked withthe spirit of their age and country. 

The Moorish ballads form a large and brilliant class by themselves. Theperiod when this style of poetry came into favor was the century after thefall of Granada, when the south, with its refinement and effeminacy, itsmagnificent and fantastic architecture, the foreign yet not strangemanners of its people, and the stories of their warlike achievements, alltook strong hold of the Spanish imagination, and made of Granada a fairyland. 

Of the ballads relating to private life, most of them are effusions oflove, others are satirical, pastoral, and burlesque, and many descriptiveof the manners and amusements of the people at large; but all of them aretrue representations of Spanish life. They are marked by an attractivesimplicity of thought and expression, united to a sort of mischievousshrewdness. No such popular poetry exists in any other language, and noother exhibits in so great a degree that nationality which is the truestelement of such poetry everywhere. The English and Scotch ballads, withwhich they may most naturally be compared, belong to a ruder state ofsociety, which gave to the poetry less dignity and elevation than belongto a people who, like the Spanish, were for centuries engaged in a contestennobled by a sense of religion and loyalty, and which could not fail toraise the minds of those engaged in it far above the atmosphere thatsettled around the bloody feuds of rival barons, or the gross maraudingsof border warfare. The great Castilian heroes, the Cid, Bernardo delCarpio, and Pelayo, are even now an essential portion of the faith andpoetry of the common people of Spain, and are still honored as they werecenturies ago. The stories of Guarinos and of the defeat at Roncesvallesare still sung by the wayfaring muleteers, as they were when Don Quixoteheard them on his journey to Toboso, and the showmen still rehearse thesame adventures in the streets of Seville, that they did at the solitaryinn of Montesinos when he encountered them there. 

3. THE CHRONICLES. --As the great Moorish contest was transferred to thesouth of Spain, the north became comparatively quiet. Wealth and leisurefollowed; the castles became the abodes of a crude but free hospitality, and the distinctions of society grew more apparent. The ballads from thistime began to subside into the lower portions of society; the educatedsought forms of literature more in accordance with their increasedknowledge and leisure, and their more settled system of social life. Theoldest of these forms was that of the Spanish prose chronicles, of whichthere are general and royal chronicles, chronicles of particular events, chronicles of particular persons, chronicles of travels, and romanticchronicles. 

The first of these chronicles in the order of time as well as that ofmerit, comes from the royal hand of Alfonso the Wise, and is entitled "TheChronicle of Spain. " It begins with the creation of the world, andconcludes with the death of St. Ferdinand, the father of Alfonso. The lastpart, relating to the history of Spain, is by far the most attractive, andsets forth in a truly national spirit all the rich old traditions of thecountry. This is not only the most interesting of the Spanish chronicles, but the most interesting of all that in any country mark the transitionfrom its poetical and romantic traditions to the grave exactness ofhistorical truth. The chronicle of the Cid was probably taken from thiswork. 

Alfonso XI. Ordered the annals of the kingdom to be continued down to hisown reign, or through the period from 1252 to 1312. During many succeedingreigns the royal chronicles were continued, --that of Ferdinand andIsabella, by Pulgar, is the last instance of the old style; but though theannals were still kept up, the free and picturesque spirit that gave themlife was no longer there. 

The chronicles of particular events and persons are most of them of littlevalue. 

Among the chronicles of travels, the oldest one of any value is an accountof a Spanish embassy to Tamerlane, the great Tartar potentate. 

Of the romantic chronicles, the principal specimen is that of Don Roderic, a fabulous account of the reign of King Roderic, the conquest of thecountry by the Moors, and the first attempts to recover it in thebeginning of the eighth century. The style is heavy and verbose, althoughupon it Southey has founded much of his beautiful poem of "Roderic, thelast of the Goths. " This chronicle of Don Roderic, which was little morethan a romance of chivalry, marks the transition to those romanticfictions that had already begun to inundate Spain. But the series which itconcludes extends over a period of two hundred and fifty years, from thetime of Alfonso the Wise to the accession of Charles V. (1221-1516), andis unrivaled in the richness and variety of its poetic elements. In truth, these old Spanish chronicles cannot be compared with those of any othernation, and whether they have their foundation in truth or in fable, theystrike their strong roots further down into the deep soil of popularfeeling and character. The old Spanish loyalty, the old Spanish religiousfaith, as both were formed and nourished in long periods of national trialand suffering, everywhere appear; and they contain such a body ofantiquities, traditions, and fables as has been offered to no otherpeople; furnishing not only materials from which a multitude of oldSpanish plays, ballads, and romances have been drawn, but a mine which hasunceasingly been wrought by the rest of Europe for similar purposes, andwhich still remains unexhausted. 

4. ROMANCES OF CHIVALRY. --The ballads originally belonged to the wholenation, but especially to its less cultivated portions. The chronicles, onthe contrary, belonged to the knightly classes, who sought in thesepicturesque records of their fathers a stimulus to their own virtue. Butas the nation advanced in refinement, books of less grave character weredemanded, and the spirit of poetical invention soon turned to the nationaltraditions, and produced from these new and attractive forms of fiction. Before the middle of the fourteenth century, the romances of chivalryconnected with the stories of Arthur and the knights of the Round Table, and Charlemagne and his peers, which had appeared in France two centuriesbefore, were scarcely known in Spain; but after that time they wereimitated, and a new series of fictions was invented, which soon spreadthrough the world, and became more famous than, either of itspredecessors. 

This extraordinary family of romances is that of which "Amadis" is thepoetical head and type, and this was probably produced before the year1400, by Vasco de Lobeira, a Portuguese. The structure and tone of thisfiction are original, and much more free than those of the French romancesthat had preceded it. The stories of Arthur and Charlemagne are bothsomewhat limited in invention by the adventures ascribed to them in thetraditions and chronicles, while that of Amadis belongs purely to theimagination, and its sole purpose is to set forth the character of aperfect knight. Amadis is admitted by general consent to be the best ofall the old romances of chivalry. The series which followed, founded uponthe Amadis, reached the number of twenty-four. They were successivelytranslated into French, and at once became famous. Considering thepassionate admiration which this work so long excited, and the influencethat, with little merit of its own, it has ever since exercised on thepoetry and romance of modern Europe, it is a phenomenon without parallelin literary history. 

Many other series of romances followed, numbering more than seventyvolumes, most of them in folio, and their influence over the Spanishcharacter extended through two hundred years. Their extraordinarypopularity may be accounted for, if we remember that, when they firstappeared in Spain, it had long been peculiarly the land of knighthood. Extravagant and impossible as are many of the adventures recorded in thesebooks of chivalry, they so little exceeded the absurdities of living menthat many persons took the romances themselves to be true histories, andbelieved them. The happiest work of the greatest genius Spain has producedbears witness on every page to the prevalence of an absolute fanaticismfor these books of chivalry, and becomes at once the seal of their vastpopularity and the monument of their fate. 

5. THE DRAMA. --The ancient theatre of the Greeks and Romans was continuedin some of its grosser forms in Constantinople and in other parts of thefallen empire far into the Middle Ages. But it was essentiallymythological or heathenish, and, as such, it was opposed by the Christianchurch, which, however, provided a substitute for what it thus opposed, byadding a dramatic element to its festivals. Thus the manger at Bethlehem, with the worship of the shepherds and magi, was at a very early periodsolemnly exhibited every year before the altars of the churches, atChristmas, as were the tragical events of the last days of the Saviour'slife, during Lent and at the approach of Easter. To these spectacles, dialogue was afterwards added, and they were called, as we have seen, _Mysteries_; they were used successfully not only as a means of amusement, but for the religious edification of an ignorant multitude, and in somecountries they have been continued quite down to our own times. The periodwhen these representations were first made in Spain cannot now bedetermined, though it was certainly before the middle of the thirteenthcentury, and no distinct account of them now remains. 

A singular combination of pastoral and satirical poetry indicates thefirst origin of the Spanish secular drama. Towards the close of thefifteenth century, these pastoral dialogues were converted into realdramas by Enzina, and were publicly represented. But the most important ofthese early productions is the "Tragi-comedy of Calisto and Meliboea, " or"Celestina. " Though it can never have been represented, it has leftunmistakable traces of its influence on the national drama ever since. Itwas translated into various languages, and few works ever had a morebrilliant success. The great fault of the Celestina is its shamelesslibertinism of thought and language; and its chief merits are its life-like exhibition of the most unworthy forms of human character, and itssingularly pure, rich, and idiomatic Castilian style. 

The dramatic writers of this period seem to have had no idea of founding apopular national drama, of which there is no trace as late as the close ofthe reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 

6. PROVENÇAL LITERATURE IN SPAIN. --When the crown of Provence wastransferred, by the marriage of its heir, in 1113, to Berenger, Count ofBarcelona, numbers of the Provençal poets followed their liege lady fromArles to Barcelona, and established themselves in her new capital. At thevery commencement, therefore, of the twelfth century, Provençal refinementwas introduced into the northeastern corner of Spain. Political causessoon carried it farther towards the centre of the country. The Counts ofBarcelona obtained, by marriage, the kingdom of Aragon, and soon spreadthrough their new territories many of the refinements of Provence. Theliterature thus introduced retained its Provençal character till it camein contact with that more vigorous spirit which had been advancing fromthe northwest, and which afterwards gave its tone to the consolidatedmonarchy. 

The poetry of the troubadours in Catalonia, as well as in its native home, belonged much to the court, and the highest in rank and power wereearliest and foremost on its lists. From 1209 to 1229, the war against theAlbigenses was carried on with extraordinary cruelty and fury. To thissect nearly all the contemporary troubadours belonged, and when they werecompelled to escape from the burnt and bloody ruins of their homes, manyof them hastened to the friendly court of Aragon, sure of being protectedand honored by princes who were at the same time poets. 

From the close of the thirteenth century, the songs of the troubadourswere rarely heard in the land that gave them birth three hundred yearsbefore; and the plant that was not permitted to expand in its native soil, soon perished in that to which it had been transplanted. After the openingof the fourteenth century, no genuinely Provençal poetry appears inCastile, and from the middle of that century it begins to recede fromCatalonia and Aragon; or rather, to be corrupted by the hardier dialectspoken there by the mass of the people. The retreat of the troubadoursover the Pyrenees, from Aix to Barcelona, from Barcelona to Saragossa andValencia, is everywhere marked by the wrecks and fragments of theirpeculiar poetry and cultivation. At length, oppressed by the more powerfulCastilian, what remained of the language, that gave the first impulse topoetic feeling in modern times, sank into a neglected dialect. 

7. THE INFLUENCE OF ITALIAN LITERATURE IN SPAIN. --The influence of theItalian literature over the Spanish, though less apparent at first, wasmore deep and lasting than that of the Provençal. The long wars that theChristians of Spain waged against the Moors brought them into closerspiritual connection with the Church of Rome than any other people ofmodern times. Spanish students repaired to the famous universities ofItaly, and returned to Spain, bringing with them the influence of Italianculture; and commercial and political relations still further promoted afree communication of the manners and literature of Italy to Spain. Thelanguage, also, from its affinity with the Spanish, constituted a stillmore important and effectual medium of intercourse. In the reign of JohnII. (1407-1454), the attempt to form an Italian school in Spain becameapparent. This sovereign gathered about him a sort of poetical court, andgave an impulse to refinement that was perceptible for severalgenerations. 

Among those who interested themselves most directly in the progress ofpoetry in Spain, the first in rank, after the king himself, was theMarquis of Villena (1384-1434), whose fame rests chiefly on the "Labors ofHercules, " a short prose treatise or allegory. 

First of all the courtiers and poets of this reign, in point of merit, stands the Marquis of Santillana (1398-1458), whose works belong more orless to the Provençal, Italian, and Spanish schools. He was the founder ofan Italian and courtly school in Spanish poetry--one adverse to thenational school and finally overcome by it, but one that long exercised aconsiderable sway. Another poet of the court of John II. Is Juan de Mena, historiographer of Castile. His principal works are, "The Coronation" and"The Labyrinth, " both imitations of Dante. They are of consequence asmarking the progress of the language. The principal poem of Manrique theyounger, one of an illustrious family of that name, who were poets, statesmen, and soldiers, on the death of his father, is remarkable fordepth and truth of feeling. Its greatest charm is its beautifulsimplicity, and its merit entitles it to the place it has taken among themost admired portions of the elder Spanish literature. 

8. THE CANCIONEROS AND PROSE WRITINGS. --The most distinct idea of thepoetical culture of Spain, during the fifteenth century, may he obtainedfrom the "Cancioneros, " or collections of poetry, sometimes all by oneauthor, sometimes by many. The oldest of these dates from about 1450, andwas the work of Baena. Many similar collections followed, and they wereamong the fashionable wants of the age. In 1511, Castillo printed atValencia the "Cancionero General, " which contained poems attributed toabout a hundred different poets, from the time of Santillana to the periodin which it was made. Ten editions of this remarkable book followed, andin it we find the poetry most in favor at the court and with the refinedsociety of Spain. It contains no trace of the earliest poetry of thecountry, but the spirit of the troubadours is everywhere present; theoccasional imitations from the Italian are more apparent than successful, and in general it is wearisome and monotonous, overstrained, formal, andcold. But it was impossible that such a state of poetical culture shouldbecome permanent in a country so full of stirring events as Spain was inthe age that followed the fall of Granada and the discovery of America;everything announced a decided movement in the literature of the nation, and almost everything seemed to favor and facilitate it. 

The prose writers of the fifteenth century deserve mention chiefly becausethey were so much valued in their own age. Their writings are encumberedwith the bad taste and pedantry of the time. Among them are Lucena, Alfonso de la Torre, Pulgar, and a few others. 

9. THE INQUISITION. --The first period of the history of Spanishliterature, now concluded, extends through nearly four centuries, from thefirst breathings of the poetical enthusiasm of the mass of the people, down to the decay of the courtly literature in the latter part of thereign of Ferdinand and Isabella. The elements of a national literaturewhich it contains--the old ballads, the old chronicles, the old theatre--are of a vigor and promise not to be mistaken. They constitute a mine ofmore various wealth than had been offered under similar circumstances, atso early a period, to any other people; and they give indications of asubsequent literature that must vindicate for itself a place among thepermanent monuments of modern civilization. 

The condition of things in Spain, at the close of the reign of Ferdinandand Isabella, seemed to promise a long period of national prosperity. Butone institution, destined to check and discourage all intellectualfreedom, was already beginning to give token of its great and blightingpower. The Christian Spaniards had from an early period been essentiallyintolerant. The Moors and the Jews were regarded by them with an intenseand bitter hatred; the first as their conquerors, and the last for theoppressive claims which their wealth gave them on numbers of the Christianinhabitants; and as enemies of the Cross, it was regarded as a merit topunish them. The establishment of the Inquisition, therefore, in 1481, which had been so effectually used to exterminate the heresy of theAlbigenses, met with little opposition. The Jews and the Moors were itsfirst victims, and with them it was permitted to deal unchecked by thepower of the state. But the movements of this power were in darkness andsecrecy. From the moment when the Inquisition laid its grasp on the objectof its suspicions to that of his execution, no voice was heard to issuefrom its cells. The very witnesses it summoned were punished with death ifthey revealed the secrets of its dread tribunals; and often of the victimnothing was known but that he had disappeared from his accustomed hauntsnever again to be seen. The effect was appalling. The imaginations of menwere filled with horror at the idea of a power so vast, so noiseless, constantly and invisibly around them, whose blow was death, but whose stepcould neither be heard nor followed amidst the gloom into which itretreated. From this time, Spanish intolerance took that air of sombrefanaticism which it never afterwards lost. The Inquisition graduallyenlarged its jurisdiction, until none was too humble to escape its notice, or too high to be reached by its power. From an inquiry into the privateopinions of individuals to an interference with books and the press wasbut a step, and this was soon taken, hastened by the appearance andprogress of the Reformation of Luther. 

PERIOD SECOND. 

FROM THE ACCESSION OF THE AUSTRIAN FAMILY TO ITS EXTINCTION(1500-1700). 

1. THE EFFECT OF INTOLERANCE ON LETTERS. --The central point in Spanishhistory is the capture of Granada. During nearly eight centuries beforethat event, the Christians of Spain were occupied with conflicts thatdeveloped extraordinary energies, till the whole land was filled tooverflowing with a power which had hardly yet been felt in Europe. But nosooner was the last Moorish fortress yielded up, than this accumulatedflood broke loose and threatened to overspread the best portions of thecivilized world. Charles the Fifth, grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, inherited not only Spain, but Naples, Sicily, and the Low Countries. Theuntold wealth of the Indies was already beginning to pour into histreasury. He was elected Emperor of Germany, and he soon began a career ofconquest such as had not been imagined since the days of Charlemagne. Success and glory ever waited for him as he advanced, and this brilliantaspect seemed to promise that Spain would erelong be at the head of anempire more extensive than the Roman. But a moral power was at work, destined to divide Europe anew, and the monk Luther was already become acounterpoise to the military master of so many kingdoms. During thehundred and thirty years of struggle, that terminated with the peace ofWestphalia, though Spain was far removed from the fields where the mostcruel battles of the religious wars were fought, the interest she took inthe contest may be seen from the presence of her armies in every part ofEurope where it was possible to assail the great movement of theReformation. 

In Spain, the contest with Protestantism was of short duration. Bysuccessive decrees the church ordained that all persons who kept in theirpossession books infected with the doctrines of Luther, and even all whofailed to denounce such persons, should be excommunicated, and subjectedto cruel and degrading punishments. The power of the Inquisition wasconsummated in 1546, when the first "Index Expurgatorius" was published inSpain. This was a list of the books that all persons were forbidden tobuy, sell, or keep possession of, under penalty of confiscation and death. The tribunals were authorized and required to proceed against all personssupposed to be infected with the new belief, even though they werecardinals, dukes, kings, or emperors, --a power more formidable to theprogress of intellectual improvement, than had ever before been granted toany body of men, civil or ecclesiastical. 

The portentous authority thus given was freely exercised. The first public_auto da fé_ of Protestants was held in 1559, and many others followed. The number of victims seldom exceeded twenty burned at one time, and fiftyor sixty subjected to the severest punishments; but many of those whosuffered were among the active and leading minds of the age. Men oflearning were particularly obnoxious to suspicion, nor were persons of theholiest lives beyond its reach if they showed a tendency to inquiry. Soeffectually did the Inquisition accomplish its purpose, that, from thelatter part of the reign of Philip II. , the voice of religious dissent wasscarcely heard in the land. The great body of the Spanish people rejoicedalike in their loyalty and their orthodoxy, and the few who differed fromthe mass of their fellow-subjects were either silenced by their fears, orsunk away from the surface of society. From that time down to itsoverthrow, in 1808, this institution was chiefly a political engine. 

The result of such extraordinary traits in the national character couldnot fail to be impressed upon the literature. Loyalty, which had once beenso generous an element in the Spanish character and cultivation, was nowinfected with the ambition of universal empire, and the Christian spiritwhich gave an air of duty to the wildest forms of adventure in its longcontest with misbelief, was now fallen into a bigotry so pervading thatthe romances of the time are full of it, and the national theatre becomesits grotesque monument. 

Of course the literature of Spain produced during this interval--theearlier part of which was the period of the greatest glory the countryever enjoyed--was injuriously affected by so diseased a condition of thenational mind. Some departments hardly appeared at all, others werestrangely perverted, while yet others, like the drama, ballads, andlyrical verse, grew exuberant and lawless, from the very restraintsimposed on the rest. But it would be an error to suppose that thesepeculiarities in Spanish literature were produced by the direct actioneither of the Inquisition or of the government. The foundations of thisdark work were laid deep and sure in the old Castilian character. It wasthe result of the excess and misdirection of that very Christian zealwhich fought so gloriously against the intrusion of Mohammedanism intoSpain, and of that loyalty which sustained the Spanish princes sofaithfully through the whole of that terrible contest. This state ofthings, however, involved the ultimate sacrifice of the best elements ofthe national character. Only a little more than a century elapsed, beforethe government that had threatened the world with a universal empire, washardly able to repel invasion from abroad or maintain its subjects athome. The vigorous poetical life which had been kindled through thecountry in its ages of trial and adversity, was evidently passing out ofthe whole Spanish character. The crude wealth from their Americanpossessions sustained, for a century longer, the forms of a miserablepolitical existence; but the earnest faith, the loyalty, the dignity ofthe Spanish people were gone, and little remained in their place but aweak subserviency to unworthy masters of state, and a low, timid bigotryin whatever related to religion. The old enthusiasm faded away, and thepoetry of the country, which had always depended more on the state of thepopular feeling than any other poetry of modern times, faded and failedwith it. 

2. INFLUENCE OF ITALY ON SPANISH LITERATURE. --The political connectionbetween Spain and Italy in the early part of the sixteenth century, andthe superior civilization and refinement of the latter country, could notfail to influence Spanish literature. Juan Boscan (d. 1543) was the firstto attempt the proper Italian measures as they were then practiced. Heestablished in Spain the Italian iambic, the sonnet, and canzone ofPetrarch, the _terza rima_ of Dante, and the flowing octaves of Ariosto. As an original poet, the talents of Boscan were not of the highest order. 

Garcilasso de la Vega (1503-1536), the contemporary and friend of Boscan, united with him in introducing an Italian school of poetry, which has beenan important part of Spanish literature ever since. The poems ofGarcilasso are remarkable for their gentleness and melancholy, and hisversification is uncommonly sweet, and well adapted to the tender and sadcharacter of his poetry. 

The example set by Boscan and Garcilasso so well suited the demands of theage, that it became as much a fashion at the court of Charles V. To writein the Italian manner, as it did to travel in Italy, or make a militarycampaign there. Among those who did most to establish the Italianinfluence in Spanish literature was Diego de Mendoza (1503-1575), ascholar, a soldier, a poet, a diplomatist, a statesman, a historian, and aman who rose to great consideration in whatever he undertook. One of hisearliest works, "Lazarillo de Tormes, " the auto-biography of a boy, littleLazarus, was written with the object of satirizing all classes of societyunder the character of a servant, who sees them in undress behind thescenes. The style of this work is bold, rich, and idiomatic, and some ofits sketches are among the most fresh and spirited that can be found inthe whole class of prose works of fiction. It has been more or less afavorite in all languages, down to the present day, and was the foundationof a class of fictions which the "Gil Blas" of Le Sage has made famousthroughout the world. Mendoza, after having filled many high offices underCharles V. , when Philip ascended the throne, was, for some slight offense, banished from the court as a madman. In the poems which he occasionallywrote during his exile, he gave the influence of his example to the newform introduced by Boscan and Garcilasso. At a later period he occupiedhimself in writing some portions of the history of his native city, Granada, relating to the rebellion of the Moors (1568-1570). Familiar witheverything of which he speaks, there is a freshness and power in hissketches that carry us at once into the midst of the scenes and events hedescribes. "The War of Granada" is an imitation of Sallust. Nothing in thestyle of the old chronicles is to be compared to it, and little in anysubsequent period is equal to it for manliness, vigor, and truth. 

3. HISTORY. --The imperfect chronicles of the age of Charles V. Weresurpassed in importance by the histories or narratives, more or lessample, of the discoverers of the western world, all of which wereinteresting from their subject and their materials. First in theforeground of this picturesque group stands Fernando Cortes (1485-1554), of whose voluminous documents the most remarkable were five long reportsto the Emperor on the affairs of Mexico. 

The marvelous achievements of Cortes, however, were more fully recorded byGomara (b. 1510), the oldest of the regular historians of the New World. His principal works are the "History of the Indies, " chiefly devoted toColumbus and the conquest of Peru, and the "Chronicle of New Spain, " whichis merely the history and life of Cortes, under which title it has sincebeen republished. The style of Gomara is easy and flowing, but his workwas of no permanent authority, in consequence of the great and frequentmistakes into which he was led by those who were too much a part of thestory to relate it fairly. These mistakes Bernal Diaz, an old soldier whohad been long in the New World, set himself at work to correct, and thebook he thus produced, with many faults, has something of the honestnationality, and the fervor and faith of the old chronicles. 

Among those who have left records of their adventures in America, one ofthe most considerable is Oviedo (1478-1557), who for nearly forty yearsdevoted himself to the affairs of the Spanish colonies in which heresided. His most important work is "The Natural and General History ofthe Indies, " a series of accounts of the natural condition, the aboriginalinhabitants, and the political affairs of the Spanish provinces inAmerica, as they stood in the middle of the sixteenth century. It is ofgreat value as a vast repository of facts, and not without merit as acomposition. 

In Las Casas (1474-1566) Oviedo had a formidable rival, who, pursuing thesame course of inquiries in the New World, came to conclusions quiteopposite. Convinced from his first arrival in Hispaniola that the gentlenature and slight frames of the natives were subjected to toil andservitude so hard that they were wasting away, he thenceforth devoted hislife to their emancipation. He crossed the Atlantic six times, in order topersuade the government of Charles V. To ameliorate their condition, andalways with more or less success. His earliest work, "A Short Account ofthe Ruin of the Indies, " was a tract in which the sufferings and wrongs ofthe Indians were doubtless much overstated by the zeal of its author, butit awakened all Europe to a sense of the injustice it set forth. Othershort treatises followed, but none ever produced so deep and solemn aneffect on the world. 

The great work of Las Casas, however, still remains inedited, --"A GeneralHistory of the Indies from 1492 to 1525. " Like his other works, it showsmarks of haste and carelessness, but its value is great, notwithstandinghis too fervent zeal for the Indians. It is a repository to which Herrera, and, through him, all subsequent historians of the Indies resorted formaterials, and without which the history of the earliest period of theSpanish settlements in America cannot even now be written. 

There are numerous other works on the discovery and conquest of America, but they are of less consequence than those already mentioned. As a class, they resemble the old chronicles, though they announce the approach of themore regular form of history. 

4. THE DRAMA. --Before the middle of the sixteenth century, the Mysterieswere the only dramatic exhibitions of Spain. They were upheld byecclesiastical power, and the people, as such, had no share in them. Thefirst attempt to create a popular drama was made by Lope de Rueda, agoldbeater of Seville, who flourished between 1544 and 1567, and whobecame both a dramatic writer and an actor. His works consist of comedies, pastoral colloquies, and dialogues in prose and verse. They were writtenfor representation, and were acted before popular audiences by a strollingcompany led about by Lope de Rueda himself. Naturalness of thought, themost easy, idiomatic Castilian terms of expression, a good-humored gayety, a strong sense of the ridiculous, and a happy imitation of the tone andmanners of common life, are the prominent characteristics of these plays, and their author was justly reckoned by Cervantes and Lope de Vega as thetrue founder of the popular national theatre. The ancient simplicity andseverity of the Spanish people had now been superseded by the luxury andextravagance which the treasures of America had introduced; theecclesiastical fetters imposed on opinion and conscience had so connectedall ideas of morality and religion with inquisitorial severity, that themind longed for an escape, and gladly took refuge in amusements wherethese unwelcome topics had no place. So far, the number of dramas wassmall, and these had been written in forms so different and so oftenopposed to each other as to have little consistency or authority, and tooffer no sufficient indication of the channel in which the dramaticliterature of the country was at last to flow. It was reserved for Lope deVega to seize, with the instinct of genius, the crude and unsettledelements of the existing drama, and to form from them, and from theabundant and rich inventions of his own overflowing fancy, a drama which, as a whole, was unlike anything that had preceded it, and yet was so trulynational and rested so faithfully on tradition, that it was neverafterwards disturbed, till the whole literature of which it was sobrilliant a part was swept away with it. 

Lope de Vega (1562-1635) early manifested extraordinary powers and amarvelous poetic genius. After completing his education, he becamesecretary to the Duke of Alba. Engaging in an affair of honor, in which hedangerously wounded his adversary, he was obliged to fly and to remainseveral years in exile. On his return to Madrid, religious and patrioticzeal induced him to join the expedition of the Invincible Armada for theinvasion of England, and he was one of the few who returned in safety tohis native country. Domestic afflictions soon after determined him torenounce the world and to enter holy orders. Notwithstanding this change, he continued to cultivate poetry to the close of his long life, with sowonderful a facility that a drama of more than two thousand lines, intermingled with sonnets and enlivened with all kinds of unexpectedincidents and intrigues, frequently cost him no more than the labor of asingle day. He composed more rapidly than his amanuensis could transcribe, and the managers of the theatres left him no time to copy or correct hiscompositions; so that his plays were frequently represented within twenty-four hours after their first conception. His fertility of invention andhis talent for versification are unparalleled in the history ofliterature. He produced two thousand two hundred dramas, of which onlyabout five hundred were printed. His other poems were published at Madridin 1776, in twenty-one volumes quarto. His prodigious literary laborsproduced him nearly as much money as glory; but his liberality to the poorand his taste for pomp soon dissipated his wealth, and after living insplendor, he died almost in poverty. 

No poet has ever in his lifetime enjoyed such honors. Eager crowdssurrounded him whenever he showed himself abroad, and saluted him with theappellation of _Prodigy of Nature_. Every eye was fixed on him, andchildren followed him with cries of pleasure. He was chosen President ofthe Spiritual College at Madrid, and the pope conferred upon him highmarks of distinction, not only for his poetical talents, but for hisenthusiastic zeal for the interests of religion. He was also appointed oneof the _familiars_ of the Inquisition, an office to which the highesthonor was at that time attached. 

The fame of Lope de Vega rests upon his dramas alone, and in these thereis no end to their diversity, the subjects varying from the deepesttragedy to the broadest farce, from the solemn mysteries of religion tothe loosest frolics of common life, and the style embracing every varietyof tone and measure known to the language of the country. In these dramas, too, the sacred and secular, the tragic and comic, the heroic and vulgar, all run into each other, until it seems that there is neither separateform nor distinction attributed to any of them. 

The first class of plays that Lope seems to have invented, and the onewhich still remains most popular in Spain, are _dramas of the cloak andsword_, so called from the picturesque national dress of the fashionableclass of society from which the principal characters were selected. Theirmain principle is gallantry. The story is almost always involved andintriguing, accompanied with an under-plot and parody on the principalparties, formed by the servants and other inferior persons. The action ischiefly carried on by lovers full of romance, or by low characters, whosewit is mixed with buffoonery. 

To the second class belong the historical or heroic dramas. Theircharacters are usually kings, princes, and personages in the highest rankof life, and their prevailing tone is imposing and tragical. A love story, filled as usual with hair-breadth escapes, jealous quarrels, and questionsof honor, runs through nearly every one of them; but truth, in regard tofacts, manners, and customs, is entirely disregarded. 

The third class contains the dramas founded on the manners of common life;of these there are but few. Lope de Vega would doubtless have confinedhimself to these three forms, but that the interference of the church fora time forbade the representations of the secular drama, and he thereforeturned his attention to the composition of religious plays. The subjectsof these are taken from the Scriptures, or lives of the saints, and theyapproach so near to the comedies of intrigue, that but for the religiouspassages they would seem to belong to them. His "Sacramental Acts" wasanother form of the religious drama which was still more grotesque thanthe last. They were performed in the streets during the religiousceremonies of the Corpus Christi. The spiritual dramas of Lope de Vega area heterogeneous mixture of bright examples of piety, according to theviews of the age and country, and the wildest flights of imagination, combined into a whole by a fine poetic spirit. 

The variety and inexhaustible fertility of the genius of this writerconstituted the corner-stone of his success, and did much to make him themonarch of the stage while he lived, and the great master of the nationaltheatre ever since. But there were other circumstances that aided inproducing these surprising results, the first of which is the principle, that runs through all his plays, of making all other interests subordinateto the interest of the story. For this purpose he used dialogue rather tobring out the plot than the characters, and to this end also he sacrificeddramatic probabilities and possibilities, geography, history, and a decentmorality. 

Another element which he established in the Spanish drama, was the comicunder-plot, and the witty _gracioso_ or droll, the parody of the heroiccharacter of the play. Much of his power over the people of his time isalso to be found in the charm of his versification, which was alwaysfresh, flowing, and effective. The success of Lope de Vega was inproportion to his rare powers. For the forty or fifty years that he wrote, nobody else was willingly heard upon the stage, and his dramas wereperformed in France, Italy, and even in Constantinople. His extraordinarytalent was nearly allied to improvisation, and it required but a littlemore indulgence of his feeling and fancy to have made him not only animprovisator, but the most remarkable one that ever lived. 

Nearly thirty dramatic writers followed Lope de Vega, but the school wasnot received with universal applause. In its gross extravagances andirregularities, severe critics found just cause for complaint. Theopposition of the church to the theatre, however, which had been for atime so formidable, had at last given way, and from the beginning of theseventeenth century, the popular drama was too strong to be subjectedeither to classical criticism or ecclesiastical rule. 

Calderon de la Barca (1600-1681) was the great successor and rival of Lopede Vega. At the age of thirty-two, his reputation as a poet was anenviable one. Soon after, when the death of Lope de Vega left the theatrewithout a master, he was formally attached to the court for the purpose offurnishing dramas to be represented in the royal theatres. In 1651, hefollowed the example of Lope de Vega and other men of letters of his time, by entering a religious brotherhood. Many ecclesiastical dignities wereconferred upon him, but he did not, however, on this account intermit hisdramatic labors, but continued through his long life to write for thetheatres, for the court, and for the churches. Many dramas of Calderonwere printed without his consent, and many were attributed to him which henever wrote. His reputation as a dramatic poet rests on the seventy-threesacramental _autos_, and one hundred and eight dramas, which are known tobe his. The _autos_, from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were amongthe favorite amusements of the people; but in the age of Calderon theywere much increased in number and importance; they had become attractiveto all classes of society, and were represented with great luxury and atgreat expense in the streets of all the larger cities. A procession, inwhich the king and court appeared, preceded by the fantastic figures ofgiants, with music, banners, and religious shows, followed the sacramentthrough the street, and then, before the houses of the great officers ofstate, the _autos_ were performed; the giants made sport for themultitude, and the entertainment concluded with music and dancing. Sometimes the procession was headed by the figure of a monster called the_Tarasca_, half serpent in form, borne by men concealed in its cumbrousbulk, and surmounted by another figure representing the woman of Babylon, --all so managed as to fill with wonder and terror the country people whocrowded round it, and whose hats and caps were generally snatched away bythe grinning beast, and became the lawful prize of his conductors. Thisexhibition was at first rude and simple, but under the influence of Lopede Vega it became a well-defined, popular entertainment, divided intothree parts, each distinct from the other. First came the _loa_, a kind ofprologue; then the _entremes_, a kind of interlude or farce; and last, the_autos sacramentales_, or sacred acts themselves, which were more grave intheir tone, though often whimsical and extravagant. 

The seventy-three _autos_ written by Calderon are all allegorical, and bythe music and show with which they abound, they closely approach to theopera. They are upon a great variety of subjects, and indicate by theirstructure that elaborate and costly machinery must have been used in theirrepresentation. They are crowded with such personages as Sin, Death, Judaism, Mercy, and Charity, and the purpose of all is to set forth theReal Presence in the Eucharist. The great enemy of mankind of course fillsa large place in them. Almost all of them contain passages of strikinglyrical poetry. 

The secular plays of Calderon can scarcely be classified, for in many ofthem even more than two forms of the drama are mingled. To the principleof making a story that should sustain the interest throughout, Calderonsacrificed almost as much as Lope de Vega did. To him facts are neverobstacles. Coriolanus is a general under Romulus; the Danube is placedbetween Sweden and Russia; and Herodotus is made to describe America. Butin these dramas we rarely miss the interest and charm of a dramatic story, which provokes the curiosity and enchains the attention. 

In the dramas of the Cloak and Sword the plots of Calderon are intricate. He excelled in the accumulation of surprises, in plunging his charactersinto one difficulty after another, maintaining the interest to the last. In style and versification Calderon has high merits, though they areoccasionally mingled with the defects of his age. He added no new forms todramatic composition, nor did he much modify those which had been alreadysettled by Lope de Vega; but he showed greater skill in the arrangement ofhis incidents, and more poetry in the structure and tendency of hisdramas. To his elevated tone we owe much of what distinguishes Calderonfrom his predecessors, and nearly all that is most individual in hismerits and defects. In carrying out his theory of the national drama, heoften succeeds and often fails; and when he succeeds, he sets before us anidealized drama, resting on the noblest elements of the Spanish nationalcharacter, and one which, with all its unquestionable defects, is to beplaced among the extraordinary phenomena of modern poetry. 

The most brilliant period of the Spanish drama falls within the reign ofPhilip II. , which extended from 1620 to 1665, and embraced the last yearsof the life of Lope de Vega, and the thirty most fortunate years of thelife of Calderon. After this period a change begins to be apparent; forthe school of Lope was that of a drama in the freshness and buoyancy ofyouth, while that of Calderon belongs to the season of its maturity andgradual decay. The many writers who were either contemporary with Lope deVega and Calderon, or who succeeded them, had little influence on thecharacter of the theatre. This, in its proper outlines, always remained asit was left by these great masters, who maintained an almost unquestionedcontrol over it while they lived, and at their death left a characterimpressed upon it, which it never lost till it ceased to exist altogether. 

When Lope de Vega first appeared as a dramatic writer at Madrid, the onlytheatres he found were two unsheltered courtyards, which depended on suchcompanies of strolling players as occasionally visited the capital. Beforehe died, there were, besides the court-yards in Madrid, several theatresof great magnificence in the royal palaces, and many thousand actors; andhalf a century later, the passion for dramatic representations had spreadinto every part of the kingdom, and there was hardly a village that didnot possess a theatre. 

During the whole of the successful period of the drama, therepresentations took place in the daytime. Dancing was early an importantpart of the theatrical exhibitions in Spain, even of the religious, andits importance has continued down to the present day. From the earliestantiquity it was the favorite amusement of the rude inhabitants of thecountry, and in modern times dancing has been to Spain what music has beento Italy, a passion with the whole population. 

In all its forms and subsidiary attractions, the Spanish drama wasessentially a popular entertainment, governed by the popular will. Itspurpose was to please all equally, and it was not only necessary that theplay should be interesting; it was, above all, required that it should beSpanish, and, therefore, whatever the subject might be, whether actual ormythological, Greek or Roman, the characters were always represented asCastilian, and Castilian of the seventeenth century. It was the same withtheir costumes. Coriolanus appeared in the costume of Don Juan of Austria, and Aristotle came on the stage dressed like a Spanish Abbé, with curledperiwig and buckles on his shoes. 

The Spanish theatre, therefore, in many of its characteristics andattributes, stands by itself. It is entirely national, it takes nocognizance of ancient example, and it borrowed nothing from the drama ofFrance, Italy, or England. Founded on traits of national character, withall its faults, it maintained itself as long as that character existed inits original attributes, and even now it remains one of the most strikingand interesting portions of modern literature. 

5. ROMANCES AND TALES. --Hitherto the writers of Spain had been littleknown, except in their own country; but we are now introduced to an authorwhose fame is bounded by no language and no country, and whose name is notalone familiar to men of taste and learning, but to almost every class ofsociety. 

Cervantes (1547-1616), though of noble family, was born in poverty andobscurity, not far from Madrid. When he was about twenty-one years of age, he attached himself to the person of Cardinal Aquaviva, with whom hevisited Rome. He soon after enlisted as a common soldier in the waragainst the Turks, and, in the great battle of Lepanto, 1572, he receiveda wound which deprived him of the use of his left hand and arm, andobliged him to quit the military profession. On his way home he wascaptured by pirates, carried to Algiers, and sold for a slave. Here hepassed five years full of adventure and suffering. At length his ransomwas effected, and he returned home to find his father dead, his familyreduced to a still more bitter poverty by his ransom, and himselffriendless and unknown. He withdrew from the world to devote himself toliterature, and to gain a subsistence by his pen. 

One of the first productions of Cervantes was the pastoral romance of"Galatea. " This was followed by several dramas, the principal of which isfounded on the tragical fate of Numantia. Notwithstanding its want ofdramatic skill, it may be cited as a proof of the author's poeticaltalent, and as a bold effort to raise the condition of the stage. 

After many years of poverty and embarrassment, in 1605, when Cervantes hadreached his fiftieth year, he published the first part of "Don Quixote. "The success of this effort was incredible. Many thousand copies are saidto have been printed during the author's lifetime. It was translated intovarious languages, and eulogized by every class of readers, yet itoccasioned little improvement in the pecuniary circumstances of theauthor. In 1615, he published the second part of the same work, and, inthe year following, his eventful and troubled life drew to its close. 

"Don Quixote, " of all the works of all modern times, bears most deeply theimpression of the national character it represents, and it has in returnenjoyed a degree of national favor never granted to any other. The objectof Cervantes in writing it was, as he himself declares, "to renderabhorred of men the false and absurd stories contained in books ofchivalry. " The fanaticism for these romances was so great in Spain duringthe sixteenth century, and they were deemed so noxious, that the burningof all copies extant in the country was earnestly asked for by the Cortes. To destroy a passion that had struck its roots so deeply in the characterof all classes of men, to break up the only reading which, at that time, was fashionable and popular, was a bold undertaking, yet one in whichCervantes succeeded. No book of chivalry was written after the appearanceof "Don Quixote;" and from that time to the present they have beenconstantly disappearing, until they are now among the rarest of literarycuriosities, --a solitary instance of the power of genius to destroy, by awell-timed blow, an entire department of literature. 

In accomplishing this object, Cervantes represents "Don Quixote" as acountry gentleman of La Mancha, full of Castilian honor and enthusiasm, but so completely crazed by reading the most famous books of chivalry, that he not only believes them to be true, but feels himself called uponto become the impossible knight-errant they describe, and actually goesforth into the world, like them, to defend the oppressed and avenge theinjured. To complete his chivalrous equipment, which he had begun byfitting up for himself a suit of armor strange to his century, he took anesquire out of his neighborhood, a middle-aged peasant, ignorant, credulous, and good-natured, but shrewd enough occasionally to see thefolly of their position. The two sally forth from their native village insearch of adventures, of which the excited imagination of the knight--turning windmills into giants, solitary turrets into castles, and galleyslaves into oppressed gentlemen--finds abundance wherever he goes, whilethe esquire translates them all into the plain prose of truth, with asimplicity strikingly contrasted with the lofty dignity and themagnificent illusions of the knight. After a series of ridiculousdiscomfitures, the two are at last brought home like madmen to theirnative village. 

Ten years later, Cervantes published the second part of Don Quixote, whichis even better than the first. It shows more vigor and freedom, theinvention and the style of thought are richer, and the finish more exact. Both Don Quixote and Sancho are brought before us like such livingrealities, that at this moment the figures of the crazed, gaunt, anddignified knight, and of his round, selfish, and most amusing esquire, dwell bodied forth in the imagination of more, among all conditions of menthroughout Christendom, than any other of the creations of human talent. In this work Cervantes has shown himself of kindred to all times and alllands, to the humblest as well as to the highest degrees of cultivation, and he has received in return, beyond all other writers, a tribute ofsympathy and admiration from the universal spirit of humanity. 

This romance, which Cervantes threw so carelessly from him, and which heregarded only as a bold effort to break up the absurd taste for thefancies of chivalry, has been established by an uninterrupted and anunquestioned success ever since, as the oldest classical specimen ofromantic fiction, and as one of the most remarkable monuments of moderngenius. But Cervantes is entitled to a higher glory: it should be borne inmind that this delightful romance was not the result of a youthfulexuberance of feeling, and a happy external condition; with all itsunquenchable and irresistible humor, its bright views, and its cheerfultrust in goodness and virtue, it was written in his old age, at theconclusion of a life which had been marked at nearly every step withstruggle, disappointment, and calamity; it was begun in prison, andfinished when he felt the hand of death pressing cold and heavy upon hisheart. If this be remembered as we read, we may feel what admiration andreverence are due, not only to the living power of Don Quixote, but to thecharacter and genius of Cervantes; if it be forgotten or underrated, weshall fail in regard to both. 

The first form of romantic fiction which succeeded the romances ofchivalry was that of prose pastorals, which was introduced into Spain byMontemayor, a Portuguese, who lived, probably, between 1520 and 1561. Todivert his mind from the sorrow of an unrequited attachment, he composed aromance entitled "Diana, " which, with numerous faults, possesses a highdegree of merit. It was succeeded by many similar tales. 

The next form of Spanish prose fiction, and the one which has enjoyed amore permanent regard, is that known as tales in the _gusto picaresco_, orstyle of the rogues. As a class, they constitute a singular exhibition ofcharacter, and are as separate and national as anything in modernliterature. The first fiction of this class was the "Lazarillo de Tormes"of Mendoza, already spoken of, published in 1554, --a bold, unfinishedsketch of the life of a rogue from the very lowest condition of society. Forty-five years afterwards this was followed by the "Guzman de Alfarache"of Aleman, the most ample portraiture of its class to be found in Spanishliterature. It is chiefly curious and interesting because it shows us, inthe costume of the times, the life of an ingenious Machiavelian rogue, whois never at a loss for an expedient, and who speaks of himself always asan honest man. The work was received with great favor, and translated intoall the languages of Europe. 

But the work which most plainly shows the condition of social life whichproduced this class of tales, is the "Life of Estevanillo Gonzalez, " firstprinted in 1646. It is the autobiography of a buffoon who was long in theservice of Piccolomini, the great general of the Thirty Years' War. Thebrilliant success of these works at home and abroad subsequently producedthe Gil Blas of Le Sage, an imitation more brilliant than any of theoriginals that it followed. 

The serious and historical fictions produced in Spain were limited innumber, and with few exceptions deserved little favor. Short stories ortales were more successful than any other form of prose-fiction during thelatter part of the sixteenth, and the whole of the seventeenth century. They belonged to the spirit of their own times and to the state of societyin which they appeared. Taken together, the number of fictions in Spanishliterature is enormous; but what is more remarkable than their multitude, is the fact that they were produced when the rest of Europe, with apartial exception in favor of Italy, was not yet awakened to correspondingefforts of the imagination. The creative spirit, however, soon ceased, anda spirit of French imitation took its place. 

6. HISTORICAL NARRATIVE POEMS. --Epic poetry, from its dignity andpretensions, is almost uniformly placed at the head of the differentdivisions of a nation's literature. But in Spain little has been achievedin this department that is worthy of memory. The old half-epic poem of theCid--the first attempt at narration in the languages of modern Europe thatdeserves the name--is one of the most remarkable outbreaks of poetical andnational enthusiasm on record. The few similar attempts that followedduring the next three centuries, while they serve to mark the progress ofSpanish culture, show little of the power manifested in the Cid. 

In the reign of Charles V. , the poets of the time evidently imagined thatto them was assigned the task of celebrating the achievements in the OldWorld and in the New, which had raised their country to the first placeamong the powers of Europe. There were written, therefore, during this andthe succeeding reigns, an extraordinary number of epic and narrative poemson subjects connected with ancient and modern Spanish glory, but they allbelong to patriotism rather than to poetry; the best of these come withequal pretension into the province of history. There is but one long poemof this class which obtained much regard when it appeared, and which hasbeen remembered ever since, the "Araucana. " The author of this work, Ercilla (1533-1595), was a page of Philip the Second, and accompanied himto England on the occasion of his marriage with Mary. News having arrivedthat the Araucans, a tribe of Indians in Chili, had revolted against theSpanish authority, Ercilla joined the adventurous expedition that was sentout to subdue them. In the midst of his exploits he conceived the plan ofwriting a narrative of the war in the form of an epic poem. After thetumult of a battle, or the fatigues of a march, he devoted the hours ofthe night to his literary labors, wielding the pen and sword by turns, andoften obliged to write on pieces of skin or scraps of paper so small as tocontain only a few lines. In this poem the descriptive powers of Ercillaare remarkable, and his characters, especially those of the Americanchiefs, are drawn with force and distinctness. The whole poem is pervadedby that deep sense of loyalty, always a chief ingredient in Spanish honorand heroism, and which, in Ercilla, seems never to have been chilled bythe ingratitude of the master to whom he devoted his life, and to whoseglory he consecrated this poem. 

These narrative and heroic poems continued long in favor in Spain, andthey retained to the last those ambitious feelings of national greatnesswhich had given them birth. Devoted to the glory of their country, theywere produced when the national character was on the decline; and as theysprang more directly from that character, and depended more on its spiritthan did the similar poetry of any other people in modern times, so theynow visibly declined with them. 

7. LYRIC POETRY. --The number of authors in the various classes of Spanishlyric poetry, whose works have been preserved between the beginning of thereign of Charles V. And the end of that of the last of his race, is notless than a hundred and twenty; but the number of those who weresuccessful is small. A little of what was written by the Argensolas, moreof Herrera, and nearly the whole of the Bachiller de la Torre and Luis deLeon, with occasional efforts of Lope de Vega and Quevedo, and single odesof other writers, make up what gives its character to the graver and lesspopular portion of Spanish lyric poetry. Their writings form a body ofpoetry, not large, but one that from its living, national feeling on theone side, and its dignity on the other, may be placed without questionamong the most successful efforts of modern literature. 

The Argensolas were two brothers who flourished in Spain at the beginningof the seventeenth century; both occupy a high place in this department ofpoetry. The original poems of Luis de Leon (1528-1591) fill no more than ahundred pages, but there is hardly a line of them which has not its value, and the whole taken together are to be placed at the head of Spanish lyricpoetry. They are chiefly religious, and the source of their inspiration isthe Hebrew Scriptures. Herrera (1534-1597) is the earliest classic odewriter in modern literature, and his poems are characterized by dignity oflanguage, harmony of versification, and elevation of ideas. Luis de Leonand Herrera are considered the two great masters of Spanish lyric poetry. 

Quevedo (1580-1645) was successful in many departments of letters. Themost prominent characteristics of his verse are a broad, grotesque humor, and a satire often imitated from the ancients. His amatory and religiouspoems are occasionally marked by extreme beauty and tenderness. The worksupon which his reputation principally rests, however, are in prose, andbelong to theology and metaphysics rather than to elegant literature. Theywere produced during the weary years of an unjust imprisonment. His prosesatires are the most celebrated of his compositions, and by these he willalways be remembered throughout the world. 

In the early part of the seventeenth century there arose a sect whoattempted to create a new epoch in Spanish poetry, by affecting anexquisite refinement, and who ran into the most ridiculous extravaganceand pedantry. The founder of this "cultivated style, " as it was called, was Luis Gongora (1561-1627), and his name, like that of Marini in Italy, has become a byword in literature. The style he introduced became at oncefashionable at court, and it struck so deep root in the soil of the wholecountry, that it has not yet been completely eradicated. The most odiousfeature of this style is, that it consists entirely of metaphors, soheaped upon one another that it is as difficult to find out the meaninghidden under their grotesque mass, as if it were a series of confusedriddles. The success of this style was very great, and inferior poetsbowed to it throughout the country. 

8. SATIRICAL AND OTHER POETRY. --Satirical poetry never enjoyed a widesuccess in Spain. The nation has always been too grave and dignified toendure the censure it implied. It was looked upon with, distrust, andthought contrary to the conventions of good society to indulge in itscomposition. Neither was elegiac poetry extensively cultivated. TheSpanish temperament was little fitted to the subdued, simple, and gentletone of the proper elegy. The echoes of pastoral poetry in Spain are heardfar back among the old ballads; but the Italian forms were earlyintroduced and naturalized. Two Portuguese writers, Montemayor andMiranda, were most successful in this department of poetry. Equallycharacteristic of the Spanish genius, with its pastorals, were the shortepigrammatic poems which appeared through the best age of its literature. They are generally in the truest tone of popular verse. Of didacticpoetry, there were many irregular varieties; but the popular character ofSpanish poetry, and the severe nature of the ecclesiastical and politicalconstitutions of Spain, were unfavorable to the development of this formof verse, and unlikely to tolerate it on any important subject. Itremained, therefore, one of the feeblest and least successful departmentsof the national literature. 

In the seventeenth century, ballads had become the delight of the wholeSpanish people. The soldier solaced himself with them in his tent, themaiden danced to them on the green, the lover sang them for his serenade, the street beggar chanted them for alms; they entered into the sumptuousentertainments of the nobility, the holiday services of the church, andinto the orgies of thieves and vagabonds. No poetry of modern times hasbeen so widely spread through all classes of society, and none has soentered into the national character. They were often written by authorsotherwise little known, and they were always found in the works of thosepoets of note who desired to stand well with the mass of their countrymen. 

9. HISTORY AND OTHER PROSE WRITINGS. --The fathers of Spanish history areZurita and Morales. Zurita (1512-1580) was the author of the "Annals ofAragon, " a work more important to Spanish history than any that hadpreceded it. Morales (1513-1591) was historiographer to the crown ofCastile, and his unfinished history of that country is marked by muchgeneral ability. Contemporary with these writers was Mendoza, alreadymentioned. The honor of being the first historian of the country, however, belongs to Mariana (1536-1623), a foundling who was educated a Jesuit. Hismain occupation for the last thirty or forty years of his life was hisgreat "History of Spain. " There is an air of good faith in his accountsand a vividness in his details which are singularly attractive. If not inall respects the most trustworthy of annals, it is at least the mostremarkable union of picturesque chronicling with sober history that theworld has ever seen. Sandoval (d. 1621) took up the history of Spain whereMariana left it; but while his is a work of authority, it is unattractivein style. "The General History of the Indies, " by Herrera, is a work ofgreat value, and the one on which the reputation of the author as ahistorian chiefly rests. 

One of the most pleasing of the minor Spanish histories is Argensola'saccount of the Moluccas. It is full of the traditions found among thenatives by the Portuguese when they first landed there, and of the wildadventures that followed when they had taken possession of the island. Garcilasso de la Vega, the son of one of the unscrupulous conquerors ofPeru, descended on his mother's side from the Incas, wrote the "History ofFlorida, " of which the adventures of De Soto constitute the most brilliantportion. His "Commentaries on Peru" is a striking and interesting work. 

The last of the historians of eminence in the elder school of Spanishhistory was Solis, whose "Conquest of Mexico" is beautifully written, andas it was flattering to the national history, it was at once successful, and has enjoyed an unimpaired popularity down to our times. 

The spirit of political tyranny in the government, and of religioustyranny in the Inquisition, now more than ever united, were more hostileto bold and faithful inquiry in the department of history than in almostany other. Still, the historians of this period were not unworthy of thenational character. Their works abound in feeling rather than philosophy, and are written in a style that marks, not so much the peculiar genius oftheir authors, perhaps, as that of the country that gave them birth. Although they may not be entirely classical, they are entirely Spanish;and what they want in finish and grace they make up in picturesqueness andoriginality. 

In one form of didactic composition, Spain stands in advance of othercountries: that of proverbs, which Cervantes has happily called "shortsentences drawn from long experience. " Spanish proverbs can be traced backto the earliest times. Although twenty-four thousand have been collected, many thousands still remain known only among the traditions of the humblerclasses of society that have given birth to them all. 

From the early part of the seventeenth century, Spanish prose becameinfected with that pedantry and affectation already spoken of asGongorism, or "the cultivated style;" and from this time, everything inprose as well as in poetry announced that corrupted taste which bothprecedes and hastens the decay of a literature, and which in the latterhalf of the seventeenth century was in Spain but the concomitant of ageneral decline in the arts and the gradual degradation of the monarchy. No country in Christendom had fallen from such a height of power as thatwhich Spain occupied in the time of Charles V. Into such an abyss ofdegradation as she reached when Charles II. , the last of the house ofAustria, ceased to reign. The old religion of the country, the mostprominent of all the national characteristics, was now so perverted fromits true character by intolerance that it had become a means ofoppression, such as Europe never before witnessed. The principle ofloyalty, now equally perverted and mischievous, had sunk into servilesubmission, and as we approach the conclusion of the century, theInquisition and the despotism seem to have cast their blight overeverything. 

PERIOD THIRD. 

THE ACCESSION OF THE BOURBON FAMILY TO THE PRESENT TIME (1700-1885). 

1. FRENCH INFLUENCE ON THE LITERATURE OF SPAIN. --The death of Charles II. , in 1700, was followed by the War of the Succession between the houses ofHapsburg and Bourbon, which lasted thirteen years. It was terminated bythe treaty of Utrecht and the accession of Philip V. , the grandson ofLouis XIV. Under his reign the influence of France became apparent in thecustoms of the country. The Academy of Madrid was soon established inimitation of that of Paris, with the object of establishing andcultivating the purity of the Castilian language. The first work publishedby this association was a Dictionary, which has continued in successiveeditions to be the proper standard of the language. At this time Frenchbegan to be spoken in the elegant society of the court and the capital, translations from the French were multiplied, and at last, a poeticalsystem, founded on the critical doctrine of Boileau, prevalent in France, was formally introduced into the country by Luzan, in his "Art of Poetry, "which from its first appearance (1737) exercised a controlling authorityat the court, and over the few writers of reputation then to be found inthe country. Though the works of Luzan offered a remedy for the bad tastewhich had accompanied and in no small degree hastened the decline of thenational taste, they did not lay a foundation for advancement inliterature. The national mind had become dwarfed for want of itsappropriate nourishment; the moral and physical sciences that had beenadvancing for a hundred years throughout Europe, were forbidden to crossthe Pyrenees. The scholastic philosophy was still maintained as thehighest form of intellectual culture; the system of Copernicus was lookedupon as contrary to the inspired record; while the philosophy of Bacon andthe very existence of mathematical science were generally unknown even tothe graduates of universities. It seemed as if the faculties of thinkingand reasoning were becoming extinct in Spain. 

2. THE DAWN OF SPANISH LITERATURE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. --The firsteffort for intellectual emancipation was made by a monk, Benito Feyjoo(1676-1764), who, having made himself acquainted with the truths broughtto light by Galileo, Bacon, Newton, Leibnitz, and Pascal, devoted his lifeto the labor of diffusing them among his countrymen. The opposition raisedagainst him only drew to his works the attention he desired. Even theInquisition summoned him in vain, for it was impossible to question thathe was a sincere and devout Catholic, and he had been careful not tointerfere with any of the abuses sanctioned by the church. Before hisdeath he had the pleasure of seeing that an impulse in the right directionhad been imparted to the national mind. 

One of the striking indications of advancement was an attack upon thestyle of popular preaching, which was now in a state of scandalousdegradation. The assailant was Isîa (1703-1781), a Jesuit, whose "Historyof Friar Gerund" is a satirical romance, slightly resembling Don Quixotein its plan, describing one of those bombastic orators of the age. It wasfrom the first successful in its object of destroying the evil at which itaimed, and preachers of the class of Friar Gerund soon found themselveswithout an audience. 

The policy of Charles III. (1759-1788) was highly favorable to theprogress of literature. He abridged the power of the Inquisition, andforbade the condemnation of any book till its writer or publisher had beenheard in its defense; he invited the suggestion of improved plans ofstudy, made arrangements for popular education, and raised the tone ofinstruction in the institutions of learning. Finally, perceiving theJesuits to be the most active opponents of these reforms, he expelled themfrom every part of his dominions, breaking up their schools, andconfiscating their revenues. During his reign, intellectual life andhealth were infused into the country, and its powers, which had been solong wasting away, were revived and renewed. 

Among the writers of this age are Moratin the elder (1737-1780), whosepoems are marked by purity of language and harmony of versification; andYriarte (1750-1791), who was most successful in fables, which he applied, to the correction of the faults and follies of literary men. To thisperiod may also be referred the school of Salamanca, whose object was tocombine in literature the power and richness of the old writers of thetime of the Philips with the severer taste then prevailing on thecontinent. Melendez (1754-1817), who was the founder of this school, devoted his muse to the joys and sorrows of rustic love, and the leisureand amusements of country life. Nothing can surpass some of hisdescriptions in the graceful delineation of tender feeling, and his verseis considered in sweetness and native strength, to be such a return to thetones of Garcilasso, as had not been heard in Spain for more than acentury. Gonzalez (d. 1794), who, with happy success, imitated Luis deLeon, Jovellanos (1744-1811), who exerted great influence on the literaryand political condition of his country, and Quintana (b. 1772), whosepoems are distinguished by their noble and patriotic tone, are consideredamong the principal representatives of the school of Salamanca. 

The most considerable movement of the eighteenth century in Spain, is thatrelating to the theatre, which it was earnestly attempted to subject tothe rules then prevailing on the French stage. The Spanish theatre, infact, was now at its lowest ebb, and wholly in the hands of the populace. The plays acted for public amusement were still represented as they hadbeen in the seventeenth century, --in open court-yards, in the daytime, without any pretense of scenery or of dramatic ingenuity. Soon after, through the influence of Isabella, the second wife of Philip V. , improvements were made in the external arrangements and architecture ofthe theatres; yet, owing to the exclusive favor shown to the opera by theItalian queens, the old spirit continued to prevail. 

In the middle of the eighteenth century a reform of the comedy and tragedywas undertaken by Montiano and others, who introduced the French style indramatic compositions, and from that time an active contest went onbetween the innovators and the followers of the old drama. The latter wasattacked, in 1762, by Moratin the elder, who wrote against it, andespecially against the _autos sacramentales_, showing that such wild, coarse, and blasphemous exhibitions, as they generally were, ought not tobe tolerated in a civilized and religious community. So far as the _autos_were concerned, Moratin was successful; they were prohibited in 1768, andsince that time, in the larger cities, they have not been heard. 

The most successful writer for the stage was Ramon de la Cruz (1731-1799), the author of about three hundred dramatic compositions, founded on themanners of the middle and lower classes. They are entirely national intheir tone, and abound in wit and in faithful delineations of character. 

While a number of writers pandered to the bad taste of low and vulgaraudiences, a formidable antagonist appeared in the person of Moratin theyounger (1760-1828), son of that poet who first produced, on the Spanishstage, an original drama written according to the French doctrines. Notwithstanding the taste of the public, he determined to tread in thefootsteps of his father. Though his comedies have failed to educate aschool strong enough to drive out the bad imitations of the old masters, they have yet been able to keep their own place. 

The eighteenth century was a period of revolution and change with theSpanish theatre. While the old national drama was not restored to itsancient rights, the drama founded on the doctrines taught by Luzan, andpracticed by the Moratins, had only a limited success. The audiences didas much to degrade it as was done by the poets they patronized and theactors they applauded. On the one side, extravagant and absurd dramas ingreat numbers, full of low buffoonery, were offered; on the other, meagre, sentimental comedies, and stiff, cold translations from the French, wereforced, in almost equal numbers, upon the actors, by the voices of thosefrom whose authority or support they could not entirely emancipatethemselves. 

3. SPANISH LITERATURE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. --The new life and healthinfused into literature in the age of Charles III. Was checked by theFrench revolutionary wars in She reign of Charles IV. , and afterwards bythe restoration of civil despotism and the Inquisition, brought again intothe country by the return of the Bourbon dynasty in 1814. Amidst theviolence and confusion of the reign of Ferdinand VII. (1814-1833), elegantletters could hardly hope to find shelter or resting-place. Nearly everypoet and prose writer, known as such at the end of the reign of CharlesIV. , became involved in the fierce political changes of the time, --changesso various and so opposite, that those who escaped from the consequencesof one, were often, on that very account, sure to suffer in the next thatfollowed. Indeed, the reign of Ferdinand VII. Was an interregnum in allelegant culture, such as no modern nation has yet seen, --not even Spainherself during the War of the Succession. This state of things continuedthrough the long civil war which arose soon after the death of that king, and, indeed, it is not yet entirely abated. But in despite of the troubledcondition of the country, even while Ferdinand was living, a movement wasbegun, the first traces of which are to be found among the emigratedSpaniards, who cheered with letters their exile in England and France, andwhose subsequent progress from the time when the death of their unfaithfulmonarch permitted them to return home, is distinctly perceptible in theirown country. 

The two principal writers of the first half of the century are thesatirist José de Larra (d. 1837), and the poet Espronceda (d. 1842); bothwere brilliant writers, and both died young. Zorrilla (b. 1817), has greatwealth of imagination, and Fernan Caballero is a gifted woman whosestories have been often translated. Antonio de Trueba is a writer ofpopular songs and short stories not without merit, Campoamor (b. 1817) andBequer represent the poetry of twenty years ago. The short lyrics of thefirst named are remarkable for their delicacy and finesse. Bequer, whodied at the age of thirty, left behind him poems which have alreadyexercised a wide influence in his own country and in Spanish America; theytell a story of passionate love, despair, and death. Perez Galdos, awriter of fiction, attacks the problem of modern life and thought, andrepresents with vivid and often bitter fidelity the conflicting interestsand passions of Spanish life. Valera, the present minister from Spain tothe United States, is the author of the most famous Spanish novel of theday, "Pepita Jimenez, " a work of great artistic perfection, and his skilland grace are still more evident in his critical essays. Castelar hasgained a European celebrity as an orator and a political and miscellaneouswriter. The works of these authors, and of many others not named, showclearly that Spain is making vigorous efforts to bring herself, sociallyand intellectually, into line with the rest of Europe. 

Of the Spanish colonies Cuba has produced some writers of enduring renown. The most distinguished for poetic fame is Gertrude de Avelleneda; Herediaand Placido may also be mentioned. In Venezuela, Baralt is known as ahistorian, poet, and classical writer; Olmedo as a poet of Bolivia, andCaro a writer of the United States of Colombia. 

PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. 

1. The Portuguese Language. --2. Early Literature of Portugal. --3. Poets ofthe Fifteenth Century; Macias, Ribeyro. --4. Introduction of the ItalianStyle; San de Miranda, Montemayor, Ferreira. --5. Epic Poetry; Camoëns; TheLusiad. --6. Dramatic Poetry; Gil Vicente. --7. Prose Writing; RodriguezLobo, Barros, Brito, Veira. --8. Portuguese Literature in the Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries; Antonio José, Manuel do Nascimento, Manuel de Bocage. 

1. THE PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE. --Portugal was long considered only as anintegral part of Spain; its inhabitants called themselves Spaniards, andconferred on their neighbors the distinctive appellation of Castilians. Their language was originally the same as the Galician; and had Portugalremained a province of Spain, its peculiar dialect would probably, likethat of Aragon, have been driven from the fields of literature by theCastilian. But at the close of the eleventh century, Alphonso VI. , celebrated in Spanish history for his triumphs over the Moors, gavePortugal as a dowry to his daughter on her marriage with Henry ofBurgundy, with permission to call his own whatever accessions to it theyoung prince might be able to conquer from the Moorish territory. AlphonsoHenriquez, the son of this pair, was saluted King of Portugal by hissoldiers on the battle-field of Castro-Verd, in the year 1139, his kingdomcomprising all the provinces we now call Portugal, except the province ofAlgarve. Thenceforward the Portuguese became a separate nation from theSpaniards, and their language asserted for itself an independentexistence. Still, however, the Castilian was long considered the propervehicle for literature; and while few Portuguese writers wholly disusedit, there were many who employed no other. 

Although the Portuguese language, founded on the Galician dialect, bearsmuch similarity to the Spanish in its roots and structure, it differswidely from it in its grammatical combinations and derivations, so that itconstitutes a language by itself. It has far more French, and fewer Basqueand Arabic elements than the Spanish; it is softer, but it has, at thesame time, a truncated and incomplete sound, compared with the sonorousbeauty of the Castilian, and a predominance of nasal sounds stronger thanthose of the French. It is graceful and easy in its construction, but itis the least energetic of all the Romance tongues. 

2. EARLY LITERATURE OF PORTUGAL. --The people, as well as the language, ofPortugal possess a distinctive character. Early in the history of thecountry the extensive and fertile plains were abandoned to pasturage, andthe number of shepherds in proportion to the rest of the population was sogreat, that the idea of rural life among them was always associated withthe care of flocks. At the same time, their long extent of coast invitedto the pursuits of commerce and navigation; and the nation, thus dividedinto hardy navigators, soldiers, and shepherds, was better calculated forthe display of energy, valor, and enterprise than for laborious andpersevering industry. Accustomed to active intercourse with society, rather than to the seclusion of castles, they were far less haughty andfanatical than the Castilians; and the greater number of Moçárabians thatwere incorporated among them, diffused over their feelings and manners amuch stronger influence of orientalism. The passion of love seemed tooccupy a larger share of their existence, and their poetry was moreenthusiastic than that of any other people of Europe. 

Although the literature of Portugal, like the character of its people, ismarked by excessive softness, elegiac sentimentality, and an undefinedmelancholy, it affords little originality in the general tone of itsproductions. Henry of Burgundy and his knights early introduced Provençalpoetry, and the native genius was nurtured in the succeeding age bySpanish and Italian taste, and afterwards modified by the influence ofFrench and English civilization. National songs were not wanting in theearly history of the country, yet no relics of them have been preserved. The earliest monuments of Portuguese literature relate to the age of theFrench knights who founded the political independence of the country, andmust be sought in the "Cancioneros, " containing courtly ballads composedin the Galician dialect, after the Provençal fashion, and sung bywandering minstrels. The Cancionero of King Dionysius (1279-1325) is themost ancient of those collections, the king himself being considered bythe Portuguese as the earliest poet. In fact, Galician poetry, modeledafter the Provençal, was cultivated at that time all along the westernportion of the Pyrenean peninsula. Alfonso the Wise, King of Castile, usedthis dialect in his poems; and as a poet and patron of the Spanishtroubadours, he may be considered as belonging both to the Spanish andPortuguese literatures. 

In the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century, Portuguesepoetry preserved its Provençal character. The poets rallied around thecourt, and the kings and princes of the age sang to the Provençal lyreboth in the Castilian and the Galician dialects; but only a few fragmentsof the poetry of the fourteenth century are extant. 

3. POETS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. --Early in the fifteenth century, thesame chivalrous spirit which had achieved the conquest of the country fromthe Moors, led the Portuguese to cross the Straits of Gibraltar, and planttheir banner on the walls of Ceuta. Many other cities of Africa wereafterwards taken; and in 1487, Bartolomeo Diaz doubled the Cape of GoodHope, and Vasco da Gama pointed out to Europe the hitherto unknown trackto India. Within fifteen years after, a Portuguese kingdom was founded inHindostan, and the treasures of the East flowed into Portugal. Theenthusiasm of the people was thus awakened, and high views of nationalimportance, and high hopes of national glory, arose in the public mind. The time was peculiarly favorable to the development of genius, andespecially to the spirit of poetry. Indeed, the last part of the fifteenthcentury, and the beginning of the sixteenth, the age of King John (1481-1495), and of Emanuel (1495-1521), may be called the golden age of thePortuguese poetry. 

At the head of the poetical school of the fifteenth century, standsMacias, surnamed the Enamored (fl. 1420). He was distinguished as a heroin the wars against the Moors of Granada, and as a poet in the retinue ofthe Marquis of Villena. He became attached to a lady of the same princelyhousehold, who was forced to marry another. Macias continuing to expresshis love, though prohibited by the marquis from doing so, was thrown intoprison; but even there, he still poured forth his songs on his ill-fatedlove, regarding the hardships of captivity as light, in comparison withthe pangs of absence from his mistress. The husband of the lady, stungwith jealousy, recognizing Macias through the bars of his prison, tookdeadly aim at him with his javelin, and killed him on the spot. The weaponwas suspended over the poet's tomb, in the Church of St. Catherine, withthe inscription, "Here lies Macias the Enamored. "

The death of Macias produced such a sensation as could only belong to animaginative age. All those who desired to be thought cultivated mournedhis fate. His few poems of moderate merit became generally known andadmired, and his melancholy history continued to be the theme of songs andballads, until, in the poetry of Lope de Vega and Calderon, the name ofMacias passed into a proverb, and became synonymous with the highest andtenderest love. 

Ribeyro (1495-1521), one of the earliest and best poets of Portugal, wasattached to the court of King Emanuel. Here he indulged a passion for oneof the ladies of the court, which gave rise to some of his most exquisiteeffusions. It is supposed that the lady, whose name he studiouslyconceals, was the Infanta Beatrice, the king's own daughter. He was sowholly devoted to the object of his love, that he is said to have passedwhole nights wandering in the woods, or beside the banks of a solitarystream, pouring forth the tale of his woes in strains of mingledtenderness and despair. The most celebrated productions of Ribeyro areeclogues. The scene is invariably laid in his own country; his shepherdsare all Portuguese, and his peasant girls have Christian names. But underthe disguise of fictitious characters, he evidently sought to place beforethe eyes of his beloved mistress the feelings of his own breast; and thewretchedness of an impassioned lover is always his favorite theme. 

The bucolic poets of Portugal may be regarded as the earliest in Europe, and their favorite creed, that pastoral life was the poetical model ofhuman life, and the ideal point from which every sentiment and passionought to be viewed, was first represented by Ribeyro. This idea threw anair of romantic sweetness and elegance over the poetry of the sixteenthcentury, but at the same time it gave to it a monotonous tone and an airof tedious affectation. 

4. INTRODUCTION OF THE ITALIAN STYLE. --The poet who first introduced theItalian style into Portuguese poetry was so successful in seizing thedelicate tone by which the blending of the two was to be effected that theinnovation was accomplished without a struggle. Saa de Miranda (1495-1558)was one of the most pleasing and accomplished men of his age. He traveledextensively, and on his return was attached to the court of Lisbon. It isrelated of him that he would often sit silent and abstracted in company, and that tears, of which no one knew the cause, would flow from his eyes, while he seemed unconscious of the circumstance, and indifferent to theobservation he was thus attracting. These emotions were of courseattributed to poetic thought and romantic attachments. He insisted onmarrying a lady who was neither young nor handsome, and whom he had neverseen, having been captivated by her reputation for amiability anddiscretion. He became so attached to her, that when she died he renouncedall his previous pursuits and purposes in life, remained inconsolable, andsoon followed her to the grave. Miranda is chiefly celebrated for hislyric and pastoral poetry. 

Montemayor was a contemporary of Miranda, and a native of Portugal, but hedeclined holding any literary position in his own country. The pastoralromance of "Diana, " written in the Castilian language, is his mostcelebrated work. It was received with great favor, and extensivelyimitated. With many faults, it possesses a high degree of poetic merit, and is entitled to the esteem of all ages. 

Ferreira (1528-1569) has been called the Horace of Portugal. His works arecorrect and elegant, but they are wanting in those higher efforts ofgenius which strike the imagination and fire the spirit. The glory, advancement, and civilization of his country were his darling themes, andit was this enthusiasm of patriotism that made him great. In his tragedyof Inez de Castro, Ferreira raised himself far above his Italiancontemporaries. Many similar writers shed a lustre on this, the brightestand indeed the only brilliant period of Portuguese literature; but theyare all more remarkable for taste and elegance than for richness ofinvention. 

5. EPIC POETRY. --The chief and only boast of his country, the sole poetwhose celebrity has extended beyond the peninsula, and whose name appearsin the list of those who have conferred honor upon Europe, is Luis deCamoëns (1524-1579). He was descended from a noble, but by no means awealthy family. After having completed his studies at the university, heconceived a passion for a lady of the court, so violent that for some timehe renounced all literary and worldly pursuits. He entered the militaryservice, and in an engagement before Ceuta, in which he greatlydistinguished himself, he lost an eye. Neglected and contemned by hiscountry, he embarked for the East Indies. After various vicissitudesthere, he wrote a bitter satire on the government, which occasioned hisbanishment to the island of Macao, where he remained for five years, andwhere he completed the great work which was to hand down his name toposterity. There is still to be seen, on the most elevated point of theisthmus which unites the town of Macao to the Chinese continent, a sort ofnatural gallery formed out of the rocks, apparently almost suspended inthe air, and commanding a magnificent prospect over both seas, and thelofty chain of mountains which rises above their shores. Here he is saidto have invoked the genius of the epic muse, and tradition has conferredon this retreat the name of the Grotto of Camoëns. 

On his return to Goa, Camoëns was shipwrecked, and of all his littleproperty, he succeeded only in saving the manuscript of the Lusiad, whichhe bore in one hand above the water, while swimming to the shore. Soonafter reaching Goa, he was thrown into prison upon some unjust accusation, and suffered for a long time to linger there. At length released, he tookpassage for his native country, which he reached after an absence ofsixteen years. Portugal was at this time ravaged by the plague, and in theuniversal sorrow and alarm, the poet and his great work were alikeneglected. The king at length consented to accept the dedication of thispoem, and made to the author the wretched return of a pension, amountingto about twenty-five dollars. Camoëns was not unfrequently in actual wantof bread, for which he was in part indebted to a black servant who hadaccompanied him from India, and who was in the habit of stealing out atnight to beg in the streets for what might support his master during thefollowing day. But more aggravated evils were in store for the unfortunatepoet. The young king perished in the disastrous expedition againstMorocco, and with him expired the royal house of Portugal. Theindependence of the nation was lost, her glory eclipsed, and the futurepregnant with calamity and disgrace. Camoëns, who had so nobly supportedhis own misfortunes, sank under those of his country. He was seized with aviolent fever, and expired in a public hospital without having a shroud tocover his remains. 

The poem on which the reputation of Camoëns depends, is entitled "OsLusiadas;" that is, the Lusitanians (or Portuguese), and its design is topresent a poetic and epic grouping of all the great and interesting eventsin the annals of Portugal. The discovery of the passage to India, the mostbrilliant point in Portuguese history, was selected as the groundwork ofthe epic unity of the poem. But with this, and the Portuguese conquests inIndia, the author combined all the illustrious actions performed by hiscountrymen in other quarters of the world, and whatever of splendid andheroic achievement history or tradition could supply. Vasco da Gama hasbeen represented as the hero of the work, and those portions notimmediately connected with his expedition, as episodes. But there is, intruth, no other leading subject than the country, and no episodes exceptsuch parts as are not immediately connected with her glory. Camoëns wasfamiliar with the works of his Italian contemporaries, but thecircumstance that essentially distinguishes him from them, and which formsthe everlasting monument of his own and his country's glory, is thenational love and pride breathing through the whole work. His patrioticspirit, devoting a whole life to raise a monument worthy of his country, seems never to have indulged a thought which was not true to the glory ofan ungrateful nation. 

The Greek mythology forms the epic machinery of the Lusiad. Vasco da Gama, having doubled the Cape of Good Hope, is steering along the western coastof Africa, when the gods assemble on Mount Olympus to deliberate on thefate of India. Venus and Bacchus form two parties; the former in favor, the latter opposed to the Portuguese. The poet thus gratified his nationalpride, as Portugal was eminently the land of love, and moderation in theuse of wine was one of its highest virtues. Bacchus lays many snares toentrap and ruin the adventurers, who are warned and protected by Venus. Hevisits the palace of the gods of the sea, who consent to let loose theWinds and Waves upon the daring adventurers, but she summons her nymphs, and adorning themselves with garlands of the sweetest flowers, they subduethe boisterous Winds, who, charmed by the blandishments of love, becomecalm. Vasco is hospitably received by the African king of Melinda, to whomhe relates the most interesting parts of the history of his nativecountry. On the homeward voyage, Venus prepares a magic festival for theadventurers, on an enchanted island, and the goddess Thetis becomes thebride of the admiral. Here the poet finds the opportunity to complete thenarrative of his country's history, and a prophetic nymph is broughtforward to describe the future achievements of the nation from that periodto the time of Camoëns. 

The Lusiad is one of the noblest monuments ever raised to the nationalglory of any people, and it is difficult to conceive how so grand andbeautiful a whole could be formed on a plan so trivial and irregular. Theplan has been compared to a scaffolding surrounded and concealed by amajestic building, serving to connect its parts, but having no share inproducing the unity of the effect. One of the most affecting and beautifulof all the passages of the Lusiad, is the narrative of the tragical fateof Iñez de Castro, who, after her death, was proclaimed queen of Portugal, upon the accession of her lover to the throne. 

In the poems of Camoëns we find examples of every species of compositionpracticed in his age and country. Some of them bear the impress of hispersonal character, and of his sad and agitated career. A wild tone ofsorrow runs through them, which strikes the ear like wailings heardthrough the gloom of midnight and darkness. We know not by what calamitythey were called forth, but it is the voice of grief, and it awakens ananswering throb within the breast. 

6. DRAMATIC POETRY. --The drama is quite a barren field in Portugueseliterature. The stage of Lisbon has been occupied almost exclusively bythe Italian opera and Spanish comedy. Only one poet of any name haswritten in the Portuguese spirit. This was Gil Vicente (1490-1556). Heresided constantly at the court, and was employed in providing occasionalpieces for its civil and religious festivities. It is probable that he wasan actor, and it is certain that he educated for the stage his daughter, Paula, who was equally celebrated as an actress, a poetess, and amusician. The dramas of Vicente consist of autos, comedies, tragi-comedies, and farces. The autos, or religious pieces, were written chieflyto furnish entertainment for the court on Christmas night. The shepherdshad naturally an important part assigned to them, and the whole waspervaded by the pastoral feeling which distinguishes them remarkably fromthe Spanish autos. But the best productions of this author are his farces, which approach much nearer to the style of true comedy than the playspublished under that name. 

Saa de Miranda, desirous of conferring on his country a classical theatre, produced two erudite comedies, but he was born a pastoral poet, and madehimself a dramatist only by imitation. Ferreira belonged to the sameschool, and the favor bestowed by the court on the dramas of these twopoets, was one obstacle to the formation of a national drama. Another was, the pertinacious attachment of the Portuguese to pastoral poetry, andnothing could be more contrary to dramatic life than the languor, sentimentality, and monotony peculiar to the eclogue. 

7. PROSE WRITING. --After Camoëns, Saa de Miranda, and Ferreira, thelanguage and the literature of Portugal are indebted to no other writer somuch as to Rodriguez Lobo (b. 1558). The history of Portuguese eloquencemay be said to commence with him, for he laid so good a foundation for thecultivation of a pure prose style that, in every effort to obtain classicperfection, subsequent writers have merely followed in his steps. Hisverse is nowise inferior to his prose. Among his poetic works appears awhole series of historic romances, written by way of ridiculing thatspecies of composition. 

Lobo stood alone, in the sixteenth century, in his efforts to improve theprose of his country. Gongorism had, meanwhile, introduced bombast andmetaphorical obscurity, and no writer of eminence arose to attempt a morenatural style, till the end of the seventeenth century. 

Foremost among those who undertook to relate the history of their country, especially of her oriental discoveries, and who communicated to theirrecords an ardent patriotic feeling, is Barros (1496-1571); he took Livyfor his model, and his labors are worthy of honorable notice. India wasthe favorite topic of Portuguese historians; and several similar works, but inferior to that of Barros, appeared in the same age. Bernardo deBrito (d. 1617) undertook the task of compiling a history of Portugal. Hisnarration begins with the creation of the world, and breaks off where thehistory of modern Portugal commences. It is eminently distinguished forstyle and descriptive talent. The biography of Juan de Castro, written byJacinto de Andrade, is considered as a masterpiece of the Portugueseprose. 

The conquered Indians found an eloquent defender in Veira (1608-1697), aCatholic missionary, who spent a great part of his life in the deserts ofSouth America, and wrote catechisms in different languages for the use ofthe natives. Having returned to the court of John IV. , he undertook todefend the natural rights of Indians against the rapacity of theconquerors. He undertook also the defense of the Jews in his nativecountry, and showed so much interest in their cause that he was twicebrought before the Inquisition. His sermons and letters are models ofprose writings, full of the inspiration which springs from the boldness ofhis subjects. 

8. PORTUGUESE LITERATURE IN THE SEVENTEENTH, EIGHTEENTH, AND NINETEENTHCENTURIES. --Portuguese literature during the seventeenth century wouldpresent an utter blank, but for the few literary productions to which wehave alluded. Previous to that time, patriotic valor and romanticenterprise expanded the national genius; but before it could mature, thedespotism of the monarchy, the horrors of the Inquisition, and theinfluence of wealth and luxury, had done their work of destruction, andthe prostrate nation had in the seventeenth century reaped the bitterfruits. The most brilliant period of Portuguese poetry had passed away, and no new era commenced. The flame of patriotism was extinct, Brazil wasthe only colony that remained, the spirit of national enterprise was nomore, and a general lethargy overspread the nation. Labor was reckoned adisgrace, commerce a degradation, and agriculture too fatiguing for eventhe lowest classes of the community. Both Spain and Portugal felt theparalyzing influence of their humbled position in the scale of nations, and civil and religious despotism had overthrown, in both countries, theintellectual power which had so long withstood its degrading influence. 

Thousands of sonnets, chiefly of an amorous nature, filled up theseventeenth century in Portugal, while Spain was exhausting its expiringenergies in dramas. Souza, the most eminent of the sonneteers, aloneproduced six hundred. In the first, he announces that the collection isdesigned to celebrate "the penetrating shafts of love, which were shotfrom a pair of heavenly eyes, and which, after inflicting immortal wounds, issued triumphant from the poet's breast. "

In the eighteenth century, the influence of French taste crept quietlyinto the literature as well as the manners of the Portuguese nation. Royalacademies of history and language were founded, and an academy ofsciences, which, since 1792, has exercised an influence over literarytaste, and given birth to many excellent treatises on philosophy andcriticism. 

About the year 1735, the nation seemed on the eve of possessing a drama ofits own. Antonio José, an obscure Jew, composed a number of comic operas, in the vernacular tongue, which had long been banished from the theatre ofLisbon. In spite of much coarseness, their genuine humor and familiargayety excited the greatest enthusiasm, and for ten years the theatre wascrowded with delighted audiences. But the Jew was seized and burnt, byorder of the Inquisition, at the last _auto da fé_, which took place in1745, and the theatre was closed. 

Although French literature continued to exert its influence in thebeginning of the nineteenth century, masterpieces of English literature atthat time found their way into Portugal, and excited much admiration andimitation. Manuel do Nascimento (1734-1819) is the representative of theclassic style, and his works, both in poetry and prose, are distinguishedby purity of language. Manuel de Bocage (1766-1805) is one of the mostcelebrated modern poets, and though his poems are not examples of refinedtaste or elegance of style, they evince enthusiasm and poetical fire. Among the poets of the present day, there are some who have emancipatedthemselves from the imitation of foreign models, and have attempted tocombine the earliest national elements of their literature with thecharacteristic tendencies of the present age. 

FINNISH LITERATURE. 

1. The Finnish Language and Literature: Poetry; the Kalevala; Lönnrot;Korhonen. --2. The Hungarian Language and Literature: the Age of StephenI. ; Influence of the House of Anjou; of the Reformation; of the House ofAustria; Kossuth; Josika; Eötvös; Kuthy; Szigligeti; Petöfi. 

1. THE FINNISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. --On passing northward from theIranian plateaux through Turan to the Uralian mountains, which separateEurope and Asia, we arrive at the primitive seat of the Finnish race. Driven westward by other invading tribes, it scattered through northernEurope, and established itself more particularly in Finland, where, at thepresent time, we find its principal stock. From the earliest period of thehistory of the Finns, until the middle of the twelfth century, they livedunder their own independent kings. They were then subjected by the Swedes, who established colonies upon their coasts, and introduced Christianityamong them. After having been for many centuries the theatre of Russianand Swedish wars, in the beginning of the present century Finland passedunder the dominion of Russia; yet, through these ages of foreigndomination, its inhabitants preserved their national character, andmaintained the use of their native tongue. 

The Finnish language is a branch of the Turanian family; it is writtenwith the Roman alphabet, but it has fewer sounds; it is complicated in itsdeclension and conjugation, but it has great capacity of expressingcompound ideas in one word; it is harmonious in sound, and free, yetclear, in its construction. 

The Finns at an early period had attained a high degree of civilization, and they have always been distinguished for their love of poetry, especially for the melancholy strains of the elegy. They possess a vastnumber of popular songs or ballads, which are either lyrical ormythological; they are sung by the _song-men_, to the _kantele_, a kind ofharp with five wire strings, a favorite national instrument. They havealso legends, tales, and proverbs, some of which have recently beencollected and published at Helsingfors, the capital of Finland. 

The great monument of Finnish literature is the "Kalevala, " a kind of epicpoem, which was arranged in a systematic collection, and given to theworld in 1833, by Elias Lönnrot (d. 1884). He wandered from place to placein the remote districts of Finland, living with the peasants, and takingdown from their lips the popular songs as he heard them chanted. Theimportance of this indigenous epic was at once recognized, andtranslations were made in various languages. The poem, which stronglyresembles "Hiawatha, " takes its name from the heroes of Kaleva, the landof happiness and plenty, who struggle with three others from the coldnorth and the land of death. It begins with the creation, and ends in thetriumph of the heroes of Kaleva. Max Müller says of this poem that itpossesses merits not dissimilar to those of the Iliad, and that it willclaim its place as the fifth national epic of the world, beside that ofthe "Mahabharata, " "Shah Nameh, " and "Nibelungen. " It is doubtless theproduct of different minds at different periods, having evidently receivedadditions from time to time. 

During the present century there has been considerable literary activityin Finland, and we meet with many names of poets and dramatists. Theperiodical literature is specially rich and voluminous, and valuable workson Finnish history and geography have recently appeared. Of recent poetsthe most popular is Korrhoinen, a peasant, whose productions arecharacterized by their sharp and biting sarcasm. The prose of Finland hasa religious and moral character, and is especially enriched bytranslations from Swedish literature. 

2. HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. --The language of the Magyars belongsto the Turanian family, and more particularly to the Finnish branch. TheHungarian differs from most European languages in its internal structureand external form. It is distinguished by harmony and energy of sound, richness and vigor of form, regularity of inflexion, and power ofexpression. 

Towards the close of the seventh century, the Magyars emigrated from Asiainto Europe, and for two hundred years they occupied the country betweenthe Don and Dneiper. Being at length pressed forward by other emigranttribes, they entered and established themselves in Hungary, aftersubjugating its former inhabitants. 

In the year 1000, Stephen I. Founded the kingdom of Hungary. He hadintroduced Christianity into the country, and with it a knowledge of theLatin language, which was now taught in the schools and made use of inpublic documents, while the native idiom was spoken by the people, and inpart in the assemblies of the Diet. On the accession of the House of Anjouto the throne of Hungary, in the fourteenth century, a new impulse wasgiven to the Hungarian tongue. The Bible was translated into it, and itbecame the language of the court; although the Latin was still the organof the church and state, and from the fourteenth to the close of thefifteenth century remained the literary language of the country. ThisLatin literature boasted of many distinguished writers, but so littleinfluence had they on the nation at large, that during this period itappears that many of the high officers of the kingdom could neither readnor write. 

The sixteenth century was more favorable to Hungarian literature, and thepolitical and religious movements which took place in the reign ofFerdinand I. And Maximilian II. (1527-1576) proved to be most beneficialto the intellectual development of the people. The Reformation, which wasintroduced into Hungary through Bohemia, the example of this neighboringcountry, and the close alliance which existed between the two people, exercised great influence on the public mind. The Hungarian language wasintroduced into the church, the schools, and the religious controversies, and became the vehicle of sacred and popular poetry. It was thus enrichedand polished, and acquired a degree of perfection which it retained untilthe latter part of the eighteenth century. Translations of the Bible weremultiplied; chronicles, histories, grammars, and dictionaries werepublished, and the number of schools, particularly among the Protestants, was greatly increased. 

But these brilliant prospects were soon blighted when the country cameunder the absolute dominion of Austria. In order to crush the nationaltendencies of the Magyars, the government now restored the Latin andGerman languages; and newspapers, calendars, and publications of allkinds, including many valuable works, appeared in Latin. Indeed, theinterval from 1702 to 1780 was the golden age of this literature inHungary. Maria Theresa and Joseph II. , however, by prescribing the use ofthe German language in the schools, official acts, and publictransactions, produced a reaction in favor of the national tongue, whichwas soon after taught in the schools, heard in the lecture-room, thetheatre, and popular assemblies, and became the organ of the public press. These measures, however, the good effects of which were mainly confined tothe higher classes, were gradually pursued with less zeal. It is only oflate that the literature of Hungary has assumed a popular character, andbecome a powerful engine for the advancement of political objects. 

Kossuth may be considered as the founder of a national party which is atthe head of the contemporary literature of the Magyars. Through the actionof this party and of its leader, the Hungarian Diet passed, in 1840, thecelebrated "Law of the Language, " by which the supremacy of the Hungariantongue was established, and its use prescribed in the administration andin the institutions of learning. From 1841 to 1844, Kossuth published apaper, in which the most serious and important questions of politics andeconomy were discussed in a style characterized by great elegance andsimplicity, and by a fervid eloquence, which awakened in all classes theliveliest emotions of patriotism and independence. His writings greatlyenriched the national language, and excited the emulation even of thosewho did not accept his political views. His memoirs, lately published, have been extensively translated. 

The novels of Josika (1865), modeled after those of Walter Scott, theworks of Eötvös and Kemeny after the writers of Germany, and those ofKuthy and others who have followed the French school, have greatlycontributed to enrich the literature of Hungary. The comedies and thedramas of Eötvös and Gal, and particularly those of Szigligeti, show greatprogress in the Hungarian theatre, while in the poems of Petöfi and othersis heard the harmonious yet sorrowful voice of the national muse. 

After 1849, the genius of Hungary seemed for a while buried under theruins of the nation. Many of the most eminent writers either fell in thenational struggle, or, being driven into exile, threw aside their pens indespair. But the intellectual condition of the people has of late beengreatly improved. Public education has been promoted, scholasticinstitutions have been established, and at the present time there areeloquent voices heard which testify to the presence of a vigorous lifelatent in the very heart of the country. 

Among many other writers of the present day, are Jokai (b. 1825), theauthor of various historical romances which have been extensivelytranslated, Varga, a lyric poet, and Arany, perhaps the greatest poetHungary has produced, some of whose works are worthy of the literature ofany age. 

3. THE TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. --The Turks, or Osmanlis, aredescendants of the Tartars, and their language, which is a branch of theTuranian family, is at the present day the commercial and political tonguethroughout the Levant. This language is divided into two principaldialects, the eastern and the western. The eastern, though rough andharsh, has been the vehicle of certain literary productions, of which themost important are the biographies of more than three hundred ancientpoets, written by Mir-Ali-Schir, who flourished in the middle of thefifteenth century, and who was the Maecenas of several Persian poets, particularly of Jami; several historical memoirs, and a number of ballads, founded on the traditions of the ancient Turkish tribes, belong also tothe literature of this dialect. The western idiom constitutes what is moreproperly called the Turkish language. It is euphonious in sound andregular in its grammatical forms, though poor in its vocabulary. To supplyits deficiencies, the Osmanlis have introduced many elements of the Arabicand Persian. They have also adopted the Arabic alphabet, with somealterations; and, like the Arabians, they write from right to left. 

The literature of Turkey, although it is extremely rich, contains littlethat is original or national, but is a successful imitation of Persian orArabic. Even before the capture of Constantinople works had been producedwhich the nation has not let perish. The most flourishing period wasduring the reign of Solyman the Magnificent and his son Selim in thesixteenth century. Fasli (d. 1563) was an erotic poet, who attained a highreputation; and Baki (d. 1600), a lyric poet, is ranked by the Orientalswith the Persian Hafiz. In the seventeenth century a new period ofliterature arose, though inferior to the last. Nebi was the most admiredpoet, Nefi a distinguished satirist, and Hadji Khalfa a historian ofArabic, Persian, and Turkish literature, who is the chief authority uponthis subject for the East and West. The annals of Saad-El-Din (d. 1599)are important for the student of the history of the Ottoman Empire. Thestyle of these writers, however, is for the most part bombastic, consisting of a mixture of poetry and prose overladen with figures. Novelsand tales abound in this literature, and it affords many specimens ofgeographical works, many important collections of juridical decisions, andvaluable researches on the Persian and Arabian languages. 

The press was introduced into Constantinople early in the eighteenthcentury, and has been actively engaged in publishing translations of themost important works in Persian and Arabic, as well as in the nativetongue. Societies are established for the promotion of various branches ofscience, and many scientific and literary journals are published. Thereare numerous primary free schools and high scholastic institutions inConstantinople, and some public libraries. 

4. THE ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. --The language of Armenia belongsto the Indo-European family, and particularly to the Iranian variety; butit has been greatly modified by contact with other languages, especiallythe Turkish. At present the modern dialect is spoken in southern Russiaaround the sea of Azof, in Turkey, Galicia, and Hungary. The ancientArmenian, which was spoken down to the twelfth century, is preserved inits purity in the ancient books of the people, and is still used in theirbest works. This tongue, owing to an abundance of consonants, is lackingin euphony; it is deficient in distinction of gender, though it isredundant in cases and inflexions. Its alphabet is modeled after theGreek. 

The Armenians, from the earliest period of their existence, through allthe political disasters which have signalized their history, haveexhibited a strong love for a national literature, and maintainedthemselves as a cultivated people amidst all the revolutions whichbarbarism, despotism, and war have occasioned. During so many ages theyhave faithfully preserved not only their historical traditions, reachingback to the period of the ancient Hebrew histories, but also theirnational character. Their first abode--the vicinity of Mount Ararat--iseven at the present day the centre of their religious and political union. Commerce has scattered them, like the Israelites, among all nations, butwithout debasing their character; on the contrary, they are distinguishedby superior cultivation, manners, and honesty from the barbarians underwhose yoke they live. The cause is to be found in their creed and in theirreligious union. 

Until the beginning of the fourth century A. D. The Armenians were Parsees;the literature of the country up to this period was contained in a fewsongs or ballads, and its civilization was only that which could bewrought out by the philosophy of Zoroaster. In 319, when Christianity wasintroduced into Armenia, the language and learning of the Greeks wereexciting the profound admiration of the most eminent fathers of thechurch, and this attention to Greek literature was immediately manifest inthe literary history of Armenia. A multitude of Grecian works wastranslated, commented upon, and their philosophy adopted, and theliterature was thus established upon a Grecian basis. 

About the same period, the alphabet at present in use in the Armenianlanguage was invented, or the old alphabet perfected by Mesrob, inconnection with which the language underwent many modifications. Mesrob, with his three sons, especially educated for the task, commenced thetranslation of the Bible 411 A. D. , and its completion nearly half acentury later gave a powerful impulse to Armenian learning, and at thesame time stamped upon it a religious character which it has never lost. The period from the sixth to the tenth century is the golden age of thisliterature. Its temporary decline after this period was owing to theinvasion of the Arabians, when many of the inhabitants were converted tothe Mohammedan faith and many more compelled to suffer persecution fortheir refusal to abjure Christianity. After the subjection of Armenia tothe Greek empire, literature again revived, and until the fourteenthcentury was in a flourishing condition. In 1375, when the Turks tookpossession of the country, the inhabitants were again driven from theirhomes, and from that time their literature has steadily declined. Aftertheir emigration, the Armenians established themselves in variouscountries of Europe and Asia, and amidst all the disadvantages of theirposition they still preserve not only the unity of their religious faith, but the same unwearied desire to sustain a national literature. Whereverthey have settled, in Amsterdam, Leghorn, Venice, Constantinople, andCalcutta, they have established printing presses and published valuablebooks. Of their colonies or monasteries, the most interesting and fruitfulin literary works is that of Venice, which was founded in the eighteenthcentury by Mechitar, an Armenian, and from him its monks are calledMechitarists. From the time of their establishment they have constantlyissued translations of important religious works. They now publish a semi-monthly paper in the Armenian language, which is circulated and read amongthe scattered families of the Armenian faith over the world. They alsotranslate and publish standard works of modern literature. 

About the year 1840, through the influence of American missionaries, theBible was translated into Armenian, freed as far as possible from foreignelements; school-books were also translated, newspapers established, andthe language awoke to new life. Within the last twenty years theintellectual progress in Armenia has been very great. In 1863 ChristopherRobert, an American gentleman, established and endowed a college atConstantinople for the education of pupils of all races, religions, andlanguages found in the empire. This institution, not sectarian, thoughChristian, has met with great success. It has two hundred and fiftystudents from fifteen nationalities, though chiefly Armenian, Bulgarian, and Greek. 

SLAVIC LITERATURES. 

The Slavic Race and Languages; the Eastern and Western Stems; theAlphabets; the Old or Church Slavic Language; St. Cyril's Bible; thePravda Russkaya; the Annals of Nestor. 

THE SLAVIC RACE AND LANGUAGES. --The Slavic race, which belongs to thegreat Indo-European family of nations, probably first entered Europe fromAsia, seven or eight centuries B. C. About the middle of the sixth centuryA. D. We find Slavic tribes crossing the Danube in great multitudes, andsettling on both the banks of that river; from that time they frequentlyappear in the accounts of the Byzantine historians, under differentappellations, mostly as involved in the wars of the two Roman empires;sometimes as allies, sometimes as conquerors, often as vassals, andoftener as emigrants and colonists, thrust out of their own countries bythe pressing forward of the more warlike Teutonic tribes. In the latterhalf of the eleventh century the Slavic nations were already in possessionof the whole extent of territory which they still occupy, from the ArcticOcean on the north to the Black and Adriatic seas on the south, and fromKamtschatka and the Russian islands of the Pacific to the Baltic, andalong the banks of the rivers Elbe, Muhr, and Ruab, again to the Adriatic. They are represented by early historians as having been a peaceful, industrious, hospitable people, obedient to their chiefs, and religious intheir habits. Wherever they established themselves, they began tocultivate the earth, and to trade in the productions of the country. Thereare also early traces of their fondness for music and poetry. 

The analogy between the Slavic and the Sanskrit languages indicates theOriental origin of the Slavonians, which appears also from theirmythology. The antithesis of a good and evil principle is met with amongmost of the Slavic tribes; and even at the present time, in some of theirdialects, everything good and beautiful is to them synonymous with thepurity of the white color; they call the good spirit the White God, andthe evil spirit the Black God. We find also traces of their Orientalorigin in the Slavic trinity, which is nearly allied to that of theHindus. Other features of their mythology remind us of the sprightly andpoetical imagination of the Greeks. Such is the life attributed to theinanimate objects of nature, rocks, brooks, and trees; such are also thesupernatural beings dwelling in the woods and mountains, nymphs, naiads, and satyrs. Indeed, the Slavic languages, in their construction, richness, and precision, appear nearly related to the Greek and Latin, with whichthey have a common origin. 

Following the division of the Slavic nations into the eastern and westernstems, their languages may he divided into two classes, the firstcontaining the Russian and the Servian idioms, the second embracing theBohemian and the Polish varieties. The Slavi of the Greek faith use theCyrillic alphabet, so called from St. Cyril, its inventor, a Greek monk, who went from Constantinople (862 A. D. ) to preach to them the gospel. Itis founded on the Greek, with modifications and additions from Orientalsources. The Hieronymic alphabet, particularly used by the priests ofDalmatia and Croatia, is so called from the tradition which attributes itto St. Hieronymus. The Bohemians and Poles use the Roman alphabet, with afew alterations. 

St. Cyril translated the Bible into the language called the _Old or ChurchSlavic_, and from the fact that this translation, made in the middle ofthe ninth century, is distinguished by great copiousness, and bears thestamp of uncommon perfection in its forms, it is evident that thislanguage must have been flourishing long before that time. The celebrated"Pravda Russkaya, " a collection of the laws of Jaroslav (1035 A. D. ), andthe "Annals of Nestor, " of the thirteenth century, are the most remarkablemonuments of the old Slavic language. This, however, has for centuriesceased to be a living tongue. 

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. Literature in the Reign of Peter the Great; ofAlexander; of Nicholas; Danilof, Lomonosof, Kheraskof, Derzhavin, Karamzin. --3. History, Poetry, the Drama: Kostrof, Dmitrief, Zhukoffski, Krylof, Pushkin, Lermontoff, Gogol. --4. Literature in Russia since theCrimean War: School of Nature; Turgenieff; Ultra-realistic School;Science: Mendeleéff. 

1. THE LANGUAGE. --In the Russian language three principal dialects are tobe distinguished; but the Russian proper, as it is spoken in Moscow andall the central and northern parts of European Russia, is the literarylanguage of the nation. It is distinguished by its immense copiousness, the consequence of its great flexibility in adopting foreign words, merelyas roots, from which, by means of its own resources, stems and branchesseem naturally to spring. Another excellence is the great freedom ofconstruction which it allows, without any danger of becoming ambiguous. Itis clear, euphonious, and admirably adapted to poetry. 

The germs of Russian civilization arose with the foundation of the empireby the Varegians of Scandinavia (862 A. D. ), but more particularly with theintroduction of Christianity by Vladimir the Great, who, towards the closeof the tenth century, established the first schools, introduced the Bibleof St. Cyril, called Greek artists from Constantinople, and became thepatron, and at the same time the hero of poetry. Indeed, he and hisknights are the Russian Charlemagne and his peers, and their deeds haveproved a rich source for the popular tales and songs of succeeding times. Jaroslav, the son of Vladimir, was not less active than his father inadvancing the cause of Christianity; he sent friars through the country toinstruct the people, founded theological schools, and continued thetranslation of the church books. To this age is referred the epic, "Igor'sExpedition against the Polovtzi, " discovered in the eighteenth century, awork characterized by uncommon grace, beauty, and power. 

From 1238 to 1462 A. D. The Russian princes were vassals of the Mongols, and during this time nearly every trace of cultivation perished. Theinvaders burned the cities, destroyed all written documents, anddemolished the monuments of national culture; but at length Ivan I. (1462-1505) delivered his country from the Mongols, and prepared a new era inthe history of Russian civilization. 

At this early period the first germs of dramatic art were carried fromPoland to Russia. In Kief the theological students performedecclesiastical dramas, and traveled about, during the holidays, to exhibittheir skill in other cities. The tragedies of Simeon of Polotzk (1628-1680), in the old Slavic language, penetrated from the convents to thecourt, where they were performed in the middle of the seventeenth century. At this time the first secular drama, a translation from Molière, was alsorepresented. 

2. THE LITERATURE. --Peter the Great (1689-1725) raised the Russian dialectto the dignity of a written language, introduced it into theadministration and courts of justice, and caused many books to betranslated from foreign languages. He rendered the Slavic characters moreconformable to the Latin, and these letters, then generally adopted, continue in use at the present time. Among the writers of the age of Peterthe Great may be mentioned Kirsha Danilof, who versified the populartraditions of Vladimir and his heroes; and Kantemir, a satirist, whotranslated many epistles of Horace, and the work of Fontenelle on theplurality of worlds. 

Peter the Great laid the corner-stone of a national literature, but thetemple was not reared above the ground until the reign of Elizabeth and ofCatharine II. Lomonosof (1711-1765), a peasant, born in the dreary regionsof Archangel, has the honor of being the true founder of the Russianliterature. In his Russian grammar he first laid down the principles andfixed the rules of the language; he first ventured to draw the boundaryline between the old Slavic and the Russian, and endeavored to fix therules of poetry according to the Latin standard. Among his contemporariesmay be mentioned Sumarokof (1718-1777) and Kheraskof (1733-1807), bothvery productive writers in prose and verse, and highly admired by theircontemporaries. 

In the middle of the eighteenth century the dramatic talent of theRussians was awakened, through the establishment of theatres at Jaroslav, St. Petersburg, and Moscow; and several gifted literary men employedthemselves in dramatic compositions; but of all the productions of thistime, those of Von Wisin (1745-1792) only have continued to holdpossession of the stage. 

Among the poets of the eighteenth century, Derzhavin (1743-1816) sang theglory of Catharine II. , and of the Russian arms. His "Ode to God" hasobtained the distinction of being translated into several Europeanlanguages, and also into Chinese, and hung up in the Emperor's palace, printed on white satin in golden letters. 

The reign of Alexander I. (1801-1825) opened a new era in the literature. He manifested great zeal for the mental elevation of his subjects; heincreased the number of universities, established theological seminariesand institutions for the study of oriental languages, and founded gymnasiaand numerous common schools for the people; he richly endowed the Asiaticmuseum of St. Petersburg, and for a time patronized the Russian BibleSociety, and promoted the printing of books on almost all subjects. Buttoward the close of his reign, in consequence of certain politicalmeasures, literature sank with great rapidity. 

Karamzin (1765-1826), the representative of this age, undertook to shakeoff the yoke of the classical rules established by Lomonosof, andintroduced more simplicity and naturalness. His reputation rests chieflyupon his "History of the Russian Empire, " which, with many faults, is astandard work in Slavic literature. The reign of the Emperor Nicholasopened with a bloody tragedy, which exhibited in a striking manner thedissatisfied and unhealthy spirit of the literary youth of Russia. Severalpoets and men of literary fame were among the conspirators; and to awakenpatriotism and to counteract the tendencies of the age, the governmentpromoted historical and archaeological researches, but at the same timeabolished professorships of philosophy, increased the vigilance of itscensorship of the press, lengthened the catalogue of forbidden books, andreduced the term of lawful absence for its subjects. It took the mostenergetic measures to promote national education, and to cultivate thosefields of science where no political tares could be sown. 

The leading idea of the time was Panslavism, the object of which was theunion of the Slavic race, an opposition to all foreign domination, and theattainment of a higher intellectual and political condition in the generalmarch of mankind. Panslavism rose to a special branch of literature, andits principal writers were Kollar, Grabowski, and Gurowski. 

3. HISTORY, POETRY, THE DRAMA. --History is a department of letters whichhas been treated very successfully in Russia; critical researches havebeen extended to all branches of archaeology, philology, mythology, andkindred subjects, and valuable works have been produced. 

Dmitrief (1760-1827) combined in his poems imagination, taste, correctness, and purity of language. Zhukoffski (b. 1785) a poet of deepfeeling, took his models from the Germans. 

The fables of Krylof (b. 1768) are equally celebrated among all classesand ages, and are among the first books read by Russian children. 

Above all the others, Pushkin (1799-1835) must be considered as therepresentative of Russian poetry in the nineteenth century. He was in theservice of the government, when an ode "to Liberty, " written in too bold aspirit, induced Alexander I. To banish him from St. Petersburg. TheEmperor Nicholas recalled him, and became his patron. Though by no means amere imitator, his poetry bears strong marks of the influence of Byron. 

Lermontoff (d. 1841) was a poet and novelist whose writings, like those ofPushkin, were strongly influenced by Byron. Koltsoff (d. 1842) is thefirst song writer of Russia, and his favorite theme is the joys andsorrows of the people. Through the influence of Pushkin and Gogol (d. 1852), Russian literature became emancipated from the classic rule andbegan to develop original tendencies. Gogol in his writings manifests adeep sentiment of patriotism, a strong love of nature, and a fine sense ofhumor. 

The Russians have few ballads of great antiquity, and these rarely haveany reference to the subjects of the heroic prose tales which are thedelight of Russian nurseries, the favorite subjects of which are thetraditions of Vladimir and his giant heroes, which doubtless once existedin the form of ballads. The Russians have ever been a _singing_ race. Every festival day and every extraordinary event has its accompanyingsong. Though these songs have been modernized in language and form, thatthey date from the age of paganism is evident from their frequentinvocations of heathen deities and allusions to heathen customs. Allied tothese songs are the various ditties which the peasant girls and lads singon certain occasions, consisting of endless repetitions of words orsyllables; yet through this melodious tissue, apparently without meaning, sparks of real poetry often shine. 

The Russian songs, like the language, have a peculiar tenderness, and arefull of caressing epithets, which are often applied even to inanimateobjects. Russian lovers are quite inexhaustible in their endearingexpressions, and the abundance of diminutives which the language possessesis especially favorable to their affectionate mode of address. With thisexquisite tenderness of the love-song is united a pensive feeling, which, indeed, pervades the whole popular poetry of Russia, and which may becharacterized as _melancholy musical_, and in harmony with the Russiannational music, the expressive sweetness of which has been the admirationof all foreign composers to whom it has been known. 

In the rich and fertile steppes of the Ukraine, where every forest treeseems to harbor a singer, and every blade of grass on the boundless plainsseems to whisper the echo of a song, this pensive character of Russianpoetry deepens into a melancholy that finds expression in a variety ofsweet elegiac melodies. A German writer says of them, "they are thesorrows of whole centuries blended in one everlasting sigh. " The spirit ofthe past indeed breathes through their mournful strains. The cradle of theKozak was rocked to the music of clashing swords, and for centuries thecountry, on both banks of the Dnieper to the northwestern branch of theCarpathian Mountains, the seat of this race, was the theatre of constantwarfare. Their narrative ballads, therefore, have few other subjects thanthe feuds with the Poles and Tartars, the Kozak's parting with his belovedone, his lonely death on the border or on the bloody field of battle. 

These ballads have sometimes a spirit and boldness which presents noblerelief to the habitual melancholy of this poetry in general. Professionalsingers, with a kind of guitar in their hand, wander through the country, sure to find a willing audience in whatever village they may stop. Theirballads are not confined to the scenes of their early history, but findsubjects in the later wars with the Turks and Tartars, and in thecampaigns of more modern times; they illustrate the warlike spirit, aswell as the domestic relations of the Kozaks, and their skill innarrative, as well as their power of expressing in lyric strains theunsophisticated emotions of a tender heart. 

The poets of the present age exercise little or no influence on a societydistracted and absorbed by the political questions of the day. 

Although the history of Russia is rich in dramatic episodes, it has failedto inspire any native dramatist. Count Tolstoi has been one of the mostsuccessful writers in this line, but, with great merits, he has the faultcommon to the Russian drama in general, that of great attention to thestudy of the chief character, to the neglect of other points whichcontribute to secure interest. 

4. LITERATURE IN RUSSIA SINCE THE CRIMEAN WAR. --After the Crimean War, in1854, the Russian government took the initiative in an onward movement, and by the abolition of serfdom the country awoke to new life. Inliterature this showed itself in the rise of a new school, that of Nature, in which Turgenieff (1818-1883) is the most prominent figure, a placewhich he still holds in contemporary Russian literature. The publicationof his "Diary of a Sportsman" first made the nobility of Russia aware thatthe serf was a man capable of feeling and suffering, and not a brute to bebought and sold with the soil, and this work was not without its effect incausing the emancipation. No writer has studied so faithfully andprofoundly the Russian peasant and better understood the moral needs ofthe time and the great questions which agitate it. 

Within the last twenty years the new theory of Nihilism has begun to findexpression in literature, particularly in fiction. Rejecting all authorityin religion, politics, science, and art, this school is the reaction fromlong ages of oppression. The school of nature lent itself to this newmovement until at last it reached the pessimistic standpoint ofSchopenhauer. 

Of late, the ultra-realistic school has appeared in Russia, the writers ofwhich devote themselves to the study of a low realism in its mostrepulsive aspects. While it boasts of not idealizing the peasant, likeTurgenieff and others, it presents him in an aspect to excite onlyaversion. Art being thus excluded, and the school having neitherauthority, principle, nor object, whatever influence it may have cannotbut be pernicious. 

SCIENCE. --In mathematics and in all the natural sciences Russia keeps pacewith the most advanced European nations. In chemistry Mendeleéffformulated the theory relating to atoms and their chemical properties andrelations, not then discovered to be the law by which they were governed, as later experiments proved. 

THE SERVIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

The Servian alphabet was first fixed and the language reduced to certaingeneral rules only within the present century. The language extends, withsome slight variations of dialect, and various systems of writing, overthe Turkish and Austrian provinces of Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Dalmatia, and the eastern part of Croatia. The southernsky, and the beauties of natural scenery that abound in all these regions, so favorable to the development of poetical genius, appear also to haveexerted a happy influence on the language. While it yields to none of theother Slavic dialects in richness, clearness, and precision, it farsurpasses them all in euphony. 

The most interesting feature of the literature of these countries is theirpopular poetry. This branch of literature still survives among the Slavicrace, particularly the Servians and Dalmatians, in its beauty andluxuriance, while it is almost extinct in other nations. Much of thispoetry is of unknown antiquity, and has been handed down by tradition fromgeneration to generation. From the gray ages of paganism it reaches uslike the chimes of distant bells, unconnected, and half lost in the air. It often manifests the strong, deep-rooted superstitions of the Slavicrace, and is full of dreams, omens, and forebodings; witchcraft, and acertain Oriental fatalism, seeming to direct will and destiny. Love andheroism form the subject of all Slavic poetry, which is distinguished forthe purity of manners it evinces. Wild passions or complicated actions areseldom represented, but rather the quiet scenes of domestic grief and joy. The peculiar relation of brother and sister, particularly among theServians, often forms an interesting feature of the popular songs. To haveno brother is a misfortune, almost a disgrace, and the cuckoo, theconstant image of a mourning woman in Servian poetry, was, according tothe legend, a sister who had lost her brother. 

This poetry was first collected by Vuk Stephanovitch Karadshitch (b. 1786), a Turkish Servian, the author of the first Oriental Servian grammarand dictionary, who gathered the songs from the lips of the peasantry. Hiswork, published at Vienna in 1815, has been made known to the worldthrough a translation into German by the distinguished authoress of the"Languages and Literature of the Slavic Nations, " from which this briefsketch has been made. Nearly one third of these songs consist of epictales several hundred verses in length. The lyric songs compare favorablywith those of other nations, but the long epic extemporized compositions, by which the peasant bard, in the circle of other peasants, inunpremeditated but regular and harmonious verse, celebrates the heroicdeeds of their ancestors or contemporaries, have no parallel in the wholehistory of literature since the days of Homer. 

The poetry of the Servians is intimately interwoven with their daily life. The hall where the women sit spinning around the fireside, the mountain onwhich the boys pasture their flocks, the square where the village youthassemble to dance, the plains where the harvest is reaped, and the foreststhrough which the lonely traveler journeys, all resound with song. Shortcompositions, sung without accompaniment, are mostly composed by women, and are called female songs; they relate to domestic life, and aredistinguished by cheerfulness, and often by a spirit of graceful roguery. The feeling expressed in the Servian love-songs is gentle, often playful, indicating more of tenderness than of passion. In their heroic poems theServians stand quite isolated; no modern nation can be compared to them inepic productiveness, and the recent publication of these poems throws newlight on the grand compositions of the ancients. The general character ofthese Servian tales is objective and plastic; the poet is, in most cases, in a remarkable degree _above_ his subject; he paints his pictures, not inglowing colors, but in prominent features, and no explanation is necessaryto interpret what the reader thinks he sees with his own eyes. The numberand variety of the Servian heroic poems is immense, and many of them, until recently preserved only by tradition, cannot be supposed to haveretained their original form; they are frequently interwoven with a beliefin certain fanciful creatures of pagan superstition, which exercise aconstant influence on human affairs. The poems are often recited, but mostfrequently sung to the music of a rude kind of guitar. The bard chants twolines, then he pauses and gives a few plaintive strokes on his instrument;then he chants again, and so on. While in Slavic poetry generally themusical element is prominent, in the Servian it is completely subordinate. Even the lyric poetry is in a high degree monotonous, and is chantedrather than sung. 

Goethe, Grimm, and "Talvi" drew attention to these songs, manytranslations of which were published in Germany, and Bowring, Lytton, andothers have made them known in England. 

At present there is much intellectual activity among the Servians invarious departments of literature, tragedy, comedy, satire, and fiction, but the names of the writers are new to Europeans, and not easilyremembered. 

THE BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

John Huss, Jerome of Prague, Tycho Brahe, Kepler, Comenius, and others. 

The Bohemian is one of the principal Slavic languages. It is spoken inBohemia and in Moravia, and is used by the Slovaks of Hungary in theirliterary productions. Of all the modern Slavic dialects, the Bohemian wasthe first cultivated; it early adopted the Latin characters, and wasdeveloped under the influence of the German language. In its freeconstruction, the Bohemian approaches the Latin, and is capable ofimitating the Greek in all its lighter shades. 

The first written documents of the Bohemians are not older than theintroduction of Christianity into their country; but there exists acollection of national songs celebrating battles and victories, whichprobably belongs to the eighth or ninth century. During the eleventh andtwelfth centuries the influence of German customs and habits is apparentin Bohemian literature; and in the thirteenth and fourteenth thisinfluence increased, and was manifest in the lyric poetry, which echoedthe lays of the German Minnesingers. Of these popular songs, however, veryfew are left. 

In 1348 the first Slavic university was founded in Prague, on the plan ofthose of Paris and Bologna, by the Emperor Charles IV. , who united thecrowns of Germany and Bohemia. The influence of this institution was felt, not merely in the two countries, but throughout Europe. 

The name of John Huss (1373-1415) stands at the head of a new period inBohemian literature. He was professor at the university of Prague, andearly became acquainted with the writings of Wickliffe, whose doctrines hedefended in his lectures and sermons. The care and attention he bestowedon his compositions exerted a decided and lasting influence on thelanguage. The old Bohemian alphabet he arranged anew, and first settledthe Bohemian orthography according to fixed principles. Summoned to appearbefore the council of Constance to answer to the charges of heresy, heobeyed the call under a safe-conduct from the Emperor Sigismund. But hewas soon arrested by order of the council, condemned, and burned alive. 

Among the coadjutors of Huss was Jerome of Prague, a professor in the sameuniversity, who in his erudition and eloquence surpassed his friend, whosedoctrinal views he adopted, but he had not the mildness of disposition northe moderation of conduct which distinguished Huss. He wrote several worksfor the instruction of the people, and translated some of the writings ofWickliffe into the Bohemian language. On hearing of the dangeroussituation of his friend he hastened to Constance to assist and supporthim. He, too, was arrested, and even terrified into temporary submission;but at the next audience of the council he reaffirmed his faith, anddeclared that of all his sins he repented of none more than his apostasyfrom the doctrines he had maintained. In consequence of this avowal he wascondemned to the same fate as his friend. 

These illustrious martyrs were, with the exception of Wickliffe, the firstadvocates of truth a century before the Reformation. Since then, in nolanguage has the Bible been studied with more zeal and devotion than inthe Bohemian. The long contest for freedom of conscience which desolatedthe country until the extinction of the nation is one of the greattragedies of human history. 

The period from 1520 to 1620 is considered the golden age of Bohemianliterature. Nearly two hundred writers distinguished the reign of RudolphI. (1526-1611), and among them were many ladies and gentlemen of thecourt, of which Tycho Brahe, Kepler, and other scientific men, fromforeign countries, were the chief ornaments. Numerous historical workswere published, theology was cultivated with talent and zeal, theeloquence of the pulpit and the bar acquired a high degree of cultivation, and in religious hymns all sects were equally productive. 

The triumph of the Catholic party, which followed the battle of the WhiteMountain, near Prague (1620), gave a fatal blow to Bohemia. The leadingmen of the country were executed, exiled, or imprisoned; the Protestantreligion was abolished, and the country was declared a hereditary Catholicmonarchy. The Bohemian language ceased to be used in public transactions;and every book written in it was condemned to the flames as necessarilyheretical. Great numbers of monks came from southern Europe, and seizedwhatever native books they could find; and this destruction continued togo on until the close of the last century. 

Among the Bohemian emigrants who continued to write in their foreignhomes, Comenius (1592-1691) surpassed all others. When the greatpersecution of the Protestants broke out he fled to Poland, and in hisexile he published several works in Latin and in Bohemian, distinguishedfor the classical perfection of their style. 

In the latter part of the eighteenth century the efforts to introduce intoBohemia the German as the official language of the country awoke thenational feeling of the people, and produced a strong reaction in favor oftheir native tongue. When the tolerant views of Joseph II. Were known, more than a hundred thousand Protestants returned to their country; bookslong hidden were brought to light, and many works were reprinted. Duringthe reign of his two successors, the Bohemians received still moreencouragement; the use of the language was ordained in all the schools, and a knowledge of it was made a necessary qualification for office. Amongthe writers who exerted a favorable influence in this movement may bementioned Kramerius (1753-1808), the editor of the first Bohemiannewspaper, and the author of many original works; Dobrovsky (1753-1829), the patriarch of modern Slavic literature, and one of the profoundestscholars of the age; and Kollar (b. 1763), the leading poet of moderntimes in the Bohemian language. Schaffarik (b. 1795), a Slovak, is theauthor of a "History of the Slavic Language and Literature, " in German, which has, perhaps, contributed more than any other work to a knowledge ofSlavic literature. Palacky, a Moravian by birth, was the faithful fellow-laborer of Schaffarik; his most important work is a "History of Bohemia. "

Since 1848 there has arisen a school of poets whose writings are more inaccordance with those of the western nations. Among them are Hálek (d. 1874) and Cech, the most celebrated of living Bohemian poets. CarolineSoêtla (b. 1830) is the originator of the modern Bohemian novel. Since1879 many poems have appeared, epic in their character, taking theirmaterials both from the past and the present. In various branches ofliterature able writers are found, too numerous even to name. 

THE POLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 

Rey, Bielski, Copernicus, Czartoryski, Niemcewicz, Mickiewicz, and others. 

The Polish language is the only existing representative of that variety ofidioms originally spoken by the Slavic tribes, which, under the name ofLekhes, in the sixth or seventh century, settled on the banks of theVistula and Varta. Although very little is known of the progress of thelanguage into its present state, it is sufficiently obvious that it hasdeveloped from the conflict of its natural elements with the Latin andGerman idioms. Of the other Slavic dialects, the Bohemian is the only onewhich has exerted any influence upon this tongue. The Polish language isrefined and artificial in its grammatical structure, rich in its words andphrases, and, like the Bohemian, capable of faithfully imitating therefinements of the classical languages. It has a great variety and nicetyof shades in the pronunciation of the vowels, and such combinations ofconsonants as can only be conquered by a Slavic tongue. 

The literary history of Poland begins, like that of Bohemia, at the epochof the introduction of Christianity. In the year 965, Miecislav, Duke ofPoland, married the Bohemian princess Dombrovka, who consented to themarriage on the condition of the duke becoming a convert to Christianity;and from that time the Polish princes, and the greater part of the nation, adopted the new faith. The clergy in those early ages in Poland, as wellas elsewhere, were the depositaries of mental light; and the Benedictinemonks who, with others, had been invited to the converted country, foundedconvents, to which they early attached schools. Their example wasfollowed, at a later period, by other orders, and for several centuriesthe natives were excluded from all clerical dignities and privileges, andthe education of the country was directed by foreign monks. They burnedthe few writings which they found in the vernacular tongue, and excitedunnatural prejudices against it. From the ninth to the sixteenth centuryPolish literature was almost entirely confined to the translation of apart of the Bible and a few chronicles written in Latin. Among these mustbe noticed the chronicle of Martin Gallus (d. 1132), an emigrantFrenchman, who is considered as the oldest historian of Poland. 

Casimir (1333-1370) was one of the few princes who acquired the name ofthe Great, not by conquests, but by the substantial benefits of laws, courts of justice, and means of education, which he procured for hissubjects. In his reign was formed the first code of laws, known by thename of "Statute of Wislica, " a part of which is written in the Polishlanguage; and he laid the foundation of the university of Cracow (1347), which, however, was only organized half a century later. Hedevig, thegranddaughter of Casimir, married Jagello of Lithuania, and under theirdescendants, who reigned nearly two centuries, Poland rose to the summitof power and glory. With Sigismund I. (1505-1542), and Sigismund Augustus(1542-1613), a new period of Polish literature begins. The university ofCracow had been organized in 1400, on the model of that of Prague, andthis opened a door for the doctrines, first of the Bohemian, then of theGerman reformers. The wild flame of superstition which kindled the fagotsfor the disciples of the new doctrines in Poland was extinguished bySigismund I. And Sigismund II. , in whom the Reformation found a decidedsupport. Under their administration Poland was the seat of a tolerationthen unequaled in the world; the Polish language became more used inliterary productions, and was fixed as the medium through which laws anddecrees were promulgated. 

Rey of Naglowic (1515-1569), who lived at the courts of the Sigismunds, iscalled the father of Polish poetry. Most of his productions are of areligious nature, and bear the stamp of a truly poetical talent. JohnKochanowski (1530-1584) published a translation of the Psalms, which isstill considered as a classical work. His other poems, in which Pindar, Anacreon, and Horace were alternately his models, are distinguished fortheir conciseness and terseness of style. Rybinski (fl. 1581) and SimonSzymonowicz (d. 1629), the former as a lyric poet, the latter as a writerof idyls, maintain a high rank. 

The Poles possess all the necessary qualities for oratory, and thesixteenth century was eminent for forensic and pulpit eloquence. Historywas cultivated with much zeal, but mostly in the Latin language. MartinBielski (1500-1576) was the author of the "Chronicle of Poland, " the firsthistorical work in Polish. Scientific works were mostly written in Latin, the cultivation of which, in Poland, has ever kept pace with the study ofthe vernacular tongue. Indeed, the most eminent writers and orators of thesixteenth century, who made use of the Polish language, managed the Latinwith equal skill and dexterity, and in common conversation both Latin andPolish were used. 

Among the scientific writers of Latin is the astronomer Copernicus (1473-1543). He early went to Italy, and was appointed professor of mathematicsat Rome. He at length returned to Poland, and devoted himself to the studyof astronomy. Having spent twenty years in observations and calculations, he brought his scheme to perfection, and established the theory of theuniverse which is now everywhere received. 

The interval between 1622 and 1760 marks a period of a general decadencein Polish literature. The perversion of taste which, at the beginning ofthat age, reigned in Italy, and thence spread over Europe, reached Poland;and for nearly a hundred and fifty years the country, under the influenceof the Jesuits, was the victim of a stifling intolerance, and of a generalmental paralysis. But in the reign of Stanislaus Augustus (1762-1795), Poland began to revive, and the national literature received a newimpulse. Though the French language and manners prevailed, and thebombastic school of Marini was only supplanted by that of the cold andformal poets of France, the cultivation of the Polish language was notneglected; a periodical work, to which the ablest men of the countrycontributed, was published, public instruction was made one of the greatconcerns of the government, and the power of the Jesuits was destroyed. 

The dissolution of the kingdom which soon followed, its partition andamalgamation with foreign nations, kindled anew the patriotic spirit ofthe Poles, who devoted themselves with more zeal than ever to thecultivation of their native language, the sole tie which still binds themtogether. The following are the principal representatives of this period:Stephen Konarski (1700-1773), a writer on politics and education, whodevoted himself entirely to the literary and mental reform of his country;Zaluski (1724-1786), known more especially as the founder of a largelibrary, which, at the dismemberment of Poland, was transferred to St. Petersburg; and, above all, Adam Czartoryski (1731-1823), and the twobrothers Potocki, distinguished as statesmen, orators, writers, andpatrons of literature and art. At the head of the historical writers ofthe eighteenth century stands Naruszewicz (1753-1796), whose history ofPoland is considered as a standard work. In respect to erudition, philosophical conception, and purity of style, it is a masterpiece ofPolish literature. Krasicki (1739-1802), the most distinguished poet underStanislaus Augustus, was called the Polish Voltaire. His poems and prosewritings are replete with wit and spirit, though bearing evident marks ofFrench influence, which was felt in almost all the poetical productions ofthat age. 

Niemcewicz (1787-1846) is regarded as one of the greatest poets of theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Having fought by the side ofKosciusko, and shared his fate as a prisoner, he accompanied him toAmerica, where he became the friend and associate of Washington, whoselife he afterwards described. His other works consist of historical songs, dramas, and a history of the reign of Sigismund. 

There is no branch of literature in which the Poles have manifestedgreater want of original power than in the drama, where the influence ofthe French school is decided, and, indeed, exclusive. Novels and tales, founded on domestic life, are not abundant in Polish literature;philosophy has had few votaries, and the other sciences, with theexception of the mathematical and physical branches, have been, tillrecently, neglected. 

The failure of the revolution of 1830 forms a melancholy epoch in Polishhistory, and especially in Polish literature. The universities of Warsawand Wilna were broken up, and their rich libraries removed to St. Petersburg. Even the lower schools were mostly deprived of their funds, and changed to Russian government schools. The press was placed under thestrictest control, the language and the national peculiarities of thecountry were everywhere persecuted, the Russian tongue and customssubstituted, and the poets and learned men either silenced or banished. Yet since that time the national history has become more than ever achosen study with the people; and as the results of these researches, since 1830, cannot be written in Poland, Paris has become the principalseat of Polish learning. One of the first works of importance publishedthere was the "History of the Polish Insurrection, " by Mochnachi (1804-1835), known before as the author of a work on the Polish literature ofthe nineteenth century, and as the able editor of several periodicals. Lelewel, one of the leaders of the revolution, wrote a work on the civilrights of the Polish peasantry, which has exercised a more decidedinfluence in Poland than that of any modern author. Miekiewicz (1798-1843), a leader of the same revolution, is the most distinguished of themodern poets of Poland. His magnificent poem of "The Feast of the Dead" isa powerful expression of genius. His "Sonnets on the Crimea" are among hishappiest productions, and his "Sir Thaddeus" is a graphic description ofthe civil and domestic life of Lithuania. Mickiewicz is the founder of themodern romantic school in Poland, to which belong the most popularproductions of Polish literature. Zalesski, Grabowski, and others of thisschool have chosen the Ukraine as the favorite theatre of their poems, andgive us pictures of that country, alternately sweet, wild, and romantic. 

Of all the Slavic nations, the Poles have most neglected their popularpoetry, a fact which may be easily explained in a nation among whomwhatever refers to mere boors and serfs has always been regarded with theutmost contempt. Their beautiful national dances, however, the gracefulPolonaise, the bold Masur, the ingenious Cracovienne, are equally theproperty of the nobility and peasantry, and were formerly alwaysaccompanied by singing instead of instrumental music. These songs wereextemporized, and were probably never committed to writing. 

The centre of literary activity in Poland is Warsaw, which, in spite ofthe severe restrictions on the press, has always maintained itspreëminence. 

ROUMANIAN LITERATURE. 

Carmen Sylva. 

The kingdom of Roumania, composed of the principalities of Moldavia andWallachia, united in 1859, has few literary monuments. The language isWallachian, in which the Latin predominates, with a mixture of Slavic, Turkish, and Tartar, and has only of late been classed with the Romancelanguages, by the side of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. There are somehistorical fragments of the fifteenth century remaining; the literaturethat followed was mostly theological. In recent times a great number oflearned and poetical works have been produced, and political movementshave led to many political writings and to the establishment of manynewspapers. 

The most distinguished name in Roumanian literature is that of "CarmenSylva, " the _nom de plume_ of the beautiful and gifted queen of thatcountry, whose writings in prose and verse are remarkable for passionatefeeling, grace, and finished execution. 

DUTCH LITERATURE. 

1. The Language. --2. Dutch Literature to the Sixteenth Century: Maerlant;Melis Stoke; De Weert; the Chambers of Rhetoric; the Flemish Chroniclers;the Rise of the Dutch Republic. --3. The Latin Writers: Erasmus; Grotius;Arminius; Lipsius; the Scaligers, and others; Salmasius; Spinoza;Boerhaave; Johannes Secundus. --4. Dutch Writers of the Sixteenth Century:Anna Byns; Coornhert; Marnix de St. Aldegonde, Bor, Visscher, andSpieghel. --5. Writers of the Seventeenth Century: Hooft; Vondel; Cats;Antonides; Brandt, and others; Decline in Dutch Literature. --6. TheEighteenth Century: Poot; Langendijk; Hoogvliet; De Marre; Feitama;Huydecoper; the Van Harens; Smits; Ten Kate; Van Winter; Van Merken; DeLannoy; Van Alphen; Bellamy; Nieuwland, Styl, and others. --7. TheNineteenth Century: Feith; Helmers; Bilderdyk; Van der Palm; Loosjes;Loots, Tollens, Van Kampen, De s'Gravenweert, Hoevill, and others. 

1. THE LANGUAGE. --The Dutch, Flemish, and Frisic languages, spoken in thekingdoms of Holland and Belgium, are branches of the Gothic family. Towardthe close of the fifteenth century, the Dutch gained the ascendency overthe others, which it has never since lost. This language is energetic andflexible, rich in synonyms and delicate shades, and from its fullness andstrength, better adapted to history, tragedy, and odes, than to comedy andthe lighter kinds of poetry. The Flemish, which still remains the literarylanguage of the southern provinces, is inferior to the Dutch, and has beengreatly corrupted by the admixture of foreign words. The Frisic, spoken inFriesland, is an idiom less cultivated than the others, and is graduallydisappearing. In the seventeenth century it boasted of several writers, ofwhom the poet Japix was the most eminent. The first grammar of the Frisiclanguage was published by Professor Rask, of Copenhagen, in 1825. In someparts of Belgium the Walloon, an old dialect of the French, is stillspoken, but the Flemish continues to be the common language of the people, although since the establishment of Belgium as an independent kingdom theuse of the French language has prevailed among the higher classes. 

2. DUTCH LITERATURE TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. --When the obscurity of thedark ages began to disappear with the revival of letters, the Netherlandswere not last among the countries of Europe in coming forth from thedarkness. The cities of Flanders were early distinguished for thecommercial activity and industrial skill of their inhabitants. Brugesreached the height of its splendor in the beginning of the fifteenthcentury, and was for some time one of the great commercial emporiums ofthe world, to which Constantinople, Genoa, and Venice sent their preciousargosies laden with the products of the East. At the close of thethirteenth century Ghent, in wealth and power, eclipsed the Frenchmetropolis; and at the end of the fifteenth century there was, accordingto Erasmus, no town in all Christendom to compare with it for magnitude, power, political institutions, or the culture of its citizens. The lays ofthe minstrels and the romances of chivalry were early translated, and aDutch version of "Reynard the Fox" was made in the middle of thethirteenth century. Jakob Maerlant (1235-1300), the first author of note, translated the Bible into Flemish rhyme, and made many versions of theclassics; and Melis Stoke, his contemporary, wrote a rhymed "Chronicle ofHolland. "

The most important work of the fourteenth century is the "New Doctrine, "by De Weert, which, for the freedom of its expression on religioussubjects, may be regarded as one of the precursors of the Reformation. 

Towards the close of the fourteenth century there arose a class ofwandering poets called Sprekers, who, at the courts of princes andelsewhere, rehearsed their maxims in prose or verse. In the fifteenthcentury they formed themselves into literary societies, known as "Chambersof Rhetoric" (poetry being at that time called the "Art of Rhetoric"), which were similar to the Guilds of the Meistersingers. These institutionswere soon multiplied throughout the country, and the members exercisedthemselves in rhyming, or composed and performed mysteries and plays, which, at length, gave rise to the theatre. They engaged in poeticalcontests, distributed prizes, and were prominent in all national fêtes. The number of the rhetoricians was so immense, that during the reign ofPhilip II. Of Spain more than thirty chambers, composed of fifteen hundredmembers, often entered Antwerp in triumphal procession. But the effect ofthese associations, composed for the most part of illiterate men, was todestroy the purity of the language and to produce degeneracy in theliterature. The Chamber of Amsterdam, however, was an honorable exception, and towards the close of the sixteenth century it counted among itsmembers distinguished scholars, such as Spieghel, Coornhert, Marnix, andVisscher, and it may be considered as the school which formed Hooft andVondel. 

During the reign of the House of Burgundy (1383-1477), which wasessentially French in tastes and manners, the native tongue becamecorrupted by the admixture of foreign elements. The poets and chroniclersof the time were chiefly of Flemish origin; the most widely known amongthe latter are Henricourt (d. 1403), Monstrelet (d. 1453), and Chastelain(d. 1475). A translation of the Bible and a few more works close theliterary record of the fifteenth century. 

The invention of printing, the great event of the age, is claimed by thecities of Mayence, Strasbourg, and Harlem; but if the art which preservesliterature originated in the Netherlands, it did not at once create anative literature, the growth of which was greatly retarded by the use ofthe Latin tongue, which long continued to be the organ of expression withthe principal writers of the country, nearly all of whom, even to thepresent day, are distinguished for the purity and elegance with which theycompose in this language. 

The Reformation and the great political agitations of the sixteenthcentury ended in the independence of the northern provinces and theestablishment of the Dutch Republic (1581) under the name of the UnitedProvinces, commonly called Holland, from the province of that name, whichwas superior to the others in extent, population, and influence. The newrepublic rose rapidly in power; and while intolerance and religiousdisputes distracted other European states, it offered a safe asylum to thepersecuted of all sects. The expanding energies of the people soon soughta field beyond the narrow boundaries of the country; their ships visitedevery sea, and they monopolized the richest commerce of the world. Theyalone supplied Europe with the productions of the Spice Islands, and thegold, pearls, and jewels of the East all passed through their hands; andin the middle of the seventeenth century the United Provinces were thefirst commercial and the first maritime power in the world. A rapiddevelopment of the literature was the natural consequence of thisincreasing national development, which was still more powerfully promotedby the great and wise William I. , Prince of Orange, who in 1575 foundedthe university of Leyden as a reward to that city for its valiant defenseagainst the Spaniards. Similar institutions were soon established atGroningen, Utrecht, and elsewhere; these various seats of learningproduced a rivalry highly advantageous to the diffusion of knowledge, andgreat men arose in all branches of science and literature. Among thedistinguished names of the sixteenth century those of the Latin writersoccupy the first place. 

3. LATIN WRITERS. --One of the great restorers of letters in Europe, andone of the most elegant of modern Latin authors, was Gerard Didier, anative of Rotterdam, who took the name of Erasmus (1467-1536). To profoundlearning he joined a refined taste and a delicate wit, and few men havebeen so greatly admired as he was during his lifetime. The principalsovereigns of Europe endeavored to draw him into their kingdoms. Heseveral times visited England, where he was received with great deferenceby Henry VIII. , and where he gave lectures on Greek literature atCambridge. He made many translations from Greek authors, and a veryvaluable translation of the New Testament into Latin. His writingsintroduced the spirit of free inquiry on all subjects, and to hisinfluence may be attributed the first dawning of the Reformation. But hiscaution offended some of the best men of the times. His treatise on "FreeWill" made an open breach between him and Luther, whose opinions favoredpredestination; his "Colloquies" gave great offense to the Catholics; andas he had not declared for the Protestants, he had but lukewarm friends ineither party. It has been said of Erasmus, that he would have purified andrepaired the venerable fabric of the church, with a light and cautioustouch, fearful lest learning, virtue, and religion should be buried in itsfall, while Luther struck at the tottering ruin with a bold and recklesshand, confident that a new and more beautiful temple would rise from itsruins. 

Hugo de Groot, who, according to the fashion of the time, took the Latinname of Grotius (1583-1645), was a scholar and statesman of the mostdiversified talents, and one of the master minds of the age. He wasinvolved in the religious controversy which at that time disturbedHolland, and he advocated the doctrines of Arminius, in common with thegreat statesman, Barneveldt, whom he supported and defended by his pen andinfluence. On the execution of Barneveldt, Grotius was condemned toimprisonment for life in the castle of Louvestein; but after nearly twoyears spent in the prison, his faithful wife planned and effected hisescape. She had procured the privilege of sending him a chest of books, which occasionally passed and repassed, closely scrutinized. On oneoccasion the statesman took the place of the books, and was borne forthfrom the prison in the chest, which is still in the possession of thedescendants of Grotius, in his native city of Delft. The States-Generalperpetuated the memory of the devoted wife by continuing to give her nameto a frigate in the Dutch navy. After his escape from prison, Grotiusfound an asylum in Sweden, from whence he was sent ambassador to France. His countrymen at length repented of having banished the man who was thehonor of his native land, and he was recalled; but on his way to Hollandhe was taken ill and died before he could profit by this tardy act ofjustice. The writings of Grotius greatly tended to diffuse an enlightenedand liberal manner of thinking in all matters of science. He was aprofound theologian, a distinguished scholar, an acute philosopher andjurist, and among the modern Latin poets he holds a high place. Thephilosophy of jurisprudence has been especially promoted by his great workon natural and national law, which laid the foundation of a new science. 

Arminius (1560-1609), the founder of the sect of Arminians orRemonstrants, was distinguished as a preacher and for his zeal in theReformed Religion. He attempted to soften the Calvinistic doctrines ofpredestination, in which he was violently opposed by Gomarus. He countedamong his adherents Grotius, Barneveldt, and many of the eminent men ofHolland. Other eminent theologians of this period were Drusius andCoeceius. 

Lipsius (1547-1606) is known as a philologist and for his treatises on themilitary art of the Romans, on the Latin classics, and on the philosophyof the Stoics. Another scholar of extensive learning, whose editions ofthe principal Greek and Latin classics have rendered him famous all overEurope, was Daniel Heinsius (1580-1655). Gronovius and several of themembers of the Spanheim family became also eminent for their scholarshipin various branches of ancient learning. 

The two Scaligers, father and son (1483-1554) (1540-1609), Italians, resident in Holland, are eminent for their researches in chronology andarchaeology, and for their valuable works on the classics. Prominent amongthose who followed in the new path of philological study opened by theelder Scaliger was Vossius, or Voss (1577-1649), who excelled in manybranches of learning, and particularly in Latin philology, which owes muchto him. He left five sons, all scholars of note, especially the youngest, Isaac Vossius (1618-1689). 

Peter Burmann (1668-1741) was a scholar of great erudition and industry. 

Christian Huyghens (1629-1695) was a celebrated astronomer andmathematician, and many great men in those branches of science flourishedin Holland in the seventeenth century. Among the great philologists andscholars must also be mentioned Hemsterhuis, Ruhnkenius, and Valckenaer. 

Menno van Coehorn (1641-1704) was a general and engineer distinguished forhis genius in military science; his great work on fortifications has beentranslated into many foreign languages. Helmont and Boerhaave haveacquired world-wide fame by their labors in chemistry; Linnaeus collectedthe materials for his principal botanical work from the remarkablebotanical treasures of Holland; and zoology and the natural sciencesgenerally counted many devoted and eminent champions in that country. 

Salmasius (1588-1653), though born in France, is ranked among the writersof Holland. He was professor in the University of Leyden, and wascelebrated for the extent and depth of his erudition. He wrote a defenseof Charles I. Of England, which was answered by Milton, in a work entitled"A Defense of the English People against Salmasius' Defense of the King. "Salmasius died soon after, and some did not scruple to say that Miltonkilled him by the acuteness of his reply. 

Boerhaave (1668-1738) was one of the most eminent writers on medicalscience in the eighteenth century, and from the time of Hippocrates nophysician had excited so much admiration. Spinoza (1632-1677) holds acommanding position as a philosophical writer. His metaphysical system, asexpounded in his principal work, "Ethica, " merges everything individualand particular in the Divine substance, and is thus essentiallypantheistic. The philosophy of Spinoza exercised a powerful influence uponthe mind of Kant, and the master-minds and great poets of modern times, particularly of Germany, have drawn copiously from the deep wells of hissuggestive thought. 

Among the many Latin poets of Holland, John Everard (1511-1536) (calledJan Second or Johannes Secundus, because he had an uncle of the same name)is most celebrated. His poem entitled "The Basia or Kisses" has beentranslated into the principal European languages. Nicholas Heinsius (1620-1681), son of the great philologist and poet Heinsius, wrote various Latinpoems, the melody of which is so sweet that he was called by hiscontemporaries the "Swan of Holland. "

4. DUTCH WRITERS OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. --The first writer of thiscentury in the native language was Anna Byns, who has been called theFlemish Sappho. She was bitterly opposed to the Reformation, and such ofher writings as were free from religious intolerance evince more poeticfire than is found in those of her contemporaries. Coornhert (1522-1605)was a poet and philosopher, distinguished not less by his literary worksthan by his participation in the revolution of the Provinces. In purity ofstyle and vigor of thought he far surpassed his predecessors. Marnix deSt. Aldegonde (d. 1598) was a soldier, a statesman, a theologian, and apoet. He was the author of the celebrated "Compromise of the Nobles, " andhis satire on the Roman Catholic Church was one of the most effectiveproductions of the time. He translated the Psalms from the originalHebrew, and was the author of a lyric which, after two centuries and ahalf, is still the rallying song of the nation on all occasions of perilor triumph. 

Bor (1559-1635) was commissioned by the States to write a history of theirstruggles with Spain, and his work is still read and valued for itstruthfulness and impartiality. Meteren, the contemporary of Bor, wrote thehistory of the country from the accession of the House of Burgundy to theyear 1612--a work which, with some faults, has a high place in theliterature. 

Visscher (d. 1612) and Spieghel (d. 1613) form the connecting link betweenthe sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Visscher, the Maecenas of theday, was distinguished for his epigrammatic and fugitive poems, andrendered immense service to letters by his influence on the literary menof his time. His charming daughters were both distinguished in literature. Spieghel is best remembered by his poem, the "Mirror of the Heart, " whichabounds in lofty ideas, and in sentiments of enlightened patriotism. 

5. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. --At the close of the sixteenth century, although the language was established, it still remained hard andinflexible, and the literature was still destitute of dramatic, erotic, and the lighter kinds of poetry; but an earnest, patriotic, religious, andnational character was impressed upon it, and its golden age was near athand. 

The commencement of the seventeenth century saw the people of the UnitedProvinces animated by the same spirit and energy, preferring death to theabandonment of their principles, struggling with a handful of men againstthe most powerful monarchy of the time; conquering their political andreligious independence, after more than half a century of conflict, andgiving to the world a great example of freedom and toleration; coveringthe ocean with their fleets, and securing possessions beyond the sea ahundred times more vast than the mother country; becoming the centre ofuniversal commerce, and cultivating letters, the sciences, and the arts, with equal success. Poetry was national, for patriotism predominated overall other sentiments; and it was original, because it recognized no modelsof imitation but the classics. 

The spirit of the age naturally communicated itself to the men of letters, who soon raised the literature of the country to a classic height; firstamong these were Hooft, Vondel, and Jacob Cats. 

Hooft (1581-1647), a tragic and lyric poet as well as a historian, greatlydeveloped and perfected the language, and by a careful study of theItalian poets imparted to his native tongue that sonorous sweetness whichhas since characterized the poetry of Holland. He was the creator ofnative tragedy, as well as of erotic verse, in which his style is markedby great sweetness, tenderness, and grace. He rendered still greaterservice to the native prose. His histories of "Henry IV. , " of the "Houseof Medici, " and above all the history of the "War of Independence in theLow Countries, " without sacrificing truth, often border on poetry, intheir brilliant descriptions and paintings of character, and in theirnervous and energetic style. Hooft was a man of noble heart; he dared toprotect Grotius in the days of his persecution; he defended Descartes andoffered an asylum to Galileo. 

Vondel (1587-1660), as a lyric, epic, and tragic poet, far surpassed allhis contemporaries, and his name is honored in Holland as that ofShakspeare is in England. His tragedies, which are numerous, are his mostcelebrated productions, and among them "Palamedes Unjustly Sacrificed" isparticularly interesting as representing the heroic firmness ofBarneveldt, who repeated one of the odes of Horace when undergoing thetorture. Vondel excelled as a lyric and epigrammatic poet, and the faultsof his style belonged rather to his age than to himself. 

No writer of the time acquired a greater or more lasting reputation thanJacob Cats (1577-1660), no less celebrated for the purity of his life thanfor the sound sense and morality of his writings, and the statesmanlikeabilities which he displayed as ambassador in England, and as grandpensioner of Holland. His style is simple and touching, his versificationeasy and harmonious, and his descriptive talent extraordinary. His worksconsist chiefly of apologues and didactic and descriptive poems. No writerof Holland has been more read than Father Cats, as the peopleaffectionately call him; and up to the present hour, in all families hisworks have their place beside the Bible, and his verses are known by heartall over the country. An illustrated edition of his poems in English hasbeen recently published in London. 

Hooft and Vondel left many disciples and imitators, among whom areAntonides (1647-1684), surnamed Van der Goes, whose charming poem on theRiver Y, the model of several similar compositions, is still read andadmired. Among numerous other writers were Huygens (b. 1596), a poet whowrote in many languages besides his own; Heinsius (b. 1580), a pupil ofScaliger, the author of many valuable works in prose and poetry;Vallenhoven, contemporary with Antonides, a religious poet; Rotgans, theauthor of an epic poem on William of England; Elizabeth Hoofman (b. 1664), a poetess of rare elegance and taste, and Wellekens (b. 1658), whoseeclogues and idyls occupy the first place among that class of poems. As ahistorian Hooft found a worthy successor in Brandt (1626-1683), also apoet, but best known by his "History of the Reformation in theNetherlands, " which has been translated into French and English, and whichis a model in point of style. At this period the Bible was translated andcommented upon, and biographies, criticisms, and many other prose worksappeared. The voyages and discoveries of the Dutch merchants andnavigators were illustrated by numerous narratives, which, for theirinterest both in style and detail, deserve honorable mention. 

From the commencement of the last quarter of the seventeenth century, however, many causes combined to produce a decline in the literature ofthe Netherlands. The honors which were accorded not only by the Dutchuniversities, but by all Europe to their Latin writers and learnedprofessors, were rarely bestowed on writers in the native tongue, and thusthe minds of men of genius were turned to the study of the classics andthe sciences. The Dutch merchants, while they cultivated all otherlanguages for the facilities they thus gained in their commercialtransactions, restricted by so much the diffusion of their own. Othercauses of this decline are to be found in the indifference of therepublican government to the interests of literature, and in theincreasing number of alliances with foreigners, who were attracted toHolland by the mildness of its laws, in the growing commercial spirit andtaste for luxury, and especially in the influence of French literature, which, towards the close of the seventeenth century, became predominant inHolland as elsewhere. 

6. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. --For the first three quarters of the eighteenthcentury the literature of Holland, like that of other countries of Europe, with the exception of France, remained stationary, or slowly declined. Butin the midst of universal mediocrity, a few names shine with distinguishedlustre. Among them that of Poot (1689-1732) is commonly cited with thoseof Hooft and Vondel. He was a young peasant, whose rare genius foundexpression in a sweet and unaffected style. He excelled in idyllic anderotic poetry, and while he has no rival in Holland, he may perhaps becompared to Burns in Scotland, and Béranger in France. The theatre ofAmsterdam, the only one of the country, continued to confine itself totranslations or imitations from the French. There appeared, however, atthe commencement of this period, an original comic author, Langendijk(1662-1735), whose works still hold their place upon the stage, partly fortheir merit, and partly to do honor to the only comic poet Holland hasproduced. 

Hoogvliet (1689-1763) was distinguished as the author of a poem entitled"Abraham, " which had great and merited success, and which still ranksamong the classics; for some years after it appeared, it produced a floodof imitations. 

De Marre (b. 1696), among numerous writers of tragedy, occupies the firstplace. From his twelfth year he was engaged in the merchant marineservice, and besides his tragedies his voyages inspired many other works, the chief of which, a poem entitled "Batavia, " celebrates the Dutchdomination in the Asiatic archipelago. Feitama (1694-1758), with lesspoetic merit than De Marre, had great excellence. He was the firsttranslator of the classics who succeeded in imparting to his verse thetrue spirit of his originals. 

Huydecoper (d. 1778) was the first grammarian of merit, and he unitedgreat erudition with true poetic power. His tragedies are stillrepresented. 

Onno Zwier Van Haren (1713-1789) was also a writer of tragedy, and theauthor of a long poem in the epic style, called the Gueux (beggars), aname given in derision to the allied noblemen of the Netherlands in thetime of Philip, and adopted by them. This poem represents the greatstruggle of the country with Spain, which ended in the establishment ofthe Dutch republic, and is distinguished for its fine episodes, itsbrilliant pictures, and its powerful development of character. 

The only strictly epic poem that Holland has produced is the "Friso" ofWilliam Van Haren (1710-1758), the brother of the one already named. Friso, the mythical founder of the Frisons, is driven from his home on theshores of the Ganges, and, after many adventures, finds an asylum andestablishes his government in the country to which he gives his name. Thiswork with many faults is full of beauties. The brothers Van Haren werefree from all foreign influence, and may justly be regarded as the twogreat poets of their time. The poems of Smits (1702-1750) are full ofgrace and sentiment, but, like those of almost all the Dutch poets, theyare characterized by a seriousness of tone nearly allied to melancholy. Ten Kate (1676-1723) stands first among the grammarians and etymologists, and his works are classical authorities on the subject of the language. 

Preëminent among the crowd of historians is Wagenaar (1709-1773), theworthy successor of Hooft and Brandt, whose "History of the UnitedProvinces" is particularly valuable for its simplicity of style andtruthfulness of detail. 

Of the lighter literature, Van Effen, who had visited England, produced inFrench the "Spectator, " in imitation of the English periodical, and, likethat, it is still read and considered classical. 

Towards the conclusion of the century, other periodicals were established, which, in connection with literary societies and academies, exercisedgreat influence on literature. The contemporary writers of Germany werealso read and translated, and henceforth in some degree theycounterbalanced French influence. 

First among the writers who mark the close of the eighteenth century areVan Winter (d. 1795), and his distinguished wife, Madame Van Merken (d. 1789). They published conjointly a volume of tragedies in which the chiefmerit of those of Van Winter consists in their originality and in theexpression of those sentiments of justice, humanity, and equality beforethe law, which were just then beginning to find a voice in Europe. 

Madame Van Merken, who, late in life, married Van Winter, has been calledthe Racine of Holland. To masculine energy and power she united all thevirtues and sweetness of her own sex. Besides many long poems, she was theauthor of several tragedies, many of which have remarkable merit. MadameVan Merken gave a new impulse to the literature of her country, of whichshe is one of the classic ornaments, and prepared the way for Feith andBilderdyk. 

The Baroness De Lannoy, the contemporary of Madame Van Merken, was, likeher, eminent in tragedy and other forms of poetry, though less a favorite, for in that free country an illustrious birth has been ever a seriousobstacle to distinction in the republic of letters. 

Nomz (d. 1803) furnished the theatre of Amsterdam with many pieces, original and translated, and merited a better fate from his native citythan to die in the public hospital. 

The poets who mark the age from Madame Van Merken to Bilderdyk, are VanAlphen, Bellamy, and Nieuwland. Van Alphen (d. 1803) is distinguished forhis patriotism, originality, and deeply religious spirit. His poems forchildren are known by heart by all the children of Holland, and he istheir national poet, as Cats is the poet of mature life and old age. Bellamy, who died at the early age of twenty-eight years (1786), left manypoems characterized by originality, force, and patriotic fervor, no lessthan by beauty and harmony of style. Nieuwland (d. 1794), like Bellamy, rose from the lower order of society by the force of his genius; at theage of twenty-three he was called to the chair of philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy at Utrecht, and later to the university of Leyden. He wasequally great as a mathematician and as a poet in the Latin language aswell as his own. All his productions are marked by elegance and power. 

Styl (d. 1804) was a poet as well as a historian; one of the most valuableworks on the history of the country is his "Growth and Prospects of theUnited Provinces. " Te Water, Bondam, and Van de Spiegel contributed to thesame department. 

Romance writing has, with few exceptions, been surrendered to women. Amongthe romances of character and manners, those of Elizabeth Bekker Wolff (d. 1804) are distinguished for their brilliant and caustic style, and thoseof Agatha Deken for their earnest and enlightened piety. The works of bothpresent lively pictures of national character and manners. 

7. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. --The political convulsions of the last years ofthe eighteenth century and the early part of the nineteenth, whichoverthrew the Dutch Republic, revolutionized the literature not less thanthe state, --and the new era was illustrated by its poets, historians, andorators. But in the elevation of inferior men by the popular party, themore eminent men of letters for a time withdrew from the field, and thenoblest productions of native genius were forgotten in the flood of poortranslations which inundated the country and corrupted the taste and thelanguage by their Germanisms and Gallicisms. 

Among the crowd of poets, a few only rose superior to the influences ofthe time. Feith (d. 1824) united a lofty patriotism to a brilliantpoetical genius; his odes and other poems possess rare merit, and hisprose is original, forcible, and elegant. 

Helmers (d. 1813) is most honored for his poem, "The Dutch Nation, " which, with some faults, abounds in beautiful episodes and magnificent passages. 

Bilderdyk (1756-1831) is not only the greatest poet Holland has produced, but he is equally eminent as a universal scholar. He was a lawyer, aphysician, a theologian, a historian, astronomer, draftsman, engineer, andantiquarian, and he was acquainted with nearly all the ancient and modernlanguages. In 1820 he published five cantos of a poem on "The Destructionof the Primitive World, " which, though it remains unfinished, is a superbmonument of genius and one of the literary glories of Holland. Bilderdykexcelled in every species of poetry, tragedy only excepted, and hispublished works fill more than one hundred octavo volumes. 

Van der Palm (b. 1763) occupies the same place among the prose writers ofthe nineteenth century that Bilderdyk does among the poets. He held thehighest position as a pulpit orator and member of the Council of State, and his discourses, orations, and other prose works are models of style, and are counted among the classics of the country. His great work, however, was the translation of the Bible. 

Since the time of Bilderdyk and Van der Palm no remarkable genius hasappeared in Holland. 

Loosjes (d. 1806) added to his reputation as a poet by his historicalromances, and Fokke (d. 1812) was a satirist of the follies and errors ofhis age. Among the historians who have devoted themselves to the historyof foreign countries are Stuart, Van Hamelsveld, and Muntinghe, who, in ashort space of time, enriched their native literature with more than sixtyvolumes of history, of a profoundly religious and philosophical character, which bear the stamp of originality and nationality. 

The department of oratory in Dutch literature, with the exception of thatof the pulpit, is poor, and this is to be explained in part by the factthat the deliberations of the States-General were always held with closeddoors. Holland was an aristocratic republic, and the few families whomonopolized the power had no disposition to share it with the people, who, on the other hand, were too much occupied with their own affairs and tooconfident of the wisdom and moderation of their rulers, to wish to minglein the business of state. The National Assembly, however, from 1775 to1800, had its orators, chiefly men carried into public life by the eventsof the age, but they were far inferior to those of other countries. 

The impulse given to literature by Bilderdyk and Van der Palm is notarrested. Among the numerous authors who have since distinguishedthemselves, are Loots, a patriotic poet of the school of Vondel; Tollens, who ranks with the best native authors in descriptive poetry and romance;Wiselius, the author of several tragedies, a scholar and political writer;Klyn (d. 1856); Van Walré and Van Halmaal, dramatic poets of great merit;Da Costa and Madame Bilderdyk, who, as a poetess, shared the laurels ofher husband. In romance, there are Anna Toussaint, Bogaers, and Jan VanLennep, son of the celebrated professor of that name, who introduced intoHolland historical romances modeled after those of Scott, and whocontributed much to discard French and to popularize the nationalliterature. In prose, De Vries must be named for his eloquent history ofthe poetry of the Netherlands; Van Kampen (1776-1839) for his historicalworks; Geysbeck for his biographical dictionary and anthology of thepoets, and De s'Gravenweert, a poet and the translator of the Iliad andOdyssey. Von Hoevell is the author of a work on slavery, which appearednot many years since, the effect of which can be compared only to that of"Uncle Tom's Cabin. "

In Belgium, Conscience is a successful author of fiction and history, andhis works have been frequently translated into other languages. De Laet, one of the ablest writers of the country in connection with Conscience, has done much for the revival of Flemish literature, which now boasts ofmany original writers in various departments. 

The literature of the Netherlands, like the people, is earnest, religious, always simple, and often elevated and sublime. It is especiallydistinguished for its reflective and patriotic character, and bears themark of that accurate study of the classic models which has formed thebasis of the national education, and to which its purity of taste, naturalness, and simplicity are undoubtedly to be attributed. There existsno nation of equal population which, within the course of two or threecenturies, has produced a greater number of eminent men. 

From the age of Hooft and Vondel to the present day, though the Dutchliterature may have submitted at times to foreign influence, and though, like all others, it may have paid its tribute to the fashions and faultsof the day, it has still preserved its nationality, and is worthy of beingknown and admired. 

SCANDINAVIAN LITERATURE. 

1. Introduction. The Ancient Scandinavians; their Influence on the EnglishRace. --2. The Mythology. --3. The Scandinavian Languages. --4. Icelandic, orOld Norse Literature: the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda, the Scalds, theSagas, the "Heimskringla, " The Folks-Sagas and Ballads of the MiddleAges. --5. Danish Literature: Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric; Arreboe, Kingo, Tycho Brahe, Holberg, Evald, Baggesen, Oehlenschläger, Grundtvig, Blicher, Ingemann, Heiberg, Gyllenbourg, Winther, Hertz, Müller, HansAndersen, Plong, Goldschmidt, Hastrup, and others; Malte Brun, Rask, Rafn, Magnusen, the brothers Oersted. --6. Swedish Literature: Messenius, Stjernhjelm, Lucidor, and others. The Gallic period: Dalin, Nordenflycht, Crutz and Gyllenborg, Gustavus III. , Kellgren, Leopold, Oxenstjerna. TheNew Era: Bellman, Hallman, Kexel, Wallenberg, Lidnor, Thorild, Lengren, Franzen, Wallin. The Phosphorists: Atterborn, Hammarsköld, and Palmblad. The Gothic School: Geijer, Tegnér, Stagnelius, Almquist, Vitalis, Runeberg, and others. The Romance Writers: Cederborg, Bremer, Carlén, Knorring. Science: Swedenborg, Linnaeus, and others. 

1. INTRODUCTION. --It is a singular fact that the progressive and expandingspirit which characterizes the English race should be so universallyreferred to their Anglo-Saxon blood, while the transcendent influence ofthe Scandinavian element is entirely overlooked. The so-called Anglo-Saxons were a handful of people in Holstein, where they may still be foundin inglorious obscurity, the reluctant subjects of Denmark. The earlyemigrants who bore that name, were, it is true, from various portions ofGermany; but even if the glory of our English ancestry be transferred fromAnglen, and spread over the whole country, we find a race bearing noresemblance to the English in their more active and powerful qualities, but an intellectual people, possessed of a patient and conceding nature, which, without other more aspiring attributes, doubtless would have leftthe English people in the same condition of political slavery that theGermans continue in to this day. Of all those institutions so commonly andgratuitously ascribed to them, of representative government, trial byjury, and such machinery of political and social independence, there isnot a vestige to be found in any age in Germany, from the Christian era tothe present time. During the period of their dominion in England, theAnglo-Saxons, so far from showing themselves an enterprising people werenotoriously weak, slothful, and degenerate, overrun by the Danes, and soonpermanently subjected by the Normans. It is evident, from the triflingresistance they made, that they had neither energy to fight, nor property, laws, nor institutions to defend, and that they were merely serfs on thelands of the nobles or of the church, who had nothing to lose by a changeof masters. It is to the renewal of the original spirit of the Anglo-Saxons, by the fresh infusion of the Danish conquerors into a very largeproportion of the whole population, in the eleventh century, that we mustlook for the actual origin of the national character and institutions ofthe English people, and for that check of popular opinion and will uponarbitrary rule which grew up by degrees, and which slowly but necessarilyproduced the English law, character, and institutions. These belong not tothe German or Anglo-Saxon race settled in England previous to the tenth oreleventh century, but to that small, cognate branch of Northmen or Danes, who, between the ninth and twelfth centuries, brought their paganism, energy, and social institutions to conquer, mingle with, and invigoratethe inert descendants of the old race. That this northern branch of thecommon race has been the more influential in the society of modern Europe, we need only compare England and the United States with Saxony, Prussia, Hanover, or any country of strictly ancient Teutonic descent, to besatisfied. From whatever quarter civil, religious, and political libertyand independence of mind may have come, it was not from the banks of theRhine or the forests of Germany. 

The difference in the spirit of the two branches of the same original racewas immense, even at the earliest period. When the Danes and Norwegiansoverran England, the Germans had, for six centuries, been growing more andmore pliant to despotic government, and the Scandinavians more and morebold and independent. At home they elected their kings, and decidedeverything by the general voice of the _Althing_, or open Parliament. Abroad they became the most daring of adventurers; their Vikings spreadthemselves along the shores of Europe, plundering and planting colonies;they subdued England, seized Normandy, besieged Paris, conquered a largeportion of Belgium, and made extensive inroads into Spain. They madethemselves masters of lower Italy and Sicily under Robert Guiscard, in theeleventh century; during the Crusades they ruled Antioch and Tiberias, under Tancred; and in the same century they marched across Germany, andestablished themselves in Switzerland, where the traditions of theirarrival, and traces of their language still remain. In 861 they discoveredIceland, and soon after peopled it; thence they stretched still fartherwest, discovered Greenland, and proceeding southward, towards the close ofthe tenth century they struck upon the shores of North America, it wouldappear, near the coast of Massachusetts. They seized on Novogorod, andbecame the founders of the Russian Empire, and of a line of Czars whichbecame extinct only in 1598, when the Slavonic dynasty succeeded. FromRussia they made their way to the Black Sea, and in 866 appeared beforeConstantinople, where their attacks were bought off only on the payment oflarge sums by the degenerate emperors. From. 902 to the fall of theempire, the emperors retained a large body-guard of Scandinavians, who, armed with double-edged battle-axes, were renowned through the world, under the name of Varengar, or the _Väringjar_ of the old Icelandic Sagas. 

Such were the ancient Scandinavians. To this extraordinary people theEnglish and their descendants alone bear any resemblance. In them the oldNorse fire still burns, and manifests itself in the same love of martialdaring and fame, the same indomitable seafaring spirit, the same passionfor the discovery of new seas and new lands, and the same insatiablelonging, when discovered, to seize and colonize them. 

2. THE MYTHOLOGY. --The mythology of the northern nations, as representedin the Edda, was founded on Polytheism; but through it, as through thereligion of all nations, there is dimly visible, like the sun shiningthrough a dense cloud, the idea of one Supreme Being, of infinite power, boundless knowledge, and incorruptible justice, who could not berepresented by any corporeal form. Such, according to Tacitus, was thesupreme God of the Germans, and such was the primitive belief of mankind. Doubtless, the poet priests, who elaborated the imaginative, yetphilosophical mythology of the north, were aware of the true and only God, infinitely elevated above the attributes of that Nature, which they shapedinto deities for the multitude whom they believed incapable of more thanthe worship of the material powers which they saw working in everythingaround them. 

The dark, hostile powers of nature, such as frost and fire, arerepresented as giants, "jotuns, " huge, chaotic demons; while the friendlypowers, the sun, the summer heat, all vivifying principles, were gods. From the opposition of light and darkness, water and fire, cold and heat, sprung the first life, the giant Ymer and his evil progeny the frostgiants, the cow Adhumla, and Bor, the father of the god Odin. Odin, withhis brothers, slew the giant Ymer, and from his body formed the heavensand earth. From two stems of wood they also shaped the first man andwoman, whom they endowed with life and spirit, and from whom descended allthe human race. 

There were twelve principal deities among the Scandinavians, of whom Odinwas the chief. There is a tradition in the north of a celebrated warriorof that name, who, near the period of the Christian era, fled from hiscountry, between the Caspian and the Black Sea, to escape the vengeance ofthe Romans, and marched toward the north and west of Europe, subduing allwho opposed him, and finally established himself in Sweden, where hereceived divine honors. According to the Eddas, however, Odin was the sonof Bor, and the most powerful of the gods; the father of Thor, Balder, andothers; the god of war, eloquence, and poetry. He was made acquainted witheverything that happened on earth, through two ravens, Hugin and Munin(mind and memory); they flew daily round the world, and returned everynight to whisper in his ear all that they had seen and heard. Thor, thegod of thunder, was the implacable and dreaded enemy of the giants, andthe avenger and defender of the gods. His stature was so lofty that nohorse could bear him, and lightning flashed from his eyes and from hischariot wheels as they rolled along. His mallet or hammer, his belt ofstrength and his gauntlets of iron, were of wonderful power, and with themhe could overthrow the giants and monsters who were at war with the gods. Balder, the second son of Odin, was the noblest and fairest of the gods, beloved by everything in nature. He exceeded all beings in gentleness, prudence, and eloquence, and he was so fair and graceful that lightemanated from him as he moved. In his palace nothing impure could exist. The death of Balder is the principal event in the mythological drama ofthe Scandinavians. It was foredoomed, and a prognostic of the approachingdissolution of the universe and of the gods themselves. Heimdall was thewarder of the gods; his post was on the summit of Bifrost, called bymortals the rainbow--the bridge which connects heaven and earth, and downwhich the gods daily traveled to hold their councils under the shade ofthe tree Yggdrasil. The red color was the flaming fire, which served as adefense against the giants. Heimdall slept more lightly than a bird, andhis ear was so exquisite that he could hear the grass grow in the meadowsand the wool upon the backs of the sheep. He carried a trumpet, the soundof which echoed through all worlds. Loke was essentially of an evilnature, and descended from the giants, the enemies of the gods; but he wasmysteriously associated with Odin from the infancy of creation. Heinstilled a spark of his fire into a man at his creation, and he was thefather of three monsters, Hela or Death, the Midgard Serpent, and the wolfFenris, the constant terror of the gods, and destined to be the means oftheir destruction. 

Besides these deities, there were twelve goddesses, the chief of whom wasFrigga, the wife of Odin, and the queen and mother of the gods. She knewthe future, but never revealed it; and she understood the language ofanimals and plants. Freya was the goddess of love, unrivaled in grace andbeauty--the Scandinavian Venus. Iduna was possessed of certain apples, ofsuch virtue that, by eating of them, the gods became exempted from theconsequences of old age, and retained, unimpaired, all the freshness ofyouth. The gods dwelt above, in Asgard, the garden of the Asen or theDivinities; the home of the giants, with whom they were in perpetual war, was Jotunheim, a distant, dark, chaotic land, of which Utgard was thechief seat. Midgard, or the earth, the abode of man, was represented as adisk in the midst of a vast ocean; its caverns and recesses were peopledwith elves and dwarfs, and around it lay coiled the huge Midgard Serpent. Muspelheim, or Flameland, and Nifelheim or Mistland, lay without theorganized universe, and were the material regions of light and darkness, the antagonism of which had produced the universe with its gods and men. Nifelheim was a dark and dreary realm, where Hela, or Death, ruled withdespotic sway over those who had died ingloriously of disease or old age. Helheim, her cold and gloomy palace, was thronged with their shivering andshadowy spectres. She was livid and ghastly pale, and her very looksinspired horror. 

The chief residence of Odin, in Asgard, was Valhalla, or the Hall of theSlain; it was hung round with golden spears, and shields, and coats ofmail; and here he received the souls of warriors killed in battle, whowere to assist him in the final conflict with the giants; and here, everyday, they armed themselves for battle, and rode forth by thousands totheir mimic combat on the plains of Asgard, and at night they returned toValhalla to feast on the flesh of the boar, and to drink the intoxicatingmead. Here dwelt, also, the numerous virgins called the Valkyriur, orChoosers of the Slain, whom Odin sent forth to every battle-field to swaythe victory, to make choice of those who should fall in the combat, and todirect them on their way to Valhalla. They were called, also, the Sistersof War; they watched with intense interest over their favorite warriorsand sometimes lent an ear to their love. In the field they were always incomplete armor; led on by Skulda, the youngest of the Fates, they wereforemost in battle, with helmets on their heads, armed with flamingswords, and surrounded by lightning and meteors. Sometimes they were seenriding through the air and over the sea on shadowy horses, from whosemanes fell hail on the mountains and dew on the valleys; and at othertimes their fiery lances gleamed in the spectral lights of the auroraborealis; and again, they were represented clothed in white, with flowinghair, as cupbearers to the heroes at the feasts of Valhalla. 

In the centre of the world stood the great ash tree Yggdrasil, the Tree ofLife, of which the Christmas tree and the Maypole of northern nations aredoubtless emblems. It spread its life-giving arms through the heavens, andstruck its three roots down through the three worlds. It nourished alllife, even that of Nedhog, the most venomous of serpents, whichcontinually gnawed at the root that penetrated Nifelheim. A second rootentered the region of the frost giants, where was the well in which wisdomand understanding were concealed. A third root entered the region of thegods; and there, beside it, dwelt the three Nornor or Fates, over whomeven the gods had no power, and who, every day, watered it from theprimeval fountain, so that its boughs remained green. 

The gods were benevolent spirits--the friends of mankind, but they werenot immortal. A destiny more powerful than they or their enemies, thegiants, was one day to overwhelm them. At the Ragnarök, or twilight of thegods, foretold in the Edda, the monsters shall be unloosed, the heavens berent asunder, and the sun and moon disappear; the great Midgard Serpentshall lash the waters of the ocean till they overflow the earth; the wolfFenris, whose enormous mouth reaches from heaven to earth, shall rush uponand devour all within his reach; the genii of fire shall ride forth, clothed in flame, and lead on the giants to the storming of Asgard. Heimdall sounds his trumpet, which echoes through all worlds; the gods flyto arms; Odin appears in his golden casque, his resplendent cuirass, withhis vast scimitar in his hand, and marshals his heroes in battle array. The great ash tree is shaken to its roots, heaven and earth are full ofhorror and affright, and gods, giants, and heroes are at length buried inone common ruin. Then comes forth the mighty one, who is above all gods, who may not be named. He pronounces his decrees, and establishes thedoctrines which shall endure forever. A new earth, fairer and moreverdant, springs forth from the bosom of the waves, the fields bring forthwithout culture, calamities are unknown, and in Heaven, the abode of thegood, a palace is reared, more shining than the sun, where the just shalldwell forevermore. 

Traces of the worship of these deities by our pagan ancestors still remainin the names given to four days of the week. Tuesday was consecrated toTyr, a son of Odin; Wednesday, Odin's or Wooden's day, to Odin; Thursday, or Thor's day, to Thor; and Friday, or Freya's day, was sacred to thegoddess Freya. 

3. THE LANGUAGE. --The Scandinavian or Norse languages include theIcelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian dialects. 

The Icelandic or Old Norse, which was the common language of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in the ninth century, was carried into Iceland, where, to the present time, it has wonderfully retained its earlycharacteristics. The written alphabet was called Runic, and the letters, Runes, of which the most ancient specimens are the inscriptions on Runestones, rings, and wooden tablets. 

The Danish and Swedish, may be called the New Norse languages; they beganto assume a character distinct from the Old Norse about the beginning ofthe twelfth century. The Danish language is not confined to Denmark, butis used in the literature, and by the cultivated society of Norway. 

The Swedish is the most musical of the Scandinavian dialects, itspronunciation being remarkably soft and agreeable. Its character is morepurely Norse than the Danish, which has been greatly affected by itscontact with the German. 

The Norwegian exists only in the form of dialects spoken by the peasantry. It is distinguished from the other two by a rich vocabulary of wordspeculiar to itself, and by its own pronunciation and peculiarconstruction; only literary cultivation is wanted to make it anindependent language like the others. 

4. ICELANDIC OR OLD NORSE LITERATURE. --In 868 one of the Norwegian vikingsor sea rovers, being driven on the coast of Iceland, first made known theexistence of the island. Harold, the fair-haired, having soon aftersubdued or slain the petty kings of Norway, and introduced the feudalsystem, many of the inhabitants, disdaining to sacrifice theirindependence, set forth to colonize this dreary and inhospitable region, whose wild and desolate aspect seemed to attract their imaginations. Hugemountains of ice here rose against the northern sky, from which the smokeof volcanoes rolled balefully up; and the large tracts of lava, which haddescended from them to the sea, were cleft into fearful abysses, where nobottom could be found. Here were strange, desolate valleys, with beds ofpure sulphur, torn and overhanging precipices, gigantic caverns, andfountains of boiling water, which, mingled with flashing fires, soared upinto the air, amid the undergroans of earthquakes, and howlings andhissings as of demons in torture. Subterranean fires, in terrific contestwith the wintry ocean, seemed to have made sport of rocks, mountains, andrivers, tossing them into the most fantastic and appalling shapes. Yetsuch was the fondness of the Scandinavian imagination for the wild anddesolate, and such their hatred of oppression, that they soon peopled thischaotic island to an extent it has never since reached. In spite of therigor of the climate, where corn refused to ripen, and where the labors offishing and agriculture could only be pursued for four months of the year, the people became attached to this wild country. They established arepublic which lasted four hundred years, and for ages it was destined tobe the sanctuary and preserver of the grand old literature of the North. The people took with them their Scalds and their traditions, and for acentury after the peopling of the island, they retained their Paganbelief. Ages rolled away; the religion of Odin had perished from themainland, and the very hymns and poems in which its doctrines wererecorded had perished with it, when, in the middle of the seventeenthcentury, the Rhythmical Edda of Samund was discovered, followed by theProse Edda of Snorre Sturleson. These discoveries roused the zeal of theScandinavian literati, and led to further investigations, which resultedin the discovery of a vast number of chronicles and sagas, and much hassince been done by the learned men of Iceland and Denmark to bring tolight the remote annals of northern Europe. 

These remains fall into the three divisions of Eddaic, Scaldic, and Sagaliterature. Samund the Wise (1056-1131), a Christian priest of Iceland, was the first to collect and commit to writing the oral traditions of themythology and poetry of the Scandinavians. His collection has been termedthe "Edda, " a word by some supposed to signify grandmother, and by othersderived, with more probability, from the obsolete word _oeda_, to teach. The elder or poetic Edda consists of thirty-eight poems, and is dividedinto two parts. The first, or mythological cycle, contains everythingrelating to the Scandinavian ideas of the creation of the world, theorigin of man, the morals taught by the priests, and stories of the gods;the second, or heroic cycle, contains the original materials of the"Nibelungen Lied" of Germany. The poems consist of strophes of six oreight lines each, with little of the alliteration by which the Scalds wereafterwards distinguished. One of the oldest and most interesting is the"Voluspa, " or Song of the Prophetess, a kind of sibylline lay, whichcontains an account of the creation, the origin of man and of evil, andconcludes with a prediction of the destruction and renovation of theuniverse, and a description of the future abodes of happiness and misery. "Vafthrudnir's Song" is in the form of a dialogue between Odin, disguisedas a mortal, and the giant Vafthrudnir, in which the same subjects arediscussed. "Grimner's Song" contains a description of twelve habitationsof the celestial deities, considered as symbolical of the signs of thezodiac. "Rig's Song" explains, allegorically, the origin of the threecastes: the thrall, the churl, and the noble, which, at a very earlyperiod, appear to have formed the framework of Scandinavian society. "TheHavamal, " or the High Song of Odin, is the complete code of Scandinavianethics. The maxims here brought together more resemble the Proverbs ofSolomon than anything in human literature, but without the high religiousviews of the Scripture maxims. It shows a worldly wisdom, experience, andsagacity, to which modern life can add nothing. In the Havamal is includedthe Rune Song. 

Runes, the primitive rudely-shaped letters of the Gothic race, appearnever to have been used to record their literature, which was committed tothe Scalds and Sagamen, but they were reserved for inscriptions on rocksor memorial stones, or they were cut in staves of wood, as a rude calendarto assist the memory. Odin was the great master of runes, but all thegods, many of the giants, kings, queens, prophetesses, and poets possessedthe secret of their power. In the ballads of the Middle Ages, long afterthe introduction of Christianity, we find everywhere the boast of Runicknowledge and of its power. Queens and princesses cast the runic spellover their enemies; ladies, by the use of runes, inspire warriors withlove; and weird women by their means perform witchcraft and sorcery. Someof their rune songs taught the art of healing; others had power to stopflying spears in battle, and to excite or extinguish hatred and love. There were runes of victory inscribed on swords; storm runes, which gavepower over sails, inscribed on rudders of ships, drink runes, which gavepower over others, inscribed on drinking horns; and herb runes, cut in thebark of trees which cured sickness and wounds. These awful characters, which struck terror into the hearts of our heathen ancestors, and whichappalled and subdued alike kings, warriors, and peasants, were simpleletters of the alphabet; but they prove to what a stupenduous extentknowledge was power in the dark ages of the earth. The poet who sings theRune Song in the Havamal does it with every combination of mystery, calculated to inspire awe and wonder in the hearer. 

The two poems, "Odin's Raven Song" and the "Song of the Way-Tamer, " areamong the most deeply poetical hymns of the Edda. They relate to the samegreat event--the death of Balder--and are full of mystery and fear. Astrange trouble has fallen upon the gods, the oracles are silent, and adark, woeful foreboding seizes on all things living. Odin mounts hissteed, Sleipner, and descends to hell to consult the Vala there in hertomb, and to extort from her, by runic incantations, the fate of his son. This "Descent of Odin" is familiar to the English reader through Gray'sOde. In all mythologies we have glimpses continually of the mere humanityof the gods, we witness their limited powers and their consciousness of acoming doom. In this respect every mythology is kept in infinitesubordination to the true faith, in which all is sublime, infinite, andworthy of the Deity--in which God is represented as pure spirit, whom theheaven of heavens cannot contain; and all assumption of divinity by falsegods is treated as a base superstition. 

The remaining songs of the first part of the Edda relate chiefly to theexploits, wanderings, and love adventures of the gods. The "Sun Song, "with which it concludes, is believed to be the production of Samund, thecollector of the Edda, In this he retains some of the machinery of the oldcreed, but introduces the Christian Deity and doctrines. 

The second part of the elder Edda contains the heroic cycle of Icelandicpoems, the first part of which is the Song of Voland. The renownednorthern smith. The story of Voland, or Wayland, the Vulcan of the North, is of unknown antiquity; and his fame, which spread throughout Europe, still lives in the traditions of all northern nations. The poemsconcerning Sigurd and the Niflunga form a grand epic of the simplestconstruction. The versification consists of strophes of six or eightlines, without rhyme or alliteration. The sad and absorbing story herenarrated was wonderfully popular throughout the ancient Scandinavian andTeutonic world, and it is impossible to say for how many centuries thesegreat tragic ballads had agitated the hearts of the warlike races of thenorth. It is clear that Sigurd and Byrnhilda, with all their beauty, nobleendowment, and sorrowful history, were real personages, who had takenpowerful hold on the popular affections in the most ancient times, and hadcome down from age to age, receiving fresh incarnations and embellishmentsfrom the popular Scalds. There is a great and powerful nature livingthrough these poems. They are pictures of men and women of godlike beautyand endowments, and full of the vigor of simple but impetuous natures. Though fragmentary, they stand in all the essentials of poetry far beyondthe German Lied, and, in the tragic force of passion which they portray, they are superior to any remains of ancient poetry except that of Greece. Their greatness lies less in their language than their spirit, which issublime and colossal. Passion, tenderness, and sorrow are here depictedwith the most vivid power; and the noblest sentiments and the most heroicactions are crossed by the foulest crimes and the most terrific tragedies. They contain materials for a score of dramas of the most absorbingcharacter. 

The Prose or Younger Edda was the work of Snorre Sturleson (1178-1241), who was born of a distinguished Icelandic family, and, after leading aturbulent and ambitious life, and being twice supreme magistrate of therepublic, was at last assassinated. The younger Edda repeats in prose thesublime poetry of the elder Edda, mixed with many extravagances andabsurdities; and in point of literary and philosophical value it bears nocomparison with it. It marks the transition from the art of the Scalds tothe prose relation of the Sagaman. This work concludes with a treatise onthe poetic phraseology of the Scalds, and a system of versification bySnorre. 

The Bard, or Scald (literally smoothers of language, from _scaldre_, topolish), formed an important feature of the courts of the princes and morepowerful nobles. They often acted, at the same time, as bard, councilor, and warrior. Until the twelfth century, when the monks and the art ofwriting put an end to the Scaldic art, this race of poets continued toissue from Iceland, and to travel from country to country, welcomed as thehonored guests of kings, and receiving in return for their songs, ringsand jewels of great value, but never money. There is preserved a list oftwo hundred and thirty scalds, who had distinguished themselves from thetime of Ragnor Lodbrok to that of Vladimir II. , or from the latter end ofthe eighth, to the beginning of the thirteenth century. Ragnor Lodbrok wasa Danish king, who, in one of his predatory excursions, was taken prisonerin England and thrown into a dungeon, to be stung to death by serpents. His celebrated death song is said to have been composed during historments. The best of the scaldic lays, however, are greatly inferior tothe Eddaic poems. Alliteration is the chief characteristic of theversification. 

The word Saga means literally a tale or narrative, and is used in Icelandto denote every species of tradition, whether fabulous or true. In amount, the Saga literature of ancient Scandinavia is surprisingly extensive, consisting of more than two hundred volumes. The Sagas are, for the mostpart, unconnected biographies or narratives of greater or less length, principally describing events which took place from the ninth to thethirteenth century. They are historical, mythic, heroic, and romantic. 

The first annalist of Iceland of whom we have any remains was Ari the Wise(b. 1067), the contemporary of Samund, and his annals, for the most part, have been lost. Snorre Sturleson, already spoken of as the collector ofthe Prose Edda, was the author of a great original work, the"Heimskringla, " or Home-Circle, so called from the first word of themanuscript, a most admirable history of a great portion of northern Europefrom the period of the Christian Era to 1177, including every species ofSaga composition. It traces Odin and his followers from the East, fromAsaland and Asgard, its chief city, to their settlement in Scandinavia. Itnarrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdoms ofNorway, Sweden, and Denmark, the Viking expeditions, the discovery andsettlement of Iceland and Greenland, the discovery of America, and theconquests of England and Normandy. The stories are told with a life andfreshness that belong only to true genius, and a picture is given of humanlife in all its reality, genuine, vivid, and true. Some of the Sagas ofthe "Heimskringla" are grand romances, full of brilliant adventures, whileat the same time they lie so completely within the range of history thatthey may be regarded as authentic. That of Harold Haardrada narrates hisexpedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in Constantinople, Syria, and Sicily, his scaldic accomplishments, and his battles in Englandagainst Harold, the son of Earl Godwin, where he fell only a few daysbefore Godwin's son himself fell at the battle of Hastings. This Saga is asplendid epic in prose, and is particularly interesting to the Englishrace. The first part of the "Heimskringla" is necessarily derived fromtradition; as it advances fable and fact all curiously intermingle, and itterminates in authentic history. 

Among the most celebrated Sagas of the remaining divisions are the "Sagasof Erik the Wanderer, " who went in search of the Island of Immortality;"Frithiof's Saga, " made the subject of Tegnér's great poem; the Saga ofRagnor Lodbrok, of Dietrich of Bern, and the Volsunga Saga, relating tothe ancestors of Sigurd or Siegfried, the hero of the Nibelungen Lied. There are, besides, Sagas of all imaginable fictions of heroes, saints, magicians, conquerors, and fair women. Almost every leading family ofIceland had its written saga. The Sagamen, like the Scalds, traveled overall Scandinavia, visited the courts and treasured up and transmitted toposterity the whole history of the North. This wonderful activity of theScandinavian mind from the ninth to the thirteenth century, both in amountand originality, throws completely into the shade the literaryachievements of the Anglo-Saxons during the same period. 

When Christianity superseded the ancient religion, the spirit andtraditions of the old mythology remained in the minds of the people, andbecame their fireside literature under the name of "Folk Sagas. " Theirlegends and nursery tales are diffused over modern Scandinavia, andappear, with many variations, through all the literature of Europe. Amongthem are found the originals of "Jack the Giant Killer, " "Cinderella, ""Blue Beard, " the "Little Old Woman Cut Shorter, " "The Giant who smelt theBlood of an Englishman, " and many others. 

The Folk Sagas have only recently been collected, but they are the trueproductions of ancient Scandinavians. 

The art of the Scald and Sagaman, which was extinguished with theintroduction of Christianity, revived after a time in the Romances ofChivalry and the popular ballads. These ballads are classified as heroic, supernatural, historic, and ballads of love and romance; they successivelydescribe all the changes in the life and opinions of society, and closelyresemble those of England, Scotland, and Germany. They are the commonexpression of the life and feelings of a common race, under the prevailinginfluences of the same period, and the same stories often inspired thenameless bards of both countries. They are composed in the same form andpossess the same curious characteristic of the refrain or chorus whichdistinguishes this poetry in its transition from the epic to the lyricform. They express a peculiar poetic feeling which is sought for in vainin the epic age--a sentiment which, without art and without name, wanderson until it is caught up by fresh lips, and becomes the regularinterpreter of the same feelings. Thus this simple voice of song travelsonward from mouth to month, from heart to heart, the language of thegeneral sorrows, hopes, and memories; strange, and yet near to every one, centuries old, yet never growing older, since the human heart, whosehistory it relates in so many changing images and notes, remains foreverthe same. 

Though the great majority of the popular ballads of Scandinavia areattributed to the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, thecomposition of them by no means ceased then. This voice of the peoplecontinued more or less to find expression down to the close of the lastcentury, when it became the means of leading back its admirers to truthand genuine feeling, and, more than anything else, contributed to therevival of a new era in literature. 

5. DANISH LITERATURE--In taking leave of the splendid ancient literatureof Scandinavia, we find before us a waste of nearly four centuries fromthe thirteenth, which presents scarcely a trace of intellectualcultivation. The ballads and tales, indeed, lingered in the popular memoryand heart; fresh notes of genuine music were from time to time added tothem, and they form the connecting link between the ancient and modernliterature. Saxo Grammaticus and Theodoric the monk, in the thirteenthcentury, adopted the Latin language in their chronicles of Denmark andNorway, and from that time it usurped the place of the native tongue amongthe educated. In the sixteenth century the spirit of the Reformation beganto exert an influence, and the Bible was translated into the populartongue. New fields of thought were opened, a passion for literature wasexcited, and translations, chiefly from the German, were multiplied; aknowledge of the classics was cultivated, and, in time, a noble harvest ofliterature followed. 

The first author who marks the new era is Arreboe (1587-1637), who hasbeen called the Chaucer of Denmark. His chief work was the "Hexameron, " or"The World's First Week. " It abounds with learning, and displays greatpoetic beauty. The religious psalms and hymns of Kingo (1634-1703) arecharacterized by a simple yet powerfully expressed spirit of piety, andare still held in high esteem. His Morning and Evening Prayers, or, as hebeautifully terms them, "Sighs, " are admirable. 

Many other names of note are found in the literature of this period, butthe only one who achieved a world-wide celebrity, was Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), who, for a time, was the centre of a brilliant world of science andliterature. The learned and celebrated, from all countries, visited him, and he was loaded with gifts and honors, in return for the honor which heconferred upon his native land. But at length, through the machinations ofhis enemies, he lost the favor of the king, and was forced to exilehimself forever from his country. The services rendered to astronomy byTycho Brahe were great, although his theory of the universe, in which ourown planet constituted the centre, has given way before the more profoundone of Copernicus. 

Holberg (1684-1754), a native of Norway, is commonly styled the creator ofthe modern literature of Denmark, and would take a high place in that ofany country. In the field of satire and comedy he was a great andunquestionable master. All his actors are types, and are as real andexistent at the present hour as they were actual when he sketched them. Besides satires and numerous comedies, Holberg was the author of varioushistories, several volumes of letters, and a book of fables. 

The principal names which appear in Danish literature, from Holberg toEvald, are those of Stub, Sneedorf, Tullin, and Sheersen. Evald (1743-1780) was the first who perceived the superb treasury of poetic wealthwhich lay in the far antiquity of Scandinavia, among the gods of theOdinic mythology, and who showed to his nation the grandeur and beautywhich the national history had reserved for the true poetic souls whoshould dare to appropriate them. But the sound which he drew from the oldheroic harp startled his contemporaries, while it did not fascinate them. The august figures which he brought before them seemed monstrous anduncouth. Neglected in life, and doomed to an early death, the history ofthis poet was painfully interesting; a strangely brilliant web of mingledgold and ordinary thread--a strangely blended fabric of glory and ofgrief. Solitary, poor, bowed down with physical and mental suffering, fromhis heart's wound, as out of a dark cleft in a rock, swelled the clearstream of song. The poem of "Adam and Eve, " "Rolf Krage, " the firstoriginal Danish tragedy, "Balder's Death, " and "The Fishermen, " are hisprincipal productions. "Rolf Krage" is the outpouring of a noble heart, inwhich the most generous and exalted sentiments revel in all theinexperience of youth. "Balder's Death" is a masterpiece of beauty, sentiment, and eloquence of diction. It is full of the passion of anunhappy love, and thus expresses the burning emotions of the poet's ownheart. The old northern gods and mythic personages are introduced, and thelyric element is blended with the dramatic. The lyrical drama of "TheFishermen" is perhaps the most perfect and powerful of all Evald's works. The intense interest it excites testifies to the power of the writer, while the music of the versification delights the ear. His lyric of "KingChristian, " now the national song of Denmark, is a masterly production ofits kind. 

During the forty years which succeeded the death of Evald, Denmarkproduced a great number of poets and authors of various kinds, whoadvanced the fame of their country; but the chief of those who closed theeighteenth century are Baggesen (1764-1826) and Rahbek (1760-1830). Thoughthey still wrote in the nineteenth century, they belonged in spiritessentially to the eighteenth. The life of Baggesen was a genuine romance, with all its sunshine and shade. He was born in poverty and obscurity, andwhen a child of seven years old, on one occasion, attracted the momentaryattention of the young and lovely Queen Caroline, who took him in her armsand kissed him. "Still, after half a century, " he writes, "glows thememory of that kiss; to all eternity I shall never forget it. From thatkiss sprang the germ of my entire succeeding fate. " After a long andsevere struggle with poverty, he suddenly found himself the most popularpoet of the country, and for a quarter of a century he was the pettedfavorite of the nation. Supplanted in public favor by the rising glory ofOehlenschläger, he had the misfortune to see the poetic crown of Denmarkplaced on the head of his rival; and the last years of his life wereembittered by disappointment and care. The works of Baggesen fill twelvevolumes, and consist of comic stories, numerous letters, satires andimpassioned lyrics, songs and ballads, besides dramas and operas. His"Poems to Nanna, " who, in the northern mythology, is the bride of Balder, are among the most beautiful in the Danish language, and no poet couldhave written them until he had gone through the deep and ennobling baptismof suffering. In these, Nanna is the symbol of the pure and eternalprinciple of love, and Balder is the type of the human heart, perpetuallyyearning after it in sorrow, yet in hope. Nanna appears lost--departedinto a higher and invisible world; and Balder, while forever seeking afterher, bears with him an internal consciousness that there he shall overtakeher, and possess her eternally. One of Baggesen's characteristics was theprojection of great schemes, which were never accomplished. He was toofond of living in the present--in the charmed circle of admiring friends--to achieve works otherwise within the limit of his powers. Bat with allhis faults, his works will always remain brilliant and beautiful amid theliterary wealth of his country. 

In the early part of the nineteenth century the new light which radiatedfrom Germany found its way into Denmark, and in no country was the resultso rapid or so brilliant. There soon arose a school of poets who createdfor themselves a reputation in all parts of Europe that would have donehonor to any age or country. A new epoch in the language began withOehlenschläger (1779-1856), the greatest poet of Denmark, and therepresentative, not only of the North, but, like Scott, Byron, Goethe, andSchiller, the outgrowth of a great era as well, and the incarnation of thebroader and more natural spirit of his time. In 1819 he published the"Gods of the North, " in which he combines all the legends of the Edda intoone connected whole. He entered fully into the spirit of these grand oldpoems, and condensed and elaborated them into one. In the various regionsof gods, giants, dwarfs, and men, in the striking variety of characters, the great and wise Odin, the mighty Thor, the good Balder, the maliciousLoke, the queenly Frigga, the genial Freya, the lovely Iduna, the gentleNanna--in all the magnificent scenery of Midgard, Asgard, and Nifelheim, with the glorious tree Yggdrasil and the rainbow bridge, the poet foundinexhaustible scope for poetical embellishment, and he availed himself ofit all with a genuine poet's power. The dramas of Oehlenschläger are hismasterpieces, but they form only a small portion of his works. His prosestories and romances fill several volumes, and his smaller poems would ofthemselves have established almost a greater reputation than that of anyDanish poet who went before him. 

Grundtvig (b. 1783) is one of the most original and independent minds ofthe North. As a preacher he was fervid and eloquent; as a writer on theScandinavian mythology and hero-life, he gave, perhaps, the truest idea ofthe spirit of the northern myths. 

Blicher (1782-1868) was a stern realist, who made his native province ofJutland the scene of his poems and stories, which in many respectsresemble those of Crabbe. 

Ingemann (1789-1862) is a voluminous writer in every department ofliterature. His historical romances are the delight of the people, who, bytheir winter firesides, forget their snow-barricaded woods and mountainsin listening to his pages. 

Heiberg (1791-1860) as a critic ruled the Danish world of taste for manyyears, and by his writings did much to elevate dramatic art and publicsentiment. The greatest authoress that Denmark has produced is theCountess Gyllenbourg (1773-1856). Her knowledge of life, sparkling wit, and faultless style, make her stories, the authorship of which was unknownbefore her death, masterpieces of their kind. 

The greatest pastoral lyrist of this country is Winther (1796-1876). Hisdescriptions of scenery and rural life have an extraordinary charm. Hertz(1796-1870) is the most cosmopolitan Danish writer of his time. Müller(1809-1876) is celebrated for his comedies, tragedies, lyrics, andsatires, all of which prove the immense breadth of his compass and theinexhaustible riches of his imagination. 

Hans Christian Andersen (1805-1875) is known to the English reader by hisstories and legends for the young, his romances, and autobiography. He wasborn of humble peasants, and early attracted the attention of persons inpower, who, with that liberality to youthful genius so characteristic ofDenmark, enabled him to enter the university, and afterwards to travelover Europe. The "Improvisatore" is considered the best of his romances. 

Three writers connect the age of romanticism with the present day, --Plong(b. 1812), a vigorous politician and poet; Goldschmidt (b. 1818), authorof novels and poems in the purest Danish; Hastrup (b. 1818), the author ofa series of comedies unrivaled in delicacy and wit. 

Among the names distinguished in science are those of Malte Brun ingeography; Rask, Grundtvig, Molbech, Warsaae, Rafn, Finn Magnusen andothers in philology and literary antiquities. Of the two brothers Oersted, one, a lawyer and statesman, has done much to establish the principles ofstate economy, while the discoveries of the other entitle him to thehighest rank in physical science. 

6. SWEDISH LITERATURE. --The first independent literature of modernScandinavia was, as we have seen, the popular songs and ballads which, during the Middle Ages, kept alive the germ of intellectual life. Theeffect of the Reformation was soon seen in the literature of Sweden, as ofother countries. The first intellectual development displayed itself inthe dramatic attempt of Messenius and his son, who changed and substitutedactual history for legendary and scriptural subjects. The genius ofSweden, however, is essentially lyrical, rather than dramatic or epic. Stjernhjelm (1598-1672) was a writer of great merit, --the author of manydramas, lyrics, and epic and didactic poems. He so far surpassed hiscontemporaries that he decided the character of his country's literaturefor a century; but his influence was finally lost in the growing Italianand German taste. The principal names of this period are those of Lucidor, a wild, erratic genius; Mrs. Brenner, the first female writer of Sweden, whose numerous poems are distinguished for their neat and easy style; andSpegel (d. 1711), whose Psalms, full of the simplest beauty, give him alasting place in the literature of the country. The literary taste ofSweden, in the seventeenth century, made great progress; native geniusawoke to conscious power, and the finest productions of Europe were quotedand commented on. 

During the eighteenth century, French taste prevailed all over Europe; notonly the manners, etiquette, and toilets of France were imitated, thefashion of its literature was also adopted. Corneille, Racine, Molière, and Boileau stamped their peculiar philosophy of literature on the greaterportion of the civilized world. Imagination was frozen by these cold, glittering models; life and originality became extinct, imitator followedupon imitator, until there was a universal dearth of soul; and men gravelyasserted that everything had been said and done in poetry and literaturethat could be said and done. What a glorious reply has since been given tothis utterance of inanity and formalism, in a countless host of great andoriginal names, all the world knows. But in no country was this Gallomaniamore strongly and enduringly prevalent than in Sweden. The principalwriters of the early part of the Gallic period are Dalin, Nordenflycht, Creutz, and Gyllenborg. As a prose writer, rather than a poet, Dalindeserves remembrance. He established a periodical in imitation of the"Spectator, " and through this conferred the same benefits on Swedishliterature that Addison conferred on that of England, --a great improvementin style, and the origination of a national periodical literature. Charlotte Nordenflycht (b. 1718) is called the Swedish Sappho. Her poetryis all love and sorrow, as her life was; in a better age she would havebeen a better poetess, for she possessed great feeling, passion, andimagination. She exerted a wide influence on the literary life of hertime, in the capital, where the coteries which sprung up about herembraced all the poets of the day. Gyllenborg and Creutz were deficient inlyric depth, and were neither of them poets of the first order. 

Of the midday of the Gallic era, the king, Gustavus III. (1771-1792), Kellgren, Leopold, and Oxenstjerna are the chiefs. Gustavus was a masterof rhetoric, and in all his poetical tendencies fast bound to the Frenchsystem. He was, however, the true friend of literature, and did whateverlay in his power to promote it, and to honor and reward literary men. In1786 he established the Swedish Academy, which for a long time continuedto direct the public taste. As an orator, Gustavus has rarely found arival in the annals of Sweden, and his dramas in prose possess much merit, and are still read with interest. 

Kellgren (1751-1795) was the principal lyric poet of this period. Hisworks betray a tendency to escape from the bondage of his age, and open anew spring-time in Swedish poetry. For his own fame, and that of his age, his early death was a serious loss. Leopold (1756-1829) continued to swaythe literary sceptre, after the death of Kellgren, for the remainder ofthe century. He is best known by his dramas and miscellaneous poems. Hisplays have the faults that belong to his school, but many of his poemsabound with striking thoughts, and are elastic and graceful in style. Thegreat writer of this period, however, was Oxenstjerna (1750-1818), adescriptive poet, who, with all the faults of his age and school, displaysa deep feeling for nature. His pictures of simple life, amid the fieldsand woods of Sweden, are full of idyllic beauty and attractive grace. 

As the French taste overspread Europe at very nearly the same time, so itsinfluence decayed and died out almost simultaneously. In France itself, long before the close of the eighteenth century, elements were at workdestined to produce the most extraordinary changes in the political, social, and literary condition of the world. Even those authors who weremost French were most concerned in preparing this astounding revolution. In many countries it was not the French doctrines, but the French events, that startled, dazzled, and excited the human heart and imagination, andproduced the greatest effects on literature. Those who sympathized leastwith French views were often most influenced by the magnificence of thescenes which swept over the face of the civilized world, and antagonismwas not less potent than sympathy to arouse the energies of mind. But evenbefore these movements had produced any marked effect, Gallic influencebegan to give way, and genius began freely to range the earth and chooseits materials wherever God and man were to be found. 

The heralds of the new era in Sweden were Bellman, Hallman, Kexel, Wallenberg, Lidner, Thorild, and Lengren. Bellman (1740-1795) is regardedby the Swedes with great enthusiasm. There is something so perfectlynational in his spirit that he finds an echo of infinite delight in allSwedish hearts. Everything patriotic, connected with home life andfeelings, home memories, the loves and pleasures of the past, all seem tobe associated with the songs of Bellman. Hallman, his friend, wrotecomedies and farces. His characters are drawn from the bacchanalian classdescribed in Bellman's lyrics, but they are not sufficiently varied intheir scope and sphere to create an actual Swedish drama. Kexel, thefriend of the two last named, lived a gay and vagabond life, and iscelebrated for his comedies. Wallenberg was a clergyman, full of theenjoyment of life, and disposed to see the most amusing side ofeverything. Lidner and Thorild, unlike the writers just named, were grave, passionate, and sorrowful. Lidner was a nerve-sick, over-excited genius;but many of his inspired thoughts struck deep into the heart of the time, and Swedish literature is highly indebted to Thorild for the spirit ofmanly freedom and the principles of sound reasoning and taste which heintroduced into it. 

One of the most interesting names of the transition period is that of AnnaMaria Lengren (1754-1811). She has depicted the scenes of domestic andsocial life with a skill and firmness, yet a delicacy of touch that isperhaps more difficult of attainment than the broad lines of a much moreambitious style. Her scenes and personages are all types, and her heroesand heroines continually present themselves in Swedish life in perpetualand amusing reproduction. These poems will secure her a place among theclassical writers of her country. 

The political revolution of 1809 secured the freedom of the press, new menarose for the new times, and a deadly war was waged between the old schooland the new, until the latter triumphed. The first distinguished names ofthe new school are those of Franzén and Wallin. Franzén (1772-1847), abishop, was celebrated for his lyrics of social life, and in many pointsresembles Wordsworth. The qualities of heart, the home affections, and thegladsome and felicitous appreciation of the beauty of life and naturefound in his poems, give him his great charm. Archbishop Wallin (1779-1839) is the great religious poet of Sweden. In his hymns there is astrength and majesty, a solemn splendor and harmony of intonation, thathave no parallel in the Swedish language. 

Among other writers of the time are Atterbom, Hammarsköld, and Palmblad. The works of Atterbom (b. 1790) indicate great lyrical talent, but theyhave an airy unreality, which disappoints the healthy appetite of modernreaders. Hammarsköld (1785-1827) was an able critic and literaryhistorian, though his poems are of little value. Palmblad, besides being acritic, is the author of several novels and translations from the Greek. These three writers belonged to the Phosphoric School, so called from aperiodical called "The Phosphorus, " which advocated their opinions. 

The most distinguished school in Swedish literature is the Gothic, whichtook its rise in 1811, and which, aiming at a national spirit andcharacter, embraced in that nationality all the Gothic race as oneoriginal family, possessing the same ancestry, original religion, traditions, and even still the same spirit, predilections, and language, although broken into several dialects. This new school had truth, nature, and the spirit of the nation and the times with it, and it speedilytriumphed. First in the rank of its originators may be placed Geijer(1783-1847), who was at once a poet, musician, and historian; his poemsare among the most precious treasures of Swedish literature. In his"Chronicles of Sweden" he penetrates far into the mists and darkness ofantiquity, and brings thence magnificent traces of men and ages that pointstill onward to the times and haunts of the world's youth. The workpresents all that belongs to the North, its gods, its mythic doctrines, its grand traditions, its heroes, vikings, runes, and poets, carryingwhole ages of history in their trains. In his hands the dry bones ofhistory and chronology live like the actual flesh and blood of the presenttime. As Geijer is the first historian of Sweden, so is Tegnér (1782-1848)the first poet; and in his "Frithiof's Saga" he has made the nearestapproach to a successful epic writer. Although this poem has rather thecharacter of a series of lyrical poems woven into an epic cycle, it isstill a complete and great poem. It is characterized by tender, sensitive, and delicate feeling rather than by deep and overwhelming passion. In thestory he has, for the most part, adhered to the ancient Saga. Tegner is asyet only the most popular poet of Sweden; but the bold advance which hehas made beyond the established models of the country shows what Swedishpoets may yet accomplish by following on in the track of a higher andfreer enterprise. The other most prominent poets of the new school areStagnelius (1793-1828), who bears a strong resemblance to Shelley in histendency to the mythic and speculative, and in his wonderful power oflanguage and affluence of inspired phrase; Almquist (d. 1866), an able andvaried writer, who has written with great wit, brilliancy, and power inalmost every department; Vitalis (d. 1828), the author of some religiouspoetry; Dahlgren, an amusing author, and Fahlcrantz, who wrote "Noah'sArk, " a celebrated humorous poem. Runeberg, one of the truest and greatestpoets of the North, is a Finn by birth, though he writes in Swedish; withall the wild melancholy character of his country he mingles a deep feelingof its sufferings and its wrongs. His verse is solemn and strong, like thespirit of its subject. He brings before you the wild wastes and the darkwoods of his native land, and its brave, simple, enduring people. You feelthe wind blow fresh from the vast, dark woodlands; you follow the elk-hunters through the pine forests or along the shores of remote lakes; youlie in desert huts and hear the narratives of the struggles of theinhabitants with the ungenial elements, or their contentions with moreungenial men. Runeberg seizes on life wherever it presents itself instrong and touching forms, --in the beggar, the gypsy, or the malefactor, --it is enough for him that it is human nature, doing and suffering, and inthese respects he stands preeminently above all the poets of Sweden. 

Besides the poets already spoken of, there are many others who cannot herebe even named. 

If the literature of Sweden is almost wholly modern, its romanceliterature is especially so. Cederborg was not unlike Dickens in hispeculiar walk and character, and in all his burlesque there is somethingkind, amiable, and excellent. He was followed by many others, whodisplayed much talent, correct sketching of costumes and manners, andtouches of true descriptive nature. 

But an authoress now appeared who was to create a new era in Swedishnovel-writing, and to connect the literary name and interests of Swedenmore intimately with the whole civilized world. In 1828, Fredrika Bremer(1802-1865) published her first works, which were soon followed by others, all of which attracted immediate attention. Later they were made known tothe English and American public through the admirable translations of Mrs. Howitt, and now they are as familiar as "Robinson Crusoe, " or the "Vicarof Wakefield, " wherever the English language is spoken. Wherever theseworks have been known they have awakened a more genial judgment of life, abetter view of the world and its destinies, a deeper trust in Providence, and a persuasion that to enjoy existence truly ourselves is to spread thatenjoyment around us to our fellow-men, and especially by the dailyevidences of good-will, affection, cheerfulness, and graceful attention tothe feelings of others, which, in the social and domestic circle, are sosmall in their appearance, but immense in their consequences. As a teacherof this quiet, smiling, but deeply penetrating philosophy of life, nowriter has yet arisen superior to Fredrika Bremer, while she has all thetime not even professed to teach, but only to entertain. 

The success of Miss Bremer's writings produced two contemporaneous femalenovelists of no ordinary merit--the Baroness Knorring (d. 1833) and EmilyCarlon (b. 1833). The works of the former are distinguished by a brilliantwit and an extraordinary power of painting life and passion, while a kindand amiable feeling pervades those of the latter. Among the laternovelists of Sweden are many names distinguished in other departments ofliterature. 

In conclusion, there are in Sweden hosts of able authors in whose handsall sciences, history, philology, antiquities, theology, every branch ofnatural and moral philosophy and miscellaneous literature have beenelaborated with a talent and industry of which any nation might be proud. Among the names of a world-wide fame are those, of Swedenborg (1688-1772), not more remarkable for his peculiar religious ideas than for his profoundand varied acquirements in science; Linnaeus (1707-1778), the founder ofthe established system of botany; and Scheele (1742-1786), eminent inchemistry. 

If the literature of Scandinavia continues to develop during the presentcentury with the strength and rapidity it has manifested during the last, it will present to the mind of the English race rich sources of enjoymentof a more congenial spirit than that of any other part of the Europeancontinent; and the more this literature Is cultivated the more it will beperceived that we are less an Anglo-Saxon than a Scandinavian race. 

The last few years in Sweden have been a period of political rather thanliterary activity, yielding comparatively few works of high aestheticvalue, Rydborg, a statesman and metaphysician, has produced a powerfulwork of fiction, "The Last Athenian, " and other works of minor importancehave been produced in various departments of literature. 

LITERATURE OF NORWAY. --Norway cannot be said to have had a literaturedistinct from the Danish until after its union with Sweden in 1814. Theperiod from that time to the present has been one of great literaryactivity in all departments, and many distinguished names might bementioned, among them that of Björnson (b. 1832), whose tales have beenextensively translated. Jonas Lie who enjoys a wide popularity, CamillaCollett, and Magdalene Thoresen are also favorite writers. Wergeland andWelhaven were two distinguished poets of the first half of the century. Kielland is an able novelist of the realistic school, and ProfessorBoyesen is well known in the United States for his tales and poems inEnglish. Henrick Ibsen is the most distinguished dramatic writer of Norwayand belongs to the realistic school. Among other writers of the presenttime are Börjesson whose "Eric XIV. " is a masterpiece of Swedish drama;Tekla Knös, a poetess whose claims have been sanctioned by the Academy;and Claude Gérard (_nom de plume_), very popular as a novelist. CharlesXV. And Oscar II. Are poets of merit. 

GERMAN LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. German Literature and its Divisions. --2. The Mythology. --3. The Language. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. Early Literature; Translation of the Bible by Ulphilas;the Hildebrand Lied. --2. The Age of Charlemagne; his Successors; theLudwig's Lied; Roswitha; the Lombard Cycle. --3. The Suabian Age; theCrusades; the Minnesingers; the Romances of Chivalry; the Heldenbuch; theNibelungen Lied. --4. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries; theMastersingers; Satires and Fables; Mysteries and Dramatic Representations;the Mystics; the Universities; the Invention of Printing. 

PERIOD SECOND. --From 1517 to 1700. --1. The Lutheran Period: Luther, Melanchthon. --2. Manuel, Zwingle, Fischart, Franck, Arnd, Boehm. --3. Poetry, Satire, and Demonology; Paracelsus and Agrippa; the Thirty Years'War. --4. The Seventeenth Century: Opitz, Leibnitz, Puffendorf, Kepler, Wolf, Thomasius, Gerhard; Silesian Schools; Hoffmannswaldau, Lohenstein. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. The Swiss and Saxon Schools: Gottsched, Bodmer, Rabener, Gellert, Kästner, and others. --2. Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, and Herder. --3. Goethe and Schiller. --4. The Göttingen School: Voss, Stolberg, Claudius, Bürger, and others. --5. The Romantic School: the Schlegels, Novalis; Tieck, Körner, Arndt, Uhland, Heine, and others. --6. The Drama:Goethe and Schiller; the _Power Men_; Müllner, Werner, Howald, andGrillparzer. --7. Philosophy: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Hartmann; Science: Liebig, Du Bois-Raymond, Virchow, Helmholst, Haeckel. --8. Miscellaneous Writings. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. GERMAN LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --Central Europe, from the Adriaticto the Baltic, is occupied by a people who, however politically divided asrespects language and race, form but one nation. The name _Germans_ isthat given to them by the Romans; the appellation which they apply tothemselves is _Deutsch_, a term derived from _Teutones_, by which theywere generally known, as also by the term Goths, in the early history ofEurope. 

In glancing at the various phases of German literature, we see the bardsat first uttering in primitive strains their war songs and traditions. Theintroduction of Christianity brought with it the cultivation of theclassic languages, although the people had no part in this learnedliterature, which was confined to the monasteries and schools. In thetwelfth and thirteenth centuries, letters, so long monopolized by theclergy, passed from their hands to those of the princes and nobles; and inthe next century the songs of the minnesingers gave way to the pedanticcraft of the mastersingers. 

A great intellectual regeneration followed the Reformation, but it was ofbrief duration. With the death of Luther and Melanchthon the lofty spiritof reform degenerated into scholasticism, and the scholars were asexclusive in their dispensation of intellectual light as the clergy hadbeen at an earlier period. While the priests, the minstrels, and thebookmen had each enlarged the avenues to knowledge, they were still closedand locked to the masses of the people; and so they remained, untilphilosophy arose to break down all barriers and to throw open to humanityat large the whole domain of knowledge and literature. 

In the midst of the convulsions which marked the close of the eighteenthcentury, the leading minds of Germany sought a solution of the greatproblems of civilization in the abysses of philosophy. Kant and hiscompeers gave an electric impulse to the German mind, the effects of whichwere manifest in the men who soon arose to apply the new discoveries ofphilosophy to literature. In Lessing, Herder, Goethe, and Schiller, theclergy, the minstrels, and the bookmen were each represented, butphilosophy had breathed into them an all-embracing, cosmical spirit ofhumanity, and under their influence German literature soon lost itsexclusive and sectional character, and became cosmopolitan and universal. 

The long cycle of literary experiments, however, is not yet completed. Since the philosophers have accomplished their mission by establishingprinciples, and the poets have made themselves intelligible to the masses, the German mind has entered upon the exploration of all spheres oflearning, and is making new and great advances in the solution of theproblems of humanity. The most eminent scholars, no longer pursuing theirstudies as a matter of art or taste, are inspired by the noble desire ofdiffusing knowledge and benefiting their fellow-beings; and to grapplewith the laws of nature, and to secure those conditions best adapted tothe highest human welfare, are their leading aims. The German explorers ofthe universe have created a new school of natural philosophers; Germanhistorians are sifting the records of the past and bringing forth greatpolitical, social, and scientific revelations. In geography, ethnology, philology, and in all branches of science, men of powerful minds are atwork, carrying the same enthusiasm into the world of fact that the poetshave shown in the fairy-land of the imagination. To these earnestquestioners, these untiring explorers, nature is reluctantly unveiling hermysteries, and history is giving up the buried secrets of the ages. Thelyre of the bard may be silent for a time, but this mighty struggle withthe forces of nature and with the obscurities of the past will at lastinspire a new race of poets and open a new vein of poetry, far more richthan the world of fancy has ever afforded. Science, regarded from thislofty point of view, will gradually assume epic proportions, and other andmore powerful Schillers and Goethes will arise to illustrate itsachievements. 

The history of German literature may be divided into three periods. 

The first, extending from the earliest times to the beginning of theReformation, 1517, embraces the early literature; that of the reign ofCharlemagne and his successors; that of the Suabian age (1138-1272), andof the first centuries of the reign of the House of Hapsburg. 

The second period, extending from 1517 to 1700, includes the literature ofthe age of the Reformation, and of the Thirty Years' War. 

The third period, from 1700 to the present time, contains the developmentof German literature in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 

2. THE MYTHOLOGY. --The German mythology is almost identical with theScandinavian, and in it, as in all the legends of the North, women play animportant part. Indeed, they occupied a far higher position among theseancient barbarians than in the polished nations of Greece and Rome. "It isbelieved, " says Tacitus, "that there is something holy and prophetic aboutthem, and therefore the warriors neither despise their counsels nordisregard their responses. "

The Paganism of the North, less graceful and beautiful than that ofGreece, had still the same tendency to people earth, air, and water withbeings of its own creation. The rivers had their Undines, the ocean itsNixes, the caverns their Gnomes, and the woods their Sprites. Christianitydid not deny the existence of these supernatural races, but it investedthem with a demoniac character. They were not regarded as immortal, although permitted to attain an age far beyond that granted to mankind, and they were denied the hope of salvation, unless purchased by a unionwith creatures of an earthly mould. 

According to the Edda, the Dwarfs were formed by Odin from the dust. Theywere either _Cobolds_--house spirits who attach themselves to the fortunesof the family, and, if well fed and treated, nestle beside the domestichearth--or Gnomes, who haunt deserted mansions and deep caverns. Themountain echoes are the mingled sounds of their voices as they mock thecries of the wanderer, and the fissures of the rocks are the entrances totheir subterranean abodes. Here they have heaped up countless treasures ofgold, silver, and precious stones, and here they pass their time infabricating costly armor. The German Elves, like those of other climes, have an irresistible propensity to dance and song, especially the Nixes, who, rising from their river or ocean home, will seat themselves on theshore and pour forth such sweet music as to enchant all who hear them, andare ever ready to impart their wondrous skill for the hope or promise ofsalvation. To secure this, they also lure young maidens to their waterydomains, and force or persuade them to become their brides. If theysubmit, they are allowed to sit on the rocks and wreathe their tresseswith corals, sea-weeds, and shells; but if they manifest any desire toreturn to their homes, a streak of blood on the surface of the waterstells the dark story of their doom. 

The Walkyres are the youthful maidens who have died upon their bridal eve, and who, unable to rest in their graves, return to earth and dance in thesilver rays of the moon; but if a mortal chances to meet them, theysurround and draw him within their magic ring, till, faint and exhausted, he falls lifeless to the earth. Not less dangerous are the river-maids, who, rising to the surface of the stream, lure the unwary traveler intothe depths below. There are also the White Women, who often appear at dawnor evening, with their pale faces and shadowy forms; these are thegoddesses of ancient Paganism, condemned to wander through ages to expiatethe guilt of having received divine worship, and to suffer eternalpunishment if not redeemed by mortal aid. Among the goddesses who, in theform of White Women, were long believed to exercise an influence for goodor ill on human affairs, Hertha and Frigga play the most conspicuousparts, and figure in many wild legends; proving how strong was the holdwhich the creed of their ancestors had on the minds of the Germans longafter its idols had been broken and its shrines destroyed. Hertha stillcherished the same beneficent disposition ascribed to her in the oldmythology, and continued to watch over and aid mankind until driven awayby the calumnies of which she was the victim, while Frigga appears as afearful ogress and sorceress. 

These popular superstitions, which retained their power over the minds ofthe people during the Middle Ages, and which even now are not whollyeradicated, have furnished a rich mine from which the poets and tale-writers of Germany have derived that element of the supernatural by whichthey are so often characterized. 

3. THE LANGUAGE. --The Teutonic languages, which belong to the Indo-European stock, consist of two branches; the Northern or Scandinavian, andthe Southern or German of the continent. The latter has threesubdivisions; the Eastern or Gothic, with its kindred idioms, the highGerman or German proper, --the literary idiom of Germany, --and the lowGerman, which includes the Frisian, old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, andFlemish. The high German, or German proper, comprehends the language ofthree periods: the old high German, which prevailed from the seventh tothe eleventh century; the middle high German, from the eleventh century tothe time of the Reformation; and the new high German, which dates from thetime of Luther, and is the present literary language of the country. 

No modern language equals the German in its productiveness and itscapacity of constant and homogeneous growth, in its aesthetical andphilosophical character, and in its originality and independence. Insteadof borrowing from the Greek, Latin, and other languages, to findexpressions for new combinations of ideas, it develops its own resourcesby manifold compositions of its own roots, words, and particles. Toexpress one idea in its various modifications, the English requiresTeutonic, Greek, and Latin elements, while the German tongue unfolds allthe varieties of the same idea by a series of compositive words foundedupon one Gothic root. The German language, therefore, while it is farsuperior in originality, flexibility, richness, and universality, does notadmit the varieties which distinguish the English. 

PERIOD FIRST

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE REFORMATION (360-1517). 

1. EARLY LITERATURE. --Previous to the introduction of Christianity theGermans had nothing worthy of the name of literature. The first monumentthat has come down to us is the translation of the Bible into Moeso-Gothic, by Ulphilas, bishop of the Goths (360-388), who thus anticipatedthe work of Luther by a thousand years. 

As the art of writing was unknown to the Goths, Ulphilas formed analphabet by combining Runic, Greek, and Roman, letters, and down to theninth century this version was held in high esteem and seems to have beenin general use. For nearly four hundred years after Ulphilas, no trace ofliterature is discovered among the Teutonic tribes. They, however, hadtheir war-songs, and minstrel skill seems to have been highly prized bythem. These lays were collected by Charlemagne, and are described byEginhardt as "ancient barbarous poems, celebrating the deeds and wars ofthe men of old;" but they have nearly all disappeared, owing, probably, tothe refusal of the monks, then the only scribes, to transmit to paperaught which tended to recall the rites and myths of Paganism. Only tworelics of this age, in their primitive form, remain; they are rhymeless, but alliterated, --a kind of versification common to the German, Anglo-Saxon, and Scandinavian poetry, and which, early in the ninth century, gave place to rhyme. Of these two poems, the Hildebrand Lied Is probably afragment of the traditions which had circulated orally for centuries, andwhich, with many modifications, were transcribed by the Scandinavians intheir sagas, and by Charlemagne in his collection. None of the other poemswhich have come down to us from this period bear an earlier date than thetwelfth and thirteenth centuries, when they were remodeled and appeared inthe form of the Heldenbuch and Nibelungen Lied. The Hildebrand Liedbelongs to the cycle of Theodoric the Great, or _Dietrich of Bern_ orVerona, as he is called in poetry, from that town being the seat of hisgovernment after he had subdued the Empire of the West. This poem, thoughrude and wild, is not without grandeur and dramatic effect. 

2. CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. --The era of Charlemagne, in allrespects so memorable, could not be without influence on the literature ofGermany, then in a condition of almost primitive rudeness. The German, language was taught by his command in the schools and academies which heestablished in all parts of the empire; he caused the monks to preach inthe vernacular tongue, and he himself composed the elements of a grammarfor the use of his subjects. He recompensed with imperial munificence thelearned men who resorted to his court; Alcuin, Theodophilus, PaulWinifred, and Eginhardt were honored with his peculiar confidence. Underhis influence the monasteries became literary as well as ecclesiasticalseminaries, which produced such men as Otfried (fl. 840), the author ofthe rhymed Gospel-book, and Notker Teutonicus, the translator of thePsalms. 

After the death of Charlemagne the intellectual prospects of Germanydarkened. The empire was threatened by the Normans from the west, and theHungarians from the east, and there were few places where the peacefulpursuits of the monasteries and schools could be carried on withoutinterruption. 

The most important relic of the last part of the ninth century is the"Ludwig's Lied, " a hymn celebrating the victory of Louis over the Normans, composed by a monk with whom that monarch was on terms of great intimacy. The style is coarse and energetic, and blends the triumphant emotions ofthe warrior with the pious devotion of the recluse. Towards the close ofthe tenth century, Roswitha, a nun, composed several dramas in Latin, characterized by true Christian feeling and feminine tenderness. 

The eleventh century presents almost an entire blank in the history ofGerman literature. The country was invaded by the Hungarian and Slavonicarmies from abroad, or was the scene of contest between the emperors andtheir vassals at home, and in the struggle between Henry IV. And PopeGregory VII. , the clergy, who had hitherto been the chief supporters oftheir literature, became estranged from the German people. 

A series of lays or poems, however, known as the Lombard Cycle, belongs tothis age, among which are "Duke Ernest, " "Count Rudolph, " and others, which combine the wild legends of Paganism with the more courtly style ofthe next period. 

3. THE SUABIAN AGE. --A splendid epoch of belles-lettres dates from theyear 1138, when Conrad III. , of the Hohenstauffen dynasty, ascended thethrone of the German Empire. The Crusades, which followed, filled Germanywith religious and martial excitement, and chivalry was soon in the heightof its splendor. The grand specimens of Gothic architecture producedduring this period, the cathedrals of Ulm, Strasbourg, and Cologne, inwhich ponderous piles of matter were reduced to forms of beauty, speak ofthe great ideas and the great powers called into exercise to fulfill them. The commercial wealth of Germany was rapidly developed; thousands of serfsbecame freemen; large cities arose, mines were discovered, and a taste forluxury began to prevail. 

In 1149, when the emperor undertook a crusade in concert with Louis VII. Of France, the nobility of Germany were brought into habitual acquaintancewith the nobility of France, who at that time cultivated Provençal poetry, and the result was quickly apparent in German literature. The poets beganto take their inspiration from real life, and though far from beingimitators, they borrowed their models from the romantic cycles of Brittanyand Provence. 

The emperors of the Suabian or Hohenstauffen dynasty formed a newrallying-point for the national sympathies, and their courts and thecastles of their vassals proved a more genial home for the Muses than themonasteries of Fulda and St. Gall. In the Crusades, the various divisionsof the German race, separated after their inroad into the seats of Romancivilization, again met; no longer with the impetuosity of Franks andGoths, but with the polished reserve of a Godfrey of Bouillon and thechivalrous bearing of a Frederic Barbarossa. The German emperors andnobles opened their courts and received their guests with brillianthospitality; the splendor of their tournaments and festivals attractedcrowds from great distances, and foremost among them poets and singers;thus French and German poetry were brought face to face. While theHohenstauffen dynasty remained on the imperial throne (1138-1272) theSuabian dialect prevailed, the literature of chivalry was patronized atthe court, and the Suabian minstrels were everywhere heard. These poets, who sang their love-songs, or _minne songs_ (so called from an old Germanword signifying love), have received the name of Minnesingers. During acentury and a half, from 1150 to 1300, emperors, princes, barons, priests, and minstrels vied with each other in translating and producing lays oflove, satiric fables, sacred legends, _fabliaux_, and metrical romances. Some of the bards were poor, and recited their songs from court to court;but many of them sang merely for pleasure when their swords wereunemployed. This poetry was essentially chivalric; ideal love for a chosenlady, the laments of disappointed affection, or the charms of spring, formed the constant subjects of their verse. They generally sang their owncompositions, and accompanied themselves on the harp; yet some even amongthe titled minstrels could neither read nor write, and it is related of ofone that he was forced to keep a letter from his lady-love in his bosomfor ten days until he could find some one to decipher it. 

Among the names of nearly two hundred Minnesingers that have come down tous, the most celebrated are Wolfram of Eschenbach (fl. 1210), Henry ofOfterdingen (fl. 1250), and Walter of the Vogel Weide (1170-1227). 

The numerous romances of chivalry which were translated into German rhymeduring the Suabian period have been divided into classes, or cycles. Thefirst and earliest cycle relates to Arthur and the Knights of the RoundTable; the are of Anglo-Norman origin, and were probably derived fromWelsh chronicles extant in Britain and Brittany before the poets on eitherside of the Channel began to rhyme in the _Langue d'oui_. Of all the RoundTable traditions, none became so popular in Germany as that of the "SanGraal, " or _"Sang Réal"_ (the real blood). By this was understood a cup orcharger, supposed to have served the Last Supper, and to have beenemployed in receiving the precious blood of Christ from the side-woundgiven on the cross. This relic is stated to have been brought by Joseph ofArimathea into northern Europe, and to have been intrusted by him to thecustody of Sir Parsifal. Wolfram of Eschenbach, in his "Parsifal, " relatesthe adventures of the hero who passed may years of pilgrimage in search ofthe sanctuary of the Graal. The second cycle of romance, respectingCharlemagne and his twelve peers, was mostly translated from theliterature of France. The third cycle relates to the heroes of classicalantiquity, and exhibits them in the costume of chivalry. Among them arethe stories of Alexander the Great, and "Aeneid, " and the "Trojan War. "

But the age of German chivalry and chivalric poetry soon passed away. Toward the end of the thirteenth century the Crusades languished, and thecontest between the imperial and papal powers raged fiercely; with thedeath of Frederic I. The star of the Suabian dynasty set, and the sweetsounds of the Suabian lyre died away with the last breath of Conradin onthe scaffold at Naples, in 1268. 

During this period there was a wide difference between the minstrelsypatronized by the nobility and the old ballads preserved by the popularmemory. These, however, were seized upon by certain poets of the time, probably Henry of Ofterdingen, Wolfram of Eschenbach, and others, andreduced to the epic form, in which they have come down to us under thetitles of the Heldenbuch and the Nibelungen Lied. They contain manysingular traits of a warlike age, and we have proof of their greatantiquity in the morals and manners which they describe. 

The Heldenbuch, or Book of Heroes, which, in its present form, belongs tothe close of the twelfth century, is a collection of poems, containingtraditions of events which happened in the time of Attila, and theirruptions of the German nations into the Roman Empire. The principalpersonages who figure in these tales of love and war are Etzel or Attila, Dietrich or Theodoric the Great, Siegfried, the Achilles of the North, Gudrune, Hagan, and others, who reappear in the Nibelungen Lied, and whohave been already alluded to in the heroic legends of the ScandinavianEdda. The Nibelungen Lied (from _Nibelungen_, the name of an ancientpowerful Burgundian race, and _Lied_, a lay or song) occupies an importantplace in German literature, and in grandeur of design and beauty ofexecution it far surpasses any other poetical production of this period. The "Horny Siegfried, " one of the poems of the Heldenbuch, serves as asort of prelude to the Nibelungen. In that, Siegfried appears as thepersonification of manly beauty, virtue, and prowess; invulnerable, fromhaving bathed in the blood of some dragons which he had slain, save in onespot between his shoulders, upon which a leaf happened to fall. Havingrescued the beautiful Chriemhild from, the power of a giant or dragon, andpossessed himself of the treasures of the dwarfs, he restores her to herfather, the King of the ancient city of Worms, where he is received withregal honors, and his marriage with Chriemhild celebrated withunparalleled splendor. 

In the Nibelungen, Chriemhild is represented as the sister of Günther theKing of Burgundy; the gallant Siegfried having heard of her surpassingbeauty, resolves to woo her for his bride, but all his splendidachievements fail to secure her favors. In the mean time tidings reach thecourt of the fame of the beautiful Brunhild, queen of Isenland, of hermatchless courage and strength; every suitor for her hand being forced toabide three combats with her, and if vanquished to suffer a cruel death. Günther resolves to try his fortune, and to win her or perish, andSiegfried accompanies him on condition that the hand of Chriemhild shallbe his reward if they succeed. 

At the court of Brunhild, Siegfried presents himself as the vassal ofGünther, to increase her sense of his friend's power, and this falsehoodis one cause of the subsequent calamities. In the combats, Siegfried, becoming invisible by means of a magic cap he had obtained from thedwarfs, seizes the arm of Günther and enables him to overcome the martialmaid in every feat of arms: and the vanquished Brunhild bids her vassalsdo homage to him as their lord. A double union is now celebrated with theutmost pomp and rejoicing. The proud Brunhild, however, is indignant ather sister-in-law wedding a vassal. In vain Günther assures her thatSiegfried is a mighty prince in his own country; the offended queendetermines to punish his deception, and ties him hand and foot with hermagic girdle, and hangs him upon a nail; Siegfried pitying the conditionof the king, promises his aid in depriving the haughty queen of thegirdle, the source of all her magic strength. He successfully accomplishesthe feat, and in a luckless hour presents the trophy to Chriemhild, andconfides the tale to her ear. A dispute having afterwards arisen betweenthe two queens, Chriemhild, carried away by pride and passion, producesthe fatal girdle, a token which, if found in the possession of any savethe husband, was regarded as an almost irrefutable proof of guilt amongthe nations of the North. At this Brunhild vows revenge, and is aided bythe fierce Hagan, Günther's most devoted follower, who, having inducedChriemhild to confide to him the secret of the spot where Siegfried ismortal, seizes the first occasion to plunge a lance between his shoulders, and afterwards bears the body to the chamber door of Chriemhild, who isoverwhelmed with grief and burning with resentment. To secure her revengeshe at length marries Etzel, or Attila, king of the Huns, who invites theBurgundians to his court, and at a grand festival Chriemhild involves themin a bloody battle, in which thousands are slain on both sides. Güntherand Hagan are taken prisoners by Dietrich of Berne, and put to death byChriemhild, who in turn suffers death at the hands of one of the followersof Dietrich. 

Such is an imperfect outline of this ancient poem, which, despite all itshorrors and improbabilities, has many passages of touching beauty, andwonderful power. Siegfried, the hero, is one of the most charmingcharacters of romance or poetry. Chriemhild, at first all that the poetcould fancy of loveliness, becomes at last an avenging fury. Brunhild isproud, haughty, stern, and vindictive, though not incapable of softeremotions. 

In the Scandinavian legend we find the same personages in grander outlinesand more gigantic proportions. The mythological portion of the storyoccupies the most prominent place, and Brunhild is there represented as aValkyriur. 

The time in which the scene of this historical tragedy is laid is about430 A. D. From the thirteenth to the sixteenth century it was widely read, and highly appreciated. But in the succeeding age it was almost entirelyforgotten. It was brought again to light in the beginning of the presentcentury, and since that time, it has been the subject of many learnedcommentaries and researches. 

4. THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES. --The period from the accessionof the House of Hapsburg to the beginning of the Reformation was crowdedwith events of great social importance, but its literature was remarkablypoor. The palmy days of the minstrels and romancists had passed away. Rudolph was an economical prince, who mended his own doublet to sparemoney, and as he had no taste for minstrelsy, the composers of songs whowent to his court found no rewards there. The rank and influence of themetropolis were transferred from Frankfort to Vienna, and thecommunication with the southern and southwestern parts of Europe wasgreatly impeded. The Germans were occupied in crusades against the Huns;the court language was changed from west Gothic to an east Gothic dialect, which was less national, and much of the southern culture and the Europeansympathies which had characterized the reign of the Suabian emperorsdisappeared. 

Some inferior princes, however, encouraged versification, but the prizeswere so reduced in value that the knights and noblemen left the field infavor of inferior competitors. A versifying mania now began to pervade allclasses of society; chaplains, doctors, schoolmasters, weavers, blacksmiths, shoemakers--all endeavored to mend their fortunes by rhyming. Poetry sank rapidly into dullness and mediocrity, while the so-calledpoets rose in conceit and arrogance. The spirit of the age soon embodiedthese votaries of the muse in corporations, and the Emperor Charles IV. (1346-1378) gave them a charter. They generally called twelve poets amongthe minnesingers their masters, and hence their name Mastersingers. Theymet on certain days and criticised each other's productions. Correctnesswas their chief object, and they seemed to have little idea of thedifference between poetical and prosaic expressions. Every fault wasmarked, and he who had fewest received the prize, and was allowed to takeapprentices in the art. At the expiration of his poetical apprenticeshipthe young poet was admitted to the corporation and declared a master. 

Though the institution of the Mastersingers was established at the closeof the thirteenth century, it was not until the fifteenth and sixteenththat it really flourished, particularly through the genius of Hans Sachs. The institution, survived, however, though languishing, through theseventeenth century, and the calamities of the Thirty Years' War. At Ulmit outlasted even the changes which the French Revolution effected inEurope, and as late as 1830 twelve old Mastersingers yet remained, who, after being driven from one asylum to another, sang their ancient melodiesfrom memory in the little hostelry where the workmen used to meet in theevening to drink together. In 1839 four only were living, and in that yearthese veterans assembled with great solemnity, and declaring the societyof Mastersingers forever closed, presented their songs, hymns, books, andpictures to a modern musical institution at Ulm. 

While the early Mastersingers were pouring forth their strains withundiminished confidence in their own powers, a new species of poeticliterature was growing up beside them in the form of simple and humorousfables, or daring satires, often directed against the clergy and nobility, which were among the most popular productions of the Middle Ages. Suchwere "Friar Amis" and the "Ship of Fools. " Indeed, from the year 1300 tothe era of the Reformation, we may clearly trace the progress of a schoolof lay doctrine which was opposed to a great part of the teaching of thechurch, and which was yet allowed to prevail among the people. 

Among the fables, "Reynard the Fox" had a very early origin, and hasremained a favorite of the German people for several centuries. After manytransformations it reappeared as a popular work at the era of theReformation, and it was at last immortalized by the version of Goethe. 

5. THE DRAMA. --We find the first symptoms of a German drama as early asthe thirteenth century, in rude attempts to perform religious pieces likethe old Mysteries once so popular throughout Europe. At first thesedramatic readings were conducted in the churches and by the priests, butwhen the people introduced burlesque digressions, they were banished tothe open fields, where they assumed still greater license. Students in theuniversities delighted to take part in them, and these exhibitions werecontinued after the Reformation. There is no reason to suppose that theearly Christians objected to these sacred dramas or mysteries when theywere compatible with their religion. They were imported into Europe fromConstantinople, by crusaders and pilgrims, and became favorite shows to anilliterate populace. Indeed, Christianity was first taught throughout thenorth of Europe by means of these Mysteries and miracle plays, and thefirst missionaries had familiarized their rude audiences with theprominent incidents of Biblical history, long before the art of readingcould have been called in to communicate the chronicles themselves. 

The most important writings of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries arethe works of the monks of the mystic school, which form the connectinglink between the great era of the Crusades and the greater era of theReformation. They kindled and kept alive a new religious fervor among theinferior clergy and the middle and lower classes, and without the laborsof these reformers of the faith, the reformers of the church would neverhave found a whole nation waiting to receive them, and ready to supportthem. While the scholastic divines who wrote in Latin introduced abstrusemetaphysics into their theology, the mystics represented religion asabiding in the sentiments of the heart, rather than in doctrines. Theirmain principle was that piety depended not on ecclesiastical forms andceremonies, but that it consisted in the abandonment of all selfishpassions. The sentiments of the mystic writers were collected and arrangedby Tauler (1361), in a well-known work, entitled "German Theology. "Luther, in a preface to this book, expresses his admiration of itscontents, and asserts that he had found in it the doctrines of theReformation. 

Another celebrated work of this school is "The Imitation of Christ, "written in Latin, and generally attributed to Thomas à Kempis, a monk whodied 1471. It has passed through numberless editions, and still maintainsits place among the standard devotional works of Germany and othercountries. 

Two other events prepared the way for the German reformers of thesixteenth century--the foundation of the universities, (1350), and theinvention of printing. The universities were national institutions, openalike to rich and poor, to the knight, the clerk, and the citizen. Thenation itself called these schools into life, and in them the great menwho inaugurated the next period of literature were fostered and formed. 

The invention of printing (1438) admitted the middle classes, who had beendebarred from the use of books, to the privileges hitherto enjoyed almostexclusively by the clergy and the nobility, and placed in their handsweapons more powerful than the swords of the knights, or the thunderboltsof the clergy. The years from 1450 to 1500 form a period of preparationfor the great struggle that was to signalize the coming age. 

PERIOD SECOND. 

THE REFORMATION TO THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY (1517-1700). 

1. THE LUTHERAN PERIOD. --With the sixteenth century we enter upon themodern history and modern literature of Germany. The language now becomessettled, and the literature for a time becomes national. Luther and theReformers belonged to the people, who, through them, now for the firsttime claimed an equality with the old estates of the realm, the tworepresentatives of which, the emperor and the pope, were never morepowerful than at this period. The armies of the emperor were recruitedfrom Spain, Austria, Naples, Sicily, and Burgundy while the pope, armedwith the weapons of the Inquisition, and the thunderbolts ofexcommunication, levied his armies of priests and monks from all parts ofthe Christian world. Against these formidable powers a poor Augustine monkcame forth from his study in the small university of Wittenberg, with noarmies, no treasures, with no weapon in his hand but the Bible, and in hisclear manly voice defied both emperor and pope, clergy and nobility. Therenever was a more memorable spectacle. 

After the Reformation nearly all eminent men in Germany, poets, philosophers, and historians, belonged to the Protestant party, andresided chiefly in the universities, which were what the monasteries hadbeen under Charlemagne, and the castles under Frederic Barbarossa--thecentres of gravitation for the intellectual and political life of thecountry. A new aristocracy now arose, founded on intellectual preëminence, which counted among its members princes, nobles, divines, soldiers, lawyers, and artists. But the danger which threatens all aristocracies wasnot averted from the intellectual nobility of Germany; the spirit ofcaste, which soon pervaded all their institutions, deprived the secondgeneration of that power which men like Luther had gained at the beginningof the Reformation. The moral influence of the universities was great, butit would have been far greater if the intellectual leaders of the realmhad not separated themselves from the ranks whence they themselves hadrisen, and to which alone they owed their influence. This intellectualaristocracy manifested a disregard of the real wants of the people, acontempt of all knowledge which did not wear the academic garb, and thesame exclusive spirit of caste that characterizes all aristocracies. Latincontinued to be the literary medium of scholars, and at the close of theseventeenth century German was only beginning to assert its capabilitiesas a vehicle of elegant and refined literature. 

The sixteenth century may be called the Lutheran period, for Martin Luther(1483-1546) was the most prominent character in the general literature aswell as in the theology of Germany. He was the exponent of the nationalfeeling, he gave shape and utterance to thoughts and sentiments which hadbeen before only obscurely expressed, and his influence was felt in almostevery department of life and literature. The remodeling of the Germantongue may be said to have gone hand in hand with the Reformation, and itis to Luther more than to any other that it owes its rapid progress. Histranslation of the Bible was the great work of the period, and gives tohim the deserved title of creator of German prose. The Scriptures were nowfamiliarly read by all classes, and never has their beautiful simplicitybeen more admirably rendered. The hymns of Luther are no less remarkablefor their vigor of style, than for their high devotional feeling. Hisprose works consist chiefly of twenty volumes of sermons, and eightvolumes of polemical writings, besides his "Letters" and "Table Talk, "which give us a view of the singular mixture of qualities which formed thecharacter of the great Reformer. 

The literature of that period also owes much to Melanchthon (1497-1560), the author of the "Confession of Augsburg, " who by his classical learning, natural sagacity, simplicity and clearness of style, and above all by hismoderation and mildness, greatly contributed to the progress of theReformation. He devoted himself to the improvement of schools and thediffusion of learning, and through his influence the Protestant princes ofGermany patronized native literature, established public libraries, andpromoted the general education of the people. 

The earnest polemical writings of the age must be passed over, as theybelong rather to ecclesiastical and political than to literary history. Yet these are the most characteristic productions of the times, anddisplay the effects of controversy in a very unfavorable light. Thelicense, personality, acrimony, and grossness of the invectives publishedby the controversial writers, particularly of the sixteenth century, canhardly be imagined by a modern reader who has not read the originals. Thebetter specimens of this style of writing are found in the remains ofManuel and Zwingle. Manuel (1484-1530), a native of Switzerland, is aninstance of the versatility of talent, which was not uncommon at thistime; he was a soldier, a poet, a painter, a sculptor, and a wood-engraver. The boldness and license of his satires are far beyond moderntoleration. Zwingle (1484-1531), the leading reformer of Switzerland, wasa statesman, a theologian, a musician, and a soldier. His principal workis the "Exposition of the Christian Faith. " A celebrated writer of prosesatire was Fischart (1530-1590), whose numerous works, under the mostextravagant titles, are distinguished by wit and extensive learning. His"Prophetic Almanac" was the selling book at all the fairs and markets ofthe day, and was read with an excitement far exceeding that produced byany modern novels. In his "Garagantua, " he borrowed some of hisdescriptions from Rabelais; and this extravagant, satirical, and humorousbook, though full of the uncouth and far-fetched combinations of wordsfound in his other writings, contains many ludicrous caricatures of thefollies of society in his age. 

Franck (fl. 1533), one of the best writers of German prose on history andtheology during the sixteenth century, was the representative of themystic school, and opposed Luther, whom he called the new pope. Hisreligious views in many respects correspond with those of the Society ofFriends. Rejecting all ecclesiastical authority, he maintained that thereis an internal light in man which is better fitted than even theScriptures to guide him aright in religious matters. He wrote withbitterness and severity, though he seldom used the coarse style ofinvective common to his age. 

Arnd (1555-1621) may be classed among the best theological writers of theperiod. His treatise "On True Christianity" is still read and esteemed. Hebelonged to the mystic school, and the pious and practical character ofhis work made it a favorite among religious men of various sects. 

Jacob Boehm (1575-1624) was a poor shoemaker, who, without the advantagesof education, devoted his mind to the most abstruse studies, and professedthat his doctrines were derived from immediate revelation; his workscontain many profound and lofty ideas mingled with many confused notions. 

2. POETRY, SATIRE, AND DEMONOLOGY. --In the sixteenth century the oldpoetry of Germany was in a great measure forgotten; the Nibelungen Liedand the Heldenbuch were despised by the learned as relics of barbarianlife; classical studies engaged the attention of all who loved elegantliterature, and while Horace was admired, the title of German poet wasgenerally applied as a badge of ridicule. A propensity to satire of themost violent and personal description seems to have been almost universalin these excited times. Hutten (1488-1523) shared the general excitementof the age, and warmly defended the views of Luther. He addressed manysatirical pamphlets in prose and verse to the people, and was compelled toflee from one city to another, his life being always in danger from thenumerous enemies excited by his severity. Next to invectives and satires, comic stories and fables were the characteristic productions of thesetimes. Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the most distinguished of the Mastersingersof the sixteenth century, excelled in that kind of poetry as well as inall other styles of composition, and following his business as shoemaker, he made verses with equal assiduity. He employed his pen chiefly inwriting innumerable tales and fables containing common morality for commonpeople. In one of these he represents the Apostle St. Peter as beinggreatly perplexed by the disorder and injustice prevailing in the world. Peter longs to have the reins of government in his own hand, and believesthat he could soon reduce the world to order. While he is thinking thus, apeasant girl comes to him and complains that she has to do a day's work inthe field, and at the same time to keep within bounds a frolicsome younggoat. Peter kindly takes the goat into custody, but it escapes into thewood, and the apostle is so much fatigued by his efforts to recover theanimal that he is led to this conclusion: "If I am not competent to keepeven one young goat in my care, it cannot be my proper business to perplexmyself about the management of the whole world. "

The best lyrical poetry was devoted to the service of the church. Itsmerit consists in its simple, energetic language. Hymns were the favoriteliterature of the people; they were the cradle songs which lulled thechildren to sleep, they were sung by mechanics and maid-servants engagedin their work; and they were heard in the streets and market-placesinstead of ballads. Luther, who loved music and psalmody, encouraged thepeople to take a more prominent part in public worship, and wrote for themseveral German hymns and psalms. 

The belief in demonology and witchcraft, which was universally diffusedthrough Europe in the Middle Ages, raged in Germany with fearful intensityand fury. While in other countries persecution was limited to the old, theugly, and the poor, here neither rank nor age offered any exemption fromsuspicion and torture. While this persecution was at its height, from 1580to 1680, more than one hundred thousand individuals, mostly women, wereconsigned to the flames, or otherwise sacrificed to this blood-thirstyinsanity. Luther himself was a devout believer in witchcraft, and in thebodily presence of the Spirit of Evil upon the earth; all his harassingdoubts and mental struggles he ascribes to his visible agency. Germany, indeed, seemed to live and breathe in an atmosphere of mysticism. 

Among the mystic philosophers and speculators on natural history and theoccult sciences who flourished in this period are Paracelsus (1493-1546), and Cornelius Agrippa (1486-1539). Camerarius was distinguished in theclassics and philosophy; Gesner in botany, zoölogy, and the classics;Fuchs in botany and medicine; and Agricola in mineralogy. 

Among the legends of the period, that of Faust, or Dr. Faustus, hasobtained the most lasting popularity. There are good reasons for believingthat the hero of this tale was a real personage, who lived in Suabia inthe early part of the sixteenth century. He is frequently mentioned as awell-known character who gained his celebrity by the profession of magic. In the "History of Dr. Faustus, " first published 1587, he is representedas a magician, who gained by unlawful arts a mastery over nature. Thelegend rapidly spread; It was versified by the English dramatist Marlowe, it became the foundation of innumerable tales and dramas, until, transformed by the genius of Goethe, it has acquired a prominent place inGerman literature. 

At the conclusion of the sixteenth century, owing to the disturbed stateof religious, social, and political life, and to the fact that the bestminds of the age were occupied in Latin writings on theology, while a few, devoted to quiet study, cultivated only the classics, the hopes which hadbeen raised of a national poetry and literature were blighted, and ascholastic and polemical theology continued to prevail. The native tonguewas again neglected for the Latin; the national poems were translated intoLatin to induce the learned to read them; native poets composed theirverses in Latin, and all lectures at the universities were delivered inthat tongue. The work of Luther was undone: ambitious princes andquarrelsome divines continued the rulers of Germany, and everything seemeddrifting back into the Middle Ages. Then came the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), with all its disastrous consequences. At the close of that war thepublic mind was somewhat awakened, literary societies were organized, andliterature was fostered; but the nation was so completely demoralized thatit hardly cared for the liberty sanctioned by the treaty of Westphalia, orfor the efforts of a few princes and scholars to better its intellectualcondition. The population of Germany was reduced by one half; thousands ofvillages and towns had been burnt to the ground; the schools, thechurches, the universities, were deserted; and a whole generation hadgrown up during the war, particularly among the lower classes, with noeducation at all. The once wealthy merchants were reduced to smalltraders. The Hanse League was broken up; commerce was suspended, andintellectual activity paralyzed. Where any national feeling was left, itwas a feeling of shame and despair. 

3. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. --During the seventeenth century the Germanlanguage was regarded by comparatively few writers as a fit vehicle forpolite literature, and was reserved almost exclusively for satires, novels, and religious discourses. 

Opitz (1597-1639) attempted to introduce the use of his native tongue, and, in a work on German poetry, explained the laws of poetic compositionand the mechanism of versification. 

Several scholars at length directed their attention to the grammar of thelanguage, which, through their influence, now began to be used in thetreatment of scientific subjects. Meantime great mathematical and physicaldiscoveries were made through the Academy of Berlin, which was foundedunder the auspices of Leibnitz, and scientific and literary associationswere everywhere established. Books became a vast branch of commerce andgreat philologists and archaeologists devoted themselves to the study ofclassical antiquity. Puffendorf expounded his theories of politicalhistory, Kepler, of astronomy, Arnold, of ecclesiastical history; andLeibnitz laid a basis for the scientific study of philosophy in Germany. Wolf shaped the views of Leibnitz into a comprehensive system, andpopularized them by publishing his works in the German language. Thomasius, the able jurist and pietistic philosopher, was the first, in1688, to substitute in the universities the German for the Latin languageas the medium of instruction. 

Satirical novels form a prominent feature in the prose literature of thetime, and took the place of the invectives and satires of the sixteenthcentury. No work of fiction, however, produced such an excitement as thetranslation of Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe. " Soon after its publication morethan forty imitations appeared. 

During this century the Mastersingers went on composing, according to therules of their guilds, but we look in vain for the raciness and simplicityof Hans Sachs. Some poets wrote plays in the style of Terence, or afterEnglish models; and fables in the style of Phaedrus became fashionable. But there was no trace anywhere of originality, truth, taste, or feeling, except in sacred poetry. Paul Gerhard (1606-1696) is yet without an equalin his sacred songs; many of the best hymns which are still heard in thechurches of Germany date from the age of this poet. Soon, however, eventhis class of poetry degenerated on one side into dry theologicalphraseology, on the other into sentimental affectation. 

This century saw the rise and the fall of the _first and the secondSilesian schools_. The first is represented by Opitz (1597-1639), PaulFlemming, a writer of hymns (1609-1640), and a number of less giftedpoets. Its character is pseudo-classical. All these poets endeavored towrite correctly, sedately, and eloquently. Some of them aimed at a certainsimplicity and sincerity, particularly Flemming. But it would be difficultto find in all their writings one single thought or expression that hadnot been used before; although the works of Opitz and of his followerswere marked by a servile imitation of French and Dutch poets, they exertedan influence on the literary taste of their country, enriched the Germanlanguage with new words and phrases, and established the rules of prosody. 

The second Silesian school is represented by Hoffmanswaldan (1618-1679)and Lohenstein (1635-1683), who undertook to introduce into the Germanpoetry the bad taste of Marini which at that time so corrupted theliterature of Italy. Their compositions are bombastic and full ofmetaphors, --the poetry of adjectives, without substance, truth, or taste. 

Dramatic writing rose little above the level of the first period, TheMysteries and Moralities still continued popular, and some of them werealtered to suit the new doctrines. Opitz wrote some operas in imitation ofthe Italian, and Gryphius acquired popularity by his translations fromMarini and his introduction of the pastoral drama. The theatricalproductions of Lohenstein, characterized by pedantry and bad taste, together with the multitude of others belonging to this age, are curiousinstances of the folly and degradation to which the stage may be reduced. 

PERIOD THIRD. 

FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT TIME(1700-1885. )

1. THE SAXONIC AND SWISS SCHOOLS. --In contrast to the barrenness of thelast period, the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries present us with abrilliant constellation of writers in every department of letters, whoseworks form an era in the intellectual development of Germany unsurpassedin many respects by any other in the history of literature. Gottsched andBodmer each succeeded in establishing schools of poetry which exertedgreat influence on the literary taste of the country. Gottsched (1700-1766), the founder of the Saxonic school, exercised the same dictatorshipas a poet and critic which Opitz had exercised at the beginning of theseventeenth century. He was the advocate and copyist of French models inart and poetry, and he used his widespread influence in favor of thecorrect and so-called classical style. After having rendered good servicein putting down the senseless extravagance of the school of Lohenstein, hebecame himself a pedantic and arrogant critic; then followed a longliterary warfare between him and Bodmer (1698-1783), the founder of theSwiss school. Gottsched and his followers at Leipsic defended the Frenchand insisted on classical forms and traditional rules; Bodmer and hisfriends in Switzerland defended the English style, and insisted on naturalsentiment and spontaneous expression. A paper war was carried on in theirrespective journals, which at length ended favorably to the Swiss orBodmer's school, which, although the smaller party, obtained a splendidvictory over its antagonist. 

Many of the followers of Gottsched, disgusted with his pedantry, finallyseparated themselves from him and formed a new poetical union, called theSecond Saxonic School. They established at the same time a periodical, which was at once the channel of their communications and the point aroundwhich they centred. The principal representatives of this school wereRabener (1714-1771), very popular for the cheerful strain of wit that runsthrough his satires, and for the correctness of his language and style;Gellert (1715-1769), whose "Fables" contain great moral truth enlivened byvivid pictures of life, full of sprightliness and humor, and expressed ina style of extraordinary ease and clearness; Kästner (1719-1800), acelebrated and acute mathematician, and the author of many epigrams, elegies, odes, and songs; John Elias Schlegel (1718-1749), distinguishedfor his dramatic compositions; and Zachariae (1726-1777), endowed with apoetical and witty invention, which he displayed in his comic epopees anddescriptive poems. 

The following two poets were the most celebrated of them all: Hagedorn(1708-1754), whose fables and poems are remarkable for their fancy andwit; and Haller (1708-1777), who acquired an enduring fame as a poet, anatomist, physiologist, botanist, and scholar. Of inferior powers, butyet of great popularity, were: Gleim (1719-1803), upon whom the Germansbestowed the title of "father, " which shows at once how high he rankedamong the poets of his time; Kleist (1715-1759), whose poems arecharacterized by pleasant portraitures, harmonious numbers, great ease, and richness of thought, conciseness of expression, and a noble morality;Ramler (1725-1798), who has been styled the German Horace, from his odesin praise of Frederic the Great; Nicolai (1733-1811), who acquiredconsiderable fame, both for the promotion of literature and for thecorrection of German taste particularly, through his critical reviews; andGessner (1730-1787), who gained a great reputation for his "Idyls, " whichare distinguished by freshness of thought and grace and eloquence ofstyle. 

2. KLOPSTOCK, LESSING, WIELAND, AND HERDER. --Klopstock (1724-1803), inspired by the purest enthusiasm for Christianity, and by an exalted lovefor his fatherland, expressed his thoughts and feelings in eloquent butsomewhat mystic strains. He was hailed as the herald of a new school ofsacred and national literature, and his "Messiah" announced him in somerespects as the rival of Milton. In comparing the Messiah with the"Paradise Lost, " Herder says: "Milton's poem Is a building resting onmighty pillars; Klopstock's, a magic picture hovering between heaven andearth, amid the tenderest emotions and the most moving scenes of humannature. "

Lessing (1729-1781) produced a reformation in German literature secondonly to that effected by Luther in theology. He was equally eminent as adramatist, critic, and philosopher. His principal dramatic productions are"Emilie Galotti" and "Nathan the Wise. " As a critic he demanded creativeimagination from all who would claim the title of poet, and spared neitherfriends nor foes in his efforts to maintain a high standard of literaryexcellence. The writings of Lessing exerted a commanding influence on thebest minds of Germany in almost all departments of thought. They mark, andin a great measure produced, the important change in the tone of Germanliterature, from the national and Christian character of Klopstock to thecosmopolitan character which prevails in the writings of Goethe andSchiller. 

Wieland (1733-1813) was, in his youth, the friend of Klopstock, and wouldtolerate nothing but religious poetry; but he suddenly turned to theopposite extreme, and began to write epicurean romances as vehicles of hisnew views of human life and happiness. Among his tales are "Agathon, ""Musarion, " and "Aristippus, " which last is considered his best work. Inall these writings his purpose was to represent pleasure or utility as theonly criterion of truth. Although there is much in his prose writings tosubject him to severe censure, he maintains his place in the literature ofhis native country as one of its most gay, witty, and graceful poets. His"Oberon" is one of the most charming and attractive poems of modern times. 

Herder (1741-1803) was deeply versed in almost all branches of study, andexercised great influence, not only as a poet, but as a theologian, philosopher, critic, and philologist. He studied philosophy under Kant, and, after filling the offices of teacher and clergyman, he was invited tojoin the circle of poets and other literary men at Weimar, under thepatronage of the Grand Duke Karl August. Here he produced a series ofworks on various subjects, all marked by a kindly and noble spirit ofhumanity. Among them are a treatise "On the Origin of Language, " an essayon "Hebrew Poetry, " and a work entitled "Ideas for the Philosophy ofHumanity, " besides poetical and critical writings. In his collection ofpopular ballads from various nations he showed his power of appreciatingthe various national tomes of poetry. 

The most noble feature in Herder's character was his constant striving forthe highest interests of mankind. He did not employ literature as themeans of satisfying personal ambition, and the melancholy of his last daysarose from his lofty and unfulfilled aspirations. 

His friend Richter said of him: "Herder was no poet, --he was something farmore sublime and better than a poet, --he was himself a poem, --an IndianGreek Epic composed by one of the purest of the gods. "

3. GOETHE AND SCHILLER. --The close of the eighteenth and the beginning ofthe nineteenth century, the age of Herder, Goethe, and Schiller, was oneof remarkable intellectual excitement, and it has produced a literaturericher, more voluminous, and more important than that of all precedingperiods taken collectively. 

The time extending between 1150 and 1300 has been styled the _FirstClassic Period_, and that we are now entering upon is regarded as thesecond. These two epochs resemble each other not only in theirproductiveness, but in the failure of both to maintain a distinct nationalschool of poetry. In the thirteenth century the national epic appeared, but was soon neglected for the foreign legends and sentimental verses ofthe romancists and minnesingers. In the eighteenth century, when Lessinghad made a path for original genius by clearing away French pedantry andaffectation, there appeared some hope of a revival of true nationalliterature. But Herder directed the literary enthusiasm of his timetowards foreign poetry and universal studies, and a cosmopolitan ratherthan a national style has been the result; although for thoughtfuless andsincerity, and for the number of important ideas which it has brought intocirculation, modern German literature may justly claim the highest honor. 

Goethe (1749-1832) was a man of universal genius; he was born atFrankfort-on-the-Maine, and of his boyhood he gives a pleasant account inhis work entitled "Poetry and Truth. " In 1773 the appearance of his "Götzvon Berlichingen, " a drama founded upon the autobiography of that nationaland popular hero, was regarded as the commencement of an entirely newperiod in German dramatic literature. It was followed, in 1774, by thesentimental novel, "The Sorrows of Werther, " in which Goethe gaveexpression to the morbid sentiments of many of his contemporaries. TheGrand Duke of Weimar invited him to his court, where he was elevated to anhonorable position. Here he produced his dramatic poems, "Iphigenia, ""Egmont, " "Tasso, " and "Faust, " besides many occasional poems and otherworks, and continued writing until his eighty-second year, while he variedhis literary life with the pleasures of society. 

As a poet, Goethe is chiefly known by his dramas, "Faust, " "Tasso, " and"Egmont;" his lyrical and occasional poems, and his domestic epic, entitled "Herman and Dorothea. " The first part of "Faust" is the poem bywhich the fame of this author has been most widely extended. Thoughincomplete, it is remarkably original, and suggests important reflectionson human character and destiny. The narrative is partly founded on the oldlegend of Faust, the magician. We are introduced to the hero at the momentwhen he despairs of arriving at any valuable result, after years ofabstruse study, and is about to put the cup of poison to his lips. Thechurch bells of Easter Sunday recall to his mind the scenes of hisinnocent childhood, and he puts aside the cup and resolves to commence anew career of life. At this moment, his evil genius, Mephistopheles, appears, and persuades him to abandon philosophy and to enjoy thepleasures of the world. Faust yields to his advice, and after manyadventures ends his career in crime and in misery. Many parts of the poemare written in a mystical vein, and intimate rather than express thevarious reflections to be deduced from it. The second part of "Faust" isremarkable for its varied and harmonious versification. 

Goethe was a voluminous writer, and much devoted to the fine arts and thenatural sciences, as is attested by his remarkable work on the theory ofcolors. He extended his wide sympathies over almost every department ofliterature. 

The great merit of Goethe lies not so much in his separate productions, asin the philosophy of life and individual development which pervades hisworks, all of which, from "Faust, " his greatest achievement, to his songs, elegies, and shorter poems, have the same peculiar character, and aretinged with the same profound reflections. The service he rendered to theGerman language was immense. The clearness and simplicity of his prosestyle make the best model for the imitation of his countrymen. During hislifetime, professors of various universities lectured on his works, andother authors wrote commentaries on his productions, while his genius hasbeen amply recognized in foreign countries, especially within the lastthirty years. 

Schiller (1759-1805) was born at Marbach, a town of Wurtemberg. At the ageof fourteen he was admitted to the military academy at Stuttgart, where, in spite of its dull routine, he secretly educated himself as a poet. Atthe age of twenty-two, he gave to the world his tragedy of the "Robbers"(composed when he was only seventeen), in which his own wild longings forintellectual liberty found a turbulent and exaggerated expression. Thepublic received it with great enthusiasm, as the production of a vigorousand revolutionary genius, and Schiller soon after escaped from the academyto try his fortune as a theatrical author. Accompanied by a youngmusician, with only twenty-three florins in his pocket, he set out forManheim, on the night when the Grand Duke Paul of Russia paid a visit toStuttgart, and all the people were too full of the excitement of the royalpreparations and illuminations to observe the departure of the young poet. The good citizens did not dream that an obscure youth was leaving the citygate, of whom they would one day be far more proud than of the glitteringvisit of the Grand Duke. Yet the royal entrance is only now rememberedbecause on that night young Schiller ran away; and the people ofStuttgart, when they would show a stranger their objects of interest, point first of all to the statue of Friedrich Schiller. 

After many adventures, Schiller was appointed poet to the theatre atManheim. At a later period he was made Professor of History at theUniversity of Jena, a position for which his genius eminently fitted him, and every prospect of happiness opened before him. But his health soonfailed, and, after a short illness, he expired at the early age of forty-five. 

The principal works of Schiller are the dramas of "Wallenstein", "MarieStuart", "The Maid of Orleans", "The Bride of Messina", and the celebratedode called the "Song of the Bell". Besides these, he wrote many ballads, didactic poems, and lyrical pieces. The "Song of the Bell" stands alone asa successful attempt to unite poetry with the interests of daily life andindustry. In his lyrical ballads and romances, Schiller rises above thedidactic and descriptive style, and is inspired with noble purposes. The"Cranes of Ibycus" and the "Fight with the Dragon" may be mentioned asinstances. Schiller was so interesting as a man, a philosopher, ahistorian, and critic, as well as poet, that, as Carlyle observes, in thegeneral praise of his labors, his particular merits have been overlooked. His aspirations in literature were noble and benevolent. He regardedpoetry especially as something other than a trivial amusement, --as thecompanion and cherisher of the best hopes and affections that can bedeveloped in human life. 

While Goethe excels Schiller in completeness of aesthetical andphilosophical perception, and in the versatility of his world-embracingand brilliant attainments, as a lover of his race, and as a poet who knewhow to embody that love in the most exquisite conceptions, Schiller farsurpassed him, and stands preeminent among all other poets. While Goetherepresented the actual thoughts and feelings of his age, Schillerreflected its ideal yearnings; while the practical result of Goethe'sinfluence was to develop the capacities of each individual to their utmostextent, Schiller's aim was to lead men to consecrate their gifts to _thegood, the beautiful, and the true_, the ethical trinity of the ages. Theone poet represents the majesty, and at the same time the tyranny of theintellect; the other, the power and the loveliness of the affections; andalthough Goethe will always receive the respect and admiration of theworld, Schiller will command its love. 

4. THE GÖTTINGEN SCHOOL. --This association was formed at the epoch ofGoethe and Schiller, when poets such as no other times had producedstarted up in quick succession. The following are among the principalmembers of this school: Voss (1756-1826) is distinguished by a classicaltaste and great fluency of style. His "Louise" is a masterpiece of bucolicpoetry. His "Idyls" are the best of his minor poems. Christian Stolberg(1748-1821) was the author of two dramas, many elegiac poems andtranslations from the Greek. Leopold Stolberg (1750-1817), his brother, was still more successful as a poet, and distinguished for his acuteobservation of the beautiful in nature. Hoelty (1748-1776) was a poet ofthe gentler affections, the eloquent advocate of love, friendship, andbenevolence. Claudius (1743-1815), in his poetical productions, rangesthrough song, elegy, romance, and fable. Bürger (1748-1794) was remarkableas the author of wild, picturesque ballads and songs. His most celebratedpoem is "Leonore", which was at one time known by heart all over Germany. Schubart (1739-1791), though not belonging to the Göttingen association, may be here referred to. His songs and poems evince a warm imagination, and his descriptions are true and beautiful. One of the most powerfulwriters of this period was Klinger (1753-1831), whose highly wroughtproductions reflected most vividly the vehemence of thought and feeling ofhis time, and whose drama, "Storm and Stress", gave the name to thatpeculiar school known as the Storm and Stress literature. 

5. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL. --The founders of the Romantic School, Novalis, thetwo Schlegels, and Tieck, opposed the system which held up the greatmasters of antiquity as exclusive models of excellence; they condemnedthis theory as cold and narrow, and opposed alike to the true interests ofliterature and progress. They pointed out the vast changes in religion, morality, thought, habits, and manners which separated the ancient fromthe modern world, and declared that to follow blindly the works of Virgiland Cicero was to repress all originality and creative power. From thetimes of Pericles or Augustus they turned to the Middle Ages, and, forgetting their crimes and miseries, threw around them a halo of illusiveromance. It was not only in poetry that this reaction was visible--in artand architecture the same tendency appeared. The stiff and quaint butvigorous productions of the old German painters were drawn forth from theobscurity where they had long mouldered; the glorious old cathedrals wererepaired and embellished; the lays of the minnesingers, collected byTieck, were on every lip, and the records of the olden times wereransacked for historic and traditionary lore. 

Although the Romantic School soon fell into extravagances which did muchto diminish its influence, the whole of Germany was to some extentaffected by it. The love for particular epochs led to researches in thelanguage and antiquities, as such, as in Oriental studies, and during thecalamitous period of the French invasion the national feeling was revivedand kept alive by the stirring and patriotic songs which recalled theglories of the past. 

The brothers Schlegel are more celebrated as philologists and critics thanas poets; although their metrical compositions are numerous, they arewholly deficient in warmth, passion, and imagination. Tieck is moredistinguished as a novelist than a poet, but even his prose tales are sopervaded by the spirit of poetry that they may be said to belong to thisdepartment. 

Among other poets, Körner and Arndt are best remembered by their patrioticsongs, which once thrilled every German heart. 

Seldom in romance or history is there found a more noble or heroiccharacter than Theodore Körner (1791-1813). Short as was his existence, hehad already struck, with more or less success, almost every chord of thepoetic lyre. His dramas, with many faults, abound in scenes glowing withpower and passion, and prove what he might have achieved had life beenspared to him. But it is his patriotic poems, his "Lyre and Sword, " whichhave invested the name of Körner with the halo of fame and rendered hismemory sacred to his countrymen. 

The name of Arndt (1769-1860) is also associated in every German mind withthe cause of national liberty; and his poems have incited many Germanhearts to the achievement of heroic deeds. His patriotic song, "Where isthe German's fatherland, " is a universal favorite. Arndt is not lesscelebrated for his historical and scientific works than for his poems. 

The Suabian School is represented by Uhland, Schwab, Kerner, and otherswho have enriched German poetry with many original lyrics. Uhland (1787-1862) is the most distinguished ballad writer of the present age inGermany. The conceptions embodied in his poetry refer chiefly to theMiddle Ages, and his stories are many of them founded on well-knownlegends. 

Kerner (b. 1786) is more intrinsically romantic than Uhland, but he isequally at home in other species of composition. Schwab (1792-1850) isdistinguished among the lyric poets. An epic tendency, combined with greatfacility in depicting scenery and describing events, is the main featureof his metrical romances. 

Rückert (1789-1866), one of the most original lyric poets of Germany, isdistinguished for the versatility of his descriptive powers, the richnessof his imagination, and his bold, fiery spirit. He has been followed byDaumer, Bodenstedt, and others. 

The most remarkable poet whom Germany has produced in the present centuryis Heinrich Heine (1800-1856), and his poems are among the mostfascinating lyrics in European literature. The delicacy, wit, and humor ofhis writings, their cruel and cynical laughter, and their tender pathos, give him a unique place in the literature of his country. A school ofwriters known as _Young Germany_ was deeply influenced by Heine. Theirobject was to revolutionize the political, social, and religiousinstitutions of the country. Börne (d. 1837), the rival of Heine in theleadership of the party, was inferior to him in poetical power, but hissuperior in earnestness, moral beauty, and elevation. Börne was thenightmare of the German princes, at whom he darted, from his place ofexile in Paris, the arrows of his bitter satire. Some of his writings areamong the most eloquent of modern German compositions. Prominent among thefollowers of Heine and Börne are Gutzkow (b. 1811), a novelist, essayist, and dramatist; Laube (b. 1806); and Mundt (b. 1808). 

From about 1830 a group of Austrian poets, more or less political intendency, commanded the respect of all Germans, the chief among them wasCount Auersperg, who, under the assumed name of Anastasius Grün, wrotelyrical and other brilliant and effective poems. Of the writers who before1848 attempted to force poetry into the service of freedom, the best knownis Herwegh, who advocated liberty with a vehemence that won for himimmense popularity. The poems of Freiligrath (1810-1876) have graphicforce, and possess merit of a high order. He has a rich imagination, greatpower of language, and musical versification. Among the more distinguishedcontemporary poets, Hamerling is remarkable for the boldness of hisconceptions, and the passionate vehemence of his expression. 

6. THE DRAMA. --At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Gottsched andhis followers had rendered good service to the stage, not so much by theirown productions as by driving from it the bombast of Lohenstein. Lessingfollowed this movement by attacking the French dramas, which had hithertobeen esteemed the highest productions of human genius, and by bringingforward Shakspeare as the true model of dramatic style. This attack was sosuccessful that the influence of the French drama soon declined, and inthe reaction, Greeks, Romans, kings and princesses were replaced byhonest, tiresome burghers, with their commonplace wives and daughters, andthe toga and tunic gave way to woolen petticoats and dress-coats. Everything like poetry, either in language or sentiment, was banished fromthe stage. Such was the state of things when Goethe appeared. His rapidglance at once discerned the poverty of dramatic art, and his flexible andmany-sided genius set itself to supply the deficiency. His "Götz vonBerlichingen" illustrated the possibility of a dramatic literature foundedupon national history and national character. His "Egmont" is a highlypoetic and eloquent dramatization of that popular hero, and of thestruggles of the Netherlands against the tyranny of Spain. His "Tasso" isa poem of psychological interest, illustrating a favorite maxim of theauthor that a poet, like every other artist, for his true development, needs education. "A hundred times, " says Goethe, "have I heard artistsboast that they owed everything to themselves, and I am often provoked toadd, 'Yes, and the result is just what might be expected. ' What, let meask, is a man in and of himself?"

The lesson of the drama of "Tasso" is this--that the poet cannot fulfillhis duty by cultivating merely his imagination, however splendid andpowerful it may be. Like all other men who would be good and great, hemust exercise patience and moderation; must learn the value of self-denial; must endure the hardships and contradictions of the real world;contentedly occupy his place, with its pains and pleasures, as a part ofthe great whole, and patiently wait to see the beauty and brightness whichflow from his soul, win their way through the obstacles presented by humansociety. The singular merit of this dramatic poem is this: that it is thefruit of genuine experience, adorned with the hues of a beautifulimagination, and clothed in classical language; but it is a work writtenfor the few. 

"Iphigenia" is a fine imitation of the ancient Greek style, but not wellsuited to the stage. 

In his dramatic, as in all his other works, the only end and aim of Goethewas to carry to perfection the art in which he was so great a master. Virtue and vice, truth and falsehood, are each portrayed with the samegraceful complacency and the same exquisite skill. His immense and wide-spreading influence renders this singular indifference, which seems toconfound the very sense of right and wrong, doubly lamentable. 

In plastic skill and variety, the dramatic creations of Schiller areregarded, in some respects, inferior to those of Goethe, but they all glowwith the love of true goodness and greatness, and with an enthusiasm forvirtue and liberty which communicates itself, as by an electric spark, tohis readers. The violent tone of Schiller's first tragedy, the "Robbers, "was suggested by other theatrical writers of the period, who esteemedwildness and absurdity the chief characteristics of poetical genius. Schiller gave to his dramatic works more movement and popular interestthan can be found in Goethe's dramas, but yielded in some instances to thesentimental tone so prevalent in German poetry. "Fiesco" was written in abetter style than the "Robbers, " though less suited to please the lowtheatrical taste of the time. "Don Carlos" showed more maturity ofthought, and is pervaded by a coloring of poetic sentiment; "Wallenstein"won for the poet a universal reputation in his native land, and wastranslated into English by Coleridge. "Marie Stuart, " the "Maid ofOrleans, " and the "Bride of Messina, " contributed still more to increasethe poet's fame. "Wilhelm Tell" was the most popular of Schiller's plays, and is still esteemed by some as his best production. Here the love ofliberty, so wildly expressed in the "Robbers, " appears in its true andrefined character. 

Kotzebue (1760-1819) was one of the most successful playwrights ofGermany. He composed an almost countless number of plays, and his plotswere equally versatile and amusing; but he was entirely destitute ofpoetic and moral beauty. His opposition to liberal principles caused himto be regarded as the enemy of liberty, and to be assassinated by anenthusiastic student named George Sand, who, on obtaining admittance tohim under the pretense of business, stabbed him to the heart. 

While the influence of the Romantic School tended to invest all poetrywith a dreamy and transcendental character, in the drama it was mingledwith stormy and exciting incidents, often carried to the extreme ofexaggeration and absurdity. The Romancists dealt almost exclusively withthe perturbed elements of the human mind and the fearful secrets of theheart. They called to their aid the mysteries of the dark side of nature, and ransacked the supernatural world for its marvels and its horrors. Theprincipal of these "Power Men, " as they were called, are Müllner, Werner, Howald, and Grillparzer. 

Müllner (1774-1829) displayed no common order of poetic genius; but theelements of crime, horror, and remorse often supply the place oforiginality of thought and delineation of character. Werner (1768-1823), after a youth of alternate profligacy and remorse, embraced the Catholicfaith and became a preacher. His dramas of "Martin Luther, " "Attila, " andthe "Twenty-ninth of February, " have rendered him one of the most popularauthors in Germany. Grillparzer (b. 1790) is the author of a dramaentitled the "Ancestress. " The wildest dreams of Müllner and Werner sinkinto insignificance before the extravagance of this production, both inlanguage and sentiment. The "Sappho" of this author displays much lyricbeauty. Iffland (1759-1814) was a fertile but dull dramatist. One of thebest national tragedies was written by Münch Bellinghausen. CharlotteBirchpfeifer has dramatized a great number of stories. Raupach (1784-1852)was one of the most able of recent German writers of plays, Gutzkow isdistinguished among contemporary dramatists; and Freytag and Bauernfeldare excellent writers of comedy. Kleist (d. 1811) was also a distinguishedwriter of dramas of the Romantic School. Mosenthal, the author of"Deborah, " has achieved distinction by aiming at something higher thanstage effect. 

7. PHILOSOPHY. --The appearance of Kant (1724-1804) created a new era inGerman philosophy. Previous to his time, the two systems most in voguewere the sensualism of Locke and his followers and the idealism ofLeibnitz, Wolf, and others. Kant, in his endeavors to ascertain what wecan know and what we originally do know, was led to the fundamental lawsof the mind, and to investigate original or transcendental ideas, thosenecessary and unchangeable forms of thought, without which we can perceivenothing. For instance, our perceptions are submitted to the two forms oftime and space. Hence these two ideas must be within us, not in theobjects and not derived from experience, but the necessary and pureintuitions of the internal sense. The work in which Kant endeavored toascertain those ideas, and the province of certain human knowledge, isentitled the "Critique of Pure Reason, " and the doctrines there expoundedhave been called the Critical Philosophy and also the Transcendental. Inthe "Critique of Practical Reason" the subject of morals is treated, andthat of aesthetics in the "Observations on the Sublime and Beautiful. "

The advent of Kant created a host of philosophical writers and critics, and besides Lessing and Herder there were Moses Mendelssohn, Hamann (theMagus of the North), Reinhold, Jacobi, and many others who speculated invarious directions upon the most momentous problems of humanity and of thehuman soul. 

Fichte (1762-1814) carried the doctrine of Kant to its extreme point, andrepresented all that the individual perceives without himself, or all thatis distinguished from the individual, as the creation of this _I_ or_ego;_ that the life of the mind is the only real life, and thateverything else is a delusion. 

Schelling (1775-1854), in his "Philosophy of Identity, " argues that thesame laws prevail throughout the material and the intellectual world. Hislater writings contain theories in which the doctrines of Christianity areunited with philosophical speculations. The leading principle of Schellingis found in a supposed intuition, which he describes as superior to allreasoning, and admitting neither doubt nor explanation. Coleridge adoptedmany views of this philosopher, and some of his ideas may be found in thecontemplative poems of Wordsworth. 

Hegel (1770-1831), in his numerous, profound, and abstruse writings, hasattempted to reduce all the departments of knowledge to one science, founded on a method which is expounded in his work on Logic. The "IdentitySystem" of Schelling and the "Absolute Logic" of Hegel have alreadyproduced an extensive library of philosophical controversy, and theindirect influence of the German schools of philosophy has affected thetone of the literature in France, England, America, Denmark, and Sweden. The effect of German philosophy has been to develop intense intellectualactivity. The habit of searching into the hidden mysteries of being hasinclined the German mind to what is deepest, and sometimes to what is mostobscure in thought; and the tendency to rise to the absolute, which ischaracteristic of this philosophy, manifests its influence not only in theblending of poetry and metaphysics, but in every department of science, literature, and art. The literary theory thus developed, that ideal beautyand not the imitation of nature is the highest principle of art, iseverywhere applied even to the study of the great monuments of the past, and in the writings of the German archaeologists new youth seems to springfrom the ruins of the ancient world. The physical sciences are alsointroduced into that universal sphere of ideas where the most minuteobservations, as well as the most important results, pertain to generalinterests. 

From 1818 to the time of his death, in 1831, the influence of Hegeldominated the highest thought. Later, his school broke into threedivisions; Ruge, one of the most brilliant writers of the school, led theextreme radicals; Strauss resolved the narratives of the gospel intomyths, and found the vital elements of Christianity in its spiritualteaching; while Feuerbach urged that all religion should be replaced by asentiment of humanity. Ulrici and the younger Fichte exercisedconsiderable influence as advocates of a pantheistic doctrine which aimsto reconcile religion and science. None of these names, however, have theimportance which attaches to that of Schopenhauer (d. 1860), who, at thepresent day, stirs a deeper interest than any other thinker. His maindoctrine is that Will is the foundation principle of existence, the onereality in the universe, and all else is mere appearance. History is arecord of turmoil and wretchedness, and the world and life essentiallyevil. High moral earnestness and great literary genius are shown in hisgraphic and scornful pictures of the darker aspects of the world. 

Van Hartmann, the most prominent leader of the Pessimistic School (1842-1872), the latest original thinker of Germany, in his "Philosophy of theUnconscious, " follows essentially the same line of thought. He assumesthat there is in nature a blind, impersonal, unconscious, all-pervadingwill and idea, a pure and spiritual activity, independent of brain andnerve, and manifesting itself in thought, emotion, instinct, morals, language, perception, and history. He teaches that this is the lastprinciple of philosophy, described by Spinoza as substance, by Fichte asthe absolute _I_, by Plato and Hegel as the absolute idea, and bySchopenhauer as Will. He believes the world to be utterly and hopelesslybad, and the height of wisdom to suppress the desire to live. At the sametime he believes that there is no peace for the heart and intellect untilreligion, philosophy, and science are seen to be one, as root, stem, andleaves are all organic expressions of one same living tree. 

8. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS. --The best German minds of the nineteenthcentury have been absorbed by severe labor in all branches of learning andthe sciences. Many memoirs of eminent persons have appeared, and manybooks of travel, since the days of George Forster (1754-1794), the teacherof Humboldt and the inaugurator of a new scientific and picturesque schoolof the literature of travel. Lichtenstein has written his travels inSouthern Africa; Prince Maximilian von Wied and Martius, in Brazil;Pöppig, in Chili, Peru, etc. ; Burmeister and Tschudi, in South America;Lepsius and Brugsch, in Egypt; and more recently, Gützlaff, in China;Siebold, in Japan; Barth and Vogel, in Africa; Leichhardt, in Australia;the brothers Schlagintweit, one of whom fell a victim to his zeal, inAsia; and Ida Pfeiffer (1797-1858), a woman of rare intrepidity, whovisited, mostly on foot, the most remote regions of the globe. Anothertourist and voluminous writer is Kohl (b. 1808). Qualities rarely unitedin one individual met in the character of Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), an enterprising traveler, a man of extensive science, and anaccomplished writer. Accompanied by his friend Bonpland, he visited SouthAmerica, and after five years of adventurous research among the wonders ofnature, he returned, and prepared for the press the results of histravels--the "Aspects of Nature, " "Picturesque Views of the Cordilleras, "and "Travels in the Equinoctial Regions of America. " This veteran studentproduced at an advanced age a remarkable work entitled "Cosmos, "containing the results of a long life of observation and contemplation. Inthe first part he gives general views of the economy of nature, while inthe second we find ingenious speculations regarding the influence ofnature on human society, in its various stages of culture. 

The Chevalier Bunsen (d. 1860) celebrated by his theological andhistorico-philosophical researches, has written, among other works, one onthe "Position of Egypt in the History of the World, " which is a learneddissertation on the antiquities and especially on the primitive languageof Egypt. 

In the periodicals of Germany every department of letters and science isrepresented, and through the book-fairs of Leipsic all the literature ofthe ancient and modern world passes. They are the magazines of theproductions of all nations. Every class of contending tastes and opinionsis represented and all the contrasts of thought which have been developedin the course of ages meet in the Leipsic book-market. 

SCIENCE. --The growth of science has been one of the most powerful factorsin the recent development of Germany, and some of the best works presentin a popular form the results of scientific labor. Among these the firstplace belongs to the "Cosmos" of Humboldt. Although no longer inaccordance with the best thought, it has enduring merit from the author'spower of handling vast masses of facts, his poetic feeling and purity andnobility of style. 

In chemistry Liebig (d. 1873) is widely and popularly known; DuBois-Raymond has made great researches in animal electricity, physics, andphysiology; Virchow in biology; Helmholtz in physiological optics andsound; Haeckel has extended the theories and investigations of Darwin, andall have made admirable attempts to render science intelligible toordinary readers. 

With the death of Goethe began a new era in German literature not yetclosed. The period has been one of intense political excitement, and whilemuch of the best of the nation has been devoted to politics there has alsobeen great literary activity deeply influenced by the practical struggles, hopes, and fears of the time. There has been a tendency in German writershitherto to neglect the laws of expression, although their writings haveevinced great originality and power of imagination, owing doubtless to thefact that they were addressed only to particular classes of readers. Butsince the political unity of the country has been accomplished, increasingnumbers of thinkers and scholars have appealed to the whole nation, and, in consequence, have cultivated more directness and force of style. 

NOVELS, ROMANCES, AND POPULAR LEGENDS. --Poetry and prose fiction form thegeneral literature of a nation, and are distinguished from the literatureof the study or from special literature, which consists chiefly of booksfor the use of distinct classes or parties. Fiction borders closely on theprovince of history, which, in its broad and comprehensive outlines, mustnecessarily leave unnoticed many of the finer lights and shades of humanlife, descriptions of motives, private characters, and domestic scenes. Tosupply these in the picture of humanity is the distinct office of fiction, which, while free in many respects, should still be essentially true. Thepoetry and fiction of a country should be the worthy companion to itshistory. The true poet should be the interpreter and illustrator of life. While the historian describes events and the outward lives of men, thepoet penetrates into the inner life, and portrays the spirit that movesthem. The historian records facts; the poet records feelings, thoughts, hopes, and desires; the historian keeps in view the actual man; the poet, the ideal man; the historian tells us what man has been; the poet remindsus either in his dreams of the past, or in his visions of the future, whatman can be; and the true poet who fulfills such a duty is as necessary tothe development and education of mankind as the historian. 

The numerous fictitious works of Germany may be arranged in four differentclasses. The first, comprehending historical romances, affords few writerswho bear comparison with Scott. In the second class, containing novelswhich describe characters and scenes in real life, German literature isalso comparatively poor. The third class comprises all the fictions markedby particular tendencies respecting art, literature, or society. In thefourth class, which includes imaginative tales, German literature isespecially rich. To this department of fiction, in which the imaginationis allowed to wander far beyond the bounds of real life and probability, the Germans apply distinctively the term poetical. In these imaginativeand mystical fictions there is an important distinction between such talesas convey moral truth and interest under an array of visionary adventures, and those which are merely fantastic and almost destitute of meaning. 

Goethe's novel, "Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship, " may be classed withfictions intended to convey certain views of life; but its chief defectis, that the object of the writer remains in a mist, even at the end ofthe story. The "Elective Affinities, " while it contains many beauties as awork of art, is objectionable in a moral point of view. 

Jean Paul Richter (1763-1825) describes human life in all its aspects oflight and shade, and his voluminous works embrace all subjects, from thehighest problems of transcendental philosophy and the most passionatepoetical delineations to "Instructions in the Art of Falling Asleep;" buthis essential character, however disguised, is that of a philosopher andmoral poet, whose study has been human nature, and whose delight is in allthat is beautiful, tender, and mysteriously sublime in the fate or historyof man. Humor is the ruling quality of his mind, the central fire thatpervades and vivifies his whole being. The chief productions of Jean Paul(the title under which he wrote) are novels, of which "Hesperus" and"Titan" are considered his masterpieces. These and the charming proseidyl, "The Years of Wild Oats, " keep their place as works of permanentexcellence. In his famous "Dream, " in which he describes a universewithout religion, he rises to the loftiest height of imagination. 

Tieck (1773-1853) was at once a novelist, poet, and critic; but his fairytales have perhaps rendered him most popular. His fancy was brilliant andsportive, and his imagination varied and fantastic. The world of hiscreation was peopled by demons who shed their malignant influence onmankind, or by spirits such as the Rosicrucians had conjured up, nymphs ofthe air, the woods, or waters. These airy visions he wove into form andshape with a master hand, and he invested even the common objects of lifewith a supernatural hue. At times he seems almost to have acquired acloser intimacy with nature than that granted to common men, and to havedived into the secret of her operations and the working of her laws. Butwhile Tieck is unrivaled in the world of phantasy, he becomes an ordinarywriter when he descends to that of daily life. 

Hardenberg, known by the assumed name of Novalis (1772-1801), by hisunsullied character, his early death, and the mystic tone of hisproductions, was long regarded with an enthusiasm which has now greatlydeclined. His romance, "Henry von Ofterdingen, " contains elements ofbeauty, but it deals too exclusively with the shadowy, the distant, andthe unreal. His "Aphorisms" are sometimes deep and original, but oftenparadoxical and unintelligible. 

La Motte Fouqué (1777-1843) is best known by his charming story of"Undine, " founded on one of those traditions in which the ancient fairymythology of Germany abounded. Undine, a beautiful water-spirit, wins theheart of a noble knight, and consents to be his bride. We have seen it wasonly through the union with a being of mortal mould that the spirits ofair and water could obtain the gift of a soul. But before giving her handto her lover, Undine reminds him that the relentless laws of her racecondemn her to become herself the instrument of his destruction if heshould break his plighted vow. The knight accepts the conditions, and fora time he remains true to his beautiful wife. But at length, weary of hercharms, he seeks the daughter of a neighboring baron for his bride, and inthe midst of the wedding festivities the faithless knight is suffocated byan embrace from Undine, who is forced by the race of spirits thus todestroy him. The sweetness and pathos of this tale and its dream-likebeauty have given it a place among those creations which appeal to all theworld, and do not depend for their popularity on the tendencies of anyparticular age. 

Chamisso (1781-1836), one of the most popular poets of Germany, was theauthor of "Peter Schlemihl, " a well-known tale describing the adventuresof a man who sold his shadow for a large sum of money, and found afterwardthat he had made a very bad bargain. The moral it seems to indicate isthat gold is dearly obtained at the sacrifice of any part, even of theshadow, of our humanity. 

Hoffmann (1776-1822) surpassed all other imaginative writers in inventingmarvelous incidents, while he was inferior to many of them in poeticalgenius. His stories mingle the circumstances of real life with grotesqueand visionary adventures. 

Zschokke (1771-1847) was remarkable as a man and an author. His literaryactivity extended over more than half a century, and his tales andmiscellaneous writings have had extensive popularity. His studies weregenerally directed toward human improvement, as in "The Goldmaker'sVillage, " where he describes the progress of industry and civilizationamong a degraded population. 

Of the other numerous writers of fiction the names of a few only can bementioned. 

Theresa Huber (1764-1829) was the authoress of several popular novels. Benedicte Naubert wrote several historical romances mentioned by Scott ashaving afforded him some suggestions. Caroline Pichler's "Tales" wereaccounted among the best fictions of her times. Henriette Hanke producedeighty-eight volumes of domestic narratives and other writings of a moralcharacter; the Countess Hahn-Hahn follows the tendencies of MadameDudevant (George Sand), though with less genius. 

Brentano, the author of "Godiva, " and Arnim, author of the "CountessDolores, " may also be mentioned among the remarkable writers of fantasticromances. 

Bettina (1785-1859), the sister of Brentano, and the wife of Arnim, whoresembles these authors in her imaginative character, wrote a singularlyenthusiastic book, entitled, "Goethe's Correspondence with a Child. "Imaginative pictures in words, interspersed with sentiments, characterizethe writings of Bettina and many other romancists, while they show littlepower in the construction of plots and the development of character. 

Among the more renowned female writers are Auguste von Paalzow, AmalieSchoppe, Johanna Schoppenhauer, Friederike Brun, Talvi (Mrs. Robinson). Henriette Herz (1764-1841) and Rahel (1771-1844) also occupied a brilliantposition in the literary and social world. The latter was the wife ofVarnhagen von Ense (d. 1859), the most able and attractive biographicalwriter of Germany. Wilhelm Häring (Wilibald Alexis) is particularlyeminent as a romance writer. 

The historical novelists of the early part of this century, as Van derVelde, Spindler, Rellstab, Storch, and Rau, have been succeeded by König, Heller, and several others. Good French and English novels are translatedinto German, almost immediately after their appearance, and thecomparative scarcity of interesting German novels is accounted for by thetaste for this foreign literature, and also by the increasing absorptionof literary talent in the periodical press. Schucking is remarkable forhis power of vividly conceiving character. Fanny Lewald is artistic in hermethods and true and keen in her observation of life; and among novelistsof simple village life Auerbach (1812-1883) takes the first place. GustaveFreytag (b. 1816), whose "Debit and Credit" is an intensely realisticstudy of commercial life, is also one of the distinguished writers offiction. 

The popular legends of Germany are numerous and characteristic of thecountry. These narratives are either legends of local interest, associatedwith old castles, or other antiquities, or they are purely fabulous. Though they are sometimes fantastic and in their incidents show littlerespect to the laws of probability, they are genuine and fairly representthe play of the popular imagination; while under their wild imagery theyoften convey symbolically a deep and true meaning, LITERARY HISTORY AND CRITICISM. --Modern German literature is singularlyrich in this department. In the Republic of Letters, German students havefound the liberty they could not enjoy in actual life, and this cause haspromoted investigation in ancient and modern literature. Poets, historians, philosophers, and other writers have been studied andcriticised, not merely as authors, but with especial reference to theirrespective contributions to the progress of ideas and the movements ofsociety. Some of the most eminent German critical writers have alreadybeen mentioned under various preceding heads. Winckelmann (1717-1768)devoted himself with enthusiasm to the study of antique sculpture, andwrote elegant dissertations on the grace and beauty of the works ofancient art. His writings display true enthusiasm and refined taste. Itmay be said that the school of art-criticism in Germany owes its origin tothe studies of Winckelmann. The critical writings of Herder were moreremarkable for the impulse which they gave to the studies of authors thanfor their intrinsic merits. Goethe in his prose writings showed with whatgrace and precision the German language might be written. The letters ofSchiller are pervaded by a lofty and ideal tone. William von Humboldt(1762-1832) was the founder of the science of comparative philology, ascholar of remarkable comprehensiveness and scientific knowledge, and theauthor of several highly important works on language and literature. Thebrothers Schlegel developed that taste for universal literature which hadbeen introduced by Herder. The mind of Augustus Schlegel (1767-1845) wasrather comprehensive than endowed with original and creative genius. Hispoems are elegant, but not remarkable. Friedrich Schlegel (1772-1829), like his brother, was opposed to the skeptical character of some of thephilosophical theories of his day, and after entering the Catholic Churchhe expressed his religious and polemical opinions in his works onliterature. His lectures on "The Philosophy of History" were evidentlywritten with political and religious purposes. He participated with hisbrother in the study of Oriental literature and language, but his lectureson "The Literature of all Nations" have chiefly extended his fame forgreat capacity, critical acumen, and extensive learning. The main purposeof the author is to describe the development of literature in itsconnection with the social and religious institutions of various nationsand periods. He thus elevates literature, and especially poetry, far abovethe views of trivial and commonplace criticism, and regards it in itshighest aspect as the product of human life and genius in various stagesof cultivation. The history of the world of books is thus represented asno dry and pedantic study, but as one intimately connected with the bestinterests of humanity. In the establishment of this humanitarian style ofliterature, the services of this author were of great value, although manyof his works, as well as those of others in this department, have beenwritten rather for the use of scholars than for the public. There stillremains in Germany that distinction between a popular and scholastic stylewhich characterized the Middle Ages, when the literati excluded theirthoughts from the people by writing in Latin. The literature of the past, which is in itself too diffuse to be comprehended by men of scanty leisurein modern times, is with most writers too often rather complicated andextended than simplified and compressed into a readable form. If thelabors of learned historians and critics had been directed to popularizethe results of their extensive scholarship, readers without much time forstudy might have acquired a fair general acquaintance with universalliterature. But while concise and masterly summaries are required, manyscholars love to wander in never-ending disquisitions, and the consequenceis that the greater number of readers acquire only a fragmentary andaccidental knowledge of books. 

While the brothers Schlegel, and many other writers, followed thetendencies of Herder in universal literature, a national school ofcriticism was founded and supported by the brothers Grimm, with many ableassociates. Jacob, the eldest (d. 1863), devoted his researches to theGerman literature of the Middle Ages, and collected the scattered remnantsof old popular legends. In conjunction with, his brother William (d. 1860)he published his "Children's Fables, " or "Household Tales, " which aremarked by great simplicity, and often convey pleasing sentiments and goodmorals mingled with fantastic and supernatural adventures. Later works onthe "German Language, " "Legal Antiquities, " and "German Mythology, " havesecured for this author the highest position among national philologistsand antiquaries. The example of these brothers gave a strong impulse tothe study of German archaeology, and the results have been received withgreat enthusiasm. Many relics of old literature have been recovered, andthese remains form a considerable library of literary antiquities. 

Menzel (d. 1855), well known as a critical and polemical writer of thenational school, has written the "History of German Literature, " "TheSpirit of History, " and other works, in which he has warmly opposed theextreme revolutionary tendencies of recent political and social theorists. 

Gervinus (d. 1871) may be considered as a historian, politician, andcritic. In his "History of the Poetical National Literature of theGermans, " he traces the development of poetry in its relations tocivilization and society. He has also written a work on Shakspeare, and ahistory of the nineteenth century, which is characterized by its liberaltendencies. His views of literature are directly opposed to those ofFrederic Schlegel. 

As historians of ancient classical literature, German scholars havemaintained the highest position, and to them the world is prodigiouslyindebted. Their works, however, are too comprehensive to be describedhere, and too numerous even to be mentioned. The idea of classicalerudition, as maintained by them, is extended far beyond its commonlimitation, and is connected with researches respecting not the languageonly, but also the religion, philosophy, social economy, arts, andsciences of ancient nations. 

Karl Ottfried Müller (d. 1840) must be mentioned as an accomplishedscholar and the author of a standard work, the "History of GreekLiterature. " Among the other great writers on ancient history are Böckh, Duncker, Droysen, Mommsen, and Kortüm. 

Several works on the modern literature of European nations have recentlybeen published in Germany; and much industry and research have beendisplayed in numerous criticisms on the fine arts. The principles ofWinckelmann and Lessing have been developed by later authors who havewritten excellent critical and historical works on the plastic arts, sculpture, painting, and architecture. In general, the literary criticismof Germany deserves the highest commendation for its candor, carefulness, and philosophical consistency. 

HISTORY AND THEOLOGY. --The extensive historical works of the modernwriters of Germany form an important feature in the literature. Thepolitical circumstances of the country have been in many respectsfavorable to the progress of these studies. Professors and students, excluded in a great measure from political life, have explored thehistories of ancient nations, and have given opinions in the form ofhistorical essays, which they could not venture to apply to theinstitutions of Germany. While Prussia and Austria were perilous topicsfor discussion, liberal and innovating doctrines might be promulgated inlectures on the progress and decline of liberty in the ancient world. Accordingly, the study of universal history, to which the philosophicalviews of Herder gave the impulse, has been industriously prosecuted duringthe last fifty years, and learned and diligent collectors of historicalmaterial are more numerous in Germany than in any other country. 

Müller (d. 1804), a native of Switzerland, displayed true historicalgenius and extended erudition in his "Lectures on Universal History. "Among other writers on the same subject are Rotteck, Becker, Böttiger, Dittmar, and Vehse. Of the two last authors, the one wrote on this vastsubject especially in reference to Christianity, and the other describesthe progress of civilization and intellectual culture. 

Schlosser's (b. 1786) "History of the Ancient World and its Culture" holdsa prominent place among historical works. His writings are the result oflaborious and conscientious researches to which he has devoted his life. 

Heeren (d. 1842) opened a new vein of ancient history in his learned workon the "Commercial Relations of Antiquity. " While other historians havebeen attracted by the sword of the conqueror, Heeren followed themerchant's caravan laden with corn, wine, oils, silks, and spices. Hiswork is a valuable contribution to the true history of humanity. 

Carl Ritter (d. 1859) has united the studies of geography and history inhis "Geography viewed in its Relations to Nature and History. " This greatwork, the result of a life devoted to industrious research, hasestablished the science of comparative geography. 

Lepsius and Brugsch have rendered important services to Egyptology, andLachmann, K. O. Müller, Von der Hagen, Böckh, the brothers Grimm, MoritzHaupt, and others, to ancient and German philology. 

In Roman history, Niebuhr (1776-1831), stands alone as the founder of anew school of research, by which the fictions so long mingled with theearly history of Rome, and copied from book to book, and from century tocentury, have been fully exploded. Through the labors of this historian, modern readers know the ancient Romans far better than they were known bynations who were in close contact with them. Niebuhr made greatpreparations for his work, and took care not to dissipate his powers byappearing too soon as an author. 

Besides many other histories relating to the Roman Empire, Germanliterature is especially rich in those relating to the Middle Ages. Thehistorical writings of Ranke (b. 1795) connect the events of that periodwith modern times, and give valuable notices of the age of theReformation. "The History of Papacy in the Sixteenth and SeventeenthCenturies" is highly esteemed, though Catholic critics have objected tosome of its statements. Histories of the German people, of theHohenstauffen Dynasty, of the Crusades; histories of nations, of cities, of events, and of individuals, all have found their interpreters in Germangenius. Schlosser (b. 1776), the vigorous and truthful historian of theeighteenth century; Dahlmann (b. 1785) the German Guizot, and Raumer (b. 1781), the historian of the Hohenstauffens, deserve particular mention. Nor is the department of ecclesiastical history and theology lessdistinguished by its research. 

No writer of his time contributed more towards the formation of animproved prose style than Mosbeim (1694-1755); although his"Ecclesiastical History" is now superseded by works of deeper research. His contemporary, Reimarus, wrote in favor of natural theology, and may beconsidered the founder of the Rationalistic School. Neander (d. 1850)wrote a history of the church, in ten volumes, distinguished for itsliberal views. The sermons of Reinhard (d. 1812), in thirty-nine volumes, display earnestness and unaffected solemnity of style. Schleiermacher (d. 1834), celebrated as a preacher at Berlin, was the author of many works, in which he attempted to reconcile the doctrines of Protestantism withcertain philosophical speculations. De Wette, the friend ofSchleiermacher, is one of the most learned and able representatives of theRationalistic School. Tholuck (b. 1799) is celebrated as a learnedexegetical writer. 

Mommsen (b. 1817) is the vigorous historian of ancient Rome, and Curtius(b. 1819), the author of a history of Greece, not more remarkable for itslearning than for the clear and attractive arrangement of its material. Inhistories of philosophy recent German literature is absolutely supreme. Hegel still ranks as one of the greatest writers in this line, andUeberweg, Uedmann, and others are important workers in the samedepartment. Fischer writes the history of philosophy with sympatheticappreciation and in a fascinating style, and Lange, in his "History ofMaterialism, " does full justice to the different phases of materialisticphilosophy. 

Since the time of Lessing, aesthetics have formed a prominent branch ofphilosophy with the Germans, and they have been no less successful ashistorians of art than of metaphysics. Among the most distinguished areKugler, Carrière, and Lübke. Biographers and historians of literature arenumerous. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE. 

INTRODUCTION. --1. _English Literature_. Its Divisions. --2. _The Language_. 

PERIOD FIRST. --1. _Celtic Literature_. Irish, Scotch, and Cymric Celts;the Chronicles of Ireland; Ossian's Poems; Traditions of Arthur; theTriads; Tales. --2. _Latin Literature_, Bede; Alcuin; Erigena. --3. _Anglo-Saxon Literature_. Poetry; Prose; Versions of Scripture: the SaxonChronicle; Alfred. 

PERIOD SECOND. --The Norman Age and the Fourteenth and FifteenthCenturies. --1. _Literature in the Latin Tongue_. --2. _Literature inNorman-French_. Poetry; Romances of Chivalry. --3. _Saxon-English_. Metrical Remains. --4. _Literature in the Fourteenth Century_. --ProseWriters; Occam, Duns Scotus, Wickliffe, Mandeville, Chaucer. Poetry;Langland, Gower, Chaucer. --5. _Literature in the Fifteenth Century_. Ballads. --6. _Poets of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries inScotland_. Wyntoun, Barbour, and others. 

PERIOD THIRD. --1. _Age of the Reformation_ (1509-1558), Classical, Theological, and Miscellaneous Literature: Sir Thomas More and others. Poetry: Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville; the Drama. --2. _The Age ofSpenser, Shakspeare, Bacon, and Milton_ (1558-1660). Scholastic andEcclesiastical Literature. Translations of the Bible: Hooker, Andrews, Donne, Hall, Taylor, Baxter: other Prose Writers: Fuller, Cudworth, Bacon, Hobbes. Raleigh, Milton, Sidney, Selden, Burton, Browne and Cowley. Dramatic Poetry: Marlowe and Greene, Shakspeare, Beaumont and Fletcher, Ben Jonson, and others; Massinger, Ford, and Shirley; Decline of theDrama. Non-dramatic Poetry: Spenser and the Minor Poets. Lyrical Poets;Donne, Cowley, Denham, Waller, Milton. --3. _The Age of the Restoration andRevolution_ (1660-1702). Prose: Leighton, Tilotson, Barrow, Bunyan, Lockeand others. The Drama: Dryden, Otway. Comedy; Didactic Poetry: Roscommon, Marvell, Butler, Pryor, Dryden. --4. _The Eighteenth Century. _ The _First_Generation (1702-1727): Pope, Swift, and others; the Periodical Essayists:Addison, Steele. The _Second_ Generation (1727-1760); Theology; Warburton, Butler, Watts, Doddridge. Philosophy: Hume. Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson;the Novelists: Richardson, Fielding, Smollett and Sterne. The Drama; Non-dramatic Poetry: Young, Blair, Akenside, Thomson, Gray, and Collins. The_Third_ Generation (1780-1800); the Historians: Hume, Robertson, andGibbon. Miscellaneous Prose: Johnson, Goldsmith, "Junius, " Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and Burke. Criticism: Burke, Reynolds, Campbell, Kames. Political Economy: Adam Smith. Ethics: Paley, Smith, Tucker, Metaphysics:Reid. Theological and Religious Writers: Campbell, Paley, Watson, Newton, Hannah More, and Wilberforce. Poetry: Comedies of Goldsmith and Sheridan;Minor Poets; Later Poems; Beattie's Minstrel; Cowper and Burns. 5. _TheNineteenth Century_. The Poets: Campbell, Southey, Scott, Byron; Coleridgeand Wordsworth; Wilson, Shelley, Keats; Crabbe, Moore, and others;Tennyson, Browning, Proctor, and others. Fiction: the Waverley and otherNovels; Dickens, Thackeray, and others. History: Arnold, Thirlwall, Grote, Macaulay, Alison, Carlyle, Freeman, Buckle. Criticism: Hallam, De Quincey, Macaulay, Carlyle, Wilson, Lamb, and others. Theology: Foster, Hall, Chalmers. Philosophy: Stewart, Brown, Mackintosh, Bentham, Alison, andothers. Political Economy: Mill, Whewell, Whately, De Morgan, Hamilton. Periodical Writings: the Edinburgh, Quarterly, and Westminster Reviews, and Blackwood's Magazine. Physical Science: Brewster, Herschel, Playfair, Miller, Buckland, Whewell. --Since 1860. 1. Poets: Matthew Arnold, AlgernonSwinburne, Dante Rossetti, Robert Buchanan, Edwin Arnold, "Owen Meredith, "William Morris, Jean Ingelow, Adelaide Procter, Christina Rossetti, Augusta Webster, Mary Robinson, and others. 2. Fiction: "George Eliot, "MacDonald, Collins, Black, Blackmore, Mrs. Oliphant, Yates, McCarthy, Trollope, and others. 3. Scientific Writers: Herbert Spencer, CharlesDarwin, Tyndall, Huxley, and others. 4. Miscellaneous. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1. ENGLISH LITERATURE AND ITS DIVISIONS. --The original inhabitants ofEngland, belonging to the great race of Celts, were not the true foundersof the English nation; and their language, which is still spoken unchangedin various parts of the kingdom, has exerted but an incredibly smallinfluence on the English tongue. During the period of the Roman domination(55 B. C. -447 A. D. ), the relations between the conquerors and the nativesdid not materially alter the nationality of the people, nor did the Latinlanguage permanently displace or modify the native tongue. 

The great event of the Dark Ages which succeeded the fall of the Romanempire was the vast series of emigrations which planted tribes of Gothicblood over large tracts of Europe, and which was followed by the formationof all the modern European languages, and by the general profession ofChristianity. The Anglo-Saxon invaders of England continued to emigratefrom the Continent for more than a hundred years, and before manygenerations had passed away, their language, customs, and characterprevailed throughout the provinces they had seized. During the six hundredyears of their independence (448-1066), the nation made wonderful progressin the arts of life and thought. The Pagans accepted the Christian faith;the piratical sea-kings applied themselves to the tillage of the soil andthe practice of some of the ruder manufactures; the fierce soldiersconstructed, out of the materials of legislation common to the wholeTeutonic race, a manly political constitution. 

The few extant literary monuments of the Anglo-Saxons possess a singularvalue as illustrations of the character of the people, and have theadditional attraction of being written in what was really our mothertongue. 

In the Middle Ages (from the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries), thepainful convulsions of infant society gave way to the growing vigor ofhealthy though undisciplined youth. All the relations of life weremodified, more or less, by the two influences predominant in the earlypart of the period, but decaying in the latter, --Feudalism and the Churchof Rome, --and by the consolidation of the new languages, which weresuccessively developed in all European countries, and were soon qualifiedas instruments for communicating the results of intellectual activity. TheMiddle Ages closed by two events occurring nearly at the same time: theerection of the great monarchies on the ruins of feudalism, and theshattering of the sovereignty of the Romish Church by the Reformation. Atthe same period, the invention of printing, the most important event inthe annals of literature, became available as a means of enlightenment. 

The Norman conquest of England (1066) subjected the nation at once to bothof the ruling mediaeval impulses: feudalism, which metamorphosed therelative positions of the people and the nobles, and the recognition ofpapal supremacy, which altered not less thoroughly the standing of thechurch. While these changes were not unproductive of good at that time, they were distasteful to the nation, and soon became injurious, both tofreedom and knowledge, until at length, under the dynasty of the Tudors, the ecclesiastical shackles were cast off, and the feudal bonds begangradually to be loosened. 

The Norman invaders of England took possession of the country as militarymasters. They suppressed the native polity by overwhelming force, madeNorman-French the fashionable speech of the court and the aristocracy, andimposed it on the tribunals. Their romantic literature soon weaned thehearts of educated men from the ancient rudeness of taste, but the mass ofthe English people clung so obstinately to their ancestral tongue, thatthe Anglo-Saxon language kept its hold in substance until it was evolvedinto modern English; and the Norman nobles were at length forced to learnthe dialect which had been preserved among their despised English vassals. 

Emerging from the Middle Ages into the illuminated vista of modernhistory, we find the world of action much more powerfully influenced bythe world of letters than ever before. Among the causes which producedthis change are the invention of printing, the use of a cultivated livinglanguage, and in England the vindication of freedom of thought andconstitutional liberty. 

The period from the accession of Elizabeth to the Restoration (1558-1660)is the most brilliant in the literary history of England. The literatureassumes its most varied forms, expatiates over the most distant regions ofspeculation and investigation; and its intellectual chiefs, while theybreathe the spirit of modern knowledge and freedom, speak to us in toneswhich borrow an irregular stateliness from the chivalrous past. But thismagnificent panorama does not meet the eye at once; the unveiling of itsfeatures is as gradual as the passing away of the mists that shroud thelandscape before the morning sun. 

The first quarter of the century was unproductive in all departments ofliterature. Of the great writers who have immortalized the name ofElizabeth, scarcely one was born five years before she ascended thethrone, and the immense and invaluable series of literary works whichembellished the period in question may be regarded as beginning only withthe earliest poem of Spenser, 1579. 

"There never was anywhere, " says Lord Jeffrey, "anything like the sixty orseventy years that elapsed from the middle of the reign of Elizabeth tothe Restoration. In point of real force and originality of genius, neitherthe age of Pericles nor the age of Augustus, nor the times of Leo X. , orof Louis XIV. , can come at all into comparison. In that short period weshall find the names of almost all the very great men that this nation hasever produced. "

Among the influences which made the last generation of the sixteenthcentury so strong in itself, and capable of bequeathing so much strengthto those who took up its inheritance, was the expanding elasticity, thegrowing freedom of thought and action. The chivalry of the Middle Agesbegan to seek more useful fields of adventure in search of new worlds, andfame, and gold. There was an increasing national prosperity, and acorresponding advance of comfort and refinement, and mightier than allthese forces was the silent working of the Reformation on the hearts ofthe people. 

The minor writers of this age deserve great honor, and may almost beconsidered the builders of the structure of English literature, whoseintellectual chiefs were Spenser, Shakspeare, and Hooker. 

Spenser and Shakspeare were both possessed of thoughts, feelings, andimages, which they could not have had if they had lived a century later, or much earlier; and, although their views were very dissimilar, they bothbear the characteristic features of the age in which they lived. Spenserdwelt with animation on the gorgeous scenery which covered the elfin landof knighthood and romance, and present realities were lost in his dream ofantique grandeur and ideal loveliness. He was the modern poet of theremote past; the last minstrel of chivalry, though incomparably greaterthan his forerunners. 

Shakspeare was the poet of the present and the future, and of universalhumanity. He saw in the past the fallen fragments on which men were tobuild anew--august scenes of desolation, whose ruin taught men to workmore wisely. He painted them as the accessory features and distantlandscape of colossal pictures, in whose foreground stood figures soaringbeyond the limits of their place, instinct with the spirit of the time inwhich the poet lived, yet lifted out of it and above it by the impulse ofpotent genius prescient of momentous truths that lay slumbering in thebosom of futurity. 

By the side of poetry contemporary prose shows poorly, with one greatexception. In respect to style, Hooker stands almost alone in his time, and may be considered the first of the illustrious train of great prosewriters. His "Ecclesiastical Polity" appeared in 1594. Sir Philip Sidney's"Arcadia" had been written before 1587. Bacon's Essays appeared in 1596, and also Spenser's "View of Ireland, " But none of these are comparable inpoint of style to Hooker. 

The reign of Elizabeth gave the key-note to the literature of the twosucceeding reigns, that of James I. (1603-1625), and Charles (1625-1649), and the literary works of this period were not only more numerous, butstand higher in the mass than those which closed the sixteenth century. But Spenser remained un-imitated and Shakspeare was inimitable; the drama, however, which in this as in the last generation monopolized the bestminds, received new developments, poetry was enriched beyond precedent, and prose writing blossomed into a harvest of unexampled eloquence. Butalthough, under the rule of James, learning did good service in theologyand the classics, English writing began to be infected with pedanticaffectations. The chivalrous temper of the preceding age was on the wane, coarseness began to pass into licentiousness, and moral degeneracy beganto diffuse its poison widely over the lighter kinds of literature. Bacon, the great pilot of modern science, gave to the world the rudiments of hisphilosophy. Bishop Hall exemplified not only the eloquence and talent ofthe clergy, but the beginning of that resistance to the tendencies bywhich the church was to be soon overthrown. The drama was headed by BenJonson, honorably severe in morals, and by Beaumont and Fletcher, whoheralded the licentiousness which soon corrupted the art generally, whilethe poet Donne introduced fantastic eccentricities into poeticalcomposition. 

Some of the most eloquent prose writings of the English language had theirbirth amidst the convulsions of the Civil War, or in the strangelyperplexed age of the Commonwealth and protectorate (1649-1660), that sternera which moulded the mind of one poet gifted with extraordinary genius. Although Milton would not, in all likelihood, have conceived the "ParadiseLost" had he not felt and acted with the Puritans, yet it would have beenless the consummate work of art which it is, had he not fed his fancy withthe courtly pomp of the last days of the monarchy. 

The prose writers of this time are represented by Bishop Hall and JeremyTaylor, among the clergy, and Selden and Camden among the laymen. Theroughness of speech and manners of Elizabeth's time, followed, in the nextreign, by a real coarseness and lowness of sentiment, grew rapidly worseunder Charles, whose reign was especially prolific in poetry, the tone ofwhich varied from grave to gay, from devotion to licentiousness, fromsevere solemnity to indecent levity; but no great poet appeared in thecrowd. The drama was still rich in genius, its most distinguished namesbeing those of Ford, Massinger, and Shirley; but here depravity had takena deeper root than elsewhere, and it was a blessing that, soon after thebreaking out of the war, the theatres were closed, and the poets left toidleness or repentance. 

The Commonwealth and Protectorate, extending over eleven years (1649-1660), made an epoch in literature, as well as in the state and church. The old English drama was extinct, and poetry had few votaries. Cowley nowclosed with great brilliancy the eccentric and artificial school of whichDonne had been the founder, and Milton was undergoing the last steps ofthat mental discipline that was to qualify him for standing forth the lastand all but the greatest of the poetical ancients. At the same time, theapproach of a modern era was indicated by the frivolity of sentiment andease of versification which prevailed in the poems of Waller. 

In philosophy, Hobbes now uttered his defiance to constitutional freedomand ecclesiastical independence; Henry More expounded his platonic dreamsin the cloisters of Cambridge; and Cudworth vindicated the belief in thebeing of the Almighty and in the foundations of moral distinctions. ThePuritans, the ruling power in the state, became also a power inliterature, nobly represented by Richard Baxter. Milton, like many of hisremarkable contemporaries, lived into the succeeding generation, and hemay be accepted as the last representative of the eloquence of Englishprose in that brilliant stage of its history which terminated about thedate of the Restoration. 

The aspect of the last forty years of the seventeenth century--the age ofthe Restoration and the Revolution--is far from being encouraging, andsome features marking many of their literary works are positivelyrevolting. Of the social evils of the time, none infected literature sodeeply as the depravation of morals, into which the court and aristocracyplunged, and many of the people followed. The drama sunk to a frightfulgrossness, and the tone of all other poetry was lowered. The reinstatedcourtiers imported a mania for foreign models, especially French, literaryworks were anxiously moulded on the tastes of Paris, and this prevalenceof exotic predilections lasted for more than a century. But amidst theseand other weaknesses and blots there was not wanting either strength orbrightness. 

The literary career of Dryden covers the whole of this period and marks achange which contained many improvements. Locke was the leader ofphilosophical speculation; and mathematical and physical science had itsdistinguished votaries, headed by Sir Isaac Newton, whose illustrious namealone would have made the age immortal. 

The Nonconformists, forbidden to speak, wrote and printed. A youngergeneration was growing up among them, and some of the elder race stillsurvived, such as Baxter, Owen, and Calamy. But greatest of all, and onlynow reaching the climax of his strength, was Milton, in his neglected oldage consoling himself for the disappointments which had darkened a wearylife, by consecrating its waning years, with redoubled ardor of devotion, to religion, to truth, and to the service of a remote posterity. 

In England, as elsewhere in Europe, the temper of the eighteenth centurywas cold, dissatisfied, and hypercritical. Old principles were called inquestion, and the literary man, the statesman, the philosopher, and thetheologian found their tasks to be mainly those of attack or defence. Theopinions of the nation and the sentiments which they prompted were neitherspeculative nor heroic, and they received adequate literary expression ina philosophy which acknowledged no higher motive than utility, --in a kindof poetry which found its field in didactic discussion, and sunk innarrative into the coarse and domestic. In all departments of literature, the form had come to be more regarded than the matter; and melody ofrhythm, elegance of phrase, and symmetry of parts were held to be higherexcellences than rich fancy or fervid emotion. Such an age could not givebirth to a literature possessing the loftiest and most striking qualitiesof poetry or of eloquence; but it increased the knowledge previouslypossessed by mankind, swept away many wrong opinions, produced manyliterary works, excellent in thought and expression, and exercised on theEnglish language an influence partly for good and partly for evil, whichis shown in every sentence which we now speak or write. 

The First Generation is named from Queen Anne (1702-1714), but it includesalso the reign of her successor. Our notion of its literary character isderived from the poetry of Pope and the prose of Addison and his friends. In its own region, which, though not low, is yet far from the highest, thelighter and more popular literature of Queen Anne's time is valuable; itslessons were full of good sense and correct taste, and as literaryartists, the writers of this age attained an excellence as eminent as canbe attained by art not inspired by the enthusiasm of genius nor employedon majestic themes. In its moral tone, the early part of the eighteenthcentury was much better than that of the age before it. 

The Second Generation of the century may be reckoned as contained in thereign of George II. (1727-1760). It was more remarkable than the precedingfor vigor of thinking and often for genuine poetic fancy andsusceptibility, though inferior in the skill and details of literarycomposition. Samuel Johnson produced his principal works before the closeof this period. Among the novelists, Richardson alone had anything incommon with him. Fielding, Smollett, and Sterne are equally distant fromthe dignified pomp of his manner and the ascetic elevation of hismorality. In contrast to the looseness of the novels and the skepticism ofHume, the reasoning of Butler was employed in defense of sacred truth, andthe stern dissent of Whitefield and Wesley was entered against religiousdeadness. Poetry began to stir with new life; a noble ambition animatedYoung and Akenside, and in Thomson, Gray, and Collins a finer poetic sensewas perceptible. 

The Third Generation of the eighteenth century, beginning with theaccession of George III. (1760), was by no means so fertile in literarygenius as either of the other two. But the earliest of its remarkablewriters, Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon, produced works which have rarelybeen exceeded as literary compositions of their class. In ethics, therewere Paley and Adam Smith; in psychology and metaphysics, Reid and thefounders of the Scottish school; and in the list of poets who adornedthese forty years were Goldsmith, Cowper, and Burns. 

The nineteenth century, for us naturally more interesting than any otherperiod of English literature, is, in its intellectual character, peculiarly difficult of analysis, from its variety and novelty. For thereason that we have been moulded on its lessons, we are not favorablyplaced for comprehending it profoundly, or for impartially estimating thevalue of the monuments it has produced. 

It has been a time of extraordinary mental activity more widely diffusedthan ever before throughout the nation at large. While books have beenmultiplied beyond precedent, readers have increased in a yet greaterproportion, and the diffusion of enlightenment has been aimed at aszealously as the discovery of new truths. While no other time hasexhibited so surprising a variety in the kinds of literature, none hasbeen so distinguished for the prevalence of enlightened and philanthropicsentiment. 

In point of literary merit, the half century presents two successive anddissimilar stages, of which the first or opening epoch of the century, embraced in its first thirty years, was by far the most brilliant. Theanimation and energy which characterized it arose from the universalexcitation of feeling and the mighty collision of opinions which broke outover all Europe with the first French Revolution, and the fierce struggleso long maintained almost single-handed by England against Napoleon I. Thestrength of that age was greatest in poetry, but it gave birth to muchvaluable speculation and eloquent writing. The poetical literature of thattime has no parallel in English literature, unless in the age ofShakspeare. 

A marked feature in the English poetry of the nineteenth century is thewant of skill in execution. Most of the poets not only neglect polishingin diction but also in symmetry of plan, and this fault is common to themost reflective as well as the most passionate of them. Byron, in histales and sketches, is not more deficient in skill as an artist thanWordsworth in his "Excursion, " the huge fragment of an unfathomabledesign, cherished throughout a long and thoughtful lifetime. 

Another feature is this, that the poems which made the strongestimpression were of the narrative kind. That and the drama may be said tobe the only forms of representation adequate to embody the spirit or tointerest the sympathies of an age and nation immersed in the turmoil ofenergetic action. 

Among the prose writings of this period, two kinds of composition employeda larger fund of literary genius than any other, and exercised a widerinfluence; these were the novels and romances, and the reviews and otherperiodicals. Novel-writing acquired an unusually high rank in the world ofletters, through its greatest master, and was remarkable for the highcharacter imprinted on it. By Scott and two or three precursors and somenot unworthy successors, the novel was made for us nearly all that thedrama in its palmy days had been for our fore-fathers, imbibing as much ofits poetic spirit as its form and purpose allowed, thoughtful in its viewsof life, and presenting pictures faithful to nature. 

In the beginning of the present century was founded the dynasty of thereviews, which now began to be chosen as the vehicles of the best prosewriting and the most energetic thinking that the nation could command. Masses of valuable knowledge have been laid up, and streams of eloquencehave been poured out in the periodicals of our century by authors who haveoften left their names to be guessed at. But the best writers have notalways escaped the dangers of this form of writing, which is unfavorableto completeness and depth of knowledge, and strongly tempting toexaggeration of style and sentiment. This evil has worked on the ranks ofinferior contributors with a force which has seriously injured the purityof the public taste. The strong points of periodical writers are theircriticism of literary works and their speculation in social and politicalphilosophy, which have nowhere been handled so skillfully as in theReviews. After poetry, they are the most valuable departments in theliterature of the first age. 

Since the Anglo-Saxon period, English literature has derived much of itsmaterials and inspiration from the teaching of other countries. In theMiddle Ages, France furnished the models of chivalrous poetry and much ofthe social system; the Augustan age of French letters, the reign of LouisXIV. , ruled the literary taste of England from the Restoration to themiddle of the eighteenth century; and from Germany, more than from anyother foreign nation, have come the influences by which the intellect ofGreat Britain has been affected, especially during the last thirty years. Within this time, the study and translation of German literature havebecome fashionable pursuits, and on the whole, highly beneficial. Thephilology of Germany and its profound poetical criticism have taught much:the philosophical tendency of German theology has engaged the attention ofteachers of religion, and had its effect both for good and evil, and theaccurate study of the highest branches of German philosophy has tendeddecidedly to elevate the standard of abstract speculation. 

The most hopeful symptom of English literature in the last thirty years isto be found in the zeal and success with which its teachings have beenextended beyond the accustomed limits. Knowledge has been diffused with azeal and rapidity never before dreamed of, and the spirit which promptedit has been worthily embodied in the enlarged and enlightened temper withwhich it has been communicated. In the midst of much error, there are manyfeatures prominent which presage the birth of a love of mankind moreexpansive and generous than any that has ever yet pervaded society. 

The present age possesses no poetry comparable to that of the preceding, and few men who unite remarkable eloquence with power of thought. Amongthe thinkers, there is greater activity of speculation in regard toquestions affecting the nature and destiny of man; and problems have beenboldly propounded, but the solutions have not been found, and amidst muchdoubt and dimness, the present generation seems to be struggling toward anew organization of social and intellectual life. 

The literature of England may be divided into three periods: the first, extending from the departure of the Romans to the Norman Conquest (448-1066), comprises the literature in the Celtic, Latin, and Anglo-Saxontongues. 

The second period, extending from the Norman Conquest to the accession ofHenry VIII. (1066-1509), contains the literature of the Norman period from1066 to 1307, in the Latin, Norman-French, and Anglo-Saxon tongues, thetransition of the Anglo-Saxon into English, and the literature of thefourteenth and fifteenth centuries. 

The third period, extending from 1509 to 1884, includes the literature ofthe age of the Reformation, that of the age of Spenser, Shakspeare, Bacon, and Milton, of the Restoration and Revolution, and of the eighteenth andnineteenth centuries. 

2. THE LANGUAGE. --The English language is directly descended from theAnglo-Saxon, but derives much from the Norman-French, and from the Latin. Although the Celtic in its branches of Cymric and Gaelic still continuesto be the speech of a portion of the inhabitants of Great Britain, it hasnever exercised any influence on the language of the nation. 

The origin of the Anglo-Saxon tongue is involved in obscurity. It mostnearly resembles the Frisic, a Low German dialect once spoken between theRhine and the Elbe, and which is the parent of modern Dutch. 

Before the battle of Hastings, the Anglo-Saxon tongue had been spoken inEngland for at least six hundred years, during which time it must haveundergone many changes and dialectic variations. On the subjugation of theconflicting states by the kings of Wessex, the language of the West Saxonscame to be the ruling one, and its use was extended and confirmed by theexample of Alfred, himself a native of Berks. But it does not necessarilyfollow that this dialect is the parent of the English language. We mustlook for the probable ground-work of this in the gradual coalescence ofthe leading dialects. 

The changes by which the Anglo-Saxon passed into the modern Englishassumed in succession two distinct types, marking two eras quitedissimilar. First came the Semi-Saxon, or transition period, throughoutwhich the old language was suffering disorganization and decay, a periodof confusion, perplexing alike to those who then used the tongue, and tothose who now endeavor to trace its vicissitudes. This chaotic state cameto an end about the middle of the thirteenth century, after a duration ofnearly two hundred years. The second era, or period of reconstruction, follows, during which the language may be described as English. 

A late critic divides the Old English Period, extending from 1250 to 1500, into the Early English (1250-1330) and the Middle English (1330-1500). Thelatter was used by Chaucer and Wickliffe, and is in all essentials so likethe modern tongue, except in the spelling, that a tolerable Englishscholar may easily understand it. A great change was effected in thevocabulary by the introduction and naturalization of words from theFrench. The poems of Chaucer and Gower are studded with them, and thestyle of these favorite writers exercised a commanding influence everafter. 

The grammar of the English language, in all points of importance, is asimplification of the grammar of the Anglo-Saxon. In considering thesources of the English vocabulary, we find that from the Anglo-Saxon arederived first, almost all those words which import relations; secondly, not only all the adjectives, but all the other words, nouns, and verbswhich grammarians call irregular; thirdly, the Saxon gives us in mostinstances our only names, and in all instances those which suggestthemselves most readily for the objects perceived through the senses;fourthly, all words, with a few exceptions, whose signification isspecific, are Anglo-Saxon. For instance, we use a foreign, naturalizedterm when we speak of color, or motion, in general, but the Saxon inspeaking of the particular color or motion, and the style of a writerbecomes animated and suggestive in proportion to the frequency with whichhe uses these specific terms; fifthly, it furnishes a rich fund ofexpressions for the feelings and affections, for the persons who are theearliest and most natural objects of our attachment, and for thoseinanimate things whose names are figuratively significant of domesticunion; sixthly, the Anglo-Saxon is, for the most part, the language ofbusiness; of the counting-house, the shop, the street, the market, thefarm. Among an eminently practical people it is eminently the organ ofpractical action, and it retains this prerogative in defiance alike of thenecessary innovations caused by scientific discovery and of thecorruptions of ignorance and affectation. Seventhly, a very largeproportion of the language of invective, humor, satire, and colloquialpleasantry is Anglo-Saxon. In short, the Teutonic elements of ourvocabulary are equally valuable in enabling us to speak and writeperspicuously and with animation; and besides dictating the laws whichconnect our words, and furnishing the cement which binds them together, they yield all our aptest means of describing imagination, feeling, andthe every-day facts of life. 

From the Latin the English has borrowed more or less for two thousandyears, and freely for more than six centuries; but from the time of theConquest it is difficult to distinguish words of Latin origin from thoseof French. The Latinisms of the language have arisen chiefly in threeepochs. The first was the thirteenth century, which followed an agedevoted to classical studies, and its theological writers and poets coinedfreely in the Roman mint. The second was the Elizabethan age, when, in theenthusiasm of a new revival of admiration for antiquity, the privilege ofnaturalization was used to an extent which threatened serious danger tothe purity and ease of speech. In the third epoch, the latter part of theeighteenth century, Johnson was the dictator of form and style, and thepompous rotundity that then prevailed has been permanently injurious, although our Latin words, on the whole, have done much more good thanharm. 

The introduction of French words began with the Conquest, when thepolitical condition of the country made it imperative that many wordsshould be understood. The second stage began about a century later, whenthe few native Englishmen who loved letters entered on the study of Frenchpoetry. The third era of English Gallicisms opened in the fourteenthcentury, when the French tastes of the nobles, and the zeal with whichChaucer and other men of letters studied the poetry of France, greatlycontributed to introduce that tide of French diction which flowed on tothe close of the Middle Ages. By that time the new words were so numerousand so strongly ingrafted on the native stock that all subsequentadditions are unimportant. The dictionaries of modern English are said tocontain about 38, 000 words, of which about 23, 000 or five eighths of thewhole number, come from the Anglo-Saxon. 

The English language, by its remarkable combination of strength, precision, and copiousness, is worthy of being, as it already is, spokenby many millions, and these the part of the human race that appear likelyto control, more than any others, the future destinies of the world. 

PERIOD FIRST. 

FROM THE DEPARTURE OF THE ROMANS TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST (448-1066). 

1. CELTIC LITERATURE. --During this period four languages were used forliterary communication in the British Islands; two Celtic tongues spokenby nations of that race, who still occupied large portions of the country;Latin, as elsewhere the organ of the church and of learning; and Anglo-Saxon. The first of the Celtic tongues, the Erse or Gaelic, was commononly to the Celts of Ireland and Scotland, where it is still spoken. Thesecond, that of the Cymrians or ancient Britons, has been preserved by theWelsh. 

The literary remains of this period in Ireland consist of bardic songs andhistorical legends, some of which are asserted to be older than the ninthcentury, the date of the legendary collection called the "Psalter ofCashel, " which still survives. There exist, also, valuable prosechronicles which are believed to contain the substance of others of a veryearly date, and which furnish an authentic contemporary history of thecountry in the language of the people from the fifth century. No othermodern nation of Europe is able to make a similar boast. 

All the earliest relics of the Scotch Celts are metrical. The poems whichbear the name of Ossian are professedly celebrations by an eye-witness ofevents which occurred in the third century. They were first presented tothe world in 1762 by Macpherson, a Scotch poet, and represented by him tobe translations from the ancient Gaelic poetry handed down by traditionthrough so many centuries and still found among the Highlands. Thequestion of their authenticity excited a fierce literary controversy whichstill remains unsettled. By some recent English and German critics, however, Ossian's poems are considered genuine. The existence of bardsamong the Celtic nations is well established, and their songs werepreserved with pride. The name of Ossian is mentioned by GiraldusCambrensis in the twelfth century, and that of Fingal, the hero of thelegends, was so popular that in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries manybishops complained that their people were more familiar with Fingal thanwith the catechism. The Gaelic original of Ossian was published in 1807. 

The literature of the Cymric Celts is particularly interesting, asaffording those fragments of British poetry and history from which themagnificent legends were built up to immortalize King Arthur and hisKnights of the Round Table. In the bardic songs and elsewhere, frequentallusion is made to this heroic prince, who with his warriors resisted theSaxon enemies of his country, and who, we are told, died by domestictreason, the flower of the British nobles perishing with him. His deedswere magnified among the Welsh Britons, and among those who sought refugeon the banks of the Loire. The chroniclers wove these traditions into alegendary history of Britain. From this compilation Geoffrey of Monmouth, in the twelfth century, constructed a Latin historical work; and the poetsof chivalry, allured by the beauty and pathos of the tale, made it forages the centre of the most animated pictures of romance. 

Many ancient Welsh writings are extant which treat of a wonderful varietyof topics, both in prose and verse. The singular pieces called the Triadsshow a marked character of primitive antiquity. They are collections ofhistorical facts, mythological doctrines, maxims, traditions, and rulesfor the structure of verse, expressed with extreme brevity, and disposedin groups of three. Among the Welsh metrical remains, some are plausiblyassigned to celebrated bards of the sixth century. There is also aconsiderable stock of old Welsh romances, the most remarkable of which arecontained in a series called the "Mabinogi, " or Tales of Youth, many ofwhich have been translated into English. Some of these stories are verysimilar to the older Norse Sagas, and must have sprung from traditions ofa very rude and early generation. 

2. LATIN LITERATURE. --The Latin learning of the Dark Ages formed a pointof contact between instructed men of all countries. At first it wasnecessarily adopted, --the native tongues being in their infancy; and itwas afterwards so tenaciously adhered to, that the Latin literature of theMiddle Ages far exceeds in amount all other. Its cultivation in Englandarose out of the introduction of Christianity, and its most valued usesrelated to the church. 

Almost all who cultivated Latin learning were ecclesiastics, and by farthe larger number of those who became eminent in it were natives ofIreland. Amidst the convulsions which followed the fall of the Romanempire, Ireland was a place of rest and safety to fugitives from Englandand the Continent, and it contained for some centuries a larger amount oflearning than could have been collected in all Europe. 

With the introduction of the Christian faith each nation became a memberof the ecclesiastical community, and maintained its connection with othernations and with Rome as the common centre; thus communication betweendifferent countries received a new impulse. The churches and schools ofEngland received many distinguished foreigners, and many of the nativechurchmen lived abroad. Of the three scholars who held the highest placein the literature of this period--Bede (d. 735), Alcuin (d. 804), andErigena (d. 884), (celebrated for his original views in philosophy)--thetwo last gave the benefit of their talents to France. The writings of theVenerable Bede, as he is called, exhibit an extent of classicalscholarship surprising for his time, and his "Ecclesiastical History ofEngland" is to this day a leading authority not only for church annals, but for all public events that occurred in the earlier part of the Saxonperiod. 

3. LITERATURE IN THE ANGLO-SAXON TONGUE. --The remains of Anglo-Saxonliterature, both in prose and verse, differ essentially from the specimensof a similar age which come down to us from other nations. The ancestrallegends, which were at once the poetry and history of theircontemporaries, the Anglo-Saxons entirely neglected; they even avoided thechoice of national themes for their poetry, which consisted of ethicalreflections and religious doctrines or narratives. They eschewed allexpression of impassioned fancy, and embodied in rough but lucid phrasespractical information and every-day shrewdness. 

Among the Anglo-Saxon metrical monuments three historical poems are stillpreserved, which embody recollections of the Continent, and must have beencomposed long before the emigrations to England; of these the mostimportant is the tale of "Beowulf, " consisting of six thousand lines, which is essentially a Norse Saga. 

After the introduction of Christianity there appeared many hymns, metricallives of the saints, and religious and reflective poems. The mostremarkable relics of this period are the works attributed to Caedmon (d. 680), whose narrative poems on scriptural events are inspired by a nobletone of solemn imagination. 

The melody of the Saxon verse was regulated by syllabic accent oremphasis, and not by quantity, like the classical metres. Alliteration, orthe use of several syllables in the same stanza beginning with the sameletter, takes the place of rhyme. The alliterative metres and the strainedand figurative diction common to the Anglo-Saxon poets was common to theNorthmen, and seems to have been derived from them. 

Anglo-Saxon prose was remarkable for its straightforward and perspicuoussimplicity, and, especially after the time of Alfred, it had a markedpreference over the Latin. Translations were early made from the Latin, particularly versions of parts of the Scriptures, which come next, inpoint of date, to the Moeso-Gothic translation of Ulphilas, and precededby several generations all similar attempts in any of the new languages ofEurope. 

The most important monument of Saxon prose literature is the series ofhistorical records arranged together under the name of "The SaxonChronicle, " which is made up from records kept in the monasteries, probably from the time of Alfred, and brought down to the year 1154. 

The illustrious name of Alfred (849-900) closes the record of Anglo-Saxonliterature. From him went forth a spirit of moral strength and a thirstfor enlightenment which worked marvels among an ignorant and half-barbarous people. Besides his translations from the Scriptures, he madeselections from St. Augustine, Bede, and other writers; he translated "TheConsolations of Philosophy, " by Boethius, and he incorporates his ownreflections with all these authors. It is impossible, at this time, toestimate justly the labors of Alfred, since the obstacles which in histime impeded the acquisition of knowledge cannot even now be conceived. "Ihave wished to live worthily, " said he, "while I lived, and after my life, to leave to the men who should come after me, my remembrance in goodworks. "

PERIOD SECOND. 

FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VIII. (1066-1509). 

1. LITERATURE IN THE LATIN TONGUE. --The Norman Conquest introduced intoEngland a foreign race of kings and barons, with their military vassals, and churchmen, who followed the conqueror and his successors. Thegeneration succeeding the Conquest gave birth to little that wasremarkable, but the twelfth century was particularly distinguished for itsclassical scholarship, and Norman-French poetry began to find Englishimitators. 

The thirteenth century was a decisive epoch in the constitutional as wellas in the intellectual history of England. The Great Charter was extortedfrom John; the representation of the commons from his successors; theuniversities were founded or organized; the romantic poetry of Francebegan to be transfused into a language intelligible throughout England;and above all, the Anglo-Saxon tongue was in this century finallytransformed into English. Three of the Crusades had already taken place;the other four fell within the next century; and these wars diffusedknowledge, and kindled a flame of zeal and devotion to the church. 

The only names which adorned the annals of erudition in England in thelatter half of the eleventh century were those of two Lombard priests--Lanfranc (d. 1089) and Anselm (d. 1109). They prepared the means fordiffusing classical learning among the ecclesiastics, and both acquiredhigh celebrity as theological writers. Their influence was visible on thetwo most learned men whom the country produced in the next century--Johnof Salisbury (d. 1181). Befriended by Thomas à Becket, and Peter of Blois, the king's secretary, and an active statesman. 

In the thirteenth century, when the teachings of Abelard and Rosellinushad made philosophy the favorite pursuit of the scholars of Europe, England possessed many names which, in this field, stood higher than anyothers--among them Alexander de Hales, called "the Irrefragable Doctor, "and Johannes Duns Scotus, one of the most acute of thinkers. In the sameage, while Scotland sent Michael Scott into Germany, where he prosecutedhis studies with a success that earned for him the fame of a sorcerer, asimilar character was acquired by Roger Bacon (d. 1292), a Franciscanfriar, who made many curious conjectures on the possibility of discoverieswhich have since been made. 

Very few of the historical works of this period possess any merit, exceptas curious records of fact. Chronicles were kept in the variousmonasteries, which furnish a series extending through the greater part ofthe Middle Ages. Among these historians are William of Malmesbury, whobelonged properly to the twelfth century; Geoffrey of Monmouth, whopreserved for us the stories of Arthur, of Lear, and Cymbeline; Gerald deBarri, or Giraldus Cambrensis; Matthew Paris, a Benedictine monk, of St. Albans; Henry of Huntingdon; Gervase of Tilbury; and Roger de Hoveden. 

The spirit of resistance to secular and ecclesiastical tyranny, which nowbegan to show itself among the English people, found also a medium ofexpression in the Latin tongue. The most biting satires against thechurch, and the most lively political pasquinades, were thus expressed, and written almost always by churchmen. To give these satires a widercirculation, the Norman-French came to be frequently used, but at theclose of the period the English dialect was almost the only organ of thissatirical minstrelsy. 

The Latin tongue also became the means of preserving and transmitting animmense stock of tales, by which the later poetry of Europe profitedlargely. One of these legends, narrated by Gervase of Tilbury, suggestedto Scott the combat of Marmion with the spectre knight. 

A series of fictions called the "Gesta Romanorum" attained greatcelebrity. It is composed of fables, traditions, and familiar pictures ofsociety, varying with the different countries it passed through. Theromance of Apollonius, in the Gesta, furnished the plot of two or three ofChaucer's tales, and of Gower's most celebrated poem, which again gave theground-work of Pericles, Prince of Tyre. The Merchant of Venice, the ThreeBlack Crows, and Parnell's Hermit, are indebted also to the GestaRomanorum. 

4. LITERATURE IN NORMAN-FRENCH. --From the preference of the Norman kingsof England for the poets of their own country, the distinguished literarynames of the first two centuries after the Conquest are those of Normanpoets. One of the chief of these is Wace (fl. 1160), who composed inFrench his "Brut d'Angleterre" (Brutus of England), the mythical son ofAeneas and founder of Britain. The Britons settled in Cornwall, Wales, andBretagne had long been distinguished for their traditionary legends, whichwere at length collected by Geoffrey of Monmouth (fl. 1138), and gravelyrelated by him in Latin as serious history. This production, composed ofincredible stories, furnished the ground-work for Wace's poem, and provedan unfailing resource for writers of romantic narration for two centuries;at a later period Shakspeare drew from it the story of Lear; Sackvillethat of Ferrex and Porrex; Drayton reproduced it in his Poly-Olbion, andMilton and other poets frequently draw allusions from it. The Romances ofchivalry, drawn from the same source, were composed for the English courtand nobles, and the translation of them was the most frequent use to whichthe infant English was applied. They imprinted on English poetrycharacteristics which it did not lose for centuries, if it can be said tohave lost them at all. 

A poetess known as Marie of France made copious use of British materials, and addressed herself to a king, supposed to have been Henry VI. Hertwelve lays, which celebrate the marvels of the Round Table, are among themost beautiful relics of the Middle Ages, and were freely used by Chaucerand other English poets. 

The romances are, many of them, in parts at least, delightfullyimaginative, spirited, or pathetic, and their history is important asillustrating mediaeval manners and customs, and for their connection withearly English literature. Among the oldest of these romances is "Havelok, "relating to the early Norse settlement in England, the "Gest of KingHorn, " and "Guy of Warwick. "

But of all the French romances, the most interesting by far are those thatcelebrate the glory and fall of King Arthur and the Knights of the RoundTable. The order in which they were composed seems to have been the samewith that of the events narrated. 

First comes the romance of "The Saint Graal, " relating the history of thissacred relic which was carried by Joseph of Arimathea or his descendantsinto Britain, where it vanished for ages from the eyes of sinful men. 

Second, the romance of "Merlin, " which derives its name from the fiend-born prophet and magician, celebrates the birth and exploits of Arthur, and the gathering round him of the Knights of the Round Table. Thehistoric origin of this story is from Geoffrey of Monmouth, though it isdisguised by its supernatural and chivalrous features. 

In the third romance, that of Launcelot, the hero nurtured by the Lady ofthe Lake in her fairy realm beneath the waters, grows up the bravestchampion of chivalry, admired for all its virtues, although guilty oftreachery to Arthur, and from his guilt is to ensue the destruction of theland. 

Fourth, the "Quest of the Saint Graal" relates the solitary wanderings ofthe knights in this search, and how the adventure is at last achieved bySir Gallahad, who, while the vision passes before him, prays that he mayno longer live, and is immediately taken away from a world of calamity andsin. 

Fifth, "The Mort Artus, " or Death of Arthur, winds up with supernaturalhorrors the tale into which the fall of the ancient Britons had been thustransformed. Arthur, wounded and dying, is carried by the fairy of thelake to the enchanted island of Avalon, there to dream away the ages thatmust elapse before his return to reign over the perfected world ofchivalry. 

Sixth, "The Adventures of Tristram, " or Tristan, is a repetition of thosewhich had been attributed to Launcelot of the Lake. 

These six romances of the British cycle, the originals of all others, werewritten in the latter half of the twelfth century for the English courtand nobles, some of them at the suggestion of king Henry II. Although, composed in French, the authors were Englishmen, and from these proseromances the poets of France constructed many metrical romances which inthe fifteenth century reappeared as English metrical romances. 

5. SAXON ENGLISH. --The Saxon tongue of England decayed, but like thehealthy seed in the ground it germinated again. The Saxon Chronicle whichhad been kept in the monasteries ceased abruptly on the accession of HenryII. , 1154, and at the same period the Saxon language began to take a formin which the beginning of the present English is apparent. 

During the thirteenth century appeared a series of rhyming chroniclers, the chief of whom were Layamon and Robert of Gloucester. All the remainsof the English tongue, in its transition state, are chiefly in verse;among them are the "Ormulum" (so called from the name of the author, Ormin), which is a metrical harmony of passages from the gospels containedin the service of the mass, and the long fable of "The Owl and theNightingale, " one of the most pleasing of these early relics. "The Land ofCockayne, " a satirical poem, said to have been written by Michael ofKildare, belongs also to the thirteenth century, as well as many anonymouspoems, both amatory and religious. 

The old English drama was almost contemporaneous with the formation of theOld English language; but all dramatic efforts previous to the sixteenthcentury were so rude as to deserve little notice. 

6. LITERATURE IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY. --The fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies, the afternoon and evening of the Middle Ages, are thepicturesque period in English history. In the contemporary chronicle ofFroissart, the reign of Edward III. Shines with a long array of knightlypageants, and a loftier cast of imaginative adornment is imparted by thehistorical dramas of Shakspeare to the troubled rule of the house ofLancaster and the crimes and fall of the brief dynasty of York. 

The reign of Edward II. Was as inglorious in literature as in the historyof the nation. That of his son was not more remarkable for the victoriesof Poictiers and Cressy than for the triumphs in poetry and thought. TheBlack Prince, the model of historic chivalry, and Occam, the last andgreatest of the English scholastic philosophers, lived in the same centurywith Chaucer, the father of English poetry, and Wickliffe, the herald ofthe Reformation. 

The earlier half of the fourteenth century, in its literary aspects, maybe regarded as a separate period from the later. The genius of the nationseemed to sleep. England, indeed, was the birth-place of Occam (1300-1347), but he neither remained in his own country, nor imparted any strongimpulse to his countrymen. Educated abroad, he lived chiefly In France, and died in Munich. While the writings of his master, Duns Scotus (d. 1308), were the chief authorities of the metaphysical sect called_Realists_, Occam himself was the ablest and one of the earliest writersamong the _Nominalists_. While the former of these sects was heldespecially favorable to the Romish Church, the latter was discouraged asheretical, and Occam was persecuted for enunciating those opinions whichare now held in one form or another by almost all metaphysicians. Noeminent names appear in the ecclesiastical literature of this period, norin that of the spoken tongue; but the dawn of English literature was closeat hand. 

The latter half of this century was a remarkable era in the ecclesiasticaland intellectual progress of England. Many colleges were founded, andlearning had munificent patrons. The increase of papal power led to claimswhich were resisted by the clergy as well as by the parliament. Foremostamong those who called for reform was the celebrated John Wickliffe (1324-1384). A priest of high fame for his knowledge and logical dexterity, hewas placed at the head of several of the colleges of Oxford, and there, and from the country parsonages to which he was afterwards compelled toretreat, he thundered forth his denunciations against the abuses of thechurch, attacked the papal supremacy, and set forth doctrinal views of hisown nearly approaching to Calvinism. Although repeatedly called to accountfor his opinions he was never even imprisoned, and he enjoyed his church-livings to the last. But the church was weakened by the _Great Schism_, and he was protected by powerful nobles. Soon after his death, however, astorm of persecution burst on his disciples, which crushed dissent tillthe sixteenth century. We owe to Wickliffe the earliest version of theScriptures into English, which is among the first prose writings in theold tongue. 

The very oldest book in English prose, however, is the account given bySir John Mandeville of his thirty-three years' travel in the East, fromwhich he returned about 1355. It is an odd and amusing compound of factsand marvelous stories. But the best specimens of English prose of thisperiod are Chaucer's translation of Boethius, his "Testament of Love, " andtwo of his Canterbury Tales. 

In poetical literature, "The Vision of Piers Plowman, " written (1362) by apriest named Robert Langland, is one of the highest works in point ofgenius and one of the most curious as illustrating manners and opinions. The poet supposes himself falling asleep on Malvern Hills, and in hisvision he describes the vices of the times in an allegorical form, whichhas been compared to "The Pilgrim's Progress. " The poetical vigor of manypassages is extraordinary. 

John Gower (d. 1408), a contemporary and friend of Chaucer, is chieflyremembered for his "Confessio Amantis, " or Lover's Confession, a longEnglish poem, containing physical, metaphysical, and ethical reflectionsand stories taken from the common repertories of the Middle Ages. It istedious, and often feeble, but it has many excellences of language anddescription. 

Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) was born in London. He was early thrown intopublic life and intimacy with men of high rank. John of Gaunt was hischief patron, and he was several times employed in embassies to France andItaly. A very large proportion of Chaucer's writings consists of freeversions from the Latin and French, and perhaps also from the Italian; butin some of these he has incorporated so much that is his own as to makethem the most celebrated and valuable of his works. His originals were notthe chivalrous romances, but the comic Fabliaux, and the allegoricalpoetry cultivated by the Trouvères and Troubadours. Three of his largestminor works are thus borrowed; the "Romance of the Rose, " from one of themost popular French poems of the preceding century; "Troilus andCressida, " a free translation, probably, from Boccaccio; and the "Legendof Good Women, " founded on Ovid's Epistles. The poetical immortality ofChaucer rests on his "Canterbury Tales, " a series of stories linkedtogether by an ingenious device. A party of about thirty persons, the poetbeing one, are bound on a pilgrimage to the tomb of Thomas à Becket, atCanterbury; each person is to tell two tales, one in going, and the otherin returning. Twenty-four only of the stories are related, but they extendto more than 17, 000 lines. In the prologue, itself a poem of great merit, the poet draws up the curtain from a scene of life and manners which hasnot been surpassed in subsequent literature, a picture whose figures havebeen studied with the truest observation, and are outlined with thefirmest, yet most delicate pencil. The vein of sentiment in these tales isalways unaffected, cheerful, and manly, the most touching seriousnessvarying with the keenest humor. In some the tone rises to the highestflight of heroic, reflective, and even religious poetry; while in othersit sinks below coarseness into positive licentiousness of thought andsentiment. 

LITERATURE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. --The fifteenth century, usuallymarked in continental history as the epoch of the Revival of ClassicalLearning, was not in England a period of erudition or of originalinvention. The unwise and unjust wars with France, the revolts of thepopulace, and the furious struggles between the partisans of the rivalhouses desolated the country, and blighted and dwarfed all intellectualgrowth. For more than a hundred years after the death of Chaucer, scarcelyany names of mark distinguish the literary annals of England, and thepoetical compositions of this period are principally valuable as specimensof the rapid transition of the language into modern English. Almost allthe literary productions previous to the time of Chaucer were designedonly for a limited audience. Neither comprehensive observation of societynor a wish to instruct or please a wide circle of readers was observablebefore this period. Chaucer was indeed a national poet, an active andenlightened teacher of all classes of men who were susceptible of literaryinstruction. 

John Lydgate (d. 1430), a Benedictine monk, the best and most popular poetof the fifteenth century, began to write before the death of Chaucer, butin passing from the works of the latter to those of Lydgate, we seem to beturning from the open highway into the dark, echoing cloisters. If he wasthe pupil of Chaucer in manner and style, his masters in opinion andsentiment were the compilers of the "Gesta Romanorum. "

Stephen Hawes, who wrote in the reign of Henry VII. , is the author of "ThePastime of Pleasure, " an allegorical poem in the same taste as the"Romance of the Rose. " This allegorical school of poetry, so widely spreadthrough the Middle Ages, reappears in the Elizabethan age, where the sameturn of thought is seen in the immortal "Faerie Queene. "

In leaving this period we bid adieu to metrical romances, which, introduced into English in the latter half of the thirteenth century, continued to be composed until the middle of the fifteenth century, andwere to the last almost always translations or imitations. Chivalrousstories next began to be related in prose. The most famous of these, oneof the best specimens of Old English, and the most delightful of allrepositories of romantic fiction is the "Mort Arthur, " in which Sir ThomasMallory, a priest in the reign of Edward IV. , combined into one narrativethe leading adventures of the Round Table. 

As the romances ceased to be produced, the ballads gradually took theirplace, many of which indeed are either fragments or abridgments of them. The ballad-poetry was to the popular audience what the recital of theromances had been among the nobles. The latter half of the fifteenthcentury appears to have been fertile in minstrels and minstrelsy. "ChevyChase, " of which Sir Philip Sidney said it would move him like the blastof a trumpet, is one of the most ancient; but, according to Hallam, itrelates to a totally fictitious event. The ballad of "Robin Hood" hadprobably as little origin in fact. 

Towards the close of the fifteenth century, a mighty revolution tookplace. William Caxton, a merchant of London residing abroad, becameacquainted with the recently invented art of printing, and embraced it asa profession. He introduced it into England about 1474, and practiced itfor nearly twenty years. He printed sixty-four works in all, and the lowstate of taste and information in the public for which they weredesignated is indicated by the selection. But the enterprise and patienceof Caxton hastened the time when this mighty discovery became available inEngland, and his name deserves to stand with honor at the close of thesurvey of English literature in the Middle Ages. Thenceforth literaryworks were to undergo a total change of character, brought about by manycauses, but none more active than the substitution of the printed book forthe manuscript. 

6. THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES IN SCOTLAND. --From the twelfthand thirteenth centuries there might be collected the names of a fewscholastic theologians of Scottish birth, whose works have survived; butthey spent their lives mostly on the continent, as was the case withMichael Scott, who gained his fame as a wizard at the court of the EmperorFrederic II. His extant writings are wholly inferior to those of FriarBacon, his contemporary. 

Two metrical romances of note belong to the fourteenth century, the"Original Cronykil" of Andrew Wyntoun (d. 1420), a long history ofScotland, and of the world at large; and "The Bruce" of John Barbour (d. 1396), a narrative of the adventures of King Robert in more than thirteenthousand rhymed lines. Dramatic vigor and occasional breadth of sentimententitle this poem to a high rank. Sir Walter Scott, in his "Lord of theIsles, " owes much to "The Bruce. "

The earliest Scottish poem of the fifteenth century, "The King's Quair, "or Book, in which James I. (d. 1437) celebrates the lady whom heafterwards married, presents no traces of a distinct Scottish dialect. ButJames was educated in England, and probably wrote there, and his pleasingpoem exhibits the influence of those English writers whom he acknowledgesas his masters. From this time, however, the development of the languageof Scotland into a dialect went rapidly on. The "Wallace" of Henry theMinstrel, or Blind Harry, rivaled the "Bruce" in popularity, on account ofthe more picturesque character of the incidents, its passionate fervor, and the wildness of fancy by which it is distinguished. 

Towards the close of this century, and in the beginning of the next, Scottish poetry, now couched in a dialect decidedly peculiar, wascultivated by men of high genius. Robert Henryson (d. 1400) wrote "TheTestament of the Faire Cresside, " a continuation of Chaucer's poem, and"Robin and Makyne, " a beautiful pastoral, preserved in Percy's "Reliques. "

More vigorous in thought and fancy, though inferior in skill andexpression, was Gavin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld (d. 1522). His "KingHart" and "Palace of Honor" are complex allegories; and his translation ofthe Aeneid is the earliest attempt to render classical poetry into theliving language of the country. 

William Dunbar (d. 1520), the best British poet of his age, exhibits aversatility of talent which has rarely been equaled; but in his comic andfamiliar pieces, the grossness of language and sentiment destroys theeffect of their force and humor. Allegory is his favorite field. In his"Golden Terge, " the target is Reason, a protection against the assaults oflove. "The Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins" is wonderfully striking; butthe design even of this remarkable poem could not be decorously described. 

While Scotland thus redeemed the poetical character of the fifteenthcentury, her living tongue was used only in versified compositions. Scottish prose does not appear in any literary shape until the firstdecade of the sixteenth century. 

PERIOD THIRD. 

FROM THE ACCESSION or HENRY VIII. TO THE PRESENT TIME (1509-1884). 

1. AGE OF THE REFORMATION. --In the early part of the sixteenth centuryhuman intellect began to be stirred by impulses altogether new, whileothers, which had as yet been held in check, were allowed, one afteranother, to work freely. But there was no sudden or universalmetamorphosis in literature, or in those phenomena by which its form andspirit were determined. It was not until 1568, when the reign of Elizabethwas within thirty years of its close, that English literature assumed acharacter separating it decisively from that of the ages which had gonebefore, and took its station as the worthy organ of a new epoch in thehistory of civilization. But the literary poverty of the age of theReformation was the poverty which the settler in a new countryexperiences, while he fells the woods and sows his half-tilled fields; apoverty, in the bosom of which lay rich abundance. 

The students of classical learning profited at first more than others bythe diffusion of the art of printing, from the greater number of classicalworks which, were given to the press. Foreign men of letters visitedEngland; Erasmus, especially, gave a strong impulse to study, and Greekand Latin were learned with an accuracy never before attained. Among thescholars of the time were Cardinals Pole and Wolsey, Ridley, Ascham, andSir Thomas More, the author of the "Utopia, " a romance in the scholasticgarb. It describes an imaginary commonwealth, the chief feature of whichis a community of property, on an imaginary island, from which the booktakes its name. The epithet "Utopian" is still used as descriptive ofchimerical schemes. 

The most important works in the living tongue were those devoted totheology, and first among them were the translations of the Scripturesinto English, none of which had been publicly attempted since that ofWickliffe. In 1526, William Tyndale (afterwards strangled and burnt forheresy, at Antwerp), translated the New Testament, and the five books ofMoses. In 1537, after the final breach of Henry VIII. With Rome, there waspublished the first complete translation of the Bible, by Miles Coverdale. Many others followed until the accession of Mary, when the circulation ofthe translation was made in secrecy and fear. The theological writers ofthis period are chiefly controversial. Among them are Ridley, famous as apreacher; Cranmer, remarkable for his patronage of theological learning, and Latimer (d. 1555), whose sermons and letters are highly instructiveand interesting. The "Book of Martyrs, " by John Fox (d. 1527), was printedtowards the close of this period. 

The miscellaneous writings of this age in prose are most valuable asspecimens of the language in its earliest maturity. None of them areentitled to high rank as monuments of English literature. The style of SirThomas More (1480-1535) had great excellence; but his works were only therecreation of an accomplished man in a learned age. The writings of thelearned Ascham (1515-1565) have a value not to be measured by theirinconsiderable bulk. Their language is pure, idiomatic, vigorous English;and they exhibit a great variety of knowledge, remarkable sagacity, andsound common sense. His most celebrated work, the "Schoolmaster, " proposesimprovements in education for which there is still both room and need. Thomas Wilson, who wrote a treatise on the "Art of Logic" and "Rhetoric, "may be considered the first critical writer in the living tongue. 

The poetry of England during the reigns of Henry VIII. And his immediatesuccessors is like the prose, valuable for its relation to other things, rather than for its own merit. Yet it occupies a higher place than theprose; it exhibits a decided contrast to that of the times past, and inmany points bears a close resemblance to the poetry of the energetic agethat was soon to open. 

The names of the poets of this age may be arrayed in three groups, headedby Skelton, Surrey, and Sackville. The poems of Skelton (d. 1529) aresingularly though coarsely energetic. He was the tutor of Henry VIII. , andduring the greater part of the reign of his pupil he continued to satirizesocial and ecclesiastical abuses. His poems are exceedingly curious andgrotesque, and the volubility with which he vents his acrid humors istruly surprising. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516-1547), opened a newera in English poetry, and by his foreign studies, and his refinement oftaste and feeling, was enabled to turn poetical literature into a path asyet untrodden, although in vigor and originality this ill-fated poet wasinferior to others who have been long forgotten. His works consist ofsonnets and poems of a lyrical and amatory cast, and a translation of theAeneid. He first introduced the sonnet, and the refined and sentimentalturn of thought borrowed from Petrarch and the other Italian masters. Inhis Aeneid he introduced blank verse, a form of versification in which thenoblest English poetry has since been couched. This was also taken fromItaly, where it had appeared only in the century. Surrey's versions ofsome of the Psalms, and those of his contemporary, Sir Thomas Wyatt, arethe most polished of the many similar attempts made at that time, amongwhich was the collection of Sternhold and Hopkins. 

Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurst (1686-1608) wrote those portions mostworthy of notice, of the "Mirror for Magistrates, " a collection of poemscelebrating illustrious but unfortunate personages who figure in thehistory of England. From his "Induction, " or preparatory poem, laterwriters have drawn many suggestions. 

The dramatic exhibitions of the Middle Ages, which originated in thechurch, or were soon appropriated by the clergy, were of a religious cast, often composed by priests and monks who were frequently the performers ofthem in the convents. All the old religious plays called _Mysteries_ weredivided into _Miracles_, or _Miracle_ plays, founded on Bible narrativesor legends of the saints; and _Moralities_ or _Moral_ plays, which aroseout of the former by the introduction of imaginary features andallegorical personages, the story being so constructed as to convey anethical or religious lesson. They became common in England about the timeof the reign of Henry VI. (1422-1461). Some of the Miracle plays treatedof all the events of Bible history, from the Creation to the Day ofJudgment; they were acted on festivals, and the performance often lastedmore than one day. The most sacred things are here treated with unduefreedom, and the broadest and coarsest mirth is introduced to keep theattention of the rude audience. Many of them had a character called_Iniquity_, whose avowed function was that of buffoonery. The Mysterieswere not entirely overthrown by the Reformation, the Protestant BishopBale having composed several, intended to instruct the people in theerrors of popery. After the time of Henry VIII. These plays are known bythe name of _Interludes_, the most celebrated of which are those by JohnHeywood (the epigrammatist). They deal largely in satire, and are notdevoid of spirit and humor. But they have little skill in character-painting, and little interest in the story. 

About the middle of the century (sixteenth) the drama extricated itselfcompletely from its ancient fetters, and both comedy and tragedy began toexist in a rude reality. The oldest known comedy was written by NicholasUdall (d. 1556); it has the title of "Ralph Roister Doister, " a personagewhose misadventures are represented with much comic force. 

Ten years later the earliest tragedy, known by two names, "Gorboduc" and"Ferrex and Porrex, " was publicly played in the Lower Temple. It isfounded on the traditions of fabulous British history, and is believed tohave been written by Thomas Norton and Lord Buckhurst. The chief merit ofthis earliest English tragedy lies in its stately language and solemnlyreflective tone of sentiment. 

2. THE AGE OF SPENSER, SHAKSPEARE, BACON, AND MILTON (1558-1660). --Theprose of this illustrious period is vast in amount and various in range. The study of the Oriental languages and other pursuits bearing on theologywere prosecuted with success, and many of the philosophical and polemicalwritings were composed in Latin. A second series of translations of theScriptures were among the most important works of the time. The first ofthe three versions which now appeared (1560), came from a knot of Englishand Scotch exiles who sought refuge in Geneva, and their work, known asthe Geneva Bible, though not adopted by the Church of England, longcontinued in favor with the English Puritans and Scotch Presbyterians. Cranmer's version was next revised (1568) under the superintendence ofMatthew Parker, archbishop of Canterbury, eminent among the fathers of theEnglish church, and called the Bishops' Bible, a majority of fifteentranslators having been selected from the bench. The Catholic version, known as the Douay Bible, appeared in 1610. Our current translation, whichalso appeared in 1610, during the reign of James I. , occupied forty-sevenlearned men, assisted by other eminent scholars, for a period of threeyears. 

Among theological writings, the "Ecclesiastical Polity" of Hooker (1553-1600) is a striking effort of philosophical thinking, and in point ofeloquence one of the noblest monuments of the language. More thanCiceronian in its fullness and dignity of style, it wears with all itsrichness a sober majesty which is equally admirable and rare. The sermonsof Bishop Andrews (1565-1626), though corrupt as models of style, made anextraordinary impression, and contain more than any other works of thekind the inwrought materials of oratory. The sermons of Donne (1573-1631), while they are superior in style, are sometimes fantastic, like hispoetry, but they are never coarse, and they derive a touching interestfrom his history. 

But the most eloquent of all the old English divines are the twocelebrated prelates of the reign of Charles I. , Joseph Hall (1574-1656)and Jeremy Taylor (1613-1671), alike eminent for Christian piety andconscientious zeal. Besides his pulpit discourses, Bishop Hall has left aseries of "Contemplations" on passages of the Bible, and "Meditations, "which are particularly rich in beautiful descriptions. Among the mostpractical and popular of Taylor's works are his "Holy Living" and "HolyDying, " while his sermons distinguish him as one of the great ornaments ofthe English pulpit. The chief theologian of the close of the period wasRichard Baxter (1615-1691). His works have great value for theiroriginality and acuteness of thought, and for their vigorous andpassionate though unpolished eloquence. His "Call to the Unconverted" and"The Saint's Everlasting Rest" deserve their wide popularity. Among thesemi-theological writers of the time are Fuller, Cudworth, and Henry More, Fuller (1608-1661) is most widely known through his "Worthies of England, "a book of lively and observant gossip. Cudworth and More, hiscontemporaries, deviated in their philosophical writings from thetendencies of Bacon and the sensualistlc doctrines of Hobbes, and regardedexistence rather from the spiritual point of view of Plato; in thepreceding generation, the skepticism of Lord Herbert of Cherbury taught adifferent lesson from theirs. 

In this period we encounter in the philosophical field two of thestrongest thinkers who have appeared in modern Europe, Bacon and Hobbes. Bacon (1561-1620) aimed at the solution of two great problems, the answersto which were intended to constitute the "Instauratio Magna, " the greatRestoration of Philosophy, that colossal work, towards which the chiefwritings of this illustrious author were contributions. The first problemwas an Analytic Classification of all departments of Human Knowledge, which occupies a portion of his treatise "On the Advancement of Learning. "Imperfect and erroneous as his scheme may be allowed to be, D'Alembert andhis coadjutors in the last century were able to do no more than to copyand distort it. In his "Novum Organum" he undertakes to supply certaindeficiencies of the Aristotelian system of logic, and expounds his mode ofphilosophizing; he was the first to unfold the inductive method, which hedid in so masterly a way, that he has earned, with posterity, the title ofthe father of experimental science. His "Essays, " from the excellence oftheir style and the interesting nature of the subjects, are the mostgenerally read of all the author's productions. No English writersurpasses Bacon in fervor and brilliancy of style, in force of expression, or in richness and significance of imagery. His writings, though theyreceived during his lifetime the neglect for which he had proudly preparedhimself, gave a mighty impulse to scientific thought for at least acentury after his time. In his will, the following strikingly propheticpassage is found: "My name and memory I leave to foreign nations, and tomine own country, after some time is passed over. "

The influence of Hobbes on philosophy in England has been greater thanthat of Bacon. In politics, his theory is that of uncontrolled absolutism, subjecting religion and morality to the will of the sovereign; in ethicshe resolves all our impulses regarding right and wrong into self-love. Hisreasoning is close and consistent, and if his premises are granted, it ishardly possible to avoid his conclusions. Other departments in the proseliterature of this period were amply filled and richly adorned. Speculations upon the Theory of Society and Civil Polity were frequent. Among them are the Latin works of Bellenden "On the State, " the "NewAtlantis, " a romance by Lord Bacon, the "Oceana" of Harrington, and the"Leviathan" of Hobbes. 

In the collection of materials for national history the period wasexceedingly active. Camden and Selden stand at the head of the band ofantiquaries. Hobbes wrote in his old age "Behemoth, or a History of theCivil Wars, " and the "Turkish History" of Knolles has been pronounced oneof the most spirited narratives in the language. 

Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618), while lying in the Tower under sentence ofdeath, wrote a "History of the World, " from the Creation to the Republicof Rome. The narrative is spirited and pervaded by a tone of devoutsentiment. 

The accomplished Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586), in his "Defense of Poesy, "pays an eloquent tribute to the value of the most powerful of all theliterary arts. His "Arcadia" is a ponderous combination of romantic andpastoral incidents, the unripe production of a young poet, but it aboundsin isolated passages beautiful alike in sentiment and language. 

Towards the close of the period, Milton manifested extraordinary power inprose writing; his defense of the "Liberty of Unlicensed Printing" is oneof the most impressive pieces of eloquence in the English tongue. Hisstyle is more Latinized than that of most of his contemporaries, and thisexotic infection pervades both his terms and his arrangement; yet he haspassages marvelously sweet, and others in which the grand sweep of hissentences emulates the cathedral music of Hooker. 

The press now began to pour forth shoals of short novels, romances, andessays, and pamphlets on various subjects. Among other productions isBurton's "Anatomy of Melancholy, " a storehouse of odd learning andquaintly-original ideas; it is deficient, however, in style and power ofconsecutive reasoning. Far above Burton in eloquence and strength ofthought is Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682), whose writings have all thecharacteristics of the age in a state of extravagant exaggeration. Thethoughtful melancholy, the singular mixture of skepticism and credulity, and the brilliancy of imaginative illustration, give his essays apeculiarity of character that renders them exceedingly fascinating. Thepoet Cowley, in his prose writings, is distinguished for his undeviatingsimplicity and perspicuity, and for smoothness and ease, of which hardlyanother instance could be produced from any other book written before theRestoration. 

The English drama has been called Irregular in contrast to the Regulardrama of Greece and that of modern France, founded upon the Greek, by theFrench critics of the age of Louis XIV. The principal law of this system, as we have seen, prescribed obedience to the Three Unities, of Time, ofPlace, and of Action; the two first being founded on the desire to imitatein the drama the series of events which it represents, the time of actionwas allowed to extend to twenty-four hours, and the scene to change fromplace to place in the same city. But by Shakspeare and his contemporariesno fixed limits were acknowledged in regard either of time or place, theaction stretching through many years, and the scene changing to very widedistances. The rule prescribing unity of action, that everything shall besubordinate to the series of events which is taken as the guiding-thread, is a much more sound one; and in most of Shakspeare's works, as well asthose of his contemporaries, this unity of impression, as it has beencalled, is fully preserved. 

Before the year 1585 no perceptible advance had been made in the drama, and for the period of sixty years, from that date to the closing of thetheatres in 1645, on the breaking out of the Civil War, the history ofShakspeare's works forms the leading thread. Men of eminent genius livedaround and after him, but there were none who do not derive much of theirimportance from the relation in which they stand to him, and hardly anywhose works do not owe much of their excellence to the influence of his. 

Thus considered, the stages through which the drama now passed may be saidto have been four, three of which occurred chiefly during the life of thepoet, the fourth after his death. The first of these periods witnessed theearly manhood of Shakspeare, and closes about 1593. Among his immediatepredecessors and coadjutors were Marlowe and Greene. The plays of Marlowe(1562-1593) are stately tragedies, serious in purpose, energetic and oftenextravagant in passion and in language, and richly and pompouslyimaginative. His "Tragical History of Doctor Faustus" is one of the finestpoems in the language. The productions of Greene are loose, legendaryplays of a form exemplified in Cymbeline. 

To the first period of the dramatic life of Shakspeare (1564-1616) belongthe "Two Gentlemen of Verona, " the "Comedy of Errors, " and "Love's Labor'sLost, " which show that the mighty master, even in these juvenile essays, had taken a wide step beyond the dramas of the time. Pure comedy had noexistence in England until he created it, and in these comedies it isevident that everything is juvenile, unripe, and marvelously unlike thegrand pictures of life which he soon afterwards began to paint. But if hewas more than a student in this first stage of his progress, he was ateacher and model ever after. The second period for Shakspeare and thedrama closes with the year 1600. During this most active part of hisliterary life, he produced eight comedies, and re-wrote "Romeo andJuliet. " But the most elevated works of these six years were hismagnificent series of historical plays. The series after 1600 began withthe great tragedies, Othello, Hamlet (recomposed), Macbeth, and Lear, followed by Henry VIII. , the three tragedies on Roman subjects, and thethree singular pieces, "Timon of Athens, " "Troilus and Cressida, " and"Measure for Measure, " apparently of the same date. "Cymbeline" and the"Winter's Tale" were probably composed after he had retired from theturmoil of his profession to the repose of his early home. In the"Tempest. " doubtless his last work, he peopled his haunted island with agroup of beings whose conception indicates a greater variety ofimagination, and in some points a greater depth of thought than any otherswhich he has bequeathed to us. 

The name of Shakspeare is the greatest in all literature. No man ever camenear him in creative power--no man had ever such strength combined withsuch variety of imagination. Of all authors, he is the most natural in hisstyle, and yet there is none whose words are so musical in arrangement, sostriking and picturesque in themselves, or contain so many thoughts. Everypage furnishes instances of that intensifying of expression, where somehappy word conveys a whole train of ideas condensed into a single luminouspoint--words so new, so full of meaning, yet so unforced and natural, thatthe rudest mind intuitively perceives their meaning, and yet which nostudy could improve or imitate. This constitutes the most strikingpeculiarity of the Shakspearean language, and while it justifies thealmost idolatrous veneration of his countrymen, renders him, of allwriters, the most untranslatable. Of all authors, Shakspeare has leastimitated or repeated himself. While he gives us, in many places, portraitsof the same passion, the delineations are as distinct and dissimilar asthey are in nature; all his personages involuntarily, and in spite ofthemselves, express their own characters. From his works may be gleaned acomplete collection of precepts adapted to every condition of life andevery conceivable circumstance of human affairs. His wit is unbounded, hispassion inimitable, and over all he has thrown a halo of human sympathy noless tender than his genius was immeasurable and profound. 

The effect of Shakspeare's influence on his contemporaries waspredominating in everything but the moral aspect of his plays. Thelicentiousness, begun in the earlier years of the seventeenth century, increased with accelerated speed down to the closing of the theatres bythe Civil War. 

Highest by far, in poetical and dramatic value, stand the works ofBeaumont (1586-1615) and Fletcher (1576-1625). Many of them are said tohave been written by the two jointly, a few by the former alone, and alarge number by the latter after he had lost his friend; such alliances indramatic poetry were common in England at this period. But the loosenessof fancy which deformed the drama, and which degenerated at last intodeliberate licentiousness, is nowhere so glaring as in these finest andmost imaginative productions of their day, and which are poeticallysuperior to all of the kind in the language, except those of Shakspeare. 

The classical model was closely approached by Ben Jonson (1574-1637) inboth tragedy and comedy, and he deserves immortality for other reasonsthan his comparative purity of morals. He was the one man of his timebesides Shakspeare who deserves to be called a reflective artist, whoperceived the rules of art and worked in obedience to them. His tragediesare stately, eloquent, and poetical; his comedies are more faithful poeticportraits of contemporary English life than those of any other dramatist, Shakspeare excepted. 

Jonson wrote for men of sense and knowledge; Beaumont and Fletcher for menof fashion and the world. A similar audience to that of Jonson may havebeen aimed at in the stately tragedies of Chapman, and the other classwould have relished the plays of Middleton and Webster. 

Among the dramatists of the commonalty may be named Thomas Heywood, one ofthe most moral play writers of his time, who has sometimes been called theprose Shakspeare, and Decker, a voluminous writer, who cooperated inseveral plays of more celebrated men, especially those of Massinger. 

The closing period of the old English drama is represented by Massinger, Ford, and Shirley. Massinger (1584-1640) is by some critics ranked next toShakspeare. The theatres have retained unaltered his "New Way to Pay OldDebts, " and his "Fatal Dowry" is preserved in Rowe's plagiarism from it, in the "Fair Penitent. " But the low moral tone of the time is indicated inall these works, in which heroic sentiments, rising often even toreligious rapture, are mingled with scenes of the grossest ribaldry. 

By Ford, incidents of the most revolting kind are laid down as thefoundation of his plots, upon which he wastes a pathos and tendernessdeeper than is elsewhere found in the drama; and with Shirley vice is nolonger held up as a mere picture, but it is indicated, and sometimesdirectly recommended, as a fit example. When the drama was at lengthsuppressed, the act destroyed a moral nuisance. 

Spenser (1553-1599), among the English poets, stands lower only thanShakspeare, Chaucer, and Milton. His works unite rare genius with moralpurity, exquisite sweetness of language, luxuriant beauty of imagination, and a tenderness of feeling rarely surpassed, and never elsewhereconjoined with an imagination so vivid. His magnificent poem, the "FaerieQueene, " though it contains many thousand lines, is yet incomplete, nomore than half of the original design being executed. The diction isstudded purposely with forms of expression already become antiquated, andmany peculiarities are forced upon the author from the difficulties of thecomplex measure which he was the first to adopt, and which still bears hisname. 

The Fairy Land of Spenser is rather the Land of Chivalry than the regionwe are accustomed to understand by that term; a scene in which heroicdaring and ideal purity are the objects chiefly presented to ourimagination, in which the principal personages are knights achievingperilous adventures, ladies rescued from frightful miseries, and good andevil enchanters, whose spells affect the destiny of those human persons. Spenser would probably not have written precisely as he did, if Ariostohad not written before him; nor is it unlikely that he was also guided bythe later example of Tasso; but his design was in many features nobler andmore arduous than that of either. His deep seriousness is unlike themocking tone of the "Orlando Furioso, " and in his moral enthusiasm herises higher than the "Jerusalem;" although the poetic effect of his workis marred by his design of producing a series of ethical allegories. 

The hero is the chivalrous Arthur of the British legends, but wrapt in acloud of symbols. Gloriana, the Faërie Queene, who was to be the object ofthe prince's warmest love, was herself an emblem of Virtuous Renown, anddesigned also to represent the poet's queen, Elizabeth. All the incidentsare significant of moral truth, and all the personages are allegorical. The adventures of the characters, connected by no tie, except theoccasional interposition of Arthur, form really six independent poetictales. The First Book, by far the finest of all, relates the Legend of theRed Cross Knight, who is a type of Holiness, and who shadows forth thehistory of the Church of England. In the second, which abounds inexquisite painting of picturesque landscapes, we have the Legend of SirGuyon, illustrating the virtue of Temperance. The theme of the Third Bookis the Legend of Britomart, or of Chastity, in which we are introduced toBelphoebe and Amoret, two of those beautiful female characters which thepoet takes such pleasure in delineating. Next comes the Legend ofFriendship, personified in the knights Cambel and Triamond. In the FifthBook, containing the Legends of Sir Artegal, the emblem of Justice, thereis a perceptible falling off. The Sixth Book, the Legend of Sir Calidore, or Courtesy, though it lacks unity, is in some scenes inspired with thewarmest glow of fancy. 

The mind of Spenser embraced a vast range of imaginary creation, but theinterest of real life is wanting. His world is ideal, abstract, andremote, yet affording in its multiplied scenes ample scope for thosenobler feelings and heroic virtues which we love to see even in transientconnection with human nature. 

The non-dramatic poets of this time begin with Spenser and end withMilton, and between these two there were writers of great excellence. Thevice of the age was a laboring after conceits or novel turns of thought, usually false, and resting upon some equivocation of language or remoteanalogy. No poet of the time was free from it; Shakspeare indulged in itoccasionally, others incessantly, holding its manifestations to be theirfinest strokes of art. 

The poetical works of this age were metrical translations from theclassics--narrative, historical, descriptive, didactic, pastoral, andlyrical poems. One of the most beautiful religious poems in any languageis "Christ's Victory and Triumph, " by Giles Fletcher (d. 1623): it isanimated in narrative, lively in fancy, and touching in feeling. Drayton(d. 1631) was the author of the "Poly-Olbion, " a topographical descriptionof England, and a signal instance of fine fancy and great command oflanguage, almost thrown away from its prosaic design. Fulke Greville (LordBrooke), the friend of Sir Philip Sidney, exhibits great powers ofphilosophical thought, in pointed and energetic diction, in his poem on"Human Learning. " Among the religious poets are "Holy George Herbert" (d. 1632), who, by his life and writings, presented the belief and offices ofthe church in their most amiable aspect, and Quarles (d. 1644), best knownby his "Divine Emblems, " which abound in quaint and grotesqueillustrations. 

The lyrical poems of the time were numerous, and were written by almostall the poets eminent in other departments. In those of Donne, in spite oftheir conceits and affectations, are many passages wonderfully fine. Thoseof Herrick (b. 1591), in graceful fancy and delicate expression, are manyof them unsurpassed; in subject and tone they vary from grossly licentiousexpression to the utmost warmth of devout aspiration. Cowley (1618-1667), the latest and most celebrated of the lyric poets, was gifted withextraordinary poetic sensibility and fancy, but he was prone to strainedanalogies and unreal refinements. Among the minor lyrical poets are Carew, Ayton, Habington, Suckling, and Lovelace. Denham (1615-1668) and Waller(1605-1687) form a sort of link between the time before the Restorationand that which followed. The "Cooper's Hill" of the first is a reflectiveand descriptive poem in heroic verse, and the diversified poems of thelast were remarkable advances in ease and correctness of diction andversification. 

The poetry of that imaginative period which began with Spenser closes yetmore nobly with Milton (1608-1674). He, standing in some respects apartfrom his stern contemporaries of the Commonwealth as from those whodebased literature in the age of the Restoration, yet belongs rather tothe older than the newer period. In the midst of evil men and the gloom ofevil days the brooding thought of a great poetical work was at lengthmatured, and the Christian epic, chanted at first when there were fewdisposed to hear, became an enduring monument of genius, learning, andart. His early poems alone would indicate his superiority to all the poetsof the period, except Shakspeare and Spenser. The most popular of them, "L'Allegro" and "Il Penseroso, " are the best of their kind in anylanguage. In the "Comus" there are passages exquisite for imagination, forsentiment, and for the musical flow of the rhythm, in which the majesticswell of the poet's later blank verse begins to be heard. The "ParadiseRegained" abounds with passages in themselves beautiful, but the plan ispoorly conceived, and the didactic tendency prevails to weariness as thework proceeds. The theme of the "Paradise Lost" is the noblest of any everchosen. The stately march of its diction; the organ peal with which itsversification rolls on; the continual overflowing of beautifulillustrations; the brightly-colored pictures of human happiness andinnocence; the melancholy grandeur with which angelic natures are clothedin their fall, are features which give the mind images and feelings notsoon or easily effaced. 

3. THE AGE OF THE RESTORATION AND THE REVOLUTION (1660-1702). --Among theable churchmen who passed from the troubles of the Commonwealth andProtectorate to the Restoration were Jeremy Taylor, Archbishop Leighton, and others of eminence. South, Tillotson, and Barrow were more abletheologians, but their writings lack the charm of sentiment whichLeighton's warmth of heart diffuses over all his works. South (d. 1716)was a man of remarkable oratorical endowments, sarcastic, intolerant, andfierce in polemical attacks. The writings of Tillotson (d. 1694) arepervaded by a higher and better spirit, and the sermons of Barrow (d. 1677) combine comprehensiveness, sagacity, and clearness. Other divines, such as Stillingfleet, Pearson, Burnet, Bull, hold a more prominent placein the history of the church than in that of letters. But all the writersof this age are wanting in that impressiveness and force of undisciplinedeloquence which distinguished the first half of the seventeenth century. Among the nonconformist clergy, Howe (d. 1715) wrote the "Living Temple, "which is ranked among the religious classics. 

The great though untrained genius of John Bunyan (1628-1688) produced the"Pilgrim's Progress, " which holds a distinguished place in permanentEnglish literature. 

John Locke (1632-1704) may be taken as the representative of the EnglishPhilosophy of the time, and his influence on the speculative opinions ofhis day was second only to that of Hobbes. His "Essay on theUnderstanding" contains the germ of utter skepticism and was the ground onwhich Berkeley denied the existence of the material world, and Humeinvolved all human knowledge in doubt. 

In classical learning the greatest of the scholars of this period wasBentley (1662-1742). 

In history Lord Clarendon (1608-1774) wrote the "History of theRebellion, " and Burnet (1643-1715) his "History of the Reformation, " oneof the most thoroughly digested works of the century. His "History of hisown Times" is valuable for its facts, and for the shrewdness with which hedescribes the state of things around him. 

In miscellaneous prose, John Evelyn wrote several useful and tastefulworks, and Izaak Walton (1593-1688), a London tradesman, wrote hisinteresting Biographies and the quaint treatise "On Angling. " Both indiction and sentiment these works remind us of the preceding age; andWalton, surviving Milton, closes the series of old English prose writers. 

Samuel Butler (1612-1680), the unfortunate, ill-requited laureate of theRoyalists, who satirized the Puritans and Republicans in his celebrated"Hudibras, " left some exceedingly witty and vigorous prose writings; andAndrew Marvell (1620-1678), the friend and protector of Milton, was mostsuccessful in sarcastic irony, and in his attacks on the High Churchopinions and doings. 

John Dryden (1631-1700) was the literary chief of the interval betweenCromwell and Queen Anne. His prose writings, besides comedies, are few, but in these he taught principles of poetical art previously unknown tohis countrymen, and showed the capabilities of the tongue in a new light. Inferior to Dryden in vigor of thought was Sir William Temple (1628-1698), who may yet share with him the merit of having founded regular Englishprose. His literary character rests chiefly on his "Miscellaneous Essays. "

The symmetrical structure and artificial polish of contemporaneous Frenchliterature, while it was not without some good influence on English prose, was less beneficial to poetry, and its worst effect was on the drama, which soon ceased to be pictures of human beings in action and became onlydescriptive of such pictures. In this walk as in others Dryden was theliterary chief, and of his plays it can truly be said that the seriousones contain many striking and poetical pieces of declamation, finelyversified. His comedies are bad morally, and as dramas even worse thanthose of his rival Shadwell. Lee was only a poor likeness of Dryden. 

In the "Orphan" and "Venice Preserved" of Otway we have southing of therevival of the ancient strength of feeling though alloyed by falsesentiment and poetic poverty. 

Congreve showed great power of language in tragedy, and Southerne not alittle nature and pathos. 

In comedy the fame of these writers was eclipsed by a knot of dramatistswho adopted prose, but whose works are the foulest that ever disgraced theliterature of a nation. They are excellent specimens of that which hasbeen called the comedy of manners; vice is inextricably interwoven in thetexture of all alike, in the broad humor of Wycherly (the most vigorous ofthe set), in the wit of Congreve, in the character painting of Vanbrugh, and the lively invention of Farquhar. 

In other kinds of poetry we find similar changes of taste which affectedthe art injuriously, although the increased attention paid to correctnessand refinement was a step in improvement. These mischievous changesrelated both to the themes and forms of poetry, and in neither can thetrue functions of art be forgotten without injury to the work. An age mustbe held unpoetical, and cannot produce great poetical works, if its poetrychooses insufficient topics; and the aims of the age of the Restorationwere low, producing only a constant crop of poems celebrating contemporaryevents or incidents in the lives of individuals. The dramatic andnarrative forms of poetry are undoubtedly those in which that imaginativeexcitement of pleasing emotion, which is the immediate and characteristicend of the art, may be most powerfully worked out, and to one of theseforms all the greatest poems have belonged. But in the age of theRestoration the drama had lost its elevation and poetic significance, andoriginal narrative poetry was hardly known. Almost all the poems of theday were didactic, and the prevalence of this style of poetry is apalpable symptom of an unpoetical age. The verse-making of these fortyyears, after setting aside a very few works, maintains a dead level. Amongthe dwarfish rhymers of the day there lingered some of the august shapesof a former age. Milton still walked his solitary course, and Waller wrotehis occasional odes and verses, but of names not already given there areno more than two or three that require commemoration. One of the famouspoems of the day was an "Essay on Translated Verse, " by Lord Roscommon;and the smaller poems of Marvell are felicitous in feeling and diction;both writers are distinguished for their moral purity. 

The "Hudibras" of Butler, which properly belongs to the age before, is aphenomenon in the history of English literature. His pungent wit, hisextraordinary ingenuity, and his command of words are rare endowments, buthe has no poetic vein that yields jewels of the first water, and his placeis not a high one in the path which leads upward to the ethereal regionsof the imagination. 

Pryor (1661-1721) in his lighter pieces shows wit of a less manly kind. His serious poems have great facility of phrase and melody. 

Dryden was a man of high endowments as a poet and thinker, condemned tolabor for a corrupt generation, and he has received from posterity nohigher fame than that of having improved English prose style andversification. His poems are rather essays couched in vigorous verse, withhere and there passages of great poetical beauty. His "Annus Mirabilis, "celebrating with great animation the year 1666, is an effusion ofhistorical panegyric. The "Absalom and Achitophel" is a satire on theunfortunate Duke of Monmouth and his adviser Shaftesbury. "The Hind andPanther, " full of poetical and satirical force, was an argument to justifythe author's recent change of religion. One of the most thoroughlysustained poems is the "Ode on Alexander's Feast. " His translation of theAeneid, as imperfect a picture of the original as Pope's translation ofthe Iliad, is yet full of vigor and one of his best specimens of theheroic couplet, a measure never so well written in English as by Dryden. 

4. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. --The influence of the eighteenth century onprose style has been great and permanent, and the two dissimilar mannersof writing which were then formed, have contributed to all that isdistinctive in our modern form of expression. The earlier of these isfound in the language of Addison and Swift, the later in that of Johnson. The style of Addison and his friends reproduced those genuine idiomaticpeculiarities of our speech which had been received into the conversationof intelligent men. The style of which Johnson was the characteristicexample abandons in part the native and familiar characteristics of theSaxon for those expressions and forms common to the modern Europeantongues. Large use was made of words derived from the Latin, which, inaddition to the effect of novelty, gave greater impressiveness and pomp tothe style. 

In the First Generation, named from Queen Anne, but including also thereign of George I. (d. 1727), the drama scarcely deserves more than aparenthesis. Although the moral tone had improved, it was still not high, when Gray's "Beggar's Opera" and Cibber's "Careless Husband" were the mostfamous works. The "Fair Penitent" has been noticed as a clever plagiarismfrom Massinger; in Addison's "Cato" the strict rules of the French stagewere preserved, but its stately and impressive speeches cannot be calleddramatic. The "Revenge" of Young had more of tragic passion; but it wantedthe force of characterization which seemed to have been buried with theold dramatists. 

The heroic measure, as it was now used, aimed at smoothness of melody andpointedness of expression, and in this the great master was Pope. 

In the poems of Pope (1688-1744), we find passages beautifully poetical, exquisite thoughts, vigorous portraits of character, shrewd observation, and reflective good sense, but we are wafted into no bright world ofimagination, rapt in no dream of strong passion, and seldom raised intoany high region of moral thought. Like all the poets of his day, he set ahigher value on skill of execution than on originality of conception, andsystematically abstained from all attempts to excite imagination orfeeling. The taste of the poet and of his times is most clearly shown inhis "Essay on Criticism, " published before his twenty-first year. None ofhis works unites more happily, regularity of plan, shrewdness of thought, and beauty of verse. His most successful effort, the "Rape of the Lock, "assumed its complete shape in his twenty-sixth year, and is the best ofall mock-heroic poems. The sharpest wit, the keenest dissection of thefollies of fashionable life, the finest grace of diction, and the softestflow of melody, come appropriately to adorn a tale in which we learn how afine gentleman stole a lock of a lady's hair. In the "Epistle of Eloisa toAbelard, " and in the "Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady, " he attempted thepathetic not altogether in vain. The last work of his best years was his"Translation of the Iliad;" of the Odyssey he translated only half. Bothmisrepresent the natural and simple majesty of manner which the ancientpoet never lost; yet if we could forget Homer, we might be proud of them. In the "Dunciad" he threw away an infinity of wit upon writers who wouldnot otherwise have been remembered. His "Essay on Man" contains muchexquisite poetry and finely solemn thought; it abounds in strikingpassages which, by their felicities of fancy, good sense, music, andextraordinary terseness of diction, have gained a place in the memory ofevery one. 

Among the philosophical writers none holds so prominent a place as BishopBerkeley (1684-1753), whose refinement of style and subtlety of thoughthave seldom been equaled. His philosophical Idealism exercised muchinfluence on the course of metaphysical inquiry. 

Lord Shaftesbury's brilliant but indistinct treatises have also been thegerm of many discussions in ethics. 

Bolingbroke wrote with great liveliness, but with equal shallowness ofthought and knowledge. 

Daniel Defoe (1661-1731) is not likely to be forgotten on account of oneof his many novels, "Robinson Crusoe. " His idiomatic English style is notone of the least of his merits. 

Among the prose writings of Swift (1667-1745) there is none that is not amasterpiece of strong Saxon-English, and none quite destitute of his keenwit or cutting sarcasm. His satirical romances are most pungent when humannature is his victim, as in "Gulliver's Travels;" and not less amusing in"The Battle of the Books, " or where he treats of church disputes in the"Tale of a Tub. " The burlesque memoir of "Martinus Scriblerus" was thejoint production of Swift, Pope, and Arbuthnot. 

It contains more good criticism than any of the serious writings of thegeneration, and it abounds in the most biting strokes of wit. Arbuthnot issupposed to have been the sole author of the whimsical, national satirecalled the "History of John Bull, " the best work of the class produced inthat day. The "Letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu" belong to this age. 

Of all the popular writers, however, that adorned the reign of Queen Anneand her successor, those whose influence has been the greatest and mostsalutary are the Essayists, among whom Joseph Addison and Richard Steeleare preeminently distinguished. 

"The Tatler, " begun in Ireland by Steele, aided first by Swift, andafterwards by Addison, appeared three times a week from 1709 to 1711; "TheSpectator, " in which Addison took the lead, from 1711 to 1712; and "TheGuardian, " a part of the next year. Steele (1676-1729) had his meritssomewhat unfairly clouded by the fame of his coadjutor. The extraordinarypopularity of those periodicals, especially "The Spectator, " wascreditable to the reading persons of the community, then much fewer thannow. The writers discarded from their papers all party-spirit, anddesigned to make them the vehicle of judicious teaching in morals, manners, and literary criticism. Thus they widened the circle of readers, and raised the standard of taste and thinking. 

Of some of the more serious papers of the "Spectator, " those of Addison(1672-1719) on the "Immortality of the Soul" and the "Pleasures of theImagination" may be cited. 

Among the theological writers of the Second Generation of the eighteenthcentury (the reign of George II. , 1726-1760), one of the most famous inhis day, though not the most meritorious, was Bishop Warburton; BishopButler (d. 1752), wrote his "Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, tothe Constitution and Course of Nature, " a work of extraordinary force ofthought; and there is much literary merit in the writings of the piousWatts and the devout Doddridge. The increasing zeal both in the Church ofEngland and among the Dissenters, and the more cordial recognition of theimportance of religion, greatly affected the literature of the times. 

Philosophy had also its distinguished votaries. The philosophical works ofHume (1711-1776) are allowed by those who dissent most strenuously fromtheir results to have constituted an epoch in the history of the science. In accepting the principles which had been received before him, andshowing that they led to no conclusion but universal doubt, he laid barethe flaws in the system, and prepared the way for the subtle speculationsof Kant and the more cautious systems of Reid and the Scottish school. 

The miscellaneous literature of this, the age of Johnson, cannot standcomparison with that of the preceding, which was headed by Addison. 

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), one of the most celebrated of the professionalauthors of the eighteenth century, however, belongs to this period. Compelled by poverty to leave his education uncompleted, he sought themeans of living in London, where, for a long time, unpatronized andobscure, he labored with dogged perseverance, until at length he won afame which must have satisfied the most grasping ambition, but when, as hesays, "most of those whom he had wished to please had sunk into the grave, and he had little to fear from censure or praise. " That the reputation ofhis writings was above their deserts, cannot be denied, though it mustalso be admitted that the literature of our time is deficient in many oftheir excellences, both of thought and expression. They are the fruit of astrong and original mind, working with imperfect knowledge and aninadequate scope for activity. The language of Johnson is superior to hismatter; he has striking force of diction, and many of his sentences rollon the ear like the sound of the distant sea, while the thoughts theyconvey impress us so vividly that we are slow to scrutinize them. Hisgreat merit lies in the two departments of morals and criticism, buteverywhere he is inconsistent and unequal. His Dictionary occupied him foreight years, but it is of little value now to the student of language, being poor and incorrect in etymology and unsatisfactory though acute indefinition. His poems, which are of Pope's school, would scarcely havepreserved his name. The "Rambler, " and "Rasselas, " are characteristic ofhis merits and defects. The "Tour to the Hebrides" is one of the mostpleasant and easy of his writings. His "Lives of the Poets" is admirablefor its skill of narration, but it is alternately enlightened and unsoundin criticism, and frequently marred by political prejudices and personaljealousies. 

Of the novels of the time, the series begun by Richardson's (1689-1761)"Pamela, " "Clarissa Harlowe, " and "Sir Charles Grandison" have a virtuousaim, but they err by the plainness with which they describe vice. Thetediousness and overwrought sentimentality of these works go far towardsdisqualifying the reader from appreciating their extraordinary skill ininvention and in the portraiture of character. 

Fielding (1707-1757) unites these qualities with greater knowledge of theworld, pungent wit, and idiomatic strength of style. His mastery in theart of fictitious narrative has never been excelled; but his livingpictures of familiar life, as well as the whimsical caricatures ofSmollett and the humorous fantasies of Sterne, are disfigured by faults ofwhich the very smallest are coarseness of language and bareness oflicentious description, in which they outdid Richardson. Not only is theirstandard of morality low, but they display indifference to the essentialdistinctions of right and wrong, in regard to some of the cardinalrelations of society. 

The drama of the period has little literary importance. In non-dramaticpoetry, several men of distinguished genius appeared, and changes occurredwhich indicated more just and comprehensive views of the art than thosethat had been prevalent in the last generation. 

Young (1681-1765), in his "Night Thoughts, " produced a work eloquentrather than poetical, dissertative when true poetry would have beenimaginative, but suggesting much of imagery and feeling as well asreligious reflection. 

Resembling it in some points, but with more force of imagination, is thetrain of gloomy scenes which appears in Blair's "Grave. " In Akenside's"Pleasures of Imagination, " a vivid fancy and an alluring pomp of languageare lavished on a series of pictures illustrating the feelings of beautyand sublimity; but, theorizing and poetizing by turns, the poet loses hishold of the reader. 

The more direct and effective forms of poetry now came again into favor, such as the Scottish pastoral drama of Ramsay, and Falconer's "Shipwreck. "But the most decisive instance of the growing insight into the truefunctions of poetry is furnished by Thomson's (1700-1748) "Seasons. " Nopoet has ever been more inspired by the love of external nature, or feltwith more keenness and delicacy those analogies between the mind and thethings it looks upon, which are the fountains of poetic feeling. Thefaults of Thomson are triteness of thought when he becomes argumentativeand a prevalent pomposity and pedantry of diction; though his later work, "The Castle of Indolence, " is surprisingly free from these blemishes. 

But the age was an unpoetical one, and two of the finest poetical minds ofthe nation were so dwarfed and weakened by the ungenial atmosphere as tobequeath to posterity nothing more than a few lyrical fragments. In theage which admired the smooth feebleness of Shenstone's pastorals andelegies, and which closed when the libels of Churchill were held to begood examples of poetical satire, Gray turned aside from the unrequitedlabors of verse to idle in his study, and Collins lived and died almostunknown. Gray (1716-1771) was as consummate a poetical artist as Pope. Hisfancy was less lively, but his sympathies were warmer and more expanded, though the polished aptness of language and symmetry of construction whichgive so classical an aspect to his Odes bring with them a tinge ofclassical coldness. The "Ode on Eton College" is more genuinely lyricalthan "The Bards, " and the "Elegy In a Country Churchyard" is perhapsfaultless. 

The Odes of Collins (1720-1759) have more of the fine and spontaneousenthusiasm of genius than any other poems ever written by one who wrote solittle. We close his tiny volume with the same disappointed surprise whichovercomes us when a harmonious piece of music suddenly ceases unfinished. His range of tones is very wide, and the delicacy of gradation with whichhe passes from thought to thought has an indescribable charm. His mostpopular poem, "The Passions, " conveys no adequate idea of some of his mostmarked characteristics. All can understand the beauty and simplicity ofhis odes "To Pity, " "To Simplicity, " "To Mercy;" and the finely wovenharmonies and the sweetly romantic pictures in the "Ode to Evening" recallthe youthful poems of Milton. 

Between the period just reviewed and the reign of George III. , or theThird Generation of the eighteenth century, there were several connectinglinks, one of which was formed by a group of historians whose works areclassical monuments of English literature. The publication of Hume's"History of England" began in 1754. Robertson's "History of Scotland"appeared in 1759, followed by his "Reign of Charles V. " and his "Historyof America;" Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" was completedin twelve years from 1776. The narrative of Hume is told with greatclearness, good sense, and quiet force of representation, and if hismatter had been as carefully studied as his manner, if his social andreligious theories had been as sound as his theory of literary art, hishistory would still hold a place from which no rival could hope to degradeit. 

The style of Robertson and Gibbon is totally unlike that of Hume. Theywant his seemingly unconscious ease, his delicate tact, and his calm yetlively simplicity. Hume tells his tale to us as a friend to friends; hissuccessors always seem to hold that they are teachers and we pupils. Thischange of tone had long been coming on, and was now very general in alldepartments of prose. Very few writers of the last thirty years ofJohnson's life escaped this epidemic desire of dictatorship. Robertson(1722-1793) is an excellent story-teller, perspicuous, lively, andinteresting. His opinions are wisely formed and temperately expressed, hisdisquisitions able and instructive, and his research so accurate that heis still a valuable historical authority. 

The learning of Gibbon (1737-1794), though not always exact, wasremarkably extensive, and sufficient to make him a trustworthy guide, unless in those points where he was inclined to lead astray. There is apatrician haughtiness in the stately march of his narrative and in the airof careless superiority with which he treats his heroes and his audience. He is a master in the art of painting and narration, nor is he lessskillful in indirect insinuation, which is, indeed, his favorite mode ofcommunicating his own opinions, but he is most striking in those passagesin his history of the church, where he covertly attacks a religion whichhe neither believed nor understood. 

Other historians produced works useful in their day, but now, for the mostpart, superseded; and in various other departments men of letters activelyexerted themselves. 

Johnson, seated at last in his easy-chair, talked for twenty years, theoracle of the literary world, and Boswell, soon after his death, gave tothe world the clever record of these conversations, which has aided tosecure the place in literature he had obtained by his writings. Goldsmith(1728-1774), had he never written poems, would stand among the classicwriters of English prose from the few trifles on which he was able, in theintervals of literary drudgery, to exercise his powers of observation andinvention, and to exhibit his warm affections and purity of moralsentiment. Such is his inimitable little novel, "The Vicar of Wakefield, "and that good-natured satire on society, the "Citizen of the World. "

Among the novelists, Mackenzie (1745-1831) wrote his "Man of Peeling, " notunworthy of the companionship of Goldsmith's masterpiece; and among laternovelists, Walpole, Moore, Cumberland, Mrs. Inchbald, and Charlotte Smith, Miss Burney and Mrs. Radcliffe may also be named. 

In literary criticism, the authoritative book of the day was Johnson's"Lives of the Poets. " Percy's "Reliques of Ancient English Poetry" (1765)was a delightful compilation, which, after being quite neglected for manyyears, became the poetical text-book of Sir Walter Scott and the poets ofhis time. A more scientific and ambitious effort was Warton's (1729-1790)"History of English Poetry, " which has so much of antiquarian learning, poetical taste, and spirited writing, that it is not only an indispensableand valuable authority, but an interesting book to the mere amateur. Withmany errors and deficiencies, it has yet little chance of being everentirely superseded. 

In parliamentary eloquence, before the middle of the eighteenth century, we have the commanding addresses of the elder Pitt (Lord Chatham), and atthe close, still leading the senate, are the younger Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and Burke. Burke (1730-1797) must be remembered not only for his speechesbut for his writing on political and social questions, as a great thinkerof comprehensive and versatile intellect, and extraordinary power ofeloquence. 

The letters of "Junius, " a remarkable series of papers, the authorship ofwhich is still involved in mystery, appeared in a London daily journalfrom 1769 to 1772. They were remarkable for the audacity of their attacksupon the government, the court, and persons high in power, and from theirextraordinary ability and point they produced an indelible impression onthe public mind. The "Letters" of Walpole are poignantly satirical; thoseof Cowper are models of easy writing, and lessons of rare dignity andpurity of sentiment. 

In the history of philosophy, the middle of the eighteenth century was avery important epoch; before the close of the century, almost all of thoseworks had appeared which have had the greatest influence on more recentthinking. These works may be divided into four classes. Under the first, Philosophical Criticism, may be classed Burke's treatise "On the Sublimeand Beautiful, " Sir Joshua Reynolds's "Discourse on Painting, " Campbell's"Philosophy of Rhetoric, " Kames's "Elements of Criticism, " Blair's"Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, " and Horne Tooke's "Philosophyof Language. "

In the second department, Political Economy, Adam Smith's great work, "TheWealth of Nations, " stands alone, and is still acknowledged as thestandard text-book of this science. 

In the third department, Ethics, are Smith's "Theory of Moral Sentiment, "Tucker's "Light of Nature, " and Paley's "Moral and Political Philosophy. "

In the fourth or Metaphysical department, we have only to note the rise ofthe Scottish School, under Thomas Reid (1710-1796), who combats each ofthe three schools, the Sensualistic evolved from Locke, holding that ourideas are all derived from sensation; the Idealistic, as proposed byBerkeley, which, allowing the existence of mind, denies that of matter;and the Skeptical, headed by Hume, which denies that we can know anythingat all. Reid is a bold, dry, but very clear and logical writer, a sincerelover of truth, and a candid and honorable disputant; his system isoriginal and important in the history of philosophy. 

In the theological literature of this time are found Campbell's "Essay onMiracles, " Paley's "Evidences of Christianity" and "Natural Theology, " andBishop Watson's "Apology for Christianity. "

Among the devout teachers of religion was John Newton of Olney, thespiritual guide of Cowper; and of the moral writers, Hannah More andWilberforce may be mentioned. 

The only tragedy that has survived from these last forty years of theeighteenth century is the "Douglas" of Home, whose melody and romanticpathos lose much of their effect from its monotony of tone and feeblenessin the representation of character. Comedy was oftener successful. Therewas little merit in the plays of the elder Colman or those of Mrs. Cowley, or of Cumberland. The comedies of Goldsmith abound in humor and gayety, and those of Sheridan have an unintermitted fire of epigrams, a keeninsight into the follies and weaknesses of society, and great ingenuity ininventing whimsical situations. Of the verse-writers in the time ofJohnson's old age, Goldsmith has alone achieved immortality. "TheTraveller" and "The Deserted Village" cannot be forgotten while theEnglish tongue is remembered. 

The foundations of a new school of poetry were already laid. Percy's"Reliques" and Macpherson's "Fingal" attracted great attention, and manyminor poets followed. 

The short career of the unhappy Chatterton (1752-1770) held out wonderfulpromise of genius. 

Darwin, in his "Botanic Garden, " went back to the mazes of didactic verse. Seattle's (1735-1803) "Minstrel" is the outpouring of a mind exquisitelypoetical in feeling; it is a kind of autobiography or analytic narrativeof the early growth of a poet's mind and heart, and is one of the mostdelightful poems in our language. 

Opening with Goldsmith, our period closes with Cowper and Burns. Theunequaled popularity of Cowper's (1731-1800) poems is owing, in part, tothe rarity of good religious poetry, and also to their genuine force andoriginality. He unhesitatingly made poetry use, always when it wasconvenient, the familiar forms of common conversation, and he showed yetgreater boldness by seeking to interest his readers in the scenes ofeveryday life. In spite of great faults, the effect of his works is suchas only a genuine poet could have produced. His translation of the Iliadhas the simplicity of the original, though wanting its warlike fervor, andportions of the Odyssey are rendered with exceeding felicity of poeticeffect. 

Our estimate of Cowper's poems is heightened by our love and pity for thepoet, writing not for fame but for consolation, and uttering from thedepths of a half-broken heart his reverent homage to the power ofreligious truth. Our affection is not colder, and our compassion is moreprofound, when we contemplate the agitated and erring life of Robert Burns(1759-1796), the Scottish peasant, who has given to the literature of theAnglo-Saxon race some of its most precious jewels, although all which thisextraordinary man achieved was inadequate to the power and the vastvariety of his endowments. It is on his songs that his fame rests mostfirmly, and no lyrics in any tongue have a more wonderful union ofthrilling passion, melting tenderness, concentrated expressiveness oflanguage, and apt and natural poetic fancy. But neither the song nor thehigher kinds of lyrical verse could give scope to the qualities he haselsewhere shown; his aptness in representing the phases of humancharacter, his genial breadth and keenness of humor, and his strength ofcreative imagination, indicate that if born under a more benignant star hemight have been a second Chaucer. 

5. THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. --In the illustrious band of poets who enrichedthe literature of England during the first generation of the presentcentury, there are four who have gained greater fame than any others, andexercised greater influence on their contemporaries. These are Coleridge, Wordsworth, Scott, and Byron, who, though unlike, yet in respect of theirruling spirit and tendencies may be classed in pairs as they have beennamed; and all whose works call for exact scrutiny may be distributed intofour groups. In the first of them stand Thomas Campbell and RobertSouthey, dissimilar to each other, and differing as widely from theircontemporaries. Campbell (1777-1844) employed an unusually delicate tastein elaborating his verses both in diction and melody. His "Pleasures ofHope" was written between youth and manhood, and "Gertrude of Wyoming, "the latest of his productions worthy of him, appeared soon after histhirtieth year. His mind, deficient in manly vigor of thought, had workeditself out in the few first bursts of youthful emotion, but no one hasclothed with more of romantic sweetness the feelings and fancies whichpeople the fairy-land of early dreams, or thrown around the enchantedregion a purer atmosphere of moral contemplation. 

Southey (1774-1843), with an ethical tone higher and sterner thanCampbell's, offers in other features a marked contrast to him. He iscareless in details, and indulges no poetical reveries; he scornssentimentalism, and throws off rapid sketches of human action with greatpomp of imagery, but he seldom touches the key of the pathetic. In much ofthis he is the man of his age, but in other respects he is above it. He isthe only poet of his clay who strove to emulate the great masters of epicsong, and to give his works external symmetry of plan. He alone attemptedto give poetry internal union, by making it the representation of oneleading idea; a loftier theory of poetic art than that which ruled theirregular outbursts of Scott and Byron. But the aspiration was above thecompetency of the aspirer. He wanted spontaneous depth of sympathy; hisemotion has the measured flow of the artificial canal, not the leapinggush of the river in its self-worn channel. In two of the three best poemshe has founded the interest on supernatural agency of a kind which cannotcommand even momentary belief and the splendid panoramas of "Thalaba theDestroyer" pass away like the shadows of a magic lantern. In the "Curse ofKehama, " he strives to interest us in the monstrous fables of the Hindoomythology, and in "Roderick, the Last of the Goths, " the story containscircumstances that deform the fairest proof the author gave of thepracticability of his poetic theory. 

The second group of poets, unless Moore find a place in it, will containonly Scott and Byron, who were in succession the most popular of all, andowed their popularity mainly to characteristics which they had in common. They are distinctively the poets of active life. They portray idealizedresemblances of the scenes of reality, events which arise out of theuniversal relations of society, hopes, fears, and wishes which are open tothe consciousness of all mankind. The originals of Scott were the romancesof chivalry, and this example was applied by Byron to the construction ofnarratives founded on a different kind of sentiment. Scott, wearying ofthe narrow round that afforded him no scope for some of his best andstrongest powers, turned aside to lavish them on his prose romances, andByron, as his knowledge grew and his meditations became deeper, rose fromTurkish tales to the later cantos of "Childe Harold. "

Scott (1771-1832), in his poetical narratives, appealed to nationalsympathies through ennobling historic recollections. He painted theexternals of scenery and manners with unrivaled picturesqueness, andembellished all that was generous and brave in the world of chivalry withan infectious enthusiasm. "The Lay of the Last Minstrel, " a romance ofborder chivalry, has a more consistent unity than its successors, and ismore faithful to the ancient models. "Marmion" seeks to combine thechivalrous romance with the metrical chronicle. "The Lady of the Lake" isa kind of romantic pastoral, and "Rokeby" is a Waverley novel in verse. 

The moral faults of the poetry of Byron (1788-1824) became more glaring ashe grew older. Starting with the carelessness of ill-trained youth inregard to most serious truths, he provoked censure without scruple, andwas censured not without caprice; thus placed in a dangerous and falseposition, he hardened himself into a contempt for the most sacred laws ofsociety, and although the closing scenes of his life give reason for abelief that purer and more elevated views were beginning to dawn upon hismind, he died before the amendment had found its way into his writings. Heendeavored to inculcate lessons that are positively bad; his delinquencydid not consist in choosing for representation scenes of violent passionand guilty horror, it lay deeper than in his theatrical fondness foridentifying himself with his misanthropes, pirates, and seducers. Hesinned more grievously still, against morality as against possibility, bymixing up, in one and the same character, the utmost extremes of vice andvirtue, generosity and vindictiveness, of lofty heroism and actualgrossness. But with other and great faults, he far excelled all the poetsof his time in impassioned strength, varying from vehemence to pathos. Hewas excelled by few of them in his fine sense of the beautiful, and hiscombination of passion with beauty, standing unapproachable in his ownday, has hardly ever been surpassed. 

His tales, except "Parisina" and the "Prisoner of Chillon, " rise lessoften than his other poems into that flow of poetic imagery, prompted bythe loveliness of nature, which he had attempted in the two first cantosof "Childe Harold, " and poured forth with added fullness of thought andemotion in the last two. "Manfred, " with all its shortcomings, showsperhaps most adequately his poetic temperament; and his tragedies, thoughnot worthy of the poet, are of all his works those which do most honor tothe man. 

The third section of this honored file of poets contains the names ofColeridge and Wordsworth; they are characteristically the poets ofimagination, of reflection, and of a tone of sentiment that owes itsattraction to its ideal elevation. Admired and emulated by a few zealousstudents, Coleridge became the poetical leader from the very beginning ofhis age, and effects yet wider have since been worked by the extendedstudy of Wordsworth. 

Coleridge (1772-1834) is the most original of the poets of his veryoriginal time, and among the most original of its thinkers. His mostfrequent tone of feeling is a kind of romantic tenderness or melancholy, often solemnized by an intense access of religious awe. This fine passionis breathed out most finely when it is associated with some of his airyglimpses of external nature, and his power of suggestive sketching is notmore extraordinary than his immaculate taste and nervous precision oflanguage. His images may be obscure, from the moonlight haze in which theyfloat, but they are rarely so through faults of diction. It isdisappointing to remember that this gifted man executed little more thanfragments; his life ebbed away in the contemplation of undertakings stillto be achieved, the result of weakness of will rather than of indolence. The romance of "Christabel, " the most powerful of all his works, and theprompter of Scott and Byron, was thrown aside when scarce begun, andstands as an interrupted vision of mysterious adventures clothed in themost exquisite fancies. His tragedy of "Remorse" is full of poeticpictures; the "Ode to the Departing Year" shows his force of thought andmoral earnestness; "Khubla Khan" represents in its gorgeous incoherencehis singular power of lighting up landscapes with thrilling fancies; and"The Dark Ladye" is one of the most tender and romantic love-poems everwritten. 

The most obvious feature of Wordsworth (1770-1850) is the intense andunwearied delight which he takes in all the shapes and appearances ofrural and mountain scenery. He is carried away by an almost passionaterapture when he broods over the grandeur and loveliness of the earth andair; his verse lingers with fond reluctance to depart on the wild flowers, the misty lake, the sound of the wailing blast, or the gleam of sunshinebreaking through the passes among the hills, and the thoughts and feelingsthese objects suggest flow forth with an enthusiasm of expression which ina man less pious and rational might be interpreted as a raising of theinanimate world to a level with human dignity and intelligence. The tonewhich prevails in his contemplation of mortal act and suffering is aserene seriousness, on which there never breaks in anything rightly to becalled passion; yet it often rises to an intensely solemn awe, and is notless often relieved by touches of a quiet pathos. Almost all his poems maybe called poems of sentiment and reflection, and his own ambition was thatof being worthy to be honored as a philosophical poet. His theory that thepoet's function is limited to an exact representation of the real and thenatural, a heresy which his own best poems triumphantly refute, often ledhim to triviality and meanness in the choice both of subjects and diction, and marred the beauty of many otherwise fine poems. A fascinating airinessand delicacy of conception prevail in these poems, and the tendersweetness of expression is often wonderfully touching. They were theeffusions of early manhood, and the imperfect embodiments of a strengthwhich found a freer outlet in prose. "Laodamia" and "Dion" are classicalgems without a flaw; many of the sonnets unite original thought and poeticvividness with a perfection hardly to be surpassed; above all, "TheExcursion" rolls on its thousands of blank verse lines with the soul-feltharmony of a divine hymn pealed forth from a cathedral organ. We forgetthe insignificance characterizing the plan, which embraces nothing but athree days' walk among the mountains, and we refuse to be aroused from ourtrance of meditative pleasure by the occasional tediousness ofdissertation. "The Excursion" abounds in verses and phrases once heardnever to be forgotten, and it contains trains of poetical musing throughwhich the poet moves with a majestic fullness of reflection andimagination not paralleled, by very far, in anything else of which ourcentury can boast. 

Wilson, Shelley, and Keats make up the fourth poetical group. Theprincipal poems of Professor Wilson (1785-1854) are the "Isle of Palms, " aromance of shipwreck and solitude, full of rich pictures and delicatepathos, and the "City of the Plague, " a series of dramatic scenes, representing with great depth of emotion a domestic tragedy from theplague of London. 

Shelley was the pure apostle of a noble but ideal philanthropy; yet it iseasy to separate his poetry from his philosophy, which, though hostile toexisting conditions of society, is so ethereal, so imbued with love foreverything noble, and yet so abstract and impracticable, that it is notlikely to do much harm. 

Keats poured forth with great power the dreams of his immature youth, anddied in the belief that the radiant forms had been seen in vain. In nativefelicity of poetic adornment these two were the first minds of their time, but the inadequacy of their performance to their poetic faculties showshow needful to the production of effective poetry is a substratum of solidthought, of practical sense, and of manly and extensive sympathy. 

If we would apprehend the fullness and firmness of the powers of Shelley(1792-1822) without remaining ignorant of his weakness, we might study thelyrical drama of "Prometheus Unbound, " a marvelous galaxy of dazzlingimages and wildly touching sentiments, or the "Alastor, " a scene in whichthe melancholy quiet of solitude is visited but by the despairing poet wholies down to die. We find here, instead of sympathy with ordinary anduniversal feelings, warmth for the abstract and unreal, or, when thepoet's own unrest prompts, as in the "Stanzas Written in Dejection nearNaples, " a strain of lamentation which sounds like a passionate sigh. Instead of clearness of thinking, we find an indistinctness whichsometimes amounts to the unintelligible. In the "Revolt of Islam, " hismost ambitious poem, it is often difficult to apprehend even the outlinesof the story. 

No youthful poet ever exhibited more thorough possession of thosefaculties that are the foundation of genius than Keats (1798-1820), and itis impossible to say what he might have been had he lived to becomeacquainted with himself and with mankind. It was said of his "Endymion"most truly, that no book could be more aptly used as a test to determinewhether a reader has a genuine love for poetry. His works have no interestof story, no insight into human nature, no clear sequence of thought; theyare the rapturous voice of youthful fancy, luxuriating in a world ofbeautiful unrealities. 

It may be questioned whether Crabbe and Moore are entitled to rank withthe poets already reviewed. 

Crabbe's (1754-1832) "Metrical Tales, " describing everyday life, arestriking, natural, and sometimes very touching, but they are warmed by nokindly thoughts and elevated by nothing of ideality. 

Moore (1780-1851), one of the most popular of English poets, will long beremembered for his songs, so melodious and so elegant in phrase. His fundof imagery is inexhaustible, but oftener ingenious than poetical. HisEastern romances in "Lalla Rookh, " with all their occasional felicities, are not powerful poetic narratives. He was nowhere so successful as in hissatirical effusions of comic rhyme, in which his fanciful ideas areprompted by a wit so gayly sharp, and expressed with a neatness andpointedness so unusual, that it is to be regretted that these piecesshould be condemned to speedy forgetfulness, as they must be, from thetemporary interest of their topics. 

Among the works of the numerous minor poets, the tragedies of JoannaBaillie, with all their faults as plays, are noble additions to theliterature, and the closest approach made in recent times to the merit ofthe old English drama. After these may be named the stately and imposingdramatic poems of Milman, Maturin's impassioned "Bertram, " and the finely-conceived "Julian" of Miss Mitford. 

Rogers and Bowles have given us much of pleasing and reflective sentiment, accompanied with great refinement of taste. 

To another and more modern school belong Procter (Barry Cornwall) andLeigh Hunt; the former the purer in taste, the latter the more originaland inventive. 

Some of the lyrical and meditative poems of Walter Savage Landor are verybeautiful; his longer poems sometimes delight but oftener puzzle us bytheir obscurity of thought and want of constructive skill. 

The poems of Mrs. Hemans breathe a singularly attractive tone of romanticand melancholy sweetness, and many of the ballads and songs of Hogg andCunningham will not soon be forgotten. 

The poems of Kirke White are more pleasing than original. Montgomery haswritten, besides many other poems, not a few meditative and devotionalpieces among the best in the language. Pollok's "Course of Time" is theimmature work of a man of genius who possessed very imperfect cultivation. It is clumsy in plan and tediously dissertative, but it has passages ofgenuine poetry. The pleasing verses of Bishop Heber and the more recenteffusions of Keble may also be named. 

Of the Scotch poets, James Hogg (d. 1835) is distinguished for the beautyand creative power of his fairy tales, and Allan Cunningham (d. 1842) forthe fervor, simplicity, and natural grace of his songs. 

Edward Lytton Bulwer (Lord Lytton) deserves honorable mention for his highsense of the functions of poetic art; for the skill with which his dramasare constructed, and for the overflowing picturesqueness which fills his"King Arthur. " Elliott, the Corn-Law Rhymer, is vigorous in conception, and Hood has a remarkable union of grotesque humor with depth of seriousfeeling. 

Henry Taylor (b. 1800) deserves notice for the fine meditativeness andwell-balanced judgment shown in his dramas and prose essays. "Philip VanArtevelde" is his masterpiece. 

The poems of Arthur Hugh Clough (d. 1861) are worthy of attention, although it may be doubted if his genius reached its full development; inthose of Milnes (Lord Houghton, b. 1809), emotion and intellect areharmoniously blended. R. H. Horne (d. 1884) is the author of some noblepoems; Aytoun (d. 1865), of many ballads of note; and in Kingsley (d. 1875) the poetic faculty finds its best expression in his popular lyrics. 

Alfred Tennyson (b. 1810) is by eminence the representative poet of hisera. The central idea of his poetry is that of the dignity and efficiencyof law in its widest sense and of the progress of the race. The elementswhich form his ideal of human character are self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control, the recognition of a divine order, of one's ownplace in that order, and a faithful adhesion to the law of one's highestlife. "In Memoriam" is his most characteristic work, distinctly a poem ofthis century, the great threnody of our language. The "Idylls of the King"present in epic form the Christian ideal of chivalry. 

In Browning (b. 1812) the greatness and glory of man lie not in submissionto law, but in infinite aspiration towards something higher than himself. He must perpetually grasp at things attainable by his highest striving, and, finding them unsatisfactory, he is urged on by an endless series ofaspirations and endeavors. In his poetry strength of thought strugglesthrough obscurity of expression, and he is at once the most original andunequal of living poets. 

Elizabeth Barrett Browning (d. 1861) may be regarded as the representativeof her sex in the present age. The instinct of worship, the religion ofhumanity, and a spiritual unity of zeal, love, and worship preside overher work. 

To this period belong the writings of Mrs. Norton, Mrs. Blackwood, Mrs. Crosland, Mary Howitt, and Eliza Cook. 

FICTION. --Previous to the appearance of Scott's novels the department ofprose writing had undergone an elevating process in the hands of Godwin, Miss Austen, Miss Porter, and Miss Edgeworth. "Waverley" appeared in 1814, and the series which followed with surprising rapidity obtained universaland unexampled popularity. The Waverley Novels are not merely lovestories, but pictures of human life animated by sentiments which arecheerful and correct, and they exhibit history in a most effective lightwithout degrading facts or falsifying them beyond the lawful stretch ofpoetical embellishment. These novels stand in literary value as far aboveall other prose works of fiction as those of Fielding stand above allothers in the language except these. 

The novels of Lockhart are strong in the representation of tragic passion. Wilson, in his "Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life, " shows the visionaryloveliness and pathos which appear in his poems, though they give no scopeto those powers of sarcasm and humor which found expression elsewhere. Extremes in the tone of thought and feeling are shown in the despondentimagination of Mrs. Shelley and the coarse and shrewd humor of Galt. Tothis time belong Hope's "Anastasius, " which unites reflectiveness withpathos, and the delightful scenes which Miss Mitford has constructed byembellishing the facts of English rural life. 

Among the earlier novels of the time, those of Bulwer had more decidedlythan the others the stamp of native genius. Though not always morallyinstructive, they have great force of serious passion, and show unusualskill of design. In some of his later works he rises into a much highersphere of ethical contemplation. The novels of Theodore Hook, sparkling asthey are, have no substance to endure long continuance, nor is there muchpromise of life in the showy and fluent tales of James, the sea-stories ofMarryat, or the gay scenes of Lever. The novels and sketches of Mrs. Marshand Mrs. Hall are pleasing and tasteful; Mrs. Trollope's portraits ofcharacter are rough and clever caricatures. In describing the lowerdepartments of Irish life, Banim is the most original, Griffin weaker, andCarleton better than either. The novels of Disraeli are remarkable fortheir brilliant sketches of English life and their embodiment of politicaland social theories. Miss Martineau's stories are full of the writer'sclearness and sagacity. Kingsley, the head of the Christian socialisticschool, is the author of many romances, and the eloquent preacher of amore earnest and practical Christianity. The narrative sketches of DouglasJerrold deserve a place among the speculative fictions of the day. 

Charlotte Bronté (1816-1855) had consummate mastery of expression, and aperception of the depth of human nature that is only revealed throughsuffering experience. The works of her sister Emily show a powerfulimagination, regulated by no consideration of beauty of proportion, or ofartistic feeling. 

Among those writers who aim at making the novel illustrate questions thatagitate society most powerfully are the founders of a new school ofnovelists, Thackeray and Dickens (1812-1870). The former has given hispictures of society all that character they could receive fromextraordinary skill of mental analysis, acute observation, and strength ofsarcastic irony, but he has never been able to excite continuous andlively sympathy either by interesting incidents or by deep passion. Dickens has done more than all which Thackeray has left unattempted; whilehis painting of character is as vigorous and natural, his power ofexciting emotion ranges with equal success from horror sometimes toointense, to melting pathos, and thence to a breadth of humor whichdegenerates into caricature. He cannot soar into the higher worlds ofimagination, but he becomes strong, inventive, and affecting the momenthis foot touches the firm ground of reality, and nowhere is he more atease, more sharply observant, or more warmly sympathetic, than in sceneswhose meanness might have disgusted, or whose moral foulness might haveappalled. Of the later novelists, the names of Mrs. Craik (Miss Muloch)and Charles Reade (d. 1884) may be mentioned as having acquired a widepopularity. 

HISTORY. --In history Niebuhr's masterly researches have communicated theirspirit to the "Roman History" of Arnold; the history of Greece has assumeda new aspect in the hands of Thirlwall and Grote; and that of Grecianliterature has been In part excellently related by Muir (d. 1860). Modernhistory has likewise been cultivated with great assiduity, and severalworks of great literary merit have appeared which are valuable asstorehouses of research. Macaulay, in his great work, "The History ofEngland, " showed that history might be written as it had not been before, telling the national story with accuracy and force, making it as lively asa novel, through touches of individual interest and teaching precioustruths with fascinating eloquence. Alison's "History of Europe" takes itsplace among the highest works of its kind. Carlyle's "History of theFrench Revolution" and "Life of Frederic the Great" are most picturesque, attractive, and original works. The History of the Norman Conquest ofEngland is the most important work of Freeman. Buckle (d. 1882) in hisIntroduction to the projected History of Civilization in Europe reiteratedthe theory that all events depend upon the action of inevitable law. 

CRITICISM AND REVIEWS. --In the art of criticism, Hallam's (d. 1859)"Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, andSeventeenth Centuries" has taken its place as a classical standard. Amongthe fragments of criticism, the most valuable are those of De Quincey (d. 1860). The essays of Macaulay (d. 1860) are among the most impressive ofall the periodical papers of our century. 

In Carlyle, a generous sentiment alternates with despondent gloom andpassionate restlessness and inconsistency. But it is impossible to hear, without a deep sense of original power, the oracular voices that issuefrom the cell; enigmatical, like the ancient responses, and like themilluminating doubtful vaticination with flashes of wild and half poeticfantasy. His language and thoughts alike set aside hereditary rules, andare compounded of elements, English and German, and elements predominantover all, which no name would fit except that of the author. 

Among numerous other writers may he mentioned the names of William andMary Howitt, Isaac Taylor, Arthur Helps, and the brothers Hare, and inart-criticism the brilliant and paradoxical Ruskin (b. 1819) and theaccomplished Mrs. Jameson (d. 1860). 

The writings of Christopher North (Professor Wilson) are characterized bythe quaintest humor and the most practical shrewdness combined with tenderand passionate emotion (d. 1854). Those of Charles Lamb (d. 1835) it isimpossible to describe intelligibly to those who have not read them. Someof his scenes are in sentiment, imagery, and style the most anomalousmedleys by which readers were ever alternately perplexed and amused, movedand delighted. 

No man of his time influenced social science so much as Jeremy Bentham(1748-1832). Of his immediate pupils James Mill is the ablest, Cobbett, avigorous and idiomatic writer of English, in the course of his long lifeadvocated all varieties of political principle. In political science wehave the accurate McCulloch; Malthus, known through his Theory ofPopulation; and Ricardo, the most original thinker in science since AdamSmith. 

Foster (1770-1843) had originality and a wider grasp of mind than theother two. Hall (1761-1831) is more eloquent, but in oratorical powerChalmers (1780-1847) was one of the great men of our century, which hasproduced few comparable to him in original keenness of intuition, and whocombined so much power of thought with so much power of impressivecommunication. 

In philosophy, Dugald Stewart (1753-1828) is one of the most attractivewriters. Thomas Brown (1778-1820), his successor in the chair ofEdinburgh, exhibited a subtlety of thought hardly ever exceeded in thehistory of philosophy; probably no writings on mental philosophy were everso popular. 

Equally worthy of a place in the annals of their era are thosedissertations on the History of Philosophy contributed to theEncyclopaedia Britannica by Playfair, Leslie, and Mackintosh, and a systemof Ethics by Bentham. Among the speculations in mental philosophy mustalso be placed a group of interesting treatises on the "Theory of theSublime and Beautiful, " a matter deeply important to poetry and the otherfine arts, represented by Alison's essays on Taste, Jeffrey's on Beauty, and by contributions from Stewart, Thomas Brown, and Payne Knight. 

In political economy John Mill is one of the most powerful and originalminds of the nineteenth century. The pure sciences of mind have beenenriched by important accessions; logic has been vigorously cultivated intwo departments; on the one hand by Mill and Whewell, the former followingthe tendencies of Locke and Hobbes, the latter that of the German school;on the other hand, Archbishop Whately has expounded the Aristoteliansystem with clearness and sagacity, and De Morgan has attempted to supplycertain deficiencies in the old analysis. But by far the greatestmetaphysician who has appeared in the British empire during the presentcentury is Sir William Hamilton. In his union of powerful thinking withprofound and varied erudition, he stands higher, perhaps, than any otherman whose name is preserved in the annals of modern speculation. 

REVIEWS AND MAGAZINES. --A most curious and important fact in the literaryhistory of the age is the prominence acquired by the leading Reviews andMagazines. Their high position was secured and their power founded beyondthe possibility of overturn by the earliest of the series, the "EdinburghReview. " Commenced in 1802, it was placed immediately under the editorshipof Francis Jeffrey, who conducted it till 1829. In the earlier part of itshistory there were not many distinguished men of letters in the empire whodid not furnish something to its contents; among others were Sir WalterScott, Lord Brougham, Malthus, Playfair, Mackintosh, and Sydney Smith. Differences of political opinion led to the establishment of the "LondonQuarterly, " which advocated Tory principles, the Edinburgh being the organof the Whigs. Its editors were first Gifford and then Lockhart, and itnumbered among its contributors many of the most famous men of the time. The "Westminster Review" was established in 1825 as the organ of JeremyBentham and his disciples. 

"Blackwood's Magazine, " begun 1817, has contained articles of the highestliterary merit. It was the unflinching and idolatrous advocate ofWordsworth, and some of its writers were the first translators of Germanpoetry and the most active introducers of German taste and laws inpoetical criticism. 

The best efforts in literary criticism--the most brilliant department ofrecent literature, have been with few exceptions essays in theperiodicals. Among the essayists the name of Francis Jeffrey (1773-1850)stands highest. In his essays selected for republication we find hardlyany branch of general knowledge untouched, and while he treated nonewithout throwing on them some brilliant ray of light, he contributed tomany of them truths alike valuable and original. His criticisms on Poetryare flowing and spirited, glittering with a gay wit and an ever-readyfancy, and often blossoming into exquisite felicities of diction. WhileMacaulay uses poets and their works as hints for constructing picturesquedissertations on man and society, and while poetical reading promptsWilson to enthusiastic bursts of original poetry, Jeffrey, fervid in hisadmiration of genius, but conscientiously stern in his respect for art, tries poetry by its own laws, and his writings are invaluable to those whodesire to learn the principles of poetical criticism. A high place amongthe critical essayists must also be assigned to William Hazlitt, who inhis lectures and elsewhere did manful service towards reviving the studyof ancient poetry, and who prompts to study and speculation all readers, and not the least those who hesitate to accept his critical opinions. 

PHYSICAL SCIENCE. --The spirit of philosophical inquiry and discovery isincreasing in England, and is everywhere accompanied by a growing tendencyto popularize all branches of science, and to bring them before thegeneral mind in an attractive form. 

The physical sciences have made marvelous advances; many brilliantdiscoveries have been made during the present and last generation, andmany scientific men have brought much power of mind to bear on questionslying apart from their principal studies; among them are Sir DavidBrewster, Sir John Herschel, Sir John Playfair, Sir Charles Lyell, HughMiller, Buckland, and Professor Whewell. 

SINCE 1860. 

1. POETRY. --Matthew Arnold (b. 1822) has written some of the most refinedverse of our day, and among critics holds the first rank. AlgernonSwinburne (b. 1837) excels all living poets in his marvelous gift ofrhythm and command over the resources of the language. Dante Rossetti (d. 1883) had great lyrical power; Robert Buchanan has large freedom andoriginality of style; Edwin Arnold has extraordinary popularity in theUnited States for his remarkable poem, "The Light of Asia, " and for otherpoems on Oriental subjects; Lord Lytton ("Owen Meredith") has a place ofhonor among poets as the author of "Lucile" and other poems; WilliamMorris writes in the choicest fashion of romantic narrative verse. Amongother poets of the present generation whose writings are marked byexcellences of various kinds are Edmund Gosse, Austin Dobson, CosmoMonkhonse, Andrew Lang, Philip Marston, and Arthur O'Shaughnessy. 

The poems of Jean Ingelow have a merited popularity; those of AdelaideProcter (d. 1864) are pervaded by a beautiful spirit of faith and hope;Christina Rossetti shows great originality and deep and serious feeling. The lyrics and dramas of Augusta Webster are marked by strength andbreadth of thought; the ballads, sonnets, and other poems of Mary Robinsonshow that she possesses the true gift of song. 

2. FICTION. --The writings of Mrs. Lewes, "George Eliot" (1815-1880), arethe work of a woman of rare genius, and place her among the greatestnovelists England has produced. They are in sympathy with all thevarieties of human character, and written in a spirit of humanity that isallied with every honest aspiration. 

Anthony Trollope (d. 1884) has produced many works remarkable for theiraccurate pictures of English life and character. George Macdonald andWilkie Collins are novelists of great merit, as are William Black, RichardBlackmore, Mrs. Oliphant, Edmund Yates, Justin McCarthy. 

3. SCIENCE. --Herbert Spencer (b. 1820) as early as 1852 advanced thetheory of the natural and gradual coalition of organic life upon thisglobe. In 1855, in his "Principles of Psychology, " he gave a newexposition of the laws of mind, based upon this principle, and held thatit is by experience, registered in the slowly perfecting nervous system, that the mental faculties have been gradually evolved through long coursesof descent, each generation inheriting all that had been previouslygained, and adding its own increment to the sum of progress; that allknowledge, and even the faculties of knowing, originate in experience, butthat the primary elements of thought are _a priori_ intuitions to theindividual derived from ancestral experience. Thus the intuitional andexperience hypotheses, over which philosophers had so long disputed, werehere for the first time reconciled. This work, the first permanentscientific result of the application of the law of evolution, formed aturning-point in the thought of the scientific world. Spencer's prospectusof a philosophical system, in which the principles of evolution wereapplied to the subjects of life, mind, society, and morals, appeared in1858, maturely elaborated in its scientific proofs and applications, thuspreceding the works of other evolutionary writers, the most distinguishedof whom, Charles Darwin (1809-1883), has been more identified in thepopular mind with the theories of evolution than Spencer himself. Thewritings of Darwin have had a wider influence and have been the subject ofmore controversy than those of any other contemporary writer. In his"Origin of Species" he accounts for the diversities of life on our globeby means of continuous development, without the intervention of specialcreative fiats at the origin of each species, and to this organicevolution he added the important principle of natural selection. He may beregarded as the great reformer of biology and the most distinguishednaturalist of the age. Tyndall (b. 1810) has done more than any otherwriter to popularize great scientific truths. Huxley (b. 1825) standsforemost among physiologists and naturalists. 

Among numerous other writers distinguished in various branches of sciencea few only can be here named. Walter Bagehot writes on Political Society;Alexander Bain on Mind and Body; Henry Maudsley on Brain and Mind; NormanLockyer on Spectrum Analysis; and Sir John Lubbock on Natural History. 

4. MISCELLANEOUS. --The most distinguished historian of the times is JamesAnthony Froude (b. 1818), who, in his "Short Studies, " shows the samevigor of thought and power of description that render his history sofascinating. The histories of John Richard Green are valuable for theiroriginal research, and have a wide celebrity. Max Müller has renderedimportant services to the sciences of Philology and Ethnology, by hisresearches in Oriental languages and literatures. Lecky is eminent for hishistory of "Rationalism in Europe" and "History of Morals. " LeslieStephen, John Morley, and Addington Symonds are distinguished in variousdepartments of criticism and history. Justin McCarthy, in his "History ofour own Times, " has skillfully presented an intellectual panorama of theperiod. 

Hamerton writes on Art and on general topics with keen and criticalobservation. Lewes (d. 1878) is the able expounder of the philosophy ofComte. Frances Power Cobbe, in her "Intuitive Morals" and other works, shows strong reasoning powers and great earnestness of purpose. JohnStuart Mill (d. 1873) holds a high place as a writer on Political Economy, Liberty, and on the Subjection of Women. The periodicals and newspapers ofthe day show remarkable intellectual ability, and represent the bestcontemporary thought in England in all departments. 

AMERICAN LITERATURE. 

THE COLONIAL PERIOD. --1. The Seventeenth Century. George Sandys; The BayPsalm Book; Anne Bradstreet, John Eliot, and Cotton Mather. --2. From 1700to 1770; Jonathan Edwards, Benjamin Franklin, Cadwallader Colden. 

FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1771 TO 1820. --1. Statesmen and PoliticalWriters: Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton. The Federalist: Jay, Madison, Marshall, Fisher Ames, and others. --2. The Poets: Freneau, Trumbull, Hopkinson, Barlow, Clifton, and Dwight. --3. Writers in other Departments:Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and Bishop White. Rush, McClurg, Lindley Murray, Charles Brockden Brown. Ramsay, Graydon. Count Rumford, Wirt, Ledyard, Pinkney, and Pike. 

SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD FROM 1820 TO 1860. --1. History, Biography, andTravels: Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Godwin, Ticknor, Schoolcraft, Hildreth, Sparks, Irving, Headley, Stephens, Kane, Squier, Perry, Lynch, Taylor, and others. --2. Oratory: Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Everett, and others. --3. Fiction: Cooper, Irving, Willis, Hawthorne, Poe, Simms, Mrs. Stowe, and others. --4. Poetry: Bryant, Dana, Halleck, Longfellow, Willis, Lowell, Allston, Hillhouse, Drake, Whittier, Hoffman, and others. --5. The Transcendental Movement in New England. --6. MiscellaneousWritings: Whipple, Tuckerman, Curtis, Briggs, Prentice, and others. --7. Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and Educational Books. The EncyclopaediaAmericana. The New American Cyclopaedia. Allibone, Griswold, Duyckinck, Webster, Worcester, Anthon, Felton, Barnard, and others. --8. Theology, Philosophy, Economy, and Jurisprudence: Stuart, Robinson, Wayland, Barnes, Channing, Parker. Tappan, Henry, Hickok, Haven. Carey, Kent, Wheaton, Story, Livingston, Lawrence, Bouvier. --9. Natural Sciences: Franklin, Morse, Fulton, Silliman, Dana, Hitchcock, Rogers, Bowditch, Peirce, Bache, Holbrook, Audubon, Morton, Gliddon, Maury, and others. --10. ForeignWriters: Paine, Witherspoon, Rowson, Priestley, Wilson, Agassiz, Guyot, Mrs. Robinson, Gurowski, and others. --11. Newspapers and Periodicals. --12. Since 1860. 

THE COLONIAL PERIOD (1640-1770). 

1. THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. --Of all the nations which have sprung intoexistence through the medium of European colonization, since the discoveryof America, the United States is the only one having a literature of itsown creation, and containing original works of a high order. Its earliestproductions, however, are of little value; they belong not to a period ofliterary leisure, but to one of trial and danger, when the colonist wasforced to contend with a savage enemy, a rude soil, and all the privationsof pioneer life. It was not until the spirit of freedom began to influencethe national character, that the literature of the colonies assumed adistinctive form, although its earliest productions are not without valueas marking its subsequent development. 

Among the bold spirits who, with Captain John Smith, braved thepestilential swamps and wily Indians of Virginia, there were some loversof literature, the most prominent of whom was George Sandys, whotranslated Ovid's "Metamorphoses" on the banks of James River. The work, published in London in 1620, was dedicated to Charles I. And received thecommendations of Pope and Dryden. The Puritans, too, carried a love ofletters with them to the shores of New England, and their literaryproductions, like their colony, took a far more lasting root than didthose of their more southern brethren. The intellect of the colonies firstdeveloped itself in a theological form, which was the natural consequenceof emigration, induced by difference of religious opinion, the free scopeafforded for discussion, and the variety of creeds represented by thedifferent races who thus met on a common soil. The clergy, also, were thebest educated and the most influential class, and the colonial eratherefore boasted chiefly a theological literature, though for the mostpart controversial and fugitive. While there is no want of learning orreasoning power in the tracts of many of the theologians of that day, theyare now chiefly referred to by the antiquarian or the curious student ofdivinity. 

The first hook printed in the colonies was the "Bay Psalm Book, " whichappeared in 1640; it was reprinted in England, where it passed throughseventy editions, and retained its popularity for more than a century, although it was not strictly original, and was devoid of literary merit. 

This was followed by a volume of original poems, by Mrs. Anne Bradstreet(d. 1672); though not above mediocrity, these effusions are chaste inlanguage and not altogether insipid in ideas. A few years later, JohnEliot (1604-1690), the famous Apostle to the Indians, published a versionof the Psalms and of the Old and New Testaments in the Indian tongue, which was the first Bible printed in America. The next production of valuewas a "Concordance of the Scriptures, " by John Newman (d. 1663), compiledby the light of pine knots in one of the frontier settlements of NewEngland; the first work of its kind, and for more than a century the mostperfect. Cotton Mather (d. 1728) was one of the most learned men of hisage, and one of its representative writers. His principal work is the"Magnalia Christi Americana, " an ecclesiastical history of New England, from 1620 to 1698, including the civil history of the times, severalbiographies, and an account of the Indian wars, and of New Englandwitchcraft. Eliot and Mather were the most prominent colonial writers downto 1700. 

2. FROM 1700 TO 1770. --From the year 1700 to the breaking out of theRevolution, it was the custom of many of the colonists to send their sonsto England to be educated. Yale College and other institutions of learningwere established at home, from which many eminent scholars graduated, and, although it was the fashion of the day to imitate the writers of the timeof Queen Anne and the two Georges, the productions of this age exhibit amanly vigor of thought, and mark a transition from the theological to themore purely literary era of American authorship. 

Jonathan Edwards (1703-1785) was the first native writer who gaveunequivocal evidence of great reasoning power and originality of thought;he may not unworthily be styled the first man of the world during thesecond quarter of the eighteenth century; and as a theologian, Dr. Chalmers and Robert Hall declare him to have been the greatest in allChristian ages. Of the works of Edwards, consisting of diaries, discourses, and treatises, that on "The Will" is the most celebrated. 

Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) was equally illustrious in statesmanship andphilosophy. The style of his political and philosophical writings isadmirable for its simplicity, clearness, precision, and condensation; andthat of his letters and essays has all the wit and elegance thatcharacterize the best writers of Queen Anne's time. His autobiography isone of the most pleasing compositions in the English language, and hismoral writings have had a powerful influence on the character of theAmerican people. 

From the early youth of Franklin until about the year 1770, generalliterature received much attention, and numerous productions of merit bothin prose and verse appeared, which, if not decidedly great, wereinteresting for the progress they displayed. Many practical minds devotedthemselves to colonial history, and their labors have been of great valueto subsequent historians. Among these historical writings, those ofCadwallader Colden (1688-1776) take the first rank. As we approach theexciting dawn of the Revolution, the growing independence of thoughtbecomes more and more manifest. 

FIRST AMERICAN PERIOD (1770-1820). 

1. STATESMEN AND POLITICAL WRITERS. --Among the causes which rapidlydeveloped literature and eloquence in the colonies, the most importantwere the oppressions of the mother country, at first silently endured, then met with murmurs of dissatisfaction, and finally with manful andboldly-expressed opposition. Speeches and pamphlets were the weapons ofattack, and treating as they did upon subjects affecting the individualliberty of every citizen, they had a powerful influence on the publicmind, and went far towards severing that mental reliance upon Europe whichAmerican authorship is now so rapidly consummating. The conventionalism ofEuropean literature was cast aside, and the first fruits of native geniusappeared. The public documents of the principal statesmen of the age ofthe Revolution were declared by Lord Chatham to equal the finest specimensof Greek or Roman wisdom. The historical correspondence of this periodconstitutes a remarkable portion of American literature, and is valuablenot only for its high qualities of wisdom and patriotism, but for itsgraces of expression and felicitous illustration. The letters ofWashington, Adams, Jefferson, Franklin, Jay, Morris, Hamilton, and many oftheir compatriots, possess a permanent literary value aside from thatwhich they derive from their authorship and the gravity of their subjects. 

The speeches of many of the great orators of the age of the Revolution arenot preserved, and are known only by tradition. Of the eloquence of Otis, which was described as "flames of fire, " there are but a few meagrereports; the passionate appeals of Patrick Henry and of the elder Adams, which "moved the hearers from their seats, " and the resistless declamationof Pinkney and Rutledge, are preserved only in the history of the effectswhich these orators produced. 

The writings of Washington (1732-1799), produced chiefly in the campsurrounded by the din of arms, are remarkable for clearness of expression, force of language, and a tone of lofty patriotism. They are second to noneof similar character in any nation, and they display powers which, hadthey been devoted to literature, would have achieved a position of nosecondary character. 

Jefferson (1743-1826) early published a "Summary View of the Rights ofBritish America, " which passed through several editions in London, underthe supervision of Burke. His "Notes on Virginia" is still a standardwork, and his varied and extensive correspondence is a valuablecontribution to American political history. 

Hamilton (1757-1804) was one of the most remarkable men of the time, andto his profound sagacity the country was chiefly indebted for a regulatedcurrency and an established credit after the conclusion of the war. Duringa life of varied and absorbing occupation as a soldier, lawyer, andstatesman, he found time to record his principles; and his writings, fullof energy and sound sense, are noble in tone, and deep in wisdom andinsight. "The Federalist, " a joint production of Hamilton, Madison, andJay, exhibits a profundity of research and an acuteness of understandingwhich would do honor to the most illustrious statesmen of any age. Thename of Madison (1751-1836) is one of the most prominent in the history ofthe country, and his writings, chiefly on political, constitutional, andhistorical subjects, are of extraordinary value to the student in historyand political philosophy. 

Marshall (1755-1835) was for thirty-five years chief-justice of theSupreme Court of the United States; a court, the powers of which aregreater than were ever before confided to a judicial tribunal. Determining, without appeal, its own jurisdiction and that of thelegislative and executive departments, this court is not merely thehighest estate in the country, but it settles and continually moulds theconstitution of the government. To the duties of his office, JudgeMarshall brought a quickness of conception commensurate with theirdifficulty, and the spirit and strength of one capable of ministering tothe development of a nation. The vessel of state, it has been said, waslaunched by the patriotism of many; the chart of her course was designedchiefly by Hamilton; but when the voyage was begun, the eye that observed, the head that reckoned, and the hand that compelled the ship to keep hercourse amid tempests without, and threats of mutiny within, were those ofthe great chief-justice, whom posterity will reverence as one of thefounders of the nation. Marshall's "Life of Washington" is a faithful andconscientious narrative, written in a clear, unpretending style, andpossesses much literary merit. 

Fisher Ames (1758-1808), one of the leaders of the federal party duringthe administration of Washington, was equally admired for his learning andeloquence; although, owing to the temporary interest of many of thesubjects on which he wrote, his reputation has somewhat declined. 

Among other writers and orators of the age of the Revolution were Warren, Adams, and Otis, Patrick Henry, Rutledge, Livingston, Drayton, Quincy, Dickinson, and numerous firm and gifted men, who, by their logical andearnest appeals roused the country to the assertion of its rights and gavea wise direction to the power they thus evoked. 

2. THE POETS. --One of the most distinguished poets of the Age of theRevolution was Philip Freneau (1752-1832). Although many of hiscompositions which had great political effect at the time they werewritten have little merit, or relate to forgotten events, enough remainsto show that he was not wanting in genius and enthusiasm. 

John Trumbull (1750-1831) was the author of "McFingal, " a humorous poem inthe style of Butler's Hudibras, the object of which was to renderludicrous the zeal and logic of the tories. There is no contemporaneousrecord which supplies so vivid a representation of the manners of the age, and the habits and modes of thinking that then prevailed. The popularityof McFingal was extraordinary, and it had an important influence on thegreat events of the time. Trumbull was a tutor in Yale College, andattempted to introduce an improved course of study and discipline into theinstitution, which met with much opposition. His most finished poem, "TheProgress of Dullness, " was hardly less serviceable to the cause ofeducation than his McFingal was to that of liberty. Francis Hopkinson(1738-1791), another wit of the Revolution, may be ranked beside Trumbullfor his efficiency in the national cause. 

Joel Barlow (1755-1812) as an author was among the first of his time. Hisprincipal work is the "Columbiad, " an epic poem which, with many faults, has occasional bursts of patriotism and true eloquence, which shouldpreserve it from oblivion. His pleasing poem celebrating "Hasty Pudding"has gained a more extensive popularity. The few songs of William Clifton(1772-1799), a more original and vigorous poet, are imbued with the truespirit of lyric poetry. 

Timothy Dwight (1752-1819) was the author of "Greenfield Hill, " the"Conquest of Canaan, " an epic poem, and several other productions; but hisfame rests chiefly on his merits as a theologian, in which department hehad few if any equals. Many other names might be cited, but none ofcommanding excellence. 

3. WRITERS IN OTHER DEPARTMENTS. --Although in the period immediatelysucceeding the Revolution there was a strong tendency to politicaldiscussion, not a few writers found exercise in other departments. Theology had its able expounders in Bellamy, Hopkins, Dwight, and BishopWhite. Barton merits especial notice for his work on botany, and for hisethnological investigations concerning the Indian race, and Drs. Rush andMcClurg were eminent in various departments of medical science. In 1795, Lindley Murray (1745-1826) published his English Grammar, which for a longtime held its place as the best work of the kind in the language. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that during this period very fewwriters devoted themselves exclusively to literature. Charles BrockdenBrown (1771-1810) was the first purely professional author. His chiefproductions are two works of fiction, "Wieland" and "Arthur Mervyn, " whichfrom their merit, and as the first of American creations in the world ofromance, were favorably received, and early attracted attention inEngland. 

One of the earliest laborers in the field of history was David Ramsay(1749-1815), and his numerous works are monuments of his unweariedresearch and patient labor for the public good and the honor of hiscountry. Graydon's (1742-1818) "Memoirs of his own Times, withReminiscences of Men and Events of the Revolution, " illustrates the mostinteresting and important period of our history, and combines the variousexcellences of style, scholarship, and impartiality. 

Benjamin Thompson (1753-1814), better known by his title of Count Rumford, acquired an extensive reputation in the scientific world for his variousphilosophical improvements in private and political economy. William Wirtwas the author of the "Letters of the British Spy, " which derives itsinterest from its descriptions and notices of individuals. His "Life ofPatrick Henry" is a finished piece of biography, surpassed by few works ofits kind in elegance of style and force of narrative. 

John Ledyard (1751-1788), who died in Egypt while preparing for theexploration of Central Africa, was the first important contributor to theliterature of travel, in America, and his journals, abounding in pleasingdescription and truthful narratives, have become classic in thisdepartment of letters, A captivating book of travels in France, byLieutenant Pinkney, which appeared in 1809, created such a sensation inEngland, that Leigh Hunt tells us it set all the idle world going toFrance. Zebulon Pike, under the auspices of the government, published thefirst book ever written on the country between the Mississippi and theRocky Mountains. 

SECOND AMERICAN PERIOD (1820-1860). 

1. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND TRAVELS. --From the year 1820, Americanliterature may be considered as fairly launched upon its national career. The early laborers in the field had immense difficulties to encounter fromridicule abroad and want of appreciation at home; but they at lastsucceeded in dispelling all doubts as to the capability of the Americanmind for the exercise of original power, and to some extent divertedpublic thought from Europe as an exclusive source of mental supplies. Theera we are now to consider will be found prolific in works of merit, andthe expansion of mind will be seen to have kept pace with the political, social, and commercial progress of the nation. No subject of humanknowledge has been overlooked; many European works have been elucidated bythe fresh light of the American mind; a new style of thought has beendeveloped; new scenes have been opened to the world, and Europe isreceiving compensation in kind for the intellectual treasures she hasheretofore sent to America. 

The marvelous growth of the United States, its relations to the past andfuture, and to the great problem of humanity, render its history one ofthe most suggestive episodes in the annals of the world, and give to it auniversal as well as a special dignity. Justly interpreted, it is thepractical demonstration of principles which the noblest spirits of Englandadvocated with their pens, and often sealed with their blood. The earlycolonists were familiar with the responsibilities and progressive tendencyof liberal institutions, and in achieving the Revolution they only carriedout what had long existed in idea, and actualized the views of Sidney andhis illustrious compeers. Through this intimate relation with the past ofthe Old World, and as initiative to its future self-enfranchisement, ourhistory daily unfolds new meaning and increases in importance andinterest. It is only within the last quarter of a century, however, thatthis theme has found any adequate illustration. Before that time thelabors of American historians had been chiefly confined to the collectionof materials, the unadorned record of facts which rarely derived any charmfrom the graces of style or the resources of philosophy. 

The most successful attempt to reduce the chaotic but rich materials ofAmerican history to order, beauty, and moral significance has been made byBancroft (b. 1800), who has brought to the work not only talent andscholarship of high order, but an earnest sympathy with the spirit of theage he was to illustrate. In sentiment and principle his history isthoroughly American, although in its style and philosophy it has thatbroad and eclectic spirit appropriate to the general interest of thesubject, and the enlightened sympathies of the age. Unwearied and patientin research, discriminating and judicious in the choice of authorities, and possessed of all the qualities required to fuse into a vital unity thenarrative thus carefully gleaned, Bancroft has written the most accurateand philosophical account that has been given of the United States. 

The works of Prescott (1796-1858) are among the finest models ofhistorical composition, and they breathe freely the spirit of our liberalinstitutions. His "History of Ferdinand and Isabella, " of the "Conquest ofMexico, " and the "Conquest of Peru, " unite all the fascination of romanticfiction with the grave interest of authentic events. The picturesque andromantic character of his subjects, the harmony and beauty of his style, the dramatic interest of his narrative, and the careful research whichrenders his works as valuable for their accuracy as they are attractivefor their style, have given Prescott's histories a brilliant and extensivereputation; and it is a matter of deep regret that his last and crowningwork, "The History of Philip II. , " should remain uncompleted. Anotherimportant contribution to the literature of the country is Motley's (1814-1877) "History of the Rise of the Dutch Republic, " a work distinguishedfor its historical accuracy, philosophical breadth of treatment, andclearness and vigor of style. The narrative proceeds with a steady andeasy flow, and the scenes it traces are portrayed with the hand of amaster; while the whole work is pervaded by a spirit of humanity and agenuine sympathy with liberty. Parke Godwin's "History of France" isremarkable for its combination of deep research, picturesqueness of style;and John Poster Kirk is the author of a valuable history of Charles theBold. 

Ticknor's (1791-1871) "History of Spanish Literature, " as an intellectualachievement, ranks with the best productions of its kind, and iseverywhere regarded by scholars as a standard authority. It is thoroughlypenetrated with the true Castilian spirit, and is a complete record ofSpanish civilization, both social and intellectual, equally interesting tothe general reader and to the student of civil history. It has beentranslated into several languages. 

Henry R. Schoolcraft has devoted much time to researches among the Indiantribes of North America, and embodied the result of his labors in manyvolumes, containing their traditions, and the most interesting facts oftheir history. Catlin's "Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions ofthe North American Indians, " though without literary pretensions orliterary merit; fills an important place in ethnological literature. Another work of a more historical character is "The History of the IndianTribes of North America, " the joint production of Hall and McKinney. Bradford's "American Antiquities and Researches into the Origin of the RedRace" is also an able and instructive work. In Hildreth's "History of theUnited States, " rhetorical grace and effect give way to a plain narrativeconfined to facts gleaned with great care and conscientiousness. The"Field-Book of the Revolution, " by Lossing, who has visited all the scenesof that memorable war, and delineated them with pen and pencil, is a workwhich finds its way to all the school libraries of the country. Cooper's"Naval History of the United States" abounds in picturesque and thrillingdescriptions of naval warfare, and is one of the most characteristichistories, both in regard to style and subject, yet produced in America. 

S. G. Goodrich (1793-1860), who, under the name of Peter Parley, hasacquired an extensive popularity in England and the United States, was thepioneer in the important reform of rendering historical school-booksattractive, and his numerous works occupy a prominent place in theliterature designed for the young. Two other able writers in thisdepartment are John S. C. And Jacob Abbott. 

Among the numerous local and special histories, valuable for theircorrectness and literary merit, are Brodhead's "History of New York, "Palfrey's and Elliott's Histories of New England, Trumbull's "History ofConnecticut, " Hawks's "History of North Carolina, " and Dr. Francis's"Historical Sketches. "

To the department of Biography, Jared Sparks has made many valuablecontributions. Washington Irving's "Life and Voyages of Columbus" and"Life of Washington" have gained a popularity as extensive as the fame ofthis charming writer. Mrs. Kirkland, also, has written a popular "Life ofWashington. " The biographies and histories of J. T. Headley are remarkablefor a vivacity and energy, which have given them great popularity. The"Biographical and Historical Studies" of G. W. Greene, Randall's "Life ofJefferson, " Parton's Biographies of Aaron Burr and other celebrated men, Mrs. Ellet's "Women of the Revolution" and "Women Artists in all Ages, "and Mrs. Hale's "Sketches of Distinguished Women in all Ages, " are amongthe numerous works belonging to this department. 

The restlessness of the American character finds a mode of expression inthe love of travel and adventure, and within the last thirty years nonation has contributed to literature more interesting books of travel thanthe United States. Flint's "Wanderings in the Valley of the Mississippi, "Schoolcraft's "Discoveries and Adventures in the Northwest, " Irving's"Astoria, " and Fremont's Reports are instructive and entertaining accountsof the West. The "Incidents of Travel" of John L. Stephens (1805-1857) hashad remarkable success in Europe as well as in this country. Theadventurous Arctic explorations of E. K. Kane (1822-1857) have eliciteduniversal admiration for the interest of their descriptions and for theheroism and indomitable energy of the writer. These narratives have beenfollowed by those of Hayes in the same field of adventure. The scientificexplorations of E. G. Squier have thrown new light on the antiquities andethnology of the aboriginal tribes of America. Wilkes's "Narrative of theUnited States Exploring Expedition" and Perry's "Narrative of anExpedition to Japan" are full of scientific and general information. Lynch's "Exploration of the Dead Sea" and Herndon's "Valley of the Amazon"belong to the same class. Bartlett's "Explorations in Texas and NewMexico" is interesting from the accuracy of its descriptions and thenovelty of the scenes it describes. Among the numerous other entertainingbooks of travel in foreign countries are those of Bayard Taylor, who hasleft few parts of the world unvisited; Dana's "Two Years Before the Mast;"Curtis's "Nile Notes;" Norman's "Cities of Yucatan;" Dix's "Winter inMadeira;" Brace's "Hungary, " "Home Life in Germany, " and "Norse Folk;"Olmsted's "Travels in the Seaboard Slave States, " and other works; RossBrowne's "Notes, " Prime's "Boat" and "Tent Life, " and "Letters ofIrenaeus;" Slidell's "Year in Spain;" Willis's "Pencillings by the Way;"Hillard's "Six Months in Italy" and "Letters;" "Memories" and "Souvenirs, "by Catherine M. Sedgwick, Sarah Haight, Harriet Beecher Stowe, GraceGreenwood, and Octavia Walton Le Vert. 

2. ORATORY. --The public speeches of a nation's chief legislators areshining landmarks of its policy and lucid developments of the characterand genius of its institutions. Of the statesmen of the present century, the most eminent are Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. Daniel Webster (1782-1852) is acknowledged to be one of the greatest men America has produced. His speeches and forensic arguments constitute a characteristic as well asan intrinsically valuable and interesting portion of our nativeliterature, and some of his orations on particular occasions areeverywhere recognized as among the greatest instances of genius in thisbranch of letters to be met with in modern times. The style of Webster isremarkable for its clearness and impressiveness, and rises occasionally toabsolute grandeur. His dignity of expression, breadth and force of thoughtrealize the ideal of a republican statesman; his writings, independent oftheir literary merit, are invaluable for the nationality of their tone andspirit. 

The speeches of Henry Clay (1777-1852) are distinguished by a sincerityand warmth which were characteristic of the man, who united the gentlestaffections with the pride of the haughtiest manhood. His style of oratory, full, flowing, and sensuous, was modulated by a voice of sustained powerand sweetness and a heart of chivalrous courtesy, and his eloquencereached the heart of the whole nation. 

The style of John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) was terse and condensed, and hiseloquence, though sometimes impassioned, was always severe. He had greatskill as a dialectician and remarkable power of analysis, and his workswill have a permanent place in American literature. The writings andspeeches of John Quincy Adams (1769-1848) are distinguished byuniversality of knowledge and independence of judgment, and they arerepositories of rich materials for the historian and politicalphilosopher. Benton's (1783-1858) "Thirty Years' View" of the working ofthe American government is a succession of historical pictures which willincrease in value as the scenes they portray become more distant. EdwardEverett (1794-1865), as an orator, has few living equals, and hisoccasional addresses and orations have become permanent memorials of manyimportant occasions of public interest. Of the numerous other orators, eminent as rhetoricians or debaters, a few only can be named; among themare Legaré, Randolph, Choate, Sumner, Phillips, Preston, and Prentiss. 

3. FICTION. --Romantic fiction found its first national development in thewritings of James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), and through his worksAmerican literature first became widely known in Europe. His nautical andIndian tales; his delineations of the American mind in its adventurouscharacter, and his vivid pictures of the aborigines, and of forest andfrontier life, from their freshness, power, and novelty, attracteduniversal attention, and were translated into the principal Europeanlanguages as soon as they appeared. "The Spy, " "The Pioneers, " "The Lastof the Mohicans, " and numerous other productions of Cooper, must hold alasting place in English literature. 

The genial and refined humor of Washington Irving (1783-1859), his livelyfancy and poetic imagination, have made his name a favorite wherever theEnglish language is known. He depicts a great variety of scenes andcharacter with singular skill and felicity, and his style has all the easeand grace, the purity and charm, that distinguish that of Goldsmith, withwhom he may justly be compared. "The Sketch-Book" and "Knickerbocker'sHistory of New York" are among the most admired of his earlier writings, and his later works have more than sustained his early fame. 

The tales and prose sketches of N. P. Willis are characterized by genialwit, and a delicate rather than a powerful imagination, while beneath hisbrilliant audacities of phrase there is a current of original thought andgenuine feeling. Commanding all the resources of passion, while he is atthe same time master of all the effects of manner, in the power ofingenious and subtle comment on passing events, of sketching the lightsand shadows which flit over the surface of society, of playful andfelicitous portraiture of individual traits, and of investing hisdescriptions with the glow of vitality, this writer is unsurpassed. 

Hawthorne is remarkable for the delicacy of his psychological insight, hispower of intense characterization, and for his mastery of the spiritualand the supernatural. His genius is most at home when delineating thedarker passages of life and the enactions of guilt and pain. He does notfeel the necessity of time or space to realize his spells, and the earlyhistory of New England and its stern people have found no more vividillustration than his pages afford. The style of Hawthorne is the purecolorless medium of his thought; the plain current of his language isalways equable, full and unvarying, whether in the company of playfulchildren, among the ancestral associations of family or history, or ingrappling with the mysteries and terrors of the supernatural world. "TheScarlet Letter" is a psychological romance, a study of character in whichthe human heart is anatomized with striking poetic and dramatic power. "The House of the Seven Gables" is a tale of retribution and expiation, dating from the time of the Salem witchcraft. "The Marble Faun" is themost elaborate and powerfully drawn of his later works. 

Edgar A. Poe (1811-1849) acquired much reputation as a writer of tales andmany of his productions exhibit extraordinary metaphysical acuteness, andan imagination that delights to dwell in the shadowy confines of humanexperience, among the abodes of crime and horror. A subtle power ofanalysis, a minuteness of detail, a refinement of reasoning in the anatomyof mystery, give to his most improbable inventions a wonderful reality. 

Of the numerous writings of William Gilmore Simms, historical orimaginative romances form no inconsiderable part. As a novelist he isvigorous in delineation, dramatic in action, poetic in description, andskilled in the art of story-telling. His pictures of Southern borderscenery and life are vivid and natural. 

Harriet Beecher Stowe was well known as a writer before the appearance ofthe work which has given her a world-wide reputation. No work of fictionof any age ever attained so immediate and extensive a popularity as "UncleTom's Cabin;" before the close of the first year after its publication ithad been translated into all the languages of Europe; many millions ofcopies had been sold, and it had been dramatized in twenty differentforms, and performed in every capital of Europe. 

Besides the authors already named, there is a crowd of others of variousand high degrees of merit and reputation, but whose traits are chieflyanalogous to those already described. Paulding, in "Westward Ho" and "TheDutchman's Fireside, " has drawn admirable pictures of colonial life; Dana, in "The Idle Man, " has two or three remarkable tales; Flint, Hall, andWebber have written graphic and spirited tales of Western life. Kennedyhas described Virginia life in olden times in "Swallow Barn;" and Fay hasdescribed "Life in New York;" Hoffman has embodied the early history ofNew York in a romantic form, and Dr. Bird, that of Mexico. William Ware's"Probus" and "Letters from Palmyra" are classical romances, and Judd's"Margaret" is a tragic story of New England life. Cornelius Mathews haschosen new subjects, and treated them in an original way; John Neal haswritten many novels full of power and incident. The "Hyperion" and"Kavanagh" of Longfellow establish his success as a writer of fiction; andin adventurous description, the "Omoo" and "Typee" of Melville, and the"Kaloolah" and "Berber" of Mayo have gained an extensive popularity. 

This department of literature has been ably represented by the women ofthe United States, and their contributions form an important part of ournational literature. Catharine M. Sedgwick has written the most pleasingand graphic tales of New England life. Lydia M. Child is the author ofseveral fictions, as well as other prose works, which evince great vigor, beauty, and grace. Maria J. McIntosh has written many charming tales; the"New Home" of Mrs. Kirkland, an admirable picture of frontier life, wasbrilliantly successful, and will be permanently valuable as representingscenes most familiar to the early settlers of the Western States. Theworks of the Misses Warner are equally popular in England and the UnitedStates. Among numerous other names are those of Eliza Leslie, Lydia H. Sigourney, Caroline Gilman, E. Oakes Smith, Alice and Phoebe Cary, Elizabeth F. Ellet, Sarah J. Hale, Emma Willard, Caroline Lee Hentz, AliceB. Neal, Caroline Chesebro, Emma Southworth, Ann S. Stephens, MariaCummings, Anna Mowatt Ritchie, Rose Terry Cooke, Harriet PrescottSpofford, Augusta J. Evans, Catharine A. Warfield, and the writers underthe assumed names of Fanny Forrester, Grace Greenwood, Fanny Fern, MarionHarland, and Mary Forrest, besides many anonymous writers. 

4. POETRY. --America has as yet produced no great epic poet, although theexistence of a high degree of poetical talent cannot be denied. Carryingthe same enthusiasm into the world of fancy that he does into the world offact, the American finds in the cultivation of the poetic faculty apleasant relief from the absorbing pursuits of daily life; hence, whilepoetry is sometimes cultivated as an art, it is oftener resorted to as apastime; the number of writers is more numerous here than in any othercountry, and the facility of poetical expression more universal. WilliamC. Bryant (1794-1878) is recognized as the best representative of Americanpoetry. He is extremely felicitous in the use of native materials, and hehas a profound love of nature and of freedom united with great artisticskill. He is eminently a contemplative poet; in his writings there is aremarkable absence of those bursts of tenderness and passion whichconstitute the essence of a large portion of modern verse. His strengthlies in his descriptive power, in his serene and elevated philosophy, andin his noble simplicity of language. Richard H. Dana (1787-1879) is themost psychological of the American poets; the tragic and remorsefulelements of humanity exert a powerful influence over his imagination, while the mysteries and aspirations of the human soul fill and elevate hismind. His verse is sometimes abrupt, but never feeble, The poems of Fitz-Greene Halleck are spirited and warm with emotion, or sparkling withgenuine wit. His humorous poems are marked by an uncommon ease ofversification, a natural flow of language, and a playful felicity of jest;his serious poems are distinguished for manly vigor of thought andlanguage, and a beauty of imagery. The poems of Henry W. Longfellow (1807-1882) are chiefly meditative, and often embody and illustrate significanttruths. They give little evidence of the power of overmastering passion, but they are pervaded with an earnestness and beauty of sentiment, expressed in a finished and artistic form, which at once wins the ear andimpresses the memory and heart. In "Evangeline" and "Hiawatha, " the mostpopular of his later productions, he has skillfully succeeded in the useof metres unusual in English. The poems of N. P. Willis (1807-1867) arecharacterized by a vivid imagination and a brilliant wit, combined withgrace of utterance and artistic finish. His picturesque elaborations ofsome of the incidents recorded in the Bible are the best of his poeticalcompositions. His dramas are delicate creations of sentiment and passionwith a relish of the Elizabethan age. J. R. Lowell (b. 1819) unites in hismost effective poems a philosophic simplicity with a transcendentalsuggestiveness. Imagination and philanthropy are the dominant elements inhis writings, which are marked by a graceful flow and an earnest tone. Hissatires contain many sharply-drawn portraits, and his humorous poems arereplete with wit. 

Washington Allston (1779-1843) owed his chief celebrity to his paintings, but his literary works alone would have given him high rank among men ofgenius. His poems are delicate, subtle, and philosophical, and though fewin number, they are exquisite in finish and in the thoughts which theyembody. 

James A. Hillhouse (1789-1841) excelled in what may be called the writtendrama, which, though unsuited to representation, is characterized by noblesentiment and imagery. His dramatic and other poems are the firstinstances in this country of artistic skill in the higher and moreelaborate spheres of poetic writing, and have gained for him a permanentplace among the American poets. The "Culprit Fay" of Joseph Rodman Drake(1795-1820) is a poem exhibiting a most delicate fancy and much artisticskill. It was a sudden and brilliant flash of a highly poetical mind whichwas extinguished before its powers were fully expanded. The poetry of JohnG. Whittier (b. 1809) is characterized by boldness, energy, andsimplicity, often united with tenderness and grace; that of Oliver WendellHolmes, by humor and genial sentiment. In poetry, as in prose, Edgar A. Poe was most successful in the metaphysical treatment of the passions. Hispoems, which are constructed with great ingenuity, illustrate a morbidsensitiveness and a shadowy and gloomy imagination. The poems of Henry T. Tuckerman (1813-1871) are expressions of graceful and romantic sentimentor the fruits of reflection, illustrated with a scholar's taste. 

Charles Fenno Hoffman (1806-1884) is the author of many admired convivialand amatory poems, and George P. Morris is a recognized song-writer ofAmerica. 

Of numerous other poets, whose names are familiar to all readers ofAmerican literature, a few only can he named; among them are John G. C. Brainerd, James G. Percival, Richard H. Wilde, James G. Brooks, CharlesSprague, Alfred B. Street, T. Buchanan Read, T. B. Aldrich, William AllenButler, Albert G. Greene, George D. Prentice, William J. Pabodie, ParkBenjamin, William Gilmore Simms, John R. Thompson, William Ross Wallace, Charles G. Leland, Thomas Dunn English, William D. Gallagher, Albert Pike, John G, Saxe, James T. Fields, Arthur Cleveland Coxe, Cornelius Mathews, John Neal, and Ralph Waldo Emerson. 

Among the literary women of the United States are many graceful writerswho possess true poetical genius, and enjoy a high local reputation. The"Zophiel" of Maria Brooks (1795-1845) evinces an uncommon degree of powerin one of the most refined and difficult provinces of creative art. Frances S. Osgood (1812-1850) was endowed with great playfulness of fancy, and a facility of expression which rendered her almost an improvisatrice. Her later poems are marked by great intensity of feeling and power ofexpression. The "Sinless Child" of Elizabeth Oakes Smith is a melodiousand imaginative poem, with many passages of deep significance. Amelia B. Welby's poems are distinguished for sentiment and melody. The "PassionFlowers" and other poems of Julia Ward Howe are full of ardor andearnestness. Mrs. Sigourney's metrical writings are cherished by a largeclass of readers. Hannah F. Gould has written many pretty and fancifulpoems, and Grace Greenwood's "Ariadne" is a fine burst of womanly prideand indignation. Among many other equally well known and honored names, there are those of Elizabeth F. Ellet, Emma C. Embury, Sarah J. Hale, AnnaMowatt Ritchie, Ann S. Stephens, Sarah H. Whitman, Catharine A. Warfield, and Eleanor Lee, ("Two Sisters of the West") Alice and Phoebe Cary, "EdithMay, " Caroline C. Marsh, Elizabeth C. Kinney, and Maria Lowell. 

Nothing of very decided mark has been contributed to dramatic literatureby American writers, though this branch of letters has been cultivatedwith some success. John Howard Payne wrote several successful plays;George H. Boker is the author of many dramatic works which establish hisclaim to an honorable rank among the dramatic writers of the age. Singledramas by Bird, Sargent, Conrad, and other writers still keep their placeupon the stage; with many faults, they abound in beauties, and they arevaluable as indications of awakening genius. 

5. THE TRANSCENDENTAL MOVEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND. --The TranscendentalPhilosophy, so-called, had its distinct origin in the "Critique of PureReason, " the work of Immanuel Kant, which appeared in Germany in 1781, although, under various forms, the questions it discussed are as old asPlato and Aristotle, The first principle of this philosophy is that ideasexist in the soul which transcend the senses, while that of the school ofLocke, or the School of Sensation, is that there is nothing in theintellect that was not first in the senses. The Transcendentalist claimedan intuitive knowledge of God, belief in immortality, and in man's abilityto apprehend absolute ideas of truth, justice, and rectitude. The oneregarded expediency, prudence, caution, and practical wisdom as thehighest of the virtues, and distrusted alike the seer, the prophet, andthe reformer. The other was by nature a reformer and dissatisfied with menas they are, but with passionate aspirations for a pure social state, herecognized, above all, the dignity of the individual man. 

These two schools of philosophy aimed at the same results, but bydifferent methods. The one worked up from beneath by material processes, the other worked down from above by intellectual ones. There had been inother countries a transcendental philosophy, but, in New England alone, where the sense of individual freedom was active, and where there were nofixed and unalterable social conditions, was this philosophy applied toactual life. Of late the scientific method, so triumphant in the naturalworld, has been applied to the spiritual, and the principles of thesensational philosophy have been, re-stated by Bain, Mill, Spencer, andother leaders of speculative opinion, who present it under the name of the"Philosophy of Experience, " and resolve the intuitions of the Ideal intothe results of experience and the processes of organic, life. Mill was thefirst to organize the psychological side, while Lewes, Spencer, andTyndall have approached the same problem from the side of organization. Should these analyses be accepted, Idealism as a philosophy mustdisappear. There is, however, no cause to apprehend a return to thedemoralization which the sensualist doctrines of the last century wereaccused of encouraging. The attitude of the human mind towards the greatproblems of destiny has so far altered, and the problems themselves haveso far changed their face, that no shock will be felt in the passage fromthe philosophy of intuition to that of experience. 

Early in the second quarter of our century the doctrines of Kant and ofhis German followers, Jacobi, Fichte, and Schelling, found their way intoNew England, and their influence on thought and life was immediate andpowerful, affecting religion, literature, laws, and institutions. As anepisode or special phase of thought, it was of necessity transient, buthad it bequeathed nothing more than the literature that sprang from it andthe lives of the men and women who had their intellectual roots in it, itwould have conferred a lasting benefit on America. 

Among the first to plant the seeds of the Transcendental Philosophy in NewEngland was George Ripley (1802-1880), a philanthropist on idealprinciples, whose faith blossomed into works, and whose well known attemptto create a new earth in preparation for a new heaven, although it endedin failure, commanded sympathy and respect. Later, as a critic, he aidedthe development of literature in America by erecting a high standard ofjudgment and by his just estimation of the rights and duties of literarymen. 

Theodore Parker (d. 1860) owed his great power as a preacher to his faithin the Transcendental philosophy. The Absolute God, the Moral Law, and theImmortal Life he held to be the three cardinal attestations of theuniversal consciousness. The authority of the "higher law, " the absolutenecessity of religion for safely conducting the life of the individual andthe life of the state, he asseverated with all the earnestness of anenthusiastic believer. 

A. Bronson Alcott (b. 1799) is a philosopher of the Mystic school. Seekingwisdom, not through books, but by intellectual processes, he appeals atonce to consciousness, claims immediate insight, and contemplates ultimatelaws in his own soul. His "Orphic Sayings" amused and perplexed thecritics, who made them an excuse for assailing the entire Transcendentalschool. 

Margaret Fuller (1810-1850) adopted the spiritual philosophy, and had thesubtlest perception of its bearings. Her vigorous and original writingspossess a lasting value, although they imperfectly represent herremarkable powers. 

Among the representatives of the Spiritual Philosophy the first placebelongs to Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), who lighted up its doctrineswith the rays of ethical and poetical imagination. Without the formalityof dogma, he was a teacher of vigorous morality in line with the rulingtendencies of the age, and bringing all the aid of abstract teachingtowards the solution of the moral problems of society. 

The first article of his faith is the primacy of Mind; that Mind issupreme, eternal, absolute, one, manifold, subtle, living, immanent in allthings, permanent, flowing, self-manifesting; that the universe is theresult of mind; that nature is the symbol of mind; that finite minds liveand act through concurrence with infinite mind. His second is theconnection of the individual intellect with the primal mind and itsability to draw thence wisdom, will, virtue, prudence, heroism, all activeand passive qualities. 

In his essays, which are prose poems, he lays incessant emphasis on thecardinal virtues of humility, sincerity, obedience, aspiration, andacquiescence to the will of the Supreme Power, and he sustains the mind atan elevation that makes the heights of accepted morality disappear in thelevel of the plain. With many inconsistencies to be allowed for, Emersonstill remains the highest mind that the world of letters has produced inAmerica, inspiring men by word and example, rebuking their despondency, awakening them from the slumber of conformity and convention, and liftingthem from low thoughts and sullen moods of helplessness and impiety. 

Among other writers identified with the Transcendental movement in NewEngland are O. B. Frothingham, Orestes A. Brownson, James Freeman Clarke, William H. Channing, Henry Thoreau, John S. Dwight, C. P. Cranch, W. E. Channing, T. W. Higginson, C. A. Bartol, D. A. Wasson, John Weiss, andSamuel Longfellow. 

6. MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS. --Of the essayists, critics, and miscellaneouswriters of the United States, a few only may be here characterized. 

Parke Godwin is a brilliant political essayist. E. P. Whipple is an ablecritic and an essayist of great acuteness, insight, and logical power. H. T. Tuckerman is a genial and appreciative writer, combining extensivescholarship with elevated sentiment and feeling. Richard Grant White's"Commentaries on Shakspeare" have met with a cordial reception from allShakspearean scholars. 

Oliver Wendell Holmes conceals under the garb of wit and humor an earnestsympathy and a deep knowledge of human nature; George W. Curtis combinesfine powers of observation and satire with delicacy of taste andrefinement of feeling; and Donald G. Mitchell gives to the world his"Reveries" in a pleasing and attractive manner. The writings of A. J. Downing, on subjects relating to rural life and architecture, haveexercised a wide and salutary influence on the taste of the country. Willis Gaylord Clark (1810-1841) is best remembered by his "Ollapodiana"and his occasional poems, in which humor and pathos alternately prevail. The "Charcoal Sketches" of Joseph C. Neal (1807-1847) exhibit a genialhumor, and will be remembered for the curious specimens of character theyembody. 

Seba Smith has been most successful in adapting the Yankee dialect to thepurposes of humorous writing in his "Jack Downing's Letters" and otherproductions. The writings of Henry D. Thoreau, combining essay anddescription, are quaint and humorous, while those of "Timothy Titcomb"(J. G. Holland) are addressed to the practical common sense of the Americanpeople. 

Charles T. Brooks (d. 1883) is distinguished for his felicitoustranslations from the German poets and writers. 

The writings of George D. Prentice abound in wit and humor. W. H. Hurlburtis an able expositor of political affairs and a brilliant descriptivewriter. 

7. ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, DICTIONARIES, AND EDUCATIONAL BOOKS. The EncyclopaediaAmericana, the first work of the kind undertaken in America, appeared in1829, under the auspices of Dr. Lieber, and contains articles on almostevery subject of human knowledge. The New American Cyclopaedia, edited byGeorge Ripley and Charles A. Dana, is a work on a larger and more originalplan, and is particularly valuable as the repository of all knowledgebearing upon American civilization, while at the same time it embodies agreat amount of interesting and valuable information on all subjects. Allibone's "Dictionary of English Authors, " completed in four largevolumes, exceeds all similar works in the number of authors it describesand the details it contains. Among the works containing abundant materialsfor the history of American literature are the several volumes of Rufus W. Griswold, the "Cyclopaedia of American Literature, " by G. L. And E. A. Duyckinck, and other collections or sketches by Hart, Cleveland, Tuckerman, Everest, and Caroline May. 

The Dictionary of Noah Webster (1778-1843), an elaborate and successfulundertaking, has exercised an influence over the English language whichwill probably endure for generations. The more recent publication ofWorcester's Dictionary, which adds many thousand words to the registeredEnglish vocabulary, marks an epoch in the history of the language. It isregarded by competent critics as the first of all English dictionaries inpoint of merit, and as the fitting representative of the language of thetwo great branches of the Anglican stock. The "Lectures on the EnglishLanguage, " by George P. Marsh, exhibit a thorough knowledge of thesubject, and are admirably designed to render the study attractive to allpersons of taste and culture. 

The scholars of Europe are much indebted to those of America for theirinvestigations of the Karen, the Siamese, Asamese, Chinese, and numerousAfrican languages; and for grammars and dictionaries of the Burmese, Chinese, the Hawaiian, and the modern Armenian, Syrian, and Chaldeetongues. Foreign and comparatively unknown languages have thus beenreduced to a system and grammar by which they can readily be acquired byEuropeans. Many valuable works have also appeared on the language of theAmerican Indians. 

The text-books of the United States are unsurpassed by those of anycountry, and many of them are in use in England. Among them are Anthon'sadmirable series of Latin and Greek Classics and Classical Dictionary, Robinson's Hebrew and English Dictionary of Gesenius, and the Latin andEnglish Dictionary of Andrews, founded on the celebrated work of Freund. 

Felton's "Classical Studies, " and his various editions of the classics, have been ably prepared and evince a scholar's enthusiasm. Henry Barnard, by his "Journal of Education" and numerous other writings, is identifiedwith the cause of popular education and has acquired an extensivereputation in Europe and the United States. Horace Mann is also widelyknown through his "Reports" on education; and in the practical carryingout of profound liberal and national views in our colleges, PresidentsNott, Tappan, Wayland, Sears, King, and Barnard have been eminentlysuccessful. 

8. THEOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, ECONOMY, ASD JURISPRUDENCE. It is generallyconceded that the theological writers of this country are among the ablestof modern times, and the diversity of sects, a curious and striking factin our social history, is fully illustrated by the literary organs of eachdenomination, from the spiritual commentaries of Bush to the ardentCatholicism of Brownson. The works of Moses Stuart (1780-1852), EdwardRobinson, Francis Wayland, and Albert Barnes are standard authorities withall classes of Protestant Christians. 

William Ellery Channing (1780-1842) achieved a wide reputation for geniusin ethical literature, and as a moral essayist will hold a permanent placein English letters. Among other members of the clerical profession whohave had a marked influence on the mind of the age by their scholarship oreloquence are Drs. Hickok, C. S. Henry, Tappan, H. B. Smith, Hitchcock, W. R. Williams, Alexander, Bethune, Hawks, Sprague, Bushnell, Thompson, Tyng, Bartol, Dewey, Norton, Frothingham, Osgood, Chapin, Bellows, Furness, Livermore, Ware, Peabody, and Henry Ward Beecher. 

The philosophical writings of Dr. Tappan, the author of a "Treatise on theWill" and a work on the "Elements of Logic, " those of C. S. Henry, Wayland, Hickok, and Haven have an extensive reputation; and of the various workson political economy those of Henry C. Carey are most widely known. 

Most prominent among the writings of American jurists are those of Kent, Wheaton, Story, Livingston, Lawrence, and Bouvier. Kent's (1768-1847)"Commentaries" on American Law at once took a prominent place in legalliterature, and are now universally considered of the highest authority. Of Wheaton's (1785-1848) great works on International Law, it issufficient to say that one has been formally adopted by the University ofCambridge, England, as the best work of its kind extant, and as a manualfor tuition by the professors of legal science. Among modern legalwriters, Story (1779-1845) occupies a distinguished position. His"Commentaries" have acquired a European reputation, and have beentranslated into French and German. Livingston's (1764-1833) "System ofPenal Laws for the United States, " since its publication in 1828, hasmaterially modified the penal laws of the world, and may be considered thefirst complete penal system based upon philanthropy, and designed tosubstitute mildness for severity in the punishment of criminals. Bouvier's"Institutes of American Law" and "Dictionary of Law" are considered asamong the best works of their kind, both in the United States and Europe. Other branches of legal research have been treated in a masterly manner byAmerican writers, and many authors might be named whose works take a highrank in both hemispheres. 

9. NATURAL SCIENCES. --The physical sciences, from an early period, havefound able investigators in the United States. Benjamin Thompson (CountRumford) successfully applied his knowledge to increase the convenience, economy, and comfort of mankind. Franklin's discoveries in electricity, the most brilliant which had yet been made, have been followed by those ofMorse, whose application of that power to the telegraphic wire is one ofthe most wonderful achievements of modern science. Fitch and Fulton werethe first to apply steam to navigation, a force which has become one ofthe most powerful levers of civilization. In chemistry the works of Hare, Silliman, Henry, Hunt, and Morfit are equally honorable to themselves andthe country. The names of Dana, Hitchcock, Hall, the brothers Rogers, Eaton, Hodge, Owen, and Whitney are identified with the science of geologyin the United States. The names of Torrey and Gray are eminent in botany, and the writings of the latter especially rank among the most valuablebotanical works of the age. The mathematical sciences have found ableexpounders. The merits of Dr. Bowditch (1773-1838) entitle him to a highrank among the mathematicians of the world. His Commentary on the"Mécanique Céleste" of La Place, which he translated, is an original work, and contains many discoveries of his own. His "Practical Navigator" is theuniversally adopted guide in the American marine, and to a great extent inthe naval service of England and France. 

In mathematics as well as astronomy, Peirce and Hill have shown themselvesable investigators. Bache, of the United States Coast Survey, has mademany valuable contributions to physical science. The astronomical works ofProfessors Loowis, Gould, Norton, Olmsted, and Mitchell hold a highposition in the United States and Europe; and valuable astronomicalobservations have been made by Lieutenants Maury and Gillies, and MariaMitchell. 

In natural history, Holbrook's "North American Herpetology, " or adescription of the reptiles of the United States, is a work of greatmagnitude, and sustains a high scientific reputation. Audubon's (1780-1851) "Birds of America" is the most magnificent work on ornithology everpublished. Since the death of Audubon, the subject to which he devoted hislife has been pursued by Cassin and Girard, who rank with him asnaturalists. Goodrich's "Animal Kingdom" is a recent popular work in thisdepartment. 

The "Crania Americana" of Dr. Morton, the "Crania Egyptiaca" of Gliddon, and the "Types of Mankind, " the joint production of the above writers andDr. Nott, are important contributions to the department of ethnology. 

De Vere and Dwight are eminent writers on philology; Jarvis, Hough, Tucker, De Bow, Kennedy, and Wynne, on statistics. 

Medical literature has been ably illustrated, and American writers onnaval and military affairs have contributed largely to the effectivenessof modern warfare. Geographical knowledge has been greatly increased. Manyexplorations and publications have been made under the patronage of thegovernment, and many excellent maps and charts have been executed fromactual surveys. The Wind Charts and other works of Lieutenant Maury havegreatly advanced the science of navigation, and his "Physical Geography ofthe Sea" has revealed the mysteries of the submarine world with graphicpower. 

10. FOREIGN WRITERS. --Many foreign writers in the United States, some ofwhom have had their tastes formed here, and are essentially American inprinciple and feeling, have contributed to the literature of the country. The celebrated Bishop Berkeley (1684-1753), whose prophetic verses onAmerica are so often quoted, brought with him the prestige which attachedto high literary reputation, and had an influence on the progress ofliterature in the colonies. His "Minute Philosopher" contains manypassages descriptive of the scene at Newport, in the midst of which it waswritten. Thomas Paine (1736-1809) wrote his pamphlet entitled "CommonSense, " and his "Crisis, " in America, the former of which, especially, powerfully affected the political condition of the country. JohnWitherspoon (1722-1794), lineal descendant of John Knox, was the author ofmany religious works, and of some valuable political essays. SusannaRowson (1762-1824) was the author of "Charlotte Temple, " a novel which hadextraordinary success in its day, and of many books of less fame. JosephPriestley (1733-1804) wrote and published many of his most valuable worksin the United States. His friend Thomas Cooper (1759-1840) was one of themost active minds of the age, and his religious, political, and scientificwritings were not without their influence on the national literature. "TheAmerican Ornithology" of Alexander Wilson (1766-1813), a native ofScotland, is second only to the great work of Audubon. The names ofMatthew Carey, Peter Duponceau, and Albert Gallatin are also honorablyassociated with American letters. 

Of the more recent writers, Dr. Lieber has done much for the advancementof political and philosophical science in the United States. The names ofAgassiz, father and son, and Guyot, prominent among the scientificinvestigators of the age, are indissolubly connected with science inAmerica; and Drs. Draper and Dunglison have made valuable contributions tothe medical literature of the world. Count A. De Gurowski, an ablescholar, has published a work on "Russia as it is, " and another on"America and Europe. " Mrs. Robinson's various works entitle her to highdistinction in the more grave as well as the lighter departments ofliterature. Professor Koeppen has written two valuable works on the "Worldin the Middle Ages. " Dr. Brunow has brought a European reputation to theaid of one of our Western universities. Henry Giles has gained distinctionby his essays and criticisms, and Henry William Herbert by his novels andmiscellaneous writings. Many other foreign men of letters might be named, who, in various ways, aid the development of the national literature. 

11. NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS. --One of the most powerful engines increating a taste for literature among the people of the United States isthe newspaper and periodical press. Every interest, every social andpolitical doctrine has its organ, and every village has its newspaper; notdevoted solely to special, local, or even to national topics, butregistering the principal passing events of the actual as well as of theintellectual world, and in this respect differing essentially from thepress of all other countries. These papers are offered at so small a priceas to place them within the reach of all; and in a country where every onereads, the influence of such a power as a public educator, in stimulatingand diffusing mental activity, and in creating cosmopolitan interests, canscarcely be comprehended in its full significance. While there is much inthese publications that is necessarily of an evanescent character, andmuch that might perhaps be better excluded, it cannot be denied that thebest of our daily and weekly papers often contain literary matter which ina less fugitive form would become a permanent and valuable contribution tothe national literature. 

The magazines and reviews of the United States take a worthy place besidethose of Great Britain, and present a variety of reading which exhibits atonce the versatility of the people and the cosmopolitan tendency of theliterature which addresses itself to the sympathies of the mostdiversified classes of readers. Among the quarterly reviews, the NorthAmerican occupies a prominent position. It is associated with the earliestdawnings of the national literature, and in the list of its contributorsis found almost every name of note in American letters. The ScientificAmerican and the Popular Science Monthly are the most eminent of thescientific periodicals; the Bibliotheca Sacra, the Andover and PrincetonReviews, the Christian Union, the Independent, the Churchman are among theablest religious journals. 

With the decease of H. S. Legaré, one of the most finished scholars of theSouth, the Southern Quarterly, which had been indebted to his pen for manyof its ablest articles, ceased its existence. Putnam's Magazine was longthe medium of the most valuable and interesting fugitive literature; andthe Atlantic Monthly, which has succeeded it, is under the auspices of themost eminent men of letters in New England, and has become the nucleus ofa number of young and able writers. The Magazine of American History isthe repository of much valuable information and many curious incidents inthe history of the country. Harper's Magazine and the Century areperiodicals of high literary character and of wide circulation both inthis country and in England. They have by means of their illustrationsdone much to advance and develop the art of engraving. 

The language of American literature being that of England, its earlyproductions were naturally modeled after those of the mother-country. Butthe cosmopolitan elements of which the nation is composed, and thepeculiar influences of American civilization in holding out to the humanrace opportunities and destinies unparalleled in history, are rapidlydeveloping a distinct national character which in the future must bereflected in American literature, and cannot fail to produce greatresults. This at least is the belief of all those who have faith inhumanity and in the spirit which laid the foundation of our Republic. 

12. SINCE 1800. --The period intervening between 1860 and 1885 has not beenmarked by any important literary development. In the great war for thesupport of the institution of slavery on one hand and for nationalexistence on the other, history was enacted rather than written, and thesudden and rapid development of material interests succeeding the war haveabsorbed, to a great extent, the energies of the people. 

Many histories of special occurrences of the war have since appeared, andmany biographies of those who played prominent parts in it, and when timeshall have given these, and the great events they commemorate, their trueperspective, the poet, novelist, and historian of the future will find inthem ample material for a truly national literature. 

Among the poets of the time only a few of the more prominent can be named. Bayard Taylor (1825-1878) is equally distinguished as a poet and prosewriter of fiction and travels. His translation of Faust in the originalmetre is accepted as the best representation of the German master in theEnglish tongue, and apart from its merits as a translation, it has addedto the literature by the beauty and power of its versification. His poemof "Deukalion" shows great originality and power of imagination. RichardH. Stoddard (b. 1825) is a poet and critic, equally distinguished in bothdepartments. Edmund C. Stedman (b. 1833) is known by his translations fromthe Greek poets and his original poems marked by vigor and spontaneity ofthought, poetic power, and precision in art. His critical volume on theVictorian poets is notable for dispassionate, conscientious, and skillfuland sympathetic criticism. 

Walt Whitman (b. 1819) writes with great force, originality, and sympathywith all forms of struggle and suffering, but with utter contempt forconventionalities and for the acknowledged limits of true art. Richard W. Gilder has a delicate fancy and power of poetic expression. WilliamWinter, as a writer of occasional verses, has rare felicity of thought andexecution. William W. Story adds to his many other gifts those of a truepoet. Charles De Kay is the author of many poems original in conceptionand execution. Thomas Bailey Aldrich has written much dainty and musicalverse and several successful novels. Will Carleton, the author of "FarmBallads, " displays a keen sympathy for the harder phases of common life. Charles G. Leland, in prose and humorous poetry, is widely read, and knownalso by his efforts to introduce industrial art into schools. Henry HowardBrownell is the author of "War Lyrics, " among the best of their kind. Edgar Fawcett is equally known as a poet and novelist. Joaquin Miller, inhis poems, gives pictures of lawless and adventurous life. 

Of the many distinguished women in contemporary American literature only afew can here be named. Helen Jackson (H. H. ) is a brilliant prose writerand a poet of originality and power. She is the author of many essays andworks of fiction, and of an exhaustive work on the Indian question. EmmaLazarus has written many poems of a high order. Annie Fields recalls thespirit and imagination of the Greek mythology. Edith M. Thomas, in herpoems, shows high culture, originality, and imagination. Those of LucyLarcom belong to every-day life, and are truthful and pathetic. Mary MapesDodge is a charming writer of tales and poems for children, and of otherpoems, Celia Thaxter dwells on the picturesque features of nature on seaand land. Julia Dorr in her novels and poems gives proof of greatversatility of talents. Ellen Hutchinson is a writer of imaginative andmusical verses. Elizabeth Stoddard is the author of several powerfulnovels and of some fine poems. Of equal merit are the productions ofLouise Chandler Moulton, Nora Perry, Edna Dean Proctor, S. M. B. Piatt, Margaret Preston, Harriet Preston, Elizabeth Akers Allen, Sarah Woolsey(Susan Coolidge), Laura Johnson, Mary Clemmer, Mary C. Bradley, KatePutnam Osgood, Harriet Kimball, Marian Douglas, Mary Prescott, Laura C. Redden. 

In prose Frances Hodgson Burnett is the author of many interesting novelsand stories; Harriet Spofford, of original tales; Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, of popular and highly wrought novels; Adeline Whitney, of entertainingnovels of every-day life; Rebecca Harding Davis, of powerful though sombrenovels, of pictures of contemporary life, society, and thought; LouisaAlcott, of a series of charming New England stories for the young. RoseTerry Cooke, in her short stories, has presented many striking studies ofNew England life and character; and Sarah Orne Jewett deals with the samematerial in a manner both strong and refined. Julia Fletcher and BlancheWillis Howard have each written successful novels, and Constance FenimoreWoolson is the author of many vivid and well written tales. Mary A. Dadge(Gail Hamilton) is a writer on many subjects, sparkling, witty, aggressive; Clara Erskine Waters writes ably on art; Kate Field is avigorous and brilliant writer in journalism, travels, and criticism. 

FICTION. --Theodore Winthrop (1828-1861) fell an early sacrifice in thewar. His descriptions of prairie life, his fresh and vigorousindividualization of character and power of narrative indicate a vein oforiginal genius which was foil of promise. William Dean Howells and HenryJames are foremost as writers of the analytic and realistic school. Theirstudies of character are life-like and finished, their satire keen andgood-natured. The romances of Julian Hawthorne deal with the marvelous andunreal. Bret Harte (b. 1839) presents us with vivid and lifelike picturesof wild Californian life, of the rude hate and love which prevail in anatmosphere of lawlessness, redeemed by touching exhibitions of gratitudeand magnanimity. His dialect poems and those of John Hay enjoy a widepopularity. The latter will also be remembered for his "Castilian Days, " avolume of fascinating studies of Spanish subjects. George W. Cable isknown for his pictures of Creole life; Edward Eggleston, for his sketchesof the shrewd and kindly humorous Western life. Albion Tourgée has beenthe first to avail himself in fiction of the political conditions growingout of the war. Joel Chandler Harris delineates the character, dialect, and peculiarities of the negro race in his "Sketches in Black and White, "and Richard Malcolm Johnston has graphically described phases of Southernlife which have almost passed away. F. Marion Crawford shows originalityand promise in the novels he has so far given to the public; the same maybe said of Arthur S. Hardy, George P. Lathrop, W. H. Bishop, Frank R. Stockton, and F. J. Stinson. 

SCIENCE. --In astronomy, Young, Henry Draper, and Langley may be named; ingeology, Dana and Leconte; in physiology, Flint and Dalton; Marsh, inpalaeontology, and Leidy, in zöology; Professor Whitney is an able writeron philology and Oriental literature. Professor E. L. Youmans has organizedthe simultaneous publication, in this country, England, France, Germany, Italy, and Russia, of an international series of scientific works by theablest living writers, which has proved eminently successful. Among thetheologians representing various schools may be named, Philip Schaff, Roswell D. Hitchcock, Samuel Osgood, Henry W. Bellows, Frederick H. Hedge, Edward E. Hale, Newman Smyth, William R. Alger, and Octavius B. Frothingham. 

MISCELLANEOUS. --John Fiske is an able and versatile thinker and anexpounder of the philosophy of Herbert Spencer, and a writer on Americanhistory, and on the leading subjects of scientific thought. Charles Braceis the author of many volumes on various social problems. Moses Coit Tyleris a writer on American literature and history; Andrew D. White, on Frenchhistory, and on science and religion. Professor McMaster's "History of thePeople of the United States" is considered a scholarly and picturesquework. Professor Lounsbury has written, in his "Cooper, " one of the best ofmodern biographies. Charles Dudley Warner is distinguished by the greatgeniality and humor of his writings, alternately quaint, delicate, andpungent. The charm and purity of his diction recall the best school ofEnglish essayists. Paul Du Chaillu is widely known for his accounts oftravel in Africa and elsewhere; Moncure D. Conway, as a writer on social, literary, and artistic themes. John Burroughs is a close observer ofnature; Eugene Schuyler is the author of a history of Peter the Great;Parkman throws much light on early American history; Parton is the authorof many attractive biographies; Samuel Clemens (Mark Twain) is known forhis humorous writings. 

CONCLUSION. 

In the preceding pages the progress of literature has been briefly tracedthrough its various periods--from the time when its meagre records wereconfined to inscriptions engraved on stone, or inscribed on clay tabletsor papyrus leaves, or in its later and more perfect development when, written on parchment, it was the possession of the learned few, hidden inlibraries and so precious that a book was sometimes the ransom of a city--till the invention of printing gave to the world the accumulated treasuresof the past; and from that time to the present, when the press has pouredforth from year to year an ever increasing succession of books, therecords of human thought, achievement, and emotion which constituteliterature. 

The question here naturally arises as to whether the human mind has nowreached its highest development in this direction, whether it ishenceforth to retrograde or to advance. It was only towards the close ofthe last century that the idea of human progress gained ground, after theAmerican and French revolutions had broken down old barriers, inauguratednew systems, inspired new hopes, and revealed new possibilities. What wasthen but a feeble sentiment, later advances in the direction of sciencehave confirmed. Among them are the discovery of the correlation andconservation of force, according to Faraday the highest law which ourfaculties permit us to perceive; the spectroscope, that gives the chemistpower to analyze the stars; the microscope, that lays bare great secretsof nature, and almost penetrates the mystery of life itself; theapplication of steam and electricity, that puts all nations intocommunication and binds mankind together with nerves of steel; above all, the theory of evolution, which opens to man an almost illimitable vista ofprogress and development. It is true that these great intellectualtriumphs of the nineteenth century are all in the direction of science;but literature in its true sense embraces both science and art; sciencewhich discovers through the intellect, and art which transmutes, throughthe imagination, knowledge and emotion into beauty. When the stupendousdiscoveries of our time have been fully recognized and appreciated andfollowed, as they doubtless will be, by a long series of others equallygreat, a higher order of thought must follow, and literature, which, isbut the reflection of the thought of any age, cannot but be in harmonywith it. 

This consummation more than one poet, with the prescience of genius, hasalready foretold. "Poetry, " says Wordsworth, "is the first and last of allknowledge, immortal as the heart of man. If the labors of men of scienceshould ever create any material revolution, direct or indirect, in ourcondition and in the impressions we habitually receive, the poet willsleep no more then than at present; he will be ready to follow the stepsof the man of science, and if the time should ever come when what is nowcalled science shall be ready to put on, as it were, a form of flesh andblood, the poet will lend his divine spirit to aid the transfiguration. ""The sublime and all reconciling revelations of nature, " writes Emerson, "will exact of poetry a corresponding height and scope, or put an end toit. " George Eliot says, --

 "Presentiment of better things on earth Sweeps in with every force that stirs our souls. "

Throughout the verse of Tennyson the idea of progress is variouslyexpressed. He dreams of a future

 "When the war-drum throbs no longer and the battle-flags are furled. " "When comes the statelier Eden back to man. " "When springs the crowning race of human kind. "

Thus the inspirations of poetry not less than the conclusions of scienceindicate that we must look for the Golden Age, not in a mythical past, butin an actual though far-off future.