[Illustration: BLACK HAWK. ]

 THE

 GREAT INDIAN CHIEF

 OF

 THE WEST:

 OR, LIFE AND ADVENTURES

 OF

 BLACK HAWK. 

 CINCINNATI: APPLEGATE & COMPANY 43 MAIN STREET. 1854. 

 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, BY GEORGE CONCLIN, In the Clerk's Office of the District of Ohio. 

+-------------------------------------------------------------+|Transcriber's Note: There are inconsistencies in the Index ||and in the spelling of tribal names. ||These have been left as originally printed. |+-------------------------------------------------------------+

PREFACE

In presenting to the public the life and adventures of Black Hawk, someaccount of the Sac and Fox Indians--of Keokuk, their distinguishedchief--and of the causes which led to the late contest between thesetribes and the United States, was necessarily involved. The introductionof these collateral subjects, may possibly impart additional interest tothis volume. 

In speaking of the policy of the government towards the fragment of Sacsand Foxes, with whom Black Hawk was associated, it has been necessary tocensure some of its acts, and to comment with freedom upon the officialconduct of a few public officers. 

The Indians are frequently denounced as faithless, ferocious anduntameable. Without going into the inquiry, how far this charge isfounded in truth, the question may be asked, has not the policy of ourgovernment contributed, essentially, to impart to them that character?Have we not more frequently met them in bad faith, than in a Christianspirit? and sustained our relations with them, more by the power of thesword than the law of kindness? In the inscrutable ways of Providence, the Indians are walking in ignorance and moral darkness. It is thesolemn duty, and should be the highest glory of this nation, to bringthem out of that condition, and elevate them in the scale of social andintellectual being. But, how is this duty performed? We gravelyrecognize them as an independent people, and treat them as vassals: Wemake solemn compacts with them, which we interpret as our interestdictates, but punish them if they follow the example: We admit theirtitle to the land which they occupy, and at the same time literallycompel them to sell it to us upon our own terms: We send agents andmissionaries to reclaim them from the error of their ways--to bring themfrom the hunter to the pastoral life; and yet permit our citizens todebase them by spirituous liquors, and cheat them out of their property:We make war upon them without any adequate cause--pursue them withoutmercy--and put them to death, without regard to age, sex or condition:And, then deliberately proclaim to the world, that they aresavages--cruel and untameable--degraded and faithless. 

If the present volume shall, in any degree, contribute to awaken thepublic mind to a sense of the wrongs inflicted upon the Indians, and toarouse the Christian statesmen of this land, to the adoption of a moreliberal, upright and benevolent course of policy towards them, something will have been gained to the cause of humanity and of nationalhonor. 

The author takes this opportunity of acknowledging his obligations toJames Hall, Esq. , for the valuable assistance received from him, in thepreparation of this volume. In collecting the materials for thatmagnificent work, on which he is now engaged, "The History of theIndians of North America, " this gentleman has become possessed of muchinteresting matter, in regard to the Sacs and Foxes, and especially thechief Keokuk; to all of which he has kindly permitted the author to haveaccess. 

 Cincinnati, May, 1838. 

 CONTENTS

 CHAPTER I. 

 Origin of the Sac and Fox Indians--Removal to Green Bay--Their subjugation of the Illini confederacy--Their attack upon St. Louis in 1779--Col. George Rogers Clark relieves the town--Governor Harrison's letter--Maj. Forsyth's account of the conquest of the Illini--Death of the Sac chief Pontiac--Sac and Fox village on Rock river--Description of the surrounding country--Civil polity of the Sacs and Foxes--Legend about their chiefs--Division of the tribes into families--Mode of burying their dead--Idea of a future state--Their account of the creation of the world--Marriages--Social relations--Music and musical instruments--Pike's visit to them in 1805--Population--Character for courage 13

 CHAPTER II. 

 Treaty with the Sac and Fox Indians in 1789--treaty and cession of land to the United States at St. Louis in 1804--Black Hawk's account of this treaty--Erection of Fort Madison--The British excite the Sac and Fox Indians to make war upon the United States--A party under Black Hawk join the British standard in 1812--Treaty at Portage des Sioux in 1815--Treaty of peace with Black Hawk and his band at same place in 1816--Treaty for part of their lands in Missouri in 1824--Treaty of Prairie des Chiens in 1825--Treaty for the mineral region in 1829--Treaty of peace in 1832, after the "Black Hawk war"--Present residence of the Sacs and Foxes 49

 CHAPTER III. 

 Birth of Black Hawk--Early adventures--Battles with the Osages and Cherokees--Death of his father--Interview with Lieutenant Pike--Attack upon Fort Madison--Joins the British in the late war--Marches to lake Erie--Returns home after the attack upon Fort Stephenson--Murder of his adopted son--Battle of the Sink-hole near Cap au Gris--Treaty of peace at Portage des Sioux in 1816 74

 CHAPTER IV. 

 Building of Fort Armstrong--The good Spirit of Rock Island--Death of Black Hawk's children--Young Sac offers to die in place of his brother--Black Hawk's visit to Malden--Whipped by some whites--Whites settle at his village--Black Hawk's talk with Governor Coles and Judge Hall--Sale of the lands on Rock river--Indians ordered to remove--Agreement to remove for six thousand dollars--Memorial of the white settlers to Governor Reynolds--The Governor's letters to General Clark and General Gaines--The latter leaves Jefferson Barracks with six companies of the United States troops for Rock Island--His interview with Black Hawk--Calls upon the Governor of Illinois for militia--The Indians abandon their village--treaty of peace made with them--Official letters to the war department--Summary of the causes which brought on this disturbance--Black Hawk's attempt to form an alliance with other tribes 91

 CHAPTER V. 

 Keokuk's birth--Kills a Sioux when fifteen years old--Prevents the abandonment of the Sac village--Bold manoeuvre with the Sioux--Perils his life for the safety of his people--Speech to the Menominies at Prairie des Chiens--Called upon to lead his braves to join in the Black Hawk war--Allays the excitement of his people on this subject--Deposed from his post as head chief and a young man elected in his place--Re-established in power--Delivers up his nephew to the whites to be tried for murder--Letter to the Governor of Illinois--Council at Washington in 1837--Retorts upon the Sioux--His visit to Boston--His return home--His personal appearance--And his character as a war and peace chief 118

 CHAPTER VI. 

 Murder of twenty-eight Menominies by the Foxes of Black Hawk's band--Naopope's visit to Malden--Black Hawk recrosses the Mississippi--General Atkinson orders him to return--Stillman's attack--Defeated by Black Hawk--His white flag fired upon--He sends out war parties upon the frontier--Attack upon Fort Buffalo--General Dodge's battle on the Wisconsin--Black Hawk and his band leave the Four Lakes and fly to the Mississippi--Pursued by General Atkinson--Black Hawk's flag of truce fired upon by the Captain of the Warrior--Twenty-three Indians killed 143

 CHAPTER VII. 

 General Atkinson overtakes Black Hawk--Battle of the Bad Axe--Atkinson's official report--Incidents of the Battle--Capture of Black Hawk and the prophet--Naopope's statement to General Scott--General Scott and Governor Reynolds conclude a treaty with the Sacs, Foxes and Winnebagoes--Causes which led to the war--Motives for getting up Indian wars--First attack made by the Illinois militia--Report of the Secretary at War in regard to this campaign--General Macomb's letter to General Atkinson--Secretary Cass' statement of the causes which led to this war--Comments upon this statement, and its omissions pointed out 166

 CHAPTER VIII. 

 Black Hawk, Naopope, the Prophet and others confined at Jefferson Barracks--In April 1833 sent to Washington--Interview with the President--sent to Fortress Monroe--Their release--Visit the eastern cities--Return to the Mississippi--Conference at Rock island between Maj. Garland, Keokuk, Black Hawk and other chiefs--speeches of Keokuk, Pashshepaho and Black Hawk--Final discharge of the hostages--Their return to their families--Black Hawk's visit to Washington in 1837--His return--His personal appearance--Military talents--Intellectual and moral character 200

 CHAPTER IX. 

 Black Hawk at the capture of Fort Erie--At the battle of the Thames--His account of the death of Tecumthe--His residence and mode of life after his last visit to the east--His Fourth of July speech at fort Madison--His death and burial 234

 APPENDIX--Sketches of the Sioux 222 Colonization of the Indians 228 Indian Dancing Ceremonies 237 Sale of Whiskey to the Indians 245

 INDEX 285

 HISTORY

 OF THE

 SAUKEE AND MUSQUAKEE NATIONS, USUALLY CALLED THE

 SAC AND FOX INDIANS. 

CHAPTER I. 

Origin of the Sac and Fox Indians--Removal to Green Bay--Their subjugation of the Illini confederacy--Their attack upon St. Louis in 1779--Col. George Rogers Clark relieves the town--Governor Harrison's letter--Maj. Forsyth's account of the conquest of the Illini--Death of the Sac chief Pontiac--Sac and Fox village on Rock river--Description of the surrounding country--Civil polity of the Sacs and Foxes--Legend about their chiefs--Division of the tribes into families--Mode of burying their dead--Idea of a future state--Their account of the creation of the world--Marriages--Social relations--Music and musical instruments--Pike's visit to them in 1805--Population--Character for courage. 

The word Saukee, or O-sau-kee, now written Sauk or more commonly Sac, isderived from a compound in the Algonquin or Chippeway language, a-saw-we-kee, which means "yellow earth. " Mus-qua-kee, the name of theFox Indians, signifies "red earth. " These two tribes have long residedtogether, and now constitute one people, although there are someinternal regulations among them which tend to preserve a distinctivename and lineage. The chiefs, on ceremonial occasions, claim to berepresentatives of independent tribes, but this distinction is nominal. For many years past the principal chief of the Sacs, has been, in fact, the chief of the Foxes likewise. They are united in peace and war, speakthe same language, claim the same territory, have similar manners andcustoms, and possess traditions which represent them as descended fromthe one common origin--the great Chippeway nation. 

Both tribes originally resided upon the waters of the St. Lawrence. TheFoxes removed first to the west, and established themselves in theregion of Green Bay. Upon a river bearing their name, which empties intothe head of this Bay, they suffered a signal defeat by a combined bodyof French and Indians, at a place, since known as La Butte de Mort, orthe Hill of the Dead. [1] Subsequently to this battle, they were joinedby the Sacs, who having become involved in a war with the Iroquois orSix Nations, were also driven to the westward. They found theirrelatives, the Foxes, upon Green Bay, but so far reduced in numbers, bythe attacks of other tribes, that they were no longer able to sustainthemselves as an independent people. The union between these two tribes, which then took place, and continues to this day, was as much a matterof necessity as of feeling. The period of their migration from the St. Lawrence to the upper Lakes cannot be satisfactorily ascertained. LaHontan speaks of a Sac village on Fox river, as early as 1689; andFather Hennepin, in 1680, mentions the Ontagamies or Fox Indians, asresidents on the bay of Puants, now Green Bay. 

From this place, the Sauks and Foxes, crossed over to the eastern bankof the Mississippi, and combining with other tribes, began to act on theoffensive. The period of this irruption from the north, it is not easyto determine. Major Thomas Forsyth, who resided for near twenty yearsamong the Sauks and Foxes, in a manuscript account of those tribes, nowbefore us, says:

"More than a century ago, all the country, commencing above Rock river, and running down the Mississippi to the mouth of the Ohio, up that riverto the mouth of the Wabash, thence up that river to Fort Wayne, thencedown the Miami of the Lake some distance, thence north to the St. Joseph's and Chicago; also the country lying south of the Des Moines, down perhaps, to the Mississippi, was inhabited by a numerous nation ofIndians, who called themselves Linneway, and were called by others, Minneway, signifying "men. " This great nation was divided into severalbands, and inhabited different parts of this extensive region, asfollows: The Michigamies, the country south of the Des Moines; theCohakias that east of the present village of Cohokia in Illinois; theKaskaskias that east of the town of that name; the Tamarois had theirvillage nearly central between Cahokia and Kaskaskia; the Piankeshawsnear Vincennes; the Weas up the Wabash; the Miamies on the head watersof the Miami of the Lakes, on St. Joseph's river and at Chicago. ThePiankeshaws, Weas and Miamies, must at this time have hunted southtowards and on the Ohio. The Peorias, another band of the same nation, lived and hunted on the Illinois river: The Mascos or Mascontins, calledby the French _gens des prairies_, lived and hunted on the greatprairies, between the Wabash and Illinois rivers. All these differentbands of the Minneway nation, spoke the language of the present Miamies, and the whole considered themselves as one and the same people; yet fromtheir local situation, and having no standard to go by, their languagebecame broken up into different dialects. These Indians, the Minneways, were attacked by a general confederacy of other nations, such as theSauks and Foxes, resident at Green Bay and on the Ouisconsin; the Sioux, whose frontiers extended south to the river des Moines: the Chippeways, Ottoways, and Potawatimies from the lakes, and also the Cherokees andChoctaws from the south. The war continued for a great many years anduntil that great nation the Minneways were destroyed, except a fewMiamies and Weas on the Wabash, and a few who are scattered amongstrangers. Of the Kaskaskias, owing to their wars and their fondness forspiritous liquors, there now (1826) remain but thirty or fortysouls;--of the Peorias near St. Genevieve ten or fifteen; of thePiankeshaws forty or fifty. The Miamies are the most numerous; a fewyears ago they consisted of about four hundred souls. There do not existat the present day (1826) more than five hundred souls of the once greatand powerful Minneway or Illini nation. These Indians, the Minneways, are said to have been very cruel to their prisoners, not unfrequentlyburning them. I have heard of a certain family among the Miamies whowere called man-eaters, as they were accustomed to make a feast of humanflesh when a prisoner was killed. For these enormities, the Sauks andFoxes, when they took any of the Minneways prisoners, gave them up totheir women to be buffeted to death. They speak also of the Mascontinswith abhorrence, on account of their cruelties. The Sauks and Foxes havea historical legend of a severe battle having been fought opposite themouth of the Iowa river, about fifty or sixty miles above the mouth ofRock river. The Sauks and Foxes descended the Mississippi in canoes, andlanding at the place above described, started east, towards the enemy:they had not gone far before they were attacked by a party of theMascontins. The battle continued nearly all day; the Sauks and Foxes, for want of ammunition, finally gave way and fled to their canoes; theMascontins pursued them and fought desperately, and left but few of theSauks and Foxes to carry home the story of their defeat. Some forty orfifty years ago, the Sauks and Foxes attacked a small village ofPeorias, about a mile below St. Louis and were there defeated. At aplace on the Illinois river, called Little Rock, there were formerlykilled by the Chippeways and Ottowas, a number of men, women andchildren of the Minneway nation. In 1800 the Kickapoos made a greatslaughter of the Kaskaskia Indians. The Main-Pogue, or Potawatimiejuggler, in 1801, killed a great many of the Piankeshaws on the Wabash. "

The land on which St. Louis stands, as well as the surrounding country, was claimed by the Illini confederacy, which had acquiesced in theintrusion of the whites. This circumstance, it is supposed, led thenorthern confederacy to the attempt, which they made in 1779, to destroythe village of St. Louis, then occupied by the Spaniards. As the Sacsand Foxes were active participators in this attack, no apology isnecessary for introducing the following graphic account of it, from thepen of Wilson Primm, Esqr. Of St. Louis. [2]

"In the mean time numerous bands of the Indians living on the lakes andthe Mississippi--the Ojibeways, Menomonies, Winnebagoes, Sioux, Sacs, &c. Together with a large number of Canadians, amounting in all toupwards of fourteen hundred, had assembled on the eastern shore of theMississippi, a little above St. Louis, awaiting the sixth of May, theday fixed for the attack. The fifth of May was the feast of _CorpusChristi_, a day highly venerated by the inhabitants, who were allCatholics. Had the assault taken place then, it would have been fatal tothem, for, after divine service, all the men, women and children hadflocked to the prairie to gather strawberries, which were that seasonvery abundant and fine. The town being left perfectly unguarded, couldhave been taken with ease, and the unsuspecting inhabitants, who wereroaming about in search of fruit, have been massacred withoutresistance. Fortunately, however, a few only of the enemy had crossedthe river and ambushed themselves in the prairie. The villagers, frequently came so near them, in the course of the day, that the Indiansfrom their places of concealment, could have reached them with theirhands. But they knew not how many of the whites were still remaining inthe town, and in the absence of their co-adjutors, feared to attack, lest their preconcerted plan might be defeated. "

On the sixth, the main body of the Indians crossed, and marched directlytowards the fields, expecting to find the greater part of the villagersthere; but in this they were disappointed, a few only having gone out toview their crops. These perceived the approach of the savage foe, andimmediately commenced a retreat towards the town, the most of themtaking the road that led to the upper gate, nearly through the mass ofIndians, and followed by a shower of bullets. The firing alarmed thosewho were in town, and the cry "to arms! to arms!" was heard in everydirection. They rushed towards the works and threw open the gates totheir brethren. The Indians advanced slowly but steadily towards thetown, and the inhabitants, though almost deprived of hope, by the vastsuperiority in number of the assailants, determined to defend themselvesto the last. 

"In expectation of an attack, Silvio Francisco Cartabona, a governmentalofficer, had gone to St. Genevieve for a company of militia to aid indefending the town, in case of necessity, and had at the beginning ofthe month returned with sixty men, who were quartered on the citizens. As soon as the attack commenced, however, neither Cartabona nor his mencould be seen. Either through fear or treachery, they concealedthemselves in a garret, and there remained until the Indians hadretired. The assailed being deprived of a considerable force, by thisshameful defection, were still resolute and determined. About fifteenmen were posted at each gate; the rest were scattered along the line ofdefence, in the most advantageous manner. 

"When within a proper distance, the Indians began an irregular fire, which was answered with showers of grape shot from the artillery. Thefiring, for a while, was warm; but the Indians perceived that all theirefforts would be ineffectual on account of the intrenchments, anddeterred by the cannon, to which they were unaccustomed, from making anearer approach, suffered their zeal to abate, and deliberately retired. At this stage of affairs, the Lieutenant Governor made his appearance. The first intimation that he received of what was going on, was by thedischarge of artillery, on the part of the inhabitants. He immediatelyordered several pieces of cannon, which were posted in front of thegovernment house, to be spiked and filled with sand, and went, or ratherwas rolled in a wheelbarrow, to the scene of action. In a veryperemptory tone, he commanded the inhabitants to cease firing and returnto their houses. Those posted at the lower gate, did not receive theorder, and consequently kept their stations. The commandant perceivedthis and ordered a cannon to be fired at them. They had barely time tothrow themselves on the ground, when the volley passed over them, andstruck the wall, tearing a great part of it down. These proceedings, aswell as the whole tenor of his conduct, since the first rumor of anattack, gave rise to suspicions very unfavorable to the LieutenantGovernor. It was bruited about, that he was the cause of the attack, that he was connected with the British, and that he had been bribed intoa dereliction of duty, which, had not providence averted, would havedoomed them to destruction. Under pretext of proving to them that therewas no danger of an attack, he had a few days before it occurred, soldto the traders, all the ammunition belonging to the government; and theywould have been left perfectly destitute and defenceless, had they notfound, in a private house, eight barrels of powder, belonging to atrader, which they seized in the name of the King, upon the first alarm. Colonel George Rogers Clark, who was at this time at Kaskaskia, with afew men under his command, understanding that an attack was meditated onthe town, offered all the assistance in his power, to aid in thedefence. This offer was rejected by the Lieutenant Governor. All thesecircumstances gave birth to a strong aversion to the commandant, whichevinces itself, at this day, in execrations of his character, wheneverhis name is mentioned to those who have known him. Representations ofhis conduct, together with a detailed account of the attack, were sentto New Orleans by a special messenger, and the result was that theGovernor General appointed Mr. Francisco Cruzat, to the office ofLieutenant Governor. 

"As soon as it was ascertained that the Indians had retired from theneighborhood, the inhabitants proceeded to gather the dead, that layscattered in all parts of the prairie. Seven were at first found andburied in one grave. Ten or twelve others, in the course of a fortnight, were discovered in the long grass that bordered the marshes. The acts ofthe Indians were accompanied by their characteristic ferocity. Some oftheir victims were horribly mangled. With the exception of oneindividual, the whites who accompanied the Indians, did not take part inthe butcheries that were committed. A young man by the name of Calve, was found dead, his skull split open, and a tomahawk, on the blade ofwhich was written the word Calve, sticking in his brain. He was supposedto have fallen by the hand of his uncle. Had those who discovered theIndians in the prairie, fled to the lower gate, they would have escaped;but the greater part of them took the road that led to the upper gate, through the very ranks of the enemy, and were thus exposed to the wholeof their fire. About twenty persons, it is computed, met their death inendeavoring to get within the entrenchments. None of those within wereinjured, and none of the Indians were killed, at least none of them werefound. Their object was not plunder, for they did not attempt, in theirretreat, to take away with them any of the cattle or the horses thatwere in the prairie, and that they might have taken; nor did they attackany of the neighboring towns, where danger would have been less, and theprospect of success greater. The only object they had in view was thedestruction of St. Louis; and this would seem to favor the idea thatthey were instigated by the English, and gives good ground, whenconnected with other circumstances, to believe that Leyba was theiraider and abettor. * * * *

"A Mr. Chancellier had gone on the day of attack, to the prairie forstrawberries, with his wife, two daughters and an American, the firstthat had ever been in the country, in a cart drawn by two horses. Whenthey perceived the Indians, they immediately fled towards the town inthe cart; Mr. Chancellier being seated before, and the American behind, in order to protect the women, who were in the middle. In their flightthe American was mortally wounded. As he was falling out, Mr. Chancellier seized him and threw him into the midst of the women, exclaiming, "they shan't get the scalp of my American. " He was at thesame time struck by two balls, which broke his arm in as many places, above the elbow. His wife received a bullet through the middle of herhand, the elder daughter was shot through the shoulder, immediatelyabove the breast, and the younger was struck on the forehead, but theball glanced aside and merely stunned her. The moment Mr. Chancellierarrived at the gate, his horses dropped dead, pierced with a hundredwounds, but his family was saved. "

Mr. Primm, the writer of this interesting narrative, has probably notbeen fully informed in regard to the extent of Colonel George RogersClark's participation in this affair. In a written memorandum now beforeus, made on the authority of his brother, General William Clark of St. Louis, who it is presumed has possession of his father's officialpapers, it is stated, in reference to this affair, that although theSpanish Governor could not be made to believe that an attack wasintended, the principal inhabitants sent over an express to ColonelClark, who was then at Kaskaskia with five hundred men, to come andprotect them. He accordingly marched his force up opposite the town andencamped a little distance from the river. He did not send over anytroops, but was to do so, in case of an attack; when it was actuallymade Colonel Clark crossed the river; and upon seeing the "long knives, "as the Indians called his troops, they hastily retreated, having killedseventy-two or seventy-three of the Spaniards, before his arrival. Thissudden appearance of Colonel Clark, upon the scene of action, explainsthe conduct of the Indians. So large a body of warriors, making apreconcerted attack, upon a town but badly protected, would not, it isthought, have given up the assault so suddenly and before they had losta single man, unless alarmed by the presence of a superior force. On thesupposition that Colonel Clark actually crossed the river with histroops, the flight of the Indians is easily explained. They wereprobably apprised of Colonel Clark's being at Kaskaskia, and his namewas every where a terror to the Indians. As an evidence of this, a shorttime afterwards, he sent a detachment of one hundred and fifty men, asfar up the country as Prairie des Chiens, and from thence across Rockand Illinois rivers and down to Kaskaskia, meeting with no molestationfrom the Indians, who were struck with terror at the boldness of theenterprise, saying that if so few dared to come, they "would fight likedevils. "

General William H. Harrison, long familiar with the North West Indians, in an official letter to the secretary at War, dated H. Q. Cincinnati, March 22d, 1814, giving an able view of the Indian tribes, makes thefollowing remarks on the descent of this northern confederacy, upon thegreat Illini nation. 

"The Miamies have their principal settlements on the forks of theWabash, thirty miles from fort Wayne; and at Mississineway, thirty mileslower down. A band of them, under the name of Weas, have resided on theWabash, sixty miles above Vincennes; and another under the Turtle, onEel river, a branch of the Wabash, twenty miles north west of FortWayne. By an artifice of the Little Turtle, these three bands werepassed on General Wayne as distinct tribes, and an annuity was grantedto each. The Eel river and Weas however to this day call themselvesMiamies, and are recognized as such by the Mississineway band. TheMiamies, Maumees, or Tewicktovies are the undoubted proprietors of allthat beautiful country which is watered by the Wabash and its branches;and there is as little doubt, that their claim extended as far east asthe Sciota. They have no tradition of removing from any other quarter ofthe country; whereas all the neighboring tribes, the Piankeshawsexcepted, who are a branch of the Miamies, are either intruders uponthem, or have been permitted to settle in their country. The Wyandotsemigrated first from Lake Ontario and subsequently from lake Huron, theDelawares from Pennsylvania and Maryland, the Shawanies from Georgia, the Kickapoos and Pottawatamies from the country between lake Michiganand the Mississippi, and the Ottawas and Chippeways, from the peninsulaformed by lakes Michigan, Huron and St. Clair, and the strait connectingthe latter with Erie. The claims of the Miamies were bounded on thenorth and west by those of the Illinois confederacy, consistingoriginally of five tribes, called Kaskaskias, Cahokias, Peorians, Michiganians, and Temorias speaking the Miami language, and no doubtbranches of that nation. 

"When I was first appointed governor of Indiana Territory, these oncepowerful tribes were reduced to about thirty warriors, of whom twentyfive were Kaskaskias, four Peorians, and a single Michiganian. There wasan individual lately alive at St. Louis, who saw the enumeration of themmade by the Jesuits in 1745, making the number of their warriors fourthousand. A furious war between them and the Sacs and Kickapoos reducedthem to that miserable remnant, which had taken refuge amongst the whitepeople of Kaskaskia and St. Genevieve. The Kickapoos had fixed theirprincipal village at Peoria, upon the south bank of the Illinois river, whilst the Sacks remained masters of the country to the north. "

These historical facts are interesting, as showing the manner in whichthe Sauks and Foxes obtained possession of the fertile plains ofIllinois; and, as adding another to the many instances on record, inwhich hordes of northern invaders have overrun and subjugated the peopleof more southern regions. The causes are obvious for this descent of theSauks and Foxes, upon their southern neighbors. They reached a moregenial climate, a country where game was more abundant than in theregion they left behind, and in which they could, with greater facility, raise their corn, beans and pumpkins. Other causes than these might havehad their influence. The Illini confederacy may have provoked thedescent of the northern tribes upon them. On this point, Lieutenant Pikein his travels to the sources of the Mississippi, has the followingremark. 

"By killing the celebrated Sauk chief, Pontiac, the Illinois, Cahokias, Kaskaskias and Peorias, kindled a war with the allied nations of theSauks and Reynards, which has been the cause of the almost entiredestruction of the former nations. "

The death of Pontiac may have been the immediate exciting cause of thewar, but it is more than probable that the love of conquest and thehope of obtaining a more fruitful and genial country, than is to befound upon the shore of the lakes, were the principal reasons whichimpelled the northern confederacy to the subjugation of the Illini. 

The principal village of the Sacs and Foxes, for a long period of time, was on the north side of Rock river, near its junction with theMississippi. It contained at one time upwards of sixty lodges, and wasamong the largest and most populous Indian villages on the continent. The country around it is fertile and picturesque, finely watered, andstudded with groves and prairies. It is described in the followinggraphic manner, by a gentleman[3] who travelled over it in 1829. 

"The Mississippi, which below its junction with the Missouri, is atroubled stream, meandering through low grounds, and margined by muddybanks, is here a clear and rapid river, flowing over beds of rock andgravel, and bordered by the most lovely shores. Nothing of the kind canbe more attractive, than the scenery at the upper rapids. On the westernshore, a series of slopes are seen, commencing at the gravelly margin ofthe water, and rising one above another, with a barely perceptibleacclivity, for a considerable distance, until the back ground isterminated by a chain of beautifully rounded hills, over which trees arethinly scattered, as if planted to embellish the scene. This is thesingular charm of prairie scenery. Although it is a wilderness, just asnature made it, the verdant carpet, the gracefully waving outline of thesurface, the clumps and groves and scattered trees, give it theappearance of a noble park, boundless in extent, and adorned withexquisite taste. It is a wild but not a savage wild, that awes by itsgloom. It is a gay and cheerful wilderness, winning by its social aspectas well as its variety and intrinsic gracefulness. The eastern shore isnot less beautiful: a broad flat plain of rich alluvion, extending fromthe water's edge, is terminated by a range of wooded hills. A smallcollection of the lodges of the Saukies and Foxes stood on this plainwhen the writer last saw it, but their chief village was about threemiles distant. In the front of the landscape, and presenting its mostprominent feature, is Rock Island, on the southern point of which, elevated upon a parapet of rock, is Fort Armstrong. The region around ishealthy and amazingly fruitful. The grape, the plum, the gooseberry andvarious other native fruits abound, --the wild honeysuckle gives itsperfume to the air, and a thousand indigenous flowers mingle theirdiversified hues with the verdure of the plain. But all this fertilityof soil and scenic beauty has produced no ameliorating effect upon thesavages. The Sauks of Illinois, when first visited by the Frenchmissionaries were as they are now. They are still savages, as much so asthe Osages, Comanches and Seminoles, and not superior to the wanderingChippeways. "

The civil polity of these two tribes bears much resemblance to that ofthe north western Indians generally. The peace chiefs are partlyelective and partly hereditary. The son succeeds the father by theassent of the tribe, if worthy of the office, and if not, a successor, of a more meritorious character, is chosen by them from some collateralbranch of the family. There is a legend among them relating to therelative rank of their chiefs, which, although perhaps purelyfigurative, may not be uninteresting to the reader. They say that agreat while ago, their fathers had a long lodge, in the centre of whichwere ranged four fires. By the first fire stood two chiefs, one on theright, who was called the great Bear, and one on the left, called thelittle Bear: these were the village or peace chiefs: they were therulers of the band, and held the authority corresponding to that of thechief magistrate. At the second fire stood two chiefs: one on the right, called the great Fox, and one on the left, called the little Fox: thesewere the war chiefs or generals. At the third fire stood two warriors, who were called respectively the Wolf and the Owl. And at the otherfire, two others who were the Eagle and the Tortoise. These four lastnamed were not chiefs but braves of distinction, who held honorableplaces in the council, and were persons of influence in peace and inwar. This lodge of four fires may have existed among these tribes. It istrue that their chiefs remain as described in the legend. 

The peace chief or head-man presides in council, and all importantpublic acts are done in his name; but unless he be a man of populartalents and great energy of character his place confers more of honorthan power. If a weak or irresolute man, although he nominally retainhis authority, the war chiefs actually exercise it. It is very seldomthat he acquires property, for he is expected to make feasts andpresents, and is compelled to be hospitable and liberal as a means ofsustaining his power among his people. 

The office of war chief is never hereditary, but results from skill andintrepidity in battle, and is held so long as those qualities aresuccessfully retained. It may readily be conceived that among such arace the war chiefs, having the braves and young men of the nation undertheir command, would generally maintain a controlling influence. Theleading war chief is always better known than the principal peace chief, is often confounded with him, and still oftener exercises his authority. 

The Sauks are, at the present time, divided into twelve families, andthe Foxes into eight, each known by the name of some animal. Among theSauks there is another division peculiar to it. The males are allclassed in two parties or bands--one called Kish-ko-guis, or long hairs;the other Osh-cushis or braves, the former being considered somethingmore than brave. In 1819 each party numbered about four hundred members, and in 1826, the number was increased to five hundred in each. Thestandard of the Kish-ko-guis or long hairs, is red, and that of theOsh-cushis or braves, blue. Every male child, soon after its birth, ismarked with white or black paint, and is classed in one of these twoparties, the mother being careful to apply the two colors alternately, so that if the number of males in a family be even, each band willreceive an equal number of members, and the whole nation will thus benearly equally divided into the two colors of black and white. Thesedistinctive marks are permanently retained through life, and in paintingthemselves for any ceremonies or public occasions, those of one partyuse white, the others black paint, in addition to other colors which maysuit their fancy. The reason of this singular custom is for the purposeof creating and keeping alive a spirit of emulation in the tribe. Intheir games, sham-battles and other pastimes, the whites and blacks areopposed to each other; and in war, each party is ambitious of bringinghome a greater number of scalps than the other. 

The chiefs have the management of public affairs, but as we have alreadyseen are more or less influenced, especially in matters of war or peace, by the braves. In their councils, questions are not considered, generally, as decided, unless there be unanimity of opinion. Their lawsare few and simple. Debts are but seldom contracted by them, and thereis no mode of enforcing their collection. For redress of civil injuries, an appeal is usually made to some of the old men of the tribe, mutuallyselected by the parties concerned; and their decision is considered asbinding. A murder among them is seldom punished capitally. The relativesof the deceased may take revenge in that way, but it is much more commonto receive compensation in property. If the relatives cannot agree uponthe amount of the compensation, the old men of the tribe interfere andsettle it. The kinsfolk of the deceased say, that by killing themurderer, it will not bring the dead to life, and that it is better totake the customary presents, which often amount in value to aconsiderable sum. Occasionally the murderer arranges the whole matter, by marrying the widow of the man he has killed. There is but one offencethat is considered of a national character, and that is of rareoccurrence. It consists in aiding the enemies of the tribe, in times ofwar, and is punishable with death. A sentinel who has been placed onduty by a chief, but who neglects it, is publicly whipped by the women. The Sauks and Foxes have no established mode of declaring war. Ifinjured by a neighboring tribe they wait a reasonable time forreparation to be made, and if it is not, they avail themselves of thefirst fitting opportunity of taking revenge. The young Indians manifest, at an early age, a love of war. They hear the old warriors recountingtheir exploits, and as the battle-field is the only road to distinction, they embrace the first chance of killing an enemy. When the question ofgoing to war is under consideration, some one or a number of them, undertake to consult the Great Spirit by fasting and dreams. Theselatter are related by them in public, and often have their influence, being generally so interpreted as to inspire confidence in those who mayjoin the war party. If a party is victorious in battle, the individualwho killed the first enemy, leads them back, and on the way, if theyhave prisoners with them, it is not uncommon to kill those who are old. The young ones are generally adopted into the families of such as havelost relatives in the battle, or whose children have died a naturaldeath. Upon the return of the victorious party to their village, a wardance is held round their captives by way of celebrating their triumph. Prisoners are sometimes held as slaves, and as such are bought and sold. If they go to war, which they are encouraged to do, and succeed inkilling one of the enemy, the slave changes his name and from that timebecomes a freeman. The Sauks and Foxes treat their prisoners withhumanity, and if they succeed in getting to the village alive, they aresafe, and their persons are held sacred. But one instance is known oftheir having burned a prisoner, and that was in a war with theMenominies, and in retaliation for a similar act, first committed bythat tribe. The young Indians go to war generally between the age ofseventeen and twenty, but sometimes as early as fifteen. Many of them atthe age of forty and forty-five, look old and are broken down in theirphysical constitution, in consequence of the hardships which they haveendured in war and the chase. In old age they are usually provided for, and live in peace at their villages. When one of them is sick, andthinks he is about to go to the land of spirits, he not unfrequentlydirects the manner in which he wishes to be buried, and his instructionsare complied with. The Sauks and Foxes bury their dead in the ground, and have preferences for particular places of interment. The graves arenot dug to any great depth, and a little bark from a tree is made toanswer the purpose of a coffin. The body is usually carried to the graveby old women, who howl at intervals, during the ceremony, mostpiteously. Before closing the grave, one of the Indians present at thefuneral will wave a stick or war-club, called "puc-ca waw-gun, " sayingin an audible voice, "I have killed many men in war, and I give theirspirits to my dead friend who lies here, to serve him as slaves in theother world:" after which the grave is filled up with earth, and in aday or two a rude cabin or shed is made over it of rough boards or bark. If the deceased was a brave, a post is planted at the head of the grave, on which, in a rude manner, the number of scalps and prisoners he hastaken in war, is represented by red paint. Upon the death of an adult, his property is usually distributed among his relatives, and his widowreturns to her own family or nearest kinfolks. The widow is theprincipal mourner for the deceased and her grief seems to be sincere. Her countenance becomes dejected--she seldom smiles--clothes herself inrags, and with disheveled hair and spots of black paint on her cheeks, wanders about in a pensive mood, seldom shedding tears, except whenalone in the woods. They generally cease mourning at the suggestion ofsome friend, wash, paint themselves red and put on their best clothesand ornaments. Some of the Sauks and Foxes entertain the opinion thatthe spirit of the deceased hovers about the village or lodge, for a fewdays, and then takes its flight to the land of repose. On its way, theysuppose it passes over an extensive prairie, beyond which the woodsappear like a blue cloud. Between this woodland and the prairie, thereis a deep and rapid stream of water, across which there is a pole, keptin continual motion by the force of the current. This stream, the spiritmust cross on the pole, and if it has belonged to a good person, it willget over safe and find all its good relations that have gone before it. In this woodland, game of all kinds is abundant, and there the spiritsof the good live in everlasting happiness. If on the contrary, thespirit has belonged to a bad or wicked person in this world, it willfall off the pole into the stream, and the current will sweep it down tothe land of evil spirits, where it will forever remain in poverty andmisery. There is nothing very peculiar in the religious opinions of theSauks and Foxes, to distinguish them from the aborigines of thiscountry, generally. They believe in one Great and Good Spirit, whocontrols and governs all things, and in supernatural agents who arepermitted to interfere in their concerns. They are of opinion that thereis also a bad spirit, subordinate, however, to the great Manito, who ispermitted to annoy and perplex the Indians, by means of bad medicines, by poisonous reptiles, and by killing their horses and sinking theircanoes. All their misfortunes are attributed to the influence of thisbad spirit, but they have some vague idea that it is in part permittedas a punishment for their bad deeds. They all believe in ghosts, andwhen they fancy that they have seen one, the friends of the deceasedgive a feast and hang up some clothing as an offering to appease thetroubled spirit. So far as the ceremonials are concerned, the Sauks andFoxes may be called a religious people. They rarely pass anyextraordinary cave, rock, hill or other object, with out leaving behindthem some tobacco for the use of the spirit who they suppose livesthere. They have some kind of prayers, consisting of words which theysing over in the evening and at sunrise in the morning. 

Their tradition in regard to the creation of the world, the deluge andthe re-peopling of the earth, is a singular mixture of truth andfiction. If anterior in its origin, to the arrival of the whites on thiscontinent, it presents matter of curious speculation. The followingaccount of it, entitled the Cosmogony of the Saukee and MusquakeeIndians, is taken from Doctor Galland's Chronicles of the North AmericanSavages. 

"In the beginning the Gods created every living being which was intendedto have life upon the face of the whole earth; and then were formedevery species of living animal. After this the gods also formed man, whom they perceived to be both cruel and foolish: they then put into manthe heart of the best beast they had created; but they beheld that manstill continued cruel and foolish. After this it came to pass that theAlmighty took a piece of himself, of which he made a heart for the man;and when the man received it, he immediately became wise above everyother animal on the earth. 

"And it came to pass in the process of much time, that the earthproduced its first fruits in abundance, and all the living beasts weregreatly multiplied. The earth about this time, was also inhabited by aninnumerable host of I-am-woi (giants) and gods. And the gods whosehabitation is under the seas, made war upon We-suk-kah, (the chief godupon the earth) and leagued themselves with the I-am-woi upon the earth, against him. Nevertheless, they were still afraid of We-suk-kah and hisimmense host of gods; therefore they called a council upon the earth;and when they were assembled upon the earth, at the council, both theI-am-woi and the gods from under the seas, after much debate, and longconsultation, they resolved to make a great feast upon the earth, and toinvite We-suk-kah, that they might thus beguile him, and at the feastlay hands upon him and slay him. 

"And when the council had appointed a delegate to visit We-suk-kah, andcommanded him to invite We-suk-kah to the great feast, which they werepreparing upon the earth for him; behold, the younger brother ofWe-suk-kah, was in the midst of the council, and being confused in thewhole assembly, they said unto him, "Where is thy brother We-suk-kah. "And he answering said unto them "I know not; am I my brother's keeper?"And the council perceiving that all their devices were known unto him, they were sorely vexed; therefore, with one accord, the whole assemblyrushed violently upon him and slew him: and thus was slain the youngerbrother of We-suk-kah. 

"Now when We-suk-kah had heard of the death of his younger brother, hewas extremely sorrowful and wept aloud; and the gods whose habitationsare above the clouds, heard the voice of his lamentations, and theyleagued with him to avenge the blood of his brother. At this time thelower gods had fled from the face of the earth, to their own habitationsunder the seas; and the I-am-woi were thus forsaken, and left alone todefend themselves against We-suk-kah and his allies. 

"Now the scene of battle, where We-suk-kah and his allies fought theI-am-woi, was in a flame of fire; and the whole race of the I-am-woiwere destroyed with a great slaughter, that there was not one left uponthe face of the whole earth. And when the gods under the sea, knew thedreadful fate of their allies, the I-am-woi, whom they had deserted, they were sore afraid and they cried aloud to Na-nam-a-keh (god ofthunder) to come to their assistance. And Na-nam-a-keh heard their cryand accepted their request, and sent his subaltern, No-tah-tes-se-ah, (god of the wind) to Pa-poan-a-tesse-ah, (god of the cold) to invite himto come with all his dreadful host of frost, snow, hail, ice andnorth-wind, to their relief. When this destroying army came from thenorth, they smote the whole earth with frost, converting the waters ofevery river, lake, and sea into solid masses of ice, and covering thewhole earth with an immense sheet of snow and hail. Thus perished allthe first inhabitants of the earth both men, beasts and gods, except afew choice ones of each kind, which We-suk-kah preserved with himselfupon the earth. 

"And again it came to pass in the process of a long time, that the godsunder the sea came forth again, upon the earth; and when they sawWe-suk-kah, that he was almost alone on the earth, they rejoiced inassurance of being able to destroy him. But when they had exhaustedevery scheme, attempted every plan, and executed every effort to noeffect, perceiving that all their councils and designs were well knownto We-suk-kah as soon as they were formed, they became mad with despair, and resolved to destroy We-suk-kah, by spoiling forever the whole faceof the earth, which they so much desired to inhabit. To this end, therefore, they retired to their former habitations under the sea andintreated Na-nam-a-keh (the god of thunder) to drown the whole earthwith a flood. 

"And Na-nam-a-keh again hearkened to their cries, and calling all theclouds to gather themselves together, they obeyed his voice and came;and when all the clouds were assembled, he commanded them and theypoured down water upon the earth, a tremendous torrent, until the wholesurface of the earth, even the tops of the highest mountains werecovered with water. But it came to pass, when We-suk-kah saw the watercoming upon the earth, he took some air, and made an o-pes-quie, (vessel, boat or shell) and getting into it himself, he took with himall sorts of living beasts, and man; and when the waters rose upon theearth the o-pes-quie was lifted up and floated upon the surface, untilthe tops of the highest mountains were covered with the flood. And whenthe o-pes-quie had remained for a long time upon the surface of theflood, We-suk-kah called one of the animals, which was with him in theo-pes-quie, and commanded it to go down through the water to the earth, to bring from thence some earth; and after many repeated efforts andwith great difficulty, the animal at length returned, bringing in itsmouth, some earth; of which, when We-suk-kah had received it, he formedthis earth, and spread it forth upon the surface of the water; and wentforth himself and all that were with him in the o-pes-quie, and occupiedthe dry land. "

In the social or family relations of the Sauks and Foxes, it isconsidered the duty of the men to hunt and clothe their wives andchildren--to purchase arms and the implements of husbandry so far asthey use them--to make canoes and assist in rowing them--to hunt anddrive their horses, make saddles, &c. &c. The duties of the women, areto skin the game when brought home and prepare the skins for market, tocook, to make the camp, cut and carry wood, make moccasins, plant andgather the corn, beans and pumpkins, and do all the drudgery connectedwith the domestic affairs. It is the commonly received opinion among thewhites that the female Indians are the slaves of their husbands. This isnot literally true. The men seldom make their wives feel theirauthority: as a general rule among the Sauks and Foxes, they livehappily together. The wives take the liberty of scolding theirhusbands, very frequently, and it is considered by both parties thatevery thing in the family, except the war and hunting implements, belongs to the wife, and she may do with it as she pleases. The men mayeach have two or three, or even more wives. They generally prefer totake sisters, as they agree better together in the same lodge: theeldest usually regulates all the domestic affairs of the family and hascharge of the property belonging to it. The men turn off their wives andthe latter leave their husbands whenever they become discontented. Whileliving together, the women are generally faithful to their husbands. Thedaughters seldom leave their mothers until they are married, whichusually occurs when they are about fourteen or fifteen years of age. Theparents of an Indian girl are generally conciliated by presents from herlover, but they may insist upon servitude from him, which sometimes runsthroughout one, two or three years. There is no particular marriageceremony among them, beyond that of the contract between the parents orparties. A young Sauk lover is represented as a silly looking fellow, who can neither eat, drink or sleep--he appears to be deranged, and withall the pains he takes to conceal his passion, his malady is stillapparent to his friends. The faithfulness of this sketch, will hardly bequestioned, when the close analogy which it bears to a pale-faced lover, is recalled to mind. The Sauks and Foxes, when pinched with hunger, willeat almost any kind of meat, but prefer venison and bear's meat to allother; they never eat it unless cooked. They make much use of corn, beans and pumpkins, and annually raise considerable quantities. They arenot fond of fish and seldom eat them if they can procure other kinds offood. 

There are but three kinds of musical instruments used among thesetribes. The drum, which is beat at their feasts, dances and games, thetambourin, and a kind of flageolet, made of cane or two pieces of softwood hollowed out and fastened together with strips of leather. Theirtunes are always on a flat key, have but few variations and are mostlyof a melancholy character. According to Mr. Atwater, who visited thoseresiding near Rock Island, in 1829, the Sacs and Foxes have "tunesevidently of French origin, and some songs of considerable length. ""These Indians have among them, what answers to the ItalianImprovisatori who make songs for particular occasions. " The same writersays, "the Sauks and Foxes have a considerable number of songs, suitedto a great many occasions in their own language. " He further adds, "Among the Indians of the Upper Mississippi, the Sauks and Foxes aredecidedly the best actors, and have the greatest variety of plays amongthem. " In common with the Indian tribes generally, they have a varietyof athletic games, in which both the men and women join. They areaddicted to cards and other games of chance, and often bet very high. 

Touching the condition of these tribes in 1805, Lieutenant Pike, in histravels to the sources of the Mississippi, says, "The first nation ofIndians whom we met with, were the Sauks, who principally reside infour villages. The first at the head of the rapids des Moyens, on thewest shore, containing thirteen lodges. The second on a prairie on theeast shore about sixty miles above. The third on the river De Roche[Rock river] about three miles from the entrance, and the last on theriver Iowa. They hunt on the Mississippi and its confluent streams fromthe Illinois to the river Des Iowa; and on the plains west of them whichborder the Mississippi. They are so perfectly consolidated with theReynards (the Foxes) that they can scarcely be termed a distinct nation;but recently there appears to be a schism between the two nations: thelatter not approving of the insolence and ill-will, which has marked theconduct of the former towards the United States, on many lateoccurrences. They have for many years past made war (under the auspicesof the Sioux) on the Santeaux, Osages and Missouries; but as recently apeace has been (through the influence of the United States) made betweenthem and the nations of the Missouri, and by the same means between theSioux and the Santeaux (their principal allies) it appears it would beby no means a difficult matter to induce them to make a general peace, and pay still greater attention to the cultivation of the earth: as theynow raise a considerable quantity of corn, beans and melons. Thecharacter which they bear with their savage brethren, is, that they aremuch more to be dreaded for their deceit and inclination for stratagem, than for open courage. 

"The Reynards reside in three villages. The first on the west side ofthe Mississippi six miles above the rapids of the river de Roche. Thesecond about twelve miles in the rear of the lead mines, and the thirdon Turkey river, half a league from its entrance. They are engaged inthe same wars, and have the same alliances as the Sauks, with whom theymust be considered as indissoluble in war and peace. They hunt on bothsides of the Mississippi, from the river Iowa (below the prairie desChiens) to a river of that name, above said village. They raise a greatquantity of corn, beans and melons; the former of those articles in suchquantities, as to sell many hundred bushels per annum. "

At this period, 1805, according to Lieutenant Pike, the total number ofsouls in the Sauk nation was 2850, of whom 1400 were children, sevenhundred and fifty women, and seven hundred warriors. They resided intheir villages and had about seven hundred stand of arms. Their tradewas principally in deer skins, with some bear and a few otter, beaverand raccoon skins. The total number of the Foxes was 1750, of whom eighthundred and fifty were children, five hundred women and four hundredwarriors, with about four hundred stand of arms. Their number ofvillages and their trade being the same with the Sauks. 

Some further items of information about these tribes may be gleaned fromthe statistical view of the Indian nations furnished by Lewis andClark's Expedition. It is there stated that the Saukee, or O-sau-kee, speak a primitive language, dwell principally in two villages, haveabout five hundred warriors and 2000 souls in the tribe, were at warwith the Osage, Chippeway and Sioux. The Foxes or Ot-tar-gar-me, in theSaukee language, number not more than 1200 souls, and about threehundred warriors. These nations, the Sauks and Foxes, says Mr. Lewis, are so perfectly consolidated that they may in fact be considered as onenation only: "they are extremely friendly to the whites and seldominjure their traders; but they are the most implacable enemies to theIndian nations with whom they are at war; to them is justly attributedthe almost entire destruction of the Missouries, the Illinois, theCahokias, Kaskaskias, and Peorias. "

In 1825, the Secretary at War, estimated the entire number of Sacs andFoxes at 4, 600 souls, and in 1826, the warriors were supposed to amountto between twelve and fourteen hundred. Supposing these estimates toapproximate the truth, it appears that during the twenty years between1805 and 1825, these tribes had increased very considerably in numbers. 

The traders generally and those who have had most intercourse with theSauks and Foxes, speak of them as honest in their dealings, and feelsafe among them, seldom locking their doors by day or night, andallowing them free ingress to their stores and houses. Their reputationfor courage, it appears, does not stand quite so fair. Lieutenant Pikespeaks of them as being more dreaded by their savage brethren for "theirdeceit and inclination for stratagem, than for their open courage. "Major Thomas Forsyth, late U. S. Agent among the Sacs and Foxes, callsthem a dastardly and cowardly set of Indians. The correctness of thesecharges may be questioned. Mr. Schoolcraft, in speaking of the Foxessays, "the history of their migrations and wars, shows them to have beena restless and spirited people, erratic in their dispositions, having agreat contempt for agriculture, and a predominant passion for war. " Headds, "they still retain their ancient character, and are constantlyembroiled in wars and disputes with their neighbors, the results ofwhich show, that they have more courage in battle, than wisdom incouncil. " In a report of the war department to the President, made bythe secretary Mr. Cass, in 1832, the Sacs and Foxes are spoken of asbeing distinguished for their "daring spirit of adventure and for theirnatural courage. "

The truth appears to be, that the Sacs and Foxes fought their way fromthe waters of the St. Lawrence to Green Bay, and after reaching thatplace, not only sustained themselves against hostile tribes, but wereamong the most active and courageous in the subjugation or ratherextermination of the numerous and powerful Illini confederacy. They havehad many wars, offensive and defensive, with the Sioux, the Pawnees, theOsages and other tribes, some of whom are ranked among the most fierceand ferocious warriors on the continent; and, it does not appear, thatin these conflicts, running through a long period of years, they werefound wanting in this greatest of savage virtues. In the late war withGreat Britain, a party from the Sacs and Foxes, fought under the Britishstandard as a matter of choice: and in the recent contest between afragment of these tribes and the United States, although defeated andliterally cut to pieces by an overwhelming force, it is veryquestionable whether their reputation as braves, would suffer by acomparison with that of their victors. It is believed that a carefulreview of their history, from the period when they first establishedthemselves on the waters of the Mississippi, down to the present time, will lead the inquirer to the conclusion, that the Sacs and Foxes aretruly a courageous people, shrewd, politic, and enterprising, with notmore of ferocity and treachery of character, than is common among thetribes by whom they are surrounded. 

CHAPTER II. 

Treaty with the Sac and Fox Indians in 1789--treaty and cession of land to the United States at St. Louis in 1804--Black Hawk's account of this treaty--Erection of Fort Madison--The British excite the Sac and Fox Indians to make war upon the United States--A party under Black Hawk join the British standard in 1812--Treaty at Portage des Sioux in 1815--Treaty of peace with Black Hawk and his band at same place in 1816--Treaty for part of their lands in Missouri in 1824--Treaty of Prairie des Chiens in 1825--Treaty for the mineral region in 1829--Treaty of peace in 1832, after the "Black Hawk war"--Present residence of the Sacs and Foxes. 

The first treaty between the United States and the Sacs, was made atFort Harmar, on the Muskingum river, on the 9th of January 1789. It wasconcluded by Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Territory north west ofthe Ohio, on the part of the United States, and the sachems and warriorsof the Chippeway, Ottawa, Pottawatamie, Delaware, Wyandotte and Sactribes of Indians. The object of this treaty seems to have been theconfirmation of former treaties and the adjustment of boundary lines ofprevious cessions of land. By the fourteenth article of this treaty, itis provided, that the United States, "do also receive into theirfriendship and protection, the nations of the Pottawatamies, and Sacs;and do hereby establish a league of peace and amity between themrespectively; and all the articles of this treaty, so far as they applyto these nations, are to be considered as made and concluded, in all andevery part, expressly with them and each of them. "

On the 27th of June 1804, the President, Mr. Jefferson, directedGovernor William H. Harrison, to make a treaty with the Sacs, andobtain, if possible, cessions of land on both sides of the Illinoisriver, and to give them, in lieu thereof, an annual compensation. InNovember following, Governor Harrison concluded a treaty with the Sacsand Foxes, under his instructions. As this treaty has formed the basisof all the subsequent ones made with these tribes, and as its validity, has been disputed by some of the Sac nation, it is deemed expedient, tocopy it entire, in this place, more especially as it will be matter offrequent reference in the subsequent pages of this work. 

 * * * * *

"Articles of a treaty, made at Saint Louis, in the district ofLouisiana, between William Henry Harrison, governor of the IndianaTerritory and of the district of Louisiana, superintendent of Indianaffairs for the said territory and district, and commissionerplenipotentiary of the United States, for concluding any treaty, ortreaties which may be found necessary with any of the north westerntribes of Indians, of the one part; and the chiefs and head men of theunited Sac and Fox tribes of the other part. "

Article 1. The United States receive the united Sac and Fox tribes intotheir friendship and protection; and the said tribes agree to considerthemselves under the protection of the United States, and of no otherpower whatsoever. 

Art. 2. The general boundary line between the lands of the UnitedStates and of the said Indian tribes shall be as follows, viz: Beginningat a point on the Missouri river, opposite to the mouth of the Gasconaderiver; thence, in a direct course so as to strike the river Jeffreon, atthe distance of thirty miles from its mouth, and down the said Jeffreonto the Mississippi; thence, up the Mississippi to the mouth of theOuisconsin river, and up the same to a point which shall be thirty-sixmiles, in a direct line from the mouth of said river; thence, by adirect line to a point where the Fox river (a branch of the Illinois)leaves the small lake called Sakaegan; thence down the Fox river to theIllinois river, and down the same to the Mississippi. And the saidtribes, for and in consideration of the friendship and protection of theUnited States, which is now extended to them, of the goods (to the valueof two thousand, two hundred and thirty-four dollars and fifty cents)which are now delivered, and of the annuity hereinafter stipulated to bepaid, do hereby cede and relinquish forever, to the United States, allthe lands included within the above described boundary. 

Art. 3. In consideration of the cession and relinquishment of land madein the preceding article, the United States will deliver to the saidtribes, at the town of St. Louis, or some other convenient place on theMississippi, yearly and every year, goods suited to the circumstances ofthe Indians, of the value of one thousand dollars (six hundred of whichare intended for the Sacs, and four hundred for the Foxes, ) reckoningthat value at the first cost of the goods in the city or place in theUnited States, where they shall be procured. And if the said tribesshall hereafter, at an annual delivery of the goods aforesaid, desirethat a part of their annuity should be furnished in domestic animals, implements of husbandry, and other utensils, convenient for them, thesame shall at the subsequent annual delivery, be furnished accordingly. 

Art. 4. The United States will never interrupt the said tribes, in thepossession of the lands which they rightfully claim; but will on thecontrary, protect them in the quiet enjoyment of the same, against theirown citizens, and against all other white persons, who may intrude uponthem. And the said tribes do hereby engage, that they will never selltheir land, or any part thereof, to any sovereign power but the UnitedStates; nor to the citizens or subjects of any other sovereign power, nor to the citizens of the United States. 

Art. 5. Lest the friendship which is now established between the UnitedStates and the said Indian tribes, should be interrupted by themisconduct of individuals, it is hereby agreed, that for injuries doneby individuals, no private revenge or retaliation shall take place; but, instead thereof, complaint shall be made by the party injured to theother; by the said tribes, or either of them, to the superintendent ofIndian affairs, or one of his deputies; and by the superintendent, orother person appointed by the President, to the chiefs of the saidtribes. And it shall be the duty of the said chiefs, upon complaintbeing made, as aforesaid, to deliver up the person, or persons, againstwhom the complaint is made, to the end that he, or they, may bepunished agreeably to the laws of the state or territory where theoffence may have been committed. And, in like manner, if any robbery, violence or murder shall be committed on any Indian, or Indians, belonging to the said tribes, or either of them, the person or personsso offending, shall be tried, and if found guilty, punished, in likemanner as if the injury had been done to a white man. And it is furtheragreed, that the chiefs of the said tribes shall, to the utmost of theirpower, exert themselves to recover horses, or other property which maybe stolen from any citizen or citizens of the United States by anyindividual or individuals of their tribes. And the property sorecovered, shall be forthwith delivered to the superintendent, or otherperson authorized to receive it, that it may be restored to the properowner. And in cases where the exertions of the chiefs shall beineffectual in recovering the property stolen, as aforesaid, ifsufficient proof can be obtained, that such property was actually stolenby any Indian, or Indians, belonging to the said tribes or either ofthem, the United States may deduct from the annuity of the said tribes, a sum equal to the value of the property which was stolen. And theUnited States hereby guaranty to any Indian or Indians, of the saidtribes, a full indemnification for any horses, or other property, whichmay be stolen from them, by any of their citizens: _Provided_, that theproperty so stolen cannot be recovered, and that sufficient proof isproduced that it was actually stolen by a citizen of the United States. 

Art. 6. If any citizen of the United States, or any other white person, should form a settlement, upon the lands which are the property of theSac and Fox tribes, upon complaint being made thereof, to theSuperintendent, or other person having charge of the affairs of theIndians, such intruder shall forthwith be removed. 

Art. 7. As long as the lands which are now ceded to the United Statesremain their property, the Indians belonging to the said tribes shallenjoy the privilege of living and hunting upon them. 

Art. 8. As the laws of the United States regulating trade andintercourse with the Indian tribes, are already extended to the countryinhabited by the Sacs and Foxes, and as it is provided by those laws, that no person shall reside, as a trader, in the Indian country, withouta licence under the hand and seal of the Superintendent of Indianaffairs, or other person appointed for the purpose by the President, thesaid tribes do promise and agree, that they will not suffer any traderto reside among them, without such licence, and that they will, fromtime to time, give notice to the Superintendent, or to the agent fortheir tribes, of all the traders that may be in their country. 

Art. 9. In order to put a stop to the abuses and impositions which arepractised upon the said tribes, by the private traders, the UnitedStates will, at a convenient time, establish a trading house, orfactory, where the individuals of the said tribes can be supplied withgoods at a more reasonable rate, than they have been accustomed toprocure them. 

Art. 10. In order to evince the sincerity of their friendship andaffection for the United States, and a respectful deference for theiradvice, by an act which will not only be acceptable to them, but to thecommon father of all the nations of the earth, the said tribes do, hereby, promise and agree that they will put an end to the bloody warwhich has heretofore raged between their tribe and the Great and LittleOsages. And for the purpose of burying the tomahawk, and renewing thefriendly intercourse between themselves and the Osages, a meeting oftheir respective chiefs shall take place, at which, under the directionof the above named commissioner, or the agent of Indian affairs residingat St. Louis, an adjustment of all their differences shall be made, andpeace established upon a firm and lasting basis. 

Art. 11. As it is probable that the government of the United States willestablish a military post at, or near the mouth of the Ouisconsin river, and as the land on the lower side of the river may not be suitable forthat purpose, the said tribes hereby agree, that a fort may be built, either on the upper side of the Ouisconsin, or on the right bank of theMississippi, as the one or the other may be found most convenient; and atract of land not exceeding two miles square, shall be given for thatpurpose; and the said tribes do further agree, that they will at alltimes, allow to traders and other persons travelling through theircountry, under the authority of the United States, a free and safepassage for themselves and their property of every description; andthat for such passage, they shall at no time, and on no accountwhatever, be subject to any toll or exaction. 

Art. 12. This treaty shall take effect and be obligatory on thecontracting parties, as soon as the same shall be ratified by thePresident, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate of theUnited States. 

In testimony whereof, the said William Henry Harrison, and the chiefsand head men of said Sac and Fox tribes, have hereunto set their handsand affixed their seals. Done at St. Louis, in the district ofLouisiana, on the third day of November, one thousand, eight hundred andfour, and of the independence of the United States the twenty-ninth. 

 Additional article. 

It is agreed that nothing in this treaty contained shall affect theclaim of any individual or individuals, who may have obtained grants ofland from the Spanish government, and which are not included within thegeneral boundary line, laid down in this treaty: _Provided_, that suchgrant have at any time been made known to the said tribes and recognizedby them. 

 WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. L. S. LAYOWVOIS, or Laiyuva, his X mark. L. S. PASHEPAHO, or the Stabber, his X mark. L. S. QUASHQUAME, or jumping fish, his X mark. L. S. OUTCHEQUAHA, or sun fish, his X mark. L. S. HASHEQUARHIQUA, or the bear, his X mark. L. S. 

 In presence of

 William Prince, Secretary to the Commissioner. John Griffin, one of the Judges of the Indiana Territory. J. Bruff, Maj. Art'y. U. S. Amos Stoddard, Capt. Corps of Artillerists. P. Choteau, Agent de la haute Louisiana, pour le department sauvage. Ch. Gratiot. Aug. Choteau. Vigo. S. Warrel, Lieut. U. States Artillery. D. Delaunay. Joseph Barren. } sworn H'polite Bolen, his X mark. } Interpreters. 

On the 31st of December 1804, the President of the United States, submitted this treaty to the Senate for their advice and consent, and itwas by that body duly ratified. 

In a Life of Black Hawk, dictated by himself and written by J. B. Patterson, to which there is a certificate of authenticity appended fromAntoine Le Clair. U. S. Interpreter, for the Sacs and Foxes, under dateof 16th October 1833, there is the following statement concerning themanner in which this treaty was made. 

"Some moons after this young chief (Lieutenant Pike) descended theMississippi, one of our people killed an American, and was confined, inthe prison at St. Louis for the offence. We held a council at ourvillage to see what could be done for him--which determined thatQuash-qua-me, Pa-she-pa-ho, Ou-che-qua-ha, and Ha-she-quar-hi-qua, should go down to St. Louis, and see our American father, and do allthey could to have our friend released; by paying for the person killed, thus covering the blood and satisfying the relations of the manmurdered! This being the only means with us of saving a person who hadkilled another, and we _then_ thought it was the same way with thewhites. 

"The party started with the good wishes of the whole nation, hoping theywould accomplish the object of their mission. The relations of theprisoner blacked their faces and fasted, hoping the Great Spirit wouldtake pity on them, and return the husband and the father to his wife andchildren. 

"Quash-qua-me and party remained a long time absent. They at lengthreturned and encamped a short distance below the village, but did notcome up that day, nor did any person approach their camp. They appearedto be dressed in fine coats and had medals. From these circumstances, wewere in hopes they had brought us good news. Early the next morning, thecouncil lodge was crowded--Quash-qua-me and party came up, and gave usthe following account of their mission. 

"On their arrival at St. Louis, they met their American father, andexplained to him their business, and urged the release of their friend. The American chief told them he wanted land, and they agreed to give himsome on the west side of the Mississippi, and some on the Illinois sideopposite the Jeffreon. When the business was all arranged, they expectedto have their friend released to come home with them. --But about thetime they were ready to start, their friend was led out of prison, whoran a short distance and was _shot dead_. This is all they couldrecollect of what was said and done. They had been drunk the greaterpart of the time they were in St. Louis. 

"This is all myself or nation knew of the treaty of 1804. It has beenexplained to me since. I find by that treaty, all our country east ofthe Mississippi, and south of the Jeffreon was ceded to the UnitedStates for one thousand dollars a year! I will leave it to the people ofthe United States to say, whether our nation was properly represented inthis treaty? or whether we received a fair compensation for the extentof country ceded by those four individuals. I could say much more aboutthis treaty but I will not at this time. It has been the origin of allour difficulties. " p. 27. 

The power among the Indian tribes of this country to sell their lands, has always been considered as vested in the chiefs. They, however, areaccustomed to consult the whole nation, and, possibly, it may benecessary, in all cases, that its assent should be obtained. It has notbeen the practice of our government, it is believed, in its negotiationswith the Indians, to institute particular enquiries for the purpose ofascertaining, how far the chiefs were authorized to act by their people. A number of treaties have been formed, at different times, in which thechiefs must have acted under the general authority with which they areclothed on this point; the circumstances of the case being such, as tohave precluded all opportunity of their ascertaining the sense of thetribes, after the negotiations had been commenced. 

In the case under consideration, notwithstanding the statement of BlackHawk, there was every reason, especially on the part of theCommissioner, for believing, that the chiefs who signed the treaty, werefully authorized to act. In the first place, Government, in itsinstructions to the Commissioner, to make a purchase of lands, of theSacs and Foxes, had given as a reason for it, that it was a matter ofcomplaint, on the part of these two tribes, that they were not, liketheir neighbors, receiving an annuity from the United States. They owneda very large extent of territory, and had, comparatively, but a limitedpopulation. It was natural that they should wish to dispose of someportion of it, for the purpose of receiving an annual supply of goodsand money. In the second place, five chiefs of the Sacs and Foxes, united in the treaty, one of them, Pah-she-pa-ho, being at the time thegreat head-chief of the Sac nation. It is admitted by Black Hawk that acouncil had been held by these two tribes, and that Pah-she-pa-ho andhis associates had been authorized to visit St. Louis to purchase therelease of a prisoner. It is probable that the sale of a part of theirterritory may have been agreed upon by this council. In the third place, there must have been a prevailing opinion in St. Louis, that thesechiefs were authorized to act in the case. The treaty was publicly made, and a number of high-minded and honorable men, are parties to it, in thecharacter of commissioner, secretary, and witnesses. Among them areseveral officers of the army; the first governor of the territory ofLouisiana; and Pierre Chouteau, at that time Agent for the Sac and FoxIndians, and well acquainted with them. These circumstances forbid theidea of the treaty having been formed under circumstances in which therewere not satisfactory reasons for believing, that the Indians, partiesto it were fully authorized to act. 

Black Hawk is mistaken in some things about this treaty, and it may bethat he has been misinformed in regard to the authority of his chiefs tomake this sale of their lands. He says, for instance, that the treatywas made some moons after the return of Lieutenant Pike from the sourcesof the Mississippi; when in fact Pike did not leave St. Louis upon hisexpedition, until the 9th of August 1805, nearly a year after the dateof the treaty. Again, he says, it was made by four of the chiefs. Thetreaty is signed by five. But admitting that the deputation of chiefstranscended their authority in the sale of the lands, made at that time, it would seem that the Sacs and Foxes acquiesced in it. They neverdisavowed the treaty, but have regularly received their annuity, and, onmore than one occasion, have recognized it, as binding. Even Black Hawkand his band, made this recognition, in the treaty of peace which theysigned with the United States, at Portage des Sioux, in 1816. 

It may be questioned, however, whether good faith towards the Indiansand a due regard to national honor, do not make it expedient that ourgovernment should invariably hold its treaties with them, in their owncountry, and in the midst of the tribe owning the lands proposed to bepurchased. In such case, the assent of all the Indians might beobtained, and the charge of having formed a fraudulent treaty, withunauthorized individuals, could never be raised. The peculiar relationsubsisting between the government of the United States and the Indiantribes, within its territory, demands on on the part of the former, great delicacy of action, liberality and perfect good faith. By such acourse, alone, can our national honor be preserved untarnished. 

Subsequently to the treaty of 1804, the erection by the government ofthe United States, of Fort Madison on the Mississippi, above the DesMoines rapids, gave some dissatisfaction to the Sacs and Foxes. This wasincreased by the British agents and traders, who instigated them toresist the encroachments of the Americans, now beginning to press upontheir hunting grounds. Of this interference on the part of the British, with the Indians, there can be no doubt. Governor Harrison in a letterto the secretary of war, dated Vincennes, July 15th, 1810, says, "aconsiderable number of the Sacs went some time since to see the Britishsuperintendent, and on the first instant, more passed Chicago, for thesame destination. " General Clark, under date of St. Louis, July 20th, 1810, says, in writing to the same department, "One hundred and fiftySacs are on a visit to the British agent by invitation, and a smallerparty on a visit to the island of St. Joseph, in lake Huron. " JohnJohnson, Esq. The Indian agent, at Fort Wayne, under date of August 7th, 1810, says, to the secretary at war, "About one hundred Saukees havereturned from the British agent, who supplied them liberally with everything they stood in need of. The party received forty-seven rifles, anda number of fusils with plenty of powder and lead. "

McKee, Dixon, and Girty were open and active agents in exciting theIndians to attack the American frontiers. They held frequent talks withthem and supplied them liberally with goods and munitions of war. In1811, there being a strong probability of a war with Great Britain, adeputation of the Sauks and Foxes, visited Washington city, to see thePresident, by whom they were told that in the event of a war takingplace with England, their great father did not wish them to interfere oneither side, but to remain neutral: He did not want their assistance butdesired them to hunt and support their families and live in peace. Immediately after the war of 1812, the Sacs and Foxes, with whom, aswith Indians generally, war is the great business of life, felt thatthey ought, as a matter of course, to take sides with one party or theother, and went to St. Louis, to offer their services to the UnitedStates agent, to fight against the British; but the offer was declined, on the ground that the government of the United States had resolved notto employ the Indians in that capacity. The machinations of the British, were successfully continued. The Sacs and Foxes divided upon thequestion of taking up arms against the United States. A part of themclaimed the protection of the American government and received it; apart joined the British standard, Black Hawk among the number, andfought against the Americans until the peace of 1815. The number ofwarriors who joined the British is supposed to have been about twohundred, and they have ever since been known as the "British Band, " atthe head of which has been "General Black Hawk. "

On the 14th September, 1815, William Clark, Ninian Edwards and AugusteChoteau, commissioners on behalf of the United States, concluded atreaty with the chiefs and warriors of the Fox tribe, by which allinjuries and acts of hostility, committed by either party during thelate war, were to be forgiven, and peace and friendship establishedbetween the two nations. The fourth article of the treaty contains arecognition of the former treaty in these words. "The said Fox tribe ornation do hereby, assent to, recognize, re-establish and confirm thetreaty of St. Louis, which was concluded on the 3rd of November, 1804, to the full extent of their interest in the same, as well as all othercontracts and agreements between the parties. " This treaty was made atPortage des Sioux. 

On the 13th of September, 1815, the same commissioners, at the sameplace, concluded a treaty of peace and friendship with the chiefs andwarriors of that part of Sac nation of Indians residing on theMississippi river. The first article recognizes the treaty of 1804 inthe following words. "The undersigned chiefs and warriors forthemselves and that portion of the Sacs which they represent, do herebyassent to the treaty between the United States of America and the unitedtribes of Sacs and Foxes, which was concluded at St. Louis on the thirdof November 1804; and they moreover promise to do all in their power tore-establish and enforce the same. " There is a further provision thatthey will remain distinct and separate from the Sacs of Rock river, giving them no assistance whatever, until peace shall be establishedbetween them and the United States. The Sacs on Rock river were thatpart of the tribe which had been engaged in the late war, and who nowdeclined making a treaty with the United States, and continued, althoughofficially notified of the peace, to commit occasional depredations onthe frontiers; and, it was not until the following spring thathostilities on their part actually ceased. 

On the 13th of May, 1816, the same commissioners effected a treaty withthe chiefs and warriors of the Sacs of Rock river, and the adjacentcountry. The first article of this treaty provides, that, "The Sacs ofRock river and the adjacent country, do hereby unconditionally assentto, recognize, re-establish and confirm the treaty between the UnitedStates of America and the united tribes of Sacs and Foxes, which wasconcluded at St. Louis on the 3d November 1804, as well as all othercontracts and agreements, heretofore made between the Sac tribe and theUnited States. " Under the 9th article of the treaty of Ghent, concluded24th December 1814, between the United States and Great Britain, it wasstipulated, that each party should put an end to Indian hostilitieswithin their respective territory, and place the tribes on the samefooting upon which they stood before the war. Under this provision, thesecond article of the treaty with the Sacs of Rock river, stipulatedthat they are placed upon the same footing which they occupied beforethe late war, upon the single condition of their restoring the propertystolen by them, from the whites, subsequent to their notification thatpeace had been made between the United States and Great Britain. 

Under the 9th article of the treaty of 1804, the United States agreed toestablish a trading-house to supply the Sacs and Foxes with goods at amore reasonable rate than they had been accustomed to procure them. Onthe third of September 1822, Maj. Thomas Forsyth, the U. S. Indian agent, made a treaty at Fort Armstrong, with the chiefs, warriors and head menof the Sacs and Foxes, by which, in consideration of the sum of onethousand dollars, they forever released the United States from allobligation contained in said ninth article of the treaty of 1804. 

On the fourth of August 1824, at Washington city, William Clark, Indianagent and sole commissioner of the United States, effected a treaty withthe Sacs and Foxes through their chiefs and head men, by which, for thesum of one thousand dollars per annum for ten years, they ceded alltheir interest and title to any lands claimed by them in the state ofMissouri, which are situated, lying and being between the Mississippiand Missouri rivers, and a line running from the Missouri at theentrance of Kansas river, north one hundred miles, to the north westcorner of the state of Missouri, and from thence east to theMississippi. By this treaty, these tribes acknowledged the land east andsouth of the lines above described, so far as the Indians claim thesame, to belong to the United States, and that none of their tribesshall be permitted to settle or hunt upon any part of it, after thefirst day of January 1826, without permission from the Superintendent ofIndian affairs. 

Upon the 19th of August 1825, William Clark and Lewis Cass, Commissioners on behalf of the United States, concluded a treaty atPrairie du Chien, in the territory of Michigan, with the chiefs andwarriors of the Sioux, Winnebagoes, Menominees, Chippewas, Ottawas, Pottawatamies, Sacs, Foxes and Ioways. The objects of this treaty werethe restoration of peace among the Indian tribes, several of whom hadbeen for some time waging war against each other; the settlement ofboundary lines between these tribes respectively, and between them andthe United States. The Commissioners succeeded in effecting a peacebetween the Sioux and Chippeways, and between the Sacs, Foxes and Iowayson the one part, and the Sioux on the other; and also in adjusting theboundary lines of the territory of each tribe to the satisfaction of allparties. Under this treaty nothing was asked by the United States norwas any thing granted to them: the character in which the governmentpresented itself, being simply that of a pacificator. 

The concourse of Indians assembled at this council was very great. About3000 came to the council ground, clothed in their war dresses, and armedwith bows, war-clubs and tomahawks. The Sacs and Foxes were the last toarrive, but were very imposing and warlike in their appearance when theyreached the ground. They ascended the Mississippi, to Prairie du Chien, in a fleet of canoes, lashed together. They passed and repassed the townin a connected squadron, standing erect, in their canoes, in full dress, singing their war songs. Upon landing, they drew up in martial order, asif in warlike defiance of their bitter enemies, the Sioux, who wereencamped near the shore, and who in turn shot back the fierce look ofhostility upon their ancient foe. An eye witness describes this scene asone unique and singularly magnificent. The council was held under aspacious booth of green boughs, and lasted for several days. Keokuk waspresent on this occasion, as the head chief of the Sacs, and took anactive part in the council; his course being marked by that moderationand sound policy, for which he is eminently distinguished. 

[Illustration: COUNCIL GROUND AT PRAIRIE DU CHIENS]

In the early part of the year 1828, the President of the United States, appointed Governor Cass and Colonel Pierre Menard, to treat with certaintribes of Indians for the cession of what is called the "mineral region"lying on the Mississippi, south of the Wisconsin. The commissionersarrived at Green Bay late in the summer of that year, and on the 25thof August, made a temporary agreement with the Indians, by which thewhites were allowed to occupy the country where the lead mines wereworked; and in the ensuing year a treaty was to be held with the Indiansfor the purchase of the mineral country: in the mean time, no white wasto cross a certain line, described in said agreement, to dig for ore;and finally the Indians were paid twenty thousand dollars in goods, forthe trespasses already committed on their lands by the miners. Thisagreement was ratified by the President and senate of the United Stateson the 7th January, 1829. Soon after President Jackson came into officein 1829, he appointed General McNeil of the army, to fill the place ofGovernor Cass in the said commission, which was to meet at St. Louis andunder the agreement above described, proceed to the mineral region, toeffect by treaty, its purchase. In consequence of some disagreement inopinion between these two commissioners, the President subsequentlyunited with them, Caleb Atwater, Esq. Of Ohio. They reached Prairie duChien about the middle of July, where they met deputies on the part ofthe Winnebagoes, Chippeways, Ottowas, Pottawatimies, Sioux, Sauks, Foxesand Menominees; and on the first of August, a treaty was concluded forabout eight millions of acres, extending from the upper end of Rockisland to the mouth of the Wisconsin, from latitude 41° 15' to latitude43° 15' on the Mississippi. Following the meanderings of the river thetract is about two hundred and forty miles from south to north. Itextends along the Wisconsin and Fox rivers from west to east so as togive a passage across the country from the Mississippi to lake Michigan. At this treaty Keokuk and Morgan, with two hundred warriors of the Sacand Fox tribes were present, and according to the statement of one ofthe commissioners, rendered essential service to them, by intimidatingthe Winebagoes, who from some dissatisfaction, threatened to assassinatethe commissioners and those associated with them. 

On the 21st Sept. 1832, after the conclusion of the Black Hawk war, General Scott and Governor Reynolds concluded a treaty with the Sacs andFoxes, by which about six million acres of land were acquired, for whichthe United States were to pay them the sum of twenty thousand dollarsper annum for thirty years, to pay off the debts of the tribes and tosupport, at the discretion of the President, a black and gun smith amongthem. A reservation was made of forty miles square, on the Ioway riverin favor of Keokuk, (since purchased, ) including his village, as areward for his fidelity to the United Slates. Black Hawk, his son andthe Prophet were to be held as hostages during the pleasure of thePresident. This is known as the "Black Hawk purchase. " The whole of thesix millions lie upon the west side of the Mississippi and are includedwithin the following boundaries: Beginning on the Mississippi river atthe point where the Sac and Fox northern boundary line is established, by the second article of the treaty of Prairie des Chiens of 15th July, 1830, strikes said river; thence up said boundary line to a point fiftymiles from the Mississippi, measured on said line to the nearest pointon the Red Cedar of Iowa, forty miles from the Mississippi river; thencein a right line to a point in the northern boundary of the state ofMissouri fifty miles measured on said boundary from the Mississippiriver; thence by the last mentioned boundary to the Mississippi river, and by the western shore of said river to the place of beginning. 

The Sac and Fox tribes are now residing on the west side of theMississippi, and are living upon friendly terms with the United States. As a general remark, it may be said, that their intercourse with theUnited States has been of a pacific character. They took no part in thewar of the Revolution: they were not parties to the Indian disturbanceswhich terminated in the treaty of Greenville in 1795. Tecumseh and theProphet failed to enlist them in their grand confederacy against theAmericans, which was nearly broken up by the premature battle ofTippecanoe. The machinations of the British agents and traders, backedby the most liberal distribution of goods and fire arms, induced but asmall party of them, not exceeding two hundred, to join the Britishstandard in the late war with England. In the still more recentdisturbance, on the frontiers of Illinois, called the "Black Hawk war, "but a portion of these tribes, took up arms against the United States, the great mass of them refusing to take any part in it; while Keokuk, their principal chief, exerted all his influence to dissuade the"British Band" from engaging in so hopeless a contest. 

MA-KA-TAI-ME-SHE-KIA-KIAH, OR

BLACK HAWK. 

CHAPTER III. 

Birth of Black Hawk--Early adventures--Battles with the Osages and Cherokees--Death of his father--Interview with Lieutenant Pike--Attack upon Fort Madison--Joins the British in the late war--Marches to lake Erie--Returns home after the attack upon Fort Stephenson--Murder of his adopted son--Battle of the Sink-hole near Cap au Gris--Treaty of peace at Portage des Sioux in 1816. 

Black Hawk is a remarkable instance of an individual, in nowise gifted with any uncommon physical, moral or intellectualendowments, obtaining, by the force of circumstances, the mostextraordinary celebrity. Since the year 1831, his name has beenfamiliarly known to the people of the United States; and the terror, which for a brief period, it excited upon the frontiers of Illinois, Missouri and Indiana, was only surpassed by the curiosity which pervadedevery part of the union, to behold this notable chief of the woods, after he had been conquered, and was carried a prisoner of state, fromthe wilds of the West to the Atlantic sea-board. His tour through theUnited States, partook largely of the triumphal march of a successfulhero. In the number of persons who flocked around him, the honors whichhe received were scarcely less flattering than those awarded to theillustrious Lafayette, while the "nation's guest. " In the one case therewas curiosity alone, in the other, curiosity and gratitude blended. Tothe casual observer, the distinction between the two cases is not veryapparent. 

The causes which created a desire so universal, to behold thisaboriginal chief, have awakened a corresponding interest in the publicmind, to learn more of his history, than was revealed in the events ofthe campaign of 1832. To gratify this curiosity, is the object of thepresent volume. The author has carefully consulted all the sources ofinformation, touching the life and character of Black Hawk, that werewithin his reach; and has studiously avoided the presentation of anyfact which did not seem to be well authenticated. Should the incidentshere narrated, in the life of this celebrated Indian, not prove as richand amusing as might be anticipated, from the wide spread notorietywhich he has obtained, the work will still be found of some value. Itpresents in a connected form, and as the author trusts, with historicaccuracy, one link in the great chain of political relations between theUnited States and the Indian tribes of North America. Every day isincreasing the interest and magnitude of these relations, and any effortto preserve the facts with which they are associated, would seem to beworthy of public consideration. Black Hawk may die, his name beforgotten, and the smoke of his wigwam be seen no more, but the "BlackHawk war" will long form a page of deep interest, in the history ofthis country. 

The subject of this memoir is by birth a Sac, having been born at theprincipal Sac village, on Rock River, in the year, as he himself states, 1767. His father's name was Py-e-sa, his grandfather's Na-na-ma-kee orThunder. Black Hawk was not by birth a chief, but at the early age offifteen, having distinguished himself by wounding an enemy, he waspermitted to paint and wear feathers; and was placed in the rank of theBraves. About the year 1783, he united in an expedition against theOsages, and had the good fortune to kill and scalp one of the enemy: forthis act of youthful valor, he was, for the first time, permitted tomingle in the scalp-dance. This triumph was followed shortly afterwardsby two more excursions against the same tribe. In the first, Black Hawkwas the leader of seven men, who suddenly attacked a party of onehundred Osages, killed one of them, and as suddenly retreated withoutloss. This exploit, so far increased the number of his followers, thathe soon afterwards started with a party of one hundred and eightybraves, and marched to an Osage village, on the Missouri; but found itdeserted. Most of the party being disappointed, left their leader andreturned home. Black Hawk, however, with but five followers, pursued thetrail of the enemy, and after some days succeeded in killing one man anda boy; and, securing their scalps, returned home. In the year 1786, having recovered from the effect of his late unsuccessful excursion, Black Hawk found himself once more at the head of two hundred braves, and again set off to avenge the repeated outrages of the Osages upon theSac nation. Soon after he reached the enemy's country, he met a partyabout equal in number to his own. A battle ensued. The Osages lost nearone hundred men, and Black Hawk nineteen. He claims, in the attack, tohave killed five of the enemy, with his own hand. This severe engagementhad the effect, for some time, of keeping the Osages upon their ownlands and arresting their depredations upon the Sacs. This cessation ofhostilities gave the latter an opportunity of redressing the wrongswhich the Cherokees had committed upon them, by murdering some of theirwomen and children. A party was raised for this purpose, and met theCherokees upon the Merrimack river, below St. Louis, the latter beingmost numerous. In this battle Py-e-sa, the father of Black Hawk waskilled. The Cherokees were compelled to retreat with the loss oftwenty-eight men, the Sacs having but seven killed. Upon the fall ofPy-e-sa, Black Hawk assumed the command and also took possession of the"medicine bag, " then in the keeping of his father. Owing to thedisasters of this expedition, and especially the death of his father, Black Hawk, for the ensuing five years, refrained from all warlikeoperations, and spent his time in fishing and hunting. At the end ofthis period, being about the year 1800, he made another excursion, against the Osages, at the head of about five hundred Sacs and Foxes anda hundred Ioways, who had joined him as allies. After a long march theyreached and destroyed about forty lodges of the enemy, killing many oftheir bravest warriors, five of whom were slain by the leader of theinvading army. In the year 1802, he terminated a severe and protractedcampaign against the Chippewas, Kaskaskias and Osages, during which sixor seven battles were fought and more than one hundred of the enemykilled. The following summer Black Hawk made one of his periodicalvisits to St. Louis to see his Spanish father, by whom he was wellreceived. Upon his next visit to this Spanish dignitary, he found manysad and gloomy faces, because the United States were about to takepossession of the town and country around it. "Soon after the Americansarrived, " says Black Hawk, "I took my band and went to take leave, forthe last time, of our father. The Americans came to see him also. Seeingthem approach, we passed out at one door, as they entered atanother--and immediately started, in our canoes, for our village on Rockriver--not liking the change any more than our friends appeared to atSt. Louis. On arriving at our village, we gave the news that strangepeople had taken St. Louis, and that we should never see our Spanishfather again. This information made all our people sorry. Sometimeafterwards (1805) a boat came up the river with a young American chief(Lieutenant, afterwards General Pike, ) and a small party of soldiers. Weheard of them, soon after he had passed Salt river. Some of our youngbraves watched him every day, to see what sort of people he had onboard. The boat at length arrived at Rock river, and the young chiefcame on shore with his interpreter--made a speech, and gave us somepresents. We, in return, presented him with meat and such provisions aswe could spare. We were well pleased with the speech of the young chief. He gave us good advice; said our American father would treat us well. Hepresented us an American flag, which was hoisted. He then requested usto pull down our British flags, and give him our Britishmedals--promising to send us others on his return to St. Louis. This wedeclined as we wished to have _two fathers_. "

Subsequently to this period, the building of Fort Edwards, near the headof the Des Moyens rapids, gave much uneasiness to the Sacs. Some of thechiefs and a party of their followers went down to this point, and hadan interview with the war chief who had command of the troops engaged inconstructing the fort. The Indians became satisfied and returned home. Not long afterwards a party, of which Black Hawk was one, determined toattack and take Fort Madison, standing upon the west side of theMississippi, above the mouth of the Des Moyens, which was thengarrisoned with about fifty men. Their spies having ascertained that thetroops marched out of the fort every morning to exercise, they concealedthemselves near it, with an agreement to fire upon them when they cameout. About sun rise, on the morning of the proposed attack, the gateopened, and a young man made his appearance, but was suffered to returnwithout being molested. The gate was again opened and four soldiers cameout. They were followed by a fifth, who was instantly killed. The othersthen ran for the fort, but two of them were shot down before theyreached it. The Indians continued for two days, shooting into the fort, and endeavoring to set fire to it. Finding their efforts unavailing, they gave up the attack and returned home. 

The period had now arrived when the difficulties between this countryand Great Britain, were to be settled by an appeal to arms. Somediscontent had prevailed among the Sacs, in regard to the encroachmentsof the Americans upon their hunting grounds. They, however, offeredtheir services to the United States, to fight against the British, buttheir offer was declined. They had not been as liberally supplied withpresents and goods at Fort Madison, as they had anticipated, and in themean time, the British agents had artfully fomented their discontent, and labored to win their confidence by the most liberal distributionamong them of goods and ardent spirits. Shortly after the declaration ofwar, Girty, a British trader, arrived at Rock island with two boatsloaded with goods, and the British flag was hoisted. He informed theIndians that he had been sent to them by Colonel Dixon, with presents, alarge silk flag and a keg of rum. The day after his arrival, the goodswere divided among the Indians, they promising to pay for them, in furs, in the following spring. Girty informed Black Hawk that Colonel Dixonwas then at Green Bay, with a large quantity of goods, arms andammunition, and was desirous that he should raise a party of warriorsand join him. Black Hawk succeeded in collecting about two hundredbraves, and soon reached Green Bay, where he found Dixon encamped, witha large body of Indians, assembled from other tribes, who had beenalready furnished with clothing and with arms. Black Hawk had aninterview with Dixon, two other war chiefs and the interpreter. "Hereceived me, " says Black Hawk, "with a hearty shake of the hand, andpresented me to the other chiefs, who shook my hand cordially, andseemed much pleased to see me. After I was seated, Colonel Dixon said, "General Black Hawk, I sent for you, to explain to you, what we aregoing to do, and the reasons that have brought us here. Our friendGirty, informs us in the letter you brought from him, what has takenplace. You will now have to hold us fast by the hand. Your Englishfather has found out that the Americans want to take your country fromyou, and has sent me and his braves to drive them back to their owncountry. He has likewise sent a large quantity of arms and ammunition, and we want all your warriors to join us. " He then placed a medal roundmy neck, and gave me a paper, (which I lost in the late war, ) and a silkflag, saying, "You are to command all the braves that will leave herethe day after to-morrow, to join our braves near Detroit. "

On the following day, arms, clothing, knives and tomahawks, weredistributed to Black Hawk's band, and upon the succeeding morning, theystarted, in all near five hundred braves, to join the British army. This was in August, 1812, shortly after the surrender and massacre ofthe American troops at Chicago, which place they passed a few days afterit had been evacuated. Of the movements of Black Hawk during hisconnection with the British upon our north west, no satisfactoryinformation has been obtained. It appears that he was in twoengagements, but seems not to have distinguished himself. The last ofthese was the attack, in August 1813, upon Fort Stephenson, then underthe command of Major Croghan. The gallant defence of this post, and thefatal repulse given to the combined British and Indian forces, seem tohave disheartened Black Hawk; for soon afterwards, tired of successivedefeats, and disappointed in not obtaining the "spoils of victory, " heleft the army, with about twenty of his followers, and returned to hisvillage on Rock river. It is probable that he would have remainedneutral during the remainder of the war, had it not been for one ofthose border outrages, which lawless and unprincipled white men but toooften commit upon the Indians, under pretence of self defence orretaliation, often a mere pretext for wanton bloodshed and murder. Previous to joining Colonel Dixon, Black Hawk had visited the lodge ofan old friend, whose son he had adopted and taught to hunt. He wasanxious that this youth should go with him and his band and join theBritish standard, but the father objected on the ground that he wasdependent upon his son for game; and, moreover, that he did not wish himto fight against the Americans who had always treated him kindly. Hehad agreed to spend the following winter near a white settler, upon Saltriver, one of the tributaries of the Mississippi which enters thatstream below the Des Moyens, and intended to take his son with him. AsBlack Hawk was approaching his village on Rock river, after his campaignon the lakes with Dixon, he observed a smoke rising from a hollow in thebluff of the stream. He went to see who was there. Upon drawing near tothe fire, he discovered a mat stretched, and an old man of sorrowfulaspect sitting under it, alone, and evidently humbling himself beforethe Great Spirit, by fasting and prayer. It proved to be his old friend, the father of his adopted son. Black Hawk seated himself beside him andinquired what had happened, but received no answer, for indeed he seemedscarcely alive. Being revived by some water, he looked up, recognizedthe friend of his youth, and in reply to Black Hawk's second inquiry, said, in a feeble voice, "Soon after your departure to join the British, I descended the riverwith a small party, to winter at the place I told you the white man hadrequested me to come to. When we arrived, I found a fort built, and thewhite family that had invited me to come and hunt near them, had removedto it. I then paid a visit to the fort, to tell the white people thatmyself and little band were friendly, and that we wished to hunt in thevicinity of their fort. The war chief, who commanded it, told me that wemight hunt on the Illinois side of the Mississippi, and no person wouldtrouble us. That the horsemen only ranged on the Missouri side, and hehad directed them not to cross the river. I was pleased with thisassurance of safety, and immediately crossed over and made my winter'scamp. Game was plenty: We lived happy and often talked of you. My boyregretted your absence, and the hardships you would have to undergo. Wehad been here about two moons, when my boy went out as usual to hunt. Night came on and he did not return. I was alarmed for his safety andpassed a sleepless night. In the morning my old woman went to the otherlodges and gave the alarm, and all turned out in pursuit. There beingsnow on the ground, they soon came upon his track, and after pursuing itsome distance, found that he was on the trail of a deer, that led to theriver. They soon came to the place where he had stood and fired, andfound a deer hanging upon the branch of a tree, which had been skinned. But here also were found the tracks of white men. They had taken my boyprisoner. Their tracks led across the river, and then down towards thefort. My friends followed them, and soon found my boy lying dead. He hadbeen most cruelly murdered. His face was shot to pieces, his bodystabbed in several places, and his head scalped. His arms were tiedbehind him. "

The old man ceased his narrative, relapsed into the stupor from which hehad been aroused and in a few minutes, expired. Black Hawk remained byhis body during the night, and next day buried it upon the peak of thebluff. Shocked at the cruel fate of his adopted son, and deeply touchedby the mournful death of his old comrade, he was roused to vengeanceagainst the Americans, and after remaining a few days at the village, and raising a band of braves, prepared for offensive operations upon thefrontiers. 

Having narrated to his band the murder of his adopted son, they began tothirst for blood, and agreed to follow Black Hawk wheresoever he mightlead. The party consisted of about thirty. They descended theMississippi in canoes to the place where Fort Madison had stood, butfound it abandoned by the American troops and burnt. They continuedtheir course down the river and landed near Cap au Gris, on the 10th ofMay, where they killed one of the United States Rangers, named Bernard, but were driven off by Lieutenant Massey, with a detachment from FortHoward. The Indians, however, rallied in the woods, and on the 24th ofMay, a severe battle and of a character somewhat novel, was foughtbetween the troops at Fort Howard, under Lieutenant Drakeford of the U. S. Rangers, and Black Hawk and his party. The former, in his officialreport of this engagement, says, "Yesterday, about twelve o'clock, five of our men went out to somecabins on the bluff, about one quarter of a mile below the fort, tobring a grind-stone. The backwater of the Mississippi, rendered it sothey went in a canoe. On their return they were attacked by a party ofIndians, supposed to be about fifty in number; they killed andtomahawked three and wounded one mortally. While about this mischief, wegave them as good a fire from a little below the fort, as the breadth ofthe backwater would permit. Captain Craig and myself with about fortymen, waded across the water and pursued them: in going about half amile, we came on them and commenced a fire which continued about onehour, part of which time at a distance of forty steps, and no part ofthe time further than a hundred and fifty steps: shortly after thecommencement of the battle, we were reinforced by Captain Musick andtwenty of his men; the enemy now ran; some made their escape, and othersmade to a sink-hole that is in the battle ground, and from there theyreturned a most rapid fire; it being very dangerous, to approach nearerthan fifty steps of the sink, we at length erected a breast-work, onthe two wheels of a wagon, and resolved upon moving it up to the edge ofthe sink, to fire from behind, down into the sink and preserve us fromtheirs. We got the moving battery finished about sunset, and moved it upwith a sufficient number of men behind it, whilst all other posts roundwere sufficiently guarded, in case they should be put to the route. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF SINK HOLE. ]

"We had not moved to within less than ten steps of the sink, before theycommenced a fire, which we returned at every opportunity. Night came onand we were obliged to leave the ground, and decline the expectation oftaking them out without risking man for man, which we thought not agood exchange on our side. During the time of the battle anotherparty of Indians commenced a brisk fire on the fort. Captain Craig waskilled in the commencement of the battle, Lieut. Edward Spears at themoving of the breast work to the sink. The morning of the 25th wereturned to the ground and found five Indians killed and the sign of agreat many wounded, that had been taken off in the night. The aggregatenumber of killed on our part is one captain, one third lieutenant, andfive privates; three wounded, one missing, one citizen killed and twowounded mortally. "

Black Hawk states that but eighteen of his men were in the sink withhim, and that they dug holes in the sides of the bank, with theirknives, to protect them from the fire of the Americans: Some of hiswarriors commenced singing their death songs; but he, several timescalled out to the enemy, if brave men, to come down and fight them. Hedescribes the wagon-battery, and its inefficiency in dislodging themfrom their depressed but safe situation. His retreat to the sink-holeunder the circumstances, was a sound military movement. LieutenantDrakeford having withdrawn his forces, Black Hawk and his party lefttheir intrenchment and returned by land, to their village. 

The tribes of Indians on the Mississippi, were notified in the earlypart of this year, 1815, that peace had been concluded between theUnited States and England. Most of those who had been engaged in thewar, ceased hostilities. Black Hawk, however, and his band, and some ofthe Pottawatamies, were not inclined to bury the tomahawk. Even as lateas the spring of 1816, they committed depredations. Some palliation forthese outrages may be found in the fact, that the British, on thenorth-west frontier, long after they were officially notified of thepeace, continued to excite the Indians to acts of violence against theUnited States; and, indeed, participated in them likewise. It was in thespring of this year that they captured the garrison at Prairie du Chien, and instigated Black Hawk and his party to attack some boats, which wereascending the Mississippi to that point, with troops and provisions. Inthis attack, Black Hawk was the leader. One of the boats was capturedand several of the crew killed. They were compelled to return, anddropped down to the fort at the mouth of the Des Moyens river. As areward for their attack upon these boats, the British agents distributedrum among the Indians engaged in the affair, and joined with them indancing and feasting. 

In May, Black Hawk and his party, having been again summoned by theAmericans, to make peace, concluded to descend the Mississippi toPortage des Sioux, to meet the American commissioners who were there forthat purpose. On the 13th of May, 1816, a treaty of peace was signed byClark, Edwards, and Choteau on behalf of the United States, and thechiefs and warriors of the Sacs of Rock river and the adjacent country. To this treaty Black Hawk was a party. It recognizes the validity of thetreaty of St. Louis, of November 1804. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Building of Fort Armstrong--The good Spirit of Rock Island--Death of Black Hawk's children--Young Sac offers to die in place of his brother--Black Hawk's visit to Malden--Whipped by some whites--Whites settle at his village--Black Hawk's talk with Governor Coles and Judge Hall--Sale of the lands on Rock river--Indians ordered to remove--Agreement to remove for six thousand dollars--Memorial of the white settlers to Governor Reynolds--The Governor's letters to General Clark and General Gaines--The latter leaves Jefferson Barracks with six companies of the United States troops for Rock Island--His interview with Black Hawk--Calls upon the Governor of Illinois for militia--The Indians abandon their village--treaty of peace made with them--Official letters to the war department--Summary of the causes which brought on this disturbance--Black Hawk's attempt to form an alliance with other tribes. 

From the treaty of peace, between the United States and the Sac Indiansof Rock river, in 1816, to the commencement of hostilities between theseparties in 1832, the life of Black Hawk seems to have been quiet andmonotonous, occasionally relieved by a warlike excursion, but generallyspent in hunting, throughout the winter, and in loitering about hisvillage, during the summer. Such, indeed, is the life of most Indians. Having no intellectual pursuits and little desire for the acquisition ofproperty, beyond the supply of their immediate wants, they have inreality but two sources of excitement--war and the chase. They take nointerest in the domestic affairs of their families, have little tastefor the pursuits of agriculture, and, if not engaged in hostileexcursions, in following the deer, or in trapping the beaver, they sinkinto listless inactivity. It is highly probable that many of their warsare undertaken, more for the gratification of that love of excitement, which is an indestructible element of the human mind, than from anyconstitutional proneness to cruelty and bloodshed. They need bothphysical and intellectual excitation, and having none of the resourceswhich mental and moral culture throws open to civilized man, they seekit in making war upon each other or upon the wild animals which sharewith them the woods and the prairies. 

Subsequently to the treaty of 1816, and perhaps in that year, thegovernment of the United States built Fort Armstrong, upon Rock Island, in the Mississippi river, and but a few miles from the village whereBlack Hawk and his band resided. This measure, though not actuallyopposed, was by no means acceptable to them. They probably did notrelish the gradual advances upon them, of the white population; but theyentertained, moreover, a special regard for this beautiful island, whichis justly considered one of the finest in the whole extent of theMississippi. It is fertile, and produces many varieties of nuts andfruits, and being in the rapids of the stream, the waters which lave itsshores, yield an abundance of excellent fish. In addition to all this, they have a traditionary belief, that the island was the favoriteresidence of a good spirit which dwelt in a cave in the rocks on whichFort Armstrong now stands. This spirit had often been seen by theIndians, but after the erection of the Fort, alarmed by the noise andintrusion of the white man, it spread its beautiful, swan-like wings, and disappeared. During the year 1817, the Sacs sent out some warriorsagainst the Sioux, and succeeded in killing several of them, but BlackHawk was not of the party. About this time, his eldest son sickened anddied, and within a short period afterwards, he lost his youngestdaughter. This affliction seems to have made a deep impression upon him;and according to a custom common among the Indians, he blacked his face, and for the ensuing two years lived at home, in seclusion, drinkingwater at mid-day, and eating boiled corn but sparingly, in the evening. In the winter of 1819-20, there was a disturbance between the Sacs andIoways, one of the latter having killed a young man belonging to theformer. Under the agreement of a late council between these two tribes, the old custom of appeasing the friends of one who had been killed, bypresents, had been abolished, and each party had promised, that infuture, the murderer should be surrendered up, that he might be punishedwith death. A party of Sacs, of which Black Hawk was one, agreed tovisit the Ioway village on this occasion, and when about to depart, called at the lodge of the young man who had committed the outrage, totake him along. He was sick, but still ready to accompany them. Hisbrother interfered, and insisted that he was too unwell to travel; thathe would himself go and die in his place, and finally set off with theparty. On the seventh day, they reached the Ioway village. Theydismounted a short distance from it, and bid farewell to their youngbrave, who went calmly forwards, alone, singing his death-song, andseated himself in the middle of the lodges. One of the Ioway chiefswent out to Black Hawk, who told him the brother had come in the placeof the young man that had committed the murder, he being sick. BlackHawk and his party, now mounted their horses and set off on theirreturn; and casting their eyes towards the village, saw the Ioways, armed with spears and clubs, gathering around the young prisoner. Atnight the returning party, having stopped and kindled a fire, weresuddenly alarmed by the tramping of horses. They immediately stood totheir arms, but were soon relieved, by finding, instead of a foe, theiryoung brave, unhurt and in the possession of two horses. Theyascertained that the Ioways, at first threatened him with instant death, but finally, changing their purpose, had given him something to eat, smoked the pipe with him, and presenting him with two horses, bid himreturn home in safety. The generous conduct of the Ioways is deservingof praise, but the genuine affection of this young brave, in noblyvolunteering to die in place of his sick brother, presents one of thoserare cases of self-devotion, which should be held in remembrance. 

In the following autumn, Black Hawk and some of his band went on a visitto their British father at Malden and received presents from him. Amedal was given to Black Hawk for his fidelity to the British in thelate war, and he was requested to come up annually, to that place, withhis band, and receive such presents, as had been promised them byColonel Dixon, when they joined the English forces. These visits wereregularly made, it is believed, from that time down to the year 1832. Itis owing to this circumstance that Black Hawk's party has long beenknown by the appellation of the "British Band. "

In the winter of 1822, Black Hawk and his party, encamped on theTwo-rivers, for the purpose of hunting, and while there was so badlytreated by some white men, that his prejudices against the Americanswere greatly strengthened. He was accused of having killed the hogs ofsome settlers, who, meeting him one day in the woods, wrested his gunfrom his hands, and discharging it in the air, beat him so severely withsticks that for several nights he was unable to sleep. They thenreturned him his gun and ordered him to leave the neighborhood. Of theperpetration of this outrage, there is little doubt, while the fact ofBlack Hawk's having committed the offence charged upon him, rests, atbest, upon suspicion. Supposing him to have been guilty, and thesupposition is at variance with the whole tenor of his intercourse withthe whites, it was on their part, one of those brutal appeals to _club_law, which are but too often practised towards the Indians; and which, when avenged by them, not unfrequently brings upon their nation, thepower and the arms of the United States. 

The ensuing summer, the expediency of a removal of the whole of the Sacsand Foxes, to the west side of the Mississippi, was urged upon them bythe agent at Fort Armstrong. The principal Fox chief, as well asKeokuk, assented to the removal. The latter sent a messenger through thevillage informing the Indians that it was the wish of their greatFather, the President, that they should remove, and he pointed out theIoway river as presenting a fine situation for their new village. Therewas a party, however, among the Sacs, made up principally of the"British Band, " who were decidedly opposed to a removal; and they calledupon their old leader, Black Hawk, for his opinion on the question. Hetook the ground that the land on which their village stood had neverbeen sold; that the Americans had, therefore, no right to insist uponthe measure, and that as a matter of policy he was opposed to it. Theold man was probably swayed in his decision by another cause. He feltthat his power in the tribe was waning before the rising popularity ofKeokuk. Here was a question on which their people differed in opinion. By placing himself at the head of one of the parties, he might recoverhis influence, or at least sustain himself against the overshadowingascendancy of his rival. He had an interview with Keokuk to see if thematter could not be adjusted with the President, by giving him otherlands in exchange for those on which their village stood; and the latterpromised to see the great chief at St. Louis, on the subject. During thefollowing winter, while Black Hawk and his party were absent on ahunting expedition, several white families arrived at their village, destroyed some of their lodges and commenced making fences over theircorn-fields. Black Hawk upon hearing of this movement, promptlyreturned to Rock river, and found his own lodge occupied by the whites. He went to Fort Armstrong and complained to the interpreter, the agentbeing absent. He crossed the Mississippi and travelled several days toconverse with the Winnebago sub-agent, who concurred with theinterpreter in advising the Sacs to remove to Keokuk's settlement on theIoway. He then visited the prophet, Wabokieshiek, or White-Cloud, whoseopinions were held in much respect by the Sacs and Winnebagoes. He urgedBlack Hawk not to remove, but to persuade Keokuk and his party to returnto Rock river, assuring them that if they remained quietly at theirvillage, the whites would not venture to disturb them. He then rejoinedhis hunting party, and in the spring when they returned to theirvillage, they found the white settlers still there, and that the greaterpart of their corn-fields had been enclosed by fences. About that timeKeokuk visited Rock river and endeavored to persuade the remainder ofthe Sacs to follow him to the Ioway. He had accomplished nothing withthe great chief at St. Louis, in regard to their remaining at theirvillage, and as a matter of policy, that peace might be preserved, hewas warmly in favor of the proposed removal. Black Hawk considered it anact of cowardice to yield up their village and the graves of theirfathers, to strangers, who had no right to the soil, and the breachbetween Keokuk and himself was widened. 

The white immigrants continued to increase, and the Sac village was thegreat point of attraction to them. It was situated on the neck of landformed by the junction of Rock river with the Mississippi, and had beenthe chief village of the tribe for sixty or seventy years. "Their womenhad broken the surface of the surrounding prairie with their hoes, andenclosed with a kind of flimsy pole fence, many fields, which wereannually cultivated by them, in the raising of corn, beans, potatoes andsquashes. They had also erected several hundred houses of variousdimensions, some probably an hundred feet in length by forty or fiftybroad; which were constructed of poles and forks, arranged so as to forma kind of frame, which was then enclosed with the bark of trees, which, being peeled off and dried under a weight for the purpose of keeping itexpanded, was afterwards confined to the walls and roof by means ofcords, composed of the bark of other trees. This indeed is a delightfulspot:--on the north-west rolls the majestic Mississippi, while the darkforests which clothe the numerous islands of Rock river, with itsseveral rippling streams on the south-east, form a delightful contrast, which is rendered still more pleasing from the general declivity of thesurrounding country, as it sinks gradually away to the shores of theserivers. This ancient village had literally become the grave-yard of thenation. Scarcely an individual could be found in the whole nation, whohad not deposited the remains of some relative, in or near to thisplace. Thither the mother, with mournful and melancholy step, annuallyrepaired to pay a tribute of respect to her departed offspring; whilethe weeping sisters and loud lamenting widows, joined the procession ofgrief; sometimes, in accordance with their own feelings, no doubt, butalways in pursuance of an established custom of their nation, from timeimmemorial. On these occasions they carefully clear away every spear ofgrass or other vegetable, which they find growing near the grave, andmake such repairs as may be thought necessary. They also carry to thegrave some kind of food, which they leave there for the spirit of thedeceased: and before they conclude these ceremonies, they often, in avery melancholy and lamenting mood, address the dead, enquiring how theyfare, and who, or whether any one performs for them the kind offices ofmother, sister or wife; together with many other enquiries which afrantic imagination may happen to suggest. This being one of the mostimportant religious duties, is scrupulously observed by all the betterclass of this people. "[4]

The whites who established themselves at this place, in violation of thelaws of congress, and the provisions of the treaty of 1804, committedvarious aggressions upon the Indians, such as destroying their corn, killing their domestic animals, and whipping the women and children. They carried with them, as articles of traffic, whiskey and otherintoxicating liquors, and by distributing them in the tribe, madedrunkenness and scenes of debauchery common. Black Hawk and the otherchiefs of the band, remonstrated against these encroachments, andespecially in regard to the introduction of spirituous liquors amongtheir people: and, upon one occasion, when a white man continued, openly, to sell whiskey to them, the old chief, taking with him one ortwo companions, went to his house, rolled out the barrel of whiskey, broke in the head, and emptied its contents upon the ground, in presenceof the owner. This was done, as he alleges, from the fear that some ofthe white persons would be killed by his people when in a state ofintoxication. Thus things wore on until 1827. During that winter, whilethe Indians were making their periodical hunt, some of the whites, inthe hope of expediting their removal to the west side of theMississippi, set on fire, in one day, about forty of their lodges, anumber of which were entirely consumed. When the Indians returned in thespring and demanded satisfaction for the destruction of their property, they were met by new insults and outrages. 

In the summer of 1829, Black Hawk happened to meet, at Rock island, withthe late governor Coles, of whom he had heard as a great chief ofIllinois, in company with "another chief" as he calls him--Judge Hall. Having failed in his appeals to the Indian agents, for redress of thegrievances of his people, he determined to apply to these two chiefs, onthe subject, and accordingly waited upon them for that purpose. 

He spoke of the indignity perpetrated upon himself, (his having beenbeaten with sticks by the whites, ) with the feeling that a respectableperson among us would have shown under such circumstances; and pointingto a black mark on his face, said that he wore it as a symbol ofdisgrace. The customs of his nation required, that he should avenge thewrong that he had received, but he chose rather to submit to it for thepresent than involve them in a war. And this was the only alternative, for if an Indian should kill, or even strike a white man, the aggressionwould be eagerly seized upon and exaggerated; the whole frontierpopulation would rush to war, and the Indians would be hunted from theirhouses like wild beasts. He spoke of the intrusion upon their fields, the destruction of their growing corn, the ploughing up of the graves oftheir fathers, and the beating of their women; and added, "we dare notresent any of these things. If we did, it would be said that the Indianswere disturbing the white people, and troops would be sent out todestroy us. " We enquired, "why do you not represent these things to ourgovernment?--the President is a wise and a good ruler, who would protectyou. " "Our great father is too far off, he cannot hear our voice. " "Butyou could have letters written and sent to him. " "So we could, " was hisreply, "but the white men would write letters, and say that we toldlies. Our great father would not believe an Indian, in preference to hisown children. "[5] Black Hawk in reference to this interview, says, "Neither of them could do any thing for us; but both evidently appearedvery sorry. It would give me great pleasure at all times, to take thesetwo chiefs by the hand. "

Under the seventh article of the treaty made at St. Louis in 1804, it isprovided that, "as long as the lands which are now ceded to the UnitedStates remain their property, the Indians, belonging to the said tribes, shall enjoy the privilege of living and hunting upon them. " It was notuntil the year, 1829, that any part of the lands upon Rock river, werebrought into market by the United States. It follows as a matter ofcourse, that all the white settlers upon them prior to this period, weretrespassers, being there in violation of the laws of Congress, and theprovisions of the treaty. Although the frontier settlements of Illinois, had not approached within fifty or sixty miles of Rock river, and thelands for a still greater distance around it, had not been offered forsale, yet in this year, government was induced to make sale of a fewquarter sections, at the mouth of Rock river, including the Sac village. The reason for this uncalled for measure, is obvious--to evade theprovisions of the foregoing treaty of cession, and create a pretext forthe immediate removal of the Indians to the west side of theMississippi. 

In the spring of 1830, when Black Hawk and his band returned from theirannual hunt, to occupy their lodges, and prepare as usual for raisingtheir crop of vegetables, they found, that the land in and around theirvillage, had been brought into market, and that their old friend, thetrader at Rock Island had purchased a considerable part of it. BlackHawk, greatly disturbed at this new condition of things, appealed to theagent at that place, who informed him, that the lands having been soldby government to individuals, he and his party had no longer any _right_to remain upon them. Black Hawk was still unwilling to assent to aremoval, and in the course of the summer, he visited Malden to consulthis British father on the subject, and returned by Detroit to see thegreat American chief, Governor Cass, residing there. Both of thesepersons told him that if the Indians had not sold their lands and wouldremain quietly upon them, they would not be disturbed. Black Hawk, acting upon the assumption that the land on which their village stood, never had been legally sold to the United States, returned homedetermined to keep possession of it. It was late in the fall when hearrived: his people had gone to their hunting grounds for the winter andhe followed them. They made an unsuccessful hunt and the season passedoff in gloom. Keokuk again exerted his influence to induce them todesert Black Hawk and remove to the Ioway. Such, however, was theirattachment to their favorite village, that the whole band returned to itin the spring of 1831. The agent at Rock island forthwith notified themthat if they did not remove from the land, troops would be sent by theUnited States to drive them off. Black Hawk says, he had a conference, about this time, with the trader at Rock Island, who enquired of him, ifsome terms could not be made, upon which he and his party would agreeto remove to the west side of the Mississippi. To this he replied, thatif his great father would do justice to them and make the proposition, they would remove. He was asked by the trader, "if the great chief atSt. Louis would give six thousand dollars, to purchase provisions andother articles, " if he would give up peaceably and remove. To this heagreed. The trader accordingly sent a message to the agent at St. Louis, that Black Hawk, and his whole band, could be removed for the sum of sixthousand dollars, but the answer was, that nothing would be given, andthat if they did not remove immediately, an armed force would be sent tocompel them. 

The squaws had now planted their corn, and it was beginning to grow, when the whites again commenced ploughing it up. Black Hawk at lastdetermined to put a stop to these aggressions upon his people, andaccordingly gave notice to those who were perpetrating them, that theymust remove, forthwith, from his village. In the mean time, after thereturn of the Indians, which took place in April, eight of the whitesettlers united in a memorial to the Executive of the state of Illinois, in which they set forth that the Sac Indians of Rock river had"threatened to kill them; that they had acted in a most outrageousmanner; threw down their fences, turned horses into their corn-fields, stole their potatoes, saying _the land was theirs and that they had notsold it_, --although said deponents had purchased the land of the UnitedStates' government: levelled deadly weapons at the citizens, and on someoccasions hurt said citizens for attempting to prevent the destructionof their property, " &c. &c. The memorial concludes with the still morestartling outrage, that the said Indians went "to a house, rolled out abarrel of whiskey and destroyed it. " One of these eight afflictedmemorialists, swore the other seven to the truth of their statements, and with an earnest prayer for immediate relief, it was placed beforehis Excellency, on the 19th of May. 

This long catalogue of outrages, backed by other memorials, and diversrumors of border depredations, committed by "General Black Hawk" and his"British Band, " called into immediate action the patriotism and officialpower of the Governor. Under date of Bellville, May 26, 1831, he writesto the superintendent of Indian affairs, General William Clark, at St. Louis, that in order to protect the citizens of Illinois, which heconsidered in a state of "actual invasion, " he had called out sevenhundred militia to remove a band of Sac Indians, then residing at Rockriver, and he pledges himself to the superintendent, that in fifteendays he will have a force in the field, sufficient to "remove them_dead_ or _alive_, over to the west side of the Mississippi. " But tosave all this disagreeable business, his Excellency suggests to GeneralClark that perhaps a request from him to these Indians, to remove to thewest side of the river, would effect the object of procuring peace tothe citizens of the state. The letter concludes with the magnanimousdeclaration that there is no disposition on the part of the people ofthe state of Illinois to injure these unfortunate, deluded savages, "ifthey will let us alone. "

General Clark, under date of St. Louis, 28 May, 1831, acknowledges thereceipt of the above letter, and says, that he had already made everyeffort in his power, to get all the Indians who had ceded their lands toremove. 

On the same day, 28th May, 1831, Governor Reynolds writes to GeneralGaines, then at St. Louis, that he had received information that BlackHawk and his band had invaded the state of Illinois; and that he hadcalled out seven hundred troops to meet them. General Gaines, on the29th of May, replies to his Excellency that he had ordered six companiesof United States troops from Jefferson Barracks to Rock Island, and thatthey would be joined by four other companies from Prairie des Chiens, making in all ten companies; a force which he deemed sufficient to repelthe invasion and give security to the frontier: That if the residue ofthe Sacs and Foxes, or other tribes should unite with the band of BlackHawk, he would call on his Excellency for some militia, but did not thendeem it necessary. 

On the 30th of May, the troops, accompanied by General Gaines, leftJefferson barracks, in a steam boat, for Fort Armstrong; and upon the7th of June, the commanding general held a council on Rock island, atwhich Black Hawk and some of his braves were present. Keokuk, Wa-pel-loand other chiefs from the west side of the Mississippi were also inattendance. When the council was opened, General Gaines rose and statedthat the President was displeased with the refusal of the Sacs of Rockriver, to go to the right bank of the Mississippi, that their greatfather wanted only that which was reasonable and right, and insistedthat they should remove. Black Hawk replied, in substance, that the Sacshad never sold their lands and were determined to hold on to theirvillage. General Gaines inquired, "who is Black Hawk? Is he a chief? Bywhat right does he appear in council?"

No reply was made; Black Hawk arose, gathered his blanket around him, and stalked out of the council room. On the following morning he wasagain in his seat, and when the council was opened, he arose and said, "My father, you inquired yesterday, "who is Black Hawk? why does he sitamong the chiefs?" I will tell you who I am. I am a Sac, my father was aSac--I am a warrior and so was my father. Ask those young men, who havefollowed me to battle, and they will tell you who Black Hawk is--provokeour people to war, and you will learn who Black Hawk is. " He then satdown, and nothing more was said on the subject. The result of thisconference was, that Black Hawk refused to leave his village, and thatGeneral Gaines informed him and his party, if they were not on the Westside of the Mississippi within a few days, he should be compelled toremove them by force. The General anxious, if possible, to effect theobject without bloodshed, deemed it expedient to increase his forces, that the Indians might be intimidated, and thus induced to submit; or, in case of a resort to hostile measures, that he might be fullyprepared to act with efficiency. He accordingly called upon the Governorof Illinois for some militia, to co-operate with the United States'troops under his command. On the 25th of June, Governor Reynolds, andGeneral Joseph Duncan with 1600 mounted militiamen, principallyvolunteers, reached Rock river. On the morning of the 26th, GeneralGaines with his combined forces, took possession of the Sac villagewithout firing a gun or finding an Indian; the whole party, with theirwives and children, having crossed over the Mississippi the previousnight. On the following day they were found on the west bank of thatstream, encamped under the protection of a white flag. 

On the 30th of June, General Gaines and Governor Reynolds signed atreaty of capitulation and peace, with Black Hawk, Pa-she-pa-how, Wee-sheat, Kah-ke-ka-mah, and other chiefs and head men of the Britishband of Sac Indians, and their old allies of the Winnebago, Pottawatamieand Kickapoo nations. The preamble to this treaty is worthy ofpreservation. It is in these words. 

"Whereas, the British Band of Sac Indians, have in violation of theseveral treaties, entered into between the United States and the Sac andFox nations, in the year 1804, 1816 and 1825, continued to remain uponand to cultivate the lands on Rock river, ceded to the United States bysaid treaties, after the said lands had been sold by the United States, to individual citizens of Illinois and other states: and whereas thesaid British Band of Sac Indians, in order to sustain their pretensionsto continue upon said Rock river lands, have assumed the attitude ofactual hostility towards the United States, and have had the audacity todrive citizens of the state of Illinois from their homes, destroy theircorn, and invite many of their old friends of the Pottawatamies, Winnebagoes, and Kickapoos, to unite with them the said British band ofSacs, in war, to prevent their removal from said lands: and whereas manyof the most disorderly of these several tribes of Indians, did actuallyjoin the said British band of Sac Indians prepared for war against theUnited States, and more particularly against the state of Illinois; fromwhich purpose they confess nothing could have restrained them, but theapprehension of force far exceeding the combined strength of the saidBritish Band of Sac Indians, with such of their aforesaid allies, as hadactually joined them; but, being now convinced that such a war wouldtend speedily to annihilate them, they have voluntarily abandoned theirhostile attitude and sued for peace. " Therefore, &c. 

The first article stipulates that peace is granted by the United Statesto the British Band of Sac Indians--the second that they are required tosubmit to the chiefs of the Sac and Fox nations, who reside on the westside of the Mississippi--the third that the United States guaranty tothem the integrity of their lands west of that river under the treatiesof 1825 and 1830--the fourth that the said British Band shall not tradewith any nation but the United States--that the United States have aright to establish military posts and roads within their country--thesixth that the chiefs and head men of the Sac and Fox nations shallenforce the provisions of this treaty--and finally that permanent peaceand friendship be established between the United States and the saidBritish Band of Sac Indians, and that the latter are not to return tothe east side of the Mississippi without the permission of the former. 

The commanding General, under date of sixth of July, 1831, informs thewar department, that, "The mounted volunteers, the regulars, two piecesof artillery, and some musquetry and riflemen, induced the Indians toabandon the village before our arrival, without firing a gun. Desertedby their allies, this disorderly band was left alone to seek security ina speedy flight to the right bank of the Mississippi, where they werefound the next day, under the protection of a white flag. " GovernorReynolds in his official despatch to the same department, under date ofBelleville. Ill. 7th July 1831, says:

"The Indians with some exceptions, from Canada to Mexico, along thenorthern frontier of the United States, are more hostile to the whites, than at any other period since the last war; particularly the band ofSac Indians, usually and truly called the "British Band, " becameextremely unfriendly to the citizens of Illinois and others. This bandhad determined for some years past to remain at all hazards, on certainlands which had been purchased by the United States, and afterwards someof them sold to private individuals by the general government. Theyalso determined to drive off the citizens from this disputed territory. In order to effect this object, they committed various outrages on thepersons and property of the citizens of this state. That this band mightthe more effectually resist all force that would be employed againstthem, they treated with many other tribes to combine together for thepurpose of aiding this British Band to continue in possession of thecountry in question. " General William Clark, the Indian agent at St. Louis, in his official communication to the department, says, "Thedisaffected Sacs were depending for an increase to their number from thediscontented parts of the Kickapoos, Pottawatamies and Winnebagoes, " andthat they exhibited a daring opposition, &c. &c. 

From the tone and pomposity of these documents, commencing with GovernorReynold's annunciation to General Clark, that Illinois was in a state of"actual invasion, " and ending with the letters to the war department, just cited, it might appear, to one not familiar with the facts in thecase, that a powerful confederacy of warlike Indians, after years ofsecret preparation, had made a sudden and bold descent upon the state ofIllinois, and were about to carry war and desolation throughout thefrontiers--to make the heavens lurid with the conflagration of dwellinghouses, and the air resonant with the wails of women and childrensinking beneath the murderous tomahawk: and, that this banded horde ofnorthern savages, had been successfully met, captured or dispersed, bythe patriotism, valor and overwhelming power of the combined army ofthe United States and the militia of Illinois! And yet, will it becredited by posterity, that this "actual invasion" of the state, fierceand appalling as it has been represented, consisted simply in this: apart of the Sac tribe of Indians, residing within the boundaries ofIllinois, at their village on Rock river, where they were born and hadlived all their lives, refused to give up their corn-fields to somewhite men, who had purchased the same, under a sale made by thegovernment of the United States for the purpose of a technical evasionof one of its own treaties. In short, thus far, it was little more thana neighborhood quarrel between the squaws of the "British Band" ofIndians, and a few white settlers, --most of whom were there in violationof the laws of the country--about the occupancy of some corn-fields, which, from time immemorial, had been annually cultivated by the Indianwomen. Black Hawk became excited by these outrages, as he deemed them, upon the rights of his people; but instead of killing every white man inhis vicinity, which he could have done in one night, he simply commandedthem to leave his village: and threatened in case they did not, toremove them by force. Such is the substance of the "actual invasion" ofthe state of Illinois, by the British Band of Sac Indians. 

It is alledged, however, by the defenders of this memorable campaign, that this band of Sacs had, in violation of the treaties of 1804, 1816and 1825, continued to remain upon and cultivate the land on Rockriver, ceded to the United States, after it had been sold by the UnitedStates to individual citizens of Illinois and other states--that theyhad refused positively to remove to the west side of theMississippi--that they had endeavored to persuade some of theneighboring tribes to unite with them in defending this land against therightful occupancy of the white purchasers--that they had "threatened tokill" them--"thrown down their fences"--on some occasions "hurt" saidsettlers--"stole their potatoes" saying they had not sold theselands--otherwise "acted in a most outrageous manner, " and finally, inthe words of the capitulation on the 30th June, 1831, "assumed theattitude of actual hostility towards the United States, and had theaudacity to drive citizens of the state of Illinois, from their homes. "Admitting these allegations to be true, what may be said in behalf ofthe party against which they are made? It may be replied, that under thetreaty of 1804, the Indians had an undoubted right to "live and hunt"upon the land ceded by that treaty, so long as it remained the propertyof the United States: that as early as 1823-4 the whites had intrudedupon the land on Rock river around the principal village of the Sacs andFoxes--the United States neglecting to have these intruders removed, asby the treaty they were solemnly bound to do: that these whitesfrequently beat the Indian men, women, and children with sticks, destroyed their corn fields, distributed whiskey among them, cheatedthem out of their furs and peltries and on one occasion, when theIndians were absent on a hunting excursion, set fire to some thirty orforty of their lodges, by which many of them were totally destroyed. 

These outrages were perpetrated before a single acre of the land uponRock river, had been sold by the United States, and when in fact, theregular frontier settlements of Illinois, had not approached withinfifty miles of the Sac village. Consequently they were committed inexpress violation of the most solemn treaties and of the laws of theUnited States, for the protection of the Indians. In 1829, clearly witha view, on the part of those who brought about the measure, of evadingthe force of that article of the treaty of 1804, which permitted theIndians to live and hunt upon these lands, so long as they remained theproperty of the United States, a few quarter sections were sold, on Rockriver, including the Sac village. New insults and outrages were nowoffered to the Indians, and they were again ordered to remove, not fromthe quarter sections which had actually been sold, but to the west sideof the Mississippi. Against this, they remonstrated and finally refused, positively, to be driven away. The results of this refusal have alreadybeen shown in the narration which has been made of the events followingupon the "actual invasion" of the state of Illinois, in the spring of1831. But it has been said that these Indians endeavored to form analliance with some of the neighboring tribes to defend their lands. There is no doubt that Black Hawk labored to persuade Keokuk and theSac Indians residing with him, to return to the east side of theMississippi and assist in defending their village. His effort to unitewith him, in alliance against the United States, the Winnebagoes, Pottawatamies and Kickapoos, was probably for the same object, thoughthe case is not so clearly made out. Mr. Schoolcraft in his "Narrative"speaks of a war message having been transmitted to the Torch lakeIndians, by Black Hawk, or his counsellors, in 1830, and repeated in thetwo succeeding years; and adds that similar communications were made toother tribes. The message, continues Mr. Schoolcraft, was veryequivocal. It invited these tribes to aid the Sacs in fighting theirenemies. Whatever may have been the object, no success attended theeffort. Other motives than that of retaining possession of these lands, may have prompted Black Hawk to seek this alliance. Being an ambitious, restless man, he may have thought it expedient to do something to keephimself in power with his people. A military campaign is occasionally afortunate circumstance for a politician, whether his skin be red orwhite. Gunpowder-popularity is of equal importance to the chiefs of theSacs and the chiefs of the Illini. An "actual invasion" of astate--which, in these modern times, is supposed to consist in"levelling deadly weapons" at the inhabitants thereof, and "stealingtheir potatoes, " is quite a wind-fall to political aspirants. 

That the British Band of Sac Indians cherished the feeling of activehostility towards the whites, that has been attributed to them, maywell be questioned. That they were provoked to a feeble assertion oftheir rights by the injustice of our government and the lawless conductof the white settlers among them, is unquestionably true. But it shouldbe recollected, that from the period of their treaty with the UnitedStates, in 1816, to their capitulation in 1831, they had not killed oneof our people. For a number of years prior to 1831, the Americans hadconstantly passed through their country, unarmed, carrying with themlarge amounts of money and of goods, for the trade at the lead mines:and yet not one of these travellers, sleeping in the woods and theIndian lodges, had been molested in person or property. For severalyears, the whites residing at and around the Sac village on Rock riverwere trespassing upon these Indians, for the purpose of driving them tothe west side of the Mississippi, but still the tomahawk was not raisedfor retaliation. If Black Hawk and his party, had really intended toresort to arms, who that understands the Indian character, can doubt fora moment, that they would have struck a decisive blow, and murderedevery white settler upon Rock river, before General Gaines ascended theMississippi? After our army reached Fort Armstrong and General Gaineshad been informed by Black Hawk that he would not remove, he gave ordersto his braves, that if the American war chief came to the village toforce them away, not a gun should be fired, nor any resistance offered;but that they must remain quietly in their lodges and let the war chiefkill them if he chose. Under these circumstances, it is as difficult tobelieve that Black Hawk and his band seriously intended to make war uponthe whites at that time, as it is to admit that the United States had aright to force the Indians to remove to the west side of theMississippi, because a few quarter sections of the land at the mouth ofRock river, had been prematurely sold; while millions of acres around, were still the property of the United States, and as such, under thetreaty of 1804, the Indians were expressly permitted to live and huntupon them. 

In the course of this narrative, frequent mention has been made of theleading chief of the Sac nation, who is highly distinguished by hisinfluence, pacific character and fine talents. The relation he sustainsto Black Hawk and his band, connects him directly with our narrative. Onthis account, as well as to gratify the interest which is felt in hishistory, the succeeding chapter will be occupied with a brief sketch ofthe life and adventures of Keokuk, the Watchful Fox. 

KEOKUK, THE WATCHFUL FOX

CHAPTER V. 

Keokuk's birth--Kills a Sioux when fifteen years old--Prevents the abandonment of the Sac village--Bold manoeuvre with the Sioux--Perils his life for the safety of his people--Speech to the Menominies at Prairie des Chiens--Called upon to lead his braves to join in the Black Hawk war--Allays the excitement of his people on this subject--Deposed from his post as head chief and a young man elected in his place--Re-established in power--Delivers up his nephew to the whites to be tried for murder--Letter to the Governor of Illinois--Council at Washington in 1837--Retorts upon the Sioux--His visit to Boston--His return home--His personal appearance--And his character as a war and peace chief. 

It is no easy task to present in a satisfactory manner, a biographicalsketch of an Indian. However eventful his life may have been, it is onlya few of the more prominent of his deeds which become known to theworld; while the minor incidents, those small matters, which make up thesum of human character, pass unobserved by his companions, or ifnoticed, are soon forgotten. The subject of the present chapter, is yetin the meridian of life, high in power, and in the enjoyment of adistinguished reputation. Yet the materials for estimating hischaracter, and for tracing his progress, step by step, from theobscurity of a private station, to the most honorable post in the nationover which he now presides, are neither full nor satisfactory. Barelyenough is known of him, throughout the United States, to create thedesire to know more; and it is to be regretted that the means ofgratifying this laudable curiosity, are not more abundant. 

Keokuk is a native of the Sac nation of Indians, and was born near orupon Rock river in the north western part of what now constitutes thestate of Illinois, about the year 1780. He is not a hereditary chief, and consequently has risen to his present elevation by the force oftalent and of enterprize. He began to manifest these qualities at a veryearly period of his life. While but a youth he performed an act, whichplaced him, as it were by _brevet_, in the ranks of manhood. In thefirst battle in which he engaged, he encountered and killed a Siouxwarrior, with his spear, while on horseback; and as the Sioux aredistinguished for their horsemanship, this was looked upon as so greatan achievement, that a public feast was made in commemoration of it, byhis tribe; and the youthful Keokuk, was forthwith admitted to all therights and privileges of a Brave. It was further allowed, that everafterwards, on all public occasions, he might appear on horseback, evenif the rest of the chiefs and braves were not mounted. 

During the late war between the United States and Great Britain, andbefore Keokuk was entitled to take his seat in the councils of hisnation, an expedition was sent by our government, to destroy the Indianvillage at Peoria, on the Illinois river. A rumor reached the Sacvillage, in which he resided, that this expedition was also to attackthe Sacs, and the whole tribe was thrown into consternation. TheIndians were panic stricken, and the council hastily determined toabandon their village. Keokuk happened to be standing near thecouncil-lodge when this decision was made. It was no sooner announcedthan he boldly advanced to the door and requested admission. It wasgranted. He asked leave to speak, and permission was given him. Hecommenced by saying he had heard with deep regret, the decision of thecouncil--that he himself was wholly opposed to flight, before an enemystill distant, and whose strength was entirely unknown. He called theattention of the council to the importance of meeting the enemy in theirapproach--of harassing their progress--cutting them off in detail--ofdriving them back, or of nobly dying in defence of their country andtheir homes. 

"Make me your leader, " he boldly exclaimed; "let our young men followme, and the pale-faces shall be driven back to their towns. Let the oldmen and the women, and all who are afraid to meet the white man, stayhere, but let your braves go to battle. " Such intrepid conduct, couldnot fail to produce its effect upon a race so excitable as the Indians. The warriors with one voice, declared they were ready to follow Keokuk;and he was at once chosen to lead them against the enemy. It turned out, however, that the alarm was false, but the eloquence of Keokuk in thecouncil, and his energy in preparing for the expedition, placed him atonce in the first rank of the braves. 

His military reputation, was, on another occasion, much increased, bythe skill and promptness with which he met a sudden emergency on thebattle field. With a party of his braves, Keokuk was hunting in thecountry which lies between the residence of the Sacs and that of theSioux, betwixt whom, for many years, a deadly hatred had existed. Veryunexpectedly, a party of the latter well mounted, came upon them. TheSacs were also on horseback, but their enemies being superior horsemenand fully equipped for war, had a decided advantage. There was no covertfrom behind which the Sacs could fight, and flight was impossible. Keokuk's mode of defence was as novel as ingenious. He instantly formedhis men into a compact circle, ordered them to dismount, and takeshelter behind their horses, by which movement they were protected fromthe missiles of the Sioux, and at the same time placed undercircumstances in which they could avail themselves of their superiorityas marksmen. The Sioux, raising the war-whoop, charged upon theirentrenched foe with great fury, but were received with a fire sodestructive that they were compelled to fall back. The attack wasrepeated but with the same result. The hordes could not be forced uponthose whose guns were pouring forth vollies of fire and smoke, and afterseveral unsuccessful attempts to break the line, the Sioux retreatedwith considerable loss. 

At a subsequent period, during a cessation of hostilities between thesetribes, the Sacs had gone to the prairies to hunt buffalo, leaving theirvillage but slightly protected by braves. During the hunt Keokuk andhis band, unexpectedly approached an encampment of a large number ofSioux, painted for war, and evidently on their way to attack hisvillage. His own braves were widely scattered over the extensive plains, and could not be speedily gathered together. Possessing the spirit of afearless and generous mind, he instantly resolved upon the boldexpedient of throwing himself between the impending danger and hispeople. Unattended, he deliberately rode into the camp of his enemy. Inthe midst of their lodges rose the war-pole, and around it the Siouxwere dancing, and partaking of those fierce excitements, by means ofwhich the Indians usually prepare themselves for battle. It happenedthat revenge upon the Sacs constituted the burden of their songs, at themoment of Keokuk's approach. He dashed into the midst of them and boldlydemanded to see their chief. "I have come, " said he, "to let you knowthat there are traitors in your camp: they have told me that you arepreparing to attack my village: I know they told me lies, for you couldnot, after smoking the pipe of peace, be so base as to murder my womenand children in my absence. None but cowards would be guilty of suchconduct. " When the first feeling of amazement began to subside, theSioux crowded around him in a manner evincing a determination to seizehis person, and they had already laid hold of his legs, when he added, in a loud voice, "I supposed they told me lies, but if what I have heardis true, then the Sacs are ready for you. " With a sudden effort, hedashed aside those who had seized him, plunged his spurs into hisgallant horse, and rode off at full speed. Several guns were dischargedat him, but fortunately without effect: a number of the Sioux warriorsinstantly sprung upon their horses and pursued him, but in vain. Keokuk, on horseback, was in his element; he made the woods resound with thewar-whoop, and brandishing his tomahawk in defiance of his foes, soonleft them far behind, and joined his little party of braves. Hispursuers, fearful of some stratagem, gave up the pursuit, after havingfollowed him for some distance, and retired to their camp. Keokuk tookimmediate steps to call in his braves and speedily returned to protecthis village. His enemies, however, finding themselves discovered, abandoned the contemplated attack and retraced their steps to their owncountry. 

The eloquence of Keokuk and his sagacity in the civil affairs of hisnation, are, like his military talents, of a high order. One or twocases in which these have been exhibited, are worthy of being recorded. A few years since, some of his warriors fell in with a party of unarmedMenominies, at Prairie des Chiens, in sight of fort Crawford, andmurdered the whole of them. Justly incensed at this outrage, theMenominies prepared to take up arms against the Sacs, and prevailed uponthe Winnebagoes to join them. For the purpose of allaying the risingstorm, the United States' agent, at Prairie des Chiens, General Street, invited the several parties to a council at that place for the purposeof adjusting the difficulty, without a resort to arms. They accordingly, out of respect to the agent, assembled at fort Crawford, but theMenominies refused, sternly, to hold any conference with the Sacs on thesubject. Keokuk told the agent not to be discouraged, for he wouldadjust the difficulty with them, before they separated, in despite oftheir prejudices and their positive refusal to treat: He only asked anopportunity of meeting them face to face in the council-lodge. Thetribes were brought together, but the Menominies persevered in theirdetermination to hold no conference with the Sacs. The negociationproceeded, and a friendly feeling was re-established between theWinnebagoes and the Sacs. Keokuk then rose and with much deliberation, began his address to the Menominies. At first they averted their facesor listened with looks of defiance. He had commenced his speech withoutsmoking the pipe or shaking hands, which was a breach of etiquette; and, above all, he was the chief of a tribe that had inflicted upon them aninjury, for which blood alone could atone. Under these discouragingcircumstances, Keokuk proceeded, in his forcible, persuasive andimpressive manner. Such was the touching character of his appeal, suchthe power of his eloquence, that the features of his enemies graduallyrelaxed; they listened; they assented; and when he concluded byremarking, proudly, but in a conciliating tone, "I came here to say thatI am sorry for the imprudence of my young men; I came to make peace; Inow offer you the hand of Keokuk; who will refuse it?" they rose one byone and accepted the proffered grasp. 

In the late contest between the United States and Black Hawk's band, Keokuk and a majority of the Sacs and Foxes, took no part. Black Hawkmade several efforts to induce them to unite against the whites, whichthey were strongly inclined to do, not only from their love of war andof plunder but on account of the injustice with which very many of thembelieved they had been treated by the people of the United States. Itrequired all of Keokuk's influence and moderation to prevent the wholenation from enlisting under the Black Hawk banner. He requested theagent of the American Government to send to his village, on the westside of the Mississippi, a white man who understood the Sac language, and who might bear witness to his, Keokuk's sincerity and faithfulnessto the whites. Such a person was sent. The excitement raised by BlackHawk and the war in which he was engaged, continued to increase amongKeokuk's people. "He stood on a mine, liable to be exploded by a singlespark. He was in peril of being slain as the friend of the whites. Heremained calm and unawed, ruling his turbulent little state withmildness and firmness, but at the constant risk of his life. One day, anew emissary arrived from Black Hawk's party. Whiskey was introducedinto the camp, and Keokuk saw that the crisis was at hand. He warned thewhite man who was his guest, of the impending danger, and advised him toconceal himself. A scene of tumult ensued. The emissary spoke of bloodthat had been shed--of their relations being driven from their huntinggrounds--of recent insults--of injuries long inflicted by thewhites--hinted at the ready vengeance that might be taken on an exposedfrontier--of defenceless cabins--and of rich booty. The desired effectwas produced. The braves began to dance around the war pole, to paintand to give other evidences of a warlike character. Keokuk watched therising storm and appeared to mingle in it. He drank and listened andapparently assented to all that was said. At length his warriors calledout to be led to battle, and he was asked to lead them. He arose andspoke with that power which had never failed him. He sympathized intheir wrongs--their thirst for vengeance--he won their confidence bygiving utterance to the passions by which they were moved, and echoingback their own thoughts with a master spirit. He then considered theproposition to go to war, alluded to the power of the whites--thehopelessness of the contest: He told them he was their chief--that itwas his duty to rule them as a father at home: to lead them to war ifthey determined to go. But in the proposed war, there was no middlecourse: The power of the United States was such, that unless theyconquered that great nation, they must perish; that he would lead theminstantly against the whites on one condition, and that was, that theyshould first put all their women and children to death, and thenresolve, that having crossed the Mississippi, they would never return, but perish among the graves of their fathers rather than yield them tothe white-men. This proposal, desperate as it was, presented the trueissue: it calmed the disturbed passions of his people, the turmoilsubsided, order was restored, and the authority of Keokuk, became forthe time being firmly re-established. "[6]

Black Hawk and his band have always been opposed to Keokuk, and sincethe late war, which proved so disastrous to them, and into which theywere plunged, in opposition to his counsel, they have looked upon himwith increased aversion. 

They have made repeated efforts to destroy his influence with theremainder of the tribe, and owing to the monotony of his pacific rule, were, on one occasion, nearly successful. A spirit of discontentpervaded his people--they complained of the extent of the power which hewielded--they needed excitement, and as his measures were all of apeaceful character, they sought it in a change of rulers. The matter wasat length openly and formally discussed. The voice of the nation wastaken, Keokuk was removed from his post of head man and a young chiefplaced in his stead. He made not the smallest opposition to this measureof his people, but calmly awaited the result. When his young successorwas chosen, Keokuk was the first to salute him with the title of Father. But the matter did not rest here. With great courtesy, he begged toaccompany the new chief to the agent of the United States, then at Rockisland; and with profound respect, introduced him as his chief and hisfather--urged the agent to receive him as such, and solicited, as apersonal favor, that the same regard that had ever been paid to him, bythe whites, might be transferred to his worthy successor. The sequel maybe readily inferred. The nation could not remain blind to the error theyhad committed. Keokuk as a private individual was still the first manamong his people. His ready and noble acquiescence in their wishes, wonboth their sympathy and admiration. He rose rapidly but silently to hisformer elevated station, while the young chief sunk as rapidly to hisformer obscurity. 

Some time in 1832, five of the friendly Sacs belonging to Keokuk'sparty, murdered a man by the name of Martin, in Warren county, Illinois. One of these, proved to be a nephew of Keokuk, but by the orders of hisuncle, he was seized and delivered over to the civil authority of thatstate to be tried for the murder. The other four made their escape. Sometime afterwards, Keokuk was called upon to deliver up the other fourSacs, who had been concerned in the outrage, that they also might bebrought to justice. He replied that they were beyond his reach, but thathe would call a council of his head-men and take measures to givesatisfaction to the whites. The council was held, and Keokuk stated thedemand of their Great Father, the President; and that if satisfactionwere not made to him, he feared an army would be sent into theircountry, and that many troubles would overtake them. Immediately fouryoung warriors arose and offered to be surrendered up to the whites, and suffer death in place of the real offenders, to prevent their nationfrom incurring the displeasure of the President. Keokuk, supposing thatthis would satisfy the demands of justice, delivered them up as themurderers and they were imprisoned. Upon their trial, Keokuk waspresent, as a witness. In giving his testimony, he stated with honestsimplicity, that the young men then arraigned in court, for the murderof Martin, were not the guilty ones, but they had agreed to die in placeof the real murderers who could not be found. The prisoners were, as amatter of course, set at liberty. 

Some months after the close of the "Black Hawk war, " Keokuk was informedthat reports were in circulation, in the state of Illinois, that theIndians were dissatisfied and preparing for fresh hostilities. Hedictated a letter to the Governor upon the subject, which was forwardedto him. It is in these words. 

 "Raccoon Fork of Des Moines river, Nov. 30, 1832. "To the Great Chief of Illinois. "MY FATHER:

"I have been told by a trader, that several of your village criers[editors] have been circulating bad news, informing the whites that theIndians are preparing for war, and that we are dissatisfied. My Father, you were present when the tomahawk was buried, and assisted me to placeit so deep, that it will never again be raised against your whitechildren of Illinois. 

"My Father, very few of that misguided band that entered Rock riverlast summer, remain. You have humbled them by war, and have made themfriendly by your generous conduct to them after they were defeated. 

"Myself and the greater part of the Sacs and Foxes, have firmly held youby the hand: We followed your advice and did as you told us. My Father, take pity on those of my nation that you forgave, and never mention thedisasters of last summer. I wish them to be forgotten. 

"I do not permit the criers of our village or camps to proclaim any badnews against the whites, not even the truth. Last fall an old man, aFox, was hunting on an island, a short distance below Rock river forturkeys to carry to Fort Armstrong: he was killed by a white man. MyFather, we passed it over: we have only spoken of it in whispers; ouragent has not heard of it. We wish to live in friendship with thewhites; if a white man comes to our camp or village, we give him a shareof what we have to eat, a lodging if he wants it, and put him on thetrail if he has lost it. 

"My Father, advise the criers of your villages to tell the truthrespecting us, and assist in strengthening the chain of friendship, thatyour children may treat us friendly when they meet us: and be assuredthat we are friends, and have feelings as well as they have. 

 "My Father, this is all I have to say at present. "KEOKUK, Chief of the Sac nation. "

In the autumn of the year 1837, Keokuk and a party of his warriors madea visit to Washington city. Black Hawk was of the party, having beentaken along, it is supposed by the politic Keokuk, lest in his absence, the restless spirit of the old man should create some new difficultiesat home. We are indebted to a gentleman[7] who happened to be at thecapital at the time of this visit, for the following sketch of acouncil, held under the direction of the Secretary at War, Mr. Poinsett, for the laudable purpose of reconciling the long cherished feeling ofhostility between the Sacs and Foxes, and the Sioux, --a deputation ofchiefs from this latter nation being also at the seat of government. Thecouncil was held in a church. The Indians were seated on a platformerected for the purpose, the spectators occupying the pews. TheSecretary, representing the President, was seated on the center of theplatform, facing the audience--the Sioux on his right hand and the Sauksand Foxes on his left, forming a semi-circle. "These hostile tribes, presented in their appearance a remarkable contrast. The Sioux trickedout in blue coats, epaulettes, fur hats and various articles of finery, which had been presented to them, and which were now incongruously wornin conjunction with portions of their own proper costume; while theSaukies and Foxes, with a commendable pride and good taste, wore theirnational dress, without any admixture, and were studiously paintedaccording to their own notions of propriety. But the most strikingobject was Keokuk, who sat at the head of his delegation, on theextreme left, facing his mortal enemies the Sioux, who occupied theopposite side of the stage; having the audience upon his left side, andhis own people on his right, and beyond them the Secretary at War. Hesat grasping in his right hand the war banner, the symbol of his stationas ruling chief. His person was erect and his eye fixed calmly butsteadily upon the enemies of his people. On the floor, and leaning uponthe knee of the chief, sat his son, a boy of nine or ten years old, whose fragile figure and innocent countenance, afforded a beautifulcontrast with the athletic and warlike form and the intellectual thoughweather-beaten features of his father. The effect was in the highestdegree picturesque and imposing. The council was opened by smoking thepipe, which was passed from mouth to mouth. The Secretary then brieflyaddressed both parties, in a conciliating strain, urging them, in thename of their great father, the President, to abandon those sanguinarywars, by means of which their race was becoming extinct, and tocultivate the arts, the thrift and industry of the white men. The Siouxspoke next. The orator, on rising first stepped forward, and shook handswith the Secretary, and then delivered his harangue in his own tongue, stopping at the end of each sentence, until it was rendered into Englishby the interpreter, who stood by his side, and into the Saukie languageby the interpreter of that tribe. Another and another followed, allspeaking vehemently and with much acrimony. The burthen of theirharangue was, the folly of addressing pacific language to the Sauks andFoxes, who were faithless and in whom no confidence could be placed. 'Myfather, ' said one of them, 'you cannot make these people hear any goodwords unless you bore their ears with sticks. ' 'We have often made peacewith them, ' said another speaker, an old man, who endeavored to bewitty, 'but they would never observe any treaty. I would as soon thinkof making a treaty with that child, ' pointing to Keokuk's little boy, 'as with a Saukie or Musquakee. ' The Sioux were evidently gratified andexcited by the sarcasms of their orators, while their opponents satmotionless, their dark eyes flashing, but their features as composed andstolid, as if they did not understand that disparaging language that wasused. We remarked a decided want of gracefulness in all these speakers. Each of them having shaken hands with the Secretary, who sat facing theaudience, stood immediately before and near to him, with the interpreterat his elbow, both having their backs to the spectators; and in thisawkward position, speaking low and rapidly--but little of what they saidcould be heard except by the persons near them. Not so Keokuk. When itcame to his turn to speak, he rose deliberately, advanced to theSecretary, and having saluted him, returned to his place, which being atthe foot of the stage, and on one side of it, his face was not concealedfrom any of the several parties present. His interpreter stood besidehim. The whole arrangement was judicious, and though apparentlyunstudied, shewed the tact of an orator. He stood erect, in an easy, but martial posture, with his robe thrown over his left shoulder andarm, leaving the right arm bare, to be used in action. His voice wasfirm, his enunciation remarkably clear, distinct, and rapid. Those whohave had the gratification of hearing a distinguished senator from SouthCarolina, now in Congress, whose rapidity of utterance, concentration ofthought and conciseness of language are alike peculiar to himself, mayform some idea of the style of Keokuk, the latter adding, however, anattention to the graces of attitude and action, to which the formermakes no pretension. He spoke with dignity but great animation, and someof his retorts were excellent. 'They tell you, ' said he, 'that our earsmust be bored with sticks, but, my Father, you could not penetrate theirthick skulls in that way--it would require hot iron. ' 'They say theywould as soon make peace with a child, as with us, --they know better, for when they made war upon us they found us men. ' 'They tell you thatpeace has often been made, and that we have broken it. How happens itthen that so many of their braves have been slain in our country? I willtell you--they invaded us; we never invaded them: none of my braves havebeen killed in their land. We have their scalps and can tell where wetook them. 

"As we have given the palm to Keokuk, at this meeting, we must injustice to the Sioux, mention an eloquent reply, made by one of the sameparty, on a different day. The Secretary at War, met the Siouxdelegation in council to treat for the purchase of some of theirterritory. A certain sum of money being offered them for the land, theydemanded a greater price. They were then told that the Americans were agreat people, who would not traffic with them like a trader--that thePresident had satisfied himself as to the value of the territory, andoffered them the full price. Big Thunder, a son of the Little Crow, replied that the Sioux were a great nation, and could not, like atrader, ask a price and then take less: and, then to illustrate theequality of dignity, between the high contracting parties, he used afigure, which struck us as eminently beautiful--'the children of ourwhite parent are very many, they possess all the country from the risingof the sun to noon-day:--the Sioux are very many, the land is all theirsfrom the noon-day to the setting sun. '"

After leaving Washington city, Keokuk, attended by his wife and son, four chiefs of the united Sac and Fox tribes, and several warriors amongwhom were Black Hawk and his son, proceeded as far north as Boston, andattracted in all the cities through which they passed great attention. They were met in Boston, with distinguished honors, being received bygovernor Everett on behalf of the state, and the mayor, on behalf of thecity. The ceremony of receiving the Indians occurred on the 30th ofOctober, and no public spectacle in the history of Boston, everassembled so great a number of its citizens. Between the hours of tenand twelve, the chiefs held a levee in Faneuil Hall, for the visits ofthe ladies, exclusively, an immense concourse of whom, thronged the old"cradle of liberty" to look upon the stranger guests. At 2 o'clock, P. M. The chiefs were escorted by the Lancers to the State House, which wasfilled with ladies, the members of the legislature, the civilauthorities, &c. Governor Everett, first addressed the audience, bygiving them a brief account of the different tribes represented by theIndian chiefs then present. Then turning to the Indians, he said, "Chiefs and warriors of the united Sac and Fox tribes, you are welcometo our hall of council. You have come a far way from your homes in thewest to visit your white brethren. We are glad to take you by the hand. We have heard before of the Sacs and Foxes--our travellers have told usthe names of their great men and chiefs. We are glad to see them withour own eyes. 

"We are called the Massachusetts. It is the name of the red men who oncelived here. In former times the red man's wigwam, stood on these fields, and his council fires were kindled on this spot. 

"When our fathers came over the great waters, they were a small band. The red man stood on the rock by the sea side, and looked at them. Hemight have pushed them into the water and drowned them; but he took holdof their hands and said, welcome, white man. Our fathers were hungry, and the red man gave them corn and venison. Our fathers were cold, andthe red man spread his blanket over them and made them warm. 

"We are now grown great and powerful, but we remember the kindness ofthe red man to our fathers. 

"Brothers, our faces are pale and yours are red, but our hearts arealike. The Great Spirit has made his children of different complexions, but he loves them all. 

"Brothers, you dwell between the Mississippi and the Missouri--they aremighty streams. They have great arms--one stretches out to the east andthe other away west to the Rocky mountains. But they make one river andthey run together into the sea. 

"Brothers, we dwell in the east and you in the far west, but we are onefamily, of many branches but one head. 

"Brothers, as you passed through the hall below, you stopped to look atthe great image of our father Washington. It is a cold stone and cannotspeak to you. But our great father Washington loved his red children, and bade us love them also. He is dead but his words have made a greatprint in our hearts, like the step of a strong buffalo on the clay inthe prairies. 

"My brother, (addressing Keokuk) I perceive by your side your youngchild sitting in the council hall with you. May the Great Spiritpreserve the life of your son. May he grow up by your side like thetender sapling by the side of the mighty oak. May you long flourish bothtogether, and when the mighty oak is fallen in the forest, may the youngtree take its place, and spread out its branches over the tribe. 

"Brothers, I make you a short talk, and bid you welcome once more to ourcouncil hall. "

Keokuk rose first in reply, and shaking hands with the Governor andothers near to him, spoke with fine emphasis and much earnest andgraceful gesticulation, holding his staff, which he frequently shiftedfrom hand to hand. 

"Keokuk and his chiefs are very much gratified that they have had thepleasure of shaking hands with the head man or governor of this greatstate, and also with all the men that surround him. 

"You well say, brother, that the Great Spirit has made both of us, though your color is white and mine is red; but he made your heart andmine the same. The only difference I find is, he made you speak onelanguage, and I another. He made the same sky above our heads for both. He gave us hands to take each other by, and eyes to see each other. Iwish to take all present by the hand, --to shake hands with all my whitebrethren. 

"I am very happy to say, before I die, that I have been in the greathouse where my fathers and your fathers used to speak together as we donow. And I hope the Great Spirit is pleased with this sight; and willlong continue to keep friendship between the white and red men. I hopethat now, in this presence, he sees us; and hears our hearts profferfriendship to each other; and that he will aid us in what we are nowengaged in. 

"My remarks are short and this is what I say to you. I take my friendsall by the hand, and wish the Great Spirit to give them all a blessing. "

Several other chiefs spoke, and after them Black Hawk made a shortaddress. To these several speeches the governor replied collectively. Presents were then distributed among them by the governor. Keokukreceived a splendid sword and brace of pistols; his son, Musanwont, ahandsome little rifle: The head chiefs received long swords and theothers short ones. Black Hawk was also presented with a brace of pistolsand a sword. When this ceremony had ended, the Indians repaired to thecommon in front of the capitol, and there, in the presence of somethirty thousand spectators, exhibited themselves in a war dance, forabout half an hour; and from thence returned to their lodging. 

Throughout the whole of his visit in Boston, Keokuk preserved his graveand dignified manners, winning the respect and admiration of all who hadan opportunity of coming in contact with him. Upon his return to thewest, he spent a few hours in Cincinnati, and was visited by a greatnumber of persons. We had the pleasure of taking him by the hand, and ofmaking some inquiries in regard to his character, of those who werepersonally acquainted with him. 

In person, Keokuk, is stout, graceful and commanding, with fine featuresand an intelligent countenance. His broad expanded chest and muscularlimbs, denote activity and physical power; and he is known to excel indancing, horsemanship, and all athletic exercises. He has acquiredconsiderable property, and lives in princely style. He is fond oftravelling, and makes frequent visits of state to the Osages, theOttaways, the Omahas and the Winnebagoes. On these occasions he isuniformly mounted on a fine horse, clad in a showy robe wrought by hissix wives, equipped with his rifle, pipe, tomahawk and war-club. He isusually attended in these excursions by forty or fifty of his young men, well mounted and handsomely dressed. A man precedes the party toannounce his approach to the tribe he is about to honor with a visit;and such is his popularity, that his reception is generally in a stylecorresponding with the state in which he moves. These visits are mostfrequently made in autumn, and are enlivened by hunting, feasting, dancing, horse-racing and various athletic games, in all of which Keokuktakes an active part. He moves, it is supposed, in more savagemagnificence, than any other Indian chief upon the continent. 

In point of intellect, integrity of character, and the capacity forgoverning others, he is supposed to have no superior among the Indians:Bold, courageous, and skilful in war--mild, firm and politic in peace:He has great enterprize and active impulses, with a freshness andenthusiasm of feeling, which might readily lead him astray, but for hisquick perception of human character, his uncommon prudence and his calm, sound judgment. At an early period of his life he became the chiefwarrior of his tribe, and by his superior talents, eloquence, andintelligence, really directed the civil affairs of his nation for manyyears, while they were nominally conducted in the name of the hereditarypeace chief. Such is Keokuk, the Watchful Fox, who prides himself uponbeing the friend of the whiteman. 

CHAPTER VI. 

Murder of twenty-eight Menominies by the Foxes of Black Hawk's band--Naopope's visit to Malden--Black Hawk recrosses the Mississippi--General Atkison orders him to return--Stillman's attack--Defeated by Black Hawk--His white flag fired upon--He sends out war parties upon the frontier--Attack upon Fort Buffalo--General Dodge's battle on the Wisconsin--Black Hawk and his band leave the Four Lakes and fly to the Mississippi--Pursued by General Atkinson--Black Hawk's flag of truce fired upon by the Captain of the Warrior--Twenty-three Indians killed. 

Black Hawk and his band were not long upon the west side of theMississippi, before new difficulties arose, calculated to disturb theharmony which it was hoped the treaty of the 30th of June, hadestablished between them and the United States. The period of theirremoval to the west side of the Mississippi, was too late in the seasonto enable them to plant corn and beans a second time; and before autumnwas over they were without provisions. Some of them, one night, recrossed the river to _steal roasting-ears from their own fields, _--toquote the language of Black Hawk, --and were shot at by the whites, whomade loud complaints of this depredation. They, in turn, were highlyexasperated at having been fired upon for attempting to carry off thecorn which they had raised, and which they insisted, belonged to them. 

Shortly after this, a party of Foxes, belonging, it is believed, toBlack Hawk's band, went up the Mississippi, to Prairie des Chiens, toavenge the murder of some of their tribe, which had been committed inthe summer of 1830, by a party of the Menominies and Sioux. The Foxesattacked the camp of the Menominies and killed twenty-eight of them. Theauthorities at Prairie des Chiens, made a demand of the murderers, thatthey might be tried and punished under the laws of the United States, according to the treaty of 1825. Black Hawk, with other chiefs, took theground that the United States had no right to make this demand, andrefused to give them up. Here then was another source of difficulty. 

Neapope, a chief of the British band, and second in command to BlackHawk, prior to the removal of the Indians to the west side of theMississippi, had started on a visit to Malden, to consult their BritishFather in regard to the right to retain their lands on Rock river. Hereturned late in the fall, bringing word that in his opinion, theAmericans could not take their lands, unless by purchase; and thispurchase, it was contended by Black Hawk had never been made. Neapope onhis way from Malden, called to see the Prophet, who assured him thatearly the ensuing spring, not only the British, but the Ottawas, Chippewas, Pottawatomies and Winnebagoes, would assist them to regaintheir village and the lands around it. Black Hawk believed, or affectedto believe, this information, and began to make preparations to increasethe number of his braves by recruiting from different villages. He senta messenger to Keokuk, and to the Fox tribe, to inform them of the goodnews he had heard, and to ask their co-operation. Keokuk had too muchsagacity to be imposed upon by tales of either British or Indianassistance, and sent word to Black Hawk that he was deceived and hadbetter remain quiet. With a view of preventing further difficulty, he issaid to have made application to the agent at St. Louis, that the chiefsof the Sacs and Foxes might be permitted to visit Washington city, tosee the President, and if possible make a final adjustment of the matterin dispute. Black Hawk alledges he was anxious to make this visit to hisGreat Father, and had determined, to submit peaceably to his counsel, whatever it might be. But the arrangement for the visit, from somecause, was not perfected, and Black Hawk proceeded with his own plans. He established his head quarters at the point where Fort Madisonformerly stood, on the west side of the Mississippi, and made anotherunsuccessful effort to draw into his support some of the braves underKeokuk. Having assembled his own party he began to ascend theMississippi--the women and children in canoes with their provisions, camp equipage and property--his warriors armed and mounted on theirhorses. Below Rock island, they were met by the Prophet, who informedthem that there was a great war chief then at Fort Armstrong, with alarge body of soldiers. The Prophet stated that the agent and trader atRock island, had attempted to dissuade him from joining Black Hawk, buthe had refused to take their advice, because so long as they remained atpeace, the Americans dare not molest them. Having reached the mouth ofRock river, in the early part of April 1832, the whole party rashly andin violation of the treaty of the previous year, crossed to the eastside of the Mississippi, for the avowed purpose of ascending Rock river, to the territory of their friends, the Winnebagoes, and raising a cropof corn and beans with them. General Atkinson with a body of troops wasthen at Fort Armstrong, having been ordered by government to that point, for the purpose of preventing a war between the Menomenies and theFoxes, and demanding the surrender of those Indians who had committedthe murders at Fort Crawford. After Black Hawk and his party hadproceeded some distance up Rock river, he was overtaken by an expressfrom General Atkinson, with an order for him to return and recross theMississippi, which he refused to obey, on the ground that the Generalhad no right to make such an order; the Indians being at peace and ontheir way to the prophet's village, at his request, to make corn. Beforethey had reached this point, they were overtaken by a second expressfrom General Atkinson, with a threat, that if they did not return, peaceably, he would pursue and force them back. The Indians replied thatthey were determined not to be driven back, and equally so not to makethe first attack on the whites. Black Hawk now ascertained that theWinnebagoes, although willing that he should raise a crop of corn withthem, would not join in any hostile action against the United States. The Pottowatomies manifested the same determination, and both deniedhaving given the prophet any assurances of co-operation. Black Hawkimmediately came to the conclusion, that if pursued by General Atkinson, he would peaceably return with his party, and recross the Mississippi. He was encamped at Kish-wa-cokee, and was preparing to compliment somePottowatomie chiefs, then on a visit to him, by a dog-feast. 

In the mean time the Illinois militia, ordered out by Governor Reynolds, upon his hearing of this second "invasion, " of the state, had formed ajunction with the regular troops under General Atkinson at Rock island, the latter assuming the command of the whole. From this point, themilitia, being generally mounted, proceeded by land to Dixon's ferry onRock river, about half way between the mouth of that stream and theencampment of Black Hawk. General Atkinson with three hundred regularsand three hundred militia ascended Rock river in boats to the samepoint. Major Stillman, having under his command a body of two hundredand seventy-five mounted volunteers, obtained leave of GeneralWhitesides, then in command of the Illinois militia, at Dixon's ferry, to go out on a scouting expedition. He proceeded up Rock river aboutthirty miles, to Sycamore Creek, which empties into that river on theeast side. This movement brought him within a few miles of the camp ofBlack Hawk and a part of his braves, at the time when the old chief wasengaged in getting up a dog-feast in honour of his Pottowatomievisitors. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF SYCAMORE CREEK. ]

It was on the 14th of May, that Black Hawk, while engaged in thisceremony, was informed that a large number of mounted volunteers, hadbeen seen about eight miles from his camp. "I immediately started, "says he, "three young men, with a white flag, to meet them and conductthem to our camp, that we might hold a council with them, and descendRock river again: and directed them in case the whites had encamped, toreturn, and I would go and see them. After this party had started, Isent five young men to see what might take place. The first party wentto the encampment of the whites, and were taken prisoners. The lastparty had not proceeded far, before they saw about twenty men comingtowards them in full gallop. They stopped and finding that the whiteswere coming so fast, in a warlike attitude, they turned and retreated, but were pursued and overtaken and two of them killed. The others madetheir escape. When they came in with the news, I was preparing my flagsto meet the war chief. The alarm was given. Nearly all my young men wereabsent about ten miles off. I started with what I had left, (about_forty_, ) and had proceeded but a short distance, before we saw a partof the army approaching. I raised a yell, and said to my braves; "someof our people have been killed, wantonly and cruelly murdered! we mustavenge their death. " In a little while we discovered the whole armycoming towards us in full gallop! We were now confident that our firstparty had been killed. I immediately placed my men in front of somebushes, that we might have the first fire, when they approached closeenough. They made a halt some distance from us. I gave another yell, andordered my brave warriors to charge upon them, expecting that wewould all be killed! they did charge--every man rushed and fired, andthe enemy retreated in the utmost confusion, and consternation; beforemy little but brave band of warriors. After pursuing the enemy for somedistance, I found it useless to follow them, as they rode so fast, andreturned to my encampment with a few of my braves, (about twenty-fivehaving gone in pursuit of the enemy. ) I lighted my pipe, and sat down tothank the Great Spirit for what he had done. I had not been longmeditating, when two of the three young men I had sent out with theflag, to meet the American war chief, entered. My astonishment was notgreater than my joy to see them living and well. I eagerly listened totheir story, which was as follows:

"When we arrived near to the encampment of the whites, a number of themrushed out to meet us, bringing their guns with them. They took us intothe camp, when an American who spoke the Sac language a little, told usthat his chief wanted to know how we were, where we were going, whereour camp was, and where Black Hawk was. We told him that we had come tosee his chief: that our chief had directed us to conduct him to ourcamp, in case he had not encamped; and in that event to tell him, thathe (Black Hawk) would come to see him; he wished to hold a council withhim, as he had given up all intention of going to war. At the conclusionof this talk, a party of white men came in on horseback. We saw bytheir countenances that something had happened. A general tumult arose. They looked at us with indignation--talked among themselves for amoment, when several cocked their guns; in a second they fired at us inthe crowd; our companion fell dead. We rushed through the crowd and madeour escape. We remained in ambush but a short time, before we heardyelling, like Indians running an enemy. In a little while we saw some ofthe whites in full speed. One of them came near us. I threw my tomahawkand struck him on the head, which brought him to the ground. I ran tohim and with his own knife took off his scalp. I took his gun, mountedhis horse, and took my friend here behind me. We turned to follow ourbraves, who were running the enemy, and had not gone far before weovertook a white man, whose horse had mired in a swamp. My friendalighted and tomahawked the man, who was apparently fast under hishorse. He took his scalp, horse and gun. By this time our party was somedistance ahead. We followed on and saw several white men lying dead onthe way. After riding about six miles, we met our party returning. Weasked them how many of our men had been killed. They said none after theAmericans had retreated. We inquired then how many whites had beenkilled? They replied they did not know; but said we will soon ascertain, as we must scalp them as we go back. On our return we found ten men, besides the two we had killed before we joined our friends. Seeing thatthey did not yet recognize us, it being dark, we again asked, how manyof our braves had been killed? They said five. We asked who they were. They replied that the first party of three, who went out to meet theAmerican war chief, had all been taken prisoners, and killed in theencampment; and that out of a party of five who followed to see themeeting of the first party and the whites, two had been killed. We werenow certain that they did not recognize us, nor did we tell them who wewere, until we arrived at our camp. The news of our death had reached itsome time before, and all were surprised to see us again. "[8]

Such is the narrative of this defeat, as given by Black Hawk, and two ofhis men who were the bearers of his white flag and a proposition tosurrender. The accounts given by Major Stillman's troops--for it is notascertained that the commander published any official statement of thebattle--is in substance about the following. The force under MajorStillman, two hundred and seventy-five in number, on the afternoon ofthe fourteenth of May, met three Indians bearing a white flag, one ofwhom, after having been taken prisoner, was shot down. The army encampedjust before sunset, in a piece of woods, surrounded by an open prairie, about three miles from Sycamore creek. Soon after they had halted, fivemore Indians, with apparent pacific intentions, were seen approachingthe camp. Captain Eades, with a party of armed troops, dashed at fullspeed towards them, when they became alarmed and commenced a retreat. The Captain, after following them for some distance, and killing two ofthe party, gave up the pursuit, and was on his return to the camp, whenhe was met by the whole detachment. The pursuit of the retreatingIndians was immediately renewed, and continued until both parties hadcrossed Sycamore creek. This brought them upon the camp of Black Hawk, who having been apprized of the approach of the whites, had mounted hismen and prepared for action. The Indians were concealed behind somebushes, and after having fired their guns, raised the war-whoop andresorted to the tomahawk. Their fire was returned, with but littleeffect, and then Major Stillman, instantly ordered a retreat across thecreek, and the route became general. His troops fled through their camp, and did not stop until they reached Dixon's ferry, distant thirty miles. Some of them deemed it prudent to seek a place of still greater safety, than the flag of General Atkinson, and continued their flight for morethan fifty miles, and until they reached their own fire-sides. The rollwas called at Dixon's ferry next morning, and fifty-two were foundmissing. It was, however, subsequently ascertained that more than halfof this number were among those who rode express to the "settlements" tocarry the news of their gallant attack upon General Black Hawk and hisBritish band. Such was the panic among the troops engaged in thisskirmish, that they reported the Indian force at 1500 and even 2000 men!Black Hawk's statement has already been given, in which he places hisnumber at forty; and one of the volunteers whose horse was lame, and whohid himself, and watched the Indians as they passed him in the pursuitand on their return, did not estimate them at more than a hundred. It isprobable the real number of the Indians did not exceed fifty. It ispainful to contemplate this whole affair, for it is alike discreditableto the national faith and the national arms. The violation of a flag oftruce, and the wanton destruction of the lives of some of those who boreit, not only placed an indelible stigma upon the character of thecountry, but led to a war, in the prosecution of which, much blood andmuch treasure were expended. Had a conference with Black Hawk been held, scarcely a doubt remains, considering his failure to secure theco-operation of other tribes, and his utter destitution of provisions, that he and his band would have returned, peaceably, to the west side ofthe Mississippi. The precipitate flight of the troops under MajorStillman, has no justification. Supposing the panic to have been such asto render a retreat across Sycamore creek necessary, it should haveterminated when the troops reached their encampment; which, being in acopse of woods, surrounded by a prairie, they would have been protectedby trees, while the Indians, if they continued the attack, must havefought in the open plain. But no effort was made to rally at theencampment, and all the baggage of our troops--blankets, saddle-bags, camp equipage and provisions, --fell into the hands of the Indians. BlackHawk finding that there was now no alternative, determined to fight. Indignant at the attack upon his flag of peace--encouraged by his signalsuccess in putting to flight, a force vastly superior in numbers to hisown--and strengthened by the booty--especially the provisions--he hadtaken, he assembled his braves and prepared for an active border war. Heimmediately sent out spies to watch the movements of General Atkinson, and prepared to remove his women and children, from the seat of war tothe head waters of Rock river, where he supposed they would be safe fromthe attacks of the whites. In passing to this point, by the sources ofthe Kish-wa-co-kee, he was met by some Winnebagoes, who had heard of hisvictory, and were now disposed to join him. Some additional war partieswere sent out, the new recruits from the Winnebagoes, constituting oneof them. This arrangement completed, Black Hawk proceeded with the womenand children to the Four Lakes, in which Catfish, one of the tributariesto Rock river, has its origin. 

Stillman's defeat spread consternation throughout the state of Illinois. The Indian forces were greatly magnified in number, and Black Hawk'sname carried with it associations of uncommon military talent, and ofsavage cunning and cruelty. General Atkinson proceeded to fortify hiscamp, at Dixon's ferry, and the Executive of the state made a call formore mounted volunteers. The Secretary at War sent about 1000 UnitedStates' troops from the sea-board to the scene of action; and GeneralWinfield Scott was ordered to proceed to the north west, and direct thefuture operations of the campaign. A bloody border contest ensued. Manyfrontier families were massacred with savage ferocity, and some werecarried into captivity. A party of Pottowattomies, thirty in number, fell upon a little settlement on Indian creek, one of the tributaries ofFox river, and murdered fifteen men, women and children, taking twoprisoners, the Misses Hall; who were subsequently placed in charge ofsome Winnebagoes, and by them returned in safety, a few weeksafterwards, to their friends. At Kellog's grove, not far from Galena, inthe early part of June, a party of Indians stole some horses. Captain J. W. Stephenson pursued them with twelve men. A skirmish ensued, whichresulted in the death of three of our troops and five or six of theenemy. On the evening of the 14th of June, a party of eleven Sacs, killed five white men at Spafford's farm. General Dodge with twenty-ninemen, followed and overtook them in a swamp, where the whole were shotdown and scalped, they having first killed three of Dodge's men. Thebarbarous practice of scalping the dead, was in this case adopted by ourtroops and sanctioned by their officers. [9]

On the 24th of June, the Indians made an attack upon the fort at Buffalogrove, twelve miles north of Dixon's ferry. It was defended by a hundredand fifty men, under the command of Captain Dement, some of whom, withabout forty horses, were killed. The commander did not deem it prudentto march out and encounter the Indians, who finding that they could nottake the fort, secured a quantity of provisions, some horses and cattle, and commenced a retreat. They had not proceeded far, before they wereovertaken by a detachment of volunteers under Colonel Posey, who hadcome to relieve the fort. Black Hawk, who commanded the Indians in thisaffair, says, "We concealed ourselves until they came near enough, andthen commenced yelling and firing and made a rush upon them. About thistime their chief, with a party of men, rushed up to the rescue of thosewe had fired upon. In a little while they commenced retreating, and lefttheir chief and a few braves, who seemed willing and anxious to fight. They acted like braves, but were forced to give way when I rushed uponthem with my braves. In a short time, the chief returned with a largerparty. He seemed determined to fight and anxious for battle. When hecame near enough, I raised the yell, and firing commenced from bothsides. The chief, who is a small man, addressed his warriors in a loudvoice; but they soon retreated, leaving him and a few braves on thebattle field. A great number of my warriors pursued the retreatingparty, and killed a number of their horses as they ran. The chief andhis braves were unwilling to leave the field. I ordered my braves torush upon them, and had the mortification of seeing two of my chiefskilled, before the enemy retreated. This young chief deserves greatpraise for his courage, but fortunately for us, his army was not allcomposed of such brave men. "

The Indians had about two hundred men in this engagement. The troops inthe fort united with those under Colonel Posey, exceeded, in numberBlack Hawk's party. The loss of life was inconsiderable on either side. 

On the 4th of July, the main army under General Atkinson, arrived at thefoot of lake Coshconong, formed by an expansion of Rock river, in thevicinity of which the Indians had been embodied. On the 9th of July, General Atkinson says, in a letter to General Scott, that he had not yetbeen enabled to find the Indians, who he supposes to be seven or eighthundred strong, his own force amounting to four hundred regulars and2100 mounted volunteers. 

Two brigades of the mounted volunteers, under General Dodge, pursued theIndians from this place towards Fort Winnebago. They were overtaken onthe 21st of July, about sun down, on the banks of the Wisconsin. Anattack was immediately made, and about forty of the Indians are supposedto have been killed. General Dodge lost one man and had eight wounded. The exact loss of the Indians in this engagement cannot be ascertained. One account places the number at sixteen. [10] Black Hawk says he had butfifty warriors with him in the engagement, the rest being engaged inassisting the women and children in crossing the Wisconsin to anisland, to protect them from the fury of the whites: That he wascompelled to fall back into a deep ravine where he continued to maintainhis ground until dark, and until his people had had time to reach theisland, and that he lost but six of his men. This is undoubtedly amistake, owing in all probability to the interpreter in taking down hisstatement; for some of his men, subsequently, placed the number atsixty. The condition of the Indians at this time was most deplorable. Before breaking up their encampment, upon the Four Lakes, they werealmost destitute of provisions. In pursuing their trail from this pointto the Wisconsin, many were found literally starved to death. They werecompelled to live upon roots, the bark of trees and horse flesh. A partyof Black Hawk's band, including many women and children, now attemptedto descend the Wisconsin upon rafts and in canoes, that they mightescape, by recrossing the Mississippi. They were attacked however, intheir descent, by troops stationed on the bank of the river, and somewere killed, others drowned, a few taken prisoners, and the remainder, escaping to the woods, perished from hunger. Black Hawk, and such of hisparty as had not the means of descending the Wisconsin, having abandonedall idea of any farther resistance, and unwilling to trust themselves toa capitulation, now determined to strike across the country, and reachthe Mississippi, some distance above the mouth of the former stream, andthus effect their escape. They struck it at a point opposite the Ioway, and about forty miles above the Wisconsin, losing on their route, many of their people from starvation. So soon as they reached theMississippi, a part of the women and children, in such canoes as theycould procure, undertook to descend it, to Prairie des Chiens, but manyof them were drowned before they reached that place, and those who didarrive at it, were found to be in a starving condition. On the first ofAugust, while in the act of crossing the Mississippi, an attack was madeupon Black Hawk and his party by the steam boat Warrior, with an armedforce on board. The commander of the boat, under date of Prairie desChiens, 3d August 1832, gives the following account of it. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF BAD-AXE. ]

"I arrived at this place on monday last, (July 30th) and was despatchedwith the Warrior alone, to Wapeshaws village, one hundred and twentymiles above, to inform them of the approach of the Sacs, and to orderdown all the friendly Indians to this place. On our way down we met oneof the Sioux band, who informed us that the Indians, our enemies, wereon Bad-axe river, to the number of four hundred. We stopped and cut somewood and prepared for action. About four o'clock on wednesday afternoon(August 1st) we found the _gentlemen_ [Indians] where he stated he leftthem. As we neared them, they raised a white flag, and endeavored todecoy us; but we were a little too old for them; for instead of landing, we ordered them to send a boat on board, which they declined. Afterabout fifteen minutes delay, giving them time to remove a few of theirwomen and children, we let slip a six-pounder, loaded with canister, followed by a severe fire of musketry; and if ever you saw straightblankets, you would have seen them there. I fought them at anchor mostof the time and we were all very much exposed. I have a ball which camein close by where I was standing, and passed through the bulkhead of thewheel room. We fought them for about an hour or more until our woodbegan to fail, and night coming on, we left and went on to the prairie. This little fight cost them twenty-three killed, and of course a greatmany wounded. We never lost a man, and had but one man wounded, (shotthrough the leg. ) The next morning before we could get back again, onaccount of a heavy fog, they had the whole [of General Atkinson's] armyupon them. We found them at it, walked in, and took a hand ourselves. The first shot from the Warrior _laid out three_. I can hardly tell youany thing about it, for I am in great haste, as I am now on my way tothe field again. The army lost eight or nine killed, and seventeenwounded, whom we brought down. One died on deck last night. We broughtdown thirty-six prisoners, women and children. I tell you what, _Sam_, there is no fun in fighting Indians, particularly at this season, whenthe grass is so very bright. Every man, and even my cabin-boy, foughtwell. We had sixteen regulars, five rifle men, and twenty of ourselves. Mr. How, of Platt, Mr. James G. Soulard, and one of the Rolettes, werewith us and fought well. "

The flippant and vaunting style of this letter is in good keeping withthe spirit which prompted the firing upon a flag of truce. By whatcircumstance the commander of the Warrior ascertained that this whiteflag was intended as a decoy, is left wholly unexplained. As he and hismen, were beyond the reach of the Indians, humanity and the rules ofwar, required that he should have allowed himself more than _fifteenminutes_, to ascertain the true object of the Indians, in raising thesymbol of a capitulation. Black Hawk himself, asserts that he directedhis braves not to fire upon the Warrior, as he intended going on boardin order to save the women and children; that he raised a white flag andcalled to the captain of the boat, desiring him to send his canoe onshore, that he might go on board, as he wanted to give himself up. Thedeplorable condition to which Black Hawk was at this time reduced, flying for safety to the west side of the Mississippi, encumbered by hiswomen and children, and his whole party exhausted by fatigue and hunger, renders it extremely difficult to believe that any decoy was intended byhim. Indeed, nothing can be more certain, than that he was most heartilydesirous of ending the disastrous and fatal contest in which he hadbecome involved, without the slaughter of any more of his people. If thethirst for blood had been less rapacious on the part of the Americans, or their respect for a flag of truce something greater, the furtherdestruction of life would have been spared; and the nation preservedfrom the charge of having fired upon a flag, held sacred throughout theworld. 

CHAPTER VII. 

General Atkinson overtakes Black Hawk--Battle of the Bad Axe--Atkinson's official report--Incidents of the Battle--Capture of Black Hawk and the prophet--Naopope's statement to General Scott--General Scott and Governor Reynolds conclude a treaty with the Sacs, Foxes and Winnebagoes--Causes which led to the war--Motives for getting up Indian wars--First attack made by the Illinois militia--Report of the Secretary at War in regard to this campaign--General Macomb's letter to General Atkinson--Secretary Cass' statement of the causes which led to this war--Comments upon this statement, and its omissions pointed out. 

After the battle upon the Wisconsin, the whole army, under the commandof General Atkinson, crossed to the north side of that river, at Helena, and on the twenty-ninth of July, commenced the pursuit of the Indians, by forced marches, over a rugged and mountainous country. On the morningof the second of August, while ten miles from the Mississippi, it wasascertained that the enemy were upon the bank of that stream, near theBad-axe, and in the act of crossing to the west side. Arrangements wereimmediately made for an attack. Gen. Dodge's squadron was placed infront, followed by the infantry, and these by the brigades of Henry, Alexander, and Posey. The army had proceeded in this order about fivemiles, when some Indians were discovered and fired upon. Theyimmediately retreated to the main body, on the bank of the river. Toprevent the possibility of the escape of the enemy, Generals Alexanderand Posey, were directed to form the right wing of the army, and marchto the river, above the Indian encampment, and then to move down alongthe bank. General Henry formed the left wing, and the United States'infantry and General Dodge's squadron, occupied the centre. In thisorder, the army descended a bluff bank into a river bottom, heavilytimbered, and covered with weeds and brush-wood. General Henry firstcame upon a portion of the enemy, and commenced a heavy fire upon them, which was returned. General Dodge's squadron and the United States'troops, soon came into the action, and with General Henry's men, rushedupon the Indians, killing all in the way, except a few who succeeded inswimming a slough of the Mississippi, about a hundred and fifty yardswide. During this time the brigades of Alexander and Posey, in marchingdown the bank of the river, fell in with another party of Indians, andkilled or routed the whole of them. When the Indians were driven to thebrink of the river, a large number of men, women and children, plungedinto the water to save themselves by swimming; but only a few escaped"our sharpshooters. " The battle lasted about three hours. In theafternoon, of the same day, Generals Atkinson, Dodge and Posey, descended the Mississippi, to Prairie des Chiens, in the Warrior, andthere awaited the arrival of the mounted volunteers, who reached thatplace on the fourth. Among the Indians who escaped the slaughter wasBlack Hawk. Twelve of those who effected their escape, were captured onthe fourth, by a party of whites, from Cassville, under the command ofCaptain Price, and most of those who succeeded in reaching the westside of the Mississippi, were subsequently attacked by a party ofhostile Sioux, and either killed or taken prisoners. The brief, butofficial account of this battle is given by the commanding general, inthese words. 

 Head Quarters, First Artillery Corps, North-western Army Prairie des Chiens, Augt. 25, 1832. 

SIR: I have the honor to report to you that I crossed the Ouisconsin onthe 27th and 28th ultimo, with a select body of troops, consisting ofthe regulars under Col. Taylor, four hundred in number, part of Henry's, Posey's and Alexander's brigades, amounting in all to 1300 men, andimmediately fell upon the trail of the enemy, and pursued it by a forcedmarch, through a mountainous and difficult country, till the morning ofthe 2d inst. , when we came up with his main body on the left bank of theMississippi, nearly opposite the mouth of the Ioway, which we attacked, defeated and dispersed, with a loss on his part of about a hundred andfifty men killed, thirty-nine women and children taken prisoners--theprecise number could not be ascertained, as the greater portion wasslain after being forced into the river. Our loss in killed and wounded, which is stated below, is very small in comparison with the enemy, whichmay be attributed to the enemy's being forced from his positions by arapid charge at the commencement, and throughout the engagement--theremnant of the enemy, cut up and disheartened, crossed to the oppositeside of the river, and has fled into the interior, with a view, it issupposed, of joining Keokuk and Wapello's bands of Sacs and Foxes. 

The horses of the volunteer troops being exhausted by long marches, andthe regular troops without shoes, it was not thought advisable tocontinue the pursuit; indeed a stop to the further effusion of bloodseemed to be called for, till it might be ascertained if the enemy wouldsurrender. 

It is ascertained from our prisoners, that the enemy lost in the battleof the Ouisconsin sixty-eight killed and a very large number wounded;his whole loss does not fall short of three hundred;--after the battleon the Ouisconsin, those of the enemy's women and children, and some whowere dismounted, attempted to make their escape by descending thatriver, but judicious measures being taken by Captain Loomis and Lieut. Street, Indian agent, thirty-two women and children and four men havebeen captured, and some fifteen men killed by the detachment underLieut. Ritner. 

The day after the battle on this river, I fell down with the regulartroops to this place by water, and the mounted men will join us to-day. It is now my purpose to direct Keokuk, to demand a surrender of theremaining principal men of the hostile party, which, from the largenumber of women and children we hold prisoners, I have every reason tobelieve will be complied with. Should it not, they should be pursued andsubdued, a step Maj. Gen. Scott will take upon his arrival. 

I cannot speak too highly of the brave conduct of the regular andvolunteer forces engaged in the last battle and the fatiguing marchthat preceded it, as soon as the reports of officers of the brigades andcorps are handed in, they shall be submitted with further remarks. 

 5 killed, 2 wounded, 6th inft. 2 do. 5th inft. 1 captain, 5 privates Dodge's Bat. Mounted. 1 Lieut. 6 privates Henry's 1 private wounded, Alexander's 1 private, Posey's. 

 I have the honor to be with great respect, Yr. Obt. Servant, H. ATKINSON, Brevet Brig. Gen. U. S. A. 

 Maj. Gen. Macomb, Com. In Chief, Washington. 

The destruction of life in the battle of the Bad-axe, was not confinedto the Indian warriors. Little discrimination seems to have been madebetween the slaughter of those in arms and the rest of the tribe. Afterthey had sought refuge in the waters of the Mississippi, and the women, with their children on their backs, were buffeting the waves, in anattempt to swim to the opposite shore, numbers of them were shot by ourtroops. Many painful pictures might be recorded of the adventures andhorrors of that day. One or two cases may be cited. A Sac woman, namedNa-ni-sa, the sister of a warrior of some note among the Indians, foundherself in the hottest of the fight. She succeeded at length in reachingthe river, and keeping her infant child, close in its blanket, by forceof her teeth, plunged into the water, seized hold upon the tail of ahorse, whose rider was swimming him to the opposite shore, and wascarried safely across the Mississippi. When our troops charged upon theIndians, in their defiles near the river, men, women and children wereso huddled together, that the slaughter fell alike upon all of them. Ayoung squaw was standing in the grass, a short distance from theAmerican line, holding her child, a little girl of four years old, inher arms. In this position, a ball struck the right arm of the child, just above the elbow, and shattering the bone, passed into the breast ofits young mother, and instantly killed her. She fell upon the child andconfined it to the ground. When the battle was nearly over, and theIndians had been driven from this point, Lieutenant Anderson of theUnited States army, hearing the cries of the child, went to the spot, and taking it from under the dead mother, carried it to the place forsurgical aid. The arm was amputated, and during the operation, the halfstarved child did not cry, but sat quietly eating a piece of hardbiscuit. It was sent to Prairie des Chiens, and entirely recovered fromits wound. 

When the fortunes of Black Hawk became desperate, his few stragglingallies, from other tribes, not only deserted him, but joined hisenemies. It is to two Winnebagoes, Decorie, and Chaetar, that the fallenchief is indebted for being taken captive. On the 27th of August, theydelivered Black Hawk and the Prophet to the Indian agent, GeneralStreet, at Prairie des Chiens. Upon their delivery, Decorie, theOne-eyed, rose and said:

"My father, I now stand before you. When we parted, I told you I wouldreturn soon; but I could not come any sooner. We have had to go a greatdistance [to the Dalle, on the Wisconsin, above the portage. ] You see wehave done what you sent us to do. These, (pointing to the prisoners) arethe two you told us to get. We have done what you told us to do. Wealways do what you tell us, because we know it is for our good. Father, you told us to get these men, and it would be the cause of much good tothe Winnebagoes. We have brought them, but it has been very hard for usto do so. That one, Black Hawk was a great way off. You told us to bringthem to you alive: we have done so. If you had told us to bring theirheads alone, we would have done so, and it would have been lessdifficult than what we have done. Father, we deliver these men into yourhands. We would not deliver them even to our brother, the chief of thewarriors, but to you; because we know you, and we believe you are ourfriend. We want you to keep them safe; if they are to be hurt we do notwish to see it. Wait until we are gone before it is done. Father, manylittle birds have been flying about our ears of late, and we thoughtthey whispered to us that there was evil intended for us; but now wehope these evil birds will let our ears alone. We know you are ourfriend, because you take our part, and that is the reason we do what youtell us to do. You say you love your red children: we think we love youas much if not more than you love us. We have confidence in you and youmay rely on us. We have been promised a great deal if we would takethese men--that it would do much good to our people. We now hope to seewhat will be done for us. We have come in haste; we are tired andhungry. We now put these men into your hands. We have done all that youtold us to do. "

The agent, General Street, replied: "My children, you have done well. Itold you to bring these men to me, and you have done so. I am pleased atwhat you have done. It is for your good, and for this reason I ampleased. I assured the great chief of the warriors, (General Atkinson)that if these men were in your country, you would find them and bringthem to me, and now I can say much for your good. I will go down to Rockisland with the prisoners, and I wish you who have brought these men, especially, to go with me, with such other chiefs and warriors as youmay select. My children, the great chief of the warriors, when he leftthis place, directed me to deliver these and all other prisoners, to thechief of the warriors at this place, Col. Taylor, who is here by me. Some of the Winnebagoes, south of the Wisconsin, have befriended theSaukies, and some of the Indians of my agency have also given them aid. This displeases the great chief of the warriors, and your great fatherthe President, and was calculated to do much harm. Your great father, the President at Washington, has sent a great war chief from the fareast, General Scott, with a fresh army of soldiers. He is now at RockIsland. Your great father the President has sent him and the Governorand chief of Illinois to hold a council with the Indians. He has sent aspeech to you, and wishes the chiefs and warriors of the Winnebagoes togo to Rock Island, to the council on the tenth of next month. I wish youto be ready in three days, when I will go with you. I am well pleasedthat you have taken the Black Hawk, the Prophet and other prisoners. This will enable me to say much for you to the great chief of thewarriors, and to the president your great father. My children, I shallnow deliver the two men, Black Hawk and the prophet, to the chief of thewarriors here. He will take care of them till we start to Rock Island. "

Col. Taylor upon taking charge of the prisoners made a few remarks totheir captors, after which Chaetar, the associate of Decorie, rose andsaid, "My father, I am young, and do not know how to make speeches. This isthe second time I ever spoke to you before people. I am no chief; I amno orator; but I have been allowed to speak to you. If I should notspeak as well as others, still you must listen to me. Father, when youmade the speech to the chiefs, Waugh Kon Decorie Carramani, the one-eyedDecorie, and others, I was there. I heard you. I thought what you saidto them, you also said to me. You said if these two, (pointing to BlackHawk and the prophet) were taken by us and brought to you, there wouldnever more a black cloud hang over your Winnebagoes. Your words enteredinto my ear, my brains and my heart. I left here that same night, andyou know that you have not seen me since until now. I have been a greatway; I had much trouble; but when I remembered what you said, I knewwhat you said was right. This made me continue and do what you told meto do. Near the Dalle on the Wisconsin, I took Black Hawk. No one did itbut me. I say this in the ears of all present, and they know it--and Inow appeal to the Great Spirit, our grandfather, and the Earth, ourgrandmother, for the truth of what I say. Father, I am no chief, butwhat I have done is for the benefit of my nation, and I hope to see thegood that has been promised us. That one, Wabokieshiek, the prophet, ismy relation--if he is to be hurt, I do not wish to see it. Father, soldiers sometimes stick the ends of their guns into the backs of Indianprisoners, when they are going about in the hands of the guard. I hopethis will not be done to this man. "

Naopope the second in command, with a few other Indians who escaped fromthe battle of the Bad-Axe, were also brought in by the Sioux, who beingthe ancient enemy of the Sacs and Foxes, seized upon this opportunity ofwaging war upon the remnant of Black Hawk's band. They were placed byGeneral Street, in the custody of Colonel Taylor. 

On the seventh of September, the prisoners were placed on board thesteam boat Winnebago, and sent down to Jefferson Barracks, a few milesbelow St. Louis. The arrival of General Scott at the scene of action, was unfortunately delayed until after the campaign was closed, inconsequence of the Asiatic cholera having broken out, among the troopsunder his command, while ascending the lakes. The disease continued torage among them, with dreadful mortality, for some time after theirarrival at Rock island. Of course, this campaign added no new laurels tothe military reputation of General Scott; but, by his humane andtireless exertions for the alleviation of the sufferings of hissoldiers, he won for himself more true glory, than the most brilliantvictory, over an Indian enemy, could confer. 

While at Rock Island, General Scott instituted some inquiries among theIndians, in regard to the difficulties between them and the whites. Among others interrogated was Naopope, the friend and counsellor ofBlack Hawk, who participated in the campaign, and on account of hiscourage and skill as a warrior, directed to a great extent, themovements of the band, from the period of their recrossing theMississippi, until the battle of the Bad-Axe. His statement confirms thedeclaration of Black Hawk, that in coming over to the east side of theriver, there was no intention of making war upon the frontier settlers;and that they really intended to surrender to Major Stillman, uponSycamore creek, on the 14th of May, and actually sent a white flag, inevidence of their submission, which was fired upon by the Americantroops. 

"I always belonged to Black Hawk's band. Last summer I went to Malden;when I came back, I found that by the treaty with General Gaines, theSacs had moved across the Mississippi. I remained during the winterwith the Prophet, on Rock river, thirty-five miles above the mouth. During the winter the Prophet sent me across the Mississippi, to BlackHawk, with a message, to tell him and his band to cross back to hisvillage and make corn: that if the Americans came and told them toremove again, they would shake hands with them. If the Americans hadcome and told us to move, we should have shaken hands, and immediatelyhave moved peaceably. We encamped on Sycamore creek. We met somePottowatomies and made a feast for them. At that time I heard there weresome Americans [under Maj. Stillman] near us. I prepared a white flag togo and see them, and sent two or three young men on a hill to see whatthey were doing. Before the feast was finished, I heard my young menwere killed. This was at sunset. Some of my young men ran out; twokilled, and the Americans were seen rushing on to our camp. My young menfired a few guns, and the Americans ran off, and my young men chasedthem about six miles. "

Naopope further stated that the Pottowatomies immediately left them, andthat none of the Kickapoos ever joined them. A few of the Winnebagoesdid, and brought in scalps at different times; but so soon as theydiscovered that the whites were too powerful for the Sacks, they turnedround and fought against them. Some of the other witnesses examined onthis occasion, testify, that when Black Hawk saw the steam boat Warriorapproaching them, on the first of August, he said he pitied the womenand children; and, having determined to surrender to the commander ofthe boat, raised a white flag which was immediately fired upon. Thisfact is stated in the letter of the Captain of the Warrior, and iscorroborated by Lieutenant Kingsbury, who had charge of the troops onboard. 

Among the prisoners delivered to General Street, was the prophetWabokieshiek, or the White Cloud, a stout, shrewd looking Indian aboutforty years of age. This individual exercised considerable influenceover Black Hawk and his band. He had a village, called after him, uponRock river, where he usually resided, and was recognized among thevillage chiefs. He claimed to be part Winnebago and part Sac, his fatherbelonging to one and his mother to the other of these tribes. He wore afull suit of hair, with a white head-dress rising several inches abovethe top of his hair--a style of dress suited, it is supposed, to hisprofession. He seems to have had sagacity and cunning--two qualitiesessential to the character of a prophet, and without which they couldnot long retain their influence and sacred character. Wabokieshiek hasbeen represented as the priest of assassination, but the evidence onwhich this charge is made, seems to be wanting. He was instrumental inpersuading Black Hawk and his party to return to the east side of theMississippi in 1832, and went down to the mouth of Rock river to meetthem, and encourage the belief that the Americans would not interferewith them, so long as they refrained from any offensive operations. Hemade a speech to the braves and warriors of Black Hawk, in which hetold them they had nothing to fear and much to gain: That the Americanwar chief, would not molest them so long as they acted peaceably: Thatthe time would come when they would be ready to pursue a differentcourse; but that they must await such reinforcements as would enablethem to resist the army of the whites. The Prophet was either dupedhimself, or playing upon the credulity of Black Hawk and Naopope. He wasconstantly giving them assurances of assistance from the other tribesand from their British Father at Malden. There may have been reason forexpecting it from the former, but none from the latter. He entertainedstrong prejudices against the whites, and being naturally prone tomischief making, was willing to stir up the Indians to resistance, without caring for the results that would be likely to follow a borderwar. The likeness of him, which is here given, is said to convey a goodidea of his style of dress and the expression of his face. 

[Illustration: WABOKIESHIEK, THE PROPHET]

On the 21st of September, General Scott and Governor Reynolds concludeda treaty with the Winnebagoes, and the Sacs and Foxes; the provisions ofwhich have been stated. For the faithful performance of it, on the partof the Indians, it was stipulated that Black Hawk and his two sons, Wabokieshiek the Prophet, Naopope and five other chiefs of the hostileband, should be retained as hostages during the pleasure of thePresident. The remainder of the prisoners, captured during thecampaign, were set at liberty. 

In recurring to the causes which led to this war and the spirit andmilitary skill with which it was conducted, there is nothing on which acitizen of the United States can dwell with satisfaction. Looking aloneto the official documents, that have been published on the subject, itwould appear that the Indians were the aggressors--that they invaded theterritory of the United States, marking their path with outrages uponthe unoffending citizens; and that they were met, encountered, anddefeated, under circumstances which shed renown upon the arms and humanepolicy of the government. But it is necessary, in doing justice to bothparties in this contest, to destroy this flattering picture. 

Some of the causes which operated to render Black Hawk and his band, discontented with the conduct of the United States, and with theircondition upon the west side of the Mississippi, have been enumerated. Whatever may have been their ulterior views, in returning within thelimits of the state of Illinois, in the spring of 1832, it cannot besupposed that they came with any immediate hostile intentions. Had theybeen determined upon war, they would neither have encumbered themselveswith their wives and children, nor have openly recrossed theMississippi, near to Fort Armstrong, when they knew there was an officerof the United States army, with a body of troops, stationed at thatpoint, for the express purpose of preserving peace upon the frontier. Such movements would have been at variance with the well known militarypolicy of the Indians. Judging from the success of General Gaines, inremoving this same band, in 1831, without blood shed, to the west sideof the Mississippi, it has been supposed, that a pacific conferencebetween the commandant of Fort Armstrong and Black Hawk, in 1832, beforehe had commenced his ascent up Rock river, would have resulted in thepeaceable return of the Indians to their own hunting grounds. Thecondition of things at that time, warrants such a belief, and thesubsequent declarations of the Indians, strengthen the opinion, that hadthe experiment been made, it would have been successful. It is true, that the commanding officer at Fort Armstrong, sent two messages toBlack Hawk upon this subject; but the first is represented by theIndians to have been an _order_ for them to return; and the second, thatif they did not, they would be pursued and _forced_ to recross theMississippi. These efforts failed, but it does not follow that afriendly council upon the subject, would not have resulted differently. 

Many causes operate in bringing about an Indian war, and in plunging thegovernment of the United States, prematurely and unnecessarily, into it. There is generally upon the frontiers a class of persons who havenothing to lose, and much to gain by such a contest. It gives thememployment and circulates money among them. With such pioneer loafers, an Indian war is always popular. Then there is the "Indian Hater, "[11]a numerous and respectable body of men, to be found upon the frontiersettlements, who, from having suffered in their persons and property bythe barbarities and plunder of the Indians, have come at length to lookupon them as no better than the wild beasts of the forest, and whosemany atrocities make it a moral duty, on the part of the whites, toexterminate by fire and the sword. Again there is the regular _squatter_and land speculator, whose interest is always promoted by a war, becauseit usually results in driving the Indians further back from thefrontier. Intermixed with these classes, are many quiet and worthycitizens, who with their families, have been carried to the frontiers, in the ordinary course of events, by the tide of emigration. These mayhave neither a desire for war nor a feeling of hostility towards theIndians, but when the tomahawk is raised, they contribute to swell thealarum, and oftentimes, by their very fears of a war, do much to bringit about. Finally, it is not to be disguised, that there are manyindividuals, in the states, who are prone to look to an Indian war, as ameans of gratifying their love for adventure and excitement; or who, having political aspirations, are disposed to make the military renown, which may be gained in a campaign, the means of attaining civic honors. It is obvious, if there be any foundation for these positions, that anIndian war may oftentimes be undertaken without any just cause, prosecuted without system and terminated in dishonor to our government. 

When Black Hawk and his party rashly determined, in the spring of 1832, to recross the Mississippi, a fine opportunity was presented, forgetting up a border war, and the necessary machinery was speedily put inmotion. The old chief, with a few hundred braves and their women andchildren, carrying with them their cooking utensils and personalproperty, had no sooner reached the east bank of the Mississippi, thanthe alarm note was sounded upon the frontier, and echoed from cabin tocabin, until it was spread throughout the state of Illinois. The mostdreadful anticipations of savage cruelty were indulged--the force ofBlack Hawk was greatly magnified--his thirst for vengeance upon thewhites was only to be appeased by blood--the state was actually invadedby a powerful and remorseless enemy--and memorials and petitions, for anarmed force to repulse the invaders and protect the frontiers, flowed inupon the Governor, from all quarters. Such was the excited state ofpublic feeling, such the force of public sentiment, that little time wasleft for Executive deliberation. Governor Reynolds issued hisproclamation, reiterating the dangers of the frontier, and calling for abody of the militia to march and protect it. A call under suchcircumstances was promptly responded to, and in a short time, a largebody of mounted volunteers, embracing many of the most respectable andinfluential citizens of Illinois, were in the vicinity of the invadingfoe, and ready for co-operation with the regular troops under GeneralAtkinson. A concentration of these two forces was made at Dixon's ferry, on Rock river, about thirty miles below the encampment of Black Hawk andhis party. Had a conference now been sought with the Indians, theirprompt submission cannot be doubted. Black Hawk, whatever might havebeen his previous expectations, had received no addition of strengthfrom other tribes--he was almost destitute of provisions--had committedno act of hostility against the whites, and with all his women, childrenand baggage, was in the vicinity of an army, principally of mountedvolunteers, many times greater than his own band of braves. He wouldprobably have been glad of any reasonable pretext for retracing hisprecipitate steps. Unfortunately no effort for a council was made. Abody of impetuous volunteers dashed on, without caution or order, toSycamore creek, within three miles of the camp of a part of Black Hawk'sparty. He instantly sent a white flag to meet them for the purpose ofholding a council, and agreeing to return to the west side of theMississippi. Unfortunately, for the cause of humanity, as well as thegood faith of the United States, this flag was held to be but a decoy, and without waiting to ascertain its true character, the bearers of itwere fired upon and one of them killed. An onset was immediately made byMaj. Stillman upon Black Hawk, who finding there was no alternative butwar, met our troops, and put them to flight in the manner alreadydescribed. Emboldened by his brilliant success in this engagement, andfinding that he would not be permitted to capitulate, he sent out hiswar parties, removed his women and children up Rock river, and a regularborder war was commenced. The murders which his men committed upon thefrontier settlers, naturally increased the alarm throughout the state, additional volunteers rushed to the seat of war, and the commandingGeneral commenced his military operations for a regular campaign. Inabout two months, Black Hawk, having lost many of his men, in thedifferent skirmishes with the American troops, and not a few of hiswomen and children by actual starvation, found himself upon the bank ofthe Mississippi, endeavoring to escape the pursuing enemy, by crossingto the west side of that stream. While engaged in this act, the steamboat Warrior, having an armed force on board, ascended the river for thepurpose of cutting off his retreat. Once more Black Hawk raised thewhite flag, and sought to surrender himself and his whole band, to thewhites. Again his flag was looked upon as a decoy, and in fifteenminutes, a round of canister shot, from the boat, was fired, with deadlyfatality into the midst of his men, women and children. The followingmorning, the main army, under General Atkinson, reached the scene ofaction. His force must have been six or eight times greater than that ofthe Indians, and by a judicious movement, the latter was promptlysurrounded on three sides by the pursuing army, while on the other, thesteam boat Warrior, the waters of the Mississippi, and a band ofhostile Sioux on its west bank, precluded all chance of escape in thatquarter. A demand upon the Indians, at this time, to surrender, unconditionally, would undoubtedly have been most cheerfully acceded to. But it appears not to have been made. It is probable that GeneralAtkinson whose character for humanity, has always stood high, could notrestrain the impetuosity of his troops long enough to propose acapitulation. They had been deeply excited by the murders perpetrated bythe Black Hawk band--had been harassed by a long and fatiguingmarch--and perhaps felt, that the results of the campaign, thus far, hadbeen rather inglorious to their arms. These causes may have conspired toprecipitate them into a battle, which had been better spared thanfought, inasmuch as it resulted, necessarily, in the death of a greatmany miserable women and children, who were already on the brink of thegrave, from hunger and exhaustion. 

A brief recapitulation of a few of the events of this disastrouscampaign, has thus been made, for the purpose of showing, that howeverhostile Black Hawk and his band may have been, originally, towards thewhites, he did not make the first attack upon them; and that the warmight in all probability have been prevented, or arrested in any stageof its progress, by the exercise of that forbearance, good faith andsound policy, which should ever be cherished by the United States. 

The official report of General Atkinson to General Macomb, after thebattle of the Bad-axe has been quoted in full. On the 25th of November1832, the Secretary at War, Mr. Cass, in his annual report to thePresident, says, in speaking of this campaign, "General Atkinson, with the regular troops and militia under his command, pursued the Indians through a country very difficult to be penetrated, of which little was known, and where much exertion was required to procure regular supplies. These circumstances necessarily delayed the operations, and were productive of great responsibility to the commanding officer, and of great sufferings and privations to all employed in this harassing warfare. The Indians, however, were driven from their fastnesses, and fled towards the Mississippi, with the intention of seeking refuge in the country west of that river. They were immediately followed by General Atkinson, with a mounted force, overtaken, and completely vanquished. The arrangements of the commanding general, as well in the pursuit as in the action, were prompt and judicious, and the conduct of the officers and men was exemplary. The campaign terminated in the unqualified submission of the hostile party, and in the adoption of measures for the permanent security of the frontiers, and the result has produced upon the Indians of that region, a salutary impression, which it is to be hoped will prevent the recurrence of similar scenes. "

On the 25th of October 1832, General Macomb transmitted to GeneralAtkinson, the following letter, from the Secretary at War. 

 Department at War, Oct. 24th. 1832. 

 SIR: The return of the President to the seat of government, enables me to communicate to you his sentiments in relation to the operations and result of the campaign, recently conducted under your orders, against the hostile Indians; and it is with great pleasure, I have received his instructions to inform you, that he appreciates the difficulties you had to encounter; and that he has been highly gratified at the termination of your arduous and responsible duties. Great privations and embarrassments, necessarily attend such a warfare, and particularly in the difficult country occupied by the enemy. The arrangements which led to the defeat of the Indians, were adopted with judgment and pursued with decision, and the result was honorable to yourself, and to the officers and men acting under your orders. 

 I will thank you to communicate to the forces that served with you, both regulars and militia, the feelings of the President upon this occasion. I have the honor to be very respectfully, your obt. Servant. LEWIS CASS. 

 Gen. H. Atkinson, Jefferson Barracks, Missouri. 

In the report of the Secretary at War which has just been referred to, there is the following statement of the causes which led to thiscontest. "The recent hostilities, commenced by the Sac and Fox Indians, may be traced to causes, which have been for some time in operation, andwhich left little doubt upon the minds of those acquainted with thesavage character, that they were determined to commit some aggressionupon the frontier. The confederated tribes of the Sacs and Foxes havebeen long distinguished for their daring spirit of adventure and fortheir restless and reckless disposition. At the commencement of theeighteenth century, one of these tribes made a desperate attempt toseize the post of Detroit; and during a period of forty years, subsequent to that effort, they caused great trouble and embarrassmentto the French colonial government, which was only terminated by a mostformidable military expedition, sent by that enterprizing people intotheir remote regions west of Green Bay. During the last war with GreatBritain, this confederacy entered zealously into the contest, and wasamong the most active and determined of our enemies. After the peacetheir communication with the Canadian authorities was preserved; and, inevery year, large parties of the most influential chiefs and warriorsvisited Upper Canada, and returned laden with presents. That thiscontinued intercourse kept alive feelings of attachment to a foreignpower and weakened the proper and necessary influence of the UnitedStates, is known to every one who has marked the progress of events andconduct of the Indians upon the north western frontier. The tribes uponthe upper Mississippi, particularly the Sacs and Foxes and Winnebagoes, confident in their position and in their natural courage, and totallyignorant of the vast disproportion between their power, and that of theUnited States, have always been discontented, keeping the frontier inalarm, and continually committing some outrage upon the persons orproperty of the inhabitants. All this is the result of impulse, and isthe necessary and almost inevitable consequence of institutions, whichmake war the great object of life. It is not probable, that any Indianseriously bent up on hostilities, ever stops to calculate the force ofthe white man, and to estimate the disastrous consequences which we knowmust be the result. He is impelled onward in his desperate career, bypassions which are fostered and encouraged by the whole frame ofsociety; and he is, very probably, stimulated by the predictions of somefanatical leader, who promises him glory, victory and scalps. 

"In this state of feeling, and with these incitements to war, the Sacsand Foxes claimed the right of occupying a part of the country on Rockriver, even after it had been sold to citizens of the United States, andsettled by them. In 1829 and in 1830, serious difficulties resulted fromtheir efforts to establish themselves in that section, and frequentcollisions were the consequence. Representations were made to them, andevery effort, short of actual hostilities, used by the proper officers, to induce them to abandon their unfounded pretensions, and to confinethemselves to their own country on the west side of the Mississippiriver. These efforts were successful, with the well disposed portion ofthe tribes, but were wholly unavailing with the band known by the nameof the "British party. " In 1831, their aggressions were so serious, andthe attitude they assumed, so formidable, that a considerable detachmentof the army, and of the militia of Illinois, was called into the field;and the disaffected Indians, alarmed by the preparation for theirchastisement, agreed to reside and hunt, "upon their own lands west ofthe Mississippi river, " and that they would not recross this river tothe usual place of their residence, nor to any part of their old huntinggrounds east of the Mississippi, without the express permission of thePresident of the United States, or the Governor of the state ofIllinois. 

"This arrangement had scarcely been concluded, before a flagrant outragewas committed, by a party of these Indians, upon a band of friendlyMenomomies, almost under the guns of Fort Crawford. Twenty-five personswere wantonly murdered, and many wounded, while encamped in the Prairiedu Chien, and resting in fancied security upon our soil, and under ourflag. If an act like this, had been suffered to pass unnoticed andunpunished, a war between these tribes would have been the consequence, in which our frontiers would have been involved, and the character andinfluence of the government, would have been lost in the opinion of theIndians. 

"Apprehensive, from the course of events already stated, and from othercircumstances, that the disaffected band of Sacs and Foxes, would againharass and disturb the settlements upon our borders, and determined thatthe murderers of the Menomenies should be surrendered or taken, thedepartment ordered General Atkinson, on the 7th of March last, to ascendthe Mississippi with the disposable regular troops at Jeffersonbarracks, and to carry into effect the instructions issued by yourdirection. Still further to strengthen the frontiers, orders were givenfor the re-occupation of Chicago. 

"The demand for the surrender of the Menomenie murderers was entirelydisregarded: and the British party of the Sacs and Foxes recrossed theMississippi, and assuming a hostile attitude, established themselvesupon Rock river. The subsequent events are well known, and the resulthas already been stated in this report. "

In the annual report of Maj. General Macomb to Congress, of November1832, very much the same positions are taken in regard to the causeswhich led to this contest with the Indians, that are contained in thereport from the War Department. Its leading object seems to be to placethe United States in the right--the Indians in the wrong. 

It is to be regretted that the Honorable Secretary, whose opinions andstatements on all subjects connected with the Indians, carry with themgreat weight, had not been more explicit, in assigning the causes whichled to the late war, with a portion of the Sacs and Foxes. It is not tobe supposed that the Secretary would designedly omit any thing, which inhis opinion, was necessary, to a fair presentation of this matter; butas the case stands, his statement does not, it is believed, do justiceto the Indians. The Secretary says the Sacs and Foxes "have always beendiscontented, keeping the frontier in alarm, and continually committingsome outrage on the persons or property of the inhabitants. " Between thetreaty of peace at Portage des Sioux, in 1816, and the attack of MajorStillman, in 1832, it is supposed that the Sacs and Foxes never killedone American; and, their aggressions upon the persons and property ofthe whites, consisted principally, in an attempt to retain possession oftheir village and corn-fields, when pressed upon by the white settlers, who, in violation of the laws of Congress and express treaty provisions, were committing outrages upon the Indians: The report of the Secretaryfurther states, that the Sacs and Foxes "claimed the right of occupyinga part of the country upon Rock river, even after it had been sold tocitizens of the United States, and settled by them. " But the report doesnot state that under the treaty of 1804, by which these lands wereceded, it is expressly provided that so long as they remain the propertyof the United States, the Indians of said tribes shall enjoy theprivilege of "living and hunting upon them;" it does not state that forsix or eight years before the government had sold an acre of land uponRock river, the white settlers were there, in violation of the laws, trespassing upon these Indians, and thus creating that very hostility offeeling, which, is subsequently cited as a reason for the chastisementinflicted upon them by the United States: it does not state, that in theyear 1829, government, for the purpose of creating a pretext for theremoval of the Indians from Rock river, directed a few quarter sectionsof land, including the Sac village, to be sold, although the frontiersettlements of Illinois had not then reached within fifty or sixty milesof that place, and millions of acres of land around it, were unoccupiedand unsold: it does not state that instead of requiring the Indians toremove from the quarter sections thus prematurely sold, to other landson Rock river, owned by the United States, and on which, under thetreaty, they had a right to hunt and reside, they were commanded toremove to the west side of the Mississippi: it does not state, that the"serious aggressions" and "formidable attitude" assumed by the "Britishparty, " in 1831, consisted in their attempt to raise a crop of corn andbeans, in throwing down the fences of the whites who were enclosingtheir fields, in "pointing deadly weapons" at them and in "stealingtheir potatoes:" it does not state that the murder of the MenominieIndians, at Fort Crawford, by a party of the "British band, " was inretaliation, for a similar "flagrant outrage, " committed the summerprevious, by the Menominies, upon Peah-mus-ka, a principal chief of theFoxes and nine or ten of his tribe, who were going up to Prairie desChiens on business and were within one day's travel of that place: itdoes not state that one reason assigned by the "British party" forrefusing to surrender the murderers of the Menominies, was the fact thatthe government had not made a similar demand of that tribe for themurderers of the Sacs: it does not state that the "hostile attitude"assumed by the Sacs and Foxes, in 1832, after recrossing theMississippi, and their establishment on Rock river, simply amounted tothis; that they came over with their women and children for the avowedpurpose of raising a crop of corn with the Winnebagoes--were temporarilyencamped on that stream--had committed no outrage upon person orproperty--and were actually engaged in entertaining some guests with adog-feast, when the Illinois militia approached their camp, and killedthe bearer of a white flag, which Black Hawk sent to them, in token ofhis peaceable disposition. These may be unimportant omissions, in theopinion of the Secretary, but in looking to the causes which led to thiscontest, and the spirit in which it was conducted, they have been deemedof sufficient importance, to receive a passing notice, when referring tohis report. 

The opinion has been expressed more than once in the course of thiswork, that there was in reality, no necessity for this war. A firm butforbearing course of policy, on the part of the United States, towardsthis discontented fragment of the Sacs and Foxes, would, it is believed, have prevented any serious aggression upon our people or their property. Certain it is, that a few thousand dollars, superadded to a humanespirit of conciliation, would have effected the permanent removal ofBlack Hawk and his band, to the west side of the Mississippi: and, asthe government was not contending with them, in support of its nationalfaith, nor about to punish them for an insult to its national honour, there could have been no disgrace in purchasing the settlement of thedifficulty, on such terms. It has been stated that in the spring of1831, Black Hawk agreed to remove his band to the west side of theMississippi, and relinquish all claims to the lands upon Rock river, ifthe United States would pay him six thousand dollars, with which topurchase provisions and other necessaries for his people; and that theIndian agent at St. Louis, was informed of this fact. Moreover, it hasbeen publicly alleged that before the campaign against Black Hawk, inthe summer of 1832, the President and Secretary at War, were bothinformed, that the "British Band" of the Sacs and Foxes, could bepeaceably removed to the west side of the Mississippi for six or eightthousand dollars. The secretary was assured, in the presence of a memberof congress, that the inquiry had been made by a person familiar withthe Indians, and the fact of their willingness to remove upon theseterms distinctly ascertained. [12]

Under the treaty of 1804, the Sacs and Foxes ceded to the United States, more than twenty millions of acres of first rate land, for less thantwenty thousand dollars. Black Hawk not only contended for theinvalidity of this treaty, but insisted that the price paid by theUnited States was wholly below the value of the land. Under suchcircumstances, the course of the government was obvious--to have quietedthe complaints of the Indians and secured their peaceable removal to thewest, by a second purchase of their interest to the territory inquestion. Had it cost twenty, fifty or one hundred thousand dollars, toeffect this object, our country would still have been the gainer, bothby the preservation of the national faith and the national treasure--forthe former was wantonly violated, and the latter uselessly squandered. The contest with Black Hawk and his party, destroyed the lives of fouror five hundred Indian men, women and children--about two hundredcitizens of the United States--and cost the government near two millionsof dollars! Such are the results of a war commenced and waged by a greatnation, upon a remnant of poor ignorant savages;--a war which had itsorigin in avarice and political ambition, which was prosecuted in badfaith and closed in dishonor. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Black Hawk, Naopope, the Prophet and others confined at Jefferson Barracks--In April 1833 sent to Washington--Interview with the President--sent to Fortress Monroe--Their release--Visit the eastern cities--Return to the Mississippi--Conference at Rock island between Maj. Garland, Keokuk, Black Hawk and other chiefs--speeches of Keokuk, Pashshepaho and Black Hawk--Final discharge of the hostages--Their return to their families--Black Hawk's visit to Washington in 1837--His return--His personal appearance--Military talents--Intellectual and moral character. 

Black Hawk, his two sons, Naopope, Wabokiesheik, and the otherprisoners, who under the treaty of 21st September, were to be held ashostages, during the pleasure of the president, having been sent downthe Mississippi, to Jefferson Barracks, under charge of LieutenantDavis, were immediately put in irons, a measure of precaution, apparently, as unnecessary as it was cruel. 

"We were now confined, " says the old chief, "to the barracks, and forcedto wear the _ball and chain_! This was extremely mortifying, andaltogether useless. Was the White Beaver [Gen. Atkinson] afraid that Iwould break out of his barracks and run away? Or was he ordered toinflict this punishment upon me? If I had taken him prisoner upon thefield of battle, I would not have wounded his feelings so much, by suchtreatment, knowing that a brave war chief would prefer death todishonor. But I do not blame the White Beaver for the course hepursued--it is the custom among white soldiers, and I suppose was a partof his duty. 

"The time dragged heavily and gloomily along throughout the winter, although the White Beaver did every thing in his power to render uscomfortable. Having been accustomed throughout a long life, to roamthrough the forests--to come and go at liberty--confinement under anysuch circumstances, could not be less than torture. 

"We passed away the time making pipes, until spring, when we werevisited by the agent, trader, and interpreter, from Rock Island, Keokuk, and several chiefs and braves of our nation, and my wife and daughter. Iwas rejoiced to see the two latter, and spent my time very agreeablywith them and my people as long as they remained. "

During the winter they were visited by a great number of persons, one ofwhom remarks, "We were immediately struck with admiration at thegigantic and symmetrical figures of most of the warriors, who seemed asthey reclined, in native ease and gracefulness, with their half nakedbodies exposed to view, rather like statues from some master hand, thanbeings of a race whom we had heard characterized as degenerate anddebased. They were clad in leggins and moccasins of buckskin, and woreblankets, which were thrown around them in the manner of the Roman toga, so as to leave their right arms bare. The youngest among them werepainted on their necks, with a bright vermilion color, and had theirfaces transversely streaked, with alternate red and black stripes. Fromtheir faces and eyebrows, they pluck out the hair with the mostassiduous care. They also shave or pull it out from their heads, withthe exception of a tuft about three fingers width, extending frombetween the forehead and crown to the back of the head; this theysometimes plait into a queue on the crown, and cut the edges of it downto an inch in length, and plaster it with the vermilion which keeps iterect, and gives it the appearance of a cock's comb. " The same writeradds, that, "but for the want of that peculiar expression which emanatesfrom a cultivated intellect, " Nasinewiskuk, the eldest son of BlackHawk, could have "been looked upon as the very personification, of the_beau ideal_ of manly beauty. " Among their many visitors while at thisplace, was the distinguished author of the "Sketch Book, " who in aletter, under date of 18th of Dec. 1832, says, "From St. Louis, I wentto Fort Jefferson, about nine miles distant, to see Black Hawk, theIndian warrior and his fellow prisoners--a forlorn crew--emaciated anddejected--the redoubtable chieftain himself, a meagre old man upwards ofseventy. He has, however, a fine head, a Roman style of face, and aprepossessing countenance. "[13] When Catlin the artist, visitedJefferson Barracks for the purpose of painting the portraits of thesechiefs, and was about to commence the likeness of Naopope, he seized theball and chain that were fastened to his leg, and raising them on high, exclaimed with a look of scorn, "make me so, and show me to the greatfather. " Upon the artist's refusing to paint him as he wished, he keptvarying his countenance with grimaces, to prevent him from catching alikeness. 

During the visit of Keokuk to Jefferson Barracks, he made exertions toobtain the release of the prisoners, pledging himself to the Indianagent at St. Louis, and to General Atkinson, to be responsible for theirgood conduct in future. Soon afterwards, however, the General receivedorders from the secretary at war to have the prisoners sent toWashington city. It was in the latter part of April, 1833, that theyreached the capitol, under the escort of an officer of the army. In thefirst interview between President Jackson and Black Hawk, the latter isrepresented to have said, "I am a man and you are another. " In thecourse of their interview, the President informed him that he and hiscompanions must proceed on the following day to Fortress Monroe, thereto remain, until the conduct of their people at home was such as tojustify their being set at liberty. In reply to this, the Prophet said, "We expected to return immediately to our people. The war in which wehave been involved was occasioned by our attempting to raise provisionson our own lands, or where we thought we had a right so to do. We havelost many of our people, as well as the whites. Our tribes and familiesare now exposed to the attacks of our enemies, the Sioux, and theMenominies. We hope, therefore, to be permitted to return home to takecare of them. " Black Hawk concluded his address to the President, whichembraced a history of the late war, by saying, "We did not expect toconquer the whites, no. They had too many houses, too many men. I tookup the hatchet, for my part, to revenge injuries which my people couldno longer endure. Had I borne them longer without striking, my peoplewould have said, Black Hawk is a woman. He is too old to be a chief--heis no Sac. These reflections caused me to raise the war-whoop. I say nomore of it; it is known to you. Keokuk once was here; you took him bythe hand, and when he wished to return to his home, you were willing. Black Hawk expects, that, like Keokuk, we shall be permitted to returntoo. " The President gave them assurances that their women and childrenshould be protected from the Sioux and the Menominies, and that so soonas he was satisfied that peace was restored on the frontiers, theyshould be permitted to return home. 

On the 26th of April, they set off for Fortress Monroe, at Old PointComfort, where they remained until the fourth of June, when, an orderwas received, from the President, by the commanding officer, for theliberation of the Indian captives. The kind treatment of the prisonersby Colonel Eustis, then in command at Fortress Monroe, had won greatlyupon their regard. When about to depart, Black Hawk waited upon theColonel, and said;--

"Brother, I have come on my own part, and in behalf of my companions, tobid you farewell. Our great father has at length been pleased to permitus to return to our hunting grounds. We have buried the tomahawk, andthe sound of the rifle will hereafter only bring death to the deer andthe buffalo. Brother, you have treated the red men very kindly. Yoursquaws have made them presents, and you have given them plenty to eatand drink. The memory of your friendship will remain till the GreatSpirit says it is time for Black Hawk to sing his death-song. Brother, your houses are as numerous as the leaves upon the trees, and your youngwarriors, like the sands upon the shore of the big lake that rollsbefore us. The red man has but few houses, and few warriors, but the redman has a heart which throbs as warmly as the heart of his whitebrother. The Great Spirit has given us our hunting grounds, and the skinof the deer which we kill there, is his favorite, for its color iswhite, and this is the emblem of peace. This hunting dress and thesefeathers of the eagle are white. Accept them, my brother; I have givenone like this to the White Otter. Accept of it as a memorial of BlackHawk. When he is far away this will serve to remind you of him. May theGreat Spirit bless you and your children--farewell. "

On the fifth of June, under the charge of Major John Garland of theUnited States army, Black Hawk and his five companions, took theirdeparture from Fortress Monroe. Before leaving the Chesapeake, theyvisited Norfolk and the Navy Yard at Gosport. They were taken on boardthe Delaware, 74, and were much delighted with its appearance. BlackHawk expressed a strong desire to see the chief who commanded it, andto take the man who built it, by the hand. 

At Norfolk a large concourse of persons visited them. Wabokieshiek, theprophet, addressed them from the balcony of their hotel, as follows:

"The Great Spirit sent us here, and now happily we are about to return, to our own Mississippi, and our own people. It affords us much happinessto rejoin our friends and kindred. We would shake hands with all ourwhite friends assembled here. Should any of them go to our country onthe Mississippi, we would take pleasure in returning their kindness tous. We will go home with peaceable dispositions towards our whitebrethren, and make our conduct hereafter, more satisfactory to them. Webid you all farewell, as it is the last time we shall see each other. "

Black Hawk made a few remarks, and at one o'clock, June the fifth, theystarted for Baltimore, which place they reached at eleven o'clock on thefollowing day, and were greeted by crowds of curious spectators. Therenown of Black Hawk had every where preceded him, and all were anxiousto behold the old chief whose name and deeds had excited so muchcommotion on the frontiers of the north west. The President happened tobe in Baltimore at the same time, and, the "monumental city" was never, perhaps, honored by the presence of two more distinguished "lions" uponthe same day, than upon this occasion. They both attended the theatre onthe evening of the sixth; and, it is said, that the attention of thehouse was very equally divided between them. On the following day aninterview took place between them, when the President said to the oldchief;--

"When I saw you in Washington, I told you that you had behaved verybadly, in raising the tomahawk against the white people, and killingmen, women and children upon the frontier. Your conduct last year, compelled me to send my warriors against you, and your people weredefeated, with great loss, and your men surrendered, to be kept until Ishould be satisfied, that you would not try to do any more injury. Itold you, I would enquire whether your people wished you to return, and, whether if you did return, there would be any danger to the frontier. Gen. Clark and Gen. Atkinson, whom you know, have informed me thatSheckak, your principal chief, and the rest of your people are anxiousyou should return, and Keokuk has asked me to send you back. Your chiefshave pledged themselves for your good conduct, and I have givendirections that you should be taken to your own country. 

"Maj. Garland who is with you will conduct you through some of ourtowns. You will see the strength of the white people. You will see thatour young men are as numerous, as the leaves in the woods. What can youdo against us? You may kill a few women and children, but such a forcewould soon be sent against you, as would destroy your whole tribe. Letthe red men hunt and take care of their families, but I hope they willnot again raise their hands against their white brethren. We do notwish to injure you. We desire your prosperity and improvement. But ifyou again plunge your knives into the breasts of our people, I shallsend a force, which will severely punish you for all your cruelties. When you go back, listen to the councils of Keokuk and the otherfriendly chiefs. Bury the tomahawk and live in peace with the frontiers. And I pray the Great Spirit to give you a smooth path and a fair sky toreturn. "

The reply of Black Hawk to this address, was brief, and the Prophetmerely said, "My father, --my ears are open to your words. I am glad to hear them. Iam glad to go back to my people. I want to see my family. I did notbehave well last summer. I ought not to have taken up the tomahawk. Butmy people have suffered a great deal. When I get back I will rememberyour words. I won't go to war again. I will live in peace. I shall holdyou by the hand. "

The object of the President, in directing the captives to be taken homethrough some of the principal cities of the union, was to exhibit tothem the extent of the population, wealth, and means of defence of theUnited States; in the hope, that such impressions would be made on theirminds, as would induce them to refrain from creating disturbances infuture upon the frontiers. They were accordingly directed to be carriedas far north as Boston, and thence through Albany, Buffalo and Detroit, to their own country. 

The captives reached Philadelphia on the 10th of June, and remained atCongress Hall, until the 14th. During their stay in the city, which wasprolonged to four or five days, they visited the United States' Mint, the Fair Mount Water Works and other objects of curiosity. They had alsoan opportunity of witnessing a grand military display in front of theirquarters in Congress Hall. Black Hawk wished to know if these were thesame soldiers, who were in his country last summer. In making referenceto his late contest with the United States, he said to those around him, "My heart grew bitter against the whites, and my hands strong. I dug upthe tomahawk, and led on my warriors to fight. I fought hard. I was nocoward. Much blood was shed. But the white men were mighty. They weremany as the leaves of the forest. I and my people failed. I am sorry thetomahawk was raised. I have been a prisoner. I see the strength of thewhite men. They are many, very many. The Indians are but few. They arenot cowards. They are brave, but they are few. While the Great Spiritabove, keeps my heart as it now is, I will be the white man's friend. Iwill remain in peace. I will go to my people and speak good of the whiteman. I will tell them, they are as the leaves of the forest. Verymany--very strong; and that I will fight no more against them. "

On the morning of the 14th, they set off for New York, and reached thatcity at 5 P. M. And had an opportunity, at the moment of their arrival atthe Battery, of beholding the greatest assemblage of people they hadyet seen, drawn together to witness the ascent of a balloon from CastleGarden. This novel spectacle, greatly astonished the Indians, and one ofthem asked the prophet, if the aeronaut was "going to see the GreatSpirit. " When the crowd ascertained that Black Hawk and his party wereon the steam boat, the air resounded with shouts of welcome. Upon theirlanding, such was the press of the multitude to get a look at thestrangers, that they could not reach their lodgings until placed incarriages, and committed to the charge of the police officers. They werefinally, with much difficulty, taken to the Exchange Hotel, which wasimmediately surrounded by thousands of people, who would not retire totheir houses, until "General Black Hawk, " had presented himself severaltimes at the window, and graciously bowed to the eager and admiringmultitude. During their whole visit to the city of New York, they weretreated with marked attention. Their rooms were crowded, daily, withladies and gentlemen, and they were conducted with ceremony to thetheatres, the public gardens, the arsenal, and other places of interest. Speeches were made to them, and they received many handsome presents. Among other civilities, John A. Graham, Esq. , waited upon them, and madethe following address. 

"Brothers, open your ears. You are brave men. You have fought liketigers, but in a bad cause. We have conquered you. We were sorry lastyear, that you raised the tomahawk against us; but we believe you didnot know us then as you do now. We think that in time to come, you willbe wise and that we shall be friends forever. You see that we are agreat people--numerous as the flowers of the field, as the shells on thesea-shore, or the fish in the sea. We put one hand on the eastern, and, at the same time, the other on the western ocean. We all act together. If some time our great men talk long and loud at our council fires, butshed one drop of white men's blood, our young warriors, as thick as thestars of the night, will leap on board of our great boats, which fly onthe waves, and over the lakes--swift as the eagle in the air--thenpenetrate the woods, make the big guns thunder, and the whole heavensred with the flames of the dwellings of their enemies. Brothers, thePresident has made you a great talk. He has but one mouth. That one hassounded the sentiments of all the people. Listen to what he has said toyou. Write it on your memories. It is good--very good. 

"Black Hawk, take these jewels, a pair of topaz earrings, beautifullyset in gold, for your wife or daughter, as a token of friendship, keeping always in mind, that women and children are the favorites of theGreat Spirit. These jewels are from an old man, whose head is whitenedwith the snows of seventy winters, an old man who has thrown down hisbow, put off his sword, and now stands leaning on his staff, waiting thecommands of the Great Spirit. Look around you, see all this mightypeople, then go to your homes, open your arms, to receive your families. Tell them to bury the hatchet, to make bright the chain of friendship, to love the white men, and to live in peace with them, as long as therivers run into the sea, and the sun rises and sets. If you do so, youwill be happy. You will then ensure the prosperity of unborn generationsof your tribes, who will go hand in hand with the sons of the white men, and all shall be blessed by the Great Spirit. Peace and happiness by theblessing of the Great Spirit attend you. Farewell. "

Black Hawk accepted the present and said in reply. 

"Brother, we like your talk. We will be friends. We like the whitepeople. They are very kind to us. We shall not forget it. Your counselis good. We shall attend to it. Your valuable present shall go to mysquaw. We shall always be friends. "

While at New York, Major Garland came to the determination not to takethe captives to Boston, but to ascend the North river, and proceeddirectly to the west. This created much disappointment, among thecitizens of that city, who were generally anxious to behold the "greatagitator" of the north western frontier. 

In pursuance of this new arrangement, on the 22d of June, the party leftNew York, in a steam boat for Albany, where they arrived on thefollowing day. At this city, they were met by a crowd of spectators, drawn together by their anxiety to see Black Hawk, so numerous, that itwas found necessary to disguise the Indians, in order to enable them toreach their lodgings. They remained in Albany until the morning of the25th, when they departed for Buffalo, which place they reached on thetwenty-eighth. During their stay in Buffalo which lasted for three days, they had an interesting interview with some of the Seneca Indians, whoare residing on their reservation near that place. They were addressedby Karlundawana, a worthy Seneca chief, who after expressing thepleasure of his people to meet the Sacs and Foxes, and referring to thecondition of the Indians generally, respectfully counselled Black Hawkand his party, to return home in a peaceable mind; to take up thetomahawk no more against the white people; but to cultivate the earth, and be happy. Black Hawk replied, "Our aged brother of the Senecas, whohas spoken to us, has spoken the words of a good and a wise man. We arestrangers to each other, though we have the same color, and the sameGreat Spirit made us all, and gave us this country together. Brothers wehave seen how great a people the whites are. They are very rich and verystrong. It is folly for us to fight with them. We shall go home withmuch knowledge. For myself I shall advise my people to be quiet, andlive like good men. The advice which you gave us, brother, is very good, and we tell you now we mean to walk the straight path in future, and tocontent ourselves with what we have, and with cultivating our lands. "

From Buffalo the captives were taken by water to Detroit, where theirreception is said to have been much less enthusiastic than in the othercities through which they had passed. It was stated in the newspapers ofthe day, that they were burnt in effigy in that place. Black Hawk, invisiting the the former residence of Governor Cass, remarked, "This isthe old council ground. I have had much good counsel here; but my trailled to the opposite shore, and my ears were closed. " Their visit toDetroit being over, they proceeded to Green Bay, and thence descendedthe Wisconsin to the Mississippi and down that river to Fort Armstrong, on Rock Island, which place they reached about the first of August. Inpassing by the site of the old Sac village, Black Hawk was deeplyaffected, and expressed much regret for the causes which compelled himto emigrate beyond the Mississippi. The return of the Prophet was alsoattended with melancholy associations. His village over which he hadlong presided, was entirely broken up--his wigwam in ashes--his familydispersed, and, he, a suppliant for a home in the village of some otherchief. 

Fort Armstrong, was chosen by Major Garland as the most appropriate spotfor the ceremonies of the liberation of Black Hawk and his party; as itscentral position, would enable him to assemble, at a short notice, manyIndians from the surrounding villages. This was the favorite island ofthe Indians; in former years abundant in fruits and flowers; and, fromtime immemorial the fancied abode of a good Spirit, which watched overtheir village, and protected their hunting grounds. No spot could havebeen selected, calculated to awaken so many painful associations in themind of Black Hawk, as Rock Island. For half a century it had been thewitness of his power and influence; it was now to become the scene ofhis disgrace, and reluctant submission to a rival. 

[Illustration: TREATY AT FORT ARMSTRONG. ]

Immediately after Major Garland's arrival at Fort Armstrong, he sent outrunners for the purpose of assembling the neighboring Indians. Themessenger despatched for Keokuk and his chiefs, found them encampedabout twenty miles below the island, having just returned from a buffalohunt, and being on their way to fort Armstrong, in expectation ofmeeting the returning captives. The runner returned that night, andreported to Major Garland, that on the morrow, Keokuk with a party ofbraves would reach Rock Island. About noon, on the following day, thesound of the Indian drum, and the shouts and wild songs of his people, announced the approach of the princely Keokuk. He ascended theMississippi by water, and led the van with two large canoes, lashed sideby side, handsomely decorated, with a canopy erected over them, beneathwhich sat the chief and his three wives, with the American flag wavingover them. More than twenty canoes followed the chieftain, eachcontaining from four to eight of his warriors, whose shouts and songs, swept over the transparent waters of the Mississippi, and were echoedfrom shore to shore. This fleet of canoes, was rowed slowly up thestream, until it passed the camp of the captives; it then returned andthe party landed on the bank of the river, opposite to the camp of BlackHawk. Here Keokuk and his party spent several hours in arranging theirdress, painting their faces and equipping themselves with theirimplements of war. This duty of the toilet being finished, theyreturned to their canoes, resumed their songs, and proceeded directlyacross the river. Keokuk, very elegantly dressed, decorated with hismedals and fully armed, was the first to land, and turning to hisfollowers, said, "The Great Spirit has sent our brother back. Let usshake hands with him in friendship. " He then proceeded slowly, followedby his warriors, towards Black Hawk, who was seated, with his party, infront of his temporary lodge, leaning upon his staff, and deeplyaffected by the occasion. Keokuk kindly extended his hand to him, whichthe old man took with some cordiality. Having saluted the rest of thecaptives, he took a seat, his companions following his example. For sometime all was silence--no one presuming to utter a word until the chiefhad spoken. At last, Keokuk inquired of Black Hawk how long he had beenupon the road; and, remarked that he had been expecting his arrival, andwas coming up the river to meet him, when met by the messenger of MajorGarland. The pipe was now introduced and passed round among bothparties, and an interchange of friendly civilities ensued. After an hourof alternate smoking and talking, Keokuk arose and shook hands withBlack Hawk, saying he should return to-morrow; and then recrossed theriver in silence. A considerable part of that night was spent by thechief and his party in singing and dancing. 

The grand council, for the final liberation of the captives, was held, with all due solemnity, upon the ensuing day. It presented the novelspectacle of a chief, compelled by a third power, to acknowledge theauthority of a rival, and formally descend from the rank which he hadlong sustained among his people. Fort Armstrong presented a commodiousroom, for the ceremonies of the day, and it was fitted up for theoccasion. About ten o'clock in the forenoon, Keokuk and one hundredfollowers, recrossed the river, and proceeded in martial array to thegarrison. They were conducted into the council room, and shown the seatswhich they were to occupy. Keokuk was seated with Pashepahow (theStabber) on one side, Wapellar (the little Prince) on the other. Theformer a chief of the Sacs, the latter of the Foxes. The remainder ofhis band took their seats in the rear, and maintained throughout theceremony, profound silence. 

It was not long before Black Hawk and his associates, made theirappearance. As they entered the room, Keokuk and the two chiefs by hisside, arose and greeted them. They were seated directly opposite toKeokuk. Black Hawk, and his son, Nasinewiskuk, who seems to have beenwarmly attached to his father, appeared to be much dejected. They hadthe day previous made objections to this council, as unnecessary, andpainful to their feelings. They now came into it with deep feelings ofmortification. For a time profound silence reigned throughout theassembly. Major Garland at length arose and addressed the council. Hewas pleased to find so much good feeling existing among the Sacs andFoxes towards Black Hawk and his party; and he felt confident from whathe had observed, since their arrival, that they would hereafter live inpeace: He had but little further to add, as the President's speech, addressed to Black Hawk and his party, in Baltimore, contained the viewsof their great Father on the matters before them; and, this speech heshould cause to be again interpreted to them. 

Keokuk followed Major Garland, and after having shaken hands with thosearound him said, "I have listened to the talk of our great Father. It is true we pledgedour honor with those of our young braves, for the liberation of ourfriends. We thought much of it--our councils were long--their wives andchildren were in our thoughts--when we talked of them our hearts werefull. Their wives and children came to see us, which made us feel likewomen; but we were men. The words which we sent to our great Father weregood: he spoke like the father of children. The Great Spirit made hisheart big in council. We receive our brothers in friendship--our heartsare good towards them. They once listened to bad counsel; now their earsare closed: I give my hand to them; when they shake it, they shake thehands of all. I will shake hands with them, and then I am done. "

Major Garland rose a second time, and stated, that he wished it to bedistinctly understood by all persons present, in the council, that theirgreat Father, the President, would hereafter receive and acknowledgeKeokuk, as the principal chief of the Sac and Fox nation; that he wishedand expected Black Hawk to listen and conform to his counsels; if anyunkind feeling now existed, it must that day be buried, and, that theband of Black Hawk must be henceforth merged in that of Keokuk. Theinterpreter so reported the remarks of Major Garland, that Black Hawkunderstood the President to say that he _must_ conform to the counselsof Keokuk; and, the old chief, losing all command of his feelings, became deeply and instantly excited. The spirit which had sustained himin earlier and better days, burst forth with uncontrollable violence. Hesprung upon his feet, but so deeply excited as to be almost unable toutter a word. With the most indignant expression of countenance, andwith a vehemence of manner characteristic of the savage when roused toaction, he exclaimed, "I am a man--an old man--I will not conform to the counsels of any one. I will act for myself--no one shall govern me. I am old--my hair isgray--I once gave counsels to my young men--Am I to conform to others? Ishall soon go to the Great Spirit, when I shall be at rest. What I saidto our great Father at Washington, I say again--I will always listen tohim. I am done. "

The speech of Black Hawk--the last struggle of a fallen chieftain, caused a momentary excitement throughout the council. When it hadsubsided, the interpreter was directed to explain to him, that thePresident had only _requested_ him to listen to the counsels of Keokuk. He made no reply, but drawing his blanket around him, sat in moodysilence. Keokuk approached him, and in a low but kind tone of voicesaid, "Why do you speak so before the white men? I will speak for you;you trembled--you did not mean what you said. " Black Hawk gloomilyassented, when Keokuk arose and remarked to the council, "Our brother who has again come to us, has spoken, but he spoke inwrath--his tongue was forked--he spoke not like a man, a Sac. He knewhis words were bad: he trembled like the oak whose roots have beenwasted away by many rains. He is old--what he said let us forget. Hesays he did not mean it--he wishes it forgotten. I have spoken for him. What I have said are his own words--not mine. Let us say he spoke incouncil to-day--that his words were good. I have spoken. "

Colonel Davenport of the United States army, then in command of FortArmstrong, next arose, and taking Black Hawk by the hand, remarked thathe was glad to meet him, that once he was his enemy, but now he met himas a friend; that he was there by the command of the President, andshould always be glad to see him; and, would at all times be ready togive him any advice which he might need: that during his absence he hadheld frequent talks with the Sacs and Foxes, who were anxious for hisreturn, and he felt authorized to say, that the nation entertained forhim and his party, the most friendly feeling. Black Hawk listened withmuch apparent interest to the remarks of Colonel Davenport. [14]

Major Garland now arose and told Black Hawk he was at liberty to gowhere he pleased;--that the people of the United States, as well ashimself, were pleased with the uniform good conduct of all the captiveswhile among them--that they were convinced their hearts were good, butthey had listened to bad counsels: Having now seen the power of thewhite men, and taken their great father by the hand, who had restoredthem to their families, he hoped there would be no further difficulties;but that peace and harmony would long exist between them. 

Black Hawk, rose in reply, cool and collected, and remarked, that havingreflected upon what he had said, it was his wish that if his speech hadbeen put upon paper, a line might be drawn over it--he did not mean it. 

Wapellar, the chief of the Foxes, rose up to say that he had nothing tosay. "I am not in the habit of talking--I think--I have been thinkingall day--Keokuk has spoken: am glad to see my brothers: I will shakehands with them. I am done. " The chiefs all arose, a general shaking ofhands, followed by an interchange of civilities, ensued, and thecouncil finally adjourned. 

In the evening, Maj. Garland invited the principal chiefs, together withBlack Hawk, to his quarters, as it would afford a good opportunity toascertain explicitly, the feeling which existed among them towards theirfallen foe. About seven o'clock they arrived. They took their seats insilence, passed the pipe for all to take a whiff, and in return, quaffeda glass of champagne, which seemed to have a peculiar relish. Pashepahow, shook hands with all present, and commenced:--

"We met this morning: I am glad to meet again. That wine is very good; Inever drank any before; I have thought much of our meeting to-day: itwas one that told us we were brothers:--that we were Sacs. We had justreturned from a buffalo hunt, we thought it was time for our brothers tobe here, as our father at St. Louis told us this was the moon. Westarted before the rising sun to meet you; we have met, and taken ourbrothers by the hand in friendship. They always mistrusted our counsels, and went from the trail of the red men, where there was no huntinggrounds nor friends; they returned and found the dogs howling aroundtheir wigwams, and wives looking for their husbands and children. Theysaid we counselled like women, but they have found our counsels weregood. They have been through the country of our great Father. They havebeen to the wigwams of the white men, they received them in kindness, and made glad their hearts. We thank them: say to them that Keokuk andPashepahow thank them. Our brother has promised to listen to thecounsels of Keokuk. What he said in council to-day, was like theMississippi fog--the sun has shone and the day is clear--let us forgetit--he did not mean it. His heart is good, but his ears have been opento bad counsels. He has taken our great Father by the hand, whose wordsare good. He listened to them and has closed his ears to the voice thatcomes across the great waters. He now knows that he ought to listen toKeokuk. He counselled with us and our young braves, who listened to histalk. We told our great Father that all would be peace. He opened hisdark prison and let him see the sun once more, gave him to his wife andchildren, who were without a lodge. Our great Father made straight hispath to his home. I once took the great chief of the Osages prisoner. Iheard the cries of his women and children; I took him out by the risingsun, and put him upon the trail to his village; "there" said I, "is thetrail to your village; go and tell your people, that I, Pashepahow, thechief of the Sacs, sent you. " We thank our great Father--our hearts aregood towards him; I will see him before I lay down in peace: may theGreat Spirit be in his councils. What our brother said to-day let usforget; I am done. "

Keokuk, after going through the usual ceremonies, said, "We feel proudthat you have invited us here this evening, to drink a glass with you;the wine which we have drank, we never tasted before; it is the winewhich the white men make, who know how to make anything: I will takeanother glass, as I have much to say; we feel proud that we can drinksuch wine: to-day we shook hands with our brothers, who you brought tous; we were glad to see them; we have often thought of our brothers;many of our nation said they would never return: their wives andchildren often came to our wigwams, which made us feel sad: whatPashepahow has said is true; I talked to our young men, who had thehearts of men; I told them that the Great Spirit was in our councils, they promised to live in peace: those who listened to bad counsels, andfollowed our brothers, have said their ears are closed, they will livein peace. I sent their words to our great Father, whose ears were open, whose heart was made sad by the conduct of our brothers; he has sentthem to their wigwams. We thank him: say to him Keokuk thanks him. Ourbrothers have seen the great villages of the white men: they travelled along road and found the Americans like grass; I will tell our young mento listen to what they shall tell them. Many years ago I went throughthe villages of our great Father--he had many--they were like the greatprairies; but he has gone; another is our father; he is a great warchief; I want to see him; I shall be proud to take him by the hand; Ihave heard much of him, his head is gray, I must see him: tell him thatas soon as the snow is off the prairie, I shall come. What I have said Iwish spoken to him, before it is put upon paper, so that he shall hearit, as I have said it: tell him that Keokuk spoke it: What our brothersaid in council to-day, let us forget; he told me to speak; I spoke hiswords; I have spoken. "

Black Hawk then said, in a calm and dejected manner, "I feel that I am an old man; once I could speak, but now I have butlittle to say; to-day we met many of our brothers; we were glad to seethem. I have listened to what my brothers have said, their hearts aregood; they have been like Sacs, since I left them; they have taken careof my wife and children, who had no wigwam; I thank them for it, theGreat Spirit knows that I thank them; before the sun gets behind thehills to-morrow, I shall see them; I want to see them; when I left them, I expected soon to return; I told our great father when in Washington, that I would listen to the counsels of Keokuk. I shall soon be far away, I shall have no village, no band; I shall live alone. What I said incouncil to-day, I wish forgotten. If it has been put upon paper, I wisha mark to be drawn over it. I did not mean it. Now we are alone let ussay, we will forget it. Say to our great father and Governor Cass, thatI will listen to them. Many years ago I met Governor Cass in councils, far across the prairies to the rising sun. His counsels were good. Myears were closed; I listened to the great father across the waters. Myfather listened to him whose band was large. --My band was once large. Now I have no band. I and my son and all the party, thank our greatfather for what he has done. He is old, I am old; we shall soon go tothe great Spirit, where we shall rest. He sent us through his greatvillages. We saw many of the white men, who treated us with kindness. Wethank them. We thank you and Mr. Sprague for coming with us. Your roadwas long and crooked. We never saw so many white men before. When youwere with us, we felt as though we had some friends among them. We feltsafe. You knew them all. When you come upon the Mississippi again, youshall come to my wigwam. I have none now. On your road home, you willpass where my village once was. No one lives there now; all are gone. Igive you my hand; we may never meet again; I shall long remember you:The Great Spirit will be with you, and your wives and children. Beforethe sun rises, I shall go to my family. My son will be here to see youbefore we go. I will shake hands with my brothers here, then I am done. "

Early on the following morning, the Indians crossed to the west side ofthe Mississippi, and returned to their villages. 

In the autumn of 1837, deputations from several Indian tribes, residingupon the waters of the upper Mississippi, were invited to Washingtoncity, by direction of the President of the United States. Among thoserepresented were the united Sac and Fox tribe, and their ancient enemythe Sioux, between whom hostilities were then raging. For the purpose ofeffecting a peace between them, and also making a purchase of land ofthe Sioux, several councils were held under the direction of theSecretary at War, but without accomplishing the object in either case. Black Hawk, was connected with the delegation from the Sacs and Foxes, but not in the character of a delegate or chief. Keokuk, apprehensive, that if left at home, the old man might create some new difficulty, hadprudently taken him along. He treated him, uniformly, with greatrespect, and invited him to sit with them in the councils. 

After leaving Washington the delegation visited the principal easterncities, and Black Hawk again attracted much attention. Public curiositywas still alive to see the renowned but fallen chieftain of the famousBlack Hawk war. In Boston, which place he did not visit on his formertour, he was waited upon by a great concourse of citizens, and in commonwith the rest of the delegation, was publicly presented with somemilitary weapons by the governor of the state, and made a brief speechupon the occasion. 

Before the return of the deputation to the west, they remained a fewhours in Cincinnati. Keokuk was sick and received but few visitors. "Which is Black Hawk, " was the eager inquiry of almost every individualwho succeeded in threading his way through the crowd, to the cabin ofthe steam boat. The old man manifested no interest in the passing scene. He was not inclined to conversation, but sat moody and silent, with anexpression of countenance strongly indicative of wounded pride anddisappointed ambition. He seemed to feel deeply the degradation of hissituation. Shorn of power among his people, compelled to acknowledge theauthority of his rival, and bending beneath the infirmities of age, itis not singular that he should shrink from the prying gaze of curiosity, and sigh for the deep seclusion of his wild hunting grounds. 

In height Black Hawk is about five feet ten inches, with broadshoulders, but limbs not very muscular. His nose is sharp and slightlyaquiline, and his eyes are of a dark hazel color. The most strikingpeculiarity in his personal appearance is the head, which is singularlyformed, and has been pronounced, by some observers, the envy ofphrenologists. His countenance is mild and benevolent, having little ifany of that dark and ferocious expression, not uncommon among theIndians; and which, during the late border war, was imagined to beeminently characteristic of Black Hawk. In tracing his history, few, ifany incidents can be found, which bear out the charge of savage crueltythat has sometimes been preferred against him. On the contrary, he seemsto have an amiable disposition. He himself repels, with indignation, thecharge of his ever having murdered women and children; and, declares theaccusation made against him, on this point, to be wholly false. Thecharacter of Black Hawk for honesty in his dealings, and for generalintegrity, stands fair. In his domestic relations he appears to be kindand affectionate, and in one particular, is an exception to the chiefsand warriors of his tribe. He has never had but _one_ wife. After hisreturn from the campaign on the lakes, during the war with England, hisfirst act was to visit his family. "I then started, " says he, "to visitmy wife and children. I found them well and my boys were growingfinely. It is not customary for us to say much about our women, as theygenerally perform their part cheerfully, and never interfere withbusiness belonging to the men. This is the only wife I ever had, or willever have. She is a good woman and teaches my boys to be brave. " It issaid, however, and upon pretty good authority, that on a certainoccasion, Black Hawk's vow of exclusive devotion to _one_ wife, had wellnigh been broken. While visiting a respectable frontier settler, manyyears since, he became pleased with the comely daughter of his host; andhaving seriously contemplated the matter, decided in favor of theexpediency of adding the pale faced beauty, to the domestic circle ofhis wigwam. He accordingly expressed his wishes to the father of theyoung lady, and proposed to give him a horse, in exchange for hisdaughter, but to his surprise the offer was declined. Some daysafterwards he returned and tendered two fine horses, but still thefather refused to make the arrangement. The old chief's love for theyoung lady, growing stronger, in proportion to the difficulty of gainingher father's assent, he, subsequently, offered five or six horses forher. But even this munificent price was rejected by the mercenaryfather. Black Hawk now gave up the negociation, not a little surprised, at the high value which the white men place upon their daughters. 

It is questionable whether Black Hawk possesses any marked militarytalents, although during his contest with the United States, it wascommon to represent him as an able warrior, who by the eloquence andfluency of his harangues, commanded the unlimited confidence of hisband. He has, most probably, been overrated both for his eloquence andhis skill in the battle field. He is no doubt a man of courage, andseems, from early life, to have had a strong predisposition for war. Many of his measures as a leader, have been more influenced by a senseof what was right in the abstract, than expedient in practice. Thiscircumstance has often placed him in situations, inimical to thepermanent prosperity of his people. 

Black Hawk never made any claims to the office of a peace chief. Even asa war chief, he was not recognized by all the tribe to which hebelonged. A fragment of the Sacs and Foxes, however, followed his bannerfor more than twenty years, and acknowledged him in that capacity: and, over them, he certainly exercised, from their confidence in hisjudgment, his warlike talent, or some other cause, no small amount ofinfluence. His age and kindness of disposition, probably, strengthenedtheir attachment to him. In the campaign of 1832, although terminatingin the defeat of Black Hawk, and the almost entire annihilation of hisband, his military reputation did not suffer much, if the circumstancesunder which he was placed, be recollected. During the operations of thatperiod, General Atkinson estimated the warriors of Black Hawk at sevenor eight hundred, but the better opinion is that it did not, at anytime, exceed five hundred; and several persons, who had favorableopportunities for judging, place the estimate still lower. Thecommander of the United States troops, had with him, in the pursuit ofBlack Hawk, twenty seven hundred men, all of them well armed and most ofthem well mounted. This was independent of the militia in the differentmilitary posts and fortified stations. The entire number of the Americanforces, engaged in the campaign, is supposed to have approached to threethousand, five hundred. Black Hawk was encumbered with the wives andchildren, the household property and travelling equipage of his wholeband; and from the time of his recrossing the Mississippi to the battleof the Bad-axe, was constantly in want of provisions. Indeed, in themonth of July, many of his party actually starved to death. Under suchcircumstances, the wonder is not, that he was finally defeated andcaptured, but that it should have required a campaign of three months inwhich to accomplish that object. The defeat of Stillman and the attackupon the fort at Buffalo Grove, may be claimed by Black Hawk and hisband, to have been as honorable to their arms, as were the victories ofthe Wisconsin and the Bad-axe to those of the United States. 

But whatever may be the ultimate opinion in regard to him, either as awarrior or a man, his career for good and for evil, is now ended. Thewar-banner has passed from his hand--his seat in the council-house isvacant--the fire of his lodge is nearly extinguished: the autumn of lifeis upon him--and, in a little while the autumn leaves will rustle overthe lone grave of Black Hawk. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Black Hawk at the capture of Fort Erie--At the battle of the Thames--His account of the death of Tecumthe--His residence and mode of life after his last visit to the east--His Fourth of July speech at Fort Madison--His death and burial. 

Since the three first editions of this work were published, the death ofBlack Hawk has occurred; and a few additional particulars of his lifehave been collected. These, it is proposed to embody in a new chapter. 

In the course of the preceding pages, the difficulty of procuring full, and always exact information, in regard to the lives of a people havingneither records nor historians, has been alluded to. This difficultywill be encountered by any one who may attempt to chronicle the annalsof the aborigines in their aggregate condition, or to portray theirindividual history. In the compilation of this volume, much pains weretaken to obtain all the prominent events in the life of Black Hawk, and, it is supposed, as much success attended the effort, as is usual insimilar cases. Since its publication, however, it appears that all hismilitary movements have not been narrated, and we proceed to supply theomission. 

At page 82 of this volume, it is stated that Black Hawk was only in twoengagements in the late war with Great Britain, and that the last ofthese was the assault upon Fort Stephenson, in August 1813, then underthe command of Major Groghan. It is true that he and his band were withthe British army in the attack upon this post, but his connection withthat army did not cease until after the capture of Fort Erie. Theauthority for this fact is to be found in the "Book of the Indians, "page 145. The author of that work, in narrating the incidents of BlackHawk's return to the north-west, in 1833, after his imprisonment atFortress Monroe, says: "Having arrived at Buffalo, on Friday the 28th ofJune, they (the party returning with the old warrior) remained thereuntil Sunday morning. The day after their arrival, they rode over toBlack Rock, where they viewed the union of the grand canal with the lakeat that place. From this point they had a full view of the Canada shore, and Black Hawk immediately pointed out Fort Erie, and seemed wellacquainted with the adjacent country; he having been there in the timeof the last war with England, in the British service; and at the time'when the Americans walked into Fort Erie, ' as he expressed the captureof it. " Of the extent of his participation in the events attendant uponthis capture, there is no satisfactory information. 

Black Hawk was likewise in the battle of the Thames, a fact notpreviously stated in this work, and which is now given on the authorityof a writer in the Baltimore American, to whose respectability theeditor of that paper bears testimony. We have, indeed, no reason todoubt the accuracy of this statement, which will be read with the moreinterest, from the circumstance that it embraces Black Hawk's accountof the death of Tecumthe in regard to which much has been written andpublished. It is not proposed, on the present occasion, to compare therelation given by Black Hawk, of the fall of Tecumthe, with thetestimony of others who have appeared as historians of this event, butshall content ourselves with simply quoting the article to whichreference has been made. The writer professes to have been intimatelyacquainted with Black Hawk, and in the brief sketch which he haspresented of the life of this warrior, we find corroborating evidence ofthe truth of many of the traits of character, which, in the course ofthis volume, has been assigned to him both as a man and a warrior. Thearticle is in these words:

"MESSRS. EDITORS--Hearing of the death of the celebrated Saukchieftain, BLACK HAWK, I am induced to make you the followingcommunication, which may be interesting to some of your readers. 

"During a residence of several years in what is now the Territory ofIowa, I had many opportunities of seeing and conversing with this notedwarrior, and often look back with feelings of great pleasure to the manytokens of good will and friendship that he has frequently bestowed uponme. His lodge was always open to a stranger, and he was ever ready toshare that with him which he might most want, either his furs andblankets for a couch, or his corn and venison for a repast. He alwaysspoke in terms of high regard of the whites, saying, that in war hefought like a brave man, but in peace he wished to forget that his handhad ever been raised against them. His career as a warrior commenced ata very early age; when he was but fourteen years old, his father, Pawheese, led a war party against the Osages, in which expedition heaccompanied him. They succeeded in reaching the village of Osages, whichthey attacked, and after a very severe encounter, they routed theirenemies and burnt their town. In this battle Black Hawk's father waskilled, but he revenged his death by killing and scalping the Osage whohad slain him. He was fond of recounting his earlier exploits, and oftenboasted of his being at the right hand of Tecumthe, when the latter waskilled at the battle of the Thames. His account of the death of thisdistinguished warrior, was related to me by himself, during an eveningthat I spent in his lodge some winters ago. In the course of our talk, Iasked him if he was with Tecumthe when he was killed. He replied--

"'I was, and I will now tell you all about it. --Tecumthe, Shaubinne, andCaldwell, two Potawattimie chiefs, and myself, were seated on a log nearour camp fire, filling our pipes for a smoke, on the morning of thebattle, when word came from the British general, that he wished to speakwith Tecumthe. He went immediately, and after staying some time rejoinedus, taking his seat without saying a word, when Caldwell, who was one ofhis favorites, observed to him, 'my father, what are we to do? Shall wefight the Americans?' 'Yes, my son, ' replied Tecumthe, '_We shall gointo their very smoke_--but you are now wanted by the General. Go, myson, I never expect to see you again. ' Shortly after this, (continuedBlack Hawk, ) the Indian spies came in, and gave word of the nearapproach of the Americans. Tecumthe immediately posted his men in theedge of a swamp, which flanked the British line, placing himself attheir head. I was a little to his right, with a small party of Sauks. Itwas not long before the Americans made their appearance; they did notperceive us at first, hid as we were by the undergrowth, but we soon letthem know where we were by pouring in one or two volleys as they wereforming into a line to oppose the British. They faultered a little, butvery soon we perceived a large body of horse (Colonel Johnson's regimentof mounted Kentuckians) preparing to charge upon us in the swamp. Theycame bravely on, yet we never stirred until they were so close that wecould see the flints in their guns, when Tecumthe springing to his feet, gave the Shawnee war cry, and discharged his rifle. This was the signalfor us to commence the fight; but it did not last long; the Americansanswered the shout, returning our fire, and at the first discharge oftheir guns, I saw Tecumthe stagger forwards over a fallen tree nearwhich he was standing, letting his rifle drop at his feet. As soon asthe Indians discovered he was killed, a sudden fear came over them, andthinking that the Great Spirit was displeased, they fought no longer, and were quickly put to flight. That night we returned to bury our dead, and search for the body of Tecumthe. He was found lying where he hadfirst fallen; a bullet had struck him above the hip, and his skull hadbeen broken by the butt end of the gun of some soldier, who had foundhim, perhaps, when life was not yet quite gone. With the exception ofthese wounds, his body was untouched; lying near him, however, was alarge, fine looking Potawattimie, who had been killed, decked off in hisplumes and war paint, whom the Americans no doubt had taken forTecumthe; for he was scalped, and every particle of skin flayed from hisbody. Tecumthe himself, had no ornaments about his person save a Britishmedal. During the night we buried our dead, and brought off the body ofTecumthe, although we were within sight of the fires of the Americancamp. '

"This is somewhat different from the account which is commonly given ofTecumthe's death, yet I believe it to be true; for after hearing BlackHawk relate it, I heard it corroborated by one of the Potawattimiechiefs, mentioned by him. I asked him if he had ever fought against thewhites after the death of Tecumthe. He said not--that he returned hometo his village on the Mississippi, at the mouth of Rock River, and therehe remained until driven away by the whites, in the year 1832. The wishto hold possession of this village, was the cause of the war which hewaged against the whites during that year. He told me that he neverwished to fight; that he was made to do so; that the whites killed hiswarriors when they went with a white flag to beg a parley, and thatafter this was done, he thought they intended to kill him at allevents, and therefore he would die like a warrior. 

"In speaking of his defeat, he said it was what he expected; that he didnot mind it; but what hurt him more than any thing else, was ourgovernment degrading him in the eyes of his own people, and settinganother chief (KEOKUK) over him. This degradation he appearedto feel very sensibly, still he continued to possess all his nativepride. One instance that came under my observation, I recollect well, inwhich it was strongly displayed. He happened to be in a small town inIowa, on the same day in which a party of dragoons, under Captain ----arrived: and in paying a visit to a friend with whom he always partookof a meal, whenever he stopped at the village, he met with the Captain, who had been invited to dine. Black Hawk remained, also expecting theusual invitation to stay and eat with them: but when the dinner wasready, the host took him aside, and told him the Captain, or rather thewhite man's chief, was to dine with him that day, and he must wait untilthey had finished. The old chief's eye glistened with anger as heanswered him, raising the fore-finger of one hand to his breast, torepresent the officer, 'I know the white man is a chief, but _I_, 'elevating the finger of the other hand far above his head, 'was a chief, and led my warriors to the fight, long before his mother knew him. _Yourmeat, --my dogs should not eat it!_' Saying this, he gathered the foldsof his blanket about him, and stalked off, looking as proudly as if hestill walked over ground that he could call '_my own_. '

"Black Hawk possessed, to a great degree, one fine trait which it is notusual for us to concede to the Indian--kindness and affection for hiswife. He never had but one, and with her he lived for upwards of fortyyears; they had several children, three of whom still survive, two sonsand a daughter. The eldest son is now one of the most promising youngbraves of the nation, and bids fair to be one of its most noble men. Thedaughter is still quite young, and is considered to be the mostbeautiful maiden belonging to her tribe. 

"He has now departed on his long journey, to join those of his peoplewho have gone before him to their happy hunting grounds, far beyond thesetting sun. May the Great Spirit grant him a clear sunshine, and asmooth path. "

For the particulars, given below, of the last days and death of BlackHawk, we are indebted to a highly respectable gentleman, W. Henry Starr, Esq. Of Burlington, Iowa Territory. His communication, under date ofMarch 21st, 1839, is given entire, that the interest of the narrativemay be preserved. 

"Your letter of the 2nd of January came to hand in due course of mail, in which you make some enquiries concerning the old chief of the Sac andFox tribes--the venerable BLACK HAWK. I should have replied toit sooner, could I have done so satisfactorily either to you or myself. I knew much by report of the old chief, and something from personalacquaintance; but my knowledge was not so accurate as to be serviceableto a faithful biographer. I have, therefore, taken sometime to make thenecessary enquiries, and satisfy myself of their accuracy. 

"After Black Hawk's last return from the eastern states, he passed thewinter of 1837-8 in the county of Lee, in the south-eastern portion ofthis territory, on a small stream called Devil-creek. The whitesettlements extended for forty miles west of him, and the tribe to whichhe belonged, with the exception of a few old braves, and his family, resided on the frontier. From his tribe he was isolated in position andfeeling. His family consisted of a wife, two sons, Nasheaskuk andSamesett, (as they are pronounced here, ) a daughter and her husband. They passed their time principally in hunting deer, wild turkies, andthe prairie hen, which are abundant in that quarter of the territory. For hunting, Black Hawk is said to have displayed no fondness; but choseto spend his time in improving his place of residence, and exercisinghis ingenuity with mechanic tools. In the spring of 1838, they removedto the frontier, and settled upon the Des Moines river, about eighty orninety miles from its mouth, near to a trading post, and in theimmediate vicinity of the villages of the other chiefs of the tribe. Here he had a very comfortable bark cabin, which he furnished inimitation of the whites, with chairs, a table, a mirror, and mattrasses. His dress was that of the other chiefs, with the exception of abroad-brimmed black hat, which he usually wore. In the summer hecultivated a few acres of land in corn, melons, and various kinds ofvegetables. He was frequently visited by the whites, and I have oftenheard his hospitality highly commended. 

"On the 4th of July last, he was present at Fort Madison, in Lee county, by special invitation, and was the most conspicuous guest of thecitizens assembled in commemoration of that day. Among the toasts calledforth by the occasion was the following:

"'_Our illustrious guest, Black Hawk_. --May his declining years be ascalm and serene as his previous life has been boisterous and full ofwarlike incidents. His attachment and present friendship to his whitebrethren, fully entitle him to a seat at our festive board. '

"So soon as this sentiment was drank, Black Hawk arose and delivered thefollowing speech, which was taken down at the time by two interpreters, and by them furnished for publication. 

"'It has pleased the Great Spirit that I am here to-day--I have eatenwith my white friends. The earth is our mother--we are now on it--withthe Great Spirit above us--It is good. I hope we are all friends here. Afew winters ago I was fighting against you--I did wrong, perhaps; butthat is past--it is buried--let it be forgotten. 

"'Rock river was a beautiful country--I liked my towns, my cornfields, and the home of my people. I fought for it. It is now yours--keep it aswe did--it will produce you good crops. 

"'I thank the Great Spirit that I am now friendly with my whitebrethren--we are here together--we have eaten together--we arefriends--it is his wish and mine. I thank you for your friendship. 

"'I was once a great warrior--I am now poor. Keokuk has been the causeof my present situation--but do not attach blame to him. I am now old. Ihave looked upon the Mississippi since I have been a child. I love theGreat River. I have dwelt upon its banks from the time I was an infant. I look upon it now. I shake hands with you, and as it is my wish, I hopeyou are my friends. '

"In the course of the day he was prevailed upon to drink several times, and became somewhat intoxicated, an uncommon circumstance, as he wasgenerally temperate. 

"In the autumn of 1838, he was at the house of an Indian trader, in thevicinity of Burlington, when I became acquainted and frequentlyconversed with him, in broken English, and through the medium ofgestures and pantomime. A deep seated melancholy was apparent in hiscountenance and conversation. He endeavored to make me comprehend, onone occasion, his former greatness; and represented that he was oncemaster of the country, east, north, and south of us--that he had been avery successful warrior, --called himself, smiting his breast, 'bigCaptain Black Hawk, ' 'nesso Kaskaskias, ' (killed the Kaskaskias, ) 'nessoSioux a heap, ' (killed a great number of Sioux. ) He then adverted to theingratitude of his tribe, in permitting Keokuk to supersede him, who, heaverred, excelled him in nothing but drinking whiskey. 

"Toward Keokuk he felt the most unrelenting hatred. Keokuk was, however, beyond his influence, being recognized as chief of the tribe, by thegovernment of the United States. He unquestionably possesses talents ofthe first order, excels as an orator, but his authority will probably beshort-lived on account of his dissipation, and his profligacy inspending the money paid him for the benefit of his tribe; and which hesquanders upon himself and a few favorites, through whose influence heseeks to maintain his authority. 

"You enquire if Black Hawk was at the battle of the Thames? On oneoccasion I mentioned Tecumthe to him, and he expressed the greatest joythat I had heard of him: and pointing away to the east, and making afeint, as if aiming a gun, said, 'Chemokaman (white man) nesso, ' (kill. )From which I had no doubt of his being personally acquainted withTecumthe; and I have been since informed, on good authority, that he wasin the battle of the Thames and in several other engagements with thatdistinguished chief. 

"Soon after this interview with Black Hawk, he set out for the frontier, where a payment was soon to be made to the tribe, of a portion of theirannuity. 

"The weather was both hot and wet, and it is supposed, that, on thisjourney, he imbibed the seeds of the disease which soon after terminatedhis existence. This journey was in September. Early in October, thecommissioner for adjusting claims with the Sac and Fox tribes, was tomeet them at Rock Island, and most of the Indians were there on thefirst of that month. Black Hawk was taken sick and was unable toaccompany them. A violent bilious fever had seized upon him, and on the3d of October, after an illness of seven days, he died. His only medicalattendant was one of the tribe, who knew something of vegetableantidotes, and was called doctor. His wife, who was devotedly attachedto him, mourned deeply during his illness. She seemed to have had apresentiment of his approaching death, and said, some days before itoccurred, 'he is getting old--he must die--Monotah calls him home. '

"After his death, he was dressed in the uniform presented to him atWashington, by the President or Secretary at War, and placed upon a rudebier, consisting of two poles with bark laid across, on which he wascarried by four of his braves to the place of interment, followed by hisfamily and about fifty of the tribe, (the chiefs being all absent. ) Theyseemed deeply affected, and mourned in their usual way, shaking hands, and muttering in guttural tones, prayers to Monotah (their deity) forhis safe passage to the land prepared for the reception of all Indians. The grave was six feet deep and of the usual length, situated upon alittle eminence about fifty yards from his wigwam. The body was placedin the middle of the grave, in a sitting posture, upon a seat, constructed for the purpose. On his left side the cane given him, as Iam informed, by Mr. Henry Clay, was placed upright, with his right handresting upon it. Many of the old warrior's trophies were placed in thegrave, and some Indian garments, together with his favorite weapons. Thegrave was then covered with plank, and a mound of earth, several feet inheight, was thrown up over it, and the whole enclosed with picketstwelve feet in height. At the head of the grave a flag staff was placed, bearing our national banner; and at the foot there stands a post, onwhich is inscribed, in Indian characters, his age. 

"I do not know the exact age of Black Hawk, but understood from him, that he was seventy-two. His virtues commanded the respect of all thewhites who knew him. He possessed much magnanimity of soul, and underall the mortifications to which he has been subjected, and the insultsthat have been heaped upon him by his tribe, and especially by thehaughty Keokuk, he maintained, until the last years of his life, auniform cheerfulness and resignation of mind, which bespoke a conscioussuperiority. "

 * * * * *

With this sketch of the last days of Black Hawk, our narrative of hislife is closed. After an eventful and restless career of "three scoreand ten years, " this celebrated Sac has been "gathered to his fathers. "His name cannot be forgotten, for his deeds are a part of the history ofthis country. If not distinguished for a high order of talent, orrenowned for great warlike achievements, he has not often been surpassedin the history of his race, for those less dazzling virtues, humanity, courage, and love of country. "He was an Indian who had a sense ofhonor, as well as policy; a man in whom those who know himconfided. "[15] In the last speech which he made in the last year of hislife, in alluding to his difficulties with the whites, he says, "Rockriver was a beautiful country--I liked my towns, my cornfields, and thehome of my people;--I fought for it, "--a declaration as creditable tothe heart of the speaker, as it is important to a just estimate of hisconduct, in resisting the removal of his tribe from their native land. The love of country is not confined to civilized life, but swells theheart and nerves the arm of the untutored man of the woods. "I LIKEDMY TOWNS, MY CORNFIELDS, AND THE HOME OF MY PEOPLE;--I FOUGHT FORIT, " should be inscribed over the humble grave of Black Hawk. 

 * * * * *

NOTE. --Since writing that portion of the foregoing narrativewhich treats of the causes of the late war with the Sacs and Foxes, thefollowing article, from the able pen of judge Hall, has met ourobservation. It was published in the Western Monthly Magazine in 1833, one year after the termination of that conflict. The writer was then aresident of Illinois, and intimately acquainted with the relationsexisting between the whites and Indians. His remarks are valuable. Theyembrace a graphic description of the region inhabited by the Sacs andFoxes, and fully sustain the position which we have taken in thisvolume, that the "Black Hawk war" was the result of unprovokedagressions made by the American people upon the Indians. 

 "I have just returned from a delightful voyage. I have explored a portion of the exquisitely beautiful shores of the upper Mississippi; and am ready to confess that until now, I had little idea of the extent, the grandeur, or the resources of the west. The world cannot produce such another country as this great valley of ours. Yet to understand its value, one must ascend the Mississippi and the Illinois, and see the noble prairies of the two states which are destined to eclipse all others. I cannot convey to you in adequate language, my admiration of this attractive region. The traveller who visits the western country, and fancies he has acquired _any_ knowledge of it--I say _any_, by simply tracing the meanders of the Ohio, or spending weeks, or years, if you please, at Cincinnati or Louisville, is very much mistaken. There is much to admire in western Pennsylvania and Virginia; Kentucky and Ohio are full of attraction; but the man who is really an admirer of nature, and would witness the most splendid exhibitions of the creative power, must go to Illinois and Missouri. 

 "I visited this region for the first time four years ago, while the Sacs and Foxes were at peace with the whites, and before Black Hawk had got to be a great man. They were friendly and well-disposed, and the white people residing near them, would almost as soon have distrusted or disturbed each other, as those peaceful red men. I took great interest in noticing their dwellings, and remarking their deportment, as it was the first occasion I had ever enjoyed of seeing the savage in his own wild home. I had embarked on board a steamboat at St. Louis, intending to take a pleasant excursion to the falls of St. Anthony. The weather was very delightful, only a little too warm; and the river was unfortunately so low, that on arriving at the _Des Moines_ rapids, we found it difficult to ascend them, and above that point, our progress was continually impeded by the difficulty of the navigation. This circumstance, though vexatious to such of the passengers as had business ahead, or families at home, was not disagreeable to one who, like myself, travelled only for amusement, as it afforded opportunities of exploring the romantic shores. We spent a day at the Lower Rapids, and I have seldom seen a more attractive country. The land is high on both sides, and rises gradually in beautiful swells. I saw hundreds of acres covered with the native buckeye, the most beautiful tree of the forest--if, indeed, any can be entitled to that distinction among so great a variety of noble and majestic trees. Beneath, was a rich undergrowth of wild gooseberry bushes. Add to these the beautiful creeper, and the wild honeysuckle, which were occasionally seen, and it is impossible to imagine a vegetation more splendidly luxuriant and ornamental. The whole country is based on rock, and the springs which burst out from the hill sides are clear as crystal and delightfully cold. The shores of the river are plentifully strewed with crystalizations and petrifactions. We picked up some fine specimens of cornelian, and saw a vast number of geodes of every size, from one inch in diameter to fifteen. 

 "It was Sunday. Have you ever experienced the singular and pleasing associations connected with a sabbath passed in the wilderness? I have often enjoyed these feelings, but never felt them with such force as on this day. It was calm and sultry. The brilliant sunbeams were brightly reflected from the broad bosom of the Mississippi, and the deep green outline of the forest was splendidly illumined, while the deep shadows underneath the foliage afforded an attractive appearance of coolness and seclusion. The passengers and crew were scattered about singly or in small parties, so that when I wandered but a small distance from the vessel, and seated myself on a hill which commanded a view of the river and its banks, I found myself perfectly alone. Not a living object was visible, not a sound was heard, not a leaf or a limb stirred. How different from the streets of a city upon a sabbath morn, when crowds of well-dressed persons are seen moving in every direction; when the cheerful bells are sounding, and the beautiful smiling children are hurrying in troops to Sunday school! Here I was in solitude. I saw not the laborer resting from toil, nor the smile of infancy, nor the christian bowing before his God; but Nature proclaimed a sabbath by the silence that reigned abroad, and the splendor with which she had adorned her works. 

 "It is natural that these recollections of my first visit to the frontier should mingle with the observations made in my recent tour through the same scenes; I shall therefore not attempt to separate the remarks made on either occasion, but give some of the results of both voyages. 

 "I can scarcely describe the sensations with which I first saw the solitary lodge of an Indian hunter, on the shore of the Mississippi. In my childhood I had read with thrilling interest, the tales of border warfare; but I had not learned to hate an Indian with mortal hatred. I verily believe they have souls. People may think differently in certain places, which shall be nameless, but I cannot be persuaded to the contrary. You cannot imagine any thing more frail than an Indian wigwam--a mere shelter of poles and mats, so small, so apparently inadequate to any purpose of security or comfort, that it is hardly possible to believe it to be intended for the residence of human beings. In such habitations reside the Indian warrior, whose name is a terror to his enemies; and the dark maiden, whose story supplies the poet with rich materials, with which to embellish the page of fiction. In such wretched hovels reside the aboriginal lords of the soil. 

 "I _have_ seen in this region, evidences of persecution perpetrated by our people upon this unhappy race, such as the American people would scarcely believe; and I am satisfied that if the events of the late war could be traced to their true source, every real philanthropist in the nation would blush for his country. 

 * * * * *

 "I could relate many anecdotes, to show the friendly feelings entertained towards our government and people by the Sacs--feelings which, whether of fear or of kindness, have rendered them wholly submissive, and which nothing but the most unprovoked aggression on our side, could have kindled into hostility. I will only, at this time, repeat one, which occurred during my first voyage, reserving others for a future letter. 

 "One day, when the boat stopped to take in wood, some of us strolled up to the house of a Mr. D. , a respectable farmer from Pennsylvania. He had been living here several years, at a spot distant from any settlements, and without a single neighbor. Upon our inquiring whether he felt no alarm in residing thus alone in the vicinity of the Indians, he replied that his family had formerly experienced much uneasiness, but that they had long since become satisfied that there was no ground for apprehension. He was convinced that the Sacs, their nearest neighbors, so far from being disposed to injure the whites, were cautious and timid of giving offence. In support of this opinion, he related the following anecdote. 

 "His house stands on a high bank of the Mississippi, and the family were one day much alarmed by discovering a large number of Indians passing up the river in canoes. They passed along in a most disorderly manner, some paddling their little vessels, and others strolling along the shore, but the majority evidently intoxicated. It was the latter circumstance which caused alarm. The Indians had been to St. Louis to receive their annuities, and had procured a sufficient supply of whisky to render them unsafe visitors. They continued, however, straggling along in larger or smaller parties all day, without stopping. At night, one of them, a young warrior of prepossessing appearance, came to the house, and in the most respectful manner, asked permission to sleep upon the floor of the cabin. Mr. D. , although by no means pleased with his guest, knew not how to refuse. The Indian warrior was invited to supper. A plentiful meal, such as composed the ordinary repast of the family, was placed before him, and having satisfied his hunger, he wrapped himself in his blanket, threw himself on the floor before the fire, and went to sleep. In the course of the night, Mr. D. Happening to go out, discovered some Indians lying in the bushes not far from the house; without disturbing them, he proceeded in a different direction, where he found another party; they were strewed, in short, entirely around his dwelling. The fact of being thus surrounded, the concealment, and the silence of the Indians, all conspired to awaken suspicion, and he passed the night in no small degree of uneasiness. He rose early in the morning; his Indian guest also started up, gathered his blanket around him, and took leave; first, however, explaining to Mr. D. That he belonged to a party of Sacs who were returning from St. Louis, and that many of them being intoxicated, it had been thought proper to station a guard round Mr. D. 's house, to protect him and his property from injury. He added, that if any depredation should be discovered to have been committed by the Indians, the chiefs would pay Mr. D. The full amount. Such an example of the care taken by the chiefs of this tribe to avoid giving umbrage to the whites, affords the highest testimony, either of their friendship for our people, or their respect for our power. 

 "The Sac and Fox tribe inhabited, at that time, a beautiful tract of country in Illinois, upon the borders of Rock river. These two tribes are usually mentioned in conjunction; because the Foxes, many years ago, having been nearly exterminated in a war with some of their neighbors, the remnant of the nation, too feeble to exist as a separate tribe, sought refuge in the Sac villages, and have remained ever since incorporated with the latter people. They are a fine looking race of people, and are well disposed towards the whites. They have long been divided, however, into two parties, one of which is friendly towards our government, while the other, called the _British band_, is under the influence of the British traders. It has always been the policy of the latter, to keep the Indians upon the western frontier in a state of disaffection towards the American people, and by these means, to secure to themselves an undue proportion of the fur trade. So long as it should remain difficult upon our part to gain access to the tribes, and our intercourse with them be liable to interruption, jealousy, and distrust, so long would the British trader possess an advantage over us in relation to this traffic. The British fur companies, whose agents are numerous, intelligent, and enterprising, have always acted upon this policy, and the English officers in Canada, both civil and military, have given it their sanction. Almost all the atrocities which have been committed on our frontiers by the Indians, within the last fifty years, have been directly or indirectly incited by the incendiary agents of that mercenary government. The _British band_ of the Sacs and Foxes have been in the habit of visiting Malden annually, and receiving valuable presents--presents, which being made to a disaffected portion of a tribe residing not only within the United States, but within the limits of a state, could be viewed in no other light than as bribes, --the wages of disaffection. Black Hawk, though not a chief, is one of the most influential individuals of the _British band_. "

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In a late number of the American Museum, we find the following article. It bears intrinsic evidence of coming from the same pen, and presents ina striking point of view the rapid extension of our settlements, and theconsequent recession of the Indians. 

 Most of our readers have become familiarly acquainted with the name of the redoubted Black Hawk, whose adventures are detailed in this volume and whose fame has been spread from Maine to Florida. There was a time when he shared the eager attention of the public with Fanny Kemble and the cholera, and was one of the lions of the day; and as regularly talked about as the weather, the last new novel, or the candidates for the presidency. The war in Illinois, though of brief duration, and not marked by any stirring events, came suddenly upon us after a long series of peaceful years upon the northwestern border. The savages, weary of fruitless conflicts, or quelled by the superior numbers of a gigantic and growing foe, seemed to have submitted to their fate, and the pioneer had ceased to number the war-whoop among the inquietudes of the border life. The plains of Illinois and Missouri were rapidly becoming peopled by civilized men. A race less hardy than the backwoodsmen were tempted by the calm to migrate to those delightful solitudes, that bloomed with more than Arcadian fascinations of fruitfulness and beauty. The smoke of the settler's cabin began to ascend from the margin of every stream in that wide region, and the cattle strayed through rich pastures, of which the buffalo, the elk, and the deer, had long enjoyed a monopoly--an unchartered monopoly--wondering, no doubt, at their good luck in having their lives cast in such pleasant places. 

 It was the writer's lot to ramble over that beautiful country while these interesting scenes were presented; while the wilderness still glowed in its pristine luxuriance: while the prairie-grass and the wild flowers still covered the plain, and the deer continued to frequent his ancient haunts, and while the habitations of the new settlers were so widely and so thinly scattered, that the nearest neighbors could scarcely have exchanged the courtesy of an annual visit without the aid of the seven-leagued boots of ancient story. But though in solitude, they lived without fear. There were none to molest nor make them afraid. If they had few friends, they had no enemies. If the Indian halted at the settler's door, it was to solicit hospitality, not to offer violence. But more frequently he stalked silently by, timid of giving offence to the white man, whom he doubtless regarded as an intruder upon his own ancient heritage, but whose possession he had been taught to respect, because he had ever found it guarded by a strong and swift arm, that had never failed to repay aggression with ten-fold vengeance. Suddenly, however, a change came over this cheering scene. The misconduct of a few white men disturbed the harmony of a wide region. The Indians were oppressed and insulted to the last point of forbearance, and a small but restless band, regarded as insubordinate and troublesome even by their own nation, seized upon the occasion to rush to war. 

 It is wonderful to look back upon this eventful history. The country over which Black Hawk, with a handful of followers, badly armed, and destitute of stores or munitions of war, roamed for hundreds of miles, driving off the scattered inhabitants, is now covered with flourishing settlements, with substantial houses, and large farms--not with the cabins and clearings of bordermen--but with the comfortable dwellings and the well-tilled fields of independent farmers. Organized counties and all the subordination of social life are there; and there are the noisy school-house, the decent church, the mill, the country store, the fat ox, and the sleek plough-horse. The yankee is there with his notions and his patent-rights, and the travelling agent with his subscription book; there are merchandise from India and from England, and, in short, all the luxuries of life, from Bulwer's last novel down to Brandreth's pills. And all this has been done in six years--in less than half the time of Jacob's courtship. In 1832 the Saukie warriors ranged over that fertile region, which is now (1838) covered with an industrious population; while the Territories of Wisconsin and Iowa, and vast settlements in Missouri, have since grown up, beyond the region which was then the frontier and the seat of war. 

APPENDIX. 

SKETCHES OF THE SIOUX. 

The Sioux or Dacotas, are a numerous, powerful and warlike nation ofIndians, who have been appropriately called the Arabs of the west. Between them and the Sacs and Foxes, there has existed, from thesettlement of the two latter tribes on the waters of the Mississippi, ahostility of feeling that has kept them embroiled in a constant warfare. The efforts of government to break down their prejudices and make peacebetween them, have failed in accomplishing that benevolent end. It isnot, however, against the Sacs and Foxes alone, that their arms areturned. From time immemorial they have been at war with the Chippeways, and are also constantly making hostile incursions upon other neighboringtribes. They usually fight on horseback, and being very superiorhorsemen, they are generally more than a match for their antagonists. InSchoolcraft's Narrative, we find the following account of their numbers, habits and peculiarities of character. 

"The numerical strength of the Sioux nation was stated by the lateGeneral Pike at 21, 675, three thousand eight hundred of whom arewarriors. This is the most powerful Indian tribe in North America. Itconsists of seven bands, namely the Minokantongs, the Yengetongs, theSissitongs, the Wahpetongs, the Titongs, the Mendewacantongs and theWashpecontongs. These are independent bands under their own chiefs, butunited in a confederacy for the protection of their territories; andsend deputies to a general council of the chiefs and warriors, wheneverthe concerns of their nation require it. If one of the tribes isattacked, the others are expected to assist in the repulsion of theenemy. They inhabit all the country, between the Mississippi andMissouri rivers, from north latitude about 46° to the junction of theserivers near St. Louis, with trifling exceptions in favor of somescattered bands of Foxes, Sacs and Kickapoos. Their country also extendssouth of the Missouri, where the principal part of the Titongs reside, and east of the Mississippi to the territories of the Chippeways--theWinnebagoes and the Menominies. The greatest chief of the nation atpresent (1820) is Talangamane, or the Red Wing. 

"The Minocantongs, or people of the waters, are located at St. Peters, and along the banks of the Mississippi towards Prairie du Chien. Theyreside in four principal villages. 

"The Yengetongs and the Sessitongs inhabit the upper parts of the riverSt. Peters, and are sometimes called the Sioux of the plains. Theirtraffic is principally in Buffalo robes. The Wahpetongs, or people ofthe leaves are the most erratic in their dispositions of all the Sioux;they inhabit the St. Peters between the Prairie de Francois and theWhite Rock, during a part of the year, and generally go out to huntabove the falls of St. Anthony towards the sources of the river DeCorbeau, and upon the plains which give origin to the Crow, Sac and Elkrivers. 

"The Titongs inhabit both banks of the Missouri, and rove in quest ofgame over an immense extent of country. They are said to be related tothe Mahas, and some other bands south of the Missouri. 

"The Mendewacantongs, or people of the Medicine Lake, theWashpecontongs, or people of the Leaves, who have run away, and someother scattered bands, whose names are unknown, inhabit the countrygenerally, from St. Peters south to the mouth of the Missouri, and arechiefly located upon the sources of the rivers Ocano, Iowa, andDesmoines. 

"The Sioux are generally represented as a brave, generous and spiritedpeople, with proud notions of their origin as a tribe, and theirsuperiority as hunters and warriors, and with a predominant passion forwar. They speak the Narcotah language, which is peculiar to themselves, and appears to have little affinity with any other Indian tongue. It isnot so soft and sonorous as the Algonquin which abounds in labials, butmore so than the Winnebago, which is the most harsh and gutturallanguage in America. The Narcotah sounds to an English ear, like theChinese, and both in this, and in other respects, the Sioux are thoughtto present many points of coincidence. It is certain that their mannersand customs differ essentially from those of any other tribe, and theirphysiognomy, as well as their language, and opinions, mark them adistinct race of people. Their sacrifices and their supplications to theunknown God--their feasts after any signal deliverance fromdanger--their meat, and their burnt offerings--the preparation ofincense, and certain customs of their females, offer too striking acoincidence, with the manners of the Asiatic tribes, before thecommencement of the Christian era, to escape observation, while theirpaintings and hieroglyphics bear so much analogy to those of the Asteeksof Mexico, as to render it probable that the latter are of Naudowessianorigin. "

"From my knowledge of the Sioux nation, " observes Lieutenant Pike, "I donot hesitate to pronounce them the most warlike and independent nationof Indians, within the boundaries of the United States, their everypassion being subservient to that of war. Their guttural pronunciation, high cheek bones, their visages, and distinct manners, together withtheir own traditions, supported by the testimony of neighboring nations, put it in my mind beyond a shadow of doubt, that they have emigratedfrom the north west point of America, to which they had come across thenarrow streights, which in that quarter divide the two continents; andare absolutely descendants of a Tartarean tribe. "

The following anecdote of a Sioux chief, and of a council held byGovernor Cass, some years since, for the purpose of making peace betweenthe Sioux and Chippeways, is drawn from a letter from that officer, tothe war department. [16]

"Some years since, mutually weary of hostilities, the chiefs of bothnations met, and agreed upon a truce. But the Sioux disregarding thesolemn compact they had formed, and actuated by some sudden impulseattacked and murdered a number of Chippeways. The old Chippeway chiefwas present at the time, and his life was saved by the intrepidity andself-devotion of a Sioux chief. This man intreated, remonstrated, threatened. He adjured his countrymen, by every motive, to abstain fromany violation of their faith: and finding his remonstrances useless, heattached himself to the Chippeway chief, and avowed his determination tosave him or perish. Awed by such intrepidity, the Sioux finally agreedthat he should ransom the Chippewa. This he did at the expense of allthe property he possessed. The Sioux chief now accompanied him on hisjourney, until he considered him safe from any of the parties of theSioux, who might be disposed to pursue him. 

"Believing it equally inconsistent with humanity and sound policy, thatthese border contests should be suffered to continue; and feeling thatthe Indians have a full portion of moral and physical evils, withoutadding to them the calamities of a war, which had no definite object, Governor Cass being at Sandy lake, offered his mediation to theChippeway chiefs, to which they readily acceded. In consequence, adeputation of ten of their men descended the Mississippi with him. 

"The Chippeways landed occasionally, to examine whether any of the Siouxhad recently visited that quarter. In one of these excursions, there wasfound, suspended to a tree, in an exposed situation, a piece ofbirch-bark, made flat, by being fastened between two sticks, abouteighteen inches long by fifteen broad. This bark contained the answer ofthe Sioux nation, to overtures which the Chippeways had made, onGovernor Cass' offer of mediation:--which overtures had been found andtaken off by a party of the Sioux. So revengeful and sanguinary had thecontest been between these tribes, that no personal communication couldtake place. Neither the sanctity of the office, nor the importance ofthe message, could protect the ambassador of either party from thevengeance of the other. 

"The preliminaries to a peace being thus settled, the Sioux andChippeways met in joint council--smoked the pipe of peace together, andthen in their own figurative language, 'buried the tomahawk so deep, that it could never be dug up again. '"

Another anecdote is related by Mr. Schoolcraft which we quote asillustrative of the character, in some degree, of this singular andwarlike race. "

"Le Petit Corbeau, a chief of a small band of Sioux, located upon thebanks of the Mississippi, towards the confines of the Chippewayterritory, going out one morning to examine his beaver trap, found aSauteur in the act of stealing it. He had approached without excitingalarm, and while the Sauteur was engaged in taking the trap from thewater, he stood maturely surveying him with a loaded rifle in his hands. As the two nations were at war, and the offence was in itself one of themost heinous nature, he would have been justified in killing him on thespot, and the thief looked for nothing else, on finding himselfdetected. But the Sioux chief walking up to him discovered a noblenessof disposition which would have done honor to the most enlightened ofmen. 'Take no alarm, ' said he, 'at my approach; I only come to presentto you the trap of which I see you stand in need. You are entirelywelcome to it. Take my gun also, as I perceive you have none of yourown, and depart with it to the land of your countrymen, but linger nothere, lest some of my young men, who are panting for the blood of theirenemies, should discover your footsteps in our country, and fall uponyou. ' So saying he delivered him his gun and accoutrements, and returnedunarmed to the village of which he is so deservedly the chief. "

COLONIZATION OF THE INDIANS. 

The plan, now in progress of execution, for the removal of all theIndians, within the limits of the United States, to a region of countrywest of Missouri and Arkansas, will of course, when carried out, greatlymodify our relations with them. New laws must be enacted by Congress, and new treaties formed between the Indians and the United States. 

From the organization of the federal government to the present time, ourrelations with the Indians have been the subject of frequentlegislation, and the statute book bears many evidences of benevolentaction towards this ill-fated race. If the laws enacted by Congress forthe protection and civilization of the aborigines of this country, hadbeen regularly and rigidly enforced, and a more impartial interpretationof the treaties made with them, had been observed, their condition wouldhave been far better than it now is--they would have passed from thehunter to the pastoral state, and have grown in numbers, virtue andintelligence. But these laws and these treaties, have been year afteryear violated by our own people, and the result has been a constantdeterioration of the Indians. This is especially true of those lawsintended to prevent our citizens from hunting on the Indian lands, residing in their country, and trading with them without a license fromthe United States. These have generally been a dead letter upon thenational statute book, and the encroachments of the lawlessfrontiers-men, the trader, the land speculator, and the vender ofspirituous liquors, have impoverished degraded, and vitiated, more orless, every tribe within the limits of the United States. It is to thisintercourse, with these classes of persons, that the bad faith, thesavage barbarities, and border-wars, of which so much complaint is madeagainst the Indians, are to be mainly attributed. The rapacity of ourpeople, for their peltries and their land, the feeble execution of lawsmade for their protection, and the loose morality which has governed ourgeneral intercourse with them, have wasted their numbers, debased theircharacter, and tarnished the honor of that nation, which, from the veryorganization of its government, has claimed to be their benevolentprotector. 

The plan of removing the Indians beyond the limits of the United Statesis not new. If not original with Mr. Jefferson, it was commended by him, and has been approved, we believe, by each successive administrationsince his day. It looked of course to a peaceable not a forcible removalof them. Whether the details of the original plan corresponded withthose of the law, under which this removal is going on, we do not know. 

The substance of the present plan may be gathered from the followingprovisions:

1st. To secure the lands on which they are placed to the several tribesby patent, with only such restrictions as are necessary to prevent whitemen from purchasing them, or encroaching upon them. 

2d. To establish a territorial government, all the offices of which, (except those of the governor and secretary, ) are to be filled withIndians, wherever competent natives can be obtained. 

3d. To provide for a general council of delegates, chosen by and fromthe tribes, with legislative powers; their enactments not to be validtill they have been approved by the President of the United States. 

4th. To have a delegate, always a native, remain at Washington, duringthe sessions of Congress, to attend to the affairs of the territory, who shall be allowed the pay and emoluments of a member of Congress. 

5th. To encourage, by liberal annual payments of money provided for intreaties, the establishment of schools and colleges; in which competentnative teachers are always to be preferred when they can be had. 

The power and influence of the United States are to be directed inprotecting them from the whites; in preserving peace among the differenttribes, and in stimulating them, by rewards and emoluments, in acquiringthe habits of civilized life. The efforts of the benevolent to carrychristianity among them, if made in conformity with the regulations ofthe territory, are to be cherished. These are the leading features ofthe new system of Indian regulations, established by government for thecivilization of the Indians. The territory set apart for this object, lies west of the states of Arkansas and Missouri, running north from theRed river about six hundred miles, and west from the western boundariesof these states about two hundred miles. The number of Indians withinthe territory of the United States is estimated to approach to near halfa million of souls. 

It must be obvious to every one familiar with the Indian character, andwith the history of our past relations with this people, that thesuccess of this plan, will depend, in a very great degree, upon themanner in which its details shall be executed by the government. Afailure will inevitably ensue, if white men are permitted to come incontact with the Indians. The strong arm of the military power of theUnited States, will be requisite to stay the encroachments of ourpeople, whose love of adventure and whose thirst for gain, will carrythem among the Indians, unless arrested by more cogent considerationsthan a sense of duty, or the prohibitions of the statute book. 

Instead of attempting to supply them with goods by licensing traders toreside among them, they should be encouraged to sell their furs andpeltries and to make their purchases in the United States. On the formersystem they are liable to constant imposition, and the very articleswhich the traders carry among them, are worthless in kind and poor inquality; but if the Indians traded with us, within the limits of theUnited States, they would have the competition arising from a number ofbuyers and sellers, they would obtain better prices for their furs andprocure more valuable articles, upon fairer terms, in exchange. Theywould also be benefitted by observing our manners and customs, adoptingour style of dress, learning the value of property, and gaining someknowledge of agriculture and the use of mechanical tools, and implementsof husbandry. But the most important advantage to be gained by theirtrading within the United States, would be in their protection fromimposition. It has been truly and forcibly remarked, "Humanity shudders at the recital of the nefarious acts practised by thewhite traders upon the Indians. Yet not half of them are known ordreamed of by the American people. We refer again, to Mr. Tanner'sNarrative, which every man who has a vote on this subject ought to read. Here we find the traders sometimes taking _by force_, from an Indian, the produce of a whole year's hunt, without making him any return, sometimes pilfering a portion while buying the remainder, and stilloftener wresting from the poor wretches, while in a state ofintoxication, a valuable property, for an inadequate remuneration. Inone place, our author tells of an Indian woman, his adopted mother, who, "in the course of a single day, sold one hundred and twenty beaverskins, with a large quantity of buffalo robes, dressed and smoked skins, and other articles, _for rum_. " He pathetically adds, "of all our largeload of peltries, the produce of so many days of toil, so many long anddifficult journeys, one blanket and three kegs of rum, only remained, besides the poor and almost worn out clothing on our bodies. " Thesending of missionaries, to labor by the side of the miscreants who thusswindle and debauch the ignorant savage, is a mockery of the office, anda waste of the time of these valuable men. If the Indians traded withinour states, with our regular traders, the same laws and the same publicsentiment which protects us, would protect them. "

This is no exaggerated picture. Fraud, oppression and violence, havecharacterized our intercourse with the Indians, and it is in vain tohope for any amelioration of their savage condition, so long as anintercourse of this kind is permitted. In the very nature of things, theplan of civilizing the Indians, by forming a confederacy of them, beyondthe limits of the United States, will prove unsuccessful, unless theyare surrounded by a cordon of military posts, and the whites are stayed, by physical force, from entering their territories for any purposewhatever. 

It is to this intercourse that the Indian wars, which have so frequentlycaused the blood of the white and the red man to flow in torrents, uponour frontier, are mainly to be attributed. It has been asserted, even bythose who claim to be the grave historians of this unfortunate people, that these wars are almost without exception, the result of that crueltyand insatiable thirst for blood which belong to the Indian character. One of these writers, the Rev. Timothy Flint, in his "Indian Wars of theWest, " says, "We affirm an undoubting belief, from no unfrequent, norinconsiderable means of observation, that aggression has commenced, inthe account current of mutual crime, as a hundred to one, on the part ofthe Indians. " We do not question the sincerity of this belief, but we doquestion, entirely, the correctness of the conclusion to which thewriter brings his mind: we affirm without hesitation, that it is aconclusion that cannot be sustained by testimony. If the individualmaking it, had looked less superficially at the case, and had gone tothe primary causes that have produced the bloody collisions between hiscountrymen and the Indians, he could never have made so great a mistakeas the one he has committed in the paragraph quoted above. If kindness, good faith and honesty of dealing, had marked our social, political andcommercial intercourse with the Indians, few, if any of these bloodywars would have occurred; and these people, instead of being debased byour intercourse with them, would have been improved and elevated in thescale of civilization. The history of the early settlement ofPennsylvania and its illustrious founder, affords the strongesttestimony on this point. The justice, benevolence and kindness whichmarked the conduct of Penn towards the Indians, shielded his infantcolony from aggression, and won for him personally, a generousaffection, that would have been creditable to any race of people. 

Upon this point it has been well and forcibly remarked by aphilanthropic writer, [17] of our country, that, "The American Indian is sometimes regarded as a being who is prone toall that is revolting and cruel. He is cherished in excitedimaginations, as a demoniac phantasm, delighting in bloodshed, withouta spark of generous sentiment or native benevolence. The philosophy ofman should teach us, that the Indian is nothing less than a human being, in whom the animal tendencies predominate over the spiritual. His moralsand intellect having received neither culture nor developement, hepossesses on the one hand, the infirmities of humanity; while on theother the divine spark in his heart, if not blown into a genial warmth, has not been extinguished by an artificial polish. His affections arestrong, because they are confined to a few objects; his enmities aredeep and permanent, because they are nursed in secret, without areligion to control them. Friendship is with him a sacred sentiment. Heundertakes long and toilsome journeys to do justice to its object; heexposes himself, for its sake, to every species of privation; he fightsfor it; and often dies in its defence. He appoints no _fecial_ messengerto proclaim, by an empty formality, the commencement of war. Whilst theEuropean seeks advantages in the subtle finesse of negociation, theAmerican pursues them according to the instincts of a less refinednature, and the dictates of a less sublimated policy. He seeks his enemybefore he expects him, and thus renders him his prey. "

No better evidence need be adduced of his capacity for a lively andlasting friendship, than the history of Pennsylvania, during the lifetime of the founder. It is refreshing and delightful to see one fairpage, in the dark volume of injustice and crime, which American annals, on this subject present. While this page reflects upon the past anaccumulated odium, it furnishes lessons for the guide and edification ofthe future. Let me invite the philanthropist to this affecting story. 

A chief object of Penn, in the settlement of his province, was neitherland, gold nor dominion, but "the glory of God, by the civilization ofthe poor Indian. " Upon his arrival in Pennsylvania, the pledge containedin his charter was redeemed by a friendly compact with the "poor Indian"which was never to be violated, and by a uniform and scrupulous devotionto his rights and interests. Oldmixon and Clarkson inform us, that heexpended "thousands of pounds" for the physical and social improvementof these untutored and houseless tenants of the woods. His estate becameimpaired by the munificence of his bounty. In return for benevolence sogenerous and pure, the Indians showed a reality of affection and anardor of gratitude, which they had on no previous occasion professed. The colony was exempted from those calamities of war and desolation, which form so prominent a picture in the early annals of Americansettlements. During a period of forty years, the settlers and nativeslived harmoniously together, neither party complaining of a single actof violence or the infliction of an injury unredressed. The memory ofPenn lived green and fresh in their esteem, gratitude, and reverence, acentury after. 

The tribe thus subdued by the pacific and philanthropic principles ofPenn, have been untruly described as a cowardly and broken down race. They were a branch of the great family of Indians, who, for so manyyears, carried on a fierce and bloody strife with the Alligewi on theMississippi, and waged a determined hostility with the Mengwe. At oneperiod they were the undisputed masters of the large tract of country, now known as the territory of the middle states. On the arrival of theEnglish, their number in Pennsylvania was computed at thirty or fortythousand souls. Their history spoke only of conquest. They were a brave, proud and warlike race, who gloried in the preservation of a characterfor valor, descended from the remotest times. The confederacy of theSix Nations, by whom they were finally vanquished, was not formed until1712, and their defeat, as evidenced by their peculiar subjugationoccurred within a few months antecedent to the demise of theproprietary. The same people annihilated the colony of Des Vries, in1632, formed a conspiracy to exterminate the Swedes, under Printz, in1646; and were the authors of the subsequent murders which afflicted thesettlements, before the accession of the English colonists. 

"Such an example furnishes some insight into the elements of Indiancharacter. Little doubt can exist, if the subject were fairly examined, that most of those sanguinary wars, of which history speaks with ashudder, would be found to have arisen less from the blood-thirstyIndian, than from the aggressions of the gold-thirsty and land-thirstydefamer. "

INDIAN DANCING CEREMONIES. 

In a historical memoir of the Indians, published in the North AmericanReview and attributed to the able pen of our present minister to France, there is a description of a war-dance, from which the following extractis made. 

"An Indian War Dance is an important occurrence in the passing events ofa village. The whole population is assembled, and a feast provided forall. The warriors are painted and prepared as for battle. A post isfirmly planted in the ground, and the singers, the drummers and othermusicians, are seated within the circle formed by the dancers andspectators. The music and the dancers begin. The warriors exertthemselves, with great energy. Every muscle is in action: and there isthe most perfect concord between the music and their movements. Theybrandish their weapons, and with such apparent fury, that fatalaccidents seem unavoidable. Presently a warrior leaves the circle, andwith his tomahawk or casse-tete, strikes the post. The music and dancingcease, and profound silence ensues. He then recounts, with a loud voice, his military achievements. He describes the battles he has fought--theprisoners he has captured--the scalps he has taken. He points to hiswounds, and produces his trophies. He accompanies his narrative with theactual representation of his exploits; and the mimic engagement, theadvance and the retreat, are all exhibited to his nation as they reallyoccurred. There is no exaggeration, no misrepresentation. It would beinfamous for a warrior to boast of deeds he never performed. If theattempt were made, some one would approach and throw dirt in his facesaying, "I do this to cover your shame; for the first time you see anenemy, you will tremble. " But such an indignity is rarely necessary:and, as the war parties generally, contain many individuals, thecharacter and conduct of every warrior are well known. Shouts ofapplause accompany the narration, proportioned in duration and intensityto the interest it excites. His station in the circle is then resumed bythe actor, and the dance proceeds, till it is interrupted in a similarmanner. 

"In the poem of Ontwa, a scene like this is so well described, that wecannot resist the temptation to transfer it to our pages. Of all whohave attempted to embody in song, the "living manners" of the Indians, the anonymous author of that poem has been the most successful. Hischaracters, and traditions and descriptions, have the spirit and bearingof life; and the whole work, is not less true to nature than to poetry. 

 A hundred warriors now advance, All dressed and painted for the dance; And sounding club and hollow skin A slow and measured time begin: With rigid limb and sliding foot, And murmurs low the time to suit; Forever varying with the sound, The circling band moves round and round. Now slowly rise the swelling notes When every crest more lively floats; Now tossed on high with gesture proud, Then lowly mid the circle bow'd; While clanging arms grow louder still, And every voice becomes more shrill; Till fierce and strong the clamor grows, And the wild war whoop bids it close. Then starts Skunktonga forth, whose band Came from far Huron's storm-beat strand, And thus recounts his battle feats, While his dark club the measure beats. "

Major Long of the U. S. Army, in his Expedition up the Missouri, gives anaccount of a council which he held, at Council Bluff, with a party ofone hundred Ottoes, seventy Missouries, and fifty or sixty Soways. TheOtto nation is known by the name of Wah-toh-ta-na. Their principalvillage is situated on the river Platte, about forty miles above itsjunction with the Missouri. At the period of this visit, these Indianshad held little if any intercourse with the whites. After the councilwas over, they performed a dance, in honor of their visitors, thedescription of which will convey to the reader a very vivid picture ofthis ceremony. We give it, in Major Long's own words. 

"The amusement of dancing was commenced by striking up their rudeinstrumental and vocal music; the former consisting of a gong made of alarge keg, over one of the ends of which, a skin was stretched, whichwas struck by a small stick, and another instrument, consisting of astick of firm wood, notched like a saw, over the teeth of which a smallstick was rubbed forcibly backward and forward. With these, rude as theywere, very good time was preserved with the vocal performers, who sataround them, and by all the natives as they sat, in the inflection oftheir bodies, or the movements of their limbs. After the lapse of alittle time, three individuals leaped up, and danced around for a fewminutes; then, at a concerted signal of the master of ceremonies, themusic ceased and they retired to their seats, uttering a loud noise, which, by patting the mouth rapidly with the hand, was broken into asuccession of similar sounds, somewhat like the hurried barking of adog. Several sets of dancers succeeded, each terminating as the first. In the intervals of the dances, a warrior would step forward, and strikea flag-staff they had erected, with a stick, whip, or other weapon, andrecount his martial deeds. This ceremony is termed _striking the post_, and whatever is then said, may be relied upon as rigid truth, beingdelivered in the presence of many a jealous warrior and witness, whocould easily detect, and would immediately disgrace the _striker_ forexaggeration or falsehood. This is called the _beggar's dance_--duringwhich, some presents are always expected by the performers; as tobacco, whiskey, or trinkets. But on this occasion, as none of these articleswere immediately offered, the amusement was not, at first, distinguishedby much activity. 

"The master of the ceremonies continually called aloud to them to exertthemselves, but still they were somewhat dull and backward. Iėtan nowstepped forward, and lashed a post with his whip, declaring that hewould punish those that did not dance. This threat, from one whom theyhad vested with authority for this occasion, had a manifest effect uponhis auditors, who were presently highly wrought up, by the sight of twoor three little mounds of tobacco twist, which were now laid beforethem, and appeared to infuse new life. 

"After lashing the post, and making his threat, Iėtan went on to narratehis martial exploits. He had stolen horses seven or eight times from theKanzas; he had first struck the bodies of three of that nation slain inbattle. He had stolen horses from the Iėtan nation, and had struck oneof their dead. He had stolen horses from the Pawnees, and struck thebody of one Pawnee Loup. He had stolen horses several times from theOmawhahs, and once from the Puncas. He had struck the bodies of twoSioux. On a war party, in company with the Pawnees, he had attackedthe Spaniards, and penetrated into one of their camps; theSpaniards--excepting a man and a boy--fled, himself being at a distancebefore his party; he was shot at and missed by the man, whom heimmediately shot down and struck. 'This, my father, ' said he, 'is theonly material act of my life that I am ashamed of. '

"After several rounds of dancing, and of striking at the post, by thewarriors, Mi-a-ke-ta, or _The Little Soldier_, a war-worn veteran, tookhis turn to strike the post. He leaped actively about, and strained hisvoice to its utmost pitch, whilst he portrayed some of the scenes ofblood in which he had acted. He had struck dead bodies of individuals ofall the Red nations around; Osages, Konzas, Pawnee Loups, PawneeRepublicans, Grand Pawnees, Puncas, Omawhaws, Sioux, Padoucas, La Plain, or Bald heads, Iėtans, Sacs, Foxes, and Ioways. He had struck eight ofone nation, seven of another, &c. 

"He was proceeding with his account, when Iėtan ran up to him, put hishand upon his mouth, and respectfully led him to his seat. This act wasno trifling compliment to the well-known brave; it indicated, that hehad so many glorious achievements to speak of, that he would occupy somuch time, as to prevent others from speaking; and, moreover, put toshame the other warriors, by the contrast of his actions with theirs. 

"Their physical action in dancing is principally confined to leaping asmall distance from the ground, with both feet, the body being slightlyinclined, and, upon alighting, an additional slight but suddeninclination of the body is made, so as to appear like a succession ofjerks; or the feet are raised alternately, the motion of the body beingthe same. Such are the movements in which the whole party correspond;but, in the figures--as they are termed in our assembly rooms--eachindividual performs a separate part, and each part is a significantpantomimic narrative. In all their variety of action, they are carefulto observe the musical cadences. In this dance, Iėtan represented onewho was in the act of stealing horses; he carried a whip in his hand asdid a considerable number of the Indians, and around his neck werethrown several leathern thongs, for bridles and halters, the ends ofwhich trailed upon the ground behind him. After many preparatorymanoeuvres, he stooped down, and with his knife, represented the actof cutting the hopples of horses. He then rode his tomahawk, as childrenride their broomsticks, making use of his whip, as to indicate thenecessity of rapid movement, lest his foes should overtake him. Wa-sa-ha-jing-ga, or _Little Black Bear_, after a variety of gestures, threw several arrows in succession, over his own head--therebyindicating his familiarity with the flight of such missiles. He, at thesame time, covered his eyes with his hand, to indicate that he was blindto danger. Others represented their manoeuvres in battles, seekingtheir enemy, discharging at him their guns or arrows, &c. &c. 

"Most of the dancers were the principal warriors of the nation--men whohad not condescended to amuse themselves or others, in this manner, foryears before. But they now appeared in honor of the occasion, and toconciliate, in their best manner, the good will of the representative ofthe government of the _Big Knives_. Amongst these veteran warriors, Iėtan, or _Sha-mon-e-kus-see_, _Ha-she-a_ (the Broken Arm), commonlycalled Cut Nose, and _Wa-sa-ha-zing-ga_ (or Little Black Bear), threeyouthful leaders, in particular, attracted our attention. In consequenceof having been appointed soldiers on this occasion, to preserve order, they were painted entirely black. The countenance of the first indicatedmuch wit, and had, in its expression, something of the character of thatof Voltaire. He frequently excited the mirth of those about him, by hisremarks and gestures. _Ha-she-a_, (called Cut Nose, in consequence ofhaving lost the tip of his nose, in a quarrel with Iėtan, ) wore ahandsome robe of white wolf skin, with an appendage behind him, calleda _crow_. This singular decoration is a large cushion, made of the skinof a crow, stuffed with any light material, and variously ornamented. Ithas two decorated sticks, projecting from it upward, and a pendent onebeneath; this apparatus is secured upon the buttocks by a girdle passinground the body. The other actors in the scene were decorated with paintsof several colors, fantastically disposed upon their persons. Severalwere painted with white clay, which had the appearance of being groovedin many places. This grooved appearance is given by drawing thefinger-nails over the part, so as to remove the pigment from thence inparallel lines. These lines are either rectilinear, undulated, orzigzag; sometimes passing over the forehead transversely, or vertically;sometimes in the same direction, or obliquely over the whole visage, orupon the breast, arms, &c. Many were painted with red clay, in which thesame lines appeared. A number of them had the representation of a blackhand, with outspread fingers, on different parts of the body, stronglycontrasting with the principal color with which the body was overspread;the hand was depicted in different positions upon the face, breast, andback. The face of others was colored, one half black, and one halfwhite, or red and white, &c. Many colored their hair with red clay, butthe eye-lids and base of the ears were generally tinged with vermilion. 

"At the conclusion of the ceremony, whiskey--which they always expect onsimilar occasions--was produced, and a small portion was given to each. The principal Chiefs of the different nations who had remained passivespectators of the scene, now directed their people to return to theircamp. The word of the Chiefs was obeyed, excepting by a few of theIoways, who appeared to be determined to keep their places, notwithstanding the reiterated command of the Chiefs. Iėtan now sprangtowards them, with an expression of much ferocity in his countenance, and it is probable a tragic scene would have been displayed, had not thechiefs requested him to use gentle means; and thus he succeeded; afterwhich, the Chiefs withdrew. "

CHAPTER II. 

SALE OF WHISKEY TO THE INDIANS. 

In tracing out the causes which led to the late war with the Sac and FoxIndians of Rock river, reference was made to the violations of the lawsof Congress in the introduction of whiskey among them by the whitetraders. The opinion, moreover, was expressed that the licensed tradersof the United States, among these tribes, were in the habit of sellingthis article to them, and under circumstances which must have broughthome the fact to the knowledge of our Indian agents. Black Hawk withother chiefs of the band to which he belonged, earnestly remonstratedagainst the introduction of whiskey among his people, because of itsdebasing effect upon their morals, and the danger of its provoking themto acts of aggression upon the whites, while in a state of intoxication. One of the facts, set forth in the memorial which the white settlers onRock river, presented to Governor Reynolds, in 1831, and upon which hedeclared the state to be actually invaded by the Sac and Fox Indians, and ordered out the militia to repel it, was the destruction, by BlackHawk, of a barrel of whiskey, which the owner was retailing to theIndians. The violation of the laws of Congress and of express treatyprovisions, in the sale of ardent spirits to the Indians, winked at, asthey undoubtedly were, by the public agents, mainly contributed to bringabout a war, which resulted in the destruction of a great part of theband of Black Hawk. That the allegations, in regard to the sale ofintoxicating liquors, to the Indians, by the regularly licensed tradersof the United States, may not be supposed to rest upon gratuitousassumptions, the following letter, is quoted, which places the matterbeyond all question. 

 _St. Peters, July 25, 1832_

 GEN. JOSEPH M. STREET, } Indian Agent, Prairie du Chien. }

 SIR--I arrived at this place yesterday from the sources of the Mississippi, having visited the Chippewa bands and trading-posts in that quarter. Much complaint is made respecting the conduct of the persons licensed by you last year, who located themselves at the Granite Rocks, and on the St. Croix. No doubt can exist that each of them took in, and used in their trade, a considerable quantity of whiskey. And I am now enabled to say, that they each located themselves at points within the limits of my agency, where there are no trading-posts established. My lowest trading-post on the Mississippi, is the Pierced Prairie, eighteen miles below the mouth of the De Corbeau. It embraces one mile square upon which traders are required to be located. On the St. Croix, the posts established and confirmed by the Department are Snake River and Yellow River, and embrace each, as the permanent place of location, one mile square. I report these facts for your information, and not to enable you to grant licenses for these posts, as the instructions of the Department give to each agent the exclusive control of the subject of granting licenses for the respective agencies. 

 Much solicitude is felt by me to exclude ardent spirits wholly from the Chippewas and Ottowas, the latter of whom have, by a recent order, been placed under my charge. I am fully satisfied that ardent spirits are not necessary to the successful prosecution of the trade, that they are deeply pernicious to the Indians, and that both their use and abuse is derogatory to the character of a wise and sober government. Their exclusion in every shape, and every quantity, is an object of primary moment; and it is an object which I feel it a duty to persevere in the attainment of, however traders may bluster. I feel a reasonable confidence in stating, that no whiskey has been used in my agency during the last two years, except the limited quantity taken by special permission of the Secretary of War, for the trade of the Hudson's Bay lines; and saving also the quantity clandestinely introduced from Prairie du Chien and St. Peters. 

 I know, sir, that an appeal to you on this subject cannot be lost, and that your feelings and judgment fully approve of temperance measures. But it requires active, persevering, unyielding efforts. And in all such efforts, judiciously urged, I am satisfied that the government will sustain the agents in a dignified discharge of their duties. Let us proceed in the accomplishment of this object with firmness, and with a determination never to relinquish it, until ardent spirits are entirely excluded from the Indian country. 

 I am sir, Very respectfully, Your obedient servant, HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT. 

 P. S. Capt. Jouett, commanding at this post, has recently seized sixteen kegs of high-wines. His prompt, decisive, and correct conduct in this, and other transactions relating to Indian affairs, merits the approbation of government. 

 The Petite Corbeau has requested that no trader may be located at the mouth of the St. Croix. 

The following picture of the present condition of the Winnebagoes, givenin the St. Louis Bulletin, shows the deplorable results of theintercourse of the whites with the Indians--the baneful effects ofspirituous liquors upon their morals and habits. The Winnebagoes wereneighbors of the Sacs and Foxes, and long intimately associated withthem. Twenty years ago, all of these tribes, raised annually more corn, beans and other vegetables, than were needed for their own consumption. Now they are miserable, squalid beggars, without the means ofsubsistence. The faithlessness of the Government, the perfidy andavarice of its agents and citizens, have brought this race of people tothe horrible condition, in which they are represented in the statementthat follows. 

 An agent of the Temperance Society, in a journal of a late tour to the region of the Upper Mississippi, presents a picture, melancholy indeed, of the present condition of the Indian tribes in that quarter, which must deeply rouse the commiseration of every benevolent man. From our own personal observation one year since, we would corroborate the assertion, that were the world ransacked for a subject in which should be concentrated and personified injustice, oppression, drunkenness, squalid filth, and degradation, one would point to the straggling Indian on the banks of the Upper Mississippi for the aptest exemplification. 

 There were some two or three hundred of these stragglers--Winnebagoes, chiefly, about Prairie du Chien--men, women, and children, many of whom had scarcely the fragments of a filthy blanket to hide their nakedness or screen them from the cold--strolling and straggling about in squads of from two to a half dozen each, begging for whiskey, or cold potatoes, or crusts of bread. One old female, doubtless turned of threescore and ten, half naked, was gathering up from the dirt and ashes about the boiler of the steam boat, a few pieces of dried apples that had been dropped and trodden under foot, which, with her toothless gums, she attempted to masticate with all the eagerness of a starving swine. Little children, from one to four years old, were crawling about in a state of nudity, and almost of starvation, while their own mothers and fathers, were staggering, and fighting, and _swearing_. It is a fact, that while these poor creatures cannot articulate a word of any thing else in English, the most awfully profane expressions will drop from their lips in English, as fluently as if it had been their vernacular tongue. When the whites first settled in that neighborhood, the Indians raised corn and other provisions enough, not only for their own use, but also for the fur-traders and settlers. 

 Now they are altogether dependent for even the scanty subsistence by which they are dragging out the remnant of a miserable life, upon the whites. And what has been the cause of so great a change in a few years in the circumstances and habits of a whole people! The answer is plain to every one at all acquainted with Indian history. It is the perfidy and avarice of the whites, and WHISKEY, WHISKEY has been the all potent _agent_ by which it has been effected. By selling and giving them whiskey till they become drunk, they are soon filched of the little annuities received from government; and then treated the rest of the year like so many dogs. --As an illustration of the feeling towards them, a merchant at Prairie du Chien expressed the very humane wish, that there might soon be another Indian war to kill them all off. 

INDEX. 

 A

 Armstrong fort built, 96. 

 Atkinson, General, ordered to Rock Island, 140 directs Black Hawk to return to the west side of the Mississippi, 140 takes command of the Illinois militia, 141 proceeds to Dixon's Ferry, 141 attack on Black Hawk at Bad-axe, 156 official account, 158 his letter of approval from War Department, 179. 

 B

 Black Hawk's account of the treaty of 1804, 58. 

 Black Hawk Purchase, in 1832, 70. 

 Black Hawk, birth and early adventures, 74 his battle with the Osages in 1786, 75 with Cherokees, 75 with Chippeways, Kaskaskias and Osages, 76 his account of Pike's visit, 77 his attack on Fort Madison, 78 joins the British army, 80 his return, 80 murder of his adopted son, 81 battle of the sink-hole near Cap au Gris, 83 his attack upon boats going to Prairie des Chiens, 86 makes peace with the United States, 86 death of his eldest son, 90 visit to the Ioway village, 89 visit to Malden, 90 whipped by some Americans, 91 refuses to remove to the west side of the Mississippi, 92 whites encroach upon his village, 93 burning of his lodges, 96 interview with Governor Coles and Judge Hall, 96 agrees to remove for six thousand dollars, 100 interview with Gaines, 103 removes to west side Mississippi, 104 treats with Gaines and Reynolds, 104 causes which led to the war, 108 his attempted alliance with other tribes, 111 discontented on west side of the Mississippi, 138 sends messenger to Keokuk, 138 collects his band at Fort Madison and crosses to east side of the Mississippi, 139 proceeds to the prophet's village up Rock river, 140 ordered back by General Atkinson, 141 makes his camp at Kisk-wa-cokee, is attacked in his camp by Maj. Stillman, 145 his flag of truce fired upon, 145 defeats Stillman, 146 attack upon Buffalo Grove, 149 his battle on the Wisconsin, 151 flies to the Mississippi, 152 attacked by the steam boat Warrior, 153 his white flag fired upon, 153 his defeat at the Bad-axe, 156 escape, 161 capture, 162 causes leading to this war, 171 at Jefferson Barracks, 189 sent to Washington city, 192 confined at Fortress Monroe, 193 interview with the President, 192 speech to Col. Eustis, 193 released, 195 visit to Norfolk, 196 to Baltimore, 196 interview with President, 197 visit to Philadelphia, 199 to New York, 200 to Albany, 202 to Buffalo, 202 interview with Senecas, 203 visit to Detroit, 203 reaches fort Armstrong, 206 refuses to submit to Keokuk, 209 his final speech in the council, 215 visit in 1837 to Washington, 216 visit to Boston, 217 to Cincinnati, 217 his character and personal appearance, 218 number of his warriors in campaign of 1832, 220. 

 C

 Cahokias conquered, 16. 

 Clark, George Rogers, relieves St. Louis, 24 sends troops into the Indian country, 25. 

 Cole, Governor, meets Black Hawk, 96. 

 Clark, General, letter to War Department, 107. 

 Cap au Gris, battle of, 83. 

 Cholera among Scott's troops, 166. 

 Cass, Lewis, report to the President, 178. 

 Cass' letter to Gen. Atkinson, 179. 

 Cass' account of Sacs and Foxes, 181. 

 Colonization of the Indians, 228. 

 D

 Drakeford's battle near Cap au Gris, 84. 

 Dodge, General, kills 29 Indians, 149 his battle of the Wisconsin, 151. 

 Davenport, Col. Wm. , speech to Black Hawk, 210. 

 E

 Everett, Governor, speech to Keokuk in Boston, 131 makes them presents, 135. 

 F

 Fort Armstrong built, 87. 

 Foxes, party of, murder 28 Menominies, 137

 G

 Good spirit of Rock Island, 87. 

 Galland's description of Sac village, 94. 

 Gaines, General, letter to Reynolds, 102 orders troops to Rock Island, 102 interview with Black Hawk, 103 takes possession of Sac village, 103 treats with the British Band, 104 his letter to War Department, 106. 

 Garland, Maj. , takes charge of prisoners, 197 his release of Black Hawk, 211. 

 H

 Harrison, General, account of the conquest of the Illinois tribes, 26 his treaty with the Sacs and Foxes in 1804, 50. 

 Hall, Judge, account of Sac village, 28 his interview with Black Hawk, 96 his account of the Sacs and Foxes at Washington, 127. 

 I

 Illinois tribes conquered, 15. 

 Indians, power to sell lands, 59. 

 Johnson, John, letter to Secretary at War, 63. 

 Illinois militia, flight at Sycamore creek, 146. 

 Irving, Washington, account of Black Hawk, 191. 

 Indian dancing ceremonies, 237. 

 K

 Kaskaskias conquered, 16. 

 Keokuk removes west of Mississippi, 92 his birth, 114 age, 115 admitted to the council-lodge, 116 bold adventure with the Sioux, 117 his interview with the Menominies, 119 in peril with his tribe, 122 removed from his post of head chief, 123 re-instated, 124 delivers up his nephew to be tried for murder, 125 his letter to Governor of Illinois, 125 visit to Washington city in 1827 and council with Secretary at War, 127 visit to Philadelphia, New York and Boston, 132 speech in reply to Gov. Everett, 133 return to the west, 135 character, 135 his visit to Jefferson barracks, 190 his speech on the liberation of Black Hawk, 208 final speech in the council, 213 his visit to Washington in 1837, 216 conduct to Black Hawk, 217. 

 L

 Lewis and Clark's account of Sacs and Foxes, 45. 

 M

 Minneway tribes, 15. 

 Mascontins, battle with Sacs and Foxes, 17. 

 Memorial to Gov. Reynolds, 102. 

 Menominies, murdered by the Foxes, 138. 

 Macomb, Gen. , report to Secretary at War, 178. 

 N

 Naopoke's visit to Malden, 138 captured, 165 his testimony before Scott, 166 at Jefferson barracks, 189. 

 O

 Osages, battle with Sacs and Foxes, 75. 

 P

 Peorias conquered, 16. 

 Primm's account of the attack on St. Louis in 1779, 18. 

 Pike's account of Sacs and Foxes, 44. 

 Posey, Col. , at Buffalo grove, 150. 

 Prophet, Wabokieshiek, 168. 

 Pashepahow's speech, 212. 

 Q

 Quashquame, account of treaty of 1804, 58. 

 R

 Reynolds, Governor, letter to Clark, 101 to Gaines, 102 declares the state to be invaded, 101 letter to War Department, 106 orders out the militia and joins Atkinson, 141 makes a treaty with the Sacs and Foxes, 170. 

 S

 Sac and Fox Indians, origin of, 13 Identity of the tribes, 14 residence, 14 removal to the west, 14 conquest of the Illini tribes, 15 their attack on St. Louis in 1779, 18 their village, 28 their war and peace chiefs, 30 division into families, 31 mode of burial, 35 idea of a future state, 36 in regard to the creation of the world, 37 social relations, 41 musical instruments, 41 Pike's account of them, 45 their character for courage, 48 treaty with the United States in 1789, 49 ditto at St. Louis in 1804, 50 they are excited to hostilities by British agents, 62 offer to fight against England, 63 part of them join the British standard, 64 treaty with them 13th Sep. 1815, 64 ditto 14th Sep. 1815, 64 ditto with British Band, 64 relinquish lands in Missouri, 66 treaty of Prairie des Chiens in 1825, 65 treaty for mineral region in 1828, 68 Black Hawk purchase in 1832, 70 their present residence, 71 sale of their lands on Rock river, 99 treaty with Scott and Reynolds, 170 described by Gov. Cass, 181. 

 Stillman, Maj. , proceeds to Sycamore creek, 141 attacks Black Hawk and is defeated, 142 fires upon Black Hawk's flag of truce, 145. 

 Stephenson, J. W. , kills some Indians, 149. 

 Scott, General, arrival at Rock Island, 165 treaty with Sacs and Foxes, 170. 

 Senecas, their speech to Black Hawk, 203. 

 Sioux Indians, sketches of, 222. 

 Sale of whiskey to the Indians, 245. 

 W

 Wabokieshiek, advice to British Band, 93. 

 Warrior's attack on Black Hawk, 153. 

 Wapellar's speech, 211. 

 FOOTNOTES

[1] Schoolcraft's Travels, p. 347. 

[2] Published in the Illinois Magazine under the head of "History of St. Louis. "

[3] James Hall, Esqr. 

[4] Chronicles of the North American Savages, No. 4. Page 53. 

[5] History of the North American Indians, by James Hall, Esq. 

[6] James Hall, Esq. 

[7] Judge Hall. 

[8] Patterson's Life of Black Hawk, dictated by himself. 

[9] See Adjutant W. W. Woodbridge's statement. 

[10] "The Book of the Indians of North America, " p. 127. 

[11] This class is admirably described by the author of "Legends of theWest. "

[12] See St. Louis Times of 13th April, 1833. 

[13] "The Book of the Indians of North America, " by Samuel G. Drake ofBoston, containing much interesting matter about the aborigines of thiscountry, and from which we have copied several of the speeches made uponthe liberation of Black Hawk. 

[14] Black Hawk seems to have entertained a warm friendship for ColonelDavenport. On another occasion, speaking of this council, he said, "Ihere met my old friend, a great war chief, [Colonel William Davenport]whom I had known for eighteen years. He is a good and a brave chief. Healways treated me well, and gave me good advice. He made a speech to meon this occasion, very different from that of the other chief. Itsounded like coming from a _brave_. " He adds, "If our great father wereto make such men our agents, he would much better subserve the interestsof our people, as well as his own, than in any other way; and had thewar chief alluded to, been our agent, we never should have had thedifficulties with the whites which we have had. "

Those who have the pleasure of a personal acquaintance with ColonelDavenport will join in Black Hawk's spontaneous tribute to his characteras a _brave_, and a gentleman of humane and noble feelings. 

[15] Colonel Whittlesey, of the Geological Corps of Ohio. See Hesperianfor February, 1839, in which this gentleman has given valuablerecollections of a tour through Wisconsin in 1832. 

[16] See Traits of Indian Character, by G. Turner. 

[17] See a "Discourse on the Surviving Remnant of the Indian Race in theUnited States, " by Job R. Tyson, Esq. Of Philadelphia.