FOOT-PRINTS OF TRAVEL;

OR, JOURNEYINGS IN MANY LANDS, BY

MATURIN M. BALLOU. 

_Armado. _ How hast thou purchased this experience?_Moth. _ By my journey of observation. --SHAKESPEARE. 

BOSTON, U. S. A. :PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY. 1889. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1888, byGINN & COMPANY, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 

TYPOGRAPHY BY J. S. CUSHING & CO. , Boston, U. S. A. 

PRESSWORK BY GINN & CO. , Boston, U. S. A. 

[Illustration: Frontispiece. CAPTAIN COOK, THE DISCOVERER. ]

PREFACE. 

In these notes of foreign travel the object has been to cover a broadfield without making a cumbersome volume, to do which, conciseness hasnecessarily been observed. In previous books the author has describedmuch more in detail some of the countries here briefly spoken of. Thevolumes referred to are "Due-West; or, Round the World in Ten Months, "and "Due-South; or, Cuba Past and Present, " which were published byHoughton, Mifflin & Co. , of Boston. Two other volumes, namely, "Due-North; or, Glimpses of Scandinavia and Russia, " and "Under theSouthern Cross; or, Travels in Australia and New Zealand, " were issuedby Ticknor & Co. , of the same city. By the kind permission of bothpublishers, the author has felt at liberty to use his original notes inthe preparation of these pages. It should be understood, however, thatabout one-half of the countries through which the reader is conducted inthe present work are not mentioned in the volumes above referred to. Thepurpose has been to prepare a series of chapters adapted for youth, which, while affording pleasing entertainment, should also impartvaluable information. The free use of good maps while reading theseFoot-prints of Travel, will be of great advantage, increasing thestudent's interest and also impressing upon his mind a degree ofgeographical knowledge which could not in any other way be so easily orpleasantly acquired. 

M. M. B. 

CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER I. PAGECrossing the American Continent. --Niagara Falls. --Utah. --Representatives of Native Indian Tribes. --City of SanFrancisco. --Sea Lions. --The Yosemite Valley. --An IndianHiding-Place. --The Mariposa Grove of Big Trees. --Chinatownin San Francisco. --Through the Golden Gate. --Navigatingthe Pacific. --Products of the Ocean. --Sea Gulls. --Harborand City of Honolulu. 1

CHAPTER II. 

Discoveries of Captain Cook. --Vegetation. --Hawaiian Womenon Horse-back. --The Nuuanu Valley. --The Native Staff ofLife. --The Several Islands of the Group. --ResidentChinamen. --Raising Sugar-Cane. --On the Ocean. --Yokohama, Japan. --Habits of the People. --A Remarkable Idol. --Tokio, the Political Capital. --The Famous Inland Sea ofJapan. --Nagasaki. --Products and Progress of Japan. 16

CHAPTER III. 

Through the Yellow and Chinese Seas. --Hong Kong. --Peculiarities of the Chinese at Home. --Native Women. --Cityof Canton. --Charitable Organizations. --ChineseCulture. --National Characteristics. --Sail for Singapore. --AWater-spout. --A Tropical Island. --Local Pen-Pictures. --TheIsland of Penang. --An Indolent Native Race. --The CocoanutTree. --Palm Wine. --Tropical Fruits. 32

CHAPTER IV. 

Crossing the Indian Ocean. --The Island of Ceylon. --Harborof Colombo. --The Equatorial Forest. --Native Costumes. --Vegetation of Ceylon. --Prehistoric Monuments. --Departurefor Australia. --The Stars at Sea. --The GreatIsland-Continent. --The Gold Product--Divisions of theCountry. --City of Adelaide. --Public Garden. --WestAustralia. --Melbourne, Capital of Victoria. --StreetScenes. --Chinese Quarter. 44

CHAPTER V. 

Gold-fields of Australia. --Kangaroos. --Big Gum Trees. --Largest Trees in the World. --Wild Bird Life. --Gold-seeking. --City of Sydney. --Botanical Garden. --PublicInstitutions. --Sheep-raising. --Brisbane, Capital ofQueensland. --The Aboriginal Race. --Native Legends. --TheBoomerang. --Island of Tasmania. --How named. --Launceston. --Hobart, the Capital. --Local Scenes. --A Prosperous Country. 62

CHAPTER VI. 

Embark for New Zealand. --The Albatross. --Experiments withSea Water. --Oil upon the Waves. --Geography of NewZealand. --Mineral Wealth. --City of Dunedin. --PublicSchools. --Native Cannibals. --Christchurch. --A WonderfulBird. --Wellington, Capital of New Zealand. --Habits ofthe Natives. --The Race of Maori Indians. --Liability toEarthquakes. --A Submerged Volcano in Cook's Strait. 81

CHAPTER VII. 

City of Auckland, New Zealand. --A Land of Volcanoes. --Suburbs of the Northern Metropolis. --The Kauri-Tree. --Native Flowers. --The Hot Lake District. --A New ZealandForest. --A Vegetable Boa-constrictor. --Sulphurous HotSprings. --Fiery Caldrons. --Indian town of Ohinemutu. --Typical Home of the Natives. --Maori Manners andCustoms. --The Favorable Position of New Zealand. --ItsProbable Future. 93

CHAPTER VIII. 

Arrival in India. --Insect and Reptile Life. --Madura. --City of Trichinopoly. --Car of Juggernaut. --Temple ofTanjore. --Travelling in India. --Madras. --Street DancingGirls. --Arrival at Calcutta. --Cremating the Dead. --AFashionable Driveway. --The Himalayan Mountains. --Apex ofthe Globe. --Tea Gardens of India. --A WretchedPeasantry. --Ancient Ruins. --City of Benares. --Worshipof Animals. --Cawnpore. --Delhi. --Agra. --A Splendid Tomb. 105

CHAPTER IX. 

Native City of Jeypore. --Poppy and Opium-raising. --Bombay. --The Parsees. --The Towers of Silence. --HistoricalView of India. --Voyage to the Red Sea. --Cairo, Capital ofEgypt. --Local Scenes. --The Turkish Bazaars. --Pyramids ofGizeh. --The Sphinx. --The Desert. --Egypt, Past andPresent. --Voyage to Malta. --City of Valetta. --Church ofSt. John. --Gibraltar. --View from the SignalStation. --English Outposts. 122

CHAPTER X. 

Tangier, Capital of Morocco. --An Oriental City. --SlaveMarket. --Characteristic Street Scenes. --Malaga, Spain. --ANeglected Country. --Grenada. --The Alhambra. --The BanishedMoors. --Cordova and its Cathedral-Mosque. --Madrid, Capitalof Spain. --Museo Art Gallery. --Sunday in the Metropolis. --Toledo. --The Escurial. --Burgos. --San Sebastian. --Bayonne. --Spain, Past and Present. --Bordeaux. --RuralScenery in France. 141

CHAPTER XI. 

City of Paris. --Sunday in the French Capital. --The FlowerMarket. --Notre Dame. --The Morgue. --Père la Chaise. --TheStory of Joan of Arc. --Educational Advantages. --City ofLyons. --Marseilles. --Nice. --Cimies. --Mentone. --ThePrincipality of Monaco. --A Gambling Resort. --MediterraneanScenes. --Over the Corniche Road. --City of Genoa. --MarblePalaces. --Italian Navigation. --The Campo Santo orBurial Ground. 164

CHAPTER XII. 

Port of Leghorn. --Ancient City of Pisa. --RemarkableMonuments. --The Bay of Naples. --Neapolitan Beggars. --AFavorite Drive. --Out-of-door Life. --Vesuvius. --ArtTreasures of the Museum. --Pompeii. --Environs ofNaples. --Rome, the "Eternal City. "--Local Scenes. --Artists'Models. --Favorite Promenade. --The Coliseum. --St. Peter's. --Florence and its Environs. --Art Treasures. --Homeof Dante and Michael Angelo. 181

CHAPTER XIII. 

Venice. --The Gondola. --On the Grand Canal. --VenetianHistory. --Piazza of St. Mark. --Cathedral of San Marco. --TheCampanile. --Academy of Fine Arts. --Doge's Palace. --Tombsof Titian and Canova. --Milan. --The Wonderful Cathedral. --Original Picture of the Last Supper. --Olden City ofPavia. --Innspruck, Capital of the Tyrol. --Among theAlps. --Salzburg, Birthplace of Mozart. --Industriesof German Women. 200

CHAPTER XIV. 

Vienna, the Northern Paris. --Art Galleries and Museum. --Prague, Capital of Bohemia. --Ancient Dungeons. --HistoricMention. --Dresden, Capital of Saxony. --The GreenVaults. --Berlin, Capital of Prussia. --Hamburg. --Copenhagen, Capital of Denmark. --The Baltic Sea. --Danish Progress. --Thorwaldsen. --Educational. --Palace of Rosenborg. --The RoundTower. --Elsinore and Shakespeare's Hamlet. 215

CHAPTER XV. 

Gottenburg, Sweden. --Intelligence of the People. --The GothaCanal. --Tröllhatta Falls. --Christiania, Capital ofNorway. --Legal Code. --Public Buildings. --Ancient VikingShip. --Brief Summers. --Swedish Women in the Field. --Flowersin Arctic Regions. --Norwegian Lakes. --Animals of theNorth. --Mountains and Glaciers. --A Land of Fjords, Cascades, and Lakes. --Dwellings situated like Eagles' Nests. 233

CHAPTER XVI. 

Bergen, Norway. --Local Products and Scenes. --Environs ofBergen. --The Angler's Paradise. --Tröndhjem. --Story of KingOlaf. --A Cruel Imprisonment. --Journey Northward. --Nightturned into Day. --Coast of Norway. --Education. --The ArcticCircle. --Bodöe. --The Lofoden Islands. --The Maelström. --HardyArctic Fishermen. --The Polar Sea. --Varied Attractions ofNorway to Travellers and Artists. 247

CHAPTER XVII. 

Peculiar Sleeplessness. --Tromsöe. --The Aurora Borealis. --Short-lived Summer. --Flowers. --Trees. --Laplanders andtheir Possessions. --Reindeers. --Customs of the Lapps. --Search for Whales. --Arctic Birds. --Influence of the GulfStream. --Hammerfest. --The Far North Cape and the PolarOcean. --The Midnight Sun. --Stockholm, Capital of Sweden. --Royal Palace. --Historic Upsala. --Linnæus, theNaturalist. --Crossing the Baltic and Gulf of Finland. 261

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Åbo. --Helsingfors, Capital of Finland. --Remarkable Fortressof Sweaborg. --Fortifications of Cronstadt. --Up the Neva toSt. Petersburg. --Grandest City of Northern Europe. --StreetScenes in Russia. --Occupations of the Sabbath. --TheDrosky. --Royal Palaces of the Tzar. --Noble Art Gallery. --Celebrated Library. --Public Monuments. --Winter Season. 275

CHAPTER XIX. 

Palace of Petershoff. --Peter the Great. --ReligiousDenominations. --On the Way to Moscow. --Through theForests. --City of Tver. --The Volga. --Water-ways ofRussia. --Picturesque Moscow. --The Kremlin. --Churches. --Cathedral of St. Basil. --Treasury of the Kremlin. --RoyalRobes and Crowns. --A Page from History. --Universityof Moscow. --Sacred Pigeons. --Prevalence of Beggaryin the Oriental Capital. 288

CHAPTER XX. 

Nijni-Novgorod. --Valley of the Volga. --One of the GreatRivers of the World. --Famous Annual Fair-Ground. --Varietyof Merchandise. --A Conglomerate of Races. --A LargeTemporary City. --From Moscow to Warsaw. --Wolves. --TheGranary of Europe. --Polish Peasants. --City of Warsaw. --Topography of the Capital. --Royal Residences. --BotanicalGardens. --Political Condition of Poland. --CommercialProsperity. --Shameful Despotism. 298

CHAPTER XXI. 

Munich, Capital of Bavaria. --Trying Employments of theWomen. --A Beer-Drinking Community. --Frankfort-on-the-Main. --Luther's Home. --Goethe's Birthplace. --Cologne on the Rhine. --The Grand Cathedral. --Antwerp, Belgium. --Rubens' BurialPlace. --Art Treasures in the Cathedral. --Switzerland. --Bâle. --Lausanne. --Geneva. --Lake Leman. --Vevay. --Berne, Capital of Switzerland. --Lucerne. --Zurich. --Schaffhausen. 310

CHAPTER XXII. 

London, the Metropolis of the World. --Some of itsInstitutions. --The Tower of London. --Statistics of the GreatCity. --Ancient Chester. --Rural England. --Stratford-on-Avon. --Edinburgh, Scotland. --Remarkable Monuments. --Abbotsford. --Rural Scotland. --Glasgow. --Greenock. --Across the Irish Seato Belfast. --Queen's College. --Dublin, the Capital ofIreland. --Grand Public Buildings. 321

CHAPTER XXIII. 

Nassau, New Providence. --Trees, Flowers, and Fruits. --CuriousSea Gardens. --The Finny Tribes. --Fresh Water Supply. --TropicalSkies. --The Gulf Stream. --Santiago de Cuba. --Cienfuegos. --SugarPlantations. --Cuban Fruits. --Peculiarities of the Banana. --A Journey across the Island to Matanzas. --InlandExperiences. --Characteristic Scenes. --The Royal Palm. 334

CHAPTER XXIV. 

Discovery of Cuba by Columbus. --The Native Race. --HistoricalMatters. --Headquarters of Spanish Military Operations in theWest. --Invasion of Mexico by Cortez. --African SlaveTrade. --Peculiarities of the Caribbean Sea. --Geography ofthe Island of Cuba. --City of Matanzas. --Havana, theCapital. --The Alameda. --The Cathedral. --MilitaryMass. --A Wonderfully Fertile Island. --Reflections. 349

FOOT-PRINTS OF TRAVEL;

OR, JOURNEYINGS IN MANY LANDS. 

CHAPTER I. 

The title of the book in hand is sufficiently expressive of its purpose. We shall follow the course of the sun, but diverge wherever thepeculiarities of different countries prove attractive. As the authorwill conduct his readers only among scenes and over routes which hehimself has travelled, it is hoped that he may be able to impart aportion of the enjoyment experienced, and the knowledge gained in manyforeign lands and on many distant seas. 

Starting from the city of Boston by railway, we pass at express speedthrough the length of Massachusetts from east to west, until we arriveat Hoosac, where the famous tunnel of that name is situated. Thisremarkable excavation, five miles in length, was cut through the solidrock of Hoosac Mountain to facilitate transportation between Boston andthe West, at a cost of twenty years of labor and sixteen millions ofdollars; a sum, which, were it divided, would amount to over fivedollars per head for every man, woman, and child in the State. 

By a continuous day's journey from Boston, we reach Niagara late atnight. The best view of the falls, which form the grandest cataract onthe globe, is to be enjoyed from the Canada side of the Niagara River. In the midst of the falls is Goat Island, dividing them into two unequalparts, one of which forms the American, and the other the Horse ShoeFall, so called from its shape, which is on the Canada side. As we gazeupon this remarkable exhibition of natural force, a column of vaporrises two hundred feet above the avalanche of waters, white as snowwhere it is absorbed into the skies, the base being wreathed withperpetual rainbows. A canal, starting from a convenient point above thefalls and extending to a point below the rapids, utilizes for millpurposes an infinitesimal portion of the enormous power which is runningto waste, night and day, just as it has been doing for hundreds ofyears. It is well known that many centuries ago these falls were sixmiles nearer to Lake Ontario than they now are, making it evident that asteady wearing away of the rock and soil is all the time progressing. The inference seems to be plain enough. After the lapse of ages thesemammoth falls may have receded so far as to open with one terrificplunge the eastern end of Lake Erie. Long before the Falls are reachedwe hear the mighty roar which made the Indians call the cataractNiagara, or "the thunder of the waters. " On leaving here, we cross theriver by a suspension bridge, which, from a short distance, looks like amere spider's web. Over this the cars move slowly, affording a superbview of the Falls and of the awful chasm below. 

But let us not dwell too long upon so familiar a theme. After a day andnight in the cars, travelling westward, Chicago, the capital ofIllinois, is reached. About sixty years ago a scattered tribe of thePottawatomies inhabited the spot on the shore of Lake Michigan, where isnow situated the most important capital of the North Western States. In1837 the city was formed with less than five thousand inhabitants; atthis writing it has nearly a million. Such rapid growth has no parallelin America or elsewhere. This commercial increase is the natural resultof its situation at the head of the great chain of lakes. In size it isa little over seven miles in length by five in width, giving it an areaof about forty square miles. The city is now the centre of a railroadsystem embracing fifteen important trunk lines, forming the largestgrain, lumber, and livestock market in the world. One hundred and sixtymillion bushels of grain have passed through its elevators in atwelvemonth. 

On our way westward, we stop for a day at Salt Lake City, the capital ofUtah, some sixteen hundred miles from Chicago. The site of the presenttown was an unbroken wilderness so late as 1838, but it now boasts apopulation of twenty-six thousand souls. The peculiar people who haveestablished themselves here, have by industry and a complete system ofirrigation, brought the entire valley to a degree of fertilityunsurpassed by the same number of square miles on this continent. It isnot within our province to discuss the domestic life of the Mormons. Noportrait of them, however, will prove a likeness which does not clearlydepict their twofold features; namely, their thrift and their iniquity. Contact with a truer condition of civilization, and the enforcement ofUnited States laws, are slowly, but it is believed surely, reducing thenumbers of the self-entitled "saints. " Mormon missionaries, however, still seek to make proselytes in France, Norway, Sweden, and GreatBritain, addressing themselves always to the most ignorant classes. These poor half-starved creatures are helped to emigrate, believing thatthey are coming to a land flowing with milk and honey. In most cases anychange with them would be for their advantage; and so the ranks ofMormonism are recruited, not from any truly religious impulse in the newdisciples, but through a desire to better their physical condition. 

From Utah, two days and a night passed in the cars will take us over thesix hundred intervening miles to San Francisco. The route passes throughthe Sierra Nevada Mountains, presenting scenery which recalls the grandgorges and snow-clad peaks of Switzerland and Norway, characterized bydeep canyons, lofty wooded elevations, and precipitous declivities. Atthe several railway stations specimens of the native Shoshones, Piutes, and other tribes of Indians are seen lazily sunning themselves inpicturesque groups. The men are dirty and uncouth examples of humanity, besmeared with yellow ochre and vermilion; their dress consisting ofloose flannel blankets and deerskin leggings, their rude hats deckedwith eagle feathers. The women are wrapped in striped blankets and wearred flannel leggings, both sexes being furnished with buckskinmoccasins. The women are fond of cheap ornaments, colored glass beads, and brass ear-rings. About every other one has a baby strapped to herback in a flat basket. Men and squaws wear their coarse jet-black hairin long, untidy locks, hanging over their bronzed necks and faces. War, whiskey, and want of proper food are gradually blotting out theaboriginal tribes of America. 

San Francisco, less than forty years of age, is the commercialmetropolis of California, which State, if it lay upon the Atlanticcoast, would extend from Massachusetts to South Carolina. It covers aterritory five times as large as the whole of the New England Statescombined, possessing, especially in its southern division, a climatepresenting most of the advantages of the tropics with but few of theobjections which appertain to the low latitudes. The population of SanFrancisco already reaches an aggregate of nearly four hundred thousand. Owing its first popular attraction to the discovery of gold within itsborders, in 1849, California has long since developed an agriculturalcapacity exceeding the value of its mineral productions. The futurepromise and possibilities of its trade and commerce defy calculation. 

The Cliff House, situated four or five miles from the centre of thecity, is a favorite pleasure resort of the population. It stands on abluff of the Pacific shore, affording an ocean view limited only by thepower of the human vision. As we look due west from this spot, no landintervenes between us and the far-away shore of Japan. Opposite theCliff House, three hundred yards from the shore, there rises abruptlyout of the sea, from a depth of many fathoms, a rough, precipitous rock, sixty or seventy feet in height, presenting about an acre of surface. Sea-lions come out of the water in large numbers to sun themselves uponthis rock, affording an amusing sight from the shore. These animals areof all sizes, according to age, weighing from fifty to one thousandpounds, and possessing sufficient muscular power to enable them to climbthe rock, where a hundred are often seen at a time. The half roar, halfbark peculiar to these creatures, sounds harsh upon the ear of thelisteners at the Cliff. The law of the State protects them frommolestation, but they quarrel furiously among themselves. The sea-lionbelongs to the seal family and is the largest of its species. 

A week can hardly be more profitably occupied upon our route than byvisiting the Yosemite Valley, where the grandeur of the Alpine sceneryis unsurpassed, and where there are forests which produce giant trees ofover three hundred feet in height and over thirty in diameter. Theascent of the mountain which forms the barrier to the valley, commencesat a place called Clark's, the name of the person who keeps the hotel, and which is the only dwelling-house in the neighborhood. The stage isdrawn upwards over a precipitous, winding road, by relays of six stouthorses, to an elevation of seven thousand feet, leaving behind nearlyall signs of human habitation. A mournful air of loneliness surrounds usas we creep slowly towards the summit; but how grand and inspiring arethe views which are seen from the various points! One falls to analyzingthe natural architecture of these mountain peaks, gulches, and cliffs, fancy making out at times well-defined Roman circuses; again, castellated crags come into view, resembling half-ruined castles on theRhine; other crags are like Turkish minarets, while some rocky rangesare dome-capped like St. Peter's at Rome. Far below them all we catchglimpses of dark ravines of unknown depths, where lonely mist-wreathsrest like snow-drifts. 

Nestling beside the roadway, there are seen here and there palewild-flowers surrounded by vigorous ferns and creeping vines, showingthat even here, in these lofty and deserted regions, Nature has herpoetic moods. Birds almost entirely disappear at these altitudes, preferring the more genial atmosphere of the plains, though now andagain an eagle, with broad spread pinions, is seen to swoop gracefullyfrom the top of some lonely pine, and sail with unmoving wings far awayacross the depth of the valley until hidden by the windings of thegorge. Even the presence of this proud and kingly bird but serves toemphasize the loneliness of these silent heights. 

[Illustration: MIRROR LAKE, YOSEMITE VALLEY. ]

By and by the loftiest portion of the road is reached at what is knownas Inspiration Point, whence a comprehensive view is afforded of thefar-famed valley. Though we stand here at an elevation of over seventhousand feet above the plains so lately crossed, still the YosemiteValley, into which we are gazing with awe and admiration, is but aboutthree thousand five hundred feet below us. It runs east and west, appearing quite contracted from this great height, but is eight mileslong by over one in width. On either side rise vertical cliffs ofgranite, varying from three to four thousand feet in height, several ofthe lofty gorges discharging narrow but strikingly beautiful andtransparent water-falls. Upon descending into the valley, we findourselves surrounded by precipitous mountains, nearly a score in number, the loftiest of which is entitled Starr King, after the late clergymanof that name, and is five thousand six hundred feet in height. But theThree Brothers, with an average height of less than four thousand feet, and Sentinel Dome, measuring four thousand five hundred feet high, seemto the casual observer to be quite as prominent, while El Capitan, whichis about three thousand three hundred feet in height, appears from itsmore favorable position to be the most striking and effective of themall. Eleven water-falls of greater or less magnitude come tumbling intothe valley, adding to the picturesqueness of the scene. Of these severalfalls, that which is known as the Bridal Veil will be sure to strikethe stranger as the finest, though not the loftiest. The constantmoisture and the vertical rays of the sun carpet the level plain of thevalley with a bright and uniform verdure, through the midst of whichwinds the swift-flowing Merced River, adding completeness to a scene ofrare and enchanting beauty. 

It was not until so late as the year 1851 that the foot of a white manever trod the valley, which had for years proven the secure hiding-placeof marauding Indians. In their battles with the whites, the latter wereoften surprised by the sudden disappearance of their foes, who vanishedmysteriously, leaving no traces behind them. On these occasions, as wasafterwards discovered, they fled to the almost inaccessible YosemiteValley. Betrayed at last by a treacherous member of their own tribe, theIndians were surprised and nearly all destroyed. There is scarcely aresident in the valley except those connected with the running of thestages during the summer months, and those who are attached to thehotel. It is quite inaccessible in winter. An encampment of nativeIndians is generally to be seen in the warm months, located on theriver's bank, under the shade of a grove of tall trees; the river andthe forest afford these aborigines ample food. For winter use they storea crop of acorns, which they dry, and grind into a nourishing flour. They are a dirty, sad-looking race, far more repulsive in appearancethan the lowest type of Spanish gypsies one meets in Andalusia. 

In returning from the Yosemite to San Francisco, let us do so by theroad leading through the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees. These forestmonarchs are situated in a thickly wooded glade hundreds of feet up theslope of the Sierra. We find one of these trees partially decayedtowards its base, yet still alive and standing upright with a broad, lofty passage-way through its entire trunk, large enough for our stage, laden with passengers inside and out, to drive through. Though time hasmade such havoc with this trunk, it still possesses sufficient vitalityto bear leaves upon its topmost branches, some three hundred feet abovethe ground. It is curious that these enormous trees, among the largestupon the globe, have cones only about the size of walnuts, with seeds ofhardly a quarter of an inch in length. There are trunks lying upon theground in this remarkable grove which are believed to be two thousandyears of age; and others upright, and in growing condition, which arereckoned by their clearly defined annual rings, to be thirteen hundredyears old. The region embraced in what is known as the Yosemite Valleyhas been ceded by the National Government to the State of California, onthe express condition that it shall be kept inviolate in its presentwild and natural state for all time. 

The streets, alleys, and boulevards of San Francisco present a panoramaof human interest rarely excelled in any part of the world. Howimpressive to watch its cosmopolitan life, to note the exaggerated loveof pleasure exhibited on all hands, the devotion of each active memberof the community to money-making, the prevailing manners and customs, the iniquitous pursuits of the desperate and dangerous classes, and thereadiness of their too willing victims! It is the solitary looker-on whosees more than the actors in the great drama of every-day life. Aboveall, it is most curious to observe how the lines of barbarism andcivilization intersect along these teeming avenues. 

There is a district of the city near its very centre, known asChinatown, which is at total variance with the general surroundings. Itrequires but a slight stretch of the imagination after passing itsborders to believe one's self in Canton or Hong Kong, except that thethoroughfares in the Asiatic capitals are mere alleys in width, shut inoverhead and darkened by straw mats, while here we have broad streetsafter the American and European fashion, open to the sky. They are, however, lined with Chinese shops, decked in all their nationalpeculiarities, exhibiting the most grotesque signs, while the windowsare crowded with outlandish articles, and the whole surrounded by anOriental atmosphere. This section is almost entirely peopled byMongolians, and such poor abandoned men and women of other nationalitiesas seek among these repulsive surroundings to hide themselves from theshame and penalty of their crimes. 

It is not proposed in these Foot-Prints of Travel to remain long on thiscontinent. Americans are presumed to be quite familiar with their nativeland; so we will embark without delay upon a voyage across the PacificOcean to Japan, by way of the Sandwich Islands. Once on board ship, wequickly pass through the Golden Gate, as the entrance to the spaciousharbor of San Francisco is called, steering south-southwest towards theHawaiian group, which is situated a little over two thousand miles away. The great seas and oceans of the globe, like the land, have theirgeographical divisions and local peculiarities, varying essentially intemperature, products, and moods; now marked by certain currents; nownoted for typhoons and hurricanes; and now lying in latitudes which arefavored with almost constant calms and unvarying sunshine. By a glanceat the map we shall see that a vessel taking her course for NewZealand, for instance, by the way of the Sandwich Islands, will passthrough a tract of the Pacific Ocean seemingly so full of islands thatwe are led to wonder how a ship pursuing such a route can avoid runningfoul of some of the Polynesian groups. But it must be remembered thatthe distances which are so concisely depicted to our eyes upon the map, are yet vast in reality, while so mathematically exact are the rules ofnavigation, and so well known are the prevailing currents, that asteamship may make the voyage from Honolulu to Auckland, a distance offour thousand miles, without sighting land. When Magellan, thePortuguese navigator, first discovered this great ocean, after sailingthrough the straits which bear his name, he called it the Pacific Ocean, and perhaps it seemed "pacific" to him after a stormy voyage in theCaribbean Sea; but portions of its surface are quite as restless andtempest-tossed as are the waters of any part of the globe. The Pacificmeasures nine thousand miles from north to south, and is ten thousandmiles broad between Quito, South America, and the Moluccas or SpiceIslands. At the extreme north, where Behring's Strait divides thecontinents of Asia and America, it is scarcely more than forty miles inwidth, so that in clear weather one can see the shores of Asia whilestanding on our own continent. 

It is an eight days' voyage by steamship from San Francisco to Honolulu, giving the traveller ample time to familiarize himself with manypeculiarities of this waste of waters. Occasionally a whale is sighted, throwing up a small column of water as it rises at intervals to thesurface. A whale is not a fish; it differs materially from the finnytribe, and can as surely be drowned as can a man. Whales bring forthliving young; they breathe atmospheric air through their lungs in placeof water through gills, having also a double heart and warm blood, likeland animals. Flying-fish are frequently seen, queer little creatures, resembling the smelts of our northern waters. While exhibiting thenature of a fish, they have also the soaring ambition of a bird. Hideous, man-eating sharks are sure to follow in the ship's wake, watching for some unfortunate victim of a sailor or passenger who mayfall overboard, and eagerly devouring any refuse thrown from the cook'sgalley. At times the many-armed cuttlefish is seen to leap out of thewater, while the star-fish, with its five arms of equal length, abounds. Though it seems so apparently lifeless, the star-fish can be quiteaggressive when pressed by hunger, having, as naturalists tell us, amysterious way of causing the oyster to open its shell, when it proceedsgradually to consume the body of the bivalve. One frail, small rover ofthe deep is sure to interest the voyager; namely, the tiny nautilus, with its transparent covering, almost as frail as writing-paper. Nowonder the ancient Greeks saw in its beautifully corrugated shell thegraceful model of a galley, and hence its name, derived from the Greekword which signifies a ship. Sometimes a pale gray, amber-like substanceis seen floating upon the surface of the sea, which, upon examination, proves to be ambergris, a substance originally found in the body of thesperm whale, and which is believed to be produced there only. Scientistsdeclare it to be a secretion caused by disease in the animal, probablyinduced by indigestion, as the pearl is said to be a diseased secretionof the Australian and Penang oysters. Ambergris is not infrequentlyfound floating along the shores of the Coral Sea, and about the westcoast of New Zealand, having been ejected by the whales which frequentthese waters. When first taken from the animal it is of a soft texture, and is offensive to the smell; but after a brief exposure to the air itrapidly hardens, and then emits a sweet, earthy odor, and is used inmanufacturing choice perfumery. 

The harbor of San Francisco abounds in big, white sea-gulls, which flyfearlessly in and out among the shipping, uttering defiant screams, orfloating gracefully like corks upon the water. They are large, handsome, dignified birds, and are never molested, being looked upon aspicturesque ornaments to the harbor; and they are also the most activeof scavengers, removing all sorts of floating carrion and refuse whichis thrown overboard. The gulls one sees off the coast of Norway arenumbered by thousands, but they are not nearly so large as these birdmonarchs of the Pacific. A score of these are sure to accompany us tosea, closely following the ship day after day, living mostly upon therefuse thrown out from the steward's department. In the month ofOctober, 1884, one of these birds was caught by the passengers upon asteamship just as she was leaving the coast of America for Japan. Apiece of red tape was made fast to one of its legs, after which it wasrestored to liberty. This identical gull followed the ship between fourand five thousand miles, into the harbor of Yokohama. Distance seems tobe of little account to these buoyant navigators of the air. 

On approaching the Hawaiian group from the north, the first land whichis sighted is the island of Oahu, and soon after we pass along thewindward shores of Maui and Molokai, doubling the lofty promontory ofDiamond Head, which rears its precipitous front seven hundred feetabove the sea. We arrive at the dawn of day, while the rising sunbeautifies the mountain tops, the green slopes, the gulches, andfern-clad hills, which here and there sparkle with silvery streamlets. The gentle morning breeze blowing off the land brings us the dewyfragrance of the flowers, which has been distilled from a wilderness oftropical bloom during the night. The land forms a shelter for ourvessel, and we glide noiselessly over a perfectly calm sea. As we drawnearer to the shore, sugar plantations, cocoanut groves, and verdantpastures come clearly into view. Here and there the shore is dotted withthe low, primitive dwellings of the natives, and occasionally we seepicturesque, vine-clad cottages of American or European residents. Approaching still nearer to the city of Honolulu, it seems to behalf-buried in a cloud of luxuriant foliage, while a broad and beautifulvalley stretches away from the town far back among the lofty hills. 

The steamer glides at half speed through the narrow channel in the coralreef which makes the natural breakwater of the harbor. This channel iscarefully buoyed on either side, and at night safety-lamps are placedupon each of these little floating beacons, so that a steamship can findher way in even after nightfall. Though the volcanic origin of the landis plain, it is not the sole cause of these reefs and islands appearingthus in mid-ocean. Upon the flanks of the upheaval the little coralanimal, with tireless industry, rears its amazing structure, until itreaches the surface of the waves as a reef, more or less contiguous tothe shore, and to which ages finally serve to join it. The tiny creaturedelegated by Providence to build these reefs dies on exposure to theair, its work being then completed. The far-reaching antiquity of theislands is established by these very coralline formations, which couldonly have attained their present elevation, just below the surface ofthe surrounding sea, by the growth of thousands of years. This coralformation on the shores of the Hawaiian group is not peculiar to theseislands, but is found to exist in connection with nearly all of thoseexisting in the Pacific Ocean. 

The lighthouse, placed on the inner side of the coral reef, is astructure not quite thirty feet in height. After reaching the inside ofthe harbor of Honolulu, the anchorage is safe and sheltered, with ampleroom for a hundred large vessels at the same time, the average depth ofwater being some sixteen fathoms. The wharves are spacious andsubstantial, built with broad, high coverings to protect laborers fromthe heat of a tropical sun. Honolulu is the commercial port of the wholegroup of islands, --the half-way house, as it were, between North Americaand Asia, --California and the new world of Australasia. 

CHAPTER II. 

Upon landing at Honolulu we find ourselves in a city of some twentythousand inhabitants, presenting all the modern belongings of ametropolis of the nineteenth century, such as schools, churches, hospitals, charitable institutions, gas, electric lights, and thetelephone. Nearly all of the rising generation can read and write, andthe entire population are professed Christians. Great is the contrast inevery respect between these islands as discovered by Captain Cook in1778, and their present condition. Originally they exhibited the samebarbarous characteristics which were found to exist in other islands ofthe Pacific Ocean. They had no sense of domestic virtue, and werevictims of the most egregious superstitions. "The requisitions of theiridolatry, " says the historian Ellis, "were severe, and its rites crueland bloody. " Their idolatry has been abandoned since 1819. In the earlydays the several islands of the group had each a separate king, and warswere frequent between them, until King Kamehameha finally subjected themall to his sway, and formed the government which has lasted to thepresent time. 

Many of the streets of Honolulu afford a grateful shade, the sidewalksbeing lined by ornamental trees, of which the cocoanut, palm, bread-fruit, candle-nut, and some others, are indigenous, but many havebeen introduced from abroad and have become domesticated. The tallmango-tree, with rich, glossy leaves, the branches bending under theweight of its delicious fruit, is seen growing everywhere, though it isnot a native of these islands. Among other fruit-trees we observe thefeathery tamarind, orange, lime, alligator-pear, citron-fig, date, androse apple. Of all the flowering trees, the most conspicuous andattractive is one which bears a cloud of brilliant scarlet blossoms, each cluster ball-shaped and as large as a Florida orange. Some of thethoroughfares are lined by pretty, low-built cottages, standing a fewrods back from the roadway, with broad, inviting verandas, the wholefestooned and nearly hidden by tropical and semi-tropical plants in fullbloom. If we drive out to the race-course in the environs, we shall bepretty sure to see King Kalakaua, who is very fond of this sort ofsport. He is a man of intelligence and of considerable culture, butwhose personal habits are of a low and disgraceful character. He hasreached his fifty-second year. 

It will be observed that the women ride man-fashion here, --that is, astride of their horses, --and there is a good reason for this. EvenEuropean and American ladies who become residents also adopt this modeof riding, because side-saddles are not considered to be safe on thesteep mountain roads. If one rides in any direction here, mountains mustbe crossed. The native women deck themselves in an extraordinary mannerwith flowers on all gala occasions, while the men wear wreaths of thesame about their straw hats, often adding braids of laurel leaves acrossthe shoulders and chest. The white blossoms of the jasmine, fragrant astuberoses, which they much resemble, are generally employed for thisdecorative purpose. As a people the Hawaiians are very courteous andrespectful, rarely failing to greet all passing strangers with a softlyarticulated "alo-ha, " which signifies "my love to you. "

A drive up the Nuuanu valley, which opens with a broad entrance near thecity, introduces us to some grand scenery. In ascending this beautifulvalley one is constantly charmed by the discovery of new tropical trees, luxurious creepers and lovely wild-flowers. The strangers' burial-groundis passed just after crossing the Nuuanu stream, and close at hand isthe Royal Mausoleum, --a stone structure in Gothic style, which containsthe remains of the Hawaiian kings, as well as those of many of the highchiefs who have died since the conquest. Some shaded bathing-pools areformed by the mountain streams, lying half hidden in the dense foliage. Here we pass the residence of the late Queen Emma, pleasantly locatedand flower-embowered. This valley is classic ground in the history ofthese islands, being the spot where the fierce and conquering invader, King Kamehameha I. , fought his last decisive battle, the result of whichconfirmed him as sole monarch of the Hawaiian group. Here the natives ofOahu made their final stand and fought desperately, resisting with clubsand spears the savage hordes led by Kamehameha. But they were defeatedat last, and with their king Kaiana, who led them in person, were alldriven over the abrupt and fatal cliff fifteen hundred feet high, situated at the upper end of the valley. 

In the environs of the city one passes upon the roadsides large patchesmeasuring an acre or more of submerged land, where is grown the Hawaiianstaff of life, --the _taro_, a root which is cultivated in mud and mostlyunder water, recalling the rice-fields of China and Japan. The vegetablethus produced, when baked and pounded to a flour, forms a nutritioussort of dough called _poi_, which constitutes the principal article offood for the natives, as potatoes do with the Irish or macaroni with theItalians. This poi is eaten both cooked and in a raw state mixed withwater. 

[Illustration: HAWAIIANS EATING POI. ]

Though Oahu is quite mountainous, like the rest of the islands whichform the Hawaiian group, still none of these reach the elevation ofperpetual snow. The six inhabited islands of the group are Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii, the last containing the largest activevolcano of which we have any knowledge; namely, that of Kilauea, tovisit which persons cross the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and also theAmerican continent, between the two. Honolulu was chosen for the capitalbecause it forms the best and almost the only harbor worthy of the nameto be found among these islands. In the olden times Lahaina, on theisland of Maui, was the city of the king, and the recognized capital inthe palmy days of the whale fishery. This settlement is now going toruin, tumbling to pieces by wear and tear of the elements, forming arude picture of decay. Should the Panama Canal be completed, it wouldprove to be of great advantage to these islands, as they lie in thedirect course which a great share of navigation must follow. Theaggregate population of the group is now about sixty thousand, of whomsome thirty-eight thousand are natives. History tells us that CaptainCook estimated these islands to contain over three hundred thousandinhabitants when he discovered them. Perhaps this was an exaggeration, though it is a fact that they are capable of sustaining a population ofeven much greater density than this estimate would indicate. 

The ubiquitous Chinamen are found here as gardeners, laborers, house-servants, fruit-dealers, and poi-makers. What an overflow therehas been of these Asiatics from the "Flowery Land!" Each one of the racearriving at the Sandwich Islands is now obliged to pay ten dollars ashis landing fee, in default of which the vessel which brings him iscompelled to take him away. This singular people, who are wonderfullyindustrious, notwithstanding their many faults, are equally disliked inthese islands by the natives, the Americans, and the Europeans; yet theChinamen steadily increase in numbers, and it is believed here that theyare destined eventually to take the place of the aborigines. Theaggregate number now to be found in the group is over twelve thousand. It is evident that many branches of small trade are already monopolizedby them, as is the case at Penang, Singapore, and other Pacific islands. On Nuuanu Street every shop is occupied by a Chinaman, dealing in sucharticles as his own countrymen and the natives are likely to purchase. It does certainly appear as though the aboriginal race would in the nearfuture be obliterated, and their place filled by the Anglo-Saxons andthe Chinese, the representative people of the East and the West. Thetaro-patches of the Hawaiians will doubtless ere long become therice-fields of the Mongolians. 

In the year 1887 there was raised upon these islands a very large amountof sugar, over one hundred thousand tons in all. The entire product, except what was consumed for domestic use, was shipped to this country. Three-quarters of the money invested in sugar-raising here is furnishedby American capitalists, and American managers carry on the plantations. A reciprocity treaty between the Sandwich Islands and this country(that is, a national agreement upon matters of mutual interest), andtheir proximity to the shores of America, have brought this peoplevirtually under the wing of our Government, concentrating their foreigntrade almost entirely in the United States, while the youth of theislands, of both sexes, are sent hither for educational purposes. Thereis no other foreign port in the world where the American flag is sooften seen, or more respected than in that of Honolulu. 

The Hawaiian Islands are not on the direct route to Japan, and wetherefore find it better to return to San Francisco and embark fromthere, than to await the arrival of a chance steamer bound westward. Ourcourse is not in the track of general commerce, and neither ship norshore is encountered while crossing this vast expanse of water. Stormsand calms alternate; sometimes the ocean is as smooth as an inland lake, and at others in its unrest it tossed our iron hull about as though itwere a mere skiff, in place of a ship of three thousand tons'measurement. The roughness of the water is exhibited near the coast andin narrow seas by short, chopping waves; but in the open ocean these arechanged to long, heavy swells, covering the expanse of waters with vastparallels separated by deep valleys, the distance from crest to crestbeing from one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet during a heavygale. The height of the waves is measured from the trough to the crest, and is of course conjecture only, but in heavy weather it may safely beset down at thirty feet. 

Every steamship on the trip westward carries more or less Chinamen, who, having acquired a certain sum of money by industry and self-denial, areglad to return to their native land and live upon its income. Interestis very high in China, and money is scarce. It is curious to watchthese second-class passengers. In fine weather they crowd the forwarddeck, squatting upon their hams in picturesque groups, and playing cardsor dominos for small stakes of money. The Chinese are inveterategamblers, but are satisfied generally to play for very small stakes. When the sea becomes rough and a storm rages, they exhibit greattimidity, giving up all attempts at amusement. On such occasions, withsober faces and trembling hands, they prepare pieces of joss-paper(scraps with magic words), bearing Chinese letters, and cast themoverboard to propitiate the anger of the special god who controls thesea. The dense, noxious smell which always permeates their quarters, inspite of enforced ventilation and the rules of the ship, is often waftedunpleasantly to our own part of the vessel, telling a significant storyof the opium pipe, and a certain uncleanliness of person peculiar toAfricans and Mongolians. 

After a three weeks' voyage we reach Yokohama, the commercial capital ofJapan. When Commodore Perry opened this port in 1854 with a fleet ofAmerican men-of-war, it was scarcely more than a fishing village, but ithas now a population of a hundred and thirty thousand, with well-builtstreets of dwelling-houses, the thoroughfares broad and clean, and allmacadamized. The town extends along the level shore, but is backed by ahalf-moon of low, wooded hills, known as the Bluff, among which are thedwellings of the foreign residents, built after the European andAmerican style. A deep, broad canal surrounds the city, passing by thelarge warehouses, and connected with the bay at each end, being crossedby several handsome bridges. If we ascend the road leading to the Bluffwe have a most charming and extended view. In the west, seventy milesaway, the white, cloud-like cone of Fujiyama, a large volcanic mountainof Japan, can clearly be discerned, while all about us lie the prettyvillas of the foreign settlers. 

[Illustration: MODE OF TRAVELLING IN JAPAN. A JINRIKSHA. ]

In looking about this commercial capital everything strikes us ascurious; every new sight is a revelation, while in all directionstangible representations of the strange pictures we have seen upon fansand lacquered ware are presented to view. One is struck by the partialnudity of men, women, and children, the extremely simple architecture ofthe dwelling-houses, the peculiar vegetation, the extraordinarysalutations between the common people who meet each other upon thestreets, the trading bazaars, and the queer toy-like articles which fillthem; children flying kites in the shape of hideous yellow monsters. Each subject becomes a fresh study. Men drawing vehicles, like horsesbetween the shafts, and trotting off at a six-mile pony-gait whiledrawing after them one or two persons, is a singular sight to astranger. So are the naked natives, by fours, bearing heavy loads swungfrom their shoulders upon stout bamboo poles, while they shout ameasured chant by means of which to keep step. No beggars are seen uponthe streets; the people without exception are all neat and cleanly. Thehouses are special examples of neatness, and very small, being seldommore than twenty feet square, and one story in height. All persons, foreigners or natives, take off their shoes before entering upon thepolished floors, not only out of respect to the customs of the country, but because one does not feel like treading upon their floors withnailed heels or soiled soles. The conviction forces itself upon us thatsuch universal neatness and cleanliness must extend even to the moralcharacter of the people. A spirit of gentleness, industry, and thriftare observable everywhere, imparting an Arcadian atmosphere to thesesurroundings. In the houses which we enter there are found neitherchairs, tables, nor bedsteads; the people sit, eat, and sleep upon thefloors, which are as clean as a newly laid tablecloth. 

Here and there upon the roadsides moss-grown shrines bearing sacredemblems are observed, before which women, but rarely men, are seenbending. The principal religions of Japan are Shinto and Buddhism, subdivided into many sects. The Shinto is mainly a form of hero worship, successful warriors being canonized as martyrs are in the Roman CatholicChurch. Buddhism is another form of idolatry, borrowed originally fromthe Chinese. The language of the country is composed of the Chinese andJapanese combined. As we travel inland, places are pointed out to uswhere populous cities once stood, but where no ruins mark the spot. Adead and buried city in Europe or in Asia leaves rude but almostindestructible remains to mark where great communities once builttemples and monuments, and lived and thrived, like those historicexamples of mutability, Memphis, Pæstum, Cumæ, or Delhi; but not so inJapan. It seems strange indeed that a locality where half a million ofpeople have made their homes within the period of a century, should nowpresent the aspect only of fertile fields of grain. But when it isremembered of what fragile material the natives build theirdwellings, --namely, of light, thin wood and paper, --their utterdisappearance ceases to surprise us. It is a curious fact that thispeople, contemporary with Greece and Rome at their zenith, who have onlyreared cities of wood and temples of lacquer, have outlived the classicnations whose half-ruined monuments are our choicest models. The Greekand Latin races have passed away, but Japan still remains, without achange of dynasty and with an inviolate country. 

In journeying inland we are struck with many peculiarities showing howentirely opposite to our own methods are many of theirs. At thepost-stations the horses are placed and tied in their stalls with theirheads to the passage-way, and their tails where we place their heads. Instead of iron shoes, the Japanese pony is shod with close-braidedrice-straw. Carpenters, in using the fore-plane, draw it towards theminstead of pushing it from them. It is the same in using a saw, theteeth being set accordingly. So the tailor sews from him, not towardshis body, and holds his thread with his toes. The women ride astride, like the Hawaiians. 

A trip of fifteen miles from Yokohama will take us to the town ofKamakura, where we find the remarkable idol of Dai-Butsu. This greatBuddha image, composed of gold, silver, and copper, forms a bronzefigure of nearly sixty feet in height, within which a hundred personsmay stand together, the interior being fitted at the base as a smallchapel. A vast number of little scraps of paper bearing Japanesecharacters, flutter from the interior walls of the big idol, fastenedthere by pious pilgrims, forming petitions to the presiding deity. As weenter, these scraps, agitated by the winds, rustle like an army of whitebats. This sacred figure is as remarkable as the Sphinx, which presidesso placidly at the feet of the great Pyramids. As a work of art, itsonly merits consist in the calm dignity of expression and repose uponits colossal features. It is many centuries old, and how such anenormous amount of bronze metal was ever cast, or how set up in suchperfect shape when finished, no one can say. It must have beencompleted in sections and put together in the place where it stands, thejoints being so perfectly welded as not to be obvious. It was formerlycovered by a temple which has long since mouldered to dust, but it iscertainly none the less effective and impressive, as it now sitssurrounded by the natural scenery and the thick woods. 

Japanese art, of which we have all seen such laughable specimens, is notwithout some claims to excellence; otherwise we should not have themyriads of beautifully ornamented articles which are produced by them, exhibiting exquisite finish and perfection of detail. Of perspectivethey have no idea whatever; the play of light and shade they do notunderstand; there is no distinction of distances in their pictures. Their figures are good, being also delicately executed, and their choiceof colors is admirable. Thus in profile work they get on very well, butin grouping, they pile houses on the sea, and mountains on the houses. In caricature they greatly excel, and, indeed, they scarcely attempt torepresent the human face and figure in any other light. 

Tokio is the political capital of Japan, and is situated about twentymiles from Yokohama, containing over half a million of people. It hasbroad streets and good roadways, having adopted many American ideas ofcity customs and government. The Bridge of Japan is situated in thiscity, crossing the river which intersects the capital, and is here whatthe golden milestone was in the Forum at Rome--all distances in theEmpire are measured from it. There are many elaborate temples within thecity, containing rare bronzes of great value. Priests are constantlyseen writing upon slips of paper, inside of the temples, at the requestof devotees, which the suppliants pin upon the walls of the temple as aform of prayer. The renowned temple of Shiba is one of the greatestattractions to strangers in Tokio. Here lie buried most of the bygoneTycoons (sovereigns of Japan). The grounds are divided into manydepartments, tombs, shrines, and small temples. In the main temple thereis an amount of gold, silver, and bronze ornaments of fabulous value, leading us to wonder where the raw material could have come from. History knows nothing of the importation of the precious metals, but itis true that they are found in more or less abundance all over thecountry. Copper of the purest quality is a native product, theexportation of which is prohibited, and mining for the precious metalsis carried on to but a very limited extent. The temple of Shiba issituated near the centre of the population, occupying many acres ofground, walled in, and shaded by a thick grove of trees, whose branchesare black with thousands of undisturbed rooks and pigeons which areconsidered sacred. The principal characteristic of the architecture isits boldness of relief, overhanging roofs, heavy brackets, and elaboratecarvings. The doors are of solid bronze in bas-relief. 

In the suburbs is a hill known as Atago-Yama, from whence there is agrand, comprehensive view of the capital. A couple of miles to thesoutheast lies the broad, glistening Bay of Tokio, and round the otherpoints of the compass the imperial city itself covers a plain of someeight miles square, divided by water-ways, bridges, and clumps ofgraceful trees looming conspicuously above the low dwellings. The wholeis as level as a checker-board; but yet there is relief to the picturein the fine open gardens, the high-peaked gable roofs of the temples, and the broad white roadways. 

A visit to Kioto, which is called the City of Temples, shows us someprominent local peculiarities. The Japanese character presents as muchunlikeness to the Oriental as to the European type, and is comparableonly to itself. A native believes that the little caricature in ivory orwood which has, perhaps, been manufactured under his own eyes, or evenby his own hands, is sacred, and he will address his prayers to it witha solemn conviction of its power to respond favorably. His most reveredgods are effigies of renowned warriors and successful generals. Africansuperstition is no blinder than is such adoration, though it beperformed by an intelligent people. Some of the native animals, such asfoxes, badgers, and snakes, are protected with superstitious reverence. Before one of the temples we see a theatrical performance in progress, which seems rather incongruous, but upon inquiry the object of this isfound to be a desire to appease the special gods of this individualtemple; in fact, to entertain and amuse them so that they will receivethe prayers of the people with favor. The exhibition consists of dancingand posturing by professionals of both sexes, accompanied by the noiseof whistles, gongs, bells, and fifes. 

At Koby we embark for Nagasaki, sailing the whole length of the famousInland Sea, a most enchanting three days' voyage among lovely islands, terraced and cultivated here and there like vineyards on the Rhine. Thecourse is characterized by narrow and winding passages, losingthemselves in creeks and bays after a most curious fashion, while brownhamlets here and there fringe the coast line. Nagasaki is in theextreme south of Japan, a city second only to Yokohama in commercialimportance. A sad interest attaches to the small but lofty island ofPappenburg, which stands like a sentinel guarding the entrance to theharbor. It is the Tarpeian Rock of the far East. During the persecutionof the Christians in the seventeenth century, the steep cliff whichforms the seaward side of the island was an execution point, and fromhere men and women who declined to abjure their faith were cast headlongon the sea-washed rocks five hundred feet below. The harbor issurrounded by lofty elevations. Tall, dark pines and a verdantundergrowth mark the deep ravines and sloping hillsides, upon whichEuropean dwellings are seen overlooking the bay. If we climb the pathamong these hills we occasionally pass a Buddhist temple, and come uponmany wild-flowers, shaded by oaks and camphor-trees of great size andbeautiful foliage, with occasional specimens of the Japanese wax-tree. Still further up, the hills are covered with dark, moss-growngravestones, bearing curious characters engraven upon them, and markingthe sleeping-places of bygone generations. The unbroken quiet of thiscity of the dead contrasts vividly with the hum of busy life which comesup to us from the town with its population of a hundred thousand souls. As to the products of this locality, they are mostly figured porcelain, embroidered silks, japanned goods, ebony and tortoise-shell finelycarved and manufactured into toy ornaments. Every small, low house has ashop in front quite open to the street; but small as these houses are, room is nearly always found in the rear or at the side for a littleflower-garden, fifteen or twenty feet square, where dwarf trees flourishamid hillocks of turf and ferns, with here and there a tub of goldfish. Azaleas, laurels, and tiny clumps of bamboos, are the most common plantsto be seen in these charming little spots of greenery. 

Botanists declare Japan to be one of the richest of all countries in itsvegetation. The cultivation of the soil is thoroughly and skilfullysystematized, the greatest possible results being obtained from a givenarea of land. This is partly due to the careful mode of enrichmentapplied in liquid form. Its flora is spontaneous and magnificent, repaying the smallest attention by a development which is surprising. Next in importance to the production of rice, which is the staple foodof the people, come the mulberry and tea plants, one species of theformer not only feeding the silkworm, but it also affords the fibre ofwhich Japanese paper is made, as well as forming the basis of theircordage and some descriptions of dress material. In usefulness thebamboo is most remarkable, growing to a height of sixty feet, andentering into the construction of house-frames, screens, many householdarticles, mats, pipes, and sails. The camphor-tree, which is seen insuch abundance, is a grand ornament in the landscape, lofty andbroad-spread. The camphor of commerce is extracted from both the stemand the roots of the tree, which, being cut into small pieces, aresubjected to a process of decoction. 

No sooner have the Japanese been fairly introduced to American andEuropean civilization, than they have promptly taken a stride of four orfive centuries at a single leap, from despotism in its most ultra formto constitutional government. When America opened the port of Yokohamato the commerce of the world, it also opened that hermetically sealedland to the introduction of progressive ideas; and though, unfortunately, the elements of civilization which are most readilyassimilated are not always the most beneficial, still the result, takenas a whole, has been worthy of the admiration of the world at large. 

The natural intelligence of the Japanese has no superior among any race, however much it may have been perverted, or have lain dormant. There isevidence enough of this in the fact that the young men of that countrywho are sent here for educational purposes, so frequently win academicprizes and honors over our native scholars, notwithstanding thedisadvantages under which a foreigner is inevitably placed. 

When we speak of the progress of the Japanese as a nation, we must notforget that the national records of the country date from nearly sevenhundred years before the birth of Christ, and that a regular successionof Mikados (supreme rulers), in lineal descent from the founders oftheir dynasty and race, has since that remote date been carefullypreserved. 

CHAPTER III. 

From Nagasaki, in following our proposed course, we sail for Hong Kong, through the Yellow and Chinese seas, a distance of eleven hundred miles. This is very sure to be a rough passage, and the marvel is rather thatmore vessels are not lost here than that so many are. Seamen call it"the graveyard of commerce. " As we enter the magnificent harbor of HongKong it is found to be surrounded by a range of lofty hills, whichshelter it completely from the sweeping winds that so often prevail inthis region. It is the most easterly of the possessions of GreatBritain, and is kept in a well-fortified condition, the uniforms of thegarrison being a striking feature of the busy streets of the city at allhours of the day. The houses in the European section are large andhandsome structures, mostly of stone, rising tier upon tier from themain street to a height of some hundreds of feet on the face of the hillimmediately back of the town. On and about the lofty Victoria Peak aremany charming bungalows, or cottages, with attractive surroundings, which enjoy a noble prospect of the harbor and country. The streetsappropriated to the use of the Europeans are spacious and clean, but theChinese portion of Hong Kong is quite characteristic of the nativerace, --very crowded and very dirty, seeming to invite all sorts ofepidemic diseases, which in fact nearly always prevail more or lessseverely among the lower classes. 

These streets exhibit strange local pictures. The shoemaker plies histrade in the open thoroughfare; cooking is going on at all hours in thegutters beside the roads; itinerant pedlers dispense food made ofmysterious materials; the barber shaves his customer upon the sidewalk;the universal fan is carried by the men, and not by the women. TheChinese mariner's compass does not point to the North Pole, but to theSouth; that is, the index is placed upon the opposite end of the needle. When Chinamen meet each other upon the streets, instead of shaking eachother's hands they shake their own. The men wear skirts, and the womenwear pantaloons. The dressmakers are not women, but men. In reading abook a Chinaman begins at the end and reads backwards. We uncover thehead as a mark of respect; they take off their shoes for the samepurpose, but keep their heads covered. We shave the face; they shave thehead and eyebrows. At dinner we begin the meal with soup and fish; theyreverse the order and begin with the dessert. The old men fly kiteswhile the boys look on; shuttlecock is their favorite game; it isplayed, however, not with the hands, but with the feet. Whiteconstitutes the mourning color, and black is the wedding hue. The womenperform the men's work, and the men wash the clothing. We pay ourphysicians for attending us in illness; they pay their doctors to keepthem well, and stop their remuneration when they are ill. In short, thispeople seem to be our antipodes in customs as well as being sogeographically. 

A visit to the water-front of the city affords much amusement, especially at the hour when the market boats with vegetables arrive fromthe country, and from along shore with fish. Here the people swarm likeants more than like human beings; all eager for business, all crowdingand talking at the same time, and creating a confusion that would seemto defeat its own object; namely, to buy and to sell. The vegetables arevarious and good, the variety of fruit limited and poor in flavor, butthe fish are abundant and various in size and color. Nine-tenths of thebusiness on the river-front is done by women, and they are very rarelyseen without an infant strapped to their backs, while they are carryingheavy burdens in their hands, or are engaged in rowing or sculling theirboats. They trade, make change, and clean the fish quite oblivious ofthe infant at their backs. A transient visitor to China is not competentto speak of the higher class of women, as no access can be had todomestic life. Only those of the common class appear indiscriminately inpublic, Oriental exclusiveness wrapping itself about the sex here nearlyas rigidly as in Egypt. If ladies go abroad at all, it is in curtainedpalanquins, borne upon men's shoulders, partially visible through atransparent veil of gauze. Anywhere east of Italy woman is either a toyor a slave. 

Hong Kong is an island nearly forty miles in circumference, consistingof a cluster of hills rising almost to the dignity of mountains. Thegray granite of which the island is mostly composed, furnishes anexcellent material for building purposes, and is largely employed forthat object, affording a good opportunity for architectural display. Atrip of a hundred miles up the Pearl River takes us to Canton, strangestof strange cities. It has a population of a million and a half, and yetthere is not a street of over ten feet in width within the walls, horsesand wheeled vehicles being unknown. The city extends a distance of fivemiles along the river, and a hundred thousand people live in boats. Atthe corners of the streets, niches in the walls of the houses containidols, before which incense is constantly burning day and night. Themost famous temple in the city is that of the Five Hundred Gods, containing that number of gilded statues of Buddhist sages, apostles, and deified warriors. In some of these sacred structures composed ofshrines and miniature temples, among other seeming absurdities we see anumber of sacred hogs wallowing in their filth. Disgusting as it appearsto an intelligent Christian, it has its palliating features. The Parseeworships fire, the Japanese bows before snakes and foxes, the Hindoodeifies cows and monkeys; why, then, should not the Chinese have theirswine as objects of veneration? We may destroy the idols, but let us notbe too hard upon the idolaters; they do as well as they know. The idolis the measure of the worshipper. The punishment of crime is swift andsure, the number of persons beheaded annually being almost incredible. Friday is the day for clearing the crowded prison at Canton, and it isnot uncommon on that occasion to see a dozen criminals beheaded in theprison yard in eight minutes, one sweeping blow of the executioner'ssword decapitating each human body as it stands erect and blindfolded. 

One is jostled in the narrow ways by staggering coolies with buckets ofthe vilest contents, and importuned for money by beggars who thrusttheir deformed limbs in his face. It is but natural to fear contagion ofsome sort from contact with such creatures, and yet the crowd is sodense that it is impossible to entirely avoid them. Under foot thestreets are wet, muddy, and slippery. Why some deadly disease does notbreak out and sweep away the people is a mystery. 

Philanthropic societies are numerous in the cities of China. Indeed, they are hardly excelled by those of America or Europe. They embracewell-organized orphan asylums, institutions for the relief of indigentwidows with families, homes for the aged and infirm, public hospitals, and free schools in every district. As is the case with ourselves, someof these are purely governmental charities, while others are supportedby liberal endowments left by deceased citizens. There are depotsestablished to dispense medicines among the poor, and others whenceclothing is distributed free of cost. It must be remembered that thesesocieties and organizations are not copied from Western models. Theyhave existed here from time immemorial. 

No one has ever been able to trace any affinity between the Chineselanguage and that of any other people, ancient or modern. It isabsolutely unique. No other nation except the Japanese has ever borrowedfrom it, or mingled any of its elements with its own. It must haveoriginated from the untutored efforts of a primitive people. Like theEgyptian tongue, it was at first probably composed of hieroglyphics, expressing ideas by pictured objects, which in the course of time becamesystematized into letters or signs expressive of sounds and words. 

[Illustration: A CHINESE CART. ]

Though we may dislike the Chinese, it is not wise to shut our eyes tofacts which have passed into history. They have long been a reading anda cultured people. Five hundred years before the art of printing wasknown to Europe, books were multiplied by movable types in China. Everyprovince has its separate history in print, and reliable maps of eachsection of the country are extant. The civil code of laws is annuallycorrected and published, a certain degree of education is universal, andeight-tenths of the people can read and write. The estimate in whichletters are held is shown by the fact that learning forms the verythreshold that leads to fame, honor, and official position. The means ofinternal communication between one part of China and another arescarcely superior to those of Africa. By and by, however, railways willrevolutionize this. Gold and silver are found in nearly every provinceof the Empire, while the central districts contain the largestcoal-fields upon the globe. Nearly one-fourth of the human race issupposed to be comprised within the Chinese Empire. They look to thepast, not to the future, and the word "progress" has apparently to themno real significance. 

In travelling through portions of the country a depressing sense ofmonotony is the prevailing feeling one experiences, each section is soprecisely like another. There is no local individuality. Their veritablerecords represent this people as far back as the days of Abraham, and, indeed, they antedate that period. In two important discoveries theylong preceded Europe; namely, that of the magnetic compass and the useof gunpowder. The knowledge of these was long in travelling westwardthrough the channels of Oriental commerce, by the way of Asia Minor. There are many antagonistic elements to consider in judging of theChinese. The common people we meet in the ordinary walks of life are farfrom prepossessing, and are much the same as those who have emigrated tothis country. One looks in vain among the smooth chins, shaved heads, and almond eyes of the crowd for signs of intelligence and manliness. There are no tokens of humor or cheerfulness to be seen, but in theirplace there is plenty of apparent cunning, slyness, and deceit, if thereis any truth in physiognomy. With the Japanese the traveller feelshimself constantly sympathizing. He goes among them freely, he enterstheir houses and drinks tea with them; but not so with the Chinese. Inplace of affiliation we realize a constant sense of repulsion. 

We embark at Hong Kong for Singapore by the way of the China Sea and theGulf of Siam. The northerly wind favors us, causing the ship to rushthrough the turbulent waters like a race-horse. The Philippine Islandsare passed, and leaving Borneo on our port-bow as we draw near to theEquatorial Line, the ship is steered due west for the mouth of theMalacca Straits. Off the Gulf of Siam we are pretty sure to get a viewof a water-spout, and it is to be hoped that it may be a goodly distancefrom us. Atmospheric and ocean currents meet here, from the China Seanorthward, from the Malacca Straits south and west, and from the PacificOcean eastward, mingling off the Gulf of Siam, and causing, verynaturally, a confusion of the elements, resulting sometimes in producingthese wind and water phenomena. A water-spout is a miniature cyclone, aneddy of the wind rotating with such velocity as to suck up a column ofwater from the sea to the height of one or two hundred feet. This columnof water appears to be largest at the top and bottom, and contracted inthe middle. If it were to fall foul of a ship and break, it would surelywreck and submerge her. Modern science shows that all storms arecyclonic; that is, they are circular eddies of wind of greater or lessdiameter. The power of these cyclones is more apparent upon the sea thanupon the land, where the obstruction is naturally greater. Yet we knowhow destructive they sometimes prove in our Western States. 

Singapore is the chief port of the Malacca Straits, and is an islandlying just off the southern point of Asia, thirty miles long and half aswide, containing a population of about a hundred thousand. Here, uponlanding, we are surrounded by tropical luxuriance, the palm and cocoanuttrees looming above our heads and shading whole groves of bananas. Themost precious spices, the richest fruits, the gaudiest feathered birdsare found in their native atmosphere. There are plenty of Chinese atSingapore. They dominate the Strait settlements, monopolizing allbranches of small trade, while the natives are lazy and listless, truechildren of the equatorial regions. Is it because Nature is here sobountiful, so lovely, so prolific, that her children are sluggish, dirty, and heedless? It would seem to require a less propitious climate, a sterile soil, and rude surroundings to awaken human energy and toplace man at his best. The common people are seen almost naked, andthose who wear clothes at all, affect the brightest colors. The jungleis dense, tigers abound, and men, women, and children are almost dailykilled and eaten by them. 

It is easy to divine the merchantable products of the island from thenature of the articles which are seen piled up for shipment upon thewharves, consisting of tapioca, cocoanut oil, gambia, tin ore, indigo, tiger-skins, coral, gutta-percha, hides, gums, and camphor. 

There is no winter or autumn here, no sere and yellow leaf period, butseemingly a perpetual spring, with a temperature almost unvarying; newleaves always swelling from the bud, flowers always in bloom, the sunrising and setting within five minutes of six o'clock during the entireyear. Singapore enjoys a soft breeze most of the day from across the Bayof Bengal, laden with fragrant sweetness from the spice-fields ofCeylon. 

Each place we visit has its peculiar local pictures. Here, smallhump-backed oxen are seen driven about at a lively trot in place ofhorses. Pedlers roam the streets selling drinking-water, with soup, fruit, and a jelly made from sugar and sea-weed, called agar-agar. Native houses are built upon stilts to keep out the snakes and tigers. The better class of people wear scarlet turbans and white cotton skirts;others have parti-colored shawls round their heads, while yellow scarfsconfine a cotton wrap about the waist. Diminutive horses drag heavyloads, though themselves scarcely bigger than large dogs. Itinerantcooks, wearing a wooden yoke about their necks, with a cooking apparatuson one end, and a little table to balance it on the other, serve mealsof fish and rice upon the streets to laborers and boatmen, for a coupleof pennies each. Money has here, as in most Eastern countries, a largerpurchasing power than it has with us in the West. The variety of fruitis greater than in China or Japan, and there are one or two species, such as the delicious mangosteen, which are found indigenous in no otherregion. 

The stranger, upon landing at Singapore, is hardly prepared to find suchexcellent modern institutions as exist here. Among them are anattractive museum, a public library, a Protestant cathedral, a hospital, public schools, and a fine botanical garden. The island belongs to theEnglish government, having been purchased by it so long ago as 1819, from the Sultan of Johore, --wise forethought, showing its importance asa port of call between England and India. 

A two days' sail through waters which seem at night like a sea ofphosphorescence, every ripple producing flashes of light, will take usto the island of Penang, the most northerly port of the Straits. Itresembles Singapore in its people, vegetation, and climate, enjoying onelong, unvarying summer. While the birds and butterflies are in perfectharmony with the loveliness of nature, while the flowers are glorious inbeauty and in fragrance, man alone seems out of place in this region. Indolent, dirty, unclad, he does nothing to improve such wealth ofpossibilities as nature spreads broadcast only in equatorial islands. Hedoes little for himself, nothing for others, while the sensuous life heleads poisons his nature, so that virtue and vice have no relativemeaning for him. We speak now of the masses, the common people. Nobleexceptions always exist. In size Penang is a little smaller thanSingapore. Its wooded hills of vivid greenness rise above the town andsurrounding sea in graceful undulations, growing more and more lofty asthey recede inland, until they culminate in three mountain peaks. Penangis separated from the mainland by a narrow belt of sea not more thanthree miles wide, giving it a position of great commercial importance. 

The areca-palm, known as the Penang-tree, is the source of thebetel-nut, which is chewed by the natives as a stimulant; and as itabounds on the island, it has given it the name it bears. The towncovers about a square mile, through which runs one broad, main street, intersected by lesser thoroughfares at right angles. A drive about theplace gives us an idea that it is a thrifty town, but not nearly sopopulous as Singapore. It is also observable that the Chinese elementpredominates here. The main street is lined by shops kept by them. Thefront of the dwellings being open, gives the passer-by a full view ofall that may be going on inside the household. Shrines are nearly alwaysseen in some nook or corner, before which incense is burning, thisshrine-room evidently being also the sleeping, eating, and living room. The islands of Penang and Singapore are free from malarial fevers, andprobably no places on earth are better adapted to the wants of primitiveman, for they produce spontaneously sufficient nutritious food tosupport life independent of personal exertion. The home of the Malay isnot so clean as that of the ant or the birds; even the burrowing animalsare neater. The native women are graceful and almost pretty, slight infigure, and passionately fond of ornaments, covering their arms andankles with metallic rings, and thrusting silver and brass rings throughtheir ears, noses, and lips. 

The cocoanut-tree is always in bearing on the islands of the Straits, and requires no cultivation. Of the many liberal gifts bestowed upon thetropics, this tree is perhaps the most valuable. The Asiatic poetcelebrates in verse the hundred uses to which the trunk, the branches, the leaves, the fruit, and the sap are applied. In Penang a certainnumber of these trees are not permitted to bear fruit. The embryo budfrom which the blossoms and nuts would spring is tied up to prevent itsexpansion; a small incision then being made at the end, there oozes ingentle drops a pleasant liquor called toddy, which is the palm wine ofthe poet. This, when it is first drawn, is cooling and wholesome, butwhen it is fermented it produces a strong, intoxicating spirit. Thebanana is equally prolific and abundant, and forms a very large portionof the food of the common people. In the immediate neighborhood of thetown are some plantations conducted by Europeans who live in neatcottages, with enclosures of cultivated flowers, and orchards offruit-trees. Still further inland are large gardens of bread-fruit, nutmegs, cinnamon, pepper, and other spices. There are also large fieldsof sugar-cane, tobacco, and coffee. The delicate little sensitive planthere grows wild, and is equally tremulous and subsiding at the touch ofhuman hands, as it is with us. Lilies are seen in wonderful variety, thestems covered with butterflies nearly as large as humming-birds. 

Penang originally belonged to the Malay kingdom, but about the year 1786it was given to an English sea-captain as a marriage-portion with theKing of Keddah's daughter, and by him, in course of time, it wastransferred to the East India Company. When Captain Francis Lightreceived it with his dusky bride, it was the wild, uncultivated home ofa few hundred fishermen. To-day it has a population of nearly a hundredthousand. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Our course now lies across the Indian Ocean, westward. The rains whichwe encounter are like floods, but the air is soft and balmy, and thedeluges are of brief continuance. The nights are serene and bright, sothat it is delightful to lie awake upon the deck of the steamer andwatch the stars now and then screened by the fleecy clouds. In thedaytime it is equally interesting to observe the ocean. Largesea-turtles come to the surface to sun themselves, stretching theirawkward necks to get a sight of our hull; dolphins and flying-fish aretoo abundant to be a curiosity; big water-snakes raise their slimy headsa couple of feet above the sea; the tiny nautilus floats in myriads uponthe undulating waves, and at times the ship is surrounded by a shoal ofthe indolent jelly-fish. Mirage plays us strange tricks in the way ofoptical delusion in these regions. We seem to be approaching land whichwe never reach, but which at the moment when we should fairly make it, fades into thin air. 

Though the ocean covers more than three-quarters of the globe, but fewof us realize that it represents more of life than does the land. We areindebted to it for every drop of water distributed over our hills, plains, and valleys; for from the ocean it has arisen by evaporation toreturn again through myriads of channels. It is really a misnomer tospeak of the sea as a desert waste; it is teeming with inexhaustibleanimal and vegetable life. A German scientist has with unweariedindustry secured and classified over nine hundred species of fishes fromthis division of the Indian Ocean over which our course takes us. Manyof these are characterized by colors as dazzling and various as those ofgaudy-plumed tropical birds and flowers. 

Our next objective point is Colombo, the capital of Ceylon, situatedabout thirteen hundred miles from the mouth of the Malacca Straits. Herewe find several large steamships in the harbor, stopping briefly ontheir way to or from China, India, or Australia; and no sooner do wecome to anchor than we are surrounded by the canoes of the natives. Theyare of very peculiar construction, being designed to enable theoccupants to venture out, however rough the water may chance to be, andthe surf is always raging in these open roadsteads. The canoes consistof the trunk of a tree hollowed out, some twenty feet in length, havinglong planks fastened lengthwise so as to form the sides or gunwales ofthe boat, which is a couple of feet deep and about as wide. Anoutrigger, consisting of a log of wood about one-third as long as thecanoe, is fastened alongside at a distance of six or eight feet, bymeans of two arched poles of well-seasoned bamboo. This outriggerprevents any possibility of upsetting the boat, but without it so narrowa craft could not remain upright, even in a calm sea. The natives faceany weather in these little vessels. 

It will be remembered that to this island England banished Arabi Pachaafter the sanguinary battlefield of Tel-el-Keber. It is one of the mostinteresting spots in the East, having been in its prime centuries beforethe birth of Christ. It was perhaps the Ophir of the Hebrews, and itstill abounds in precious stones and mineral wealth. Here we observe thenative women strangely decked with cheap jewelry thrust through the topsand lobes of their ears, in their lips and nostrils, while about theirnecks hang ornaments consisting of bright sea-shells, mingled withsharks' teeth. If we go into the jungle, we find plenty of ebony, satin-wood, bamboo, fragrant balsam, and india-rubber trees; we see theshady pools covered with the lotus of fable and poetry, resembling hugepond-lilies; we behold brilliant flowers growing in tall trees, andothers, very sweet and lowly, blooming beneath our feet. Vivid colorsflash before our eyes, caused by the blue, yellow, and scarlet plumageof the feathered tribe. Parrots and paroquets are seen in hundreds. Storks, ibises, and herons fly lazily over the lagoons, and the gorgeouspeacock is seen in his wild condition. The elephant is also a nativehere, and occasionally hunts are organized upon a grand scale and atgreat expense by English sportsmen who come here for the purpose, andwho pay a heavy fee for a license. 

Ceylon lies just off the southern point of India; and though it is aBritish colony, its government is quite distinct from that of themainland. It forms a station for a large number of troops, and is aboutthree times the size of Massachusetts. 

Many of the native women are employed by the large number of Englishfamilies resident here, especially by officers' wives, as nurses. Theselast seem to form a class by themselves, and they dress in the mostpeculiar manner, as we see the children's nurses dressed in Rome, Paris, and Madrid. The Singhalese nurses wear a single white linen garmentcovering the body to the knees, very low in the neck, with a bluecut-away velvet jacket covered with silver braid and buttons and open infront, a scarlet silk sash gathering the under-garment at the waist. Thelegs and feet are bare, the ankles covered with bangles, or ornamentalrings, and the ears heavily weighed down and deformed with rings ofsilver and gold. 

[Illustration: A SINGHALESE DANCER. ]

The vegetation of Ceylon is what might be expected of an island withinso few miles of the equator; that is, beautiful and prolific in theextreme. The cinnamon fields are so thrifty as to form a wilderness ofgreen, though the bushes grow but four or five feet in height. Thecinnamon bush, which is a native here, is a species of laurel, and bearsa white, scentless flower, scarcely as large as a pea. The spice ofcommerce is produced from the inner bark of the shrub, the branches ofwhich are cut and peeled twice annually. The plantations resemble athick, tangled undergrowth of wood, without any regularity, and are notcultivated after being properly started. Ceylon was at one time a greatproducer of coffee, and still exports the berry, but a disease whichattacked the leaves of the shrub has nearly discouraged the planters. Among the wild animals are elephants, deer, monkeys, bears, andpanthers--fine specimens of which are preserved in the excellent museumat Colombo. Pearl oysters are found on the coast, and some magnificentpearls are sent to Paris and London. 

The bread-fruit tree is especially interesting, with its featheryleaves, and its melon-shaped fruit, weighing from three to four pounds. This, the natives prepare in many ways for eating, and as the tree bearsfruit continually for nine months of the year, it forms a most importantfood-supply. Two or three trees will afford nourishment for a heartyman, and half a dozen well cared for will sustain a small family, aportion of the fruit being dried and kept for the non-producing months. Banana groves, and orchards bending under the weight of the rich, nutritious fruit, tall cocoanut-trees with half a ton of ripening nutsin each tufted top, ant-hills nearly as high as native houses, ripplingcascades, small rivers winding through the green valleys, and flowers ofevery hue and shape, together with birds such as one sees preserved innorthern museums, --all these crowd upon our vision as we wander aboutinland. 

Ceylon is rich in prehistoric monuments, showing that there once existedhere a great and powerful empire, and leading us to wonder what couldhave swept a population of millions from the face of the globe and haveleft no clearer record of their past. The carved pillars, skilfullywrought, now scattered through the forest, and often overgrown bymammoth trees, attest both material greatness and far-reachingantiquity. It would seem as though nature had tried to cover up thewrinkles of age with blooming and thrifty vegetation. 

We embark at Colombo for Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, steering a course south by east through the Indian Ocean for a distanceof about thirty-five hundred miles. On this voyage we find the nights sobright and charming that hours together are passed upon the open deckstudying the stars. Less than two thousand can be counted from a ship'sdeck by the naked eye, but with an opera-glass or telescope the numbercan be greatly increased. Among the most interesting constellations ofthe region through which we are now passing, is the Southern Cross. Forthose not familiar with its location, a good way to find the Cross is toremember that there are two prominent stars in the group known asCentaurus that point directly towards it. That farthest from the Crossis regarded as one of the fixed stars nearest to the earth, but itsdistance from us is twenty thousand times that of the sun. Stellardistances can be realized only by familiar comparison. For instance:were it possible for a person to journey to the sun in a single day, basing the calculation upon a corresponding degree of speed, it wouldrequire fifty-five years to reach this fixed star! Probably not one-halfof those who have sailed beneath its tranquil beauty are aware that nearthe upper middle of the cross there is a brilliant cluster of starswhich, though not visible to the naked eye, are brought into view withthe telescope. In these far southern waters we also see what are calledthe Magellanic Clouds, which lie between Canopus and the South Pole. These light clouds, or what seem to be such, seen in a clear sky, are, like the "Milky Way, " visible nebulæ, or star-clusters, at such vastdistance from the earth as to have by combination this effect upon ourvision. 

At sea the stars assume perhaps a greater importance than on land, because from them, together with the sun, is obtained latitude andlongitude, and thus by their aid the mariner determines his bearingsupon the ocean. Forty or fifty centuries ago the Chaldean shepherds wereaccustomed to gaze upon these shining orbs in worshipful admiration, butwith no idea of their vast system. They were to them "the words of God, the scriptures of the skies. " It has been left to our period toformulate the methods of their constant and endless procession. All ofthe principal stars are now well known, and their limits clearly definedupon charts, so that we can easily acquire a knowledge of them. Theinhabitants of North America have the constellation of Ursa Major, orthe Great Bear, and the North Star always with them; they never whollydisappear below the horizon. When the mariner sailing north of theequator has determined the position of the "Great Bear, " two of whosestars, known as "the pointers, " indicate the North Star, he candesignate all points of the compass unerringly. But in the far South Seathey are not visible; other constellations, however, whose relativepositions are as fixed in the Southern Hemisphere, become equally sureguides to the watchful navigator. 

Having landed in Australia, before proceeding to visit the severalcities of this great island-continent which possesses an area of nearlythree millions of square miles, let us review some general facts andcharacteristics of the country. So far as we can learn, it was a landunknown to the ancients, though it is more than probable that theChinese knew of the existence of Northern Australia at a very earlyperiod; but until about a century ago, it presented only a picture ofprimeval desolation. The hard work of the pioneer has been accomplished, and civilization has rapidly changed the aspect of a large portion ofthe great south land. To-day this continent is bordered by thriftyseaports connected by railroads, coasting-steamers, turnpikes, andelectric telegraphs. It is occupied by an intelligent Europeanpopulation numbering between three and four millions, possessing suchelements of political and social prosperity as place them in anhonorable position in the line of progressive nations. So favorable isthe climate that nearly the whole country might be turned into abotanical garden. Indeed, Australia would seem to be better entitled tothe name of Eldorado (a mythical country abounding in gold), so talkedof in the sixteenth century, than was the imaginary land of untoldwealth so confidently believed by the adventurous Spaniards, to existsomewhere between the Orinoco and the Amazon. 

This new home of the British race in the South Pacific, surrounded byaccessible seas and inviting harbors, inspires us with vivid interest. We say "new, " and yet, geologically speaking, it is one of the oldestportions of the earth's surface. While a great part of Europe has beensubmerged and elevated, crumpled up as it were into mountain chains, Australia seems to have been undisturbed. It is remarkable that in adivision of the globe of such colossal proportions there was found nolarger quadruped than the kangaroo, and that man was the only animalthat destroyed his kind. He, alas! was more ferocious than the lynx, theleopard, or the hyena; for these animals do not prey upon each other, while the aborigines of Australia devoured one another. 

What America was to Spain in the proud days of that nation's gloryAustralia has been to England, and that too, without the crime ofwholesale murder, and the spilling of rivers of blood, as was the casein the days of Cortez and Pizarro. The wealth poured into the lap ofEngland by these far-away colonies belittles all the riches which theSpaniards realized by the conquests of Mexico and Peru. Here is anempire won without war, a new world called into existence, as it were, by moral forces, an Eldorado captured without the sword. Here, Naturehas spread her generous favors over a land only one-fifth smaller thanthe whole continent of Europe, granting every needed resource wherewithto form a great, independent, and prosperous nation; where labor isalready more liberally rewarded, and life more easily sustained, than inany other civilized country except America. It is difficult to believewhile observing the present population, wealth, power, and prosperityof the country at large, characterized by such grand and conspicuouselements of empire, that it has been settled for so brief a period, andthat its pioneers were from English prisons. The authentic record oflife in the colonies of Australia and Tasmania during the first fewyears of their existence, is mainly the account of the control oflawless men by the strong and cruel arm of military despotism. 

Up to the present writing Australia has realized from her soil overthree hundred and thirty millions of pounds sterling, or $1, 650, 000, 000. Her territory gives grazing at the present time to over seventy-fivemillion sheep, which is probably double the number in the United States. When it is remembered that the population of this country is sixtymillions, and that Australia has not quite four millions, the force ofthis comparison becomes obvious. The aggregate amount of wool exportedto the mother country is twenty-eight times as much as England hasreceived in the same period from the continent of Europe. The combinedexports and imports of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Irelandare a little over one hundred dollars per annum for each one of thepopulation. In Australia the aggregate is a trifle over two hundreddollars per head. The four principal capitals of Australia contain overeight hundred thousand inhabitants. The railroads of the country havealready cost over two hundred million dollars, and are being extendedannually. New South Wales has in proportion to its population a greaterlength of railways than any other country in the world, while there aresome thirty thousand miles of telegraph lines within the length andbreadth of the land. 

The country is divided into five provincial governments: New SouthWales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and West Australia. Theisland of Tasmania forms another province, and is separated fromVictoria by Bass's Strait, the two being within half a day's sail ofeach other. Sydney is the capital of New South Wales; Melbourne, ofVictoria; Adelaide, of South Australia; Brisbane, of Queensland; Perth, of West Australia; and Hobart, of Tasmania. It may be remarkedincidentally that South Australia would more properly be designated bysome other title, as it is not South Australia at all. Victoria liessouth of it, and so does a portion of West Australia. The government ofthese several divisions is modelled upon that of New South Wales, whichis in fact the parent colony of them all. 

New South Wales is governed under a constitution, having two houses ofParliament. The first, a legislative council, is composed of a limitednumber of members nominated by the Crown, and who hold office for life;the second, or legislative assembly, is composed of members elected bythe people and chosen by ballot. All acts, before becoming law, mustreceive the approval of the Queen of England, though this is nothingmore than a mere form. There is a resident governor in each colony, alsoappointed by the Queen. 

As compared with our own land, we find this to be one of strangecontradictions. Here, the eagles are white and the swans are black; theemu, a bird almost as large as an ostrich, cannot fly, but runs like ahorse. The principal quadruped, the kangaroo, is elsewhere unknown; andthough he has four legs, he runs upon two. When the days are longestwith us in America, they are shortest here. To reach the tropics, Australians go due-north, while we go due-south. With us the seed, orstone, of the cherry forms the centre of the fruit; in Australia, thestone grows on the outside. The foliage of the trees in America spreadsout horizontally; in this south-land the leaves hang vertically. When itis day with us it is night with them. There, Christmas comes inmid-summer; with us in mid-winter. Bituminous and anthracite coal arewith us only one color, --black; but they have white bituminouscoal, --white as chalk. The majority of trees with us shed their leavesin the fall of the year; with them they are evergreen, shedding theirbark and not their leaves. 

Adelaide is situated about seven miles from the sea, and is surroundedby an amphitheatre of hills rearing their abrupt forms not far away fromthe town. The capital is so perfectly level that to be seen to advantageit must be looked upon from some favorable elevation. The colony shouldbe known as Central Australia, on account of its geographical position. It is destined in the near future to merit the name of the granary ofthe country, being already largely and successfully devoted toagriculture. This pursuit is followed in no circumscribed manner, but ina large and liberal style, like that of our best Western farmers in theUnited States. Immense tracts of land are also devoted to stock-raisingfor the purpose of furnishing beef for shipment to England in freshcondition. This province contains nearly a million square miles, and istherefore ten times larger than Victoria, and fifteen times larger thanEngland. It extends northward from the temperate zone, so that nearlyone-half of its area lies within the tropics, while it has a coast-lineof five hundred miles along the great Southern Ocean. A vast portion ofits interior is uninhabited, and indeed unexplored. The totalpopulation of the whole colony is about four hundred thousand. Wheat, wool, wine, copper, and meat are at present the chief exports. Over fourmillion acres of land are under the plough. Though gold is found here, it is not so abundant as in other sections of the country. Good wagesequalling those realized by the average miners are earned by a dozeneasier and more legitimate occupations than that of gold-digging. "Letus cherish no delusions, " said a San Francisco preacher on a certainoccasion; "no society has ever been able to organize itself in asatisfactory manner on gold-bearing soil. Even Nature herself isdeceitful; she corrupts, seduces, and betrays man; she laughs at hislabor, she turns his toil into gambling, and his word into a lie!" Thepreacher's deductions have proved true as regards bodies of miners inCalifornia, South Africa, New Zealand, and Australia. And yet thefinding of gold mines has stimulated labor, immigration, and manlyactivity in many directions, and has thus been the agent of undoubtedgood in other fields than its own. 

Adelaide, with a population of a hundred and fifty thousand, has a nobleuniversity, quite equal in standing to that of any city in the country. When we remember how youthful she is, it becomes a matter of surprisethat such a condition has been achieved in all the appointments which goto make up a great city in modern times. The same remark applies to allof the Australian capitals, none of which are deficient in hospitals, libraries, schools, asylums, art galleries, and charitable institutionsgenerally. Few European cities of twice the size of these in Australiacan boast a more complete organization in all that goes to promote truecivilization. 

The city proper is separated from its suburbs by a belt of park-lands, and the approaches are lined with thrifty ornamental trees. Greatliberality and good judgment presided over the laying out of Adelaide. All the streets are broad and regular, running north and south, east andwest. There are no mysterious labyrinths, dark lanes, or blind alleys inthe city; the avenues are all uniform in width. It is believed that theinterior of the continent, which is largely embraced within thisprovince, was at a comparatively recent period covered by a great inlandsea. Here are still found mammoth bones of animals, now extinct, whichhave become an object of careful study to scientists. Africa's interioris scarcely less explored than is Central Australia. There are thousandsof square miles upon which the foot of a white man has never trod. Tartary has its steppes, America its prairies, Egypt its deserts, andAustralia its "scrub. " The plains, so called, are covered by alow-growing bush, compact and almost impenetrable in places, composed ofa dwarf eucalyptus. The appearance of a large reach of this "scrub" isdesolate indeed, the underlying soil being a sort of yellow sand whichone would surely think could produce nothing else; yet, wherever thisland has been cleared and properly irrigated it has proved to beremarkably fertile. 

[Illustration: BOTANICAL GARDENS AT ADELAIDE, AUSTRALIA. ]

All of these colonial cities have botanical gardens, in the cultivationand arrangement of which much skill and scientific knowledge isdisplayed. In that of Adelaide we see the Australian bottle-tree, whichis a native of this country only. It receives its name from itsresemblance in shape to a junk-bottle. This tree has the property ofstoring water in its hollow trunk, --a well-known fact, which has oftenproved a providential supply for thirsty travellers in a country soliable to severe drought. Here, also, we see the correa, with its stiffstem and prickly leaves, bearing a curious string of delicate, pendulousflowers, red, orange, and white, not unlike the fuchsia in form. TheSouth Sea myrtle is especially attractive, appearing when in flower withround clustering bunches of bloom, spangled with white stars. Thestyphelia, a heath-like plant, surprises us with its green flowers. Weare shown a specimen of the sandrach-tree, brought from Africa, which isalmost imperishable, and from which the Mohammedans invariably make theceilings of their mosques. The Indian cotton-tree looms up beside theSouth American aloe--this last, with its thick, bayonet-like leaves, isornamented in wavy lines like the surface of a Toledo blade. Thegrouping of these exotics, natives of regions so far apart on theearth's surface, yet quite domesticated here, forms an incongruousthough pleasing picture. 

West Australia, of which Perth is the capital, is eight hundred miles inwidth and thirteen hundred long from north to south, actually coveringabout one-third of the continent. It embraces all that portion lying tothe westward of the one hundred and twenty-ninth meridian of eastlongitude, and has an area of about a million square miles. It has fewtowns and is very sparsely settled, Perth having scarcely eleventhousand inhabitants, and the whole province a population of not overforty-two thousand. Pearl oysters abound upon its coast and form theprincipal export, being most freely gathered near Torres's Strait, whichseparates Australia from New Guinea. The latter is the largest island inthe world, being three hundred and sixty miles in width by thirteenhundred in length. Its natives are considered the most barbarous of anysavages of the nineteenth century. 

From Adelaide to Melbourne is about six hundred miles, a distanceaccomplished by railway. The first sight of Melbourne will surprise thestranger, though he may be fairly well-informed about this capital ofVictoria. No one anticipates beholding so grand a capital in thisfar-away region of the Pacific. Where there was only a swamp anduncleared woods a few years ago, there has risen a city containingto-day a population of four hundred and twenty thousand, embracing theimmediate suburbs. This capital is unsurpassed by any of the Britishcolonies in the elegancies and luxuries of modern civilization, such asbroad avenues, palatial dwellings, churches, colossal warehouses, banks, theatres, public buildings, and pleasure grounds. It is pleasant torecord the fact that one-fifth of the revenue raised by taxation isexpended for educational purposes. Of few cities in the new or the oldworld can this be truthfully said. Universities, libraries, publicart-galleries, and museums do not lack for the liberal and fosteringcare of the government. No city, if we except Chicago and San Francisco, ever attained to such size and importance in so short a period as hasMelbourne. 

The river Yarra-Yarra runs through the town, and is navigable for largevessels to the main wharves, where it is crossed by a broad andsubstantial bridge. Above the bridge the river is handsomely ornamentedwith trees upon its borders; here the great boat-races take place, oneof the most popular of all local athletic amusements, and Melbourne isfamous for out-door sports of every form, especially ball-playing. 

The activity of the streets is remarkable. English cabs rattle about orstand in long rows awaiting patrons; four-wheeled vehicles of an awkwardstyle, also for hire, abound; messenger-boys with yellow leather pouchesstrapped over their shoulders hurry hither and thither; high-hungomnibuses with three horses abreast, like those of Paris and Naples, dash rapidly along, well filled with passengers; men gallop through thecrowd on horseback, carrying big baskets of provisions on their arms;dog-carts, driven by smart young fellows with a servant behind them ingaudy livery, cut in and out among the vehicles; powerful draught-horsesstamp along the way, drawing heavily-laden drays; milk-carts with bigletters on their canvas sides make themselves conspicuous, and so do thebakers' carts; while light and neat American wagonettes glide rapidlyalong among less attractive vehicles. Now and then a Chinaman passes, with his peculiar shambling gait, with a pole across his shouldersbalancing his baskets of "truck"; women with oranges and bananas for apenny apiece meet one at every corner, and still the sidewalks are sobroad, and the streets so wide, that no one seems to be in the leastincommoded. The fruit stores present a remarkable array of temptingfruits, among which are the mandarin and seedless oranges, apricots, green figs, grapes, passion-fruit, pineapples, bananas, and many others, all in fine condition. With the exception of the cities of California, nowhere else can fruit of such choice varieties and so cheap be found asat Melbourne. 

Victoria is one of the youngest of the colonies, and was, until thediscovery of gold fields within her borders, --that is, in 1851, --aportion of New South Wales; but to-day it is the metropolis ofAustralia. It has not the many natural beauties of Sydney, but it hasnumerous compensating advantages, and is the real centre of colonialenterprise upon the continent. The admirable system of street-cars inMelbourne is worthy of all praise, use being made of the undergroundcable and stationary engine as a motor, a mode which is cheap, cleanly, and popular. Collins Street is the fashionable boulevard of the city, though Burke Street nearly rivals it in gay promenaders and elegantshops. But in broad contrast to these bright and cheerful centres, thereare in the northeastern section of the town dirty alleys and by-waysthat one would think must prove hot-beds of disease and pestilence, especially as Melbourne suffers from want of a good and thorough systemof domestic drainage. 

The public library of the city is a large and impressive building, standing by itself, a hundred feet back from the street, on risingground, and would be creditable to any European or American city. Italready contains about a hundred and thirty thousand volumes, and isbeing constantly added to by public and private bequests. The interiorarrangements of the library are excellent, affording ample room forbooks and all needed accommodation for the public. In these respects itis superior to both the Boston and Astor libraries. Under the same roofis a museum containing an extensive collection, especially of geologicalspecimens, mostly of native product. 

Melbourne has its Chinese quarter, like Sydney and San Francisco; it issituated in Little Burke Street, just back of the Theatre Royal, andforms a veritable Chinatown, with its idol temples, opium dens, lotterycellars, cafés, low hovels, and kindred establishments. Here, onerequires an experienced guide to enable him to make his way safely andunderstandingly. The peculiar notices posted upon the buildings inChinese characters are a puzzle to the uninitiated. The signs over theshops are especially original and peculiar; they do not denote the nameof the owner, or particularize the business which is carried on within, but are assumed titles of a flowery character, designed to attract thefancy of the customers. Thus: Kong, Meng & Co. Means "Bright LightFirm"; Sun Kum Lee & Co. Is in English "New Golden Firm"; Kwong Hopsignifies "New Agreement Company"; Hi Cheong, "Peace and ProsperityFirm"; Kwong Tu Tye, "Flourishing and Peaceful Company"; and so on. 

It is, as a rule, the worst type of the Chinese who leave their nativeland to make a new home elsewhere, and it is not to be expected thatthey will be much improved by intercourse with the Australian"larrikins, " who are composed of the lowest and most criminal orders. This refuse of humanity is largely made up of the rabble of London andLiverpool, many of whom have had their passages paid by relatives andinterested persons at home solely to get rid of them, while others haveworked their passage hither to avoid merited punishment for crimescommitted in England. 

CHAPTER V. 

The province of Victoria is the special gold-field of Australia, and hasproduced two-thirds of all the precious metal which statistics credit tothe country at large. One of the localities which has proved to be themost prolific in gold is Ballarat, now a charming and populous city, next to Melbourne in importance. It lies nearly a hundred miles north ofthe capital, at an elevation of fifteen hundred feet above sea-level, and is accessible by railway. This is thought to be the centre of therichest gold-producing district in the world. Beechworth, one hundredand seventy miles northeast of Melbourne, at an elevation higher thanthat of Ballarat, is nearly as populous, and as prolific in the preciousmetal. The diggings of Maryborough district, situated a hundred andfifty miles northwest of Melbourne, are famous, and give occupation tosome eight thousand miners. Castlemaine, seventy-five miles north of thecapital, has proved very profitable in its yield of gold. Nearly fortysquare miles of gold-bearing lands are being worked by Europeans andChinese in the district of Ararat, a hundred and fifty miles north ofMelbourne. From these several sources of mineral wealth there flowsconstantly towards the capital a stream of riches, making it probablythe greatest gold-producing centre on the globe. There are about fiftythousand people, in all, engaged in gold-mining in the several parts ofVictoria, at least ten thousand of whom are Chinese. Still, reliablestatistics show that in the aggregate, the corn and wool of thisprovince are alone of more monetary value than is the result from allthe gold produced by her mines. 

[Illustration: A KANGAROO HUNT IN AUSTRALIA. ]

The kangaroos are found in various parts of Victoria, in their wildstate. They are usually discovered in the thick woods, sitting uprightin circles of a dozen or more, as grave as though engaged in holding aformal council. On such occasions their short forepaws hang limp beforethem, while their restless heads and delicate ears turn hither andthither in watchful care against surprise. Notwithstanding their hugepaunches, big hindquarters, and immense tails, there is somethinggraceful and attractive about these creatures. When they are young theyare as playful as kittens. Even when running away from pursuit, --aprocess performed by enormous leaps, often covering a rod at a flyingjump, --there is a certain airy grace and harmony of movement attendingtheir motions. Dogs and horses have more power of endurance than thekangaroo, and are thus enabled to run it down; but neither horse nor dogcan achieve the same degree of speed for moderate distances. If thechase occurs in a wood where there are numerous obstacles, like heavyfallen logs, the kangaroo is safe, since he can jump all suchimpediments without diminishing his speed. 

To get a view of the big gum-trees, one visits the Fernshaw Mountaindistrict. We are told of one fallen monarch, which was measured by agovernment surveyor, having a length upon the ground of four hundred andseventy-four feet. The Pyramid of Cheops is hardly as high as was thistree when it stood erect. The average height of these marvels is fromthree hundred to four hundred feet. They are situated in a valleyprotected from winds, and are favorably located to promote theirgrowth, as well as to protect them from sudden gales or tornadoes suchas have prostrated large trees in our Yosemite. 

The subject of large trees is one of more than ordinary interest; thelargest one known in the world is situated in Mascoli, near the base ofMount Etna, on the island of Sicily. It measures one hundred and ninetyfeet in circumference. It is a chestnut-tree, and still bears fruit inabundance. The oldest tree is believed to be a famous cypress stillgrowing in Oaxaca, Mexico. Humboldt saw it in 1855, when he recorded themeasurement as being one hundred and twenty-six feet in circumferenceand three hundred and eighty-two feet between the out-spread branches. In Nevada, United States, stands what is well known as the "Dead GiantRedwood Tree, " which measures one hundred and nineteen feet incircumference, and which is believed to have been growing in the days ofJulius Cæsar. Near this mammoth are a dozen other trees, varying in sizefrom seventy-five to one hundred feet in circumference. The "GrizzlyGiant, " monarch of the Mariposa Grove in California, measures ninety-twofeet in circumference. The largest tree in the United States stands nearBear Creek, California, measuring one hundred and forty feet incircumference. It is only by comparison with familiar objects that wecan realize these extraordinary dimensions. 

[Illustration: EMU HUNTING IN AUSTRALIA. ]

We shall be pretty sure to see in the woods of Victoria a most curiousexample of bird-life and bird-instinct, in the instance of what is knownas the bower-bird. This peculiar little creature builds a cunningplay-house, a tiny shady bower which it ornaments with vines and highlycolored feathers of other birds, besides the yellow blossoms of thewattle-tree and many light-green ferns. In this ingeniously contrivedsylvan retreat the feathered architect runs about and holds a sort ofcarnival, to which others of his tribe gather. Here the little partychirp vigorously, and strut about in a most ludicrous manner. 

The glamour of gold-seeking has too much weight in inducing emigrationto this region of the South Seas. An industrious and worthy person issure to make a good living here, and indeed so one might say he would doalmost anywhere. He may make a fortune in Australia, but he cannot_pick_ it up, --he must _work_ it up. The gold nuggets which areoccasionally found, never amount to much as regards the benefit of thefinder. It is upon the whole a fortunate day for the respectableimmigrant who has any degree of ability, when he decides to turn hisback upon gold-digging, and adopt some more legitimate business. Thegreat elements of success are the same in Australia as in California, Africa, or Massachusetts; namely, steadiness of purpose, application, and temperance. 

Sydney is connected with Melbourne by a railway some six hundred milesin length; but the pleasantest way to reach it, either from the north orthe south, is by water. We enter the harbor through an opening which iscalled Sydney Heads, formed by two frowning cliffs on either side of theentrance. Having left the Heads behind, we pass Botany Bay, seven milesbelow the city, once a penal colony for English convicts, but now alovely, rural retreat, which retains nothing of its ill-repute but itsname. The aspect of the famous harbor, with its lake-like expanse, itsmany green islands with handsome residences scattered over them, itsgraceful promontories, and the abundance of semi-tropical vegetation, all together form the loveliest picture imaginable. It may well be thepride of the citizens of Sydney. 

Upon landing, we find great irregularity prevailing in the streetarchitecture. George Street is the main thoroughfare, and is two milesin length, containing many stores furnished as well as the average ofthose in Vienna or Paris. There are fine business edifices, havingmassive French plate glass windows which are admirably appointed. Thepeculiar conformation of the town makes the side streets precipitous, sothat a large portion of the city is composed of hilly avenues. Like theold streets of Boston, those of Sydney were the growth of chance, andwere not originally laid out, like those of Melbourne and Adelaide. OurWashington Street, Boston, was once a cow-path, while the present siteof George Street in Sydney was a meandering bullock-track. 

This capital, like the two we have already visited in Australia, has asuperb botanical garden covering some forty acres of land. The groundsextend on a gradual incline to the shores of the beautiful bay, forminga semicircle round what is known as Farm Cove, a picturesque indentationof the harbor, close to Government House. One special charm of thesedelightful grounds is the fact that they are accessible by a walk ofabout five minutes from the centre of the city. It is not necessary tomake an excursion in order to reach them, as is the case with manysimilar resorts, such as Sydenham in London, Central Park, New York, orthe Bois de Boulogne, Paris. Here semi-arctic and semi-tropical plantsand trees are found growing together, and all parts of the world seem tobe liberally represented. The hardy Scotch fir and delicate palm crowdeach other; the india-rubber-tree and the laurel are close friends; theCalifornia pine and the Florida orange thrive side by side; so with thesilvery fern-tree of New Zealand, and the guava of Cuba. China, Japan, India, Africa, Egypt, and South America have all furnishedrepresentative trees and shrubs for the beautifying of thesecomprehensive gardens. 

There is here a fine specimen of the Australian musk-tree, which attainsa height of nearly twenty feet, and exhales from leaf and bark apeculiar sweet odor, though not at all like what its name indicates. Here we see also the she-oak-tree, which is said to emit a curiouswailing sound during the quietest state of the atmosphere, when there isnot a breath of wind to move the branches or the leaves. This tree isfound growing near the sea in Australia, and is said to have borrowedthe murmur of the conch-shell. It has proved to be the inspiring themeof many a local poet. The flowers in this garden are as attractive asthe trees; fuchsias, roses, and camellias are in great perfection andvariety, flanked by a species of double pansies and a whole army ofbrilliant tulips. Flowers bloom in every month of the year in thisregion, out of doors, and are rarely troubled by the frost. 

The excellent university of Sydney is admirably situated, and is thefirst that was founded in the Southern Hemisphere. The city has also itsart-gallery, and free public library, with over a hundred thousandvolumes. It has also hospitals, churches, and many charitableinstitutions, with various schools. Sydney holds high rank as a Britishcolonial city, and deservedly so, having special reason for pride in thecomplete system of her charitable and educational organizations, hernoble public buildings, and the general character of her leadingcitizens. Land in the city and immediate suburbs is held at pricesaveraging as high as in Boston and New York, and the wealth of thepeople is represented to be very great in the aggregate. 

Australia in its extreme breadth, between Shark's Bay on the west andSandy Cape on the eastern shore, measures twenty-four hundred miles; andfrom north to south, --that is, from Cape York to Cape Atway, --it isprobably over seventeen, hundred miles in extent. The occupied andimproved portions of the country skirt the seacoast on the southern andeastern sides, which are covered with cities, towns, villages, andhamlets. The country occupied for sheep-runs and cattle-ranches is verysparsely inhabited. The reason for this is obvious, since the owner of ahundred thousand sheep requires between two and three hundred thousandacres to feed them properly. The relative proportion as to sheep andland is to allow two and a third acres to each animal. 

The great dividing mountain-chain of Australia is near the coast-line inthe south and east, averaging perhaps a hundred miles or more from thesea. Nearly all the gold which the land has produced has come from thevalleys and hillsides of this range. The gold-diggings of New SouthWales have proved to be very rich in some sections; but unlike those ofQueensland and Victoria, the precious metal is here found mostly inalluvial deposits. 

Many nationalities are represented in Australia and New Zealand, but themajority are English, Scotch, and Irish. The officials of New SouthWales especially, look to England for favors which a politicalseparation would cut them off from; among these are honorary titles andcrown appointments of a paying nature. The constitution under which thecolonies are living is such as to entitle them to be calleddemocracies. In many respects the local government is more liberal andadvanced than in England. Church and State, for instance, are here keptquite distinct from each other. As to the legislative power of thecolonies, it is seldom interfered with by the home government. 

A journey of about five hundred miles northward, either along the coastby steamer, or by railway inland, will take us to Brisbane, the capitalof Queensland, which has a population of about fifty thousand. Until1860 it was an appendage of New South Wales, but was in that year formedinto an independent colony. The site of the city is a diversifiedsurface, with the river whose name it bears winding gracefully throughit, about twenty-four miles from its mouth; though in a direct line itwould be but half that distance to where it empties into Moreton Bay, one of the largest on the coast of Australia. It was discovered byCaptain Cook in 1770, and is formed by two long sandy islands runningnorth and south, named respectively Standbroke and Moreton Islands, enclosing between them and the mainland a spacious sheet of water morethan thirty miles long and six or eight wide, beautified by fertileislands. 

On approaching Brisbane by sea one is puzzled at first to find where themouth of the river can be, so completely is it hidden by the mangroveswamps which skirt the coast. A pleasant little watering-place issituated close at hand, named Sandgate, which is connected by hourlystages with the city. Several small rivers, all of which, however, aremore or less navigable, empty into Moreton Bay, showing that thedistrict inland hereabouts must be well watered. It is less than fiftyyears since Brisbane was opened to free settlers, having beenpreviously only a penal station for English criminals; but of this taintresting upon the locality, the same may be said as of Sydney, or Hobart, in Tasmania, --scarcely a trace remains. 

Queen Street is the principal thoroughfare, and is lined with handsomestores and fine edifices, there being no lack of architecturalexcellence in either public or private buildings. Like its sistercities, it has a botanical garden, the climate here favoring even a moreextensive out-door display of tropical and delicate vegetation than atMelbourne or Sydney. An intelligent spirit of enterprise is evinced bythe citizens of Brisbane, and everything goes to show that it isdestined to become a populous and prosperous business centre. Itsclimate, especially, is considered almost perfect. Queensland is veryrich in gold-producing mines, but it has also almost endless rollingplains covered with herbage suitable for the support of great herds andflocks, where some fourteen millions of sheep are now yielding meat andwool for export, and where some three millions of cattle are herded. Thereal greatness of the country is to be found in its agriculturalcapacity, which is yet to be developed. A very pleasant trip may beenjoyed up the Brisbane River and Bremer Creek, on which latter streamIpswich is situated. It is twice as far by water as by land, but thesail is delightful, often affording charming views of the city from theriver, while at the same time passing suburban residences, flourishingfarms, banana-groves, cotton-fields, sugar-plantations, andorange-orchards. 

Queensland is more than five times as large as the United Kingdom ofGreat Britain and Ireland, and it possesses an immense amount ofundeveloped resources of the most promising character. The sun shineshere with much more tropical ardor than in New South Wales or Victoria. The palm takes the place of the eucalyptus to a certain extent. Thetulip-tree, rosewood, sandalwood, and satin-wood, which are not observedfurther south, greet us here. The aborigines are oftener met thanelsewhere, as they prefer to live in a more temperate climate than isfound southward, and to be where they can have the country more tothemselves. They probably do not number over thirty thousand in all, andare slowly but surely decreasing before the advance of the whites. Evenwhen first discovered they were but a handful of people, so to speak, scattered over an immense territory. They have still no distinct notionof the building of houses in which to live, or at least they adopt none, though they have the example of the whites constantly before them. Theyare very ugly, having black skins, flat noses, wide nostrils, anddeep-sunken eyes wide apart. A bark covering, much ruder than anythingwhich would content an American Indian, forms their only shelter, andthey often burrow contentedly under the lee of an overhanging rock orhillside. 

The Australian blacks have plenty of legends of the most barbariccharacter, but by no means void of poetical features. They believe thatthe earth was created by a being of supreme attributes, whom they callNourelle, and who lives in the sky. They entertain the idea that becausethe sun gives heat it needs fuel, and that when it descends below thehorizon it procures a fresh supply for its fires. The stars are supposedto be the dwellings of departed chiefs. The serpent is believed tocontain the spirit of a real devil. To eat the kidney of an enemy, it isthought by them, imparts to the one who swallows it the strength of thedead man. Any number above five, these blacks express by saying, "it isas the leaves, " not to be counted. The white man's locomotive is animprisoned fire-devil, kept under control by water. The lightning is theangry expression of some enraged god. 

The most peculiar weapon possessed by these aborigines is one whichoriginated with them, and is known as the boomerang, --of which every onehas heard, but which few have seen. It is a weapon whose characteristicshave caused its name to pass into a synonym for anything which turnsupon the person who uses it. It seems at first sight to be only a flat, crooked, or curved piece of polished wood, about twenty-eight incheslong and three-quarters of an inch in thickness. There is nothingremarkable about this weapon until we see a native throw one. In doingthis he carefully poises himself, makes a nice calculation as todistance, raises his arm above his head, and brings it down with a sortof swoop, swiftly launching the curved wood from his hand. At first theboomerang skims along near the ground, then rises four or five feet, butonly to sink again, and again to rise. As we carefully watch its course, and suppose it just about to stop in its erratic career, and drop, spent, to the ground, it suddenly ceases its forward flight, and rapidlyreturns to the thrower. It is thought that no white man can exactlylearn the trick of throwing this strange weapon, and certainly few evercare to attempt it a second time. 

Ethnologists tell us that these blacks belong to the Ethiopianrace, --they are the lowest probably of all the human family. Theconviction forces itself upon us that they must be the remnant of someancient people of whom we have no historic record. When Australia wasfirst taken possession of by the whites, it seems to have been, if theterm is in any instance admissible, a God-forsaken land; certainly itwas the most destitute of natural productions of any portion of theglobe. We can well believe that before these blacks camehither, --perhaps a thousand years ago, --this land was untrodden by humanbeings. 

No species of grain was known to these natives; not a single fruitworthy of notice grew wild, and not an edible root of value wasproduced. The only game of any size was the kangaroo and a few speciesof birds. Now, the trees, fruits, vegetables, and game of all regionshave become domesticated here, proving to be highly productive, whethertransplanted from tropical or from semi-tropical regions. 

Queensland measures thirteen hundred miles from north to south, and isabout eight hundred miles in width, containing a population at thepresent time of three hundred and forty thousand. The climate may becompared to that of Madeira, and it is entirely free from the hot windswhich sometimes render Sydney and Melbourne so uncomfortable. Leavingout West Australia, which is yet so little developed, the country may bedivided thus: Queensland is the best and most extensive grazing section;in this respect New South Wales comes next. South Australia ischaracterized by its prolific grain-fields, and Victoria is richest inauriferous deposits; but there is gold enough in all of these coloniesto afford constant stimulus to mining enterprise, fresh discoveries inthis line being made every month. It is proposed to separate the northof Queensland from the south, at the twenty-second parallel of latitude, and to form the northern portion into a separate colony. As Queenslandis larger than England, France, and Belgium with Holland and Denmarkcombined, there can be no want of territory for such a politicaldivision: population, however, is needed. 

We will now turn our steps southward, by the way of Sydney andMelbourne, to Tasmania. At the last-named city we take a coastingsteamer passing down the river Yarra-Yarra, the muddiest of water-ways, until Bass's Strait is reached, across which the course is due-south fora hundred and twenty miles. This is a reach of ocean travel which forboisterousness and discomfort can be said to rival the English Channel, between Calais and Dover. As the coast of Tasmania is approached, a talllighthouse, one hundred and forty feet above sea-level, first attractsthe attention, designating the mouth of the Tamar River. While crossingthe Strait we are surrounded by a great variety of sea-birds, amongwhich are the cape-pigeon, the stormy petrel, and the gannet, which lastis the largest of ocean birds next to the albatross. 

On drawing still nearer to the shore, flocks of pelicans are observedupon the rocks, and that most awkward of birds, the penguin, is seen inidle groups. He is a good swimmer, but his apologetic wings are notintended for flying. 

We pass up the Tamar River, through a narrow, winding channel for adistance of forty miles before coming to the harbor and town ofLaunceston. The many tall, smoking chimney-shafts which meet the eyeindicate that the town is busy smelting ores, dug from the neighboringmineral hills and valleys. It is a pleasant and thrifty little city, somewhat liable to earthquakes and their attendant inconveniencies. Theplace has a population of ten or twelve thousand, and is named after atown in Cornwall, England. We have left Australia proper far behind us, but the Bass Strait which separates that land from Tasmania is evidentlyof modern formation. The similarity of the vegetation, minerals, animal, and vegetable life of the two countries shows that this island must, atsome time in the long-past ages, have been connected with the mainland. And yet the aborigines of Tasmania were a race quite distinct from thoseof Australia, so different, indeed, as only to resemble them in color. They were a well-formed, athletic people, with brilliant eyes, curlyhair, flat noses, and elaborately tattooed bodies. This ingenious andbarbaric ornamentation, practised by isolated savage races, seems tohave been universal among the inhabitants of the Pacific Islands, thoughthe great distances which separate them, as well as the lack of allordinary means of intercommunication, would lead to the belief that theycould not have borrowed the idea from one another. So late as 1828 therewere a few of the Tasmanian aborigines still alive, but to-day there isnot a representative of the race in existence. 

When the country cast off the disgrace of being a penal colony, the nameit bore was very judiciously changed from Van Dieman's Land to that ofTasmania, in honor of its first discoverer, Abel Janssen Tasman, thefamous Dutch navigator of the seventeenth century. We should perhapsqualify the words "first discoverer. " Tasman was the first accrediteddiscoverer, but he was less entitled to impart his name to thisbeautiful island than were others. Captain Cook, with characteristiczeal and sagacity, explored, surveyed, and described it, whereas Tasmanscarcely more than sighted it. However, any name was preferable to thatof Van Dieman's Land, which had become the synonyme for a penalstation, and with which is associated the memory of some of the mostoutrageous and murderous acts of cruelty for which a civilizedgovernment was ever responsible. 

The whole island has now a population of about one hundred and thirtythousand, and a total area of over twenty-four thousand square miles. Itis not quite so large as Ireland. Lying nearer to the Antarctic Circleit is of course cooler than the continent, but the influence of the sea, which completely surrounds it, renders the climate more equable. Thegeneral aspect of the country is that of being occupied by thriftyfarmers of advanced ideas, such as carry on their callingunderstandingly, and more like well-populated America thansparsely-inhabited Australia. Our native fruits--apples, peaches, pears, and the like--thrive here in such abundance, as to form a prominent itemin the exports, besides promoting a large and profitable industry in thepacking of preserved fruits, which are in universal use in Australia andNew Zealand. These canned fruits have an excellent and well-deservedreputation. Here, also, we find enormous trees, with a circumference ofeighty feet near the ground, and a height of three hundred and fiftyfeet. Fern-trees, with their graceful palm-like formation, arefrequently seen thirty feet in height. The country is well-woodedgenerally, and traversed by pleasant watercourses; it is singularlyfertile, and rich in good harbors, especially upon the east coast. Inshort, its hills, forests, and plains afford a pleasing variety ofscenery, while its rich pastures invite the stock-breeder to reap agoodly harvest in the easiest manner. 

Launceston is situated at the head of navigation, on the Tamar, wherethe town nestles in the lap of a valley surrounded by high elevations. It is regularly laid out in broad streets, lighted by gas, and has agood water-supply brought from St. Patrick's River, fifteen miles eastof the city. There are numerous substantial stone buildings, andeverything bears a business-like aspect. There is a public library, andseveral free schools of each grade. The North and South Elk Rivers riseon different sides of Ben Lomond, and after flowing through someromantic plains and gorges, they join each other at Launceston. Thesky-reaching mountain just named is worthy of its Scotch counterpart;between it and Launceston is some of the finest river and mountainscenery in all Tasmania. Ben Lomond is the chief object in thelandscape, wherever one drives or walks in this part of the island. Tasmania possesses vast mineral wealth. The richest and most profitabletin mine in the world is that of Mount Bischoff, situated about ahundred and fifty miles from Launceston. The Beaconsfield gold mine isonly thirty miles from the city, besides several others not much furtheraway, which are rich in their yield of the precious metal. 

The journey from here to Hobart, a distance of one hundred and twentymiles, takes us through the length of the island in a southeasterlydirection. We pass through lovely glades, over broad plains, acrossrushing streams, and around the base of abrupt mountains. Hobart was sonamed in 1804, in honor of Lord Hobart, who was then Secretary of Statefor the Colonies. It is surrounded by hills and mountains except wherethe river Derwent opens into lake form, making a deep, well-shelteredharbor, whence it leads the way into the Southern Ocean. Among the loftyhills in this vicinity Mount Wellington towers forty-two hundred feetabove the others, so close to the city as to appear to be within riflerange. The shape of the town is square, and it is built upon asuccession of hills, very much like Sydney. It has broad streetsintersecting each other at right angles, lined with handsome, well-stocked stores and dwelling-houses, serving an active andenterprising population of thirty thousand and more. Of these shops, twoor three spacious and elegant bookstores deserve special mention, beingsuch as would be creditable to any American city. It must undoubtedly bea cultured community which affords support to such establishments. 

Yet we cannot forget that Hobart has scarcely outlived the curse of thepenal association which encompassed its birth. Between thirty and fortyyears ago, the British government expended here five thousand dollars aday in support of jails and military barracks. The last convict shipfrom England discharged her cargo at Hobart in 1851, since which yearthe system has gradually disappeared. The city is supplied with all thenecessary charitable and educational institutions, including a publiclibrary and art gallery. The street scenes have the usual local color, embracing the typical miner, with his rude kit upon his shoulder, consisting of a huge canvas bag, a shovel, and pick. The professionalchimney-sweep, with blackened face and hands begrimed, --he whom we lostsight of in Boston years ago, --is here seen pursuing his antiquatedvocation. Market-men have the same peculiar mode of delivering purchasesto their customers that we have noticed elsewhere in this country, andare seen galloping about upon wiry little horses, bearing upon theirarms large well-filled baskets. Women, with small handcarts full ofslaughtered rabbits, cry them for sale at twelve cents a pair, besideswhich they receive a bounty for killing these pests. 

The river Derwent, which rises far inland where the beautiful lakes St. Clair and Sorell are embosomed, broadens into a lake six miles widewhere it forms the harbor of Hobart, and is famous for the regattas thatare rowed upon its surface. Here, the largest craft that navigates theseseas can lie close to the wharf and the warehouses. A visit to the LakeDistrict of Tasmania affords many delightful views, where those inlandwaters just referred to lie in their lonely beauty, now overhung bytowering cliffs, like those bordering a Norwegian arm of the sea, andnow edged by pebbly beaches where choice agates and carnelians abound. 

The charming cloud-effects which hang over and about the lofty hillswhich environ the capital of Tasmania, recall vividly those of the Lakeof Geneva, near Chillon, while the Derwent itself, reflecting the hillsupon its blue and placid surface, forms another pleasing resemblance toLake Leman. In ascending Mount Wellington, the lion of Tasmanianscenery, when we find ourselves at an elevation of about two thousandfeet, it is discovered that we have reached the Old World ocean-floor. Here, there are plenty of remains of the former denizens of theocean, --fossils, telling the strange and interesting story ofterrestrial changes that have taken place in the thousands uponthousands of years that are passed. 

About twenty miles from Hobart we find a forest of the remarkablegum-trees of which we have all read, --trees which exceed in height andcircumference the mammoth growths of our own Yosemite Valley, and fullyequal those of Victoria. The immediate locality which contains them isknown as the Huon District. A walk among these forest giants fills onewith wonder and delight; their lofty tops seem almost lost in the sky towhich they aspire. No church steeple, no cathedral pinnacle reared bythe hand of man, but only mountain peaks reach so far skyward. 

Tasmania is largely occupied for sheep-runs and wool-raising. Theeastern side of the island is studded with lovely homesteads carefullyfenced, the grounds about the residences being covered with fruit treesand flower plats. There does not appear to be any waste land, all iscarefully improved in the peopled districts. The roads are often linedwith thrifty hedges, symmetrically trimmed, frequently consisting of thebrilliant, constant flowering, fragrant yellow gorse, and sometimes ofthe stocky species of scarlet geranium. This sort is not fragrant butbecomes very thick by being cut partly down annually, until it makes analmost impenetrable hedge. Prosperity and good taste are everywherenoticeable, amid a succession of landscapes like those of the populousNew England States. 

[Illustration: SCENE ON THE SOUTH ESK RIVER, TASMANIA. ]

CHAPTER VI. 

We embark at Hobart by steamship, for Southern New Zealand. Afterfollowing the course of the river Derwent for a distance of twelvemiles, its mouth is reached, where the ship's course is a little southof east, the dull green of the waters on soundings rapidly changing tothe navy blue of the ocean. The prevailing winds here are from the west, which with the Australian current and the Antarctic drift, are in ourfavor, so the ship speeds cheerily on her way. 

The tedium of the voyage is beguiled by watching the graceful movementsof the wandering albatross, the fateful bird of nautical romance, whichis sure to be seen in considerable numbers below the thirtieth parallelof south latitude. The peculiarities of this sea-bird's flight are aconstant marvel, for it scarcely ever plies its wings, but literallysails upon the wind in any desired course. We wonder what secret powercan so propel him for hundreds of rods with an upward trend at theclose. If for a single moment he lights upon the water to seize someobject of food, there is a trifling exertion evinced in rising again, until he is a few feet above the waves, when once more he sails with oragainst the wind, upon outspread, immovable wings. With no apparentinclination or occasion for pugnacity, the albatross is yet armed with atremendous beak, certainly the most terrible of its kind possessed byany of the feathered tribe. It is from six to eight inches long, andends in a sharp-pointed hook extremely strong and hard. It has beenhumorously said that if he pleased, the albatross might breakfast at theCape of Good Hope and dine in New York, so wonderfully swift is he inflight and so powerful on the wing. 

At night the phosphorescence of these lonely waters lying just north ofthe Antarctic Circle, between Tasmania and New Zealand, is indeedmarvellous. Liquid fire is the only term which will properly expresstheir flame-like appearance. If a bucketful is drawn and deposited upondeck, while it remains still it appears dark and like any other water, but when agitated it emits scintillations of light like the stars. Adrop of this water placed under a microscope is found to be teeming withliving and active creatures. If we suspend a muslin bag for a fewmoments over the ship's side, with the mouth open, then draw it up andpermit it to drain for a few seconds, placing what remains in a glasstumbler, we shall find the abundance of living forms which it containsquite visible to the naked eye. No two of these minute creatures seem tobe of similar form; the variety is infinite, and their activityincessant. Most of these animalcules, however, are so small that if itwere not for the microscope we should never know of their existence. 

The voyage from Hobart to the Bluff, South New Zealand, usually consumesfour days, and it is often a very rough passage. Sailing-vessels makingthis trip carry a quantity of crude oil, which in extreme cases theyemploy to still the boisterous sea about them, when "God maketh the deepto boil like a pot. " It should be known that our own Benjamin Franklinfirst suggested, about a century ago, the carrying of oil by vessels forthis purpose. This shrewd American philosopher was also the first tosuggest, about the same time, that ship-builders should construct thehulls of vessels in water-tight compartments, thus affording sufficientsustaining power to float them when by accident portions of the hullbecame leaky or broken into. After the lapse of a century both of theseprecautions have been adopted, and are much used. 

As we sight the land, the southwest coast of New Zealand is found to beindented with deep fjords [Pronounced _feords_. ] almost precisely likethe coast of Norway from Bergen to Hammerfest; and, singular to say, these arms of the sea, like those of the far north, are much deeper thanthe neighboring ocean. The Bluff, also known as Campbelltown, issituated in the very track of storms, being open to the entire sweep ofthe Antarctic Ocean. Its shelving side, sloping towards the harbor, forms a sort of lee, or sheltered position, which is occupied by apretty little fishing-village of some sixty houses, and contains apopulation of less than a thousand. These people gain their livingmostly from the neighboring sea, and from such labor as is consequentupon the occasional arrival of a steamship bound northward. We may heretake refreshment at the Golden Age Inn, which is the most southerlyhouse of public entertainment on the globe. 

New Zealand did not become a recognized British colony until the year1840. For three-quarters of a century after Cook's first visit, thenative tribes remained in free possession of the country. It is truethat England was mistress of these islands by right of discovery, butshe made no formal assumption of political domain until the periodalready named, when it was formed into a colony subordinate to thegovernment of New South Wales. As early as 1815, white men of venturousdisposition began to settle in small numbers among the natives; butoften their fate was to be roasted and eaten by cannibals. Before 1820, missionaries, no doubt influenced by truly Christian motives, camehither and devoted their lives to this people, --in more senses than one, as it is well known that they not infrequently met with a fate similarto that of other settlers. 

New Zealand lies as far south of the equator as Italy does north of it, and is divided into the North and South Islands by Cook's Strait. TheSouth Island is also known as the Middle Island, to distinguish it morefully from Stewart Island, which belongs to the group, and which lies tothe south of it. This last-named island is separated from Middle Islandby Foveaux Strait some fifteen or twenty miles across the water from theBluff. It is about fifty miles long by thirty broad, and has a mountainrange running through it, the loftiest peak of which is a trifle overthree thousand feet high. There are some fishing hamlets here, but thereare very few inhabitants. All these islands are popularly believed tohave once formed part of a great continent, which is now sunk in thesea. 

Unlike Australia, New Zealand is rarely visited by drought. The wholeeastern coast abounds in good harbors, while the rivers and streams areever flowing and innumerable. Though it is a mountainous country, itdiffers from Switzerland in that it has no lack of extensive plains, which seem to have been left by nature ready to the hand of the farmer, requiring scarcely ordinary cultivation to insure large and profitablecrops of grains. This diversity of surface, as well as the fact thatthese islands extend over thirteen degrees of latitude, give the countrya varied climate, but it is a remarkably temperate one, its salubrityfar surpassing that of England or any part of the United States. Whilesnow is never seen in the North Island except upon the highestmountains, the plains of the South Island, as far south as Otago, aresometimes sprinkled with it, but only to disappear almost immediately. The rivers are generally destitute of fish, and the forests of game. Itis no sportsman's country; but vegetation runs riot, the soil beingremarkably fertile, clothing the wild lands with perpetual verdure andvigorous freshness. 

The area of the islands known as New Zealand is about one hundredthousand square miles, being a few more than are contained in England, Wales, and Ireland combined. The entire coast line is four thousandmiles in length. Out of the seventy million acres of land, forty millionare deemed worthy of cultivation. The soil being light and easily workedfavors the agriculturist, and New Zealand is free from all noxiousanimals and venomous reptiles. It is stated that no animal larger than arat was found here by the discoverers. The remote situation of thecountry, surrounded by the greatest extent of ocean on the globe, haskept it in a measure unknown to the rest of the world, even in thesedays of rapid communication with all parts of the earth. Wellington, thecapital, is about fifteen thousand miles more or less, from the ColonialOffice in London; in other words, New Zealand forms the nearest land tothe actual antipodes of England. The precious metals are distributedover the land in gold-bearing quartz reefs, rich alluvial diggings, andin the sands of its many rivers. Mines of tin and iron as well as otherminerals are supplemented by an abundant supply of the most important ofthem all; namely, coal. 

There is little of interest to detain us at the Bluff, so we continueon by steamer to Dunedin, the metropolis of Otago district, and indeed, the principal city of New Zealand, if we make the number and wealth ofits population the criterion of comparison. The cities of both Australiaand New Zealand, but especially those of the latter country, have ahabit of locating themselves among and upon a collection of hills, upthe sides of which the houses creep in a very picturesque manner. Dunedin is no exception to this rule, rising rather abruptly from theplain, which is the location of the wharves and business houses, to thesummit of the surrounding hills. A portion of the plain near the shore, upon which broad streets and substantial blocks of buildings now stand, consists of made land, redeemed at great expense from the shallow waterfront of the town. 

The first settlement here was made so late as 1848, by a colony nearlyevery member of which came from Scotland, and from this source the cityhas continued ever since to draw large numbers annually. The Scottishbrogue salutes the ear everywhere; the Scottish physiognomy is alwaysprominent to the eye; and indeed, there are several prevailingindications which cause one to half believe himself in Aberdeen, Glasgow, or Edinburgh. This is by no means unpleasant. There is a solid, reliable appearance to everything. People are rosy-cheeked, hearty, andgood to look at. The wand of the enchanter, to speak figuratively, touched the place in 1861, from which date it took a fresh start uponthe road of prosperity. It was caused by gold being discovered in largequantities near at hand, and from that date the city of Dunedin hasgrown in population and wealth with marvellous rapidity. Largesubstantial stone edifices have sprung up on all the main thoroughfaresdevoted to business purposes, banks, public offices, churches, schools, storehouses, etc. , giving an unmistakable aspect of prosperity. Thestreet-cars are mostly operated on the cable principle. Horses could notdraw heavily-laden cars up some of the steep streets. The sensation whenbeing conveyed on one of these cars up or down a steep grade of thecity, is the same as when ascending or descending some Swiss mountains, by means of the same unseen power. The car is promptly stopped anywhere, to land or to take on a passenger, no matter how steep the grade, by thesimple movement of a lever, and is easily started again. The powerfulstationary engine situated a mile away, by means of the chain beneaththe road-bed quietly winds the car up the declivity however heavily itmay be laden, without the least slacking of speed. 

The singularly formed hills about Dunedin are not mere barrenrocks, --they have their suggestiveness, speaking of volcanic eruptions, of wild upheavals, dating back for thousands of years. Scientists tellus that these islands are of the earliest rock formations. The groundupon which this city stands, like that of Auckland further north, iscomposed of the fiery outflow of volcanic matter. 

Dunedin has all the usual educational and philanthropic institutionswhich a community of fifty thousand intelligent people demand in ourday. It is especially well supplied with primary and other schools. Throughout New Zealand there are over eight hundred registered publicschools of the various grades. It is a source of gratification torealize that educational interests are nowhere neglected in thesefar-away colonies, where the eager pursuit of gold has been so prominentan element in inducing immigration. New Zealand is nearly as rich ingold deposits as is Australia, and the precious metal is obtained undernearly the same conditions. Much gold has been found here in what arecalled pockets, under boulders and large stones which lie on the sandybeach of the west coast. This is popularly believed to have been washedup from the sea in heavy weather, but undoubtedly it was first washeddown from the mountains and deposited along the shore. Official returnsshow that New Zealand has produced over two hundred and fifty milliondollars in gold since its discovery in these islands. 

When Captain Cook first landed here, he fully understood the cannibalhabits of the native race, and sought for some practical means ofdiscouraging and abolishing such inhuman practices. Upon his secondvisit, therefore, he introduced swine and some other domestic animals, such as goats and horned cattle, in the vain hope that they wouldultimately supply sufficient animal food for the savages, and divertthem from such wholesale roasting and eating of each other. The goatsand some other animals were soon slaughtered and consumed, but the swineto a certain extent answered the purpose for which he designed them;that is to say, they ran wild, multiplied remarkably, and were huntedand eaten by the natives; but cannibalism was by no means abolished, oreven appreciably checked. Wild hogs, which have sprung from the originalanimals introduced so many years ago, are still quite abundant in theNorth Island. 

About two hundred miles northward from Dunedin is the city ofChristchurch, settled first in 1850, and the chief seat of the Church ofEngland in New Zealand, having a noble cathedral. Littleton is the portof Christchurch, situated eight miles below the city, and connectedwith it by both river and railway. This metropolis contains aboutthirty-five thousand people. In its museum there is a most interestingand perfect skeleton of that great bird, the Moa, --indigenous in thiscountry and believed to have been extinct about two thousand years, probably disappearing before any human beings came to these islands. TheMaori Indians (pronounced _Mow´re_), the native race of New Zealand, canbe traced back but six or seven hundred years, and only very imperfectlyduring that period. They are believed to have come from the islandslying in the North Pacific, presumably from the Sandwich or Hawaiiangroup. Even the traditions of these natives fail to give us any accountof this gigantic bird while it was living, but its bones are found invarious sections of the country, principally in caves. What is left ofthe Moa to-day is quite sufficient to form the greatest ornithologicalwonder in the world. The head of this reconstructed skeleton in themuseum of Christchurch stands sixteen feet from the ground, and itsvarious proportions are all of a character to harmonize with itsremarkable height. This skeleton shows the marvellous bird to have been, when standing upright, five feet taller than the average full-growngiraffe. It belonged to the giants who dwelt upon the earth perhapstwenty thousand years ago, in the period of the mammoth and the dodo. 

A couple of hundred miles further north will bring us to Wellington, thenational capital. After a narrow entrance is passed, the harbor opensinto a magnificent sheet of water, in which the largest ships may ridein safety and discharge their cargoes at wharves built close to the busycentre of the town. Here, as in Dunedin, a portion of land has beenreclaimed from the sea for business purposes. The city has its asylums, a college, hospital, botanical garden, Roman Catholic cathedral, and acolonial museum, --the latter being of more than ordinary interest in theexcellence and completeness of its several departments. A structurewhich is exhibited here and called the Maori House, built by the nativesas a specimen of their domestic architecture, is particularlyinteresting, being also full of aboriginal curiosities, such as domesticutensils, weapons, and carvings. The house is of ordinary village size, and is ornamented on many of its posts by carved figures, representingnative heroes and gods. The province of Wellington stretches northward ahundred and fifty miles and contains seven million acres of land, diversified by two mountain ranges. The population of the capital is alittle over twenty thousand. The town impresses one as being a communityof shops, and it is a subject of surprise how they can all obtain aliving. 

A considerable number of natives, mostly in European costume, are seenin the streets of Wellington, loitering about the corners and gazingcuriously into shop windows, the girls and women having heavy shocks ofunkempt hair shading their great black eyes, high cheek-bones, anddisfigured mouths and chins, which last are tattooed in blue dye of somesort. The males tattoo the whole face elaborately, but the womendisfigure themselves thus only about the mouth and chin. It is mostamusing to see them meet one another and rub noses, which is the Maorimode of salutation. This race has some very peculiar habits: they nevereat salt; they have no fixed industry, and no idea of time or itsdivisions into hours and months; they are, like our North AmericanIndians, constitutionally lazy, are intensely selfish, and seem to carenothing for their dead; they have a quick sense of insult, but cannot asa rule be called pugnacious; they excite themselves to fight byindulging in strange war-dances and by singing songs full ofbraggadocio; and, after having been thus wrought up to a state offrenzy, they are perfectly reckless as to personal hazard. The Maori isnot, however, a treacherous enemy; he gives honorable notice of hishostile intent, warring only in an open manner, thus exhibiting a degreeof chivalry unknown to our American Indians. Money with the Maori isconsidered only as representing so much rum and tobacco. Alcohol is hiscriterion of value; bread and meat are quite secondary. 

The name "Maori" is that which these aborigines gave themselves. Ifthere were any human beings upon these islands when the Maoris firstarrived, they doubtless fell a prey to the cannibalistic habits of thenewcomers, whose insatiable appetite for human flesh was irrepressible. When discovered by Cook, they were the lowest of savage races; they knewscarcely anything of the mechanic arts, their skill being limited to thescooping out of a boat from the trunk of a tree, and the fabrication offishing-nets from the coarse fibre of the wild flax. They also madespears, shields, and clubs. They had no beasts of burden, and so theirwomen were made to supply the place. Their agriculture was confined tothe raising of sweet potatoes and the taro root, while their moresubstantial food consisted of fish, rats, wild fowl, and human flesh. Captain Cook estimated, when he first visited them, that the Maoris hadpassed the period of their best days. He thought that in the centuryprevious to his coming hither they had eaten about one-fourth of theirnumber. The race is now estimated at only thirty-six or thirty-eightthousand, though it is certain that it embraced a hundred thousand abouta century ago. The decrease in ten years is apparent to observantpersons, a fact not clearly accounted for by any excess of living ontheir part, though their daily habits are not very commendable, especially as to drink. They are all most inveterate smokers, --men, women, and children; you can give a Maori maiden nothing more acceptableto her taste and appreciation than a pipe and a plug of smoking-tobacco. As a people, they have manifestly filled the purpose for whichProvidence placed them upon these islands of the South Sea; and now, like the Moa, they must pass off the scene and give way to another race. So it seems to be with the Red Man of America, and so it was with thenow totally extinct natives of Tasmania. 

When this capital of Wellington was first settled, the newcomers couldbuild their houses only of wood, the frequency of earthquakes warningthem against raising edifices of heavy material or making theirdwellings over one or two stories in height. But earthquakes, though nowoccasionally experienced, are by no means so frequent as formerly. Tremulousness of the earth and rumblings as of distant thunder are heardnow and again, in the hills that stretch inland towards the mountains, which is quite sufficient to keep the fact in mind that this is avolcanic region. Earthquake shocks are frequent all over the islands, and it is believed that New Zealand was rent midway, where Cook's Straitdivides the North from the South Island, by volcanic explosion. There isknown to be an extinct volcano at the bottom of the strait, in front ofthe entrance to the harbor of Wellington, over which the water is neverabsolutely calm and where it sometimes boils like a caldron. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Auckland, the northern metropolis of New Zealand, was formerly thecapital of the country until Wellington was selected for theheadquarters of the government, as being the more central and accessiblefrom the several islands. So beautiful and picturesque are the bay andharbor that one is not surprised to hear its citizens call it the Naplesof New Zealand. Before the European settlers came here this was thelocality where the most savage wars were carried on by the natives, andwhere the most warlike tribes lived in fortified villages. Though thecountry has virtually no ancient history that is known to us, it has arecognized past extending back for some centuries. When the missionariesfirst came here about the year 1814, the main subsistence of the nativeswho lived around what is now Auckland harbor, was human flesh. The firstwhite immigrants, as well as the seamen of chance vessels driven uponthe coast, were invariably killed and eaten by the Maoris. Not only didcannibalism prevail here, but it was common in Brazil, in the WestIndies, in the other Pacific Islands, along the coast of North America, and among the Indians of Chili, who ate the early navigators who landedupon their shores. 

The isthmus upon which the city of Auckland is built is undoubtedly oneof the most remarkable volcanic districts in the world, though theagency of subterranean fires is visible enough to the traveller all overthe country. Mount Tongariro, six thousand feet high, is even now inactivity, with occasional fiery outbursts. The earthquakes which occurin both the North and the South Islands, cause alternate depressions andelevations. That of 1855 raised the coast line four feet for many milesin length. As in the peninsula of Scandinavia, we here find a grandlongitudinal mountain range from the extreme of the South Island throughthe Auckland district to the far north, forming, as it were, a backboneto the country. 

Mount Eden is the nearest elevation to the city, and is seven or eighthundred feet in height. On this hill there are abundant evidences stillleft of the native fortifications, but of the large Maori populationthat once covered the peninsula and lived in these _pahs_, or fortifiedvillages, not a soul remains. The harbor is one of the best inAustralasia, having ample depth and good wharf facilities, besides beingquite sheltered. Its shorter distance from the ports of America gives itan advantage over all others in this region. It is reached from London, across the American continent, in thirty-seven days, while to reachSydney requires four days more of steam navigation across a boisteroussea. 

Auckland occupies a series of hills divided by valleys trending in thedirection of the sea or harbor. The slopes and hill-tops are dotted byvillas, each of which is surrounded by flowers and ornamental trees. Thebusiness part of the town is not particularly attractive, though QueenStreet, the principal thoroughfare, contains some fine stores and brickedifices, as well as public buildings of stone. Both the level and thehilly streets are traversed by street railways, upon which horse-poweronly is used. The population, including the immediate environs, isabout sixty-five thousand. The educational interests of the city arewell provided for by primary schools, as well as by means for secondaryeducation in a college for boys, and a high school for girls, both taxedto their full capacity. 

The Ponsonby suburb and the village of Whou are composed of pleasantresidences tastefully ornamented. Parnell forms another suburb, renderedattractive by hedgerows, drooping willows, and prettily arrangedgardens. From this point one gets a fine view of the outspread bay lyingbelow, full of various busy maritime craft. Steam ferry-boats areconstantly gliding across the harbor, little white-winged cutters bendgracefully to the breeze, the tall masts of sailing-vessels line thepiers, and tiny row-boats glance hither and thither. The loftymarine-signal hill looms up across the harbor, in its verdant garb, while volcanic cones, a little way inland on either shore, form anirregular background. Far away and beyond all is seen the swelling bosomof the great Southern Ocean. 

This metropolis is situated in the centre of rich timberlands, and alsoof an abundant coal deposit. Should the Panama Canal be completed, Auckland would be the first port of call and the last of departurebetween Europe and the colonies of the South Pacific. 

The kauri-tree--the pine of this country--is not at all like our NorthAmerican pine; instead of needles, its foliage consists of leaves ofsombre green. It produces a timber which for some purpose is unequalled. It is very slow of growth, is remarkably durable, easily worked, of finegrain, and does not split or warp by atmospheric exposure. It is saidthat the kauri-tree requires eight hundred years to arrive at maturity. To visit the forest where it is found in the Auckland district, onetakes cars from the city to Helensville, a distance of about fortymiles, where the Kaipara River is reached, upon which small steamersply, taking us directly to the desired spot. Here, the busy saw-millswhich are gradually consuming these valuable trees are so situated thatvessels of two thousand tons can load at their yards and with theircargo pass directly out to sea. It is singular that while this districtis the only place in New Zealand where the kauri-trees are found, nearlyevery other species of tree native to the country is also found here, among them the rimu, the matai, the white pine, the tooth-leaved beech, and the totara, all in close proximity to the kauri. The commercialprosperity of Auckland is largely due to the harvest reaped from theseforests. The kauri-tree grows to an average height of a hundred feet, with a diameter of fifteen feet. It is a clannish tree, so to speak; andwhen found near to those of other species it groups itself in clumpsapart from them. One often sees, however, forests where the kauri reignssupreme, quite unmixed with other trees. 

The kauri-gum forms a large figure in the list of exports from Auckland, and the digging and preparing of it for shipment gives employment tomany persons. The natives have a theory that the gum descends from thetrunks of the growing trees, and through the roots becomes deposited inthe ground. But this is unreasonable; the gum is a partially fossilizedproduction, showing that it has gone through a process which only a longperiod of years could have effected. It is usually found at a depth offive or six feet from the surface. It is undoubtedly a fact that thisnortherly part of New Zealand was once covered by immense forests ofthis gum-tree, which have matured and been destroyed by fire and bydecay, century after century, and the deposit, which is now somarketable, is from the dead trees, not from the living. Experimentshave been tried which have proven that the gum exuded by the growingtree has no commercial value. It is very similar to amber, for whicharticle it is often sold to unskilled purchasers; but its principal useis in the manufacture of varnish. 

The immediate neighborhood of Auckland is almost denuded of originaltrees, but ornamental species are being planted, and flowers areplentiful. The Maoris had distinctive and expressive names for everybird, tree, and flower, before the white man came. There is a lovelylittle native daisy called tupapa, and a blue lily known as rengarenga, also a green and yellow passion-flower named by the aborigines kowhaia. A glutinous, golden buttercup is known as anata, nearly as abundant asits namesake in America. All these are wild-flowers, cultivated only byNature's hand. New Zealand seems to be adapted for receiving into itsbosom the vegetation of any land, and imparting to it renewed life andadded beauty. Its foster-mother capacity has been fully tested, and foryears no ship left England for this part of the world, without bringingmore or less of a contribution in plants and trees, to be propagated inthe new home of the colonists. The consequence is, we find pines andcypresses, oaks and willows, elms and birches, besides fruit-trees ofall sorts, which are grown in Europe, thriving here in abundance, in thegrounds surrounding the settlers' houses. The range of temperature ishere very limited. Summer and winter are only known as the dry and therainy seasons; flowers, vegetables, grapes, in short, all plants, growthriftily the whole year round in the open air. Tropical and hardyplants are equally at home; Scottish firs and Indian palms, oranges, lemons, india-rubber trees, and the lime thrive side by side. As inJapan, so it is here. One can gather a pretty bouquet out of doors anyday in the year. 

At Auckland, we are in the vicinity of the famous Hot Lake District ofNew Zealand, the veritable wonderland of these regions, to reach whichwe take the cars for a distance of a hundred and thirty miles, thenproceed thirty miles further by stage to the native town of Ohinemutu, on Lake Rotorua. This route carries us in a southeast course and leadsinto the very heart of the North Island, among the aborigines. Therailway passes through a level country or valley, which, however, isbounded on either side, five or six miles away, by lofty hills, presenting a confusion of irregular forms. These hills contain anabundance of mineral wealth in the form of gold, silver, iron, coal, andmanganese. Many low-lying marshy fields of native flax are seen, and theWaikato River is three times crossed in its winding course, as we threadour way through the valley. Large plantations, each containing severalthousand young pine-trees of the American species, are seen, coveringgentle slopes, and many broad acres of level land, where the governmentis endeavoring to establish artificial forests throughout wide reachesof unwooded country. These trees grow more rapidly here even than intheir native soil. Small Maori encampments, composed of a dozen lodgeseach, are scattered along the way, the lazy tattooed natives--men andwomen--lingering about the stations, with blackened pipes in theirmouths, smoking the rankest sort of tobacco, while they chatter togetherlike Benares monkeys. 

The last part of this brief journey, that from Oxford to Ohinemutu, takes us through one of the grandest forests in all New Zealand, extending eighteen or twenty miles, with scarcely a human habitation orsign of life, save the cabin where we change horses, and the occasionalflutter of a bird. In this forest, mingled with tall columnar trees ofvarious species, are seen frequent examples of the fern-tree thirty feetin height, and of surpassing beauty, spreading out their plumed summitslike Egyptian palms, while the stems have the graceful inclination ofthe cocoanut-tree. The picturesque effect of the birches is remarkable, flanked by the massive outlines and drooping tassels of the rimu. Formiles of the way on either side of the narrow road the forest isimpenetrable even to the eye, save for the shortest distances, presenting a tangled mass of foliage, vines, and branches such as can bematched only by the virgin forests of Brazil, or the dangerous junglesof India. Ground ferns are observed in infinite variety, sometimes of asilvery texture, sometimes of orange-yellow, but oftenest of the variousshades of green. Here, too, we make acquaintance with the sweet-scentedmanuaka, the fragrant veronica, and the glossy-leaved karaka; this lastis the pride of the Maoris. 

Specimens of the lofty rimu-tree are seen, about whose tall white stemsa parasitic vine (a plant which obtains its nourishment from anotherplant to which it attaches itself) slowly and treacherously weavesitself, clasping and binding the upright body with such marvellous powerof compression as literally to strangle it, until ultimately the vinebecomes a stout tree and takes the place of that it has destroyed. Themost noted and destructive of these vegetable boa-constrictors is thegigantic rope-like rata, whose Gordian knot nothing can untie. The treeonce clasped in its coils is fated, yielding up its sap and lifewithout a struggle to cast off its deadly enemy. Many trees are observedwhose stems bear branches only, far above the surrounding woods, ladenwith bunches of alien foliage, --parasites like the mistletoe. Indeed, this forest seems like vegetation running riot, and with its clumps ofdissimilar foliage fixed like storks' nests in the tops of the trees, recalling the same effect which one sees on the St. John's River inFlorida. 

Once fairly within the area of the Hot Lake District, which is the mostactive volcanic region of the Antipodes, nothing seems too strange to betrue; geysers, vapor-holes, boiling springs, and dry stones burning hotbeneath one's feet, surround us, as though the surface of the landcovered Nature's chemical laboratory. Sulphur, alkaline, and ironimpregnated pools of inviting temperature cause one to indulge infrequent baths, and it seems but natural that the natives in theirhalf-naked condition should pass so much time in the water. Near theshore of Lake Rotorua, where it is shallow, a boiling spring forces itsway to the surface of the surrounding cold water, telling of a submergedfiery caldron underlying the lake at that particular point. It is, however, no more significant than the scores of other steam-holes andspouting geysers which force themselves to the surface of the land allabout this sulphurous region. In short, the little town of Ohinemutu isbuilt on a thin crust, roofing over as it were a vast fiery furnace, whose remarkable volcanic eccentricities form the marvel of thislocality. Here, the traveller eats, drinks, and sleeps above a series ofsuppressed volcanoes, and is apt to recall the fate of Pompeii. Many ofthese springs and geysers are so hot that a mere touch of the water willblister the flesh as quickly as contact with red-hot iron. Others areof a temperature suitable for boiling vegetables; and still others byartificial means--that is, the introduction of cold surface water--arerendered of a temperature suitable for bathing purposes. One must walkcautiously among these boiling mud-pits, open springs, and steam-holes, for a misstep might prove fatal. Dangerous caldrons lie on either sideof the path, within a few inches of where one may be walking allunsuspiciously. 

The natural conclusion as to the cause of these remarkable phenomenawould seem to be that the waters of the lakes, rivers, and springsdescend by various channels to the fiery regions below, and are returnedby the force of the steam thus created, bringing up with them the refusewhich is deposited about the surface. Of the hundreds of these boilingsprings only a score or so have been analyzed: no two, however, exhibitthe same properties. The various chemical combinations seem to bewithout limit, and bathing in them is considered to be a specific forsome skin-diseases, as well as for rheumatic affections. There can be nodoubt but that all the medicinal virtues possessed by similar springs inEurope and America are found in these of New Zealand. 

Ohinemutu is the most typical home of the natives, and for ages hasformed the chief settlement of the Arawa tribe. Nothing could possiblybe more grotesque than to see groups of the native women, from thewrinkled old grandams to the girls of a dozen years, bathing at allhours of the day in the warm, steaming pools. It is their daily, almosthourly resort. As a rule, a blanket forms their only covering; and ifthey are cold, day or night, casting this aside, they at once resort tothe hot springs for warmth. Their chief occupations are literallybathing and smoking tobacco, the women using the pipe even more freelythan the men. Of regular occupation they have none. A few potatoes areplanted and allowed to grow without cultivation, and these with porkform their chief food. The little cooking in which they indulge isusually performed by the boiling springs, in which they hang theirpotatoes in small wicker baskets; and for baking purposes they use thered-hot stones that are to be found everywhere in this vicinity. Thesebroad, flat stones are the identical ones on which the natives not longago were accustomed to roast their prisoners of war before eating them. 

A certain consistency is discovered in the manners and customs of thispeople who live so nearly after the style and laws which governed theirancestors, and which have been carefully preserved for hundreds ofyears. Superstition is born in a Maori. He is a professed Christian inmost cases and accepts the Bible, but he is apt to give to it his owninterpretation. These children of Nature follow their ancestraltraditions modified by Christian influences. The original religion ofthe natives, if we may call it by that name, consists in a dim belief ina future state, quite undefined even in their own minds. It was largelya sort of ancestor worship, according to the missionaries, with a vagueidea of some Being higher than anything human or finite. The sorcerywhich was universally practised among them filled up a certain measureof religious conviction and observance, nor is this by any means disusedamong them to-day. Many of the tribes can read and write, andeducational facilities are freely offered to the rising generation bythe English government. 

The Maori differs in many essential particulars from most savage raceswith whom we are more familiar. He does not, as has been mentioned, foster a spirit of secret revenge, but when his enmity is aroused, it isopenly displayed. This has been a tribal trait with the Maoris forcenturies. Before declaring war the Maori always gives his enemy fairnotice; still for ages he has been accustomed to go to war uponimaginary grievances, or, to put it more clearly, his great object wasto make prisoners of war, and when made to cook and eat them. The earlyMaoris, and even so late as sixty years ago, looked upon war--what wecall civil war--as being the only legitimate object of life. 

Though these natives have mostly become Christianized, as we understandthe term, still they live more like the lower class of animals than likehuman beings, seeming to prefer that sort of life even after half acentury of intercourse with the whites. They now isolate themselves as abody in what is called the King's Country of the North Island, whichembraces the Hot Lake District, where they live under their own laws andcustoms which are held inviolate by treaty with the English crown. Theirdecrease in numbers seems to be as rapid in their own district as it iswhere they are brought into more intimate relations with the whites. TheEnglish authorities respect their ownership of lands, and not an acre ofit is to be had without just payment for it. 

No intelligent person can be blind to the favorable position of NewZealand or to the promise of its future commercial importance. Situated, as it were, in the centre of this Southern Ocean, the future highway ofthe world, it is accessible from all quarters. On the west, not very faraway, lie the busy harbors of Australia, with which her exchanges ofmerchandise are constant. Within easy reach of India and China on oneside, she has California, Mexico, and South America on the other. To thenorth lie the hundreds of islands which constitute the groups ofPolynesia, notable for their voluptuous climate and primitive fertility. With the opening of the Panama Canal or other available means for shipsto cross the isthmus of South America, New Zealand will lie directly inthe highway between Europe and the gold-fields of the great inlandcontinent, between England and her largest and most promising colony. 

The many beautiful islands of the South Sea must sooner or later comeunder the commercial sway of New Zealand, as they may be explored andcivilized. Her admirable harbors, noble estuaries, and navigable riversare elsewhere unsurpassed. If destined to achieve greatness, theseislands, like those of Great Britain, will do so through the developmentand maintenance of maritime power; and with so many natural advantagesas they possess we confidently predict for them this finalaccomplishment. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

From Auckland we take a steamer for Asia by way of Sydney and otherports of Australia, crossing the Indian Ocean and landing at the extremesoutherly point of India, at Tuticorin. It is a quaint old place oflittle present interest, though it was once famous for its pearlfisheries. We proceed northward by railway to Madura, where, there beingno hotel, we take up our quarters in an unoccupied native house, situated in a grove of cocoanut-trees. Flies, mosquitoes, and scorpionsdispute possession with us, and ugly-looking snakes creep close to thelow piazza. Flying-foxes hang motionless from the branches of the trees;clouds of butterflies, many-colored, sunshine-loving creatures, ininfinite variety, flit about the bungalow, some with such gaudy spreadof wing as to tempt pursuit. Large bronze and yellow beetles walkthrough the short grass with the coolness and gait of domestic poultry. Occasionally a chameleon turns up its bright eye, as though to take ourmeasure. The redundancy of insect and reptile life is wonderful inSouthern India. 

The principal attraction to the traveller in Madura, which contains somefifty thousand inhabitants, is a remarkable and very ancient templesupported by two thousand stone columns. It is probably one of thelargest and finest monuments of Hindoo art in existence, covering in allits divisions, courts, shrines, colonnades, and tanks, twenty acres ofground. It has nine lofty tower-like gates of entrance and exit, eachone of which has the effect of forming an individual pagoda. In thecentral area of the temple is what is known as the "Tank of the GoldenLily" being a large body of water covering a couple of acres of ground, and leading into which are broad stone steps on all sides. Hereindividuals of both sexes are seen constantly bathing for religiouspurification. A grand tank is the adjunct of every Indian temple. Thismass of buildings contains many living sacred elephants, deified bulls, enshrined idols, and strange ornamentation, the aggregate cost of whichmust have been enormous. The elephants rival the beggars in theirimportunities, being accustomed to receive an unlimited amount ofdelicacies from visitors, such as fruits, sweetmeats, candies, and thelike. 

Another hundred miles northward by railway brings us to the city ofTrichinopoly, where the famous natural rock five hundred feet in heightis crowned by the Temple of Ganesa. The view from this eminence isexceptionally fine. The town far below us looks as though it had beenshaken up and dropped there by a convulsion of nature. There is noregularity in the laying out of the place; it is a confused mass ofbuildings, narrow paths, crooked roads, and low-built mud cabins. Inwhat is called the silversmith's quarter, amid filthy lanes, full ofdirty children, mangy dogs, and moping cats, we find hovels containingfinely wrought silver ornaments manufactured on the spot by the natives. So original and elegant are these wares that they have a reputationbeyond the borders of India. Trichinopoly has over sixty thousandinhabitants. But however much there may be to interest us, we must nottarry long. Two hundred miles still northward bring us to Tanjore, alarge fortified city, where we find a mammoth and gorgeously decoratedcar of Juggernaut, the Indian idol. It makes its annual excursion fromthe temple through the town, drawn by hundreds of worshippers, who comefrom great distances to assist at the ceremony. Pilgrims, delirious withfanaticism, used once to throw themselves under the wheels of the hugecar and perish. This self-immolation is now almost entirely suppressedby the government, as is the kindred one of the burning of widows upontheir husbands' funeral piles. From 1815 to 1826, published statisticsshow that fifteen thousand widows perished thus in India!

The great temple of Tanjore is fourteen stories in height, and measurestwo hundred feet from base to top. These temples all resemble each otherin general design, and are characterized by grotesqueness, caricature, and vulgar images, as well as by infinite detail in their finish. Thoughthey are gorgeously decked in colors, and gross in ornamentation, stillthey are so grand in size and on so costly a scale, as to createamazement rather than disgust. It would seem that a people equal to suchefforts must have been capable of something better. In all grosser formsof superstition and idolatry, carnal and material elements seem to beessential to bind and attract the ignorant, and this is undoubtedly thegoverning policy of a religion, embodying emblems so outrageous toChristian sensibility. This grand pagoda at Tanjore, taken as a whole, is the most remarkable religious monument in India. In passing throughthe southern section of the country, we see many ruined temples inunpopulated districts, which belong to past ages; many mammoth stoneelephants and bulls, crumbling by the wear of centuries. Large flocks ofgoats tended by herdsmen are seen distributed over the plains, and solevel is the country, that the eye can make out these groups for milesaway on either side of the railroad. Well-cultivated plantations ofsugar-cane, plantains, wheat, rice, and orchards of fruit come intoview. The old style of irrigation goes on, by means of buckets worked byhand, the same as was practised in the East four thousand years ago, while the very plough, rude and inefficient, which is used upon theirplains to-day is after the antique fashion belonging to the same period. Indeed, except that the railroad runs through Southern India, thereappears to have been no progress there for thousands of years. Alethargy of the most hopeless character seems to possess the commonpeople. Their mud cabins are not suitable abodes for human beings, andare distanced in neatness by the ant-hills. Such a degraded condition ofhumanity can hardly be found elsewhere among semi-civilized races. Thewomen are worn by hardships. The men are cadaverous and listless. Clothing among them is the exception; nudity is the rule. It seemsstrange, but it is true, that one-quarter of the human race goes nakedin this nineteenth century. 

A day's journey northward by railroad brings us to Madras, situated uponthe Bay of Bengal. The city is spread out over a very large territory, with a number of broad, open fields and squares, designed for drillingof troops, some for ball-players, and some for ordinary parks. There isan abundant and handsome growth of trees all about the city, lining themain streets and testifying to the judicious attention given by theauthorities to this species of ornamental shade so necessary in a warmclimate. The wide streets are admirably kept, and are all macadamized. This applies, however, to the European portion of the town, with itsfine, large public buildings, consisting of literary and scientificinstitutions as well as various educational and charitable ones. Thenative portion of Madras is contracted and dirty in the extreme, noattention being given to cleanliness or decency. The extensive Englishfort--Fort George--is one of the best constructed in the East, forming amost prominent feature of the city, and crowning a moderate rise ofground near the shore. Its attractive though warlike surroundings, whitewalls, flower plats, and green, sloping banks present a charmingpicture. Fort George was the original name of the city. A noblelighthouse is situated within the fortifications. Near this spot, alongthe coast to the northward, are the rock-cut temples of Mahabulihuramrendered familiar by Southey's admirable verses. 

Dancing-girls are to be seen here, on the streets. They are attached tosome native temple, as no religious ceremony or gala day is consideredcomplete without them; and the same may be said of all large privateentertainments, no guests ever dancing in the East. They prefer to hireit done for them. These Indian dancing-girls, with a musicalaccompaniment, tell a story by their performance, expressing grief, joy, jealousy, and other passions so well portrayed, that one easilyinterprets the pantomime. They preserve strict propriety in theirdances, which are curious to witness, their ankles being covered withsilver bells, and their wrists and arms similarly decked. 

No more unprotected spot could be found on the surf-beaten shore of theCoromandel coast than this where stands Madras. It is so completelyexposed to the northeast monsoons as to be inaccessible forsailing-vessels from October to January, and yet it was the firstBritish capital in India. There is usually such a surf on the shorethat nothing but the native boats can weather it; and when high windsprevail, it is too much even for them. We embark by steamship fromMadras, and after a voyage of nearly a thousand miles up the coast andHoogly River, land at Calcutta, which is the political capital of India, though since the Suez Canal has been opened, Bombay rivals itcommercially. 

Calcutta is a very interesting city, very Indian, notwithstanding thatso many Europeans live here, and that it has so long been under Englishrule, but it is by no means entitled to the designation so often givento it, namely, the "City of Palaces. " It is quite modern, having noremains of antiquity about it, and in 1686 was but a mud village. Asseen from the Hoogly, when one first arrives, it exhibits a strong arrayof fine public buildings; but a passage of a few rods, diverging fromthe main thoroughfare, brings the visitor upon the dirty streets, themean and narrow houses, and general squalor of the native population. 

The Burning Ghat, where cremation is going on at all hours of the day, is the first place the stranger visits. The bodies are brought in andplaced upon a square pile of wood, raised to a height of four feet, inthe open yard. Under the wood there is plenty of combustible material;the torch is applied, and instantly all is hidden by the flames. Inthree hours nothing but calcined bones and ashes are left. These arecarefully gathered and cast into the river. The Ghat is open to the sky, so that the ventilation is perfect, but the atmosphere is neverthelessimpregnated with an unpleasant odor. The Hoogly River being one of theoutlets of the much-revered Ganges, is considered to be equally sacred. Close by the Burning Ghat, along the river's front, there is a number ofsheds, with only partial shelter from the street, where poor dyingHindoos are brought to breathe their last, believing that if they passaway close to the sacred water, their spirits will be instantly waftedto the regions of bliss. Here they are attended by people who make thistheir business, and it is believed that they often hasten the demise ofthe sufferers by convenient means. Human life is held of very littleaccount among these people, whose faith bridges the gulf of death, andwho were at one time so prone to suicide by drowning in the Ganges, asto render it necessary on the part of the English to establish watchmenevery night along the city shore of the sacred river to prevent it. 

At the close of each day, about an hour before sunset, all fashionableCalcutta turns out in state for a drive on the Maiden, --the Hindoostaneename for esplanade, --a broad and finely macadamized roadway, extendingalong the river's bank by the fort and cricket grounds. It is the IndianHyde Park, or Bengal Champs Elysées (the famous Parisian boulevard). Thevariety, elegance, and costliness of the equipages in grand livery aresurprising. The whole scene is enlivened by the beautiful dresses of theladies, the dashing costumes and gold lace of the nabobs, the quaintOriental dress of their barefooted attendants, and the spirited music ofthe military band. The superb horses in their gold-mounted harnessesdash over the course at a spirited gait; the twilight hour is brief, theshadows lengthen, when a hundred electric lamps flash upon the scene, rivalling the light of day. Then the occupants of the open vehicles, andthe equestrians, gather about the Eden Garden, in rows, six or eightdeep, and listen to the popular airs, or chat merrily in the intervals. The Cascine at Florence, the Pincio at Rome, the Chiaja at Naples, thePrado at Madrid--none of these famous drives can compare with the Maidenof Calcutta for gayety, variety, and attractiveness. 

Calcutta is said to contain a population of a million. It is sometimesvisited by cyclones, and the fierceness of these warrings of theelements may be judged by the fact that at the last occurrence of thesort thirty thousand native houses were totally destroyed in half anhour. The Hoogly River often experiences the effect of tidal wavesduring the monsoons, which dash up from the sea at a speed of twentymiles an hour, causing much destruction. Ships lying off the city onsuch occasions often part their cables and are driven on shore, whilemany of the small craft along the eighty miles of river course areentirely destroyed. 

[Illustration: A GREAT BANYAN TREE AT CALCUTTA. ]

A journey of four hundred miles to the northward, the last half of whichis performed by narrow-gauge railway, which climbs zigzag fashion over avery hilly country, will enable us to reach Darjeeling, nearly ninethousand feet above the level of the sea. Here we are in proximity toand in full view of the Himalayan range of mountains, the loftiest onthe globe. The lowest peak is over twenty thousand feet in height; thehighest exceeds twenty-eight thousand. Upon the range rest eleventhousand feet of perpetual snow. There can be no animal life in thatArctic region--only the snow and ice rest there in endless sleep. TheHimalayas--meaning the "Halls of Snow"--form the northern boundary ofIndia, and shut out the country from the rest of Asia. Thibet, whichlies just over the range, whence we view it, is virtually inaccessibleby this route, the wild region between being nearly impassable. Boldparties of traders, wrapped in sheepskins, do sometimes force their wayover the mountains at an elevation of eighteen thousand feet, but it isa most hazardous thing to do, and the bones of worn-out mules mark thefrozen way, telling of suffering and abandonment. The little yak cow, whose bushy tail is manufactured into lace, has been found to be thebest and most enduring animal to depend upon when such journeys areperformed. She will patiently toil up the steep gorges with a load onher back, and will drop dead in her tracks before she will show anystubbornness or want of courage. The culminating point of the range, andthe highest mountain peak in the world, is Mount Everest, which is alittle over twenty-nine thousand feet in height above the level of thesea. 

Darjeeling is becoming the centre of a great tea-producing district, andthus India bids fair to rival China in a product which has seemed tobelong almost exclusively to China from time immemorial. Englishcapitalists are largely embarking in this enterprise, and extensivetea-plantations are already in full process of successful yielding, sending tea annually to the London market. At first it seems strange tosee the tea-plant flourishing at such an altitude, covering hundreds ofacres of the mountain's sides, on the road descending from Darjeeling, towards the plains of Hindoostan, but it must be remembered that thelatitude of this region is just about that of Florida and the WestIndies. As to the product of these tea-fields, one realizes nodifference in its flavor from that of the Chinese leaf. In England it isknown as Assam tea. 

As we descend towards the level country, amid many other floweringtrees, the magnolia is most prominent. The wild and abundant growth ofthe rhododendron, which here becomes a forest tree, mingles with ahandsome species of cedar, which rises in dark and stately groups andforms a marked feature in the landscape. The general luxuriance of thevegetation is conspicuous, thickly clothing the branches of the treeswith mosses, ferns, and creeping vines. Here we observe the cotton-tree, with its red blossoms, which yields a coarse material for native use. Also a species of lotus called "Queen of the Forest, " the leaves ofwhich are used by the common people in place of tea. Many bright andexquisitely delicate ferns spring up among the damp undergrowth aboutthe places where we stop to take water for our little, noisy, spluttering engine. Brilliant butterflies float like motes in thesunshine, contrasting with the repulsive whip-snakes seen hanging fromthe low branches of the trees. Vegetation and animal life seem to besingularly abundant and prolific in these foot-hills of the famousmountain range. 

Our course now lies towards Benares, over the plains of Middle India, some five hundred miles from Calcutta. The people on the route seem tobe wretchedly poor, living in the most primitive mud cabins thatchedwith straw. Such squalor and visible poverty can be found nowhere elsein any country outside of Ireland, and yet we are passing through afamous agricultural district which ought to support thrifty farmhousesand smiling villages. It abounds in productive rice, wheat, sugar-cane, and vast poppy fields, --these last treacherously beautiful, --and fromwhich the opium of commerce is derived. The presence of such abundancemakes the contrast in the condition of the peasantry all the morepuzzling. There must be something radically wrong in the modes of thegoverning power. This part of India is noted for the excellence andprolific yield of its sugar crops. From here, also, indigo and saltpetreare exported in large quantities. Along the route traversed by therailway we see fruit-trees of various sorts native to this section, suchas tamarinds, almonds, mangos, oranges, cocoanuts, and other products ofthe palm family. Temples, centuries in age and quite in ruins, come intoview now and again, often adjacent to a cluster of low mud hovels. Fromthe branches of the trees flit birds of such fantastic colors as tocause exclamations of surprise. Occasional specimens of thebird-of-paradise are seen, with its long and graceful tail-feathersglittering in the sunshine and presenting an array of bright colorswhich are not preserved upon this bird in captivity. Tall flamingoes insnowy plumage, just touched with scarlet on either wing, fly lazily overthe ponds, or stand by the banks resting quietly upon one long, slimleg. Parrots abound in carnival hues, and buff-colored doves, with softwhite rings of feathers about their necks, coquet lovingly together. 

Benares, the first large city on the united Ganges and Jumna, may becalled the citadel of Hindooism, containing about a hundred and fiftythousand permanent inhabitants and as many more floating population, composed of pilgrims constantly coming and going. What Jerusalem is tothe Jew, Rome to the Roman Catholic, Mecca to the Mohammedan, Benares isto the Hindoo. It is supposed by many to be the oldest known habitationof man. Twenty-five centuries ago, when Rome was unknown and Athens wasin its youth, Benares was already famous. It is situated on the leftbank of the Ganges, to bathe in which river insures to the devout Hindooforgiveness of all sins and an easy passport to the regions of theblest. Here, as in Calcutta, cremation is constantly going on beside theriver. While we are looking at the scene there comes a family groupbearing a body to the funeral pile. It is covered by a linen sheet. Inthe folded hands are white rosebuds, and orange blossoms encircle themarble brow. There is no apparent lack of heart-felt grief. It is thebody of a young maiden decked for her bridal with death. After a fewmoments the red flames wind themselves ravenously about the youthfulbody, and quickly all is blackness and ashes. 

Benares is mostly supported by the presence of pilgrims, but there ismanufactured here a brass ware of such exquisite finish as to defycompetition. In her dark alleys and narrow lanes they also produce afine article of silver embroidery of marvellous delicacy and beauty, greatly prized by travellers as a souvenir. The pilgrims who participatein the river scenes are by no means all of the lower classes; now andthen a gorgeously dressed official may be seen, with a long line ofattendants, wending his steps towards the river's front. Infirm old menand little children, crazy-looking devotees and comely youths, boys andgirls, people of all ages and degrees, are represented in the motleygroups who come to these muddy waters for moral purification. There is asingular mingling of races also, for these people do not all speak onetongue. They are from the extreme north and the extreme south of India, while the half-starved vagrants seen among them, and who come fromMiddle India, could not make themselves understood by people from eitherextreme. A common purpose moves them, but they cannot express themselvesin a common language. Pilgrims are here from Thibet and Cashmere, fromthe far-off Himalayan country, as well as from Tuticorin, on the IndianOcean. Numberless idols and symbols of the most vulgar character aboundall over the town, in small temples, before which men and women bow downin silent devotion. Idolatry is here seen in its most repulsive form. The delusion, however, is perfect, and these poor creatures are terriblyin earnest. 

Animals are worshipped, such as bulls, snakes, monkeys, and pigeons. Oneof the peculiar temples of the city is devoted solely to the worship ofmonkeys, where hundreds of these mischievous animals find a luxurioushome, no one ever interfering with their whims except to pet and to feedthem. This temple contains a singular altar, before which devotionalrites are performed by believing visitors. On the Ghats, beside theriver, these Hindoos pass the happiest hours of their sad lives, comingfrom the confined, dirty, unwholesome streets and alleys in which theysleep and eat, to pray and to bathe, as well as to breathe the fresh airand to bask in the sun. The hideous fakirs, or begging Oriental monks, make their fixed abode here, living entirely in the open air, most ofthem diseased, and all misshapen by voluntarily acquired deformity. Their distorted limbs are fixed in attitudes of penance until theybecome set and immovable. There are pious believers enough to kneelbefore them and to give them food and money by which means to supporttheir strange and fanatical self-immolation. 

We visit at Benares an ancient observatory of more than ordinaryinterest, erected by a famous Hindoo patron of science, Rajah Manu. Though it is now quite neglected and in partial ruins, a sun-dial, azodiac, meridian lines, and astronomical appliances are stilldistinctly traced upon heavy stones arranged for celestial observations. This proves that astronomy was well advanced at Benares hundreds ofyears before Galileo was born, and it will be remembered that theastronomers of India first settled the fact of the rotation of theearth. The Man-Mundil, as this observatory is called, forms a mostimportant historic link between the days of the Pharaohs and thenineteenth century. 

[Illustration: MOSQUE AT DELHI, INDIA. ]

Five hundred miles of travel by way of Cawnpore will bring us to Delhi, where a visit to the crumbling palace of the late king will show us theremains of that famous Peacock Throne, the marvel of the world when theMogul dynasty was at its zenith--a throne of solid gold, ornamented withrubies, sapphires, and diamonds, the aggregate value of which was thirtymillion dollars. It was six feet long and four feet broad, surmounted bya gold canopy supported by twelve pillars composed of the same preciousmetal. The back of the throne was so constructed as to represent apeacock with expanded tail, the natural colors of which were exactlyimitated with rubies, sapphires, diamonds, and other precious stones. Delhi was for centuries the proudest metropolis of India; within acircle of twenty miles of the present locality, one city after anotherhas established its capital, ruled in splendor, and passed away. Onemonument, which we find in the environs, has thus far defied thedestructive finger of time, --the Katub-Minar, which stands alone amidhoary ruins, the loftiest single column in the world, but of which thereis no satisfactory record. It is not inappropriately considered one ofthe greatest architectural marvels of India, and whoever erected itachieved a triumph of gracefulness and skill. It is built of red stoneelaborately ornamented in the form of a minaret, measuring about fiftyfeet in diameter at the base and ten at the top, with a height from theground of two hundred and fifty feet, divided into five stories, eachfitted with an outer gallery and adorned with colossal inscriptions. Thewhole exterior is fluted from base to top, narrowing gradually towardsthe summit. 

In the broad main thoroughfare of Delhi--the Chandni Chowk--oneconstantly meets ponderous elephants, solemn and awkward camels, fineArabian horses, and the diminutive, toy-like ponies of Cashmere. Dailymarriage processions of the most fantastic description crowd theroadway, with the animals just named caparisoned in a gaudy, harlequinstyle, accompanied by unskilled musicians on foot, whose qualificationsevidently consist in being able to make the greatest amount of noiseupon a drum, fife, or horn, which are the three instruments employed onthese occasions. Some of the white horses in the processions are paintedin parts, sky-blue, and some are decked with saffron-yellow. In theranks are covered bullock-carts with peep-holes, in which ride the womenof the harem. Mingled with these are men bearing banners with Hindoomottoes and ludicrous caricatures, half human and half animal. This iscalled a marriage procession, but upon careful inquiry it is found to beonly a betrothal of children too young to marry. The boy-bridegroomappears upon an elephant, and is dressed like a circus rider; but thefuture bride, probably a little girl of six or eight years, does notappear: she remains at home to be called upon by this motley crowd, whena brief ceremony takes place, --presents being duly exchanged, --and thefarce is then ended. 

A journey of nine hundred miles, still over these broad plains ofIndia, will bring us to the city of Agra, which, like Delhi, stands noton the Ganges, but on its great tributary, the Jumna. It is an importantcity, containing over forty thousand inhabitants. To all who visit thisplace the first object of interest will be the Taj (pronounced _Tahj_)Mahal, or tomb of the wife of the Emperor Shah-Jehan. It is the mostinteresting edifice in India and one of the most beautiful in the world. A tomb in this country means a magnificent structure of marble, withdomes and minarets, the walls inlaid with precious stones, and the wholesurrounded by gardens, fountains, and artificial lakes, covering fromten to twenty acres. Cheap as labor is in India, the Taj must have costsome fifteen millions of dollars, and was seventeen years in building. The Mogul Emperor resolved to erect the most superb monument ever rearedto commemorate a woman's name, and he succeeded, for herein Mohammedanarchitecture reached its height. The mausoleum is situated in a spaciousgarden, the equal of which can hardly be found elsewhere, beautiful tothe eye and delightful to the senses, with fragrant flowers, exotic andindigenous. This grand structure, with the ripeness of centuries uponit, is no ruin; all is fragrant and fresh as at the hour when it wascompleted. It is of white marble, three hundred feet in height, theprincipal dome being eighty feet high, and of such exquisite form andharmony is the whole that it seems almost to float in the air. 

In the centre of the Taj, beneath the glorious dome, are two raised andornamented marble frames, covering the resting-place of the emperor andhis wife. How appropriate is the inscription at the threshold: "To thememory of an undying love. " As we stand beneath the cupola, let usrepeat in a low tone of voice a verse from Longfellow's "Psalm of Life";instantly there will roll through the dimly lighted vault above a softand solemn repetition, which will sound as though voices were repeatingthe psalm in the skies. Nothing finer or more lovely in architectureexists than this faultless monument, this ideal of Saracenic art. 

By consulting a map of India it will be seen that few regions in theworld present such an array of remarkable cities as have sprung up andflourished in the Ganges-Jumna valley. Here we have Agra, Delhi, Cawnpore, Lucknow, Allahabad, Benares, Mirozapur, Patna, Decca, andMurshedabad. What historic associations arise at the bare mention ofthese Indian cities!

CHAPTER IX. 

On our way southward we pass through the beautiful, though small Indiancity of Jeypore, which is under native rule; those we have heretoforevisited are subject to Great Britain. It is quite ancient, though thereare no ruins here, everything giving evidence of present prosperity, peace, and abundance. The houses are painted in rather gaudy colors, butare neat and pretty. Queer little canvas-covered, two-wheeled carts, their tops shaped like half an egg-shell, are drawn about the town bybullocks at a lively trot. Some are closely curtained, containing womenof the harem. Oriental seclusion is the rule with the women. Under theprince who rules here the population exhibits a marked contrast to thoseof India generally, over which the authority of England extends. Thereare no mud cabins here, no beggars, no visible want or poverty. Thepeople are decently clothed, and well lodged in neat-looking houses, mostly two stories in height. The streets are broad and well kept, withbright, bubbling fountains here and there. Our excursions in thisneighborhood are made upon camels or elephants. Wild animals areabundant, the tiger especially being much dreaded. Here, as atSingapore, men, women and children are daily sacrificed to theirrapacious appetites in various parts of the district. It is said to be afact, that these animals having once tasted human flesh, will besatisfied with none other, but will leave the antelope and smaller gameunmolested, though they are known to abound in the vicinity, and lie inwait for days to capture human prey, even invading the villages atnight. English hunters visit Jeypore in large numbers annually tocapture this dangerous game. 

From this native city to Bombay is a distance of seven hundred miles byrailway, most of the route being very sparsely inhabited. The largerportion of India is an immense plain, so that the road is generally verymonotonous. Nearly seven hundred thousand acres of these plains arecultivated with poppies. A large share of these opium farms, as they maybe called, belong to the English government, and are cultivated by theiragents. Those which are conducted on private account are very heavilytaxed, and are mostly carried on in the interest of the Parsee merchantsof Bombay, who have for many years controlled the largest share of theopium trade. We frequently see near these gorgeous poppy-fields ripeningacres of grain, which would be stripped of their valuable property bythe great flocks of birds, noticed at all times, floating like cloudsover our heads, were precautions not taken to drive them away. For thispurpose a tall platform is raised upon poles to a height of twenty feetin the centre of each grain-field, with a slight straw shelter over it, upon which a young boy or girl is stationed, and whence they overlookseveral acres of grain. They have no firearms, but are supplied with asimple sling and a few well-chosen stones: should a bird be seen toonear the precious grain, an unerring stone will find him, and his bodybecomes a warning to the rest of the flock. The precision with whichthese girls and boys will throw a stone a long distance is marvellous. The monkeys which so abound in Southern India are not to be got rid ofin so easy a manner. Birds will not fly after dark, nor much beforesunrise, but the monkeys raid the fruit and vegetable fields by night, and are capable of organizing a descent upon some promising point withall the forethought of human thieves. 

The opening of communication with England by the Red Sea route has givento Bombay a great business impetus, and it possesses to-day moreelements of future greatness than any other city of Asia. The twoprincipal capitals of the country are situated on opposite sides of thegreat peninsula, Calcutta being on the Bay of Bengal, and Bombay on theSea of Arabia. We have in the latter a population of a million and over, one hundred thousand of whom are Parsees, a class of merchantsoriginally from Persia, who represent a large share of the wealth of thecity. They are by far the most enterprising and intelligent of thenatives of India, and are in entire sympathy with the Englishgovernment. Socially, they keep to themselves, strictly preserving theirwell-defined individuality. This people settled here more than eightcenturies ago, after their expulsion from Persia. Their temples containno images, nothing but the altars bearing the sacred fire which theirfathers brought with them when they landed here so long ago, and whichhas never been extinguished, according to their traditions. They worshipthe sun as the representative of God, and fire in all its forms, as wellas the ocean, which would seem to be an antagonistic agent; but as theirreligion recognizes one good and one evil principle ever contending forthe mastery of the universe, perhaps these emblems are no contradiction. 

One of the first places to which we are attracted in Bombay is MalabarHill, a lofty eminence just outside the city. On the top are the fivefamous "Towers of Silence, " which constitute the cemetery of theParsees. When a death occurs among them, the body is brought here, andafter a brief ceremony the corpse is carried into one of the towers, where it is exposed upon a grating. The bearers retire at once, and thedoor is locked. These towers are open at the top, and on the corniceshundreds of vultures are seen waiting; as soon as the body is left, theyswoop down to their awful meal, eagerly tearing and devouring thecorpse. The hideous detail is not visible, but the reappearance of thoseevil birds in a gorged condition is only too significant of what hasoccurred. The devouring flames which consumed the bodies at Calcutta andat Benares did not shock us like this. 

Bombay is made up of fine public buildings, sumptuous dwellings, and lowhovels, not mingled indiscriminately, as is often seen in Europeancities, each class being found clustering in its special locality. InFlorence, Rome, or Naples, a half-starved cobbler will be foundoccupying a stall beneath a palace; but though poverty and riches jostleeach other everywhere, the lines of demarcation are more clearly definedin Bombay than elsewhere. A drive along the picturesque shore of theArabian Sea is an experience never to be forgotten. It will be sure torecall to the traveller the beautiful environs of Genoa, with thosewinding, rock-cut roads overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. Here theroads are admirably cool and half-embowered in foliage, among which thecrimson sagittaria flaunting its fiery leaves and ponderous blossoms, everywhere meets the eye. About the fine villas which are set back ashort distance from the roads, delightful gardens of choice flowers areseen, comprising an abundance of tropical plants, tall palms lining thedrive-ways up to the houses, where the merchant princes dwell. Most ofthese are the residences of the Parsees, who in spite of their bigotryand their adherence to ancient superstitions, know how to make theirhomes beautiful. 

In leaving India, a few thoughts naturally suggest themselves. Itshistory runs back through thousands of years and remotest dynasties, captivating the fancy with numberless ruins, which, while attesting thesplendor of their prime, form also the only record of their history. Themosaic character of its population, the peculiarities of its animalkingdom, the luxuriance of its vegetation, the dazzling beauty of itsbirds and flowers, all crowd upon the memory in charming kaleidoscopiccombinations. There can be no doubt of the early grandeur and highcivilization of India. To the intellectual eminence of her people we owethe germs of science, philosophy, law, and astronomy. The most perfectof all tongues, the Sanskrit, has been the parent of many others, andnow that her lustre has faded, and her children fallen into a conditionof sloth and superstition, let us, at least, do her historic justice. Nor should we neglect to heed the lesson she so clearly presents;namely, that nations, like individuals, are subject to the unvaryinglaws of mutability. 

The government of India is a military despotism, England maintaining herrule by force alone over a foreign people numbering four times as manyas the whole population of the United States. Order is preserved at acruel cost of life among an entire race who are totally unrepresented. In travelling from city to city one is not surprised to see many signsof restlessness among the common people, and to hear harsh expressionsagainst British rule. While we recall with a thrill of horror the awfulcruelties and the slaughter of human beings during the rebellion of thenative race against the English authority in 1857, we do not wonder thata people, so goaded by oppression, should have made a vigorous andbloody struggle to obtain their independence. 

We embark at Bombay on a voyage of three thousand miles across the Seaof Arabia and the Indian Ocean, through the Straits of Babelmandeb andthe entire length of the Red Sea. The most southerly point of thevoyage, taking us within fourteen degrees of the equator, carries usinto an extremely warm temperature. The ship holds on her southwestcourse day after day, lightly fanned by the northeast monsoon, towardsthe mouth of the Red Sea. At the end of the sixth day we cast anchor atthe Peninsula of Aden, a rocky, isolated spot held by English troops, and very properly called the Gibraltar of the Indian Ocean. Like thatfamous promontory, it was originally little more than a barren rock, which has been improved into a picturesque and habitable place, bristling with British cannon of heavy calibre. It is a spot muchdreaded by sailors, the straits being half closed by sunken rocks, besides which the shore is considered to be the most unhealthy spot yetselected by civilized man as a residence. The Arabs call the straitBabelmandeb, that is, the "Gate of Tears, " because of the number ofvessels which have been wrecked here in the endeavor to enter from theopen sea. Aden lies within the rainless zone, so that sometimes theinhabitants see no rainfall for three years together. The remains of anancient and magnificent system of reservoirs hewn out of the solid rock, are seen here, the construction of which is placed at a date previousto the Christian era, and which have been adapted to modern use. 

As we lie at anchor here, there come about the ship a score of youngnatives, from ten to fifteen years of age. By eloquent gestures, and theuse of a few English words, they beg of us to throw small silver coininto the sea, for which they will dive in water that is at least sevenfathoms deep. The instant a piece of money is thrown overboard, everycanoe becomes emptied, and twenty human beings disappear from sight likea flash. Down, down go the divers, and in the depths struggle togetherfor the trifle, some one of the throng being sure to rise to the surfacewith the coin displayed between his teeth. Nothing but otters and sealscould be keener sighted or more expert in the water. 

The general aspect of Aden from the sea, though picturesque, is notinviting, giving one an idea of great barrenness. The mountains androcks have a peaked appearance, like a spear pointed at one, as much asto say, "better keep off. " People who land, however, for the first time, are agreeably disappointed by finding that every opportunity forencouraging the growth of vegetation and imparting its cheerful effectto the hard rocky soil has been carefully improved. 

Our course after leaving Aden is nearly north; the headlands ofAbyssinia are long visible on our port side, while on the other we havea distant view of Arabia. Jeddah, the seaport of Mecca, with its brightminarets, is to be seen in the distance. In coasting along the shores ofNubia, the dense air from off the land is like a sirocco, suffocatinglyhot. Suez is reached at last, a place which is all waste and barrenness, so we hasten on by railway to Cairo, a distance of two hundred miles. 

Long after leaving Suez we see only a sandy desert, the yellow soilquivering in the heated atmosphere. It is a picture of desolation. Not ablade of grass, not a shrub or tree, until by and by we come upon gentlyundulating and fertile soil, enriched by the annual deposits from theNile, where intelligent cultivation produces its natural results. Smallherds of brown buffaloes or Eastern oxen are seen, and peasants plyingthe irrigating-buckets. The pastures become alive with sheep and goatsand dromedaries. While we are approaching Cairo, and are yet two orthree leagues away, the dim outlines of the everlasting pyramids areseen through the shimmering haze, softly outlined against the eveningsky. It is impossible not to recall the words of the Humpback, in theThousand and One Nights, as we see the pyramids and glistening minaretsof the Oriental city coming into view; "He who hath not seen Cairo hathnot seen the world; its soil is golden; its Nile is a wonder; its womenare like the black-eyed virgins of Paradise; its houses are palaces; andits air is soft, --its odor surpassing that of aloes-wood and cheeringthe heart, --and how can Cairo be otherwise, when it is the Mother of theworld?"

[Illustration: A WELL IN THE DESERT BETWEEN SUEZ AND CAIRO. ]

This ideal city of the Arabian Nights is very Oriental, very original, very curious. Its four hundred thousand souls form a strangeconglomerate of humanity. In its narrow, picturesque streets one isjostled by gayly dressed Greeks and cunning Jews, by overladen donkeysand by sober, mournful-looking camels. One half expects to meet Ali Babaand the Forty Thieves, as we still look for Antonio and the Jew on theRialto at Venice. Like Paris, Cairo is a city of cafés. During theevening and far into the night crowds of individuals of everynationality are seen seated in groups before them in the open air, drinking every sort of known liquid, but coffee takes precedence of allothers. In picturesqueness of costume the Turk leads the world. Hisgraceful turban and flowing robes are worthy of the classic antique, while the rich contrast of colors which he wears adds to the strikingeffect. As he sits cross-legged before his open bazaar, or shop, smokinga long pipe, he looks very wise, very learned, though in point of factthere is no doubt more intelligence under the straw hat of a Yankeepeddler than under three average turbans. The dark, narrow lanes andendless zigzag alleys have an indescribable interest, with theiraccumulated dirt of neglect and the dust of a land where rain is soseldom known. One looks up in passing at those overhanging balconies, imagining the fate of the harem-secluded women behind them, occasionallycatching stolen glances from curious eyes peering between the lattices. 

Egyptian porters, bent half double, are seen carrying on their backsloads that would stagger a brewer's horse. Women, who ride their horsesand mules astride, are very careful to cover their faces from view, while their eyes gleam out of peep-holes. Other women, of a humblerclass, jostle us in the streets, with little naked children straddlingone shoulder, and holding on to the mother's head with both hands. People who ride upon donkeys require a boy to follow behind them with astick to belabor the poor overladen creatures, without which they willnot move forward, being so trained. Those who drive through the streetsin carriages are preceded by a gorgeously draped runner bearing a whitewand, and who constantly cries to clear the way. These runners go asfast as a horse usually trots, and seem never to tire. The common peoplelie down on the sidewalk, beside the road, in any nook or corner, tosleep off fatigue, just as a dog might do. Every public square has itsfountain, and there are two hundred in Cairo. 

The bazaars present a novel aspect. Here an old bearded Turk offers forsale odors, curious pastes and essences, with kohl for shading about theeyes, and henna dye for the fingers. Another has various ornaments ofsandal wood, delicately wrought fans, and other trifles. His next-doorneighbor, whose quarters are only a degree more dingy, offers pipes, curiously made, with carved amber mouthpieces, and others with long, flexible, silken tubes. Turbaned crowds stroll leisurely about. Now astrong and wiry Bedouin passes, leading his horse and taking count ofeverything with his sharp, black eyes, and now a Nile boatman. Yonder isan Abyssinian slave, and beyond is an Egyptian trader, with here andthere a Greek or a Maltese. Amid it all one feels curious as to whereAladdin's uncle may be just now, with his new lamps to exchange for oldones. We will ascend the loftiest point of this Arabian city to obtain amore comprehensive view. 

The mosque of Mehemet Ali, with its tapering minarets, overlooks Cairo, and is itself a very remarkable and beautiful edifice. This spaciousbuilding is lined throughout with Oriental alabaster, the exterior beingcovered with the same costly material. It contains the sarcophagus ofMehemet Ali, the most enlightened of modern rulers, before which lampsare burning perpetually. The interior of this mosque is the mosteffective, architecturally, of any temple in the East. There is a heightand breadth, and a solemn dignity in its aspect, which cannot fail toimpress every visitor. The exterior is much less striking, yet it isadmirably balanced and harmonized. The situation of the mosque commandsone of the most interesting views that can be conceived of. The city, with its countless minarets and domed mosques, its public buildings, andtree-adorned squares, its section of mud-colored houses and terracedroofs, lies in the form of a crescent at the visitor's feet; while theplains of Lower Egypt stretch far away in all directions. The tombs ofthe Mamelukes (a body of mounted soldiery of Egypt massacred by MehemetAli) lie close at hand, full of historic suggestiveness, and just beyondstands the lonely column of Heliopolis, four thousand years old, markingthe site of the famous "City of the Sun. " Towards the sea is the land ofGoshen, where the sons of Jacob fed their flocks. A little morewesterly, in the mysterious Nile, is seen the well-wooded island ofRoda, quietly nestling in the broad bosom of the river. Here is theplace where the infant Moses was found. The grand Aqueduct, with itshigh-reaching arches, reminds us of the ruins outside of Rome; while tenmiles away are seen the time-defying Pyramids, the horizon ending at theborders of the great Libyan Desert. Far away to the southwest a forestof palms dimly marks the site of dead and buried Memphis, where Josephinterpreted a monarch's dream. It is the twilight hour as we stand inthe open area of the mosque, and view the scene. The half-suppressed humof a dense Eastern population comes up to us from the busy, low-lyingcity, and a strange, sensuous flavor of sandal wood, musk, and attar ofroses floats on the golden haze of the sunset, indelibly fixing thescene upon the memory. 

[Illustration: A LADY OF CAIRO AS SEEN IN PUBLIC. ]

The Pyramids of Gizeh are situated about three leagues from Cairo, and, after crossing the Nile by an iron bridge, guarded at either end by twobronze lions, they are reached by a straight, level road, lined withwell-trimmed trees. This road terminates at a rocky plateau, whichserves to give these wonderful structures an elevated site, as well asto form a firm, natural foundation for the enormous weight of solidstone to be supported. There is always an importuning group of Arabshere, who live upon the gratuities obtained from visitors. They helppeople to ascend and descend the Pyramids for a fixed sum, or, for a fewshillings, will run up and down them like monkeys. On the way betweenCairo and the Pyramids, through the long alley of acacias, we passhundreds of camels bound to the city, laden with green fodder and newlycut clover for stable use in town. Carts are not employed; the backs ofcamels and donkeys supersede the use of wheels. 

Nothing new can be said about the Pyramids, --monuments hoary with age;the statistics relating to them are familiar. They simply show, standingthere upon the border of the desert, a vast aggregate of labor performedby compulsion, and only exhibit the supreme folly of the monarchs, whothus vainly strove to erect monuments which should defy all time andperpetuate their fame. To-day not even the names of their founders aresurely known. There are plausible suppositions enough about them, eachwriter upon the subject having plenty of arguments to support hisspecial convictions; but their history rests, after all is said, amid aconfusion of very thin speculation. There is little genius evinced inthe design or execution of the Pyramids. Neither art, taste, norreligion is in any way subserved by these unequalled follies. There isno architectural excellence in them, though great skill is evinced intheir construction, they are merely enormous piles of stone. Somepronounce them marvellous as evidences of ancient greatness and power. True; but if it were desirable, we could build loftier and larger onesin our day. As they are doubtless over four thousand years old, we admitthat they are venerable, and that they are entitled to a certain degreeof consideration on that account. In the religious instinct which ledthe Buddhists to build, at such enormous expense of time and money, thecave-temples of Elephanta, Ellora, and Carlee; in the idolatrous Hindootemples of Madura and Tanjore, the shrines of Ceylon, the pagodas ofChina, and the temples of Japan, one detects an underlying and elevatingsentiment, a grand and reverential idea, in which there may be more ofacceptable veneration than we can fully appreciate; but in the Pyramidswe have no expression of devotion, only an embodiment of personalvanity, which hesitated at nothing for its gratification, and whichproved a total failure. 

The immensity of the desert landscape, and the absence of any object forcomparison, make these three pyramids seem smaller than they really are;but the actual height of the largest, that of Cheops, is nearly fivehundred feet. The theory that they are royal tombs is generallyaccepted. Bunsen claims for Egypt nearly seven thousand years ofcivilization and prosperity before the building of these monuments. Wedo not often pause to realize how little of reliable history there isextant. Conjecture is not history. If contemporary record so oftenbelies itself, what ought we to consider veracious of that which comesto us through the shadowy distance of thousands of years? Not manyhundred feet from the nearest pyramid, and on a somewhat lower plane, stands that colossal mystery, the Sphinx. The Arabs call it "The Fatherof Terror, " and it certainly has a weird and unworldly look. Its bodyand most of the head is hewn out of the solid rock where it stands, theupper portion forming the head and bust of a human being, to which isadded the body with the paws of an animal. The great size of the figurewill be realized when we mention the fact that the face alone is thirtyfeet long and half as wide. The body is in a sitting posture, with thepaws extended forward some fifty feet or more. This strange figure isbelieved to be of much greater antiquity than the Pyramids, but no onecan say how old it really is. Notwithstanding its mutilated condition, showing the furrows of time, the features have still a sad, tranquilexpression, telling of the original dignity of the design. 

From Cairo we take the railway to Ismailia, the little town situatedmidway on the Suez Canal, between the two seas, at the Bitter Lakes, through which the course of the canal runs. It is a pretty andattractive place, containing four or five thousand inhabitants, and is acreation of the last few years. Here we observe gardens filled withchoice flowers and fruit-trees, vegetation being in its most verdantdress, promoted by irrigation from the neighboring fresh-water canal. The place has broad, neat streets, and a capacious central square, ornamented with large and thrifty trees. It was here that therepresentatives of all nations met on the occasion of the inauguratingceremony on the completion of De Lesseps's canal. We take a small mailsteamer at Ismailia, through the western half of the canal to Port Said, the Mediterranean terminus of the great artificial river. It is a factworthy of remembrance that, with all our modern improvements andprogressive ideas, the Egyptians were centuries before us in this planof shortening the path of commerce between the East and the West; or, in other words, of connecting the Red Sea with that of the Mediterraneanacross the Isthmus and through the Gulf of Suez. The purpose wasprobably never thoroughly carried out until De Lesseps's consummation ofit as it now exists. 

Port Said, like Suez, derives its only interest and importance from thecanal. It contains some seven thousand inhabitants, with a floatingpopulation of two thousand. The region round about it is perfectlybarren, like Egypt nearly everywhere away from the valley of the Nile. Through that part of the desert which we pass in coming from Suez, onelooks in vain for any continuous sign of vegetation. The entire absenceof trees and forests accounts for the lack also of wild beasts, excepting the hyena and jackal, which are occasionally met with. Hereand there, at long intervals, an oasis of green is seen, like a smilebreaking over the arid face of nature. Once or twice we see a cluster ofpalms beside a rude well, hedged in by a little patch of green earth, about which a few camels or goats are quenching their thirst or croppingthe scanty herbage. Some Arabs, in picturesque costumes, linger hard by. The tents pitched in the background are of the same low, flat-topped, camel's-hair construction as have been used by these desert tribes formany thousands of years. 

Egypt has only her ruins, her antiquity, her Bible associations to giveher interest with the world at large. Japan is infinitely to bepreferred; China even rivals her in natural advantages; and India ismuch more inviting. In looking at Egypt we must forget her present andrecall her past. The real Egypt is not the vast territory which we findlaid down by geographers, reaching to the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, andembracing equatorial regions; it is and was, even in the days of thePharaohs and Ptolemies, the valley of the Nile, from the First Cataractto the Mediterranean Sea, hemmed in by the Libyan and Arabian deserts, whence there came to the rest of the world so much of art, science, andphilosophy. The fellah or peasant, he who tills the soil, is of a fineand industrious race, well built, broad chested, and lithe of frame. Heis the same figure that his ancestors were of old, as represented on thetombs and temples of Thebes, and on the slabs one sees from Gizeh, inthe museum of Cairo. He still performs his work in the nineteenthcentury just as he did before the days of Moses, scattering the seed andirrigating by hand. He is little seen in the cities, --his place is inthe field, where he lives and thrives. Though his native land has foundsuch various masters in Greek and Roman, Arab and Turk, he has neverlost his individuality; he has ever been, and is to-day, the samehistoric Egyptian. 

The next point to which our course will take us is the Island of Malta, which involves a sail of a thousand miles from Port Said. The city ofValetta is the capital, having a population of a hundred and fiftythousand. The island is an English outpost, similar to Gibraltar, and, in a military point of view, is about as important. It is twenty mileslong and sixteen wide, and has held a conspicuous place in historicalrecords for nearly three thousand years. The houses of the city aremostly large stone structures, and many have notable architecturalmerit, fronting thoroughfares of good width, well paved, and lightedwith gas. An aspect of cleanliness and freshness pervades everything. Many of the streets run up the steep hillside on which the town stands, and are flanked by broad stone steps for foot-passengers, the roadway ofsuch streets being quite inaccessible for vehicles. The principalthoroughfare is the Strada Reale, nearly a mile long, lined withattractive stores and dwelling-houses, forming a busy and pleasantboulevard. The houses over the stores are ornamented by convenient ironbalconies, where the citizens can sit and enjoy the cool evening breezesafter the hot days that linger about Malta nearly all the year round. 

At the upper end of the Strada Reale we observe a large and imposingstone opera-house, presenting a fine architectural aspect, beingornamented with lofty Corinthian columns, a side portico and broad stonesteps leading up to the vestibule. A visit to the Church of St. Johnwill afford much enjoyment. It was built a little over three hundredyears since by the Knights of the Order of St. John, who lavishedfabulous sums of money upon its erection and its elaborateornamentation. Statuary and paintings of rare merit abound within itswalls, and gold and silver ornaments render the work of great aggregatevalue. The entire roof of the church, which is divided into zones, isadmirably painted in figures of such proportions as to look life-sizefrom the floor, representing prominent Scriptural scenes. In this churchthe Knights seem to have vied with each other in adding to its ornamentsand its treasures, so that the rich marbles, bas-reliefs, and mosaicsare almost confusing in their abundance. The floor is formed of inlaidmarble slabs, which cover the last resting-places of the mostdistinguished Knights of the famous Order of St. John. 

Snow is not known in Malta, but ice sometimes forms during the coldestnights of winter, though only in very thin layers, the climate beingmuch like that of Southern Italy. Fruit and ornamental trees abound, andflowers attract the eye in nearly every domestic window. There must be aprevailing refinement of taste in this island city, otherwise theabundance of flowers offered for sale in the Strada Reale would not findpurchasers. There is a section near the harbor named Casal Attand; thatis, the "Village of Roses. " _Casal_ in Maltese signifies village. Thereis also Casal Luca, the "Village of Poplars, " and still another, CasalZebbug, the "Village of Olives, " a natural and appropriate system ofnomenclature. It is extremely interesting to visit the armory of theKnights of St. John, to see the rusty lances, dimmed sword-blades, andtattered battle-flags which were borne by the Crusaders in the days ofSaladin and Coeur de Lion. A visit to Fort St. Angelo, perched uponthe summit of the island, enables us to look far away over the blueMediterranean, dotted by the picturesque maritime rig of these waters. It is pleasant to stroll about the bright, cleanly streets of Valetta, to chat with the smiling flower-girls who occupy the little kiosks(flower-stands) on the corners of the Strada Reale, and to enjoy acooling ice in the gardens of the café adjoining the Knights' Palace. But we must not linger here, whence we sail for Gibraltar, a thousandmiles away, at the other end of this great inland sea. 

Arrived at the famous Rock, we are at once impressed upon landing withits military importance. Every other person one meets is in uniform, andcannon are as plenty as at Woolwich or West Point. The Signal Station isfifteen hundred feet in height. The zigzag path leading to the summit islined with wild-flowers, though we come now and again upon embrasures, whence protrude grim-muzzled guns. Further up we stoop to gather somedaphnes and disclose a battery screened by fragrant and bloomingflowers. From the top the view is magnificent; the white wings ofcommerce which sprinkle the sea look like sea-gulls, and steamships areonly discernible by the long line of smoke trailing behind them. Farbelow us, on the Spanish side, lies the town, a thick mass of yellow, white, and brown houses; and nestling in the bay is the shipping, looking like toy-boats. The mountain ranges of Ceuta and Andalusia, onopposite continents, mingle with soft, over-shadowing clouds, while overour heads is a glorious dome of turquoise blue, such as no temple raisedby the hand of man can imitate. 

We find that England has thus established and maintains a line ofoutposts from the Mediterranean to the far East, beginning at Gibraltar, thence to Malta, Aden, Ceylon, Penang, Singapore, and Hong Kong, completely dominating the South of Asia, and giving her a clear route toher extensive possessions in India. 

CHAPTER X. 

We embark at Gibraltar for Tangier in a small coasting steamer, crossingthe straits which separate Europe from Africa, a distance of less than ahundred miles. As we draw away from the Spanish shore, the long range ofAndalusian mountains stands out compact and clear, the snow-whitesummits sparkling in the sunshine. On the lowlands, sloping to thewater's edge, the fields are robed in a soft green attire, dotted withherds of goats and cattle. Old stone watch-towers line the shore atregular intervals, and coast-guard houses sheltering squads of soldiers, for this region is famous as the resort of smugglers and lawless bandsof rovers. On the opposite coast of Africa, the Ceuta range grows everymoment more distinct, the loftiest peaks mantled with snow, like thebleached, flowing drapery of the Bedouins. Still further on, dazzlingwhite hamlets enliven the Morocco shore, with deep green, tropicalverdure in the background. Ceuta attracts our interest, being a Spanishpenal colony, which is surrounded by jealous, warlike Moors, slave-traders, and smugglers. 

Tangier stands on the western shore of a shallow bay, upon a slopinghillside, but it is not at all impressive as one approaches it. Thewindowless houses rise like cubical blocks of masonry one above another, dominated by a few square towers which crown the several mosques; whilehere and there a consular flag floats lazily upon the air from a loftypole. The rude, irregular wall which surrounds the city is seenstretching about it, pierced with arched Moorish gates. 

Oriental as Cairo is, Tangier strikes us as even more so. In coming fromGibraltar, one seems, by a single step as it were, to have passed fromcivilization to barbarism. There is no European quarter here. Everyevidence of the proximity of the opposite continent disappears: thedistance might be immeasurable. The city has narrow, dirty, twistedstreets, through which no vehicle can pass, and which are scarcelyaccessible for donkeys, camels, and foot-passengers. There is not astraight or level street in all Tangier. Veiled women, clad in white, move about the lanes like uneasy spirits; men in scarlet turbans andstriped robes lounge carelessly about, with their bare heels stickingout of yellow slippers. Now we meet a tawny Arab, a straggling son ofthe desert, his striped abba or white bournous (robe-like garments)hanging in graceful folds about his tall, straight figure; and now aNubian, with only a waistcloth about his body. The scene is constantlychanging. There are Jews, with dark blue vests and red sashes; Jewesses, in bright purple silks, and with uncovered, handsome faces. Here andthere is seen a Maltese or Portuguese sailor hiding from punishment forsome crime committed on the opposite continent. The variety of races onemeets in these contracted passage-ways is indeed curious, represented byfaces yellow, bronze, white, and black. Add to all, the crowd ofdonkey-boys, camels, goats, and street pedlers, crying, bleating, blustering, and braying, and we get an idea of the sights and soundsthat constantly greet one in this Moorish capital. 

The slave market is situated just outside of the city walls, where thesales take place on the Sabbath, which is regarded as a sort of holiday. The average price of the women and girls is from fifty to sixty dollars, according to age and good looks; the men vary much in price, accordingto the demand for labor. About the large open space of the market is agroup of Bedouins, just arrived from the interior with dried fruits, dates, and the like. Camels and men, weary after the long tramp, arereclining upon the ground, forming a picture only to be seen on theborder of the desert, and beneath the glow and shimmer of an Africansun. 

We ascend the heights, which form a background to the city. The slopinghillside is mostly occupied by a few European merchants and the consulsof the several nations. Their villas are very picturesque, half buriedin foliage, and located in an atmosphere redolent with fruits andflowers. From the fronts of their dwellings the view is superb: thebroad piazzas are hung here and there with hammocks, telling ofluxurious out-door life; family groups are seen taking their morningcoffee on the verandas, and the voices of many children ring out, clearand bird-like, floating up to the eyrie where we are perched; downtowards the shore lies brown, dingy, dirty Tangier, with its mud-coloredgroups of tiled roofs, its teeming population, its mouldy old walls, itsMoorish arched gates, and its minarets, square and dominant. On our wayback we again pass through the slave market, where a bevy ofdancing-girls with tambourines and castanets look wistfully at us, hoping for an audience. 

Nearly the last sound that greets our ears, as we walk over theirregular pavements and through the narrow lanes toward the pier whencewe are to embark, is the rude music of the snake-charmer; and the lastsight is that of a public story-teller in one of the little squares, earnestly gesticulating before a score of eager listeners while herecites a chapter from the "Thousand and One Nights. "

The sultan of Morocco is supreme, and holds the lives and fortunes ofhis subjects at his will. He is judge and executioner of the laws, whichemanate from himself. Taxation is so heavy as to amount to prohibition, in many departments of enterprise; exportation is hampered, agricultureso heavily loaded with taxes that it is only pursued so far as to supplythe bare necessities of life; manufacture is just where it was centuriesago, and is performed with the same primitive tools; the printing-pressis unknown; there are no books, save the Koran; and the language is sucha mixture of tongues, and is so corrupted, as to hardly have adistinctive existence. The people obey the local sheikhs (pronounced_sh[=a]k_); above them are the cadis, who control provinces; and stillhigher, are the pashas, who are accountable only to the sultan. 

Returning to Gibraltar we take a coasting steamer along the shore ofSpain eastward to Malaga, the city of raisins and sweet wine. It iscommercially one of the most important cities of the country, and wasonce the capital of an independent state. It was a large and prosperousPhoenician metropolis centuries before the time of Christ upon earth. The older portions of the city have all the Moorish peculiarities ofconstruction, --narrow streets, crooked passages, small barred windows, and heavy doors; but the modern part of Malaga is characterized bybroad, straight thoroughfares and elegantly built houses of stone. Thisis especially the case with the Alameda, which has a central walkornamented by flowers and shrubs, and which is bordered with handsomealmond-trees. On either side of this broad promenade is a good roadway, flanked by houses of pleasing architectural effect, lofty and wellrelieved. 

There are several fine open squares in Malaga, some of which containstatues and ornamental trees, together with well-kept flower-beds. Thediscovery not long since of Roman antiquities in the environs hascreated a warm interest among archæologists. The trade of the city inwine and dried fruits is large. Four-fifths of the forty thousand buttsof sweet wine shipped from here are exported to the United States. Thepresent population is about a hundred and twenty-five thousand, made upof a community of more than average respectability, though beggars arefound to be very annoying in the public streets. The old Moorish castlecrowning the seaward heights has been converted into a modern fortress, affording a charming view from its battlements. In the squares andstreets, as well as in the market-place, women sit each morning weavingfresh-cut flowers of rose-buds, mignonette, pansies, violets, andgeraniums into pretty little clusters, of which they sell many asbutton-hole bouquets. One may be sure there is always a refined elementin the locality, whether otherwise visible or not, where such anappreciation is manifested. The bull-fight may thrive, the populace maybe riotous, education at a very low ebb, and art almost entirelyneglected; but when a love of nature is evinced in the appreciation ofbeautiful flowers, there is still extant on the popular heart thehalf-effaced image of its Maker. 

It is an interesting fact that Spain, in the time of Julius Cæsar, contained nearly eighty million inhabitants, but to-day it has less thaneighteen million. By glancing at the map it will be perceived thatSpain is a large country, comprising nearly the whole of the southernpeninsula of Europe, Portugal being confined to a very small space. Itis about double the size of Great Britain, and is rich in every knownmineral, though poor enough in the necessary energy and enterpriserequisite to improve such possibilities. In many sections of the countrygreat natural fertility is apparent, but nature has to perform thelion's share of the work in producing crops. In the environs of Malaga, and the southern provinces generally, there are orange, lemon, and olivegroves miles in extent. The Moors had a poetical saying that thisfavored region was dropped from paradise, but there is more of poetrythan truth in the legend. What is really required is good cultivationand skilled agricultural enterprise. These would develop a verydifferent condition of affairs and give to legitimate effort a richreward. The sugar-cane, the grape-vine, the fig-tree, and the productiveolive, mingling with the myrtle and the laurel, gratify the eye in andabout the district of Malaga; but as one advances inland, the productsbecome natural or wild, cultivation primitive and only partial, grain-fields being scarce and universal neglect the prominent feature. 

[Illustration: GENERAL VIEW OF THE ALHAMBRA. ]

Granada is situated about seventy miles north of Malaga, where set thesun of Moorish glory, but where still exists that embodiment of romance, the Alhambra. This palace-fortress is the one attraction of thedistrict. It is difficult to realize that the Moors possessed sucharchitectural skill, and that they produced such splendid palacescenturies ago. It is also quite as remarkable that Time, the greatdestroyer, should have spared for our admiration such minute, lace-likecarvings, and such brilliant mosaics. The marvel of the architecture isits perfect harmony; there are no jarring elements in this superbstructure, no false notes in the grand anthem which it articulates. Invisiting the Alhambra one must be assisted by both history and theimagination; he must know something of the people who built andbeautified it; he must be able to summon back the brave warriors andbeautiful ladies from the dim past to people again these glorious halls. He must call to life the orange, the myrtle, and the myriads of fragrantflowers that bloomed of old in these now silent marble courts. As wepass from one section to another, from hall to hall, chamber to chamber, lingering with busy thoughts amid the faded glory, the very atmosphereteems with historical reminiscences of that most romantic period, themediæval days, when the Moors held regal court in Andalusia. A lurkingsympathy steals over us for that exiled people who could create and givelife to such a terrestrial paradise. 

[Illustration: A RECEPTION HALL IN THE ALHAMBRA. ]

Alhambra signifies "Red Castle, " and the vermilion-tinted structure, with its outlying towers, was thus appropriately named. In the days ofits glory it was half palace, half fortress; indeed, a city in itself, capable of accommodating quite an army, and containing within its wallsan immense cistern as a water supply, besides armories, storehouses, foundry, and every appliance of a large citadel. A considerable portionof the far-reaching walls is still extant. Under good generalship, andproperly manned, the place must have been nearly impregnable to attackwith such arms as were in use at the period. For a long time after theexpulsion of the Moors, the Castilian monarchs made it their royalresidence, and revelled within its splendid walls; but they finallydeserted it. The place was next infested by a lawless community ofsmugglers and banditti, who made it their headquarters, whence to sallyforth and lay the neighboring plains under contribution. Then came theFrench as conquerors, who expelled the lawless intruders, themselves, perhaps, quite as deserving of the title; but they did good work inclearing what had become an Augean stable of its worst filth andpartially restoring the choicest work of the Moorish builders. To-daythe Spanish government guards with jealous care a monumental treasurewhich cannot be equalled in the kingdom. 

A day's journey northward brings us to Cordova, which was the capital ofMoorish Spain ten centuries ago, when the city could boast a millioninhabitants. Now it has thirty thousand. One of the most prominentobjects is the ancient stone bridge, supported by broad, irregulararches. For two thousand years that old bridge has battled with theelements; Romans, Moors, and Spaniards have fiercely contended at itsentrances; the tides of victory and of defeat have swept again and againacross its roadway. Leaning over its stone barriers we watch the riverpursue its rapid course just as it has done for twenty centuries. Palaces, temples, shrines, may crumble, nations rise and fall, but theGuadalquiver still flows on. 

The one great interest of Cordova is its cathedral, erected sixteencenturies ago. Beautiful are its still remaining hundreds of interiorcolumns, composed of porphyry, jasper, granite, alabaster, verd-antique, and marble of various colors. Each of the columns upholds a smallpilaster, and between them is a horseshoe arch, no two of the columnsbeing alike. They came from Greece, Rome, Constantinople, Damascus, andthe Temple of Jerusalem. All the then known world was put undercontribution to furnish the twelve hundred columns of this wonderfultemple. The great mosque was changed into a cathedral after theexpulsion of the Arabs, but a large portion of the interior is untouchedand remains as it was when the caliphs worshipped here. Inside and outit is gloomy, massive, and frowning, forming one of the most remarkablelinks still existing in Spain between the remote past and the present. It appears to be nearly as large upon the ground as St. Peter's at Rome, and contains fifty separate chapels within its capacious walls. It has, in its passage through the several dynasties of Roman, Moorish, andSpanish rule, received distinctive architectural marks from each. Itslarge, cool court of orange-trees, centuries old, its battlemented wallsand huge gateway, its famous fountains and its mingled palms and tallcypresses, all combine to perfect an impressive picture of the dead andburied thousands connected with its history. 

We still pursue a northerly course. From Cordova to Madrid is aboutthree hundred miles by railway, carrying us through some veryinteresting and typical scenery. Occasionally a gypsy camp is passed, pitched near our route, presenting the usual domestic groups, mingledwith animals, covered carts, lazy men stretched on the greensward, andbusy women cooking the evening meal. Long strings of mules, withwidespread panniers, are seen winding across the plain, sometimes incharge of a woman clad in gaudy colors, while her lazy husband thrums aguitar as he lies across one of the mules. Towards evening groups ofpeasants, male and female, with farming tools in their hands, are seenwinding their steps towards some hamlet after the day's labor. Archedstone bridges, old and moss-grown, come into view, spanning smallwatercourses on their way from the mountains to join more pretentiousstreams. Elevated spots show us the ruins of old stone towers, once apart of some feudal stronghold, but the eye seeks in vain forwell-wooded slopes, thrifty groves, or cultivated fields with promisingcrops. While the more practical traveller realizes a sense ofdisappointment at the paucity of thrift and vegetation, the poet and theartist will find enough to delight the eye and to fire the imaginationin Spain. The ever-transparent atmosphere, and the lovely cloud-effectsthat prevail, are accompaniments which will hallow the desolate regionsfor the artist at all seasons. The poet has only to wander among theformer haunts of the Moors and view the crumbling monuments of theirgorgeous, luxurious, and artistic taste, to be equally absorbed andinspired. 

When we arrive at Madrid, the first query which suggests itself is, whyCharles V. Should have made his capital on this spot. True, it is inabout the geographical centre of Spain, but it is hemmed in on all sidesby arid plains, and has an adjacent river, so-called, but which inAmerica would be known as a dry gulch. It is difficult to see whatpossible benefit can be derived from a waterless river. Like the Arno atFlorence, it seems troubled with a chronic thirst. In short, theManzanares has the form of a river without the circulation. In the daysof Charles II. Its dry bed was turned into a sort of race-course anddrive-way, but since the completion of the magnificent Prado it has beenabandoned even for this purpose. Eight or nine hundred years ago Madridwas a fortified outpost of Toledo--"imperial" Toledo. Though it issituated between two and three thousand feet above sea-level, it doesnot seem to possess the advantages usually following such position, theclimate being scorchingly hot in summer and piercingly cold in winter. So that one comes to the conclusion that in point of climate, as well asin location, the Spanish capital is a mistake. 

Having been established when the furor for cathedral-building hadpassed, the city has none within its borders, though there is no lack ofmodern churches. Notwithstanding these criticisms, Madrid is a large andfine city, with some four hundred thousand inhabitants; not noticeable, like Genoa, Rome, or Florence, for palaces and ancient monuments, but itis well laid out, the streets broad and nicely paved, while numerousopen squares ornament the several sections. Some of these are filledwith attractive shrubbery and ornamental trees, as well as statuary. Among the latter are representations of Murillo, Philip III. , Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Philip V. , Calderon, and others. The finest statue in thecity is that of Philip IV. , representing that monarch on horseback, theanimal in a prancing position. This is a wonderfully life-like bronze, designed by Velasquez. It forms the centre of the Plaza del Oriente, orsquare in front of the royal palace, from which it is separated, however, by a broad thoroughfare. According to history, Galileo showedthe artist how the horse could be sustained in its remarkable position, the whole weight of the rider and the animal resting on the hind legs. 

On the Prado, the grand public drive of the citizens, there are finemarble statues, and groups combined with very elegant fountains. ThePuerto del Sol, that is, the "Gate of the Sun, " is situated in the heartof the city, and is always full of busy life. A dozen large streets andboulevards radiate from this area, where the lines of street-cars alsomeet and diverge. The fashionable idlers of the town hold high carnivalin the Puerto del Sol, day and night. One is half dazed by the whirl ofcarriages, the rush of pedestrians, the passing of military bands withmarching regiments, and the clatter of horses' feet caused by dashingequestrians. This plaza or square is a scene of incessant movement fromearly morn until midnight. Like Paris and Vienna, Madrid does not seemto thoroughly awaken until evening, the tide of life becoming mostactive under the glare of gas-light. The Prado, just referred to, is toMadrid what the Champs Elysées and the Bois de Boulogne are to Paris, asplendid avenue, through the centre of which runs a walk and gardensimilar to the Unter den Linden of Berlin, or Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, save that it is more extensive than either of these last named. The Prado nearly joins the Public Garden of Madrid, on the borders ofthe city proper, in which there are also fine carriage-drives, roadwaysfor equestrians, many delightful shaded walks, and paths lined withchoice flowers. On Sundays and holidays these grounds are thronged withcitizens and their families for out-of-door enjoyment; several militarybands distributed about the grounds add to the attraction. 

The royal palace is located upon a slightly elevated site, and is soisolated as to give full effect to its appearance. It is the onlybuilding of a remarkable character, architecturally speaking, in thecity; being the largest, and one of the finest, royal palaces in Europe. It belongs to the Tuscan style, and cost between five and six milliondollars a hundred years ago. The base is of granite; but the upperportion is built of a fine white stone, very closely resembling marble. 

In its splendid art collection of the Museo, the city has a treasureonly equalled by the Louvre at Paris and the galleries of Florence. Toartists it is the one attraction of Madrid, and is principally composedof works by Spanish masters, though also containing many other fineworks of art. Here we may see forty examples by the hand of Murillo, sixty-four from Velasquez, sixty by Rubens, twenty-five from PaulVeronese, thirty-four by Tintoretto, and many by Andrea del Sarto, Titian, Vandyke, and others of similar artistic fame. It is believedthat Murillo appears at his best in this collection. Being a native ofSeville, he is seen, as it were, at home; and artists declare that hisworks here show more power and expression than anywhere else. So we goto Antwerp to appreciate Rubens, though we find him so fully representedelsewhere. The same may be said of Velasquez as of Murillo; he also wasat home here, and cannot be fairly, or rather fully, judged outside ofthe Madrid gallery. 

When the French were masters in Spain, they proved to be terrible agentsof destruction; leaving marks of their devastation everywhere. Notcontent with stealing many unequalled works of art, they often wantonlydestroyed what they could not conveniently take away with them. In thetomb of Ferdinand and Isabella, at Grenada, they pried open the royalcoffins, in search of treasure; at Seville they broke open the coffin ofMurillo, and scattered his ashes to the wind; Marshal Soult treated theashes of Cervantes in a similar manner. War desecrates all things, humanand divine, but sometimes becomes a Nemesis (goddess of retribution), dispensing poetical justice; as when Waterloo caused the return to Spainof a portion of her despoiled art-treasures. 

The bull-ring of the capital will seat eighteen thousand spectators. Here, on each Sunday of the season, exhibitions are given toenthusiastic crowds, the entertainments always being honored by thepresence of the state dignitaries, and members of the royal family. Theworst result of such cruelty is that it infects the beholders with alike spirit. We all know how cruel the English became during the reignof Henry the Eighth. Sunday is always a gala-day in Madrid, though theattendance upon early mass is very general, at least among the women. Itis here, as at Paris and other European capitals, the chosen day formilitary parades, horse races, and the bull fight. Most of the shops areopen, and do a profitable business; especially is this the case with theliquor and cigar stores and the cafés. The lottery-ticket vendor makesdouble the usual day's sales on this occasion, and the itinerantgamblers, with their little tables, have crowds about them wherever theylocate. The gayly dressed flower-girls, with dainty little baskets richin color and captivating in fragrance, press button-hole bouquets on thepedestrians, while men perambulate the streets with cakes and candiesdisplayed in open wooden boxes hung about their necks. In short, Sundayis made a holiday, when grandees and beggars come forth like marchingregiments into the Puerto del Sol. The Prado and public gardens arecrowded with gayly dressed people, children, and nurses, the costumes ofthe latter being of the most theatrical character. No one who can walkstays within doors on Sunday at Madrid. 

The cars will take us forty miles hence to Toledo, where the rule of theMoor is seen in foot-prints which time has not yet obliterated. It seemslike realizing a mediæval dream to walk the narrow, sombre streets ofthis famous old capital. Strangely steep, winding, and irregular, theyare! The reason for constructing them thus was doubtless that they mightbe the more easily defended when attacked by an enemy. In the days ofher prime, Toledo saw many battles, both inside and outside of hergates. One can touch the houses of these streets, in many instances, onboth sides at the same time by extending the arms. There are scores ofdeserted buildings, securely locked up, the heavy gates studded withgreat iron nails, while the lower windows are closely iron-grated. Someof them are open and unguarded, having paved entrances or court-yards, with galleries around them, upon which the rooms open. Everythingbespeaks their Moorish origin. Some of these houses, which were palacesonce, are now used as storehouses, some as carpenter-shops, someoccupied as manufactories, while the appearance of all shows them tohave been designed for a very different use. 

The whole valley which Toledo overlooks, now lying so dead and silent, once teemed with a dense population, and sent forth armies, and foughtgreat battles, in the days of the Goths. The cathedral of this old cityis visited by architects from all parts of Europe and America, solelyfor the purpose of professional study, it being one of the finestexamples of the Gothic order in existence, while the richness of itsornamentation and its artistic wealth, not to mention in detail its goldand silver plate, make it the rival of most cathedrals in the world, with the possible exception of that at Burgos. Its size is vast, with atower reaching three hundred feet heavenward, the interior having fivegreat aisles, divided by over eighty aspiring columns. It is said tocontain more stained-glass windows than any other cathedral that wasever built. The high altar, a marvel of splendid workmanship and minutedetail, is yet a little confusing from the myriads of single statues, groups, columns, and ornaments generally. 

Toledo stands upon the boldest promontory of the Tagus, a dead andvirtually deserted city. Coveted by various conquerors, she has beenbesieged more than twenty times; so that the river beneath her walls hasoften flowed red with human gore where it is spanned by the gracefulbridge of Alcantara. Phoenicians, Romans, Goths, Moors, and Christianshave all fought for, and at different times have possessed the place. Only the skeleton of a once great and thriving capital remains. It hasno commerce, and but one industry, the manufacture of arms andsword-blades, which gives occupation to a couple of hundredsouls--hardly more. The coming and going of visitors from other landsgives it a little flutter of daily life, --like a fitful candle, blazingup for a moment, and then dying down in the socket, making darkness onlythe more intense by the contrast. The one sword factory is found to beof little interest, though we are told that better blades aremanufactured here to-day than of old. 

In looking at the present condition of this once famous seat of industryand power, recalling her arts, manufactures, and commerce, it must beremembered that outside of the immediate walls, which formed the citadelof a large and extended population, were over forty thriving towns andvillages in the valley of the Tagus, under the shadow of her wing. Thesecommunities and their homes have all disappeared, pastures and fields ofgrain covering their dust from the eyes of the curious traveller. Thenarrow, silent, doleful streets of the old city, with its overhangingroofs and yawning arches, leave a sad memory on the brain as we turnthoughtfully away from its crumbling walls and picturesque, antiqueMoorish gates. 

Thirty-five miles from Madrid by rail will bring us to the Escurial, which the Spaniards call the eighth wonder of the world. This vast pileof stone buildings is more than three hundred years in age, and nearly amile in circumference, --tomb, palace, cathedral, monastery, all in one. It was the royal home of that bigoted monarch Philip II. , but is nowonly a show place, so to speak, of no present use except as anhistorical link and a royal tomb. One hall, over two hundred feet longand sixty wide, contains nearly seventy thousand bound volumes, allarranged with their backs to the wall so that the titles cannot be read, a plan which one would say was the device of some madman. The shelves, divided into sections and ornamental cases, are made of ebony, cedar, orange, and other choice woods. What possible historic wealth may herelie concealed, what noble thoughts and minds embalmed! In the domesticor dwelling portion of the Escurial, the apartments are very finelyinlaid with various woods, besides containing some delicate and antiquefurniture of great beauty. A few cabinet pictures are seen upon thewalls, and one or two large apartments are hung with tapestry, which, though centuries old, is as fresh as when it was first made. It mighthave come from the manufactory during this present year; for itcertainly could not look brighter or more perfect. 

The grounds surrounding the structure are laid out in pleasant gardens, where fountains, flowers, and a few inferior marble statues serve forexternal finish. On the outside, high up above the broadest portion ofthe dome, was placed the famous plate of gold, an inch thick andcontaining some ten square feet of surface, forming a monument of thebravado and extravagance of Philip II. , who put it there in reply to theassertion of his enemies that he had financially ruined himself inbuilding so costly a palace as the Escurial. 

Burgos is situated about two hundred miles north of Madrid, and isreached by railway. Here the first impression upon the stranger is thatof quaintness. It is a damp, cold, dead-and-alive place, with but threemonuments worthy of our attention. These are its unrivalled cathedral, its Carthusian monastery, and its convent of Huelgas; and yet there is atinge of the romantic Castilian period about its musty old streets andarchways scarcely equalled elsewhere in Spain, and which one would notlike to miss. It is very amusing, on arriving in such a place, to startoff in the early morning without any fixed purpose as to destination, and wander through unknown streets, lanes, and archways, coming out upona broad square, --the Plaza Mayor, for instance, which contains a bronzestatue of Charles III. ; thence to another with a tall stone fountain inits centre, where a motley group of women and young girls are fillingtheir jars with water; and again, through a dull dark lane, coming uponthe lofty gate of Santa Maria, erected by Charles V. , and ornamentedwith statues of the Cid (a noted knight and warrior), Fernando Gonzales(famous Spanish general), and the emperor. Strolling on, we presentlycome to another open square, full of busy groups of women and donkeys, gathered about piles of produce. It is the vegetable market, always afavorite morning resort in every new locality. How animated are theeager sellers and buyers! What a study is afforded by their bright, expressive faces; how gay the varied colors of dress and of vegetables;how ringing the Babel of tongues and the braying of donkeys!

The cathedral, which the Emperor Charles V. Said ought to be placedunder glass, renders the town a famous resort of travellers, being oneof the largest, finest, and most richly endowed of all the Spanishchurches. This lofty structure, like that at Antwerp, is situated behinda cluster of inferior buildings, so as greatly to detract from itsexternal effect, though from the opposite side of the river Arlanzon afavorable view is obtained of its open-work spires and its tallcorrugated roof. The columns and high arches of the interior are a mazeof architectural beauty in pure Gothic. In all these Spanish churchesthe choir completely blocks up the centre of the interior, so that nocomprehensive view can be had. Above the space between the altar and thechoir rises a cupola, which, in elaborate ornamentation of bas-reliefs, statues, small columns, arches, and sculptured figures, exceeds anythingof the sort in this country so famous for its cathedrals. The hundredand more carved seats of the choir are in choice walnut, and form agreat curiosity as an example of artistic wood-carving, presenting humanfigures, vines, fantastic animals, and foliage. The several chapels areas large as ordinary churches, while in the centre of each lies buried abishop or a prince. The great number of statues and paintings scatteredthrough the interior of the cathedral are almost as confusing as thepinnacled and statue-covered roof of the Milan cathedral, whose beautydisappears amid accumulation. In a side apartment the attendant willshow us many curious relics, among them the well-known effigy of Christon the Cross, which devout believers say was carved by Nicodemus justafter he had buried the Saviour. 

Our course is still northward. From Burgos to San Sebastian by rail is ahundred and fifty miles. As we leave the ancient town, memory is busyfor a moment recalling its legends and history. We remember thatcenturies ago a knight of Castile, Diego Porcelos, had a lovely daughternamed Sulla Bella, whom he gave as a bride to a German cavalier, andtogether they founded this place and fortified it. They called it Burg, a fortified place, hence Burgos. We recall the Cid and his gallantwar-horse, Baveica, we think of the richly endowed cathedral, and theold monastery, where rest Juan II. And Isabella of Portugal in theirelaborately carved alabaster tomb. But gradually these memories fadeaway as we awaken to new and present surroundings while rushing along atrailway speed. Sparkling watercourses, with here and there a fall, givepower to some rickety old stone mill and add variety to the scene. Onthe not far-off hills are castles, border fortresses in ruins, whosegray towers have borne witness to the conflicts of armor-clad warriorsin the days of Castilian knighthood and glory. What interest hangs aboutthese rude battlements! In looking back upon the ancient days it isfortunate that the mellowing influence of time dims the vision, and wesee as through a softening twilight; otherwise we should behold suchharshness as would embitter all. The olden time, like the landscape, appears best in the purple distance. 

The general aspect of the country since we left Malaga in the south hasbeen rather disappointing, and the rural appearance on this beautifultrip from Burgos to San Sebastian is therefore the more heartilyappreciated. It should be called the garden of Spain, the well-wateredvalleys and plains being spread with a carpet of exquisite verdure. Inthe far distance one detects snow-clad mountains, which in fact are notout of sight during the entire journey. Thousands of acres are coveredby the vine from the product of which comes our sherry wine. It isimpossible not to feel a sense of elation amid the delightful sceneryand while breathing the genial air. Nature seems to be in her merriestmood, clothing everything in poetic attire, rendering more thanbeautiful the gray hamlets on the hillsides, over which rise squarebell-towers, about which the red-tiled cottages cluster. Outside ofthese are seen family groups, some sewing, some spinning, while childrengleefully tumble about and play in the inviting grass. 

San Sebastian is a somewhat famous watering-place, situated on theboisterous Bay of Biscay, and drawing its patronage largely from Madrid, though of late many English people have resorted thither. It is a smallcity, but the thriftiest and most business-like, when its size isconsidered, to be found in the borders of Spain. The place was entirelydestroyed by fire when captured from the French by the English, a pieceof sanguinary work which cost the latter five thousand lives! It was onthis occasion that Wellington is reported to have said, "The next mostdreadful thing to a battle lost is a battle won. "

After leaving San Sebastian our first stopping-place is Bayonne; thatis, "Good Port. " It is a city of some thirty thousand inhabitants, situated at the junction of the Adour and Nive rivers, in the LowerPyrenees. Here again the cathedral forms the principal attraction totravellers. Though very plain and with little architectural merit, stillit is very old, gray and crumbling, plainly telling the story of itsage. The city has considerable commerce by the river, both in steam andsailing vessels, and exports a very respectable amount of domesticproduce. Here we see the palace where Catharine de Medici and the Dukeof Alva planned the terrible massacre of the Huguenots of France. Alarge, well-arranged public garden begins just at the city gate andextends along the left bank of the Adour, and there are many pleasantdrives in the environs. 

From here we take the cars for Bordeaux, France, a distance of over ahundred miles, the road running mostly through what seems to be aninterminable pine forest. 

In leaving Spain we pause for a moment to contrast her past and herpresent. In the sixteenth century she was the most powerful nation inthe world. In art she held the foremost position. Murillo, Velasquez, and Ribiéra were her honored sons; in literature she was represented byCervantes, Lope de Vega, and Calderon; while of discoverers andconquerors she sent forth Columbus, Cortez, and Pizarro. The banners ofCastile and Aragon floated alike on the Pacific and the Indian oceans. Her warriors were brave and adventurous, her soldiers inherited thegallantry of the followers of Charles V. She was the court of Europe, the acknowledged leader of chivalry. How rapid has been her decadence!As in the plenitude of her power she was ambitious, cruel, andperfidious, so has the measure which she meted to others been in turnaccorded to herself, until to-day there are none so lowly as to do herhomage. 

Bordeaux is reckoned the third city in France as to its commercialimportance. The form of the town is that of a crescent extending alongthe shore of the Garonne, which here forms a broad and navigable harbor, always well filled with foreign and domestic shipping, though it issixty miles from the sea. There are many interesting Roman antiquitiesand monuments to be seen in and about the city, venerable with the wearand tear of eighteen centuries. The public buildings are commanding intheir architectural effect, and are many of them adorned with sculpture. The most ancient part of the town, like nearly all others we visit inEurope, has narrow and crooked streets, but the modern portion is open, airy, and well arranged for business and domestic comfort. The GrandTheatre is a remarkable piece of effective architecture, with its nobleIonic columns, and was built a little more than a century since by LouisXVI. 

The distance from Bordeaux to Paris is about four hundred miles. Theroute passes all the way through a charming and highly cultivatedcountry. The well-prepared fields are green with varied crops, showing ahigh state of cultivation. Flocks of sheep, tended by shepherdesses withtall Norman caps of white linen and picturesque bright colored dresses, enliven the landscape. These industrious women are seen knitting as theywatch their charge. Others are driving oxen while men hold the plow. Gangs of men and women together in long rows are preparing the groundfor the seed, and all seem cheerful and happy. The small railroadstations recall those of India between Tuticorin and Madras, where thesurroundings are beautified by fragrant flower-gardens, their bland, odorous breath acting like a charm upon the senses amid the noise andbustle of arrival and departure. Now and again as we progress thepointed architecture of some picturesque château presents itself amongthe clustering trees, with its bright verdant lawn and neat outlyingbuildings, and so we speed swiftly on until by and by we glide into thelarge station at Paris. 

CHAPTER XI. 

In passing through Paris we shall pause to present a few sketchesrepresentative of the great French capital. It is the gayest metropolisof Europe, the spot where the traveller is most inclined to linger, andwhose siren voice is most dangerous to the inexperienced. Itsattractions are innumerable, combining unequalled educational advantagesin art, literature, and the learned professions, together with unlimitedtemptations to frivolity. Here are offered daily, without money andwithout price, lectures upon all themes known to science, free schoolsin all departments of learning, free art museums and free art galleries, such as can hardly be excelled in the world. 

The finest view to be had in the city may be enjoyed by taking one'sstand in the Tuileries Garden and looking straight across the Place dela Concorde to the far-away Arc de Triomphe. Here is a clear view, inthe very heart of Paris, two miles long, over the entire length of theChamps Elysées. The only thing to impede the sight in the least degreeis the grand old column of Luxor, which stands in the middle of thePlace de la Concorde, but which is of only needle-like proportions in socomprehensive a view as we speak of. This is the finest square of thecity, and indeed we may go further and say the finest in all Europe. Itis bounded on the north by the spacious buildings occupied by theMinistry of the Marine, on the south by the Seine, here crossed by thePont des Invalides, and having the Tuileries on the east and the ChampsElysées on the west. As this is the first square in Europe, so is theChamps Elysées, which opens out of it, the grandest boulevard in theworld. It is divided into three alleys, liberally planted with trees, the principal entrance being marked by the celebrated sculptures knownas the "Horses of Marly, " standing like sentinels, one on each side ofthe broad carriage-way. This is the road leading to the Bois deBoulogne, the favorite pleasure-drive of the Parisians, where also maybe found the fine race-grounds and the Jardin d'Acclimation, with itssuperb and unrivalled collection of wild animals and rare birds. 

Sunday is a weekly recurring carnival here, on which occasions the racesand the military reviews take place, and all Paris seeks to amuse itselfby open air pleasures. Fifty thousand people and more throng the ChampsElysées; the toy and refreshment booths drive a lucrative business; thenumerous goat and pony wagons for children are in constant use. Onelittle turn-out is particularly noticeable, consisting of fourwell-trained Newfoundland dogs, elegantly harnessed and attended by acouple of servants in livery, a boy of ten or twelve years holding thelines from his seat in the light and graceful little vehicle. Merryyoung misses drive their ribbon-decked hoops with special relish, androguish boys spin their tops with equal zeal. Clouds of toy-balloons, ofvarious colors and sizes, flash high above the heads of itinerantvendors, while the sparkling fountains throw up softly musical jetseverywhere. Soldiers off duty, strolling idly about, dot the scene withtheir various uniforms, their shining helmets, and elaborate gold lace. The busy road-way is crowded by a thousand turnouts, drawn byhigh-stepping horses. Delighted youths, of both sexes, mount woodenhorses in the merry-go-rounds and enjoy their ride at a cost of a coupleof cents. Lofty aerial cars, upon huge revolving wheels, afford as muchdelight and more risk to other youths. Punch and Judy, and the man withthe air-gun and conspicuous mark, are also present. A performing monkeydivides the honors and pennies with the rest of the entertainers. Notfar away an acrobat, in flesh-colored tights, lies upon the carpetedground and tosses a lad, dressed in spangled thin clothes, into the air, catching him upon his foot again as he comes down, and twirling him sorapidly that the boy becomes invisible. Such is a glimpse of the ChampsElysées on Sunday. 

Strangers in Paris do not forget to visit the Expiatory Chapel, erectedby Louis the Eighteenth to the memory of Louis the Sixteenth, MarieAntoinette, and other victims of the Revolution, which took place abouta century since. Historic recollections crowd upon us as we stand withinthis small but beautiful chapel. Time has softened the sternness ofjudgment relating to the king and queen; and we all pause to admiretheir bearing in adversity, but are forced to the conclusion "thatnothing in their life so well became them as the manner of their leavingit. " The queen was remarkable for her dignity of person, which she lovedto increase by the accessories of ornament, until, as a writer of thatperiod tells us, covered with diamonds and precious stones, she wasliterally a thing of light. But Marie Antoinette, in the dungeons of theConciergerie, in her widow's cap and patched black dress, was worthierof love and veneration than when she blazed as the royal star ofVersailles. 

The flower market of this large capital is ever suggestive andinteresting. The women, of all ages, who bring these floral gems to thecity, exhibit a taste in their arrangement which would be of value to aprofessional artist. One may detect a living poem in each littledepartment. The principal square devoted to this purpose is situatedjust over the Pont Neuf and borders the Seine. The market is changed soas to be held for two days of each week under the shadow of theMadeleine, in the Place de la Madeleine, the noblest of modern Christiantemples in its chaste architecture. As we come down from the Rue Scribe, in the early part of the day, we see vehicles, with liveried attendants, pause while the fair occupants purchase a cluster of favorite flowers;dainty beauties on foot come hither to go away laden with fragrant gems, while well-dressed men deck their buttonholes with a bit of color andfragrance combined. Here is a white-frocked butcher selecting afull-blown pot of pansies, and here a sad-faced woman, in widow's weeds, takes away a wreath of immortelles--to-night it will deck a tomb in thecemetery of Père la Chaise. This giddy and nervous fellow, who is fullof smiles, takes away a wedding wreath--price is no object to him. Yonder is a pale-faced shop-girl--what sunny yet half-sad features shehas! She must perhaps forego her dinner in order to possess that pot ofmignonette, but she trips lightly away with it in a happy mood. 

The most interesting church here is that of Notre Dame, whose massivetowers greet the eye in every comprehensive view of the city. Thepresent structure is probably not over seven hundred years old, but itstands upon a site successively occupied by a Pagan temple and aChristian church of the time of the early kings. The present buildingpresents one of the most perfect examples of Gothic architecture extant. It contains about forty separate chapels. Here the late Emperor andEmpress were married, in January, 1853, just fifty-two years after thecoronation of the first Napoleon in the same place. 

A little way from Notre Dame, upon a street situated behind it and nearthe Pont St. Louis, is the Morgue, or dead-house of Paris, at all timesopen to the public, where are exposed the corpses of unknown persons whohave met their death in the streets or the Seine by violence ordrowning. These bodies remain here three days for the purpose ofidentification. If not recognized and claimed by friends, they are thenburied at the expense of the city, or consigned to thedissecting-tables. There are brought here during the year, the officerin charge will tell us, over three hundred bodies, two-thirds of whomare men, and about one-third women. A large number of the latter areknown to be suicides, and are recovered from the waters of the Seine, close at hand. 

The daily scenes occurring in the gardens of the Tuileries, which openfrom the Place de la Concorde, are characteristic. The spacious grounds, adorned with stately trees, fountains, tiny lakes, statues, and flowers, the latter kept fresh and green by artificial means nearly all the yearround, form an ever-varying attraction. Hundreds of merry childrenenliven every nook and corner by their careless, happy voices. Thegayest of promenaders of both sexes throng the broad, smooth paths inthe after part of the day. Round the fountains the sparrows, as tame asthe pigeons of St. Mark at Venice, light upon one's arms and shoulders, convinced that the only legitimate business of the world is to supplythem with cake and biscuit. Now there break upon the ear the strains ofa full military band posted among the trees, and brilliant music addsits charm to the attractive scene. This is one side of the picture; wemay perhaps with profit to ourselves turn to the other. The same bellthat rings out the marriage peal, tolls forth the funeral knell; sweetflowers that deck the bridal altar, are also brought to lay upon thetomb. We have not far to go in seeking for the shadow of the Tuileriesgardens. Misery in all its varied forms is to be found in the FaubourgSt. Antoine, partially hidden by almost transparent screens from thenaked eye. Crime, sickness, starvation, death, all are within no greatdistance of these beautiful resorts. Dark streets where thieves andoutcasts slink away from the light of day like hunted animals; where onereads hunger and want in silent human faces; where men are met whosevillanous expression only too plainly betrays their criminal nature. 

All strangers make a visit to Père la Chaise, the historic burial-groundof the French capital. Its two hundred acres of monuments, tombs, andcostly sepulchres present only a sad and sombre aspect to the eye, asunlike to Greenwood, Mount Auburn, or Forest Hills, as narrow streetsand brick houses are unlike the green and open fields of the country. One reads upon the tombs, however, the familiar historic names withvivid interest, such as Rossini, Molière, Scribe, Alfred de Musset, Talma, Arago, and others. One remarkable tomb attracts us; it is that ofAbélard and Héloise, upon which some hand has just placed _fresh_flowers. One cannot but respect the sentiment which would perpetuate thememory of this hero and heroine of seven hundred years ago. There aresixty thousand tombs, mausoleums, and memorial stones within thesegrounds, but none equal this one tomb for interest. 

We must not forget to visit the Cluny Museum, situated on the Rue desMathurins, near the Boulevard St. Michel. The remarkable collection ofhistoric relics of the Middle Ages and subsequent period, consisting ofglass, porcelain, tapestry, carvings, weapons, and domestic utensils, are tangible history of great interest. The building itself in whichthese treasures are exhibited is a curiosity five or six hundred yearsin age, near the very extensive remains of Julian's palace. With oneexception this is the only visible structure of the Roman period thatstill exists in the city of Paris. The other is the Roman Amphitheatre, situated in the Rue Monge. Here, not long since, coins were found, bearing the date of the time of Adrian. 

On the Rue Rivoli, opposite the Tuileries gardens, stands a bronzeequestrian statue, erected within the last few years, representing Joanof Arc. As we look upon it, the mind reverts to the romantic story ofthe maid of Domremy, which this tardy act of justice commemorates. Aconclave of bishops sent her to the stake at Rouen--an act asunwarrantable as the hanging of innocent women for witches in the earlydays of New England. History repeats itself, and the victims of onegeneration become the idols of the next. We like best to believe thatthis simple maid was inspired to do the work which she so wellperformed. At the age of thirteen she began to devote herself toliberate her country from the English invaders, selling the very bed sheslept upon to aid in the equipment of soldiers for the field. Joan wasbut eighteen years old when she appeared before Charles VII. And toldhim that she was impelled by Heaven to raise the siege of Orleans, andto conduct him to Rheims to be crowned. She was young and beautiful; theking believed in her; the soldiers thought she was inspired, and sofollowed her to victory. City after city surrendered to her, battleafter battle was won under her leadership, until Charles was indeedcrowned at Rheims; but, through the influence of her English enemies, the brave and modest maid was condemned as a sorceress and burned at thestake!

It is foreigners, not Parisians, who support the splendid jewelry andother fancy stores of the boulevards, as well as the thousandextravagant hotels of the metropolis. Paris is the mart of the world forfancy goods. It is the policy of the government to establish and freelymaintain such attractions as shall draw to the city strangers from allparts of the world, who come and empty their well-filled purses into thepockets of French merchants. But let us not forget that the best meansof education are free to all, the poorest scholar being welcome to theunrivalled libraries and archives, as well as to the splendid advantagesof the art galleries. Scientific lectures and the rarest books uponspecial themes are free to him, while every facility which thegovernment can control is liberally offered to the humble but ambitiousstudent of science and of art. 

We start for Lyons by the way of Fontainebleau, which is situated aboutforty miles from Paris. The Palace was founded over seven hundred yearsago, and has been kept during all these years in perfect condition, eachnew monarch adding to its embellishments, until it forms to-day amagnificent museum of art. There are over eight hundred apartments, allof which are sumptuously decorated and furnished. Here was signed therevocation Edict of Nantes; from here was announced the divorce ofJosephine; and here Napoleon the First signed his abdication. ThePalace is surrounded by beautiful and extensive gardens, small lakes, and fountains. The famous forest of Fontainebleau is of more thanpassing interest; there is no such wooded and shady drive elsewhere inthe world as is afforded by the admirably kept roads that intersect thesixty-four square miles covered by this forest, and in the midst ofwhich is the town. The inhabitants number twelve thousand, added towhich there is here a military station with barracks for about athousand men. Until within a few years the forest was the resort ofpersons from the capital who had affairs to settle with sword or pistol, but police arrangements have put an end to this business. 

Lyons has a population of half a million, and ranks as the second cityof France in that respect. The manufacture of silk is the great industryhere, and everybody seems to be in some way interested in forwardingthis business. There are between forty and fifty thousand silk-loomsactively employed. In the extent of its silk trade it is the first cityin the world. Being located at the confluence of two important rivers, the Rhone and the Saône, the city has almost the advantage of a maritimeport, besides which it has ample railroad connections. After a day'srest at Lyons, we will proceed on our journey by rail to the city ofMarseilles, the first commercial port of the Mediterranean. 

The importance of Marseilles as a business centre can hardly beoverestimated, its harbor having safe accommodations for over a thousandships at the same time. The flags of Italy, Portugal, England, andAmerica mingle with those of the far East at her quays. In the breezystreets of the town surrounding the harbor, we meet Turks, Italians, Spaniards, British tars, and the queerly dressed sailors of the GrecianArchipelago, while a Babel of tongues rings upon the ear. This is theprincipal port for embarkation to reach Corsica, Genoa, Leghorn, Constantinople, and Smyrna, the harbor being the finest in France, andit has been prominent in its commercial connections for fully twothousand years. Marseilles, with a population of four hundred thousand, is remarkable for the number and excellence of its public institutions, among which is a royal exchange, a national observatory, an academy ofsciences, a public library, a school of design, a deaf and dumbinstitute, a museum of paintings and antiquities, etc. The Palace ofLongchamps, standing upon one of the most prominent spots in the city, is a museum, geological school, library, and picture gallery combined. It is a superb structure architecturally, and cost over seven millionsof dollars. 

Overlooking the city of Marseilles is the hill of Notre Dame de laGarde, a lofty eminence, which seen from the town appears to be hung inthe very clouds. Skilful engineering has made a winding road to the apexaccessible for vehicles. Once reached, this lofty spot affords one ofthe most delightful and comprehensive views on the continent, embracinga wide extent of sea and land. Immediately beneath the visitor's feetlies the city, nearly encircled by vine-clad hills, interspersed bychâteaux, Swiss and English cottages, all assuming Lilliputianproportions. The winding cliff-road looks like a silver thread, and theblue Mediterranean, dotted here and there with sails and steamships, glistens in the warm, soft sunshine. But the bird's-eye view of the cityis a marvel in its perfection and comprehensiveness. This hill is namedafter the singular Roman Catholic chapel upon its cloud-capped summit. It is visible for many leagues at sea, and is the subject of mysteriousveneration to sailors who navigate these inland waters. A large numberof curious articles from all parts of the world contributed by believingsailors are to be seen within its walls, in the form of rich samples ofores, shells, corals, and savage weapons from the far-away South SeaIslands, forming a kind of religious museum. 

From Marseilles we take the railway route to Nice, a distance of onehundred and forty miles. This world-renowned sanitary resort is mostdelightfully situated at the base of an amphitheatre of hills, which aredecked with villas, gardens, orange and olive groves. Roses bloom out ofdoors all the year round, and fruit ripens on the trees in January. Nicehas a population of about sixty-five thousand. The foot-hills of theAlpine range come so close to the town as to cut off all the viewinland, but the opposite side is open to the far-reaching Mediterranean, which curves gracefully in crescent form to make the beautiful bay ofNice. Lying so very close to the Italian frontier, the people are asmuch of that nationality as of France, and both languages are spoken. The old portion of the town is Roman in many of its characteristics, andhere those former masters of the world had an important naval station inthe days of Augustus. Dirty as this portion of Nice is, one lingers herea little to study the quaint architecture, and the aspects of humblelife. The peculiarities of dress, habits, and general appearance of thepeople differ materially from other continental towns. Half-clad, bare-footed boys and girls of twelve or fourteen years of age abound, many of them with such beauty of face and form as to make us sigh forthe possibilities of their young lives probably never to be fulfilled. Under favorable auspices what a happy future might fall to their share!A year or two more of wretched associations, idle habits, and want ofproper food and clothing will age them terribly. What a serious socialproblem is presented by such lives!

All strangers who come hither visit Cimies, about three miles from Nice, upon a lofty hillside, where there are some remarkable Roman ruins, among which is a spacious amphitheatre, once capable of seating eight orten thousand spectators. This place, like the neighboring Convent ofCinieres, is more than a thousand years old, and so well built that theintervening centuries have not been able to disintegrate its masonry toany great extent. It is upon a Sunday afternoon that we visit theamphitheatre and convent. The Franciscan monks, who alone inhabit theterrace, seem to be rather a jolly set of men, notwithstanding theircoarse dress, shaven heads, and bare feet. The Sabbath does notinterfere with their game of tennis, which a group of them pursue withgreat earnestness in the pleasant old garden of the monastery, now andthen disputing a little rudely as to the conduct of the game. One of thebrethren is our guide; he explains intelligently what we desire tounderstand, and gives us a drink of water out of the old well from whichthe Romans drank so many hundred years ago, and which he assures us hasnever been known to fail of yielding pure water. 

Mentone, the border town between France and Italy, is situated fifteenmiles from Nice. We pass through it on the route to Genoa. A deep ravineforms the dividing line between the two countries, spanned by the bridgeof St. Louis. Mentone is a favorite resort for persons suffering withpulmonary affections, and has about ten thousand inhabitants. It ischaracterized by very beautiful scenery bordering the great classic sea, and lying at the base of the Maritime Alps. Adjoining the town is theprincipality of Monaco, an independent state covering an area of lessthan fifty square miles. It is a curious fact that the independence ofthis spot has been respected by Europe for so many years, and that it isto-day ruled over by a descendant of the house of Grimaldi, by whom theprincipality was founded in the tenth century. The castle, which formsalso the palace of the Prince of Monaco, is situated on a rockypromontory overlooking the sea and the wonderful coast scenery betweenNice and Mentone. Here the prince maintains a battalion of soldiers whoperform guard duty and keep up the semblance of military authority. Hissubjects are supposed to number about three thousand. To sustain hisprincely state he must have a revenue other than could be derived fromtaxation of so small a population, and the main source of his income isvery well known. The dominion of the prince is now the only legalizedgambling spot in Europe, and from the permit thus granted he receives anannual payment of half a million dollars. 

Monte Carlo, the headquarters of the gambling fraternity, lies within amile of the palace on the shore line. The beautiful spot where the"Casino" (gambling saloon) is situated is one of the most picturesquewhich can be conceived of, overlooking from a considerable height theMediterranean Sea. To the extraordinary beauties accorded by nature manhas added his best efforts, lavishing money to produce unequalledattractions. There is here an elegant hotel, brilliant café, attractivesaloons, delightful gardens, floral bowers, shooting-galleries, inshort, nearly every possible device to fascinate and occupy the visitor. The roads over which we drive in this vicinity are full of interest, besides the delightful views which greet us on every hand. Waysideshrines to the Virgin are seen at every cross-road, and upon everyhillside we meet scores of priests; the little church-bells are ringingincessantly; the roads are thronged with beggars; the beautiful-facedbut ragged children attract us by their bright eyes and darkcomplexions, just touched with a soft rose-tint. We are surprised at themultiplicity of donkeys, their bodies hidden by big loads ofmerchandise; we observe with interest those handsome milk-white oxen, with wide-spreading horns; we inhale the fragrance of the orange groves, and remember that we are in Italy. 

About a hundred miles from St. Mauro, the border town after crossing thebridge of St. Louis, will take us by the Corniche road to Genoa. Thisancient capital rises in terrace form, presenting the aspect of anamphitheatre whose base is the water's edge, while the city is situatedbetween the two lofty hills of Carignano on the east and St. Benigno onthe west. The harbor of Genoa is semicircular in form, nearly a mileacross, and is protected by two substantial piers, on one of which is alighthouse three hundred feet in height. From the seaward end of thelighthouse pier we have a fine view of the town, the slope being coveredwith palaces, churches, hotels, gardens, forts, and public buildings. The arsenal, the prison, the custom-house, and government warehouses allcluster about the wharves, where great business activity centres at alltimes. The older part of the city consists of narrow and confusinglanes, accessible only to foot-passengers. In the olden days, when thiscity was first laid out after the fashion of the times, it was crowdedwith fortified lines, and perched upon elevations to aid in resistingthe attack of an invading enemy. The newer portions present broad, accessible thoroughfares, with one or two elegant boulevards. 

The number of marble palaces in Genoa is really surprising, but they arebuilt in streets so narrow that their elaborate fronts losearchitectural effect. These were not all occupied by the class termedthe nobility, but were often the homes of merchant princes. Many ofthese structures are now vacant or occupied for business purposes. Splendid marble corridors and mosaic floors, with halls opening fromgrand marble staircases, seem ill-adapted to the purposes of commontrade. A few of these structures belong to people whose conditionenables them to retain them as dwellings; others have been purchased bythe government and are occupied as public offices; and still others arehotels. This city was the birthplace of Columbus, the "Great GenoesePilot, " who first showed the way across the then trackless ocean to awestern world. Almost the first object to attract the attention of thetraveller on emerging from the railroad depot is the statue of Columbusin a broad open space. It was erected so late as 1862, and stands upon apedestal ornamented with ships' prows. At the feet of the statue kneelsthe figure of America, the whole monument being of white marble, andsurrounded by allegorical figures in a sitting posture, representingReligion, Geography, Force, and Wisdom. 

There are many noble public institutions in Genoa, noticeable amongwhich is the general hospital and the asylum for the poor, as it iscalled, capable of sheltering sixteen hundred people. The Deaf and DumbAsylum and the Hospital for the Insane are the best organized in Italy. The Public Library contains some hundred and twenty thousand boundvolumes, and is open for free use at all suitable hours. There is alsoan Academy of Fine Arts, with an admirable collection of paintings andsculpture: many of the examples are from the hands of the old masters. 

The Cathedral of St. Lorenzo is richly worthy of our attention. Amongthe curiosities to be seen within its walls are the two urns said tocontain the ashes of St. John the Baptist, which are paraded withreligious pomp through the streets of the city once a year. They aresaid to have been brought from the city of Myrrha in Lycia, in the year1097. There is also exhibited here an emerald dish, which is an objectof great veneration with the Genoese, and which is said to have held thePaschal Lamb at the Last Supper. It was captured from the Saracens, inthe year 1101, at the storming of Cesarea. 

From elevated points in and about Genoa most charming and extended viewsof the Mediterranean are enjoyed. It is not the tranquil and lake-likeexpanse which inexperience would believe it to be, but is capable ofnearly as fierce commotion as the angry waves of the Atlantic itself. Itis still navigated very much as it was of old by the Greeks, thePhoenicians, and the Romans. The mariners still hug the shore, and atevery unfavorable change of weather run into the nearest safe anchorage. Thus most of the coasting-vessels are under one hundred tons'measurement, and are of a model which will permit of their being beachedupon the shelving shore in an emergency. It seems to be generallybelieved that this sea is tideless, but it is not the case; it feelsthe same lunar influence which affects the ocean, though in a lessdegree. These waters are warmer than the Atlantic, owing probably to theabsence of polar currents. The Mediterranean is almost entirely enclosedby the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and covers a space of amillion of square miles, being over two thousand miles long and, in oneplace, more than a thousand wide. The tide is most noticeable in theGulf of Venice, where the rise and fall is from three to four feet. 

Before leaving Genoa we will drive out to the Campo Santo, or publicburial ground. It is a remarkable place laid out in terraces, containingmany monuments, and having in its centre a large circular chapel withDoric columns, the vestibule walls also containing tombs, bearing aninscription on the face of each. Seeing in many instances small basketspartially wrapped in paper or linen laid beside or on the graves aboutthe Campo Santo, one is apt to inquire what their significance can be, and he will be told that food is thus placed from time to time, for thesustenance of the departed!

CHAPTER XII. 

We embark at Genoa for Leghorn by a coasting-steamer. On arriving at thelatter port the first thing which strikes the traveller is the mixedcharacter of the population, composed of Greeks, Armenians, Turks, Moors, and Italians, whose strongly individualized costumes givepicturesqueness and color to the public ways. Until within the last twocenturies Leghorn was a very small village, and therefore presentscomparatively a modern aspect, with its present population of about ahundred and twenty thousand. The streets are wide, well laid out, andregularly paved, the northern section of the city being intersected bycanals, enabling the merchants to float their goods to the doors oftheir warehouses. Its fine situation upon the Mediterranean shore is itsone recommendation, forming an entry port connected with Rome, Pisa, andother inland cities of Italy. There are pointed out to us here threespecial hospitals, an observatory, a poorhouse and a public library, butthere is not much of local interest. 

An excursion of fifteen miles by railway will take us to Pisa, one ofthe oldest cities of Italy, and formerly the capital of the grand duchyof Tuscany, being finely situated on the banks of the Arno, whichdivides the city into two parts, and is crossed by three noble bridges. The population is about fifty thousand, and it has broad, handsomestreets, with a number of spacious squares, fine churches, and publicedifices. The most attractive part of the city is that lining the Arno, where there are several palaces of some architectural pretensions. Thegreat attraction of Pisa lies just outside of the city proper, consisting of a group of edifices which are celebrated all over theworld. These are the Cathedral, the Baptistery, and the Belfry, or, asit is more generally known, the Leaning Tower. Each of these isseparated from the others by several rods. The Cathedral is the oldeststructure, and has an existence covering a thousand years. The isolationof these buildings from the town, and their complete separation fromeach other, add very much to their general effect. The Cathedral, builtentirely of white marble, is crowned by a noble dome, which is supportedby over seventy pillars, while it is gorgeously furnished with almostinnumerable art treasures, paintings, variegated marbles, panels, superbcolored glass windows, and statues. The altar and the pulpit rest uponpillars of porphyry. The roof is not arched, but is of wood, dividedinto sections and elaborately gilded, --a very ancient style of finishfound only in the oldest churches upon the continent. The doors are ofbronze finely sculptured. In the nave the guide will call our attentionto a large bronze hanging-lamp, the oscillations of which are said tohave suggested to Galileo the theory of the pendulum. The Baptistery, orChurch of St. John, is situated nearly opposite the Cathedral, a mostbeautifully shaped church, which is noted for a marvellous echo. 

[Illustration: LEANING TOWER OF PISA, CATHEDRAL AND BAPTISTERY. ]

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is one of the famous structures of the world. It is seven stories high, the summit measuring one hundred and eightfeet from the ground. Each story is divided by rows of columns, so thatarchitecturally it has a resemblance to the other buildings near athand. There are many theories as to the leaning position of this tower, but no two persons seem to quite agree upon the matter. A plummet andline depending from the top would strike the ground some ten feet fromthe base of the structure. It has stood here for more than six hundredyears, and does not appear to be in any danger of falling. A view fromthe upper gallery, over which hangs a chime of heavy bells, is veryfine, embracing the fertile plains of Tuscany. 

Near at hand is the Campo Santo, a cloistered cemetery constructed manycenturies ago. It is a large rectangular enclosure surrounded byarcades. After the loss of the Holy Land the Pisans caused some fiftyshiploads of soil to be brought hither from Mt. Calvary, in order thatthe dead might rest in what was conceived to be holy ground. It was inthis Campo Santo that the earliest Tuscan artists were taught to emulateeach other, and here the walls are covered with remarkablerepresentations of Scriptural and historical subjects. The originals ofmany pictures made familiar to us by engravings, are still to be foundhere, such as "Noah Inebriated, " "Building of the Tower of Babel, " "TheLast Judgment, " etc. The tombstones of those whose remains rest here, form the pavement of the arcades. The sculptures, monuments, andbas-reliefs in the Campo Santo are almost innumerable, forming a strangeand varied collection. 

The history of Pisa is of great antiquity, having been one of the famoustwelve towns of Etruria. It maintained its municipal government andalmost unlimited freedom while nominally under Roman protection, but onthe decline of the imperial power it was compelled to submit in turn tothe various transalpine nations who overran Northern Italy. Early inthe eleventh century it had risen to the rank of a powerful republic andto this period belong most of the splendid monuments on which it nowjustly prides itself. Its soldiers were conspicuous in the crusades, andat that time its fleets were the most powerful that navigated theMediterranean Sea. 

Returning to Leghorn we embark for Naples by steamer. As we glide slowlyinto the lovely bay just as the morning light is breaking in the east, we feel that no more propitious hour for arrival could be devised, andare glad that the view of the city is presented to us for the first timefrom the sea rather than from the shore. How impressive is the historicscene which gradually spreads out before us as we steam slowly in by theislands of Procida and Cape Miseno, while we behold what an imaginativewriter has termed "a fragment of heaven to earth vouchsafed"; itcertainly seems more like a picture than like reality. Few cities on theglobe are so famous for their advantageous site as is Naples. It lies inamphitheatre form on the shore of the classic bay, which is shut in fromthe sea by the island of Capri, extending in part across its entrance tothe southeast, while to the northwest loom up the beautiful islands ofProcida and Ischia, so full of sad and historic associations. It will beremembered that many of the population were engulfed at Ischia by anearthquake within a few years past. On the eastern side of thispanoramic view rises Vesuvius, with its bold and isolated pinnacle, while its dusky sides are dotted up to within half the distance of thesummit by villages, hamlets, villas, and vineyards, awaiting thedestruction which it would seem must come sooner or later. Along thebase of the volcano lie the towns of Portici, Annunziata, and Torre delGreco, everything glittering in the light of the rising sun. The eyescannot rest upon a spot which has not its classic association, turnwhich way we will. In the distance eastward is seen Castellamare andSorrento on the right curve of the crescent-shaped shore, while on theleft lie Solfatara and Pozzuoli. What a shore to look upon, whereCicero, Horace, Virgil, Tasso, Pliny, and Macænas lived! How thrillinglybeautiful it is, as we creep slowly up to our moorings in the soft, dewyfreshness of the morning!

In direct contrast to all this beauty of nature and picturesqueness ofscenery, as soon as we land there comes before our eyes so much of dirt, poverty, and beggary, as to cause us to shudder. How humanity outragesthe loveliness of nature! Begging is reduced to a profession here;thousands of both sexes and of all ages have no other employment orseeming ambition than to beg at every opportunity, to fill theirstomachs with food, and then, like the inferior animals, to stretchthemselves in the sun until again aroused by hunger. There is no quarterof the city exempt from this pest of beggary. The palace and the hoveljoin each other in strange incongruity; starvation and abundance areclose together; elegance and rags are in juxtaposition; the city hasnearly half a million population, and this condition applies to all itsstreets. There are many fine public buildings, and yet they can lay nospecial claim to architectural excellence. The old streets are narrow, crooked, and in some places ascended by steps, on an angle of forty-fivedegrees; but the modern part of the city is well laid out. The Strada diRoma is the Broadway of Naples, a fine, busy street, more than a mile inlength and lined with elegant business stores, cafés, hotels, and publicoffices. The famous Riviera di Chiaja, or Quay, is also a noble streetrunning along the shore of the bay, lined on one side by an almostendless array of palaces, and on the other by the long park separatingit from the sea. 

This Chiaja is the famous drive-way of Naples, and is a broad andbeautiful street by which we enter the city from the west. Just aboutsunset this thoroughfare presents daily a scene more peculiar and quiteas gay as the Bois de Boulogne, or the Prater of Vienna, being crowdedat that hour by the beauty and fashion of the town enjoying an afternoondrive or horseback ride. Here may be seen gigs driven by youngNeapolitans in dashing style, and some smart brushes in the way ofracing take place. The small Italian horses are real flyers, and aredriven only too recklessly over the crowded course. Mingling with thethrong are long lines of donkeys laden with merchandise, keeping closeto the side of the way in order to avoid the fast drivers; pedestriansof both sexes dodging out and in among the vehicles; cavalry officerscantering on showy horses; and the inevitable army of beggars withoutstretched hands pleading for alms, among whom is an occasionalmendicant friar also soliciting a few pennies. 

It is not alone the common classes who live so much in the streets. Itis not alone the palace windows that are filled with spectators allalong the drive-way of the Chiaja during the carnival hour of the day, but before each residence are gathered a domestic group sittingcontentedly in the open air, bareheaded and in gauze-like costume. Someof the ladies employ their hands with dainty needlework, some arecrocheting, others are engaged in simple domestic games, and all arechatting, laughing, and enjoying themselves heartily. The ladies wearthe gayest colors, these adding vividness to the whole picture. Tocomplete the strongly individualized scene, there are the gracefulpalms, orange-trees, and fountains of the park, amid abundant marblestatuary, and flowering shrubs, with the sea, Capri, and Vesuvius for abackground, which together make up the view of the Chiaja at twilight. 

Naples is very peculiar in the aspect of its out-of-door life; we seethe public letter-writer at his post in the open square; the commonpeople are conducting most of their domestic affairs outside of theirdwellings. Sellers of macaroni, oranges, grapes, fish, vegetables, flowers, and hawkers of every sort fill the air with their shrill cries. Common-looking men fling thin, greasy, tattered cloaks over theirshoulders, with a proud air and inimitable grace; groups of half-cladchildren play in the dirt; whole families cook and eat in the street;while liveried turn-outs are dashing hither and thither. No matter inwhich direction one may go in or around the city, there looms upheavenward the sky-piercing summit of Vesuvius, shrouding the blue etherall day long with its slowly-rising column of smoke, and the sulphuricbreathing of its unknown depths. The burning mountain is about threeleagues from the city, but is so lofty as to seem closer at hand. It isquite solitary, rising in a majestic manner from the plain, but having abase thirty miles in circumference and a height of about four thousandfeet. When emitting fire as well as smoke, the scene is brilliant indeedas a night picture, mirrored in the clear surface of the beautiful bay. 

We find ourselves asking, What is the real life of Italy to-day? Thesceptre of Commerce has passed from her; Venice is no longer the abodeof merchant princes; Genoa is but the shadow of what she once was. Whatcauses a foreign population to circulate through its cities, constantlyon the wing, scattering gold right and left among her needy population?It is the rich, unique possession which she enjoys in her monuments ofart, her museums, her libraries, her glorious picture-galleries, publicand private, but all of which are freely thrown open to the traveller, and to all comers. The liberality of her nobles and merchant princes inthe days of her great prosperity has left her now a resource whichnothing can rob her of. Where could money purchase such attractions ascrowd the museum of Naples? The marble groups and statues, mostlyoriginals, number more than a thousand, including the Dying Gladiator, the famous group of Ganymede and the Eagle, and that of Bacchus and theLaocoön. Here also we have Psyche, Venus Callipyge, --this last dug upfrom Nero's golden home at Rome, --and hundreds of others of world-widefame, and of which we have so many fine copies in America. Rome lies buta hundred and sixty miles north of Naples, and the "Eternal City" haslargely contributed to the art treasures of the institution of which weare now speaking, and which secures to the city a floating populationannually of several thousands. 

[Illustration: A STREET IN POMPEII. ]

One of the greatest attractions of Naples is the partially exhumed cityof Pompeii, three leagues more or less away. The drive thither skirtsthe Mediterranean shore, with its beautiful villas, private residences, convents, and churches, while the destructive mountain is always closeat hand. The place in its present aspect is simply that of the remainsof an entire city, destroyed and buried by volcanic action nearly twothousand years ago. The movable objects found here from time to time, asthe slow work of excavation has progressed, have been removed to themuseum at Naples. Quite enough, however, is left upon the spot to formtangible history, and to help the antiquarian to read the story ofPompeii, which was a populous city four or five centuries before thecoming of Christ, and which lay entirely buried for some seventeenhundred years. It is about a century since the first effort was madetowards uncovering the dwelling-houses, streets, and public edifices, but the progress which has been made clearly proves that the inhabitantswere suffocated by a shower of hot ashes, and not destroyed by a suddenavalanche of lava and stones. The dwelling of Diomedes, who was theCroesus of Pompeii, was the first house disentombed. Its owner wasfound with a key in one hand and a bag of gold in the other. Behind himwas a slave with his arms full of silver vessels, evidently trying toescape from the coming devastation when they were suddenly overwhelmed, and must have been instantly suffocated. 

In the house of Diomedes, glass windows, six or eight inches square, arefound; showing that this article is not of such modern invention as hadpreviously been supposed. The luxurious public baths are yet perfect;while the house where Cicero lived and wrote his speeches, besides ahundred other well-preserved historic objects, are pointed out by theguides. We are shown the Temple of Hercules, the theatres, the opencourts, etc. The excavated portion represents about one-third of thewhole city; but enough is clearly discovered to show that betweenthirty-five and forty thousand people here made their homes, and thatthe place contained all the fine public monuments and resorts thatindicate a refined and luxurious community. 

An excursion of ten miles along the coast to the eastward will take usto Baiæ, where the luxurious Romans were wont to resort for their summerseasons. Here are still to be seen the remains of the villas where oncedwelt Julius Cæsar, Pompey, Marius, and such other notables as theywould naturally draw about them. The eyes can be turned in no directionwithout our being charmed by a view of exceptional beauty, to saynothing of the unequalled historic interest that attaches to everysquare mile of territory and to the broad bay close at hand. Horacedeclared it to be the loveliest spot on earth, and Seneca warned everyone who desired to maintain dominion over himself to avoid thisfascinating watering-place. It is here that Virgil laid many of hispoetic scenes. 

A day's journey by railway takes us to Rome, the "Eternal City, " whichis built on both sides of the Tiber, three or four leagues from itsinflux to the Mediterranean. We know that this city must at one timehave been nearly as populous as London is to-day, but the present numbercannot much exceed four hundred thousand. The ruins of Rome--for it is acity of ruins, notwithstanding its many fine modern structures--can givebut a faint idea of what the great capital was in the days of its glory. At the zenith of her fame the city was filled with grand squares, temples, amphitheatres, circuses, baths, and public and private palaces, scarcely more than the ruins of which now remain--eloquent, however, intheir grim silence. In the days of the Cæsars, fourteen grand aqueducts, supported by immense arches, hundreds of which still remain, conductedwhole rivers into Rome from a distance of many leagues, supplying onehundred and fifty public fountains, with over a hundred public baths. Inthose marvellous days, over a hundred thousand marble and bronzestatues ornamented the public squares, streets, and fountains, togetherwith ninety colossal statues on lofty pedestals, and over forty Egyptianobelisks were in place. What an enumeration! Yet it falls far short ofthe facts as illustrated in the text of history and proven by thetangible evidence of numberless ruins. 

The Piazza, del Popolo is a famous square in Roman history, in thecentre of which is one of those curious obelisks transported from Egypteighteen centuries ago, where it stood before the Temple of the Sun, atHeliopolis, thousands of years since. On one side of the square thereare twin churches, far enough apart to permit the Corso, or Broadway ofRome, to enter the square between them. The Corso has an average widthof fifty feet, and is a mile long. It is on this central street that thehorse-races take place during the Carnival; and it is here that thefinest shops, cafés, and palaces are to be found. 

The Piazza di Spagna is another interesting square, about a quarter of amile from that just described. It covers five or six acres of land, andhas a curious old fountain in its centre. From one side of the square agrand, broad flight of stone steps leads up to the elevated ground wherestands the church of Trinita de Monti. Lingering on and about thesesteps the artists' models are seen at all hours of the day, both sexesand all ages being represented among them. Old men of seventy years, with noble heads and flowing snowy beards, bent forms and tatteredgarments, sit patiently awaiting a demand upon them. Perhaps they couldafford better clothing; but they have an eye for artistic effect, and atrue sense of the fitness of things. The children, waiting here for thesame purpose, captivate our attention by their large black eyes andgypsy complexions. How graceful and kitten-like they are, in their lazy, lolling motions! The young girls are such as are not seen out of Italy, with large, beautifully expressive eyes, gypsy complexions touched withthe rose color of health, and forms which would establish a sculptor'sreputation could he reproduce them. All of these persons are here for alegitimate purpose; that is, to sit as models, for a given sum per hour, and to this object they honestly adhere. 

The favorite promenade of the Romans of to-day is the Pincio ("the hillof gardens"), situated near and overlooking the Piazza del Popolo. Itprobably derives its name from the Pincii family, whose estate itbelonged to in the period of the Empire. Hereabouts, of old, were thecelebrated gardens of Lucullus; and here Messalina, wife of Claudius, indulged in revelries. Two afternoons of each week, as well as on allholidays, the king's military band gives a public concert in the Pinciogardens. The walks are kept in scrupulous neatness and order, shaded bygroups of trees, and adorned by beautiful beds of flowers. At prominentpoints, fine marble statues of ancient Romans are conspicuously placed. The paths and drives about these gardens present a gay picture at theclosing hours of each day, being the assembling-point of the social lifeof modern Rome. 

The Vatican, which is the Pope's palace, is one of the first and mostremarkable attractions for the traveller. We say the palace, but it isactually a succession of palaces. This elegant stone structure, close tothe Cathedral of St. Peter's, is three stories in height, and contains avast number of saloons, galleries, chapels, and corridors, embracing acomprehensive library and a remarkable museum, the whole surrounded byspacious and elegantly kept gardens. Twenty courts, eight grandstaircases, and two hundred ordinary ones, are all contained within itswalls. It is connected by a covered gallery with the castle of St. Angelo, a quarter of a mile away, and with St. Peter's, which it nearlyadjoins. Probably no other building, or series of buildings, in theworld contains so much wealth of art and riches generally as does theVatican at Rome. Its treasures in gold, silver, precious stones, books, priceless manuscripts, and relics, are almost beyond enumeration. Allthe world--ancient and modern, savage and Christian--has contributed toswell this remarkable accumulation. The two most celebrated paintings, and esteemed to be the two most valuable in existence, are to be seenhere; namely, "The Transfiguration, " by Raphael, and "The Communion ofSt. Jerome, " by Domenichino. So incomparable are these works of art thatno critic of note has ventured to say which deserves to be named first;but all agree that they are the two greatest paintings, as to realmerit, in the world. They are colossal in size, and have both made thejourney to Paris. Napoleon I. Had them both transferred to the Louvre;but they are back again, forming the great attraction of the Vatican. The "Last Judgment, " by Michael Angelo, covers one whole side of theSistine Chapel, one of the very best of this great master's works, requiring hours of study to enable one to form a just conception of itsdesign and merits. Raphael has a series of fifty other paintings withinthe walls of the Pope's palace. 

[Illustration: THE COLISEUM AT ROME. ]

The most notable ruin in this ancient city is the Coliseum, the largestamphitheatre, and still one of the most imposing structures, in theworld; broken in every part, but still showing, by what remains of itsmassive walls, what it must once have been. History tells us, that, uponits completion, it was inaugurated by gladiatorial combats continued forone hundred days; during which time five thousand wild beasts werekilled in contests with Christian slaves, who acted as gladiators. TheColiseum was begun by Vespasian, on his return from his war with theJews, but was dedicated by his son Titus, and completed by Domitian overeighteen hundred years ago. Ten thousand captives are said to have beenslain at the time of its dedication, and it was designed to accommodateone hundred thousand spectators. The present circumference of thestructure is about one-third of a mile. From the arena rise the tiers ofseats, one above another, indicated by partially preserved steps andpassage-ways. In its prime it was doubtless elegantly ornamented; andsome evidences of fine art still remain upon the crumbling and loftywalls. The material is a kind of freestone. The style of architectureembraces four orders, imposed one upon another: the lower one is Tuscanor Doric; the second, Roman-Ionic; and the third and fourth, Corinthianor Composite. 

The Pantheon is the only entirely preserved edifice of Greekarchitecture in Rome. This grand and marvellous structure was originallydedicated to the Pagan gods, but is now a Christian church. It is thelargest building of ancient times, and whose splendid Corinthian columnsfill the eye with pleasure at the first glance. The diameter of thestructure is one hundred and fifty feet, and the summit of the uppercornice over one hundred feet from the base, the entire height being onehundred and fifty feet. The interior effect is one of true majesty, andthat of the combined whole is deemed the acme of architecturalperfection of the ancient buildings of Rome. The plates of gilded bronzewhich once covered the roof, the bronze ornaments of the pediment, andthe silver that adorned the interior of the dome, it is said, werecarried off by Constans II. More than a thousand years ago. 

St. Peter's is considered to be the most magnificent church of Italianor classical architecture in the world. Its extreme length within thewalls is a trifle over six hundred feet, while its greatest width isabout four hundred and fifty feet. The height, from the pavement to thecross at the apex, is four hundred and fifty-eight feet. By comparingthese dimensions with familiar objects, we can gain some general idea ofthe immensity of this structure, the largest ever reared by Christiansin honor of the Supreme Being; but only by frequent and long-continuedvisits do we finally come fully to realize its unequalled beauty andgrandeur. 

As Florence only dates from three or four hundred years before Christ, it is not considered very ancient in the Old World. It sprang, undoubtedly, from Fiesole, at the foot of which it now lies. The Fiesoleof the ancients was perched upon an almost inaccessible height, inaccordance with the style in which they used to build in those days ofconstant warfare; but as civilization advanced, the city of Florencebegan to grow up on the banks of the Arno and to cover the valley at thebase of the paternal settlement, until, to-day, it has a population ofabout a hundred and fifty thousand. It did not assume any importanceuntil the time of Charlemagne, from which period it grew rapidly innumbers and in prosperity of trade, its early and long-continuedspecialty being the manufacture of Etruscan jewelry and mosaics; thelatter business, especially, having descended from father to son untilit has reached the present time. One may now purchase in the Florentineshops the finest specimens of the art to be found in all Europe. 

The square of St. Croce receives its name from the remarkable church ofSanta Croce which is located here, and which is the Italian Pantheon orWestminster Abbey, where rest the ashes of Alfieri, Machiavelli, Galileo, and a score of equally historic names. What a galaxy of greatpoets, artists, statesmen, and philosophers are here sleeping in theirwinding-sheets. Another fine square is that of the Piazza dellaAnnunziata, in which is situated the church of the same name, afoundling hospital, and an equestrian statue of Ferdinand I. By John ofBologna. The Piazza della Signoria is the busiest place in Florence, containing also some remarkable buildings, as well as statues, fountains, and colonnades. The fine tower of one of the Boston citychurches is copied from the lofty campanile, or bell-tower, of theVecchio Palace, now occupied as the city hall, and which forms the moststriking object in this interesting centre. 

The hills which overlook Florence are indeed classic ground. HereCatiline conspired, and Milton wrote; here Michael Angelo occupied hisstudio, and Galileo conducted his discoveries, while here, also, Boccaccio wrote his famous love tales. These hillsides are dotted withbeautiful villas, mostly owned by foreigners drawn hither in search ofhealth, or the study of art. No other city in the world, not exceptingRome, affords such extended facilities for the latter purpose. Thosegreat depositories of art, the Uffizi Gallery and the Pitti Palace, areperhaps unequalled, having within their walls over a thousand paintings, each one of which is meritorious, and many of which are hardlysurpassed, if they are equalled. Raphael, Murillo, Titian, MichaelAngelo, Paul Veronese, Velasquez, and like masters of art are here fullyrepresented. To stand before canvas which the world has crowned withundivided approval, to realize that the finest copies which we have seenare but faint shadows of the originals, is a privilege which makes usforget all petty annoyances, all cost of time and money in theaccomplishment. One pauses with more than ordinary curiosity before theMadonna della Seggiola, one of the most famous pictures of Raphael, andindeed of all art. We fancy that we have seen it faithfully reproduced, but a glance at the original convinces us that, like the Beatrice Cenci, it cannot be copied, but only imitated. 

The Uffizi and Pitti Palaces are connected, and really form but onegreat gallery of art. In the Uffizi division is what is known as theTribune, --the throne room of art, where stands "the statue that enchantsthe world, "--the Venus de Medici, --dividing its homage with that equallyexquisite painting, Titian's recumbent Venus, declared to be themasterpiece of color. These two works are surrounded by others almost asperfect, and which in the eyes of trained artists share their loyalty. No wonder the student of art selects Florence as a place of residence, where he can visit as often as he pleases such models, without cost, works which cannot fail to inspire artistic genius in whomsoever thegerms exist. But not alone those who wield the pencil and the chiselcome hither to seek a congenial home. The soft beauty of the scenery, the delightful climate, and the poetic associations have tempted artistsand literary people in other lines to pitch their tents hereabouts. Mario, the great tenor, once lived yonder; in that villa on the slopinghillside, Taglioni once made her home; Walter Savage Landor shelteredhis gray hairs in this cottage home overlooking the valley of the Arno, and died here. This old church not far away is that of St. Miniato alMonte, nearly ten centuries in age, famous for its carved work andpaintings. 

The common people of Florence seem actuated by a universal spirit ofindustry; and as to beggars, we see none upon its streets--a fact worthyof note in Italy. The women fruit-dealers on the corners of the streetsare busy with their needles, while awaiting customers; the flower-girlsare equally industrious, sitting beside their fragrant wares; the girlwho opens the gate for us and guides us to the tombs of Mrs. Browningand Theodore Parker, in the city burial grounds, knits steadily as shewalks. The public park is called the Cascine, and lies along the banksof the Arno; in some respects it is more attractive than most of suchresorts in Europe, being finely wooded, and consequently presentingshady drives, and quiet rural retreats for pedestrians. It is thefavorite resort of all classes who have leisure in the after part of theday, and is enlivened three or four times each week by the presence of amilitary band, which discourses the choicest music to ears ever readyfor this sort of entertainment: no people are more fond of music thanthe Italians. 

The Arno, which divides the city into two unequal parts, is only a verysmall stream during half the year; but when the snow melts upon themountains, or the rainy season sets in, it then becomes a broad, swiftriver, conveying a great volume of water. It is crossed by six bridges, not far apart, besides two suspension bridges at the extremities of thecity. The Ponte Vecchio is nearest the Pitti and Uffizi galleries, andis covered by curious little shops. We must not fail to visit the housewhere Dante was born, and also the house of Michael Angelo. In thislatter are shown many of the personal belongings of the great artist andmaster, and the room where he studied and painted, containing numerousarticles of which he made daily use. The last representative of hisfamily bequeathed the whole priceless treasure to the city of Florence. 

There is a lovely and celebrated park situated back of the Palazzo Pittiwhich is open to the public, and known as the Boboli Gardens. Thegrounds are quite spacious, being over a mile in circumference, dividedinto shady walks invitingly retired, shaded by thrifty laurels andcypresses, being also ornamented with some fine marble statues, and manygracefully carved vases. Among the statues are four by Michael Angelo, upon which he is said to have been at work when he died. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

Venice is a genuine surprise to the stranger. No matter what idea he mayhave formed concerning it, he can hardly have approximated to the truth. It is unique, mystical, poetic, constantly appealing in some new form tothe imagination, and often more than fulfilling expectation. The people, institutions, buildings, history--all are peculiar. Her statesmen, artisans, merchants, and sailors have been the first in Europe, whilefor over twelve hundred years she has gone on creating a history asremarkable as is her physical formation. No city fills a more prominentpage in the records of the Middle Ages, or is more enshrined in romanceand poetry. It is a city of a hundred thousand inhabitants, and yet whatcomparative stillness reigns over all, solemn and strange especially tothe newly arrived traveller. There is no rattling of wheels, no tramp ofhorses' feet upon the streets; wheels and horses are unknown; only thegondola serves as a mode of conveyance, and the noiseless canals takethe place of streets. The gondola is nowhere else seen save on thesecanals and lagoons (shallow bays). It is of all modes of transportationthe most luxurious. The soft cushions, the gliding motion, the gracefuloarsmen, who row in a standing position, the marble palaces betweenwhich we float in a dreamy state, harmonize so admirably, that the senseof completeness is perfect. The Grand Canal, two hundred feet wide, isthe Broadway, or popular boulevard, of Venice, and over this glide theinnumerable gondolas and boats of light traffic, with a quiet panoramiceffect, which we watch curiously from our overhanging balcony. This mainartery of the city is lined with palaces and noble marble edificesnearly the whole of its length of two miles. Some of these, to be sure, are crumbling and deserted, with the word decay written in their aspect, but even in their moss-grown and neglected condition they are intenselyinteresting. 

[Illustration: SCENE ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE. ]

The city is built upon one hundred and seventeen islands, separated by ahundred and fifty canals, and as the local guides will tell us, hasthree hundred and sixty-five bridges, mostly of stone, --"that is; onefor every day in the year;" but there are, in fact, twenty more bridgesto add to this aggregate. Most of the dwellings rise immediately out ofthe water, and one passes out of the gondolas on to marble steps toenter them. Altogether Venice is a little over seven miles incircumference. 

As we sit floating in our gondola just off the Piazzetta of St. Mark, the moon comes up above the waters of the Adriatic and hangs serenelyover the lagoons. No pen can justly describe such a sight--only a ClaudeLorraine could paint it. Glancing gondolas on their noiseless track cutthe silvery ripples; a sweet contralto voice, with guitar accompaniment, salutes the ear; stately palaces cast long, mysterious shadows upon thewater; the Bridge of Sighs arches the canal between the palace andprison close at hand; oddly-rigged craft from the far East float lazilyat anchor in the open harbor; the domes of lofty churches are outlinedagainst the dark blue sky; while the proud columns of St. Mark and St. Theodore stand like sentinels at the water's edge. It seems, altogether, like some well-prepared theatrical scene upon the stage, on which thecurtain will presently fall, shutting out everything from view. 

The broad outline of the history of this long-lived republic is familiarto most of us. Many of its details have been enshrined by Byron, who, without assuming the dignity of historical record, has taught us inpoetic form. The names of Dandolo, Faliero, and the two Foscari arefamiliar to all cultured people. The close of the fifteenth century maybe designated as the culminating point of the glory of Venice, it beingthen the grand focus of European commerce, and twice as populous as itis to-day. At that time it possessed three hundred sea-going vessels andforty-five naval galleys, with which it maintained sway over theMediterranean Sea. With the commencement of the sixteenth century herglory began gradually to fade until she ceased to maintain a prominentposition among the powers. In art, Venice always occupied a firstposition, and was celebrated for the brilliancy of the coloring whichcharacterizes the Venetian school. 

Though fallen in commercial glory, Venice still stands without a rival. Where else can be found a city composed of over seventy islands? Isthere another city where architects, sculptors, painters, and workers inmosaic devoted their lives to the purpose of decorating and beautifyingtheir native place? No capital, even in Italy, is richer in splendid andantique churches, in superbly decorated palaces, and with the exceptionof Rome and Florence, no city has more invaluable art treasures. Herethe works of Guido, Paul Veronese, Titian, Bonifacio, Giordano, andTintoretto especially abound. The Venetian school of painting maintainsprecedence even in our day. In the Doge's Palace, built many hundredyears ago, the visitor will find paintings and sculpture which he cannever forget, and among them Tintoretto's Paradise, said to be thelargest oil painting extant by a great master. It contains an army offigures, and would seem to have required a lifetime to produce. 

The Piazza of St. Mark is the centre of attraction. How strange, and yethow familiar everything seems to us here! We require no guide to pointout the remarkable monuments. We do not fail to recognize at a glancethe tall masts from which the banners of the republic floated intriumph, when the carrier pigeons brought news that "blind old Dandolohad captured Constantinople!" We recognize the lofty Campanile, thesumptuous palace of the Doges, and the gorgeous front of the Cathedralover-topped by its graceful domes, bristling with innumerable pinnacles. Above the portals of St. Mark we gaze upon the celebrated bronze horseswhich Napoleon I. Stole and transported to Paris, but which the EmperorFrancis restored to Venice. It is not the first time these historichorses of Lysippus have been stolen, these monuments of the departedglory of Chios and Constantinople--of Venice and Napoleon. 

In many respects the Cathedral of San Marco is the most remarkablechurch in existence, while its ornamentation is rich to excess. For goodarchitectural effect it stands too low, the present grade of thesurrounding square being some fifteen inches or more above its mosaicpavement. The pillars and ornaments are too crowded; having been broughthither from other and historic lands, there is a want of harmony in theaggregation. Nearly a thousand years old, it has an indescribable aspectof faded and tarnished splendor, and yet it presents an attractive wholequite unequalled. It combines Saracenic profusion with Christianemblems, weaving in porphyries from Egypt, pillars from St. Sophia, altar pieces from Acre, and a forest of Grecian columns. Especially isthis church rich in mosaics--those colors that never fade. There is asense of solemn gloom pervading the place, the dim light strugglingthrough the painted windows being only sufficient to give the whole aweird aspect, in its over-decorated aisles. Some idea may be formed ofthe elaborate ornamentation of the Cathedral from the fact that itcontains over forty thousand square feet of mosaic work! The vaultingconsists entirely of mosaic, representing scenes in the Old Testament, beginning with the story of the creation, and followed by scenes fromthe New Testament. As we walk about the church, the floor beneath ourfeet is found quite uneven from the slow settlement of ages. Inside andout the structure is ornamented by over five hundred columns of marble, the capitals of which present a fantastic variety of styles true to nocountry or order, but the whole is, nevertheless, a grand example ofbarbaric splendor. 

Just opposite the entrance to the Church of San Marco stands the loftyCampanile, reaching to a height of three hundred feet, and which wasover two hundred years in building. A view from its summit is one of thesights not to be missed in this city, as it affords not only a splendidpicture of Venice itself, but the city and lagoons lie mapped out beforethe eye in perfection of detail, while in the distance are seen theAdriatic, the Alpine ranges, and the Istrian Mountains. The Campanile isascended by a winding way in place of steps, and there is a legend thatNapoleon rode his horse to the top, a feat which is certainly possible. In this lofty tower Galileo prosecuted his scientific experiments. 

Petrarch wrote that Venice was the home of justice and equity, refugeof the good; rich in gold, but richer in renown; built on marble, butfounded on the surer foundation of a city worthy of veneration andglory. But this is no longer the Venice he described; no longer the cityof grasping and successful ambition, of proud and boastful princes. Ithas become what pride, ostentation, and luxury in time must always leadto. It presents to-day a fallen aspect--one of grandeur in rags. Noargosies are bound to foreign ports, no princely merchants meet on theRialto; that famous bridge is now occupied on either side by Jews' shopsof a very humble character; and yet do not let us seem to detract fromthe great interest that overlies all drawbacks as regards the Veniceeven of the present hour. 

The Academy of Fine Arts is reached by crossing the Grand Canal, overthe modern iron bridge, which, with that of the Rialto, a noble span ofa single arch, built of white marble, forms the only means of crossingthe great water-way, except by gondola. This remarkable gallery containsalmost exclusively works by Venetian artists. Here we find a remarkablerepresentation of the "Supper of Cana, " which is nearly as large as the"Paradise. " It is considered by competent critics, to be one of thefinest pieces of coloring in existence. Here we have some of Titian'sbest productions, and those of many Italian artists whose pictures arenot to be found elsewhere. The gallery, like all of the famous ones ofEurope, is free to every one, either for simple study, or for copying. This is the collection which Napoleon I. Said he would give a nation'sransom to possess. On the way to the Academy the guide points out theBarberigo Palace, in which Titian lived and died. 

The Doge's Palace is full of historic interest. We wander with mingledfeelings through its various apartments, visiting the halls of theCouncil of Ten, and the still more tragic chambers of the Council ofThree. Many secret passages are threaded; we cross the Bridge of Sighs, and descend into the dungeons in which Faliero, Foscari, and otherfamous prisoners are said to have been incarcerated. These mediævaldungeons are wretched beyond belief, and how human beings could live andbreathe in such places is the marvel of every one who visits them in ourday. Here we are shown the apartment where the condemned prisoners weresecretly strangled, and the arched windows by which their bodies werelaunched into boats on the canal, to be borne away, and sunk in thedistant lagoons. Trial, sentence, fate, --all in secret, and this wasdone under the semblance of justice and a republican form of government. 

The church of the Frari, whither we will next turn our steps, is in anAmerican's estimation quite as much of a museum as a church. It is theWestminster Abbey of Venice, and is crowded with the monuments of doges, statesmen, artists, philosophers, and more especially is ornamented in amost striking manner by the tombs of Titian and Canova. These elaboratemarble structures face each other from opposite sides of thechurch--monuments raised in memory of rarest genius, and which forrichness of design and completeness of finish exceed anything of thesort in Italy. 

In the square of St. Mark we have an opportunity for studying themasses, the well-to-do classes, but not the refined and cultured; thesemaintain a certain dignified exclusiveness. The uniforms of the police, each one of whom is bedizened equal to a militia general, are astanding caricature. One notes the many Jews among the throng; here aturbaned Turk sits before a café smoking his pipe, and near by ahandsome Greek, with his red fez, smokes a cigar. There are Orientals ofall types, with jaunty Englishmen, and gay parties of Americans. 

We will now pass on to Milan, once considered the second city of Italyin importance, but it was totally destroyed in 1162 by Barbarossa, andwe therefore see a comparatively modern capital. In the olden time itwas filled with temples, baths, amphitheatres, circuses, and all themonuments common to great Italian cities. Seven hundred years and morehave elapsed since its destruction, during which it rapidly sprang intolife again as the capital of Lombardy, and is still a growingmetropolis. True, it can offer no such attractions to the traveller asabound in Naples, Rome, and Florence, though there are some arttreasures here which are unique. Were it not that the city is so near toLakes Como and Maggiore, and in possession of half a hundred remarkablepictures, with a score of choice original pieces of sculpture, togetherwith its wonderful cathedral, the traveller would hardly care to passmore than a day in Milan. The present population is about two hundredand forty thousand. It is thrifty and devoted more to successfulbranches of business than are the cities of Southern Italy. 

The Milan Cathedral is regarded as one of the wonders of the world, being also next to the cathedral at Seville and St. Peter's at Rome, thelargest church in Europe, though this matter of size is of insignificantconsideration compared with its other marvels. The interior is nearlyfive hundred feet in length and but a fraction less than two hundred inwidth, while the dome is over two hundred feet in height. Its loftiesttower is over three hundred and sixty feet above the ground; there are ahundred pinnacles in all, and no less than four thousand five hundredmarble statues ornament the exterior. The interior consists of a navewith double aisles, and is supported by fifty-two pillars, each fifteenfeet in diameter, the summits of which are decked with canopied nichespresenting statues in place of the customary capitals. The pavement isfinished in marble and mosaic. The edifice was in course of constructionfor five hundred years, and to look at it one would hardly suppose therewas white marble enough in Europe to furnish the raw material of whichit is built. The principal part of the work has been performed duringthe last hundred years. 

One mounts nearly five hundred stone steps to reach the summit of thecathedral, where we stand in the highest pinnacle, nearly four hundredfeet from the street. Far below lies the city, the dwellings andchurches resembling toy-houses, while the people moving about in thethoroughfares assume pigmy proportions, horses looking like exaggeratedinsects. We gaze about in dizzy wonder, and are half inclined to believeit all a trick of the imagination. After the first surprise is over, thetrue aspect gradually dawns upon the stranger, and the labor ofascending those tedious steps is forgotten. The distant view isparticularly fine; the green and fertile plains of Lombardy stretchingaway from the city walls in all directions until they meet thefoot-hills of the Alpine range, or mingle with the horizon towards theshores of the Adriatic. Mont Blanc, Mont Cenis, Mont St. Bernard, theSimplon Pass, the Bernese Oberland range, and further to the northeastthe long range of the Tyrolean Alps, are recognized with their whitesnow-caps glittering in the bright sunlight. The forest of pinnaclesbeneath our feet, mingled with a labyrinth of ornamented spires, statues, flying buttresses, and Gothic fretwork, piled all about theroof, is seen through a gauze-like veil of golden mist. 

Milan has several other churches more or less interesting, but thevisitor rarely passes much time in examining them. No traveller shouldfail, however, to visit the Brera Palace, the one gallery of art in thiscity. It was formerly a Jesuit college, but is now used for a publicschool, with the title of Palace of Arts and Sciences, forming a mostextensive academy, containing paintings, statuary, and a comprehensivelibrary of nearly two hundred thousand volumes. There is also attached afine botanical garden, exhibiting many rare and beautiful exotics aswell as native plants. In the gallery of paintings the visitor is sureto single out for appreciation a canvas, by Guercino, representingAbraham banishing Hagar and her child. The tearful face of the desertedone, with its wonderful expression, tells the whole story of her misery. This picture is worthy of all the enthusiastic praise so liberallybestowed by competent critics. 

No picture is better known than Leonardo da Vinci's "Last Supper, "millions of copies of which have been circulated in engravings, oilpaintings, and by photography. We find the original in the Dominicanmonastery, where the artist painted it upon the bare wall or masonry ofa lofty dining-hall. It is still perfect and distinct, though not sobright as it would have been had it been executed upon canvas. Da Vinciwas years in perfecting it, and justly considered it to be the best workof his artistic life. The moment chosen for delineation is that whenChrist utters the words, "One of you shall betray me!" The artist saidthat he meditated for two years how best to portray upon a human facethe workings of the perfidious heart of Judas, and ended at last bytaking for his model the prior of this very monastery, who was wellknown to be his bitterest enemy! The likeness at the period of itsproduction was unmistakable, and thus perpetuated the scandal. 

We must not fail to make an excursion from Milan to Pavia, one of theoldest of Italian cities. It lies on the left bank of the Ticino River, and was in the olden times the residence of the Lombard kings, who didnot fail to beautify and improve it in their day to such an extent thatit was known all over Europe as the "City of a Hundred Towers, " many ofwhich are extant and in excellent preservation. Though the finger oftime has pressed heavily upon it, and its ancient glory has departed, still Pavia has a population of over thirty thousand, and lays claim tono inconsiderable importance. If it were not a little off the usualtrack of travellers, we should hear much more of its associations. Theuniversity founded here by Charlemagne, over a thousand years ago, isstill prosperous; and the famous church of San Michael, erected at evenan earlier period, is still an object of profound interest. As we wanderabout the quaint streets the impress of antiquity is upon everythingthat meets the eye. Just north of the city, about a league from thewalls, is the Certosa, one of the most splendid monasteries in Europe, founded about five hundred years since. It is absolutely crowded withfine paintings, statuary, mosaics, and rich art ornamentation. Privatepalaces abound, though now largely diverted from their originalpurposes. There are also theatres, libraries, museums, gymnasiums, stillthriving after a moderate fashion. Pavia looks backward to her pastglories rather than forward to new hopes. Sacked by Hannibal, burned bythe Huns, conquered and possessed by the Romans, won by the Goths andLombards, it was long the capital of what was then known as the kingdomof Italy. Then came a period of fierce civil wars, when its historymerged in that of the conquerors of Lombardy. Taken and lost by theFrench so late as 1796, it was stormed and pillaged by Napoleon, butonce more came into the possession of Austria, until it finally foundrefuge in the bosom of United Italy. The famous battle of Pavia, whichoccurred in 1525, when Francis I. Was taken prisoner, was fought closeto the Certosa. 

Our next objective point is Vienna, and we take the route throughInnspruck, the capital of the Tyrol, which is most charmingly situatedin the valley of the Inn just where it joins the Sill. The town is abouttwo thousand feet above sea-level, and is surrounded by mountains sixand eight thousand feet in height. It derives its name from the bridgewhich here crosses the river--Inn's Brücke (that is, the Inn's Bridge). We enter Austria through the Brenner Pass, and after a long Alpinejourney of three or four hundred miles are very glad to pause here bothfor rest and observation. There must be about twenty thousandinhabitants, but the town seems almost solemnly silent. At certainperiods of the year, known as "the season, " doubtless its two or threelarge hotels are plentifully supplied with guests. Historicalassociations are not wanting; among them is the Franciscan church ofInnspruck, containing the elaborate and costly monument to the EmperorMaximilian I. , which, though constructed by order of the monarchhimself, does not contain his remains. The structure consists of amarble sarcophagus supporting the emperor's effigy in bronze in akneeling position, while on the other side of the aisle are rows ofmonumental bronze figures, twenty-eight in number, representing varioushistoric characters. The mention of this unique group in the old churchof Innspruck, by the poet Longfellow, will be remembered. 

The Schloss Ambras is of considerable interest, having been the favoritehome of the Archduke Ferdinand II. The view from its battlements isworthy of a pilgrimage to enjoy. Innspruck looks like a toy-village, sofar below, upon the plain. The broad streets of the new portion of thetown lie spread out as upon a map. The three handsome bridges givevariety to the scene. The central one, as the guide will tell us, wasthe scene of a fierce battle, in 1809, between the Bavarians and theTyrolese. The former could not withstand the superior marksmanship ofthese chamois-hunters, who picked off the men at the cannon as fast asthey came into action, until the Bavarians fled in despair, abandoningtheir guns. 

On resuming our journey towards Vienna, we pass up the constantlynarrowing valley of the Inn, through a range of mountain scenery, covered with snow, and grand beyond description, where Alp is piled uponAlp, until all distinctive outline is lost in the clouds which envelopthem. Now and then we see a rude but picturesque chamois huntsmanstruggling up the mountain side in search of the special game which isgrowing annually scarcer and scarcer. There is a wild interest whichactuates the chamois-hunter, amounting to fanaticism. The country isvery sparsely inhabited, but we occasionally come upon a cluster ofpicturesque habitations, quite theatrical in effect, the counterpart ofthe familiar pictures and photographs we see in America. By and by, after a long day of travel, we reach Salzburg, in the Noric Alps. 

Salzburg was the birthplace of Mozart, and is still a musical place, that branch of the fine arts being universally cultivated among the morerefined class of inhabitants. There are several public monumentscommemorative of the great composer, who played his own compositionsbefore the public here at the age of five years! The massive wall whichonce surrounded the place is now mostly dismantled, and could only havebeen of use in the Middle Ages, at which time Salzburg was probably inits greatest state of prosperity. The manufacture of Majolica ware hasbeen a specialty here for a couple of centuries or more, and it has areputation for the production of fine fancy leather goods. Itsconnection by rail with Vienna, Munich, and Innspruck insures itconsiderable trade, but still there is a sleepiness about the placewhich is almost contagious. It was probably different when thearchbishops held court here, at a period when those high functionariescombined the dignity of princes of the Empire with their ecclesiasticalrank. It was at this period that the town received its few publicornaments, and the half-dozen fine public edifices, still to be seen, were erected. 

In the absence of statistics one would say there was a population offifteen thousand. Some of the street scenes are peculiar. We see singlecows and oxen harnessed and worked like horses, not in shafts, butbeside a long pole. The entire absence of donkeys, so numerous elsewherein Europe, is quite noticeable. The women surprise us by their largesize and apparent physical strength--quite a necessary possession, sincethey seem to perform the larger portion of the heavy work, while theirlazy husbands are engaged in pipe-smoking and beer-drinking. We seegirls and dogs harnessed together into milk and vegetable carts, whichthey draw through the streets at early morning, to deliver the requiredarticles to the consumers. When the little team arrives before acustomer's door, the girl drops her harness, measures out and deliversthe milk or vegetables, while the dog waits patiently. 

There is no special beauty observable among the female population. Thedark eyes and hair with the lovely faces of the South are left behind, as well as the soft, musical cadence of voice which so charms the ear inItaly. German is not a musical tongue. It is a vigorous language, butnot a harmonious one in speech. Doubtless there are pretty blondeMarguerites--like Goethe's heroine--hidden away somewhere among thedomestic circles of Salzburg, but their long golden braids of hair andtheir fair, rose-tinted complexions are not often seen in public. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Undoubtedly Vienna is the finest city on the European continent next toParis, and it is often called the Northern Paris. It resembles theFrench capital both in its social life and its architecture. The styleof the modern buildings is very attractive, displaying great richnessand beauty of outline, while the charming perfection of detail is by nomeans neglected. At least one-quarter of Vienna is new, presenting broadstreets lined with noble edifices. The Ring Strasse is a notable exampleof this, being an elegant avenue, which takes the place of the old citywall that once surrounded the town, but which it has long sinceoutgrown. This metropolis now contains considerably over a millioninhabitants. It is situated upon an arm of the Danube where it is joinedby the two small streams known as the Wien and the Alster, from theformer of which the city takes its name. Vienna is not lacking inantiquity. It was renowned in Roman times two thousand years ago, andthere is an ancient aspect quite unmistakable about its western portionin the vicinity of the Emperor's palace. This imperial assemblage ofbuildings, with the broad court about which they stand, presents noclaim whatever to architectural beauty, being exceedingly heavy andsubstantial. 

One of the principal attractions of the city is its numerous parks, squares, and breathing-spots. Above all else in this regard is thePrater, situated on the verge of the city, forming one of the mostextensive pleasure drives or parks connected with any European capital. It was in this park that the famous exhibition buildings were erected, covering twelve or fifteen acres of ground; but the Prater could affordroom for fifty such structures. All the fashionable citizens, includingthe royal family, come here for the enjoyment of their afternoon driveor horseback ride. The sight presented on these occasions is one of thevery gayest conceivable, recalling the brilliancy of the Chiaja ofNaples, the Maiden of Calcutta, or the Champs Elysées of Paris. One doesnot see even in Hyde Park, London, more elegant vehicles and horses, ormore striking liveries than on the Prater at Vienna. Equestrianism isthe favorite mode of exercise here, both with ladies and gentlemen, andthe Austrians are better horsemen and horsewomen than the English. Cavalry officers in uniform, as well as representatives of other arms ofthe service, add much to the brilliancy of this park during the popularhour. It is divided into a broad driveway, a well-kept equestrian track, and smooth walks devoted exclusively to pedestrians. For spaciousness aswell as attractive gayety, the Prater is scarcely equalled--certainlynot surpassed--by any other European driveway. 

There are two noble palaces at Vienna which must not be forgotten;namely, the Upper and Lower Belvedere. They are intimately connected, though divided by a large and splendid garden, and together form an artcollection and museum combined, only second to the Uffizi and Pittipalaces at Florence, and the galleries of Paris and Rome. A simple listof the pictures to be found here would cover many pages in print, embracing the names of such artists as Salvator Rosa, Giorgone, Bassano, Perugino, Carlo Dolce, Guido Reni, Rembrandt, Andrea del Sarto, VanDyck, etc. All of these paintings are high in artistic merit; many ofthem are admirable, and all are beyond price in money. Various schoolsare represented in the galleries, and there are among the rest a hundredor so of modern pictures; but the majority are by the old masters ortheir immediate pupils. The Flemish, Dutch, and Spanish schools areespecially well represented. The visitor will find in the LowerBelvedere a marvellous collection of antiquities, perhaps the mostcurious to be seen in Europe. Among other departments of interest is onein which there are over a hundred warriors of life size clad in completearmor, most of whom are mounted on mail-clad horses, all confronting thevisitor, with visor down and lance in rest. All of these effigies aredesigned to be likenesses, and each is labelled with the name of thewarrior-king, emperor, or great general he represents, while we havebefore us the real armor and weapons which he bore in actual life. Herehangs the tattered banner which was carried through the Crusades, andreturned by the hand of the Archduke Ferdinand, beside hundreds ofsimilar tokens. 

The Cathedral of St. Stephen's, between five and six hundred years ofage, is of very great interest, and forms a rare example of pure Gothic. The Imperial Library contains over three hundred thousand volumes. Vienna has all the usual Christian charitable institutions, schools, andprogressive organizations of a great city of the nineteenth century. 

From Vienna we continue our journey to Prague, the capital of Bohemia, aquaint old city, founded in 1722 by the Duchess Libussa, and which hasto-day nearly sixty thousand inhabitants. It is crowded with historicalmonuments, ancient churches, and queer old chapels, some of which areornamented by frescoes hardly rivalled by the finest at Rome andFlorence. One is here shown underground dungeons as terrible as those ofVenice, and to which historic associations lend their special interest. It would seem that human beings could hardly exist in such holes for amonth, and yet in some of these, prisoners are known to have lingeredmiserably for years. Prague was remarkable for its institutions oflearning and its scientific societies. The university, founded byCharles IV. In 1348, had at one time a hundred professors and threethousand students. This university enjoyed a world-wide reputation, butall this has passed away. There are two or three large libraries, amuseum of natural history, a school for the blind, and several publichospitals. We find here some beautiful specimens of glass manufacture, for which Bohemia has long been celebrated, though she is now rivalledin this line by both England and America. 

Prague has had more than its share of the calamities of war, having beenbesieged and taken six times before the year 1249. In the war of theHussites it was taken, burned, plundered, and sacked with barbarousferocity. The Thirty Years' War began and ended within its walls, andduring its progress the city was three times in possession of the enemy. In 1620 the battle was fought just outside of the city in whichFrederick V. Was conquered, and after which he was deposed. During theSeven Years' War it fell into the hands of different victors, and in1744 capitulated to Frederick the Great of Prussia. Indeed, until withinthe last half-century Prague and its environs may be said to have beenlittle better than a constant battle-field. Seen from an elevatedposition the city presents a very picturesque aspect. A fine view maybe had of it from either of the bridges which cross the Moldau, but amore satisfactory one is to be had from the Belvedere, a large publicgarden situated on an eminence just outside the city proper. This gardenforms a beautiful park and is a favorite drive with the citizens. One ofthe bridges is called the Karlsbrücke (Charles Bridge); the other is theSuspension Bridge, also known as Emperor Francis's Bridge. At the end ofthe latter is the memorial which commemorates the five hundredthanniversary of the founding of the university. The niches on either sideare filled with statues representing the several sciences, added towhich are statues of two archbishops. The Charles Bridge, built of stoneover five hundred years ago, is the most interesting of the two bridges, and has its two extremities protected by lofty towers. The arches of thebridge are ornamented with groups of saints numbering thirty life-sizefigures. It is not surprising that Prague appears in decay; but as it isa sort of half-way place between Dresden and Vienna, it is insured acertain amount of business from travellers of all nations. 

[Illustration: BRIDGE CROSSING THE MOLDAU. ]

One prominent feature of Dresden, the capital of Saxony, which strikesthe stranger, is that the military appear in such large numberseverywhere, in the streets, the hotels, in the shops and parks. Theexpense and waste of supporting such large numbers of soldiers isenormous. The student of art, music, and history finds a rich field foreducational purposes here, where there are so many choice collections ofantiquities, museums, and remarkable paintings. The Zwinger Museumcontains among other treasures a collection of three hundred and sixtythousand engraved plates, all of great value. Art treasures andlibraries are freely open to the public, as in all parts of Europe. Dresden is a busy city, commanding a large trade, and containing over aquarter of a million inhabitants. Gold and silver manufactures form alarge share of the industry; artificial flowers, china ware, and paperhangings also, constitute a large portion of its extensive exports. TheRoyal Public Library contains four hundred thousand volumes, and isparticularly rich in the several departments of literature, history, andclassical antiquity. There are many volumes in this Dresden librarywhich are not to be found elsewhere in Europe, and learned men comethousands of miles to consult them. 

The Green Vaults, so called from the style of the original decorations, are a portion of the Royal Palace, and contain an extraordinarilyvaluable collection, belonging to the State, consisting of works of art, jewels, royal regalia, etc. , classified in eight connected saloons. Onesees here a certain green stone, a most brilliant gem, esteemed of greatvalue. Whether it be really a diamond or an emerald, it is intrinsicallyof equal worth. The weight of this rare gem is forty carets. The GrosseGarten is the favorite public park of the city, containing about threehundred acres of land. It is very beautifully laid out in ornamentalsections, drives, walks, and groves. The historical associations aboutthis park are interesting, it being the spot where the French andPrussians more than once encountered each other in battle, the last timein 1813. 

The most attractive portion of this really fine city is the TheatrePlatz, about which lie the principal objects of interest to thetraveller. Here are situated the Royal Palace, the Zwinger with itschoice collections, and the theatre. The old bridge over the Elbe is asubstantial stone structure. The palace forms a large square ofspacious edifices surmounted by a tower nearly four hundred feet high. The principal picture-gallery of Dresden is the finest in Germany, andcontains between three and four thousand admirable examples of highart, --the work of such artists as Raphael, Holbein, Corregio, AlbertDürer, Rubens, Giotto, Van Dyck, and other masters already named inthese pages. Among them all the favorite, as generally conceded, isRaphael's Madonna di San Sisto, believed to be one of the last and bestexamples produced by this great master. We are sure to find a goodlynumber of Americans residing in this European capital, gathered here foreducational purposes in art, literature, and music. 

Berlin, the capital of Prussia, contains about a million inhabitants, and is one of the finest cities of Europe. The principal street is theUnter den Linden, and most of the objects of interest centre herebetween the Royal Palace and the Brandenburg Gate. This thoroughfare isplanted in its centre with four rows of trees, having a capaciouspedestrian section, an equestrian road, and two driveways, one on eachside of the broad street. It resembles Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, bothin size and design, though the architecture of the American street isfar superior to the German. The Unter den Linden is a hundred andninety-six feet wide, and receives its name from the double avenue oflinden trees extending through the centre. The street is flanked withfine buildings, a few hotels, three palaces, a museum, a school of art, public library, etc. At one end is the famous bronze statue of Frederickthe Great. The Brandenburg Gate, where the Linden commences, forms theentrance to the city from the Thiergarten, and is a sort of triumphalarch, erected in 1789. It is seventy feet in height, and two hundred inwidth, being modelled after the entrance in the gateway of the temple ofthe Parthenon at Athens. It affords five passage-ways through its greatwidth. 

This proud capital, six hundred years ago, was only of small importance, since when it has grown to its present mammoth proportions. FrederickWilliam made it his home and started its most important structures. Frederick I. Added to it, and so it has been improved by one ruler afteranother until it has become one of the most important political andcommercial centres in Europe. It is divided by the river Spree, which atthis point is about two hundred feet in width, and communicates with theOder and the Baltic by canal. No continental city except Vienna hasgrown so rapidly during the last half-century. The late emperor didlittle or nothing to beautify the capital, whose growth has been mostlyof a normal character, greatly retarded by a devotion to militarypurposes. 

The Unter den Linden is the charm of Berlin, so bright, shaded, andretired, as it were, in the very midst of outer noise and bustle. Atnearly all hours of the day the long lines of benches are crowded bylaughing, flaxen-haired children, attended by gayly dressed nurses, thegroups they form contrasting with the rude struggle of business lifegoing on so close at hand. A regiment of soldiers is passing as we gazeupon the scene, accompanied by a full band, their helmets and brightarms glittering in the sunlight; the vehicles rattle past on both sidesof the mall; here and there is seen an open official carriage withliveried servants and outriders; well-mounted army officers pass at ahand-gallop on the equestrian division of the street, saluting rightand left; dogs and women harnessed together to small carts wind in andout among the throng, while girls and boys with huge baskets strapped totheir backs, containing merchandise, mingle in the scene. 

The Thiergarten is the grand park of Berlin, situated along the banks ofthe Spree; it is two miles long by a mile in width, with an abundance ofnoble trees, well-kept drives, and clear, picturesque lakes. The pondsand canals intersecting this park afford a choice resort for the loversof skating in winter. In the southwest corner of the Thiergarten is thefamous zoölogical garden of Berlin, established nearly fifty yearssince. 

The Royal Palace is an imposing structure six hundred and forty feetlong by about half that width, and is over a hundred feet in height. Itwas originally a fortress, but has been altered by successive monarchsuntil it is now a very perfect royal residence, containing six hundredrooms and state departments. 

We still pursue our course northward, bearing a little to the west, until we reach Hamburg, which contains some three hundred thousandinhabitants, and is one of the most important commercial cities on thecontinent. It is not only situated on a navigable river, theElbe, --seventy miles from its mouth, --but is connected by railway withevery part of Europe. Hamburg was founded by Charlemagne a thousandyears ago, the older portions being dark and dirty; but the modernsection of the city is very fine in the size of its streets and itsarchitectural aspect. Its commercial connections with America exceedthat of any other northern port, and form its main features of businessimportance. Vessels drawing eighteen feet of water can ascend the Elbeto the wharves at high tide. The city is intersected by canals andbranches of the Alster River, and was once surrounded by a series oframparts, but these have been converted into attractive, tree-plantedpromenades. The public library of Hamburg contains over two hundredthousand volumes, and there is no lack in the city of hospitals, schools, colleges, churches, charitable institutions, museums, andtheatres. The botanical gardens and the zoölogical exhibition areremarkable for excellence and completeness. It would be difficult toconceive of a more attractive sight than that afforded by the broadsheet of water in the centre of the town known as the Alster Basin, amile in circumference, bounded on three sides by streets ornamentedliberally with trees, while its surface is dotted with little omnibussteamers and pleasure boats darting hither and thither like swallows onthe wing. Snow-white swans, tame and graceful, are constantly seenfloating over the surface of this attractive city-lake. The environs ofHamburg are rendered very charming by pleasant villas and numberlessflower-gardens, with an abundance of ornamental trees. 

Our journey northward continues by railway and steamboat via Kiel, crossing an arm of the Baltic to Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, situated on the island of Zeeland. This city, which now contains apopulation of about two hundred and fifty thousand, was a largecommercial port centuries ago, and has several times been partiallydestroyed by war and conflagration. The houses are mostly of brick, someof the better class being built of Norwegian granite, while the newerportion of the town presents many examples of fine modern architecture. The streets are of good width, laid out with an eye to regularity, besides which there are sixteen public squares. Taken as a whole, thefirst impression of the place and its surroundings is remarkablypleasing and attractive. As one approaches the city the scene isenlivened by the many windmills in the environs, whose wide-spread armsare generally in motion, appearing like the broad wings of enormousbirds hovering over the land. Perhaps the earliest association in itsmodern history which the stranger is likely to remember as he looksabout him in Copenhagen, is that of the dastardly attack upon the city, and the shelling of it for three consecutive days, by the British fleetin 1807, during which reckless onslaught an immense destruction of humanlife and property was inflicted upon the place. Over three hundredimportant buildings were laid in ashes on that occasion, because Denmarkrefused permission for the domiciling of English troops upon her soil, or to withdraw from her connection with the neutral powers in theNapoleonic wars. 

As in the Mediterranean, so in the Baltic, tidal influence is felt onlyto a small degree, the difference in the rise and fall of the water atthis point being scarcely more than one foot. Owing to the comparativelyfresh character of this sea its ports are ice-bound for a third of eachyear, and in the extreme seasons the whole expanse is frozen across fromthe coast of Denmark to that of Sweden. In 1658 Charles X. Of the lattercountry marched his army across the Belts, dictating to the Danes atreaty of peace; and so late as 1809 a Russian army passed from Finlandto Sweden, across the Gulf of Bothnia. 

The territory of Denmark upon the mainland is quite limited, consistingof Jutland only; but she has a number of islands far and near, Zeelandbeing the most populous, and containing, as we have shown, the capital. As a state she may be said to occupy a much larger space in historythan upon the map of Europe. The surface of the island of Zeeland isuniformly low, in this resembling Holland, the highest point reaching anelevation of about two hundred and fifty feet. To be precise in thematter of her dominions, the colonial possessions of Denmark may be thusenumerated: Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe group of islands, between theShetlands and Iceland; adding St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John in theWest Indies. Greenland is nearly as large as Germany and Francecombined; but owing to its ice-clothed character in most parts, itsinhabitants do not quite reach an aggregate of ten thousand. Iceland isnearly the size of our New England States, and has a population ofseventy-five thousand. The Faroes contain ten thousand inhabitants, andthe three West Indian islands united have a population of a little overforty thousand. 

In the year 1880 the Danish monarchy reached the thousandth anniversaryof its foundation under Gorm the Old, whose reign bridges over theinterval between mere legend and the dawn of recorded history. Gorm issupposed to have been a direct descendant of the famous Regnar Lodbrog, who was a daring and imperious ruler of the early Northmen. The commonorigin of the three Baltic nationalities which constitute Scandinavia isclearly apparent to the traveller who has visited Denmark, Sweden, andNorway. The race has been steadily modified, generation aftergeneration, in its more important characteristics by the progressiveforce of civilization. These Northmen are no longer the haughty andreckless warriors who revelled in wine drunk from the skulls of theirenemies, and who deemed death respectable only when encountered uponthe battle-field. Clearer intelligence and culture have substituted theduties of peaceful citizens for the occupation of marauders, and theenterprises of civilized life for the exaggerated romance of sea-rovers. Reading and writing, which were once looked upon by them as allied tothe black art, are now the accomplishment of nearly all classes, andnowhere on the globe do we find people more cheerful, intelligent, frank, and hospitable than in the three kingdoms of the far North. 

The Denmark of to-day, typified by Copenhagen, its capital, is a greatcentre of science and art. The spirit of Thorwaldsen, the contemporaryand brother-sculptor of Canova, permeates everything, and in making hisnative city his heir, he also bequeathed to her an appreciation of artwhich her eminent scientists have ably supplemented in their severaldepartments of knowledge. The Thorwaldsen Museum contains over fortyapartments, ample space being afforded for the best display of eachfigure and each group designed by the great master. The ceilings areelaborately and very beautifully decorated with emblematical designs bythe best Danish artists. This enduring monument is also Thorwaldsen'sappropriate mausoleum, being fashioned externally after an Etruscantomb. It contains only this master's own works, and a few pictures whichhe brought with him from Rome. He revelled in the representation oftenderness, of youth, beauty, and childhood. Nothing of the repulsive orterrible ever came from his hand. The sculptor's fancy found expressionmost fully, perhaps, in the works which are gathered here, illustratingthe delightful legends of the Greek mythology. No one can be surprisedat the universal homage accorded to his memory by his countrymen. 

The Ethnological Museum of the city, better known as the Museum ofNorthern Antiquities, is considered to be the most remarkableinstitution of the sort in Europe. Students in this department ofscience come from all parts of the civilized world to seek knowledgefrom its countless treasures. One is here enabled to follow the progressof our race from its primitive stages to its highest civilization. Thenational government liberally aids all purposes akin to science and art;consequently this museum is a favored object of the state. Each of thethree distinctive periods of stone, bronze, and iron forms an elaboratedivision in the spacious halls of the institution. 

This government was the first in Europe to furnish the means ofeducation to the people at large on a liberal scale; to establishschoolhouses in every parish, and to provide suitable dwellings andincome for the teachers. The incipient steps towards this object beganas far back as the time of Christian II. , more than three centuries ago, while many of the European states were clouded in ignorance. Copenhagenhas two public libraries: the Royal, containing over six hundredthousand books; and the University, which has between two hundred andfifty and three hundred thousand volumes. 

Though Denmark is a small kingdom containing scarcely three millionpeople, yet it has produced many eminent men of science, art, andliterature. The names of Hans Christian Andersen, Rasmus Rask, thephilologist, Oersted, the discoverer of electro-magnetism, Forchhammer, the chemist, and Eschricht, the physiologist, occur to us in thisconnection. It is a country of legend and romance, of historic andprehistoric monuments, besides being the very fatherland of fairy tales. The Vikings of old have left their footprints all over the country inmounds. It is not therefore surprising that the cultured portion of thecommunity is stimulated to antiquarian research. 

The Palace of Rosenborg, situated near the centre of the city, was builtby Christian IV. , in 1604. It is no longer used for its originalpurpose, but is devoted to the preservation of a chronologicalcollection of the belongings of the Danish kings, spacious apartmentsbeing devoted to souvenirs of each, decorated in the style of theperiod, and containing a portion of the original furniture from theseveral royal residences, as well as the family portraits, galacostumes, jewelry, plate, and weapons of war. Altogether it is acollection of priceless value and of remarkable historic interest, covering a period of over four hundred years. One is forcibly remindedof the Green Vaults of Dresden while passing through the severalsections of Rosenborg Castle. Many of the royal regalias are profuselyinlaid with diamonds, sapphires, emeralds, rubies, and other preciousstones, forming all together a value too large for us to venture anestimate. The toilet sets which have belonged to and been in daily useby various queens are numerous, each set embracing a dozen pieces moreor less, made of solid gold, superbly inlaid with many precious stones. Among them one is especially interested in the jewelled casket of QueenSophia Amalie, wife of Frederick III. , a relic inlaid with scores ofdiamonds. Here, too, we see the costly and beautiful bridal dresses ofseveral royal personages, all chronologically arranged, so that theintelligent visitor clearly reads veritable history in these domestictreasures. 

The Round Tower of Copenhagen is a most singular structure, formerlyused as an observatory. It consists of two hollow cylinders betweenwhich is a spiral, gradually inclined foot-way leading from base to top. It is quite safe for a horse to ascend, and the Empress Catharine issaid to have reached the summit on horseback. From the top of the RoundTower, the red-tiled roofs of the city lie spread out beneath the eye ofthe visitor, mingled with green parks, open squares, tall steeples, broad canals, wide thoroughfares and palaces. To this aspect is addedthe multitude of shipping lying along the piers and grouped in theharbor, backed by a view of the open sea. The Swedish coast across theBaltic is represented by a low range of coast-line losing itself uponthe distant horizon. The ramparts which formerly surrounded Copenhagenhave been demolished, the ground being now improved for finegarden-walks, planted with ornamental trees and bright-hued flowers, which add greatly to the attractive aspect of the Danish capital. Theformer moats have assumed the shape of tiny lakes, upon which swans andother aquatic birds are seen at all hours; and where death-dealingcannon were formerly planted, lindens, rose-bushes, and tall whitelilies now bloom in peaceful beauty. 

No finer scenery is to be found in Europe than is presented by thecountry lying between Copenhagen and Elsinore, composed of a successionof forests, lawns, villas, cottages, and gardens, for a distance oftwenty-five miles. Elsinore is a small seaport, looking rather deserted, bleak, and silent, with less than ten thousand inhabitants. From out ofthe uniformity of its red brick buildings there looms up but onenoticeable edifice; namely, the Town Hall, with a square tower flankedby an octagonal one built of red granite. The charm of the place is itsremarkable situation, commanding a view of the Baltic, with Sweden inthe distance, while the Sound which divides the two shores is alwaysdotted with myriads of steamers and sailing-vessels. The position ofElsinore recalls that of Gibraltar and the Dardanelles as surely as itsname reminds us of the play of Hamlet, and Shakespeare. North of thetown, on the extreme point of the land, stands the famous castle ofKronborg, with its three tall towers, the central one overtopping theothers to the extent of some forty or fifty feet. The tower, upon themost seaward corner, is devoted to the purposes of a lighthouse. Thecastle is about three centuries old, having been built by Frederick II. For the purpose of commanding the Sound, and of enforcing the marinetolls which were exacted from all foreign nations for a period of twohundred years and more. 

If you visit Elsinore, the guide will show you what is called Hamlet'sgrave, situated in a small grove of trees, where some cunning hands longago erected a rude mound of stones. Shakespeare, who had a most royalway of disregarding dates, made Hamlet live in this place after theintroduction of gunpowder, whereas if any such person ever did exist, itwas centuries earlier and hundreds of miles farther north upon themainland, in what is now called Jutland. However, that is not important. Do not leave Elsinore without visiting Ophelia's fatal brook! To besure, this rivulet is not large enough for a duck to swim in, but alittle stretch of the imagination will overcome all local discrepancies. 

Far back in Danish legendary story, a time when history fades intofable, it is said there was a Hamlet in Northern Denmark, but it waslong before the birth of Christ. His father was not a king, but a famouspirate chief who governed Jutland in conjunction with his brother. Hamlet's father married the daughter of a Danish king, the issue beingHamlet. His uncle, according to the ancient story, murdered Hamlet'sfather and afterwards married his mother. Herein we have the foundationof one of Shakespeare's grandest productions. 

The Sound, which at Copenhagen is about twenty miles wide, here narrowsto two, the old fort of Helsingborg on the Swedish coast being in fullview, the passage between the two shores forming the natural gate to theBaltic. There are delightful drives in the environs of Elsinorepresenting land and sea views of exquisite loveliness, the water-sidebristling with reefs, rocks, and lighthouses, while that of the land ischarmingly picturesque with many villas, groves, and broad, cultivatedmeads. 

CHAPTER XV. 

One day's sail due north from Copenhagen, through the Sound, --Strait ofKatte, --brings us to Gottenburg, the metropolis of Southwestern Sweden. The Strait, which is about a hundred miles in width, is nearly twice aslong, and contains many small islands. Gottenburg is situated on theGotha River, about five miles from its mouth. Though less populous, itis commercially almost as important as Stockholm. The deep, broadwatercourse which runs through the town to the harbor is a portion ofthe famous Gotha Canal, which joins fjord (inlet from the sea;pronounced _feord_), river, lakes and locks together, thus connectingthe North Sea and the Baltic. The two cities are also joined byrailroad, the distance between them being over three hundred miles. Thecountry through which the canal passes is not unlike many inlandsections of New England, presenting pleasant views of thrifty farms andwell-cultivated lands. There are some sharp hills and abrupt valleys tobe encountered which are often marked by grand and picturesquewaterfalls, wild, foaming rivers, and fierce surging rapids. 

Gottenburg is divided into an upper and lower town, the latter being aplain cut up by canals, and the former spread over the adjoining hills. The town is composed of two or three principal streets, very broad, andintersecting one another at right angles, with a canal in the centre. These water-ways are lined by substantial granite borders, with hereand there convenient stone steps connecting them with the water. Thespacious harbor admits of vessels drawing seventeen feet. The citizensfeel a just pride in a well-endowed college, a large public library, anexchange, two orphan asylums, a flourishing society of arts andsciences, a large theatre, and two public parks. In front of the theatreis an admirable reproduction of the Swedish sculptor Molin's famousgroup of two figures representing "the girdle-duellists" [theseduellists, bound together, fought with knives], the original of whichstands in front of the National Museum at Stockholm. Gottenburg is notwithout a cathedral and numerous fine churches, nor let us forget tospeak of its excellent schools, attendance upon which is compulsorythroughout Sweden. English is regularly taught in her public schools, and is very generally spoken by the intelligent people. Education ismore general, and culture is of a higher grade in Sweden than is commonwith the people of Southern Europe, while music is nearly as universalan acquirement here as it is in Italy. The population is frugal, honest, self-helping, and in many respects resembles that of Switzerland. 

The system of inland communication by means of the Gotha Canal is one ofthe most remarkable ever achieved by man, when the obstacles which havebeen overcome and the advantages accomplished are considered. Steam-vessels, limited to one hundred and six feet in length on accountof the size of the locks, are carried hundreds of miles by it across andover the highlands of Southern Sweden from sea to sea. When we see awell-freighted steamboat climb a mountain side, float through lock afterlock, and after reaching the summit of the hills, descend with equalfacility towards the coast and sea-level, this great triumph ofengineering skill is fully appreciated. The vessels navigating the canalrise in all, three hundred and eighty feet above the level of the Balticduring the passage across country. At the little town of Berg the locksare sixteen in number, and form a gigantic staircase by means of whichvessels are raised at this point one hundred and twenty feet. 

On the line of the Gotha Canal is situated the famous Tröllhatta Falls, which are so remarkable as to attract visitors from all parts of Europe. These falls consist of a series of tremendous rapids extending over adistance of about two hundred yards, and producing an uproar almostequal to the ceaseless oratorio of Niagara. This angry water-way isinterspersed by some well-wooded islands, on either side of which thewaters rush with a wild, resistless power, tossed here and there by themany under-currents. The whole forms a succession of falls of which thefirst is called Gullöfallet, where on both sides of an inaccessiblelittle island the waters make a leap of twenty-six feet in height, therebound creating a constant cloud of feathery spray. Then follows thehighest of the falls, the Toppöfallet, forty-four feet in height, whichis likewise divided by a cliff into two parts, against which the franticwaters chafe angrily. The next fall measures less than ten feet inheight, followed a little way down the rapids by what is called theFlottbergström, all together making a fall of foaming eddies and whirlsequal to about one hundred and twelve feet. 

The marine shells which are found in the bottom of some of the inlandlakes of both Norway and Sweden, show that the land which forms theirbed was once covered by the sea. This is clearly apparent in Lake Wenerand Lake Welter, which are situated nearly three hundred feet above thepresent ocean level. Complete skeletons of whales have been found inlandat considerable elevations during the present century. The oldestshell-banks discovered by scientists in Scandinavia are situated fivehundred feet above the level of the sea. 

Sweden has comparatively few mountains, but many ranges of hills. Norwaymonopolizes almost entirely the mountain system of the great northernpeninsula, but the large forests of pine, fir, and birch, which cover somuch of the country, are common to both. Though iron is found in largedeposits in Norway, it is still more abundant in Sweden, where it ischiefly of the magnetic kind, yielding when properly smelted the bestore for the manufacture of steel. It is believed that there issufficient malleable iron in the soil of Sweden to supply the wholeworld with this necessary article for centuries. Mount Gellivare, whichis over eighteen hundred feet in height, is said to be almost whollyformed of an ore containing eighty per cent of iron. 

In approaching Christiania, the capital of Norway, by sea fromGottenburg, we ascend the fjord of the same name a distance of seventymiles. The city, which is built upon a gradual slope facing the south, is seen to good advantage from the harbor. No more appropriate spotcould have been selected for the national capital by Christian IV. , whofounded it, and after whom it is named, than the head of this beautifulelongated bay. It is the seat of the Storthing, or Parliament, and theking, whose permanent residence is at Stockholm, is expected to residehere, attended by the court, at least three months of the year. With itsimmediate suburbs, the population of the city is a hundred andtwenty-five thousand. It should be remembered that Norway is practicallya free and independent state though it is under the crown of Sweden, andthat the people are thoroughly democratic, having abolished all titlesof nobility by enactment of the Storthing so early as 1821, at whichtime a law was also passed forbidding the king to create a new nobility. Nevertheless, the thought occurs to us that these are the descendants ofthose Northmen of whom one branch, under the name of Normans, conqueredthe British Isles, and founded the very nobility there which is thepresent boast and pride of England. 

We find some problems solved in Norway which have created politicalstrife elsewhere. Though its Church is identical with the State, unlimited toleration exists. There is a perfect system of politicalrepresentation, and while justice is open to all, litigation isearnestly discouraged. The meetings of the Storthing are independent ofthe king, not even requiring a writ of assemblage from him. Thus it willbe seen that although nominally under monarchial rule, Norway is inreality self-governed. 

The legal code of Norway is worthy of study, both on account of itsantiquity and its admirable provisions. The old sea-kings orfree-booters, as we have been accustomed to consider them, had a moreadvanced and civilized code than any of the people whose shores theydevastated. Before the year of our Lord 885, the power of the law wasestablished over all persons of every rank, while, in the othercountries of Europe, the independent jurisdiction of the feudal lordsdefied the laws. Before the eleventh century, the law of Scandinaviaprovided for equal justice to all, established a system of weights andmeasures, also one for the maintenance of roads and bridges, and for theprotection of women and animals from abuse; subjects which few otherEuropean legal systems at that time embraced. These laws were collectedinto one code by Magnus VII. , about the year 1260. They were revised byChristian IV. In 1604, and in 1687 the present system was drawn up. Sosimple and compact is it, that the whole is contained in a pocketvolume, a copy of which is in the possession of every Norwegian family. Each law occupies but a single paragraph, and all is simple andintelligible. 

The commerce of Christiania is growing rapidly. Over one thousandvessels enter and depart from its harbor annually, which, however, isclosed by ice three months in the year, though that of Hammerfest, situated a thousand miles further north on the same coast, is neverfrozen, owing to the genial influence of the Gulf Stream, --an agent sopotent as to modify the temperature of the entire coast of Scandinaviaon its western border. 

The university founded here by Frederick VI. In 1811, is a plain butmassive structure; the front ornamented by Corinthian pillars ofpolished granite. It accommodates some nine hundred students, thetuition being free to all native applicants suitably prepared. Itcontains a noble library of over two hundred thousand volumes, which isfreely open even to strangers under very simple restrictions. Beneaththe same roof is an extensive museum of zoölogy and geology. The cityhas a naval and military school, a lunatic asylum, an astronomicalobservatory, and various charitable institutions. Its botanical gardenis situated about a mile from the town, and contains among otherinteresting and finely arranged specimens, a collection of Alpine plantsfrom Spitzbergen and Iceland. 

The parliament house is an imposing building of original design, verypleasing in general effect and style, facing the Carl Johannes Square, the largest open area in the city. It was finished in 1866. Themarket-place is adorned with a marble statue of Christian IV. Anotherfine square is the Eidsvolds Plads, planted with choice trees andcarpeted with intensely bright greensward. The chief street is the CarlJohannes Gade, a broad thoroughfare extending from the railroad stationto the king's palace, halfway between which stands the university. In alarge wooden building behind the university is kept that unrivalledcuriosity, the "Viking Ship, " a souvenir of nine hundred years ago. Theblue clay of the district, where it was exhumed in 1880, a few milessouth of Christiania, has preserved it all these years. The men whobuilt the graceful lines of this now crumbling vessel, "in some remoteand dateless day, " knew quite as much of true marine architecture as doour modern shipwrights. This interesting relic, doubtless the oldestship in the world, once served the Vikings, its masters, as a sea-craft. It is eighty feet long by sixteen wide, and is about six feet deep fromthe gunwale. Seventy shields, as many spears, and other war equipmentsrecovered with the hull, show that it carried that number offighting-men. 

In such vessels as this the dauntless Northmen made voyages to everycountry in Europe a thousand years ago, and, as is confidently believedby many, they crossed the Atlantic, discovering North America centuriesbefore the name of Columbus was known. Ignoring the halo of romance andchivalry which the poets have thrown about the valiant Vikings and theirfollowers, one thing we are compelled to admit--they were superb marinearchitects. Ten centuries of progressive civilization have served toproduce none better. Most of the arts and sciences may, and do, exhibitgreat progress in excellence, but ship-building is not among them. Webuild bigger, but not finer, vessels. 

The burial of this ship so many centuries ago was simply in accordancewith the custom of those days. When any great sea-king perished, he wasenclosed in the cabin of his galley, and either sunk in the ocean orburied with his vessel and all of its warlike equipments upon thenearest suitable spot of land. We are told that when a chieftain died inbattle, not only were his war-horse, his gold and silver plate, and hisportable personal effects buried or burned with his body, but a guard ofhonor from among his followers slew themselves that he might enter thesacred halls of Odin (the Scandinavian Deity) properly attended. Themore elevated in rank the chief might be, the larger the number who mustsacrifice themselves as his escort to the land of bliss. So entire wasthe reliance of these Heathens in the demands of their peculiar faith, that they freely acted up to its extreme requirements while singingsongs of joy. 

A general aspect of good order, thrift, industry, and prosperityprevails at Christiania. The simplicity of dress and the gentle manners, especially among the female portion of the community, are markedfeatures. No stranger can fail to notice the low, sympathetic tones inwhich the women always speak; but though decorous and worthy, it must beadmitted that the Norwegian ladies, as a rule, are not handsome. Onesees here none of the rush and fever of living which so wearies theobserver in many parts of Southern Europe. The common people evince moresolidity of character with less of the frivolities of life. They may besaid to be a trifle slow and phlegmatic, but by no means stupid. Themost careless schoolboy, when addressed by a stranger, removes his hatand remains uncovered until he has responded to the inquiry made of him. 

Upon visiting a new city in any part of the world, one learns much ofthe national characteristics of the people, and of other matters worthknowing, by mingling unconventionally with the throng, watching theirevery-day habits and by observing the stream of busy life pouringthrough its great thoroughfares. More valuable information is thusacquired than from visiting grand cathedrals, art galleries, orconsulting guide-books. Years of travel fatigue us with the latter, butnever with Nature in her varying moods, with the peculiarities of races, or with the manners and customs of each new locality and country. Thedelight in natural objects grows by experience in every cultivated andreceptive mind. The rugged architecture of lofty mountains, the aspectof tumbling waterfalls, noble rivers, glowing sunsets, broad land andsea-views--each of these has a special, never-tiring and impressiveindividuality. 

While enjoying a bird's-eye view of Christiania, from the heights ofEgeberg, a well-wooded hill in the southern suburb, it is difficult tobelieve one's self in Icelandic Scandinavia, --the precise latitude ofthe Shetland Islands. A drowsy hum like the drone of bees seems to floatup from the busy city below. The beautiful fjord, with its gracefulpromontories, its picturesque and leafy isles, might be Lake Maggiore orComo, so placid and calm is its pale blue surface. Turning the eyesinland, one sees clustered in lovely combinations fields of ripeninggrain, gardens, lawns, cottages, and handsome villas, like a scene uponthe sunny shores of the Maritime Alps. An abundance of trees enliven theview, --plane, sycamore, ash, and elm, in luxurious condition. Warmerskies during the summer period are not to be found in Italy, norelsewhere outside of Egypt. As we stand upon the height of Egeberg on adelicious sunny afternoon, there hangs over and about the Norwegiancapital a soft golden haze such as lingers in August above the Venetianlagoons. 

The summer is so short here as to give the fruits and flowers barelytime to blossom, ripen, and fade, and the husbandman a chance to gatherhis crops. Vegetation is rapid in its growth, the sunshine being sonearly constant during the ten weeks which intervene between seedtimeand harvest. Barley grows two inches, and pease three, in twenty-fourhours at certain stages of development. It is an interesting fact thatif the barley-seed be brought from a warmer climate, it has to becomeacclimated, and does not yield a good crop until after two or threeyears. 

The flowers of the torrid and temperate zones, as a rule, close theireyes like human beings, and sleep a third or half of the twenty-fourhours, but in Arctic regions, life to those lovely children of Nature isone long sunny period, and sleep comes only with death and decay. Itwill also be observed that the flowers assume more vivid colors and emitmore fragrance during their brief lives than they do in the south. Thelong, delightful period of twilight during the summer season is seenhere in perfection, full of roseate loveliness. There is no dew to beencountered or avoided, no dampness; all is crystal clearness. 

In the rural districts women are generally employed in out-of-doorwork, as they are in Germany and Italy, and there is quite apreponderance of the sex in Norway and Sweden. As many women as men areseen engaged in mowing, reaping, loading heavy carts, and getting in theharvest generally. What would our American farmers think to see a womanswing a scythe all day in the hayfields, cutting as broad and even aswath as a man can do, and apparently with as little fatigue? Labor isvery poorly paid. Forty cents per day is considered to be liberal wagesfor a man, except in the cities, where a small increase upon this amountis obtained. 

Norway has been appropriately called the country of mountains andfjords, of cascades and lakes. Among the largest of the latter is LakeMjösen, which is about sixty miles long and has an average width oftwelve. It receives in its bosom one important river, the Longen, afterit has run a course of nearly a hundred and fifty miles. At its southernextremity is the port of Eidsvol, and at the northern is Lillehammer. These are situated in the direct route between Christiania andTröndhjem. But the most singular fact attached to the lake is that itmeasures about fifteen hundred feet in depth while its surface is onlyfour hundred feet above the level of the ocean. Its bottom is known tobe nearly a thousand feet below that of the adjacent North Sea, whichwould seem to show that the lake must be the mouth of some long-extinctvolcano. 

As to the animals of Norway, the reindeer, the bear, the wolf, the fox, and the lynx about complete the list. The ubiquitous crow abounds, andfine specimens of the golden eagle, that dignified monarch of the upperregions, may often be seen sailing through the air from cliff to cliff, across the fjords and valleys. At certain seasons of the year this birdproves destructive to domestic fowl and young lambs. Magpies appear tobe as much of a nuisance in Norway as crows are in India or Ceylon, andquite as unmolested by the people. What are called the wild birds ofScandinavia are in fact quite tame, and they are in large variety. Asthe traveller passes through the country, he will observe sheaves ofunthreshed grain elevated upon poles beside the farm-houses and barns, which are placed there to furnish the feathered visitors with food. These sheaves are frequently renewed throughout the long winters;otherwise the birds would starve. The confiding little creatures knowtheir friends, and often enter the houses for protection from theseverity of the weather. Neither man, woman, nor child would think ofdisturbing them, for they are considered to bring good luck to thepremises. 

In a journey from the capital to Tröndhjem, where the coasting steameris usually taken for the North Cape, we cross the Dovrefjeld, ormountain table-land. The famous elevation called the Sneehaetta--"SnowHat"--forms a part of this Alpine range, and it is one of the loftiestin Norway. It should be remembered that one-eighth of the country lieswithin the region of perpetual snow, and that these lofty and nearlyinaccessible heights are robed in a constant garb of bridal whiteness. No known portions of the globe have more extensive glaciers orsnowfields, unless, possibly, it be some portions of Alaska orGreenland. There are glaciers in Norway which cover from four to fivehundred square miles, descending from plateaus three and four thousandfeet in height, down to very near sea-level. 

Though the highest point in the peninsula is only about eight thousandfive hundred feet above the sea, --an elevation which is reached only byJotunfjeld, or Giant Mountain, --still no highlands in Europe surpassthose of Scandinavia in terrific grandeur. Mont Blanc (Switzerland) isnearly twice as high as this Giant Mountain, but being less abrupt ishardly so striking. 

The elevations of Norway are intersected by deep, dark gorges andthreatening chasms, roaring with impetuous torrents and grandwater-falls, constantly presenting such scenes as would have inspiredthe pencil of Salvator Rosa. The mountain system here does not form acontinuous range, but consists of a succession of table-lands, like theDovrefjeld, and of detached mountains rising from elevated bases. Thelength of this series of elevations--mountains and plateaus--is that ofthe entire peninsula from the North Cape to Christiania, some twelvehundred miles, which gives to the mountains of Norway and Sweden an arealarger than the Alps, the Apennines, and Pyrenees combined; while thelakes, waterfalls, and cascades far surpass those of the rest of Europe. It has been said, somewhat extravagantly, by those familiar with thegeography of Scandinavia, that could it be flattened out into plains, itwould make as large a division of the earth as is now represented byeither of the four principal continents. 

The ratio of arable land to the entire area of Norway is not more thanone to ten, and were it not that the support of the people came mainlyfrom the sea, the country would not sustain one-quarter of its presentpopulation. Undismayed, however, by the prevalence of rocks, cliffs, andchasms, the people utilize every available rod of land to the utmost. The surroundings of many habitations seem severe and desolate, even whenviewed beneath the summer sun; what, then, must be their appearanceduring the long and trying winters of their frosty regions?

It is not uncommon to see on the Norwegian coast, farm-houses surroundedby a few low buildings, perched among rocks away up on some greenterrace, so high, indeed, as to make them seem scarcely larger than aneagle's nest. To anybody but a mountaineer these spots are inaccessible, and every article of subsistence, except what is raised upon the fewacres of available earth surrounding the dwelling, must be carried upthere upon men's backs. A few goats and sheep must constitute the animalstock, added to which are generally some domestic fowls. These dwellingsare constructed of logs, cut in the lofty gulches, and drawn by hand tothe spot, one by one. It would seem that such energetic industry appliedin some inviting neighborhood would insure a more desirable result. 

CHAPTER XVI. 

Bergen is situated some two hundred miles northwest of Christiania, andmay be reached from thence by a carriole (a peculiar native vehicle)journey across the country, over excellent roads, or by steamboatdoubling the Naze. The latter route, though three times as far, is mostfrequently adopted by travellers as being less expensive andtroublesome. Another, and perhaps the most common, route taken bytourists is by the way of Lake Mjösen, called the Valders route. Itinvolves railroad, steamer, and carriole modes of conveyance, and in allcovers a distance of at least three hundred and fifty miles. 

Bergen was the capital of Norway when it was under Danish rule, and waseven up to a late period the commercial rival of the present capital, Christiania. The town rises from the bay nearly in the form of acrescent, nestling at the foot of surrounding hills on the west coast, between those two broad and famous arms of the sea, --the Sognefjord andthe Hardangerfjord. The first-named indents the coast to a distance ofover one hundred miles, the latter seventy miles, --the first beingnorth, and the last south of Bergen. The excellent situation of theharbor and its direct steam communication with European ports gives thisancient city an extensive commerce in proportion to the number ofinhabitants, who do not aggregate over forty thousand. A large portionof the town is built upon a promontory, between which and the mainlandon its north side is the harbor, which is rarely frozen over, owing tothe influence of the Gulf Stream, while the harbor of St. Petersburg(Russia), in about the same latitude, is closed annually by ice for atleast three months. 

We see here more of the traditional Norwegian customs than are to be metwith either at Gottenburg or Christiania. Some of the old men who comefrom inland are particularly noticeable, forming vivid pictures andartistic groups, with their long, snowy hair flowing freely about faceand neck in patriarchal fashion. They wear red worsted caps, openshirt-collars, and knee-breeches, together with jackets and vests deckedby a profusion of silver buttons. The women wear black jackets, brightred bodices, and scarlet petticoats, with white linen aprons. On thestreet called the Strandgade many Norse costumes mingle like variouscolors in a kaleidoscope. 

The staple commodity of Bergen is dried fish, mostly cod, supplementedby large quantities of cod-liver oil, lumber, and wood cut for fuel. Aconsiderable portion of what is called cod-liver oil is produced fromsharks' livers, which, in fact, are believed to possess the samemedicinal qualities as those of the cod. At all events, with thisobject, sharks are sought for along the upper coast of Norway, especially in the region of the Lofoden Islands, and their livers areused as described. An average-sized shark will yield thirty gallons ofmerchantable oil, but this article would not obtain a market exceptunder the more popular name of cod-liver oil. Catching sharks is not anemployment entirely devoid of danger, as they are large and powerful, often measuring twenty feet and more in length. The shark, like thewhale, when it is first struck with the harpoon, must be given plenty ofline, or it will drag down the fishermen's boat in its rapid descent todeep water. Sometimes the struggle to capture the fish is a long andserious one, as it must thoroughly exhaust itself before it will yield. When it is finally drawn to the side of the boat, a heavy, well-directedblow upon the nose completely stuns the creature, and the capture isthen complete. 

There are here some neat public squares, a public park, wherein amilitary band plays occasionally, and half a dozen churches. There isalso a theatre, royal palace, musical institute, public library, andmuseum; but there is hardly a trace of architectural beauty in Norway, with the exception of the cathedral at Tröndhjem, which is formed of amixture of orders, the Norman predominating. The Church of St. Mary atBergen is only interesting for its antiquity, dating as it does from thetwelfth century. Its curious and grotesque front bears the date A. D. 1118. 

The shops are filled with odd antique articles, mostly for domestic use, such as old plate, drinking-cups, spoons, and silver goblets bearing themarks of age, and the date of centuries past. A little experience is aptto create doubt, in the genuineness of these articles, which, like thosefound in the curiosity shops of Japan, are very generally manufacturedin this present year of our Lord, however they may be dated. 

A drive of a few miles inland upon the charming roads in any directionwill fill the stranger with delight, and afford characteristic picturesof great beauty. The farmers hang their cut grass upon frames of wood todry, as we do clothes upon a rope on washing-days. These frames areplaced in the mowing-fields, in rows of a hundred feet in length and ahundred feet apart, and are about five feet in height. Agriculturaltools used upon the farms are of the most primitive character; theploughs in many parts of the country are single-handed, and as awkwardas the rude implement used for the purpose to-day in Egypt. The countryhouses are low and mostly thatched, the roof being often covered withsoil, and are not infrequently rendered attractive with blooming heatherand little blue and pink blossoms planted by Nature's hand, --thehieroglyphics in which she writes her impromptu poetry. In the meadowsbetween the hills are sprinkled harebells, as blue as the azure veins ona delicate face; while here and there patches of large red clover-headsare seen nodding heavily with their wealth of golden sweets. Furtheraway, in solitary glens, white anemones delight the eye, in company withferns of tropical variety in form and color. The blossoms of themultebaer, almost identical with that of the strawberry, are abundant. The humidity of the atmosphere favors floral development. All throughScandinavia one meets these bright mosaics of the soil with a sense ofsurprise, they are so delicate, so frail, creations of such short life, yet lovely beyond compare, born upon the verge of constant frost. 

While rambling afield one meets occasionally a peasant who bows low, removing his hat as the stranger passes. Without evincing the servilityof the common people of Japan, they yet exhibit all their nativecourtesy. Now and again the road passes through pine forests, still andaromatic, the soil carpeted with leaves, where, if one pauses to listen, there comes a low, undefined murmur of vegetable and insect life, likethe sound that greets the ear when applied to an empty sea-shell. Somewood-paths are found sprinkled with dog-violets, saxifrage, and withpurple heart's-ease. Song-birds are rarely to be seen and one cannotbut wish for their delicious notes amid such suggestive surroundings. 

The country lying between Bergen and Christiania, and indeed nearlyevery part of Norway, presents great attractions to the angler, whomust, however, go prepared to rough it: but if he be a true lover of thesport, this will enhance rather than detract from the pleasure. Thecountry is thinly inhabited, and affords only rude accommodations forthe wandering pedestrian who does not confine himself to the regularpost-route. The lakes, rivers, and streams, swarm with trout, grayling, and salmon. 

Strangers visit with more than passing interest the admirable freeschool for girls, which is established at Bergen. Here girls from eightto sixteen years of age are taught the domestic industries practically, under circumstances void of every onerous regulation, and they are to beseen in cheerful groups at work upon all sorts of garments, supervisedby competent teachers of their own sex. Possessed of these prudentialand educational appreciations, it is not surprising that Bergen has sentforth some eminent representatives in science, art, and literature. Among these we recall the names of Ole Bull, the famous musician; LudwigHolberg, the accomplished traveller; Johann Welhaven, the Norse poet;and J. C. C. Dahl, the celebrated painter. 

Tröndhjem is situated on a fjord of the same name occupying a peninsulaformed by the river Nid, and is surrounded by picturesque scenery. Adelightful view of the town and its environs may be had from the oldfort of Kristiansten. Here resided the kings of Norway in the oldentime. It is now a thriving but small city, having a population of abouttwenty-five thousand, and is the seat of a bishopric. There is here anacademy of sciences, a museum, and a public library. The Cathedral ofSt. Olaf is famous, being the finest Gothic edifice in Scandinavia, andthe only local object of special interest. In the eleventh and twelfthcenturies the kings of Norway were buried here. 

Tröndhjem was founded about a thousand years ago by King Olaf Trygvason, upon the site of a much older city named Nidaros, but there is certainlynothing visible to indicate its great antiquity. The adventurous life ofKing Olaf, which occurs to us in this connection, may be outlined in afew words, and is more romantic than that of any other ruler of Norwaywhich is generally known. Born a prince, he barely escaped assassinationin childhood at the hands of the usurper of his rights, by fleeing fromthe country in charge of his mother. They were captured at sea bypirates, separated, and sold into slavery. Then followed a period ofdeprivation and hardship; but at a comparatively early age Olaf wasdiscovered and ransomed by a relative who had never ceased to search forthe missing youth. He soon after became a distinguished sea-king, ofthat class whom we call pirates. His career in this field of adventureis represented to have been one of daring and reckless hardihood, characterized by merciless aggression and great success. Finally Olafmarried an Irish princess, embraced Christianity, and fought his way tothe throne of Norway, assuming the crown in the year of our Lord 991. From this time he became a zealous missionary, propagating his faith bythe sword, and like many other religious zealots he was guilty ofoutrageous cruelty. Seven years subsequent to the last-named date hedestroyed the Pagan temples of Thor and Odin at Tröndhjem. Upon thesite of this temple he built a Christian church, making the city hisseat of government, and so it remained the capital down to the unionwith Denmark. Olaf was slain in battle while fighting for his throne, and was declared a saint by the Church, his tomb at Tröndhjem being aMecca for pious pilgrims from all parts of Europe for centuries. In suchveneration were the memory and services of this reformed pirate held bya certain class of religionists, that churches were erected in his nameat Constantinople and elsewhere. His ashes lie entombed beneath thepresent cathedral of Tröndhjem. 

A short walk from the town brings one to Hlade, where stands the castleof the infamous Jarl Hakon, whence, in the olden time, he ruled over thesurrounding country with an iron hand. He was a savage heathen, believing in and practising human sacrifices, evidences of which arestill extant. About a mile from the town, in the fjord, is the island ofMunkholm, once the site of a Benedictine monastery, as its nameindicates, and which was erected in 1028. The mouldering and moss-grownbase of one of its towers is all that now remains. Victor Hugo gives agraphic description of this spot in his book entitled "Han d'Islande. "Here the famous minister of Christian V. , Griffenfeldt by name, wasconfined for a period of many weary years. He was guilty of no crime, his incarceration being the result of political intrigue. When he wasfinally brought to the scaffold for execution, a messenger interruptedthe headsman at the last moment and announced a pardon from the king. "The pardon, " said the worn-out sufferer, "is severer than the penalty. "

The usual route of those who seek to gain a view of the "midnightsun"--that is, of witnessing the phenomenon of the sun passing roundthe horizon without sinking beneath it--is to depart from Tröndhjem bysea, for the North Cape, skirting the ironbound coast for a distance ofabout seven hundred miles. 

As we sail northward, the rapid lengthening of the days becomes more andmore apparent. At Lund, in the extreme south of Sweden, the longest dayexperienced is seventeen hours and a half; at Stockholm, two hundredmiles further north, the longest day of the year is eighteen hours and ahalf; at Bergen, in Norway, three hundred miles north of Lund, thelongest day is twenty-one hours. Above this point of latitude to theNorth Cape, there is virtually no night at all during the brief summerseason, as the sun is visible, or nearly so, for the whole twenty-fourhours. From early in May until about the first of August, north ofTröndhjem, the stars take a vacation, or at least they are not visible, while the moon is so pale as to give no light. Even the Great Bear putsby his seven lustres, and the diamond belt of Orion is unseen. But theheavenly lamps revive by the first of September, and after a shortperiod are supplemented by the marvellous and beautiful radiations ofthe Aurora Borealis, or Northern Lights. Winter now sets in, the sundisappears entirely from sight, and night reigns supreme, the heavensshining only with a subdued light. Were it not for the brilliancy of theAuroral light the fishermen could hardly pursue their winter business, that being the harvest time with them, and midnight is considered to bethe best period of the twenty-four hours for successful fishing in theseregions. In and about Lofoden Islands alone, five thousand boats arethus regularly employed, giving occupation to twenty thousand men in theboats and a couple of thousand on the shore. 

The coast of Norway is bordered by innumerable rocky islands, and alsoby deep fjords, winding inland from ten to fifty miles each, amongmasses of rock forming perpendicular walls often towering a thousandfeet or more in height. The turbulent waves of the North Atlantic andArctic Oceans, hurled against the coast for thousands of years, havesteadily worn into the land and thus formed these remarkable fjords; orperhaps after they were begun by volcanic or glacial action, the wearingof the waters has gradually brought about their present condition. Thecoast of Sweden, on the other hand, is formed by the Baltic Sea and theGulf of Bothnia, both of which are inland waters, and though there aremany islands on the Swedish coast, there are no fjords worthy ofmention. Notwithstanding that the extreme length of Norway, from northto south, is hardly twelve hundred miles, yet so numerous and extensiveare these peculiar arms of the sea, that its coast-line is estimated tomeasure over three thousand miles, which gives to these deep indenturesaltogether a length of eighteen hundred miles. 

The peninsula known as Scandinavia is composed of Norway, Sweden, and asmall portion of the Russian possessions in the northeast. This divisionof country supports a population of little less than seven millions, andcontains in round numbers three hundred thousand square miles. Themountains of this section of the globe are mostly of primitive rock, presenting as near as possible the same form as when they were firstsolidified, standing forth as tangible evidence of the great antiquityof this region. 

In her course northward the steamer, upon which we embarked atTröndhjem, winds in and out among the many islands and fjords, touchingoccasionally at small settlements on the mainland to discharge lightfreight and to land or to take an occasional passenger. The few personswho come from the little cluster of houses, which are not sufficient innumber to be called a village, are found to be of more than ordinaryintelligence, and many of them speak English fluently. Even in thesesparsely inhabited regions education is provided for by what is termedthe "ambulatory system"; that is, one able teacher instructs the youthof three or four neighboring districts, meeting the convenience of allby suitable variations regarding time and place in holding schoolsessions. 

There is but one day in the year when the phenomenon of the midnight suncan be seen at the imaginary line which we designate as the ArcticCircle, a point in the watery waste or on the land, twenty-three degreesand twenty-eight minutes from the North Pole; but by sailing some threehundred miles further northward, to the North Cape, the projecting pointof the extreme north of Norway, it may be observed under favorablecircumstances--that is, when not obscured by clouds--for over twomonths, dating from the middle of May. Soon after entering the ArcticCircle, fourteen hundred and eight geographical miles from the NorthPole, a singularly formed island is observed, called by the nativesHestmandö, or Horseman's Island, --a rocky and mountainous formation ofsome two thousand feet in height, more or less. On approaching theisland from the west, by aid of the imagination one can discern thecolossal figure of a horseman wrapped in his cloak and mounted upon acharger. The island forms a well-known landmark for seamen navigatingthe coast. It is believed that the summit has never been reached byhuman feet. 

We touch on our way at the little fishing-village of Bodöe. LouisPhilippe lived here for a brief period when travelling as an exile underthe name of Müller, and visitors are shown the room which he occupied. It is the chief town of Nordland, and has fifteen hundred inhabitants. After leaving Bodöe the course of the steamer is directly across theVestfjord to the group of the Lofoden Islands. Owing to the remarkableclearness of the atmosphere as seen from Bodöe, they appear to be aboutfifteen or twenty miles away on the edge of the horizon, though the realdistance is about fifty. The play of light and shade is here sodifferent from that of lower latitudes that distances are verydeceptive. 

A little to the westward of the steamer's course in coming from themainland lies the famous whirlpool known as the Maelström, the subjectof many a romantic and wild conjecture which lives in the memory of usall. At certain stages of the wind and tide a fierce eddy is formed herewhich is somewhat dangerous for small boats to cross, but the presumedrisk to vessels of the size of the coasting-craft usually employed here, is an error. At some stages of the tide it is difficult to even detectthe exact spot which is at other times so disturbed. Thus we find thatanother legend of the credulous past has but a very thin substratum offact for its foundation. The tragedies recorded in connection with theVenetian Bridge of Sighs are proven to be without reliable foundation;the episode of Tell and the apple is not historical, but a poeticalfabrication; and now we know that neither ships nor whales were everdrawn into the Norwegian Maelström to their destruction. There areseveral other similar rapids in and about these pinnacled islands, identical in their nature, though the one here referred to is the mostrestless and formidable. 

On close examination the Lofodens are found to consist of a maze ofirregular mountain-peaks and precipices, often between two and threethousand feet in height, the passage between them being very tortuous, winding amid straits interspersed with hundreds of rocky islets whichare the home of large flocks of sea-birds. Dwarf-trees, small patches ofgreen grass, and velvety moss grow near the water's edge, and carpethere and there a few acres of soil, but the high ridges are bleak andbare rock, covered in spots with never-melting snow. These islands arecomposed mainly of granite, and for wonderful peaks and oddly pointedshapes, deep and far-reaching gulches, are unequalled elsewhere. Itseems marvellous that a steamer can be safely navigated through suchnarrow passages and among such myriads of sunken rocks. These elevationsfrom beneath the sea vary from mere turtlebacks, as sailors call them, just visible above the water, to mountains with sky-kissing peaks. For avessel to run upon one of these low hummocks would simply bedestruction, as the water alongside of them is rarely less than two orthree hundred fathoms in depth. 

The total length of these remarkable islands is about a hundred andthirty miles, and the area is computed at fifteen hundred and sixtysquare miles. The population will not vary much from twenty thousand, and the entire occupation of the people is fishing, curing the fish, andshipping them southward. 

The hardy fishermen work nearly all winter at their rough occupation, braving the tempestuous Northern Ocean in frail, undecked boats, whichto an inexperienced eye seem to be utterly unfit for such exposedservice. The harvest time to the cod-fishers here is from January to themiddle of April. Casualties, of course, are more or less frequent, butdo not exceed those encountered by our fishermen on the banks ofNewfoundland. In the year 1848, a terrible hurricane visited theLofodens, and in a few hours swept over five hundred fishermen intoeternity. The men engaged in this service come from all parts of Norway, returning to their homes in summer and engaging in other occupations. 

As we leave the group and steer towards the mainland, it is rememberedthat the coast of Norway extends three hundred miles north of the ArcticCircle, projecting itself boldly into the Polar Sea. Two hundred milesand more of this distance is north of the Lofoden Islands. Now and thenportions of country are passed on the mainland, affording striking andbeautiful landscape effects, where valleys open towards the sea, presenting views sometimes capped by glaciers high up towards theoverhanging sky, where they form immense level fields of ice embracinghundreds of square miles. 

The varied and ever present attractions of Norway to the artist aremany, and in a great measure they are unique, especially in theimmediate vicinity of the west coast. No two of the many abruptelevations resemble each other. All are peculiar; some like Alpinecathedrals rear their fretted spires far heavenward, where they echo thehoarse anthems played by the winter's storms. One would think thatNature in a wayward mood had tried her hand sportively at architecture, sculpture, and castle-building, constructing now a high monumentalcolumn or a mounted warrior, and now a Gothic fane amid regionsstrange, lonely, and savage. There are grand mountains and glaciers inSwitzerland and other countries, but they do not rise directly out ofthe water as they often do in Scandinavia; and as to the sceneryafforded by the innumerable fjords winding inland amid forests, cliffs, and impetuous waterfalls, nowhere else can we find such remarkablescenes. 

Like rivers, and yet so unlike them in width, depth, and placidity, withtheir broad mouths guarded by clustering islands, one can find nothingin nature more grand, solemn, and impressive than a Norwegian fjord. Nowand again the shores are lined for short distances by the greenest ofgreen pastures, dotted with little red houses and groups of domesticanimals, forming charming bits of verdant foreground backed by dark andshadowy gorges. Down precipitous cliffs leap cascades which are fed byice-fields hidden in the lofty mountains. These are not merely prettyspouts, like many a little Swiss device, but grand, plunging, restlesstorrents, conveying heavy volumes of foaming water. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

As we advance northward, our experiences become more and more peculiar. It seems as if humanity, like nature, is possessed by a certainsleeplessness in these regions during the constant reign of daylight. People are wide awake and busy at their various occupations during allhours, while the drowsy god appears to have departed on a vacation tothe southward. The apparent incongruity of starting upon a freshenterprise at midnight is only realized on consulting one's watch. 

All along the coast the birds are nearly as numerous as the fishes, andmany islands are solely occupied by them as breeding-places. Theirnumbers are beyond calculation, consisting of petrels, swans, geese, pelicans, auks, gulls, and divers. These last are more particularly ofthe duck family, of which there are over thirty distinct species in andabout this immediate region. Curlews, ptarmigans, cormorants, andospreys are also seen in greater or less numbers. 

The steamer lands us for a few hours at Tromsöe, a small island inlatitude 69° 38´ north, a thriving place of six thousand inhabitants, agoodly number for a town within the Arctic Circle. It is the capital ofNorwegian Lapland. Both to the north and south of the town snow-cladmountains shut off distant views. During the winter months there areonly four hours of daylight here out of the twenty-four, --that is, fromabout ten o'clock A. M. Until two o'clock P. M. , --but the long nights aremade comparatively light by the glowing splendor of the Aurora Borealis. The birch-trees in and about Tromsöe are of a remarkably developedspecies, and form a marked feature of the place. 

Just outside of the town a field is seen golden with buttercups, makingit difficult to realize that we are in the Arctic regions. Apink-blooming heather also covers other fields, and we are surprised bya tiny cloud of butterflies, so abundant in the warm sunshine, andpresenting such transparency of color as to suggest the idea that arainbow has been shattered, and is floating in myriad particles in theair. 

The short-lived summer perhaps makes flowers all the more carefullytended. In the rudest domestic quarters a few pet plants are seen whosearrangement and nurture show womanly care. Every window in the humbledwellings has its living screen of drooping, many-colored fuchsias, geraniums, forget-me-nots, and monthly roses. The ivy is especiallyprized here, and is picturesquely trained to hang about thewindow-frames. The fragrant sweet-pea, with its snow-white andpeach-blossom hues, is often mingled prettily with the dark green of theivy, the climbing propensities of each making them fitting mates. Surelythere must be an innate sense of refinement among the people of thesefrost-imbued regions, whatever their seeming, when they are actuated bysuch delicate tastes. 

One of the most interesting subjects of study to the traveller on thejourney northward is to mark his progress by the products of the forest. The trees will prove, if intelligently observed, a means of fixing hisposition. From the region of the date and the palm we come to that ofthe fig and the olive; thence to the orange, the almond, and themyrtle. Succeeding these we find the walnut, the poplar, and the lime;and again there comes the region of the elm, the oak, and the sycamore. These will be succeeded by the larch, the fir, the pine, the birch, andtheir companions. After this point we look for no change of species, buta diminution in size of these last named. The variety of trees is theresult of altitude as well as of latitude, since there are mountainregions of Southern Europe, as well as in America, where one may pass ina few hours from the region of the olive to that of the stunted fir. 

From Tromsöe vessels are fitted for exploration towards the North Pole;some for the capture of seals and walruses among the ice-fields, andalso on the coast of Spitzbergen. A small propeller is seen lying in theharbor fitted with a forecastle gun, whence to fire a lance at whales--aspecies of big fishing, so to speak, which is made profitable here. Little row-boats with high bows and sterns flit about the bay likesea-birds on the wing, and ride as lightly upon the water. These areoften "manned" by a couple of sturdy women who row with great precision, their faces glowing with animation. These boats, of the same model asthat ancient Viking ship at Christiania, sit very low in the wateramidship, but are remarkable for buoyancy and the ease with which theyare propelled. 

The Lapps in their quaint and picturesque costumes of deer-skinssurround the newly arrived steamer, in boats, offering furs, carved hornimplements, moccasins, walrus-teeth, and the like for sale. These waresare of the rudest type, and of no possible use except as mementos of thetraveller's visit to these far northern latitudes. This people are veryshrewd in matters of trade, and are not without plenty of low cunninghidden behind their brown, withered, expressionless faces. They aresmall in stature, being generally under five feet in height, withprominent cheek bones, snub noses, oblique Mongolian eyes, big mouths, large, ill-formed heads, hair like meadow hay, and very scanty beards. Such is a pen portrait of a people who once ruled the whole ofScandinavia. A short trip inland brings us to the summer encampment ofthe Lapps, formed of a few rude huts, outside of which they live exceptin the winter months. A Lapp sleeps wherever fatigue overcomes him, preferring the ground, but often lying on the snow. They are a wanderingrace, their wealth consisting solely in their herds of reindeer, toprocure sustenance for which necessitates frequent changes of locality. A Laplander is rich provided he owns enough of these animals to supporthimself and family. A herd that can afford thirty full-grown deerannually for slaughter, and say ten more to be sold or bartered, makes afamily of a dozen persons comfortably well off. Some are destroyed everyyear by wolves and bears, notwithstanding all the precautions taken toprevent it, while in severe winters a large number are sure to die ofstarvation. 

The herds live almost entirely on the so-called reindeer moss, but thisfailing them, they eat the young twigs of the trees. When the snowcovers the ground to a depth of not more than three or four feet, theseintelligent creatures dig holes in it so as to reach the moss, andguided by instinct they rarely fail to do so in just the right place. The Lapps themselves would be entirely at a loss for any indication asto where this food should be sought when covered by the deep snow. Thereindeer will carry, lashed to its back, a hundred and thirty pounds, ordrag upon the snow, when harnessed to a sledge, two hundred and fiftypounds, travelling ten miles an hour for several consecutive hours, without apparent fatigue. The country over which these people roam isincluded in Northern Norway and Sweden, with a portion of NorthwesternRussia and Finland, extending over about seven thousand square miles, but the whole race will hardly number thirty thousand. Lapland, ingeneral terms, may be said to be the region lying between the PolarOcean and the Arctic Circle, the eastern and western boundaries beingthe Atlantic Ocean and the White Sea, two-thirds of which territorybelongs to Russia, and one-third is about equally divided between Norwayand Sweden. 

In the winter season the Lapps retire far inland, where they buildtemporary huts of the branches of the trees, plastered with clay andbanked up with snow, leaving a hole at the top as a chimney for thesmoke, the fire being always built upon a broad, flat stone in thecentre of the hut. In these rude, and, according to our estimate, comfortless cabins, they hibernate, rather than live the life ofcivilized human beings, for eight months of the year. 

After leaving Tromsöe our course is north-northeast, crossing wildfjords and skirting the mainland. Along the shore at intervals littleclusters of fishermen's huts are seen, with a small sprinkling ofherbage and patches of bright verdure. As we glide along among theislands which line the shore, we are pretty sure to fall in with one ofthe little propellers, with a small swivel gun at the bow, in search ofwhales. The projectile which is used consists of a barbed harpoon, towhich a short chain is affixed, and to that a strong line. This harpoonhas barbs which expand as soon as they enter the body of the animal andhe pulls upon the line, stopping at a certain angle, which renders thewithdrawal of the weapon impossible. Besides this, an explosive shell isso attached that it quickly bursts within the monster, producing instantdeath. A cable is then fastened to the head, and the whale is towed intoharbor to be cut up, and the blubber tried out on shore. 

The objects which attract the eye are constantly changing. Large blackgeese, too heavy for lofty flying, rise awkwardly from the waves andskim across the fjords, just clearing the surface of the dark bluewaters. Oyster-catchers, as they are familiarly called, decked withscarlet bills and legs, are abundant. Now and then that daringhighwayman among birds, the skua, or robber-gull, is seen on the watchfor a victim. He is quite dark in plumage, almost black, and gets arobber's living by attacking and causing other birds to drop what theyhave caught up from the sea, seizing which as it falls, he sails away toconsume at leisure his stolen prize. 

Long before we reach Hammerfest our watches seem to have becomebewitched, for it must be remembered that here it is broad daylightthroughout the twenty-four hours (in midsummer) which constitute day andnight elsewhere. To sleep becomes a useless effort, and our eyes areunusually wide open. 

The Gulf Stream, emerging from the tropics thousands of miles away, constantly laves the shores, and consequently ice is not seen. At firstit seems a little strange that there are no icebergs here in latitude70° north, when we have them on the coast of America in certain seasonsat 41°. The entire west coast of Norway is warmer by at least twentydegrees than most other localities in the same latitude, owing to thepresence of the Gulf Stream, --that heated, mysterious river in themidst of the ocean. It brings to these far-away regions quantities offloating material, such as the trunks of palm-trees, and othersubstances suitable for fuel, to which useful purpose they are put atthe Lofoden Islands, and by the fishermen along the shore of themainland. By the same agency West Indian seeds and woods are often foundfloating on the west coast of Scotland and Ireland. 

Hammerfest, the capital of the province of Finmark, is situated inlatitude 70° 40´ north, upon the island of Kvalöe, or "Whale Island. " Itis overshadowed by Tyvfjeld, --that is, "Thief Mountain, "--thusfancifully named because it robs the place of the little sunshine itmight enjoy, were this high elevation not at all times intervening. Itis the most northerly town in Europe, and is about sixty-five milessouthwest of the North Cape. It is a town of about three thousandinhabitants, who appear to be industrious and intelligent. Even here, inthis region of frost and darkness, we are glad to say, there are plentyof good schools and able teachers. 

From Hammerfest we continue our voyage northward along the coast. Theland is now seen to be useless for agricultural purposes; habitationsfirst become rare, then cease altogether, bleakness reigning supreme, while we seem to be creeping higher and higher on the earth. Inascending mountains of the Himalayan range, we realize that there areheights still above us; but in approaching the North Cape, a feeling isexperienced that we are gradually getting to the very apex of the globe. Everything seems to be beneath our feet; the broad, deep, unboundedocean alone marks the horizon. Day and night cease to be relative terms. 

The North Cape, which is finally reached, is an island projectingitself far into the Polar Sea, separated from the mainland by a narrowstrait. The highest point which has ever been reached by the daringArctic explorer, is 83° 24´ north latitude; this cape is in latitude 71°10´ north. The island is named Mageröe, which signifies a barren place, and it is certainly well named, for a wilder, bleaker, or more desolatespot cannot be found on the face of the earth. Only a few hares, ermine, and sea-birds manage to subsist upon its sterile soil. The western andnorthern sides are absolutely inaccessible owing to their precipitouscharacter. The Arctic Sea thunders hoarsely against the Cape as weapproach the rough, weather-worn cliff in a small landing-boat. It isnear the midnight hour, yet the warmth of the sun's direct rays envelopsus. For half an hour we struggle upwards at an angle of nearlyforty-five degrees, amid loose rocks and over uneven ground, until thesummit is finally reached, and we stand a thousand feet above the levelof the sea, literally upon the threshold of the unknown. 

No difference is observed between the broad light of this Polar nightand the noon of a sunny summer's day in other latitudes. The sky is allaglow, and the rays of the sun are warm and penetrating, though acertain chill in the atmosphere at this exposed elevation renders thickclothing indispensable. This is the objective point, to reach which wehave voyaged thousands of miles from another hemisphere. We look aboutus in silent wonder and awe. To the northward is that unknown region tosolve whose mystery so many gallant lives have been sacrificed. Far tothe eastward is Asia; in the distant west lies America; and southwardare Europe and Africa. Such an experience may occur once in a lifetime, but rarely can it be repeated. The surface of the cliff is quite levelwhere we stand, and beneath our feet is a soft gray reindeer moss whichyields to the tread like a carpet of velvet. There is no othervegetation, not even a spear of grass. Close at hand, in all directions, are frightful fissures and sheer precipices, except on the side where wehave ascended. Presently the boom of a distant gun floats faintlyupwards, the cautionary signal from the ship now seen floating far belowus, a mere speck upon that Polar Sea. 

The hands of the watch indicate that it is near the hour of twelve, midnight. The great luminary has sunk slowly amid a glory of light towithin three or four degrees of the horizon, where it seems to hover fora single moment like some monster bird about to alight, then changingits mind slowly begins its upward movement. This is exactly at midnight, always a solemn hour; but amid the glare of sunlight and the glowingimmensity of sea and sky, how strange and weird it is! Notwithstandingthey are so closely mingled, the difference between the gorgeouscoloring of the setting and the fresh hues of the rising sun seem to beclearly though delicately defined. True, the sun had not really set atall on the occasion we describe. It was constantly visible, so that thehuman eye could not rest upon it for one moment. It was the mingling ofthe golden haze of evening with the radiant, roseate flush of theblushing morn. 

After returning to Christiania we take the cars of the railroad whichcrosses the peninsula by way of Charlottenborg, the frontier town ofSweden. Here there is a custom-house examination of our baggage; foralthough Norway and Sweden are under one crown, yet they have separatetariffs, import and export fees being enforced between them. In crossingthe peninsula by rail one does not enjoy the picturesque scenery whichis seen on the Gotha Canal route. The railroad journey takes us througha region of lake and forest, however, by no means devoid of interest, and which is rich in mines of iron and other ores. As we approach LakeMaelaren on the east coast, a more highly cultivated country istraversed, until Stockholm is finally reached; a noble capital, and inmany respects exceptionally so. It is situated on the Baltic, at theoutlet of Lake Maelaren, and is built on several islands, all of whichare connected by substantial bridges. The city has a population of overa hundred and eighty thousand, covering an area of five square miles, and, taken as a whole, certainly forms one of the most cleanly andinteresting capitals in Europe. It is a city of canals, public gardens, broad squares, and gay cafés, with two excellent harbors, one on theBaltic and one on Lake Maelaren. 

Wars, conflagrations, and the steady progress of civilization haveentirely changed the city from what it was in the days of Gustavus Vasa;that is, about the year 1496. It was he who founded the dynasty whichhas survived for three hundred years. The streets in the older sectionsof the town are often crooked and narrow, but in the modern-built partsthere are fine straight avenues, with large and imposing public andprivate edifices. 

Stockholm is the centre of the social and literary activity ofScandinavia, hardly second in this respect to Copenhagen. It has itsfull share of scientific, artistic, and benevolent institutions such asbefit a great European capital. The stranger should as soon asconvenient after arriving, ascend an elevation of the town called theMosebacke, where has been erected a lofty iron framework and lookout, which is ascended by means of a steam elevator. From this structure anadmirable view of the city is obtained, and its topography fixed clearlyupon the mind. At a single glance, as it were, one takes in the charmingmarine view of the Baltic with its busy traffic, and in the oppositedirection the many islands that dot Lake Maelaren form a widespreadpicture of varied beauty. The bird's-eye view obtained of the environsis unique, since in the immediate vicinity lies the primeval forest, undisturbed and unimproved for agricultural purposes. 

Though Sweden, unlike Norway, has no heroic age, so to speak, connectingher earliest exploits with the fate of other countries, still nosecondary European power has acted so brilliant a part in modern historyas have those famous Swedish monarchs, Gustavus Vasa, Gustavus Adolphus, and Charles XII. The last-named monarch fought all Europe, --Danes, Russians, Poles, and Germans, --and gave away a kingdom before he wastwenty years of age. 

The Royal Palace of Stockholm is a very plain edifice externally, thoughit is quite large. Its present master, King Oscar II. , is anaccomplished artist, poet, musician, and linguist, nobly fulfilling therequirements of his responsible position. He has been called the idealsovereign of our period. His court, while it is one of the leastpretentious in Europe, is yet one of the most refined. The Statedepartments of the palace are very elegant, and are freely shown tostrangers at all suitable times. In the grand State Hall is the throneof silver originally occupied by Queen Christiana, while the Hall ofMirrors appears as though it might have come from Aladdin's palace. Amidall the varied attractions of art and historic associations which arehere exhibited, one simple chamber seems most impressive. It is thebedroom of Charles XIV. (Marshal Bernadotte), which has remainedunchanged and unused since the time of his death, his old campaign cloakof Swedish blue still lying upon the bed. The clock upon themantel-piece significantly points to the hour and minute of his death. The life and remarkable career of the dead king flashes across thememory as we stand for a moment beside these suggestive tokens ofpersonal wear. We recall how he began life as a common soldier in theFrench army, rising rapidly from the ranks by reason of his militarygenius to be a marshal of France, and finally to sit upon the throne ofSweden. Bernadotte, Prince of Ponte Corvo, is the only one of Napoleon'sgenerals whose descendants still occupy a throne. 

The shops on the principal streets are elegantly arrayed; there are nonebetter in Paris or New York. A ceaseless activity reigns along thethoroughfares, among the little steamboats upon the many water-ways, andon the myriads of passenger steamers which ply upon the lake. The RoyalOpera House is a plain substantial structure, built by Gustavus III. In1775. The late Jenny Lind made her first appearance in public in thishouse, and so did Christine Nilsson, both of these renowned vocalistsbeing Scandinavians. It was in this theatre, at a gay masquerade ball, on the morning of March 15, 1792, that Gustavus III. Was fatally woundedby a shot from an assassin, who was one of the conspirators among thenobility. 

Norway and Sweden are undoubtedly poor in worldly riches, but theyexpend larger sums of money for educational purposes, in proportion tothe number of inhabitants, than any other country, except America. Theresult is manifest in a marked degree of intelligence diffused amongall classes. One is naturally reminded in this Swedish capital ofLinnæus, and also of Swedenborg, both of whom were Swedes. The lattergraduated at the famous University of Upsala; the former in the greaterschool of out-door nature. Upsala is the oldest town in the country, aswell as the historical and educational centre of the kingdom. It issituated fifty miles from Stockholm. It was the royal capital of thecounty for more than a thousand years, and was the locality of the greattemple of Thor, now replaced by a Christian cathedral, almost aduplicate of Notre Dame in Paris, and which was designed by the samearchitect. 

Upsala has often been the scene of fierce and bloody conflicts. SaintEric was slain here in 1161. It has its university and its historicassociations, but it has neither trade nor commerce of any sort beyondthat of a small inland town--its streets never being disturbed bybusiness activity, though there is a population of at least fifteenthousand. The university, founded in 1477, and richly endowed byGustavus Adolphus, is the just pride of the country, having to-day somefifteen hundred students and forty-eight professors attendant upon itsdaily sessions. No one can enter the profession of the law, medicine, ordivinity in Sweden, who has not graduated at this institution or that atLund. Its library contains nearly two hundred thousand volumes, and overseven thousand most valuable and rare manuscripts. Linnæus, the greatnaturalist, was a professor of botany and zoölogy at this university fornearly forty years. This humble shoemaker, by force of his genius, roseto be a prince in the kingdom of science. Botany and zoölogy have neverknown a more eminent exponent than the lowly born Karl von Linné, whomthe Swedes very properly denominate the King of Flowers. A certaindegree of knowledge relative to plants and natural history, forms a partof all primary education in Sweden. 

About three miles from the university is the village of Old Upsala, where there is an ancient church of small dimensions, built of roughstones, containing a monument erected to the memory of Anders Celsius, the Swedish astronomer. There are also exhibited to the visitor heresome curious pagan idols in wood. What a venerable and miraculouslypreserved old pile it is!

We return to Stockholm, --bright, cheerful, sunny Stockholm, --where, during the brief summer months, everything wears a holiday aspect, wherelife is seen at its gayest in the many public gardens, cleanly streets, and open squares. Even the big white sea-gulls that swoop gracefullyover the many water-ways of the town--rather queer visitors to apopulous city--seem to be uttering cries of bird merriment. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

In pursuing our course towards St. Petersburg, Russia, from Stockholm, we cross the Baltic, --that Mediterranean of the North, but which is inreality a remote branch of the Atlantic Ocean, with which it isconnected by two gulfs, the Kattegat and the Skagger Rack. It reachesfrom the southern extremity of the Danish Archipelago up to the latitudeof Stockholm, where it extends a right and left arm, --each of greatsize, --the former being the Gulf of Finland, and the latter the Gulf ofBothnia, the whole forming the most remarkable basin of navigable inlandwater in the world. The Finnish Gulf is two hundred miles long by anaverage width of sixty miles, and that of Bothnia is four hundred mileslong, averaging a hundred in width. 

The peninsula of Denmark, known under the name of Jutland, stands like abarrier between the two extremes of the western formation of thecontinent of Europe. We have called the Baltic the Mediterranean of theNorth, but it has no such depth as that classic inland sea, which findsits bed in a cleft of marvellous depression between Europe and Africa. One thousand fathoms of sounding-line off Gibraltar will not reach thebottom, and two thousand fathoms fail to find it a few miles east ofMalta. The greatest depth of the Baltic, on the contrary, is only ahundred and fifty fathoms. 

It is a curious, though not unfamiliar fact, that the Baltic, or ratherthe bottom of the basin in which it lies, is rich in amber, which theagitated waters cast upon the shores in large quantities annually, --aprocess which has been going on for three or four centuries. We all knowthat amber is a hardened fossil resin produced by an extinct species ofpine; so that it is evident that where these waters now ebb and flowthere were once flourishing forests of amber-producing pines. These weredoubtless gradually submerged by the encroachment of the sea, orsuddenly engulfed by some grand volcanic action of nature. Pieces of thebark and of the cones of the pine-trees are often found adhering to theamber, and insects of a kind unknown to our day are also found embeddedin it. The largest piece of amber extant is preserved in the BritishMuseum in London, and is about the size of a year-old infant's head. 

It is known that the peninsula of Scandinavia is gradually becomingelevated above the surrounding waters at the north, and depressed in anequal ratio in the extreme south, --a fact of great interest togeologists. The total change in the level has been carefully observedand recorded by scientific commissions, the aggregate certified to beinga trifle over three feet, brought about in a period of a hundred andeighteen years. 

We take passage on a coasting steamer which plies between Stockholm andSt. Petersburg by way of Åbo and Helsingfors, a distance of about sixhundred miles. By this route, after crossing the open sea we passthrough an almost endless labyrinth of beautiful islands in the Gulf ofFinland, including the archipelago, known as the Aland Islands, besidesmany isolated ones quite near the Finnish coast. This forms a delightfulsail, the passage being almost always smooth, except during a few hoursof exposure in the open Gulf. By and by we enter the fjord which leadsup to Åbo, which is also dotted here and there by charming garden-likeislands, upon which are built many pretty cottages, forming the summerhomes of the citizens of Finmark's former capital. 

The town of Åbo has a population of about twenty-five thousand, who aremostly of Swedish descent. It is thrifty, cleanly, and wears an aspectof quiet prosperity. The place is venerable in years, having a recordreaching back for over seven centuries. Here the Russian flag--red, blue, and white--first begins to greet us from all appropriate points. The most prominent building to catch the stranger's eye on entering theharbor is the long barrack-like prison upon a hillside. In front of uslooms up the famous old castle of Åbo, awkward and irregular in itsshape, and snow-white in texture. Here, in the olden time, GustavusVasa, Eric XIV. And John III. Held royal court. The streets are few butvery broad, causing the town to cover an area quite out of proportion tothe number of its inhabitants. 

Helsingfors is situated still further up the Gulf, facing the ancienttown of Revel on the Esthonian coast, and is reached from Åbo in abouttwelve hours' sail, also through a labyrinth of islands so numerous asto be quite confusing, but whose picturesque beauty will not easily beforgotten. This is the present capital of Finland, and it contains alittle over fifty thousand inhabitants; it has been several timespartially destroyed by plague, famine, and fire. It was founded byGustavus Vasa of Sweden, in the sixteenth century. The university isrepresented to be of a high standard of excellence, and contains alibrary of about two hundred thousand volumes. The most strikingfeature of Helsingfors, as one approaches it from the sea, is the largeGreek church, with its fifteen domes and minarets, each capped by aglittering cross and crescent, with pendant chains in gilt metal; and asit is built upon high ground, the whole is very effective. The Lutheranchurch is also picturesque and notable, with its five domes sparklingwith gilded stars upon a dark green ground. 

Though Finland is a dependency of Russia, still it is nearly asindependent as is Norway of Sweden. It is ruled by a governor-generalassisted by the Imperial Senate, over which a representative of theEmperor of Russia presides. The country pays no pecuniary tribute toRussia, but imposes its own taxes, and frames its own code of laws. Whenthe country was joined to Russia, Alexander I. Assured the people thatthe integrity of their constitution and religion should be protected, and this promise has thus far been honestly kept by the dominant power. 

The port of Helsingfors is defended by the large and remarkable fortressof Sweaborg, which repelled the English and French fleets during theCrimean War. It was constructed by the Swedish General Ehrenswärd, whowas a poet as well as an excellent military engineer. This fort isconsidered to be one of the strongest ever built, and is situated uponseven islands, each being connected with the main fortress by tunnelsunder the water of the harbor, constructed at great labor and cost. 

After leaving Helsingfors we next come to Cronstadt, being a series oflow islands, about five miles long by one broad, all fortified, andforming the key to St. Petersburg, as well as being the chief navalstation of the Empire. The two fortifications of Sweaborg and Cronstadtinsure to Russia the possession of the Gulf of Finland, no matter whatforce is brought against them. The arsenals and docks are here veryextensive and unsurpassed in completeness. The best machinists in theworld find employment in them, and the latest inventions a sure andprofitable market. In all facilities for marine armament Russia is fullyabreast of, if it does not surpass, the rest of Europe. 

The sail up the Neva, queen of northern rivers, affords the greatestpleasure. Passenger steamers are seen flitting about with well-filleddecks, noisy tug-boats puff and whistle while towing heavily ladenbarges, naval cutters propelled by dozens of white-clad oarsmen andsteered by officers in dazzling uniforms, small sailing-yachtscontaining merry parties of both sexes glance hither and thither, allgiving animation to the scene. Here and there on the river's course longreaches of sandy shoals appear, covered by myriads of sea-gulls, scoresof which occasionally rise, hover over our steamer, and settle in thewater. As we approach nearer to St. Petersburg, hundreds of gilded domesand towers flashing in the warm sunlight come swiftly into view. Some ofthe spires are of such great height in proportion to their diameter asto appear needle-like. Among those reaching so far heavenward are theslender spire of the Cathedral of Peter and Paul, nearly four hundredfeet in height, and the lofty pinnacle of the Admiralty Building. Notwithstanding its giddy towers and looming palaces rising above thelevel of the capital, the want of a little diversity in the grade of thelow-lying city is keenly felt. Like Berlin and Havana, it is built upona perfect level, which is the most trying of positions as to generalaspect. 

St. Petersburg is the grandest city of Northern Europe. By ascendingthe tower of the Admiralty, a superb and comprehensive view of thecapital is obtained. The streets are broad, the open squares vast insize, the avenues interminable, the river wide and rapid; while thelines of grand architecture are seemingly endless. The view from thiselevation is indeed superb, studded with azure domes decked with starsof silver and gilded minarets. A grand city of palaces and spaciousboulevards lies spread out before the eye. The quays of the Neva aboveand below the bridges are seen to present as animated a prospect as thebusy thoroughfares. A portion of this Admiralty Building is devoted toschoolrooms for the education of naval cadets. The rest is occupied bythe offices of the civil department of this service, and a marinemuseum. 

[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. ISAACS AT ST. PETERSBURG. ]

There are over two hundred churches and chapels in the city, most ofwhich are crowned with four or five fantastic cupolas each, and whoseinteriors are rich in gold, silver, and precious stones, together with alarge array of priestly vestments elaborately embroidered with gold andornamented with a profusion of gems. It is, indeed, a city of churchesand palaces. Peter the Great and Catharine II. , who has been called thefemale Peter the Great, made this brilliant capital what it is. Everything that meets the eye is colossal. The superb Alexander Column, erected about fifty years ago, is a solid shaft of red granite, and theloftiest single-stone column in the world. On its pedestal is inscribedthis simple line: "To Alexander I. --Grateful Russia. " It is surmountedby an angelic figure, the whole structure being one hundred andfifty-four feet high, and the column itself fourteen feet in diameter atthe base; but so large is the square in which it stands that the shaftloses much of its colossal effect. Opposite the Alexander Column, onthe same wide area, are situated the Winter Palace, with the Hermitageon one side as a sort of annex, and on the other side in half-moon shapeare the State buildings containing the bureaus of the several ministers, whose quarters are each a palace in itself. There is not one of the manyspacious squares of the city which is not ornamented with bronze statuesof more or less merit, embracing monuments to Peter the Great, Catharine, Nicholas, Alexander I. , and others. 

The Nevsky Prospect is the most fashionable thoroughfare, and the onedevoted to the best shops. It is over a hundred feet in width, andextends for a distance of three miles in a nearly straight line to theAlexander Nevsky Monastery, forming a most magnificent avenue. On thisstreet may be seen the churches of several sects of different faiths, such as Roman Catholics, Protestants, Armenians, and a Mahometan mosque. Here also are the Imperial Library, the Alexander Theatre, and theForeign Office. The cosmopolitan character of the population of St. Petersburg is indicated by the fact that preaching occurs weekly intwelve different languages. The Nevsky Prospect is a street ofalternating shops, palaces, and churches. Four canals cross but do notintercept this boulevard. These water-ways are lined their whole lengthsby substantial granite quays, and are gay with the life imparted to themby pleasure and small freighting boats constantly furrowing theirsurface. Large barges are seen containing cut wood, piled fifteen feethigh above their decks, delivering the winter's important supply of fuelall along the banks of the canals. Others, with their hulls quite hiddenfrom sight, appear like great floating haystacks moving mysteriously totheir destination with horse-fodder for the city stables. From oneo'clock to five in the afternoon the Nevsky Prospect, with the tide ofhumanity pouring in either direction through its broad road-way, is likethe Rue Rivoli, Paris, on a holiday. 

The Imperial Library of St. Petersburg is justly entitled to more than amere mention; for it is one of the richest collections of books in allEurope, both in quality and quantity. The bound volumes number a littleover one million, while it is especially rich in most interesting andimportant manuscripts. In a room devoted to the purpose there is acollection of books printed previous to the year 1500, which isconsidered unique. The Alexander Theatre and the library both look downupon a broad square which contains a fine statue of Catharine II. Inbronze. This composition seems to breathe the very spirit of theprofligate and cruel original, whose ambitious plans were ever inconflict with her enslaving passions. History is compelled to admit hergreat ability, while it causes us to blush for her infamy. 

St. Petersburg is the fifth city in point of population in Europe, butits very existence seems to be constantly threatened on account of itslow situation between two vast bodies of water. A westerly gale and hightide in the Gulf of Finland occurring at the time of the annual breakingup of the ice in the Neva would surely submerge this beautiful capital, and cause an enormous loss of life. The Neva, which comes sweepingthrough the city with such resistless force, is fed by that large bodyof water, Lake Ladoga, which covers an area of over six thousand squaremiles at a level of about sixty feet above that of the sea. However, St. Petersburg has existed in security for nearly two centuries, and it maypossibly exist as much longer, independent of possible floods. What theGotha Canal is to Sweden, the Neva and its joining waters are to Russia. Through Lake Ladoga and its ramifications of connecting canals andrivers, it opens communication with an almost unlimited region of inlandterritory, while the mouth of this river receives through the gulf thecommerce of the world. 

As regards popular amusements, Sunday is the favorite day of the sevenat the public gardens, on which occasion, day and evening, theatricalperformances take place. The Greek churches, like the Roman Catholic, are always open through the entire week, so that the devoutly inclinedcan turn aside at any hour and bow before the altar, which to himtypifies all that is holy. Sunday is therefore regarded here, as inRome, Paris, or Seville, in the light of a holiday as well as aholy-day. After having attended early morning service, a member ofeither church unhesitatingly seeks his favorite amusement. Thehorse-races of Paris, the bull-fights of Madrid, and the grand militaryparades of St. Petersburg, all take place on Sunday. Few Europeancommunities find that repose and calmness in the day which best accordswith American sentiment. 

The one vehicle of Russian cities is the drosky, the most uncomfortableand inconvenient vehicle ever constructed for the use of man, but ofwhich there are, nevertheless, over fifteen thousand in the streets ofthe imperial city. It has very low wheels, a heavy, awkward body, and isas noisy as a hard-running Concord coach. Some one describes it as beinga cross between a cab and an instrument of torture. There is no rest forthe occupant's back; and while the seat is more than large enough forone, it is not large enough for two persons. It is a sort of sledge onwheels. The noise made by these low-running conveyances as they arehurried over the uneven pavements is almost deafening. 

The winter season, which sets in about the first of November, changesthe aspect of everything in the Russian capital, and lasts until the endof April, when the ice generally breaks up. In the meantime the Nevafreezes to a depth of six feet. But keen as is the winter cold, theRussians do not suffer much from it, being universally clad in furs. Even the peasant class necessarily wear warm sheep-skins with the fleeceon, otherwise they would often freeze to death on a very brief exposureto the low temperature which prevails in winter. Doubtless there must bepoverty and wretchedness existing here, but it certainly is not obviousto the stranger. There is no street-begging, and no half-clad, half-starved women or children obstruct the way as is so often the casein London or Naples. 

The five islands of the city, separated by the Nevka and Neva, arecalled the "Garden Islands, " and they form the pleasure-drive of thetown, having quite a country aspect, forming a series of parks wherefine roads wind through shady woods, cross green meadows, and skirttransparent lakes. Here every variety of villa is seen embowered inattractive verdure, and a highly rural effect is obtained within citylimits. 

St. Petersburg is the most spacious capital ever built by the hand ofman, and one cannot but feel that many of its grand squares, presidedover by some famous monument, are yet dismally empty. As we look upon itto-day, it probably bears little resemblance to the city left by thegreat Peter, its founder, except in its general plan, and yet it extendsso little way into the past as to have comparatively no root in history. The magnificent granite quays, the gorgeous palaces, the costly churchesand monuments do not date previous to the reign of Catharine II. Thechoice of the locality, and the building of the capital upon it, isnaturally a wonder to those who have not thought carefully about it, since it seems to have been contrary to all reason, and to have beensteadily pursued in the face of difficulties which would havediscouraged and defeated most similar enterprises. Ten thousand livesand more were sacrificed among the laborers annually, while the work wasgoing on, owing to its unhealthy nature, but still the autocraticdesigner held to his purpose, until finally a respectable but notunobjectionable foundation may be said to have been obtained upon thisFinland marsh. Yet there are those who believe that all was foreseen bythe energetic founder, that he had a grand and definite object in viewof which he never lost sight, and moreover that the object which heaimed at has been fully consummated. 

The Winter Palace is grand in every respect. Its size may be divinedwhen we realize that it accommodates six thousand persons connected withthe royal household. With the exception of the Vatican at Rome, andVersailles near Paris, it is the largest habitable palace in existence, and is made up of suits of splendid apartments, reception saloons, drawing-rooms, throne rooms, banqueting-halls, etc. The gem of them allis the Salle Blanche, or White Hall, so called because the fittings anddecorations are all in white and gold, by means of which an aeriallightness and fascination of effect is produced which is difficult todescribe. It is in this apartment that the court festivals take place, and there are probably no royal entertainments in Europe which quiteequal in splendor those given in the Winter Palace. One becomes almostdazed by the glare of gilt and bronze, the number of polished columns ofmarble and porphyry, the gorgeous hangings, the mosaics, mirrors, andcandelabra. Many of the painted ceilings are wonderfully perfect indesign and execution, while choice works of art are so abundant on allsides as to lose effect. The famous banqueting-hall measures two hundredfeet in length by one hundred in breadth. As we come forth from thepalace through the grand entrance upon the square, it is natural to turnand scan the magnificent front as a whole, and to remember that from thegate of this palace Catharine II. Went forth on horseback with a drawnsword in her hand, to put herself at the head of her army. 

The Hermitage, of which the world has read so much, is a spaciousbuilding adjoining the Winter Palace, with which it is connected by acovered gallery, and is five hundred feet long where it fronts upon thesquare containing the Alexander Column. It is not, as its name mightindicate, a solitude, but a grand and elaborate palace in itself, builtby Catharine II. For a picture gallery, a museum, and a resort ofpleasure. It contains to-day one of the largest as well as the mostprecious collections of paintings in the world, not forgetting those ofRome, Florence, Paris, and Madrid. The catalogue shows twenty originalpictures by Murillo, six by Velasquez, sixty by Rubens, thirty-three byVandyke, forty by Teniers, the same number by Rembrandt, six by Raphael, and many other invaluable examples by famous masters. 

Here are also preserved the private libraries that once belonged toZimmermann, Voltaire, and Diderot, besides those of several otherremarkable men of letters. There is a royal theatre under the same roof, where plays used to be performed by amateurs from the court circles forthe gratification of the empress, the text of the plays being sometimeswritten by herself. This royal lady indulged her fancy to the fullestextent. On the roof of the Hermitage was created a marvellous gardenplanted with choicest flowers, shrubs, and even trees of considerablesize, all together forming a grand floral conservatory which was heatedby subterranean fires in winter, and sheltered by a complete covering ofglass. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

The Palace of Peterhoff is situated about sixteen miles from St. Petersburg, on the shore of the Neva where the river expands to a widthof eight or ten miles. This place has always been celebrated for themagnificent entertainments given here since the days when it was firstbuilt by Peter the Great. The main structure has no special merit inpoint of architecture, but the location and the surroundings areextremely beautiful. From the terrace of the great yellow palace builtupon a natural elevation, one gets a fine though distant view of thecoast of Finland, --a portion of the Tzar's dominion which alone exceedsin size Great Britain and Ireland, a wide-spread barren land of lakesand granite rocks, but peopled by over two millions of souls. The parks, gardens, fountains, hot-houses, groves, and embowered paths of Peterhoffare kept in the most perfect order by a small army of householdattendants. The artificial water-works are after the style of those atSt. Cloud, and are nearly equal to those of Versailles. 

Here the famous Peter used to retire and stroll about the gardens withhis humble favorite, a Polish girl, forgetting the cares of state. Thislowly companion, besides great personal beauty, possessed much force ofcharacter, and exercised great influence over her melancholic and morosemaster. Long before her final elevation to the throne, many instancesare related of her interference in behalf of mercy, which showed a kindand loving nature. Peterhoff is the favorite summer resort of the royalfamily. 

The Tzar's dominion embraces every phase of religion and ofcivilization. Portions of the empire are as barbaric as Central Africa, others are semi-civilized, while a large share of the people inhabitingthe cities assume the highest outward appearance of refinement andculture. This diversity of character spreads over a country extendingfrom the Great Wall of China on one side to the borders of Germany onthe other; from the Crimea in the south to the Polar Ocean in the farnorth. 

The distance from St. Petersburg to Moscow is about four hundred miles;the cars upon this route take us directly towards the heart of Russia. Thirty years ago there were but about eight hundred miles of railroad inthe country; to-day there are twenty thousand and more. On this trip onepasses through scenery of the most monotonous and melancholy character, flat and featureless, made up of forests of fir-trees, interspersed withthe white birch, and long reaches of wide, deserted plains. 

The forest forms a very prominent feature of Russia north of the line oftravel between the two great cities, covering in that region fully athird part of the country; the largest forest in Europe is that ofVolskoniki, which commences near the source of the Volga. But to thesouth of Moscow the vast plains, or steppes, are quite free from wood, consisting merely of sandy deserts, unfit for habitation. No country ismore thinly inhabited or more wearisomely tame. Now and again a fewsheep are seen cropping the thin brown moss and straggling verdure, tended by a boy clad in a fur cap and skin jacket, forming a strongcontrast to his bare legs and feet. 

Though sparsely inhabited by fierce and active races for centuries, theappearance is that of primitiveness; the log-cabins seem to be onlytemporary expedients, --wooden tents, as it were. The men and women whoare seen at the railroad stations are of the Tartar type, the ugliest ofall humanity, with high cheekbones, flattened noses, dull gray eyes, copper-colored hair, and bronzed complexions. Their food is not of acharacter to develop much physical comeliness. The one vegetable whichthe Russian peasant cultivates is cabbage; this, mixed with driedmushrooms, and rarely anything else, makes a soup upon which he lives. Add to this soup a porridge made of meal, and we have about the entiresubstance of his regular food. If they produce some pork and corn, butter and cheese, they are seldom indulged in for their ownsubsistence, but are sold at the nearest market, as a certain amount ofready money must be had when the tax-gatherer makes his annual visit. Weare speaking of the masses, but of course there are exceptions. Somethrifty peasants manage much better than this. No other country isricher in horses, mines of gold, silver, copper, and precious stones; orin the useful articles of iron, lead, and zinc. Though the Russians arefamous for having large families, still the inhabitants average butfifteen to the square mile, while in Germany there are eighty, and inEngland over four hundred to the square mile. 

Forests of such density as to be impenetrable to man frequently line therailroad for many miles together, but the loneliness of the way isrelieved by occasional glimpses of wild-flowers scattered along theroadside in great variety, diffusing indescribable freshness. Among themnow and again a tall scarlet poppy rears its gaudy head, nodding lazilyin the currents of air and leading us to wonder how it came here in suchcompany. A peculiar little blue flower is frequently observed withyellow petals, seeming to look up from the surrounding nakedness anddesolation with the appealing expression of human eyes. Snow-whitedaisies and delicate little harebells come into view at intervals, struggling for a brief and lonely existence. The railroad stations arebeautified by floral displays of no mean character. It seems thatprofessional gardeners travel on the line, remaining long enough at eachplace to organize the skilful culture of garden-plants by the keeper'sfamily during the few weeks of summer; but one shudders to think whatmust be the aspect of this region during the long frost-locked Russianwinter. 

On reaching the city of Tver, we cross, by a high iron bridge, the riverVolga, --one of the greatest in the world, --the Mississippi of Russia. From this point the river is navigable for over two thousand miles toAstrakhan. In a country so extensive and which possesses so small aportion of seaboard, rivers have a great importance, and until theintroduction of railroads they formed nearly the only available means oftransportation. The canals, rivers, and lakes are no longer navigated bybarges drawn by horse-power. Steam-tugs and small passenger steamers nowtow great numbers of flat-boats of large capacity; and transportation bythis mode of conveyance is very cheap. The Volga is the largest river inEurope. Measured through its entire windings it has a length oftwenty-four hundred miles from its rise in the Valdai Hills, fivehundred and fifty feet above sea-level, to its outlet into the CaspianSea. Many cities and thriving towns are situated upon its banks. AtNijni-Novgorod it is joined by the Oka River. In addition to thesewater-ways there are also the Obi, the Yenisee, the Lena, the Don, andthe Dnieper, all rivers of the first class, whose entire course fromsource to mouth is within the Russian territory, saying nothing of theseveral rivers tributary to these. Nor should we forget those frontierrivers, the Danube, the Amoor, and the Oxus, all of which are auxiliaryto the great system of canals that connects the important rivers of theempire. The Volga by this system communicates with the White Sea, theBaltic, and the Euxine. 

While we are narrating these interesting facts relating to the materialgreatness of Russia, we are also approaching its ancient capital. Itstands upon a vast plain through which winds the Moskva River, fromwhich the city derives its name. The villages naturally become morepopulous as we advance, and gilded domes and cupolas occasionally loomup above the tree-tops on either side of the road, indicating a Greekchurch here and there. As in approaching Cairo in Egypt, one sees firstand while far away the pyramids of Ghizeh, and afterwards the gracefulminarets and towers of the Oriental city gleaming through the goldenhaze; so as we gradually emerge from the thinly inhabited Russian plainsand draw near the capital, first there comes into view the massivetowers of the Kremlin and the Church of Our Saviour with its goldendome, followed by the hundreds of glittering steeples, belfries, towers, and star-gilded domes of this extremely interesting and ancient city. 

Though some of these religious temples have simply a cupola in the shapeof an inverted bowl, terminating in a gilded point capped by a cross andcrescent, few of them have less than five or six, and some have sixteensuperstructures of the most whimsical device, with gilded chainsdepending from each apex and affixed at the base. A bird's-eye view ofMoscow is far more picturesque than that of St. Petersburg, the oldercity being located upon very uneven ground, is in some places quitehilly. St. Petersburg is European, while Moscow is Tartar. The latterhas been three times nearly destroyed: first by the Tartars in thethirteenth century; next, by the Poles, in the seventeenth century; andagain at the time of the French invasion under Napoleon, in 1812. Stillit has sprung from its ashes each time as if by magic, and has neverlost its original character, being now a more splendid and prosperouscapital than ever before, rapidly increasing in population. The romanticcharacter of its history, so mingled with protracted wars, civilconflicts, sieges, and conflagrations, makes it seem half fabulous. Thepopulation is not much, if any less than that of St. Petersburg, --eighthundred thousand, --while the territory which it covers measures overtwenty miles in circumference. 

Moscow is to the Russian what Mecca is to the pious Moslem, and he callsit by the endearing name of "mother. " Like Kief and the Trortzkoi(sacred monastery), it is the object of pious pilgrimage to thousandsannually, who come from long distances on foot. 

The Kremlin, which crowns a hill, is the central point of the city, andis enclosed by high walls, battlement rising upon battlement, flanked bymassive towers. The name is Tartar and signifies a fortress. As such itis unequalled for its vastness, its historical associations, and thewealth of its sanctuaries. It was founded five or six hundred years ago, and is an enclosure studded with cathedrals, and embracing broad streetsand spacious squares, --a citadel and city within itself, being toMoscow what the Acropolis was to Athens. The various buildings are astrange conglomerate of architecture, including Tartar, Hindu, Chinese, and Gothic exhibited in noble cathedrals, chapels, towers, convents, andpalaces. There are about twenty churches within the walls of theKremlin. The Cathedral of the Assumption is perhaps the most noteworthy, teeming as it does with historic interest, and being filled with tombsand pictures from its dark agate floor to the base of the vast cupola. Here, from the time of Ivan the Great to that of the present Emperor, the Tzars have all been crowned, and here Peter placed the royalinsignia upon the head of his second wife, the peasant-girl of Livonia. 

The venerable walls of the Kremlin, which measure about two miles incircumference, are pierced by five gates of an imposing character, toeach of which is attributed a religious or historical importance. Oftenhave invading hosts battered at these gates, and sometimes gained anentrance; but, strange to say, they have always in the end been worstedby the faithful Muscovites. Over the Redeemer's Gate, so called, isaffixed a wonder-working picture of the Saviour, which is an object ofgreat veneration. No one, not even the Emperor, passes beneath itwithout removing his hat and bowing the head. A miracle is supposed tohave been wrought in connection with this picture of the Redeemer at thetime when the retreating French made a vain attempt to blow up theKremlin, and hence the special reverence given to it. 

The most strikingly fantastic structure in Moscow is the Cathedral ofSt. Basil, which is top-heavy with spires, domes, and minarets, ornamented in the most irregular and unprecedented manner. Yet, as awhole, the structure is not inharmonious with its uniquesurroundings, --the semi-Oriental, semi-barbaric atmosphere in which itstands. It is not within the walls of the Kremlin, but is just outside, near the Redeemer's Gate, from which point the best view of it may beenjoyed. No two of its towering projections are alike, either in height, shape, or ornamentation. The coloring throughout is as various as theshape, being in yellow, green, blue, red, gilt, and silver. Each spireand dome has its glittering cross; and when the sun shines upon thegroup, it is in effect like the bursting of a rocket at night, against adark blue background. 

In front of this many-domed cathedral is a circular stone whence theTzars of old were accustomed to proclaim their edicts; and it is alsoknown as "The Place of the Scull, " because of the many executions whichhave taken place upon it. Ivan the Terrible rendered the spot infamousby the series of executions which he ordered to take place here, thevictims being mostly innocent of any crimes. Here Prince Scheviref wasimpaled by order of this same tyrant, and here several other members ofthe royal family were ruthlessly put to death after being barbarouslytortured. 

The treasury of the Kremlin, erected so late as 1851, is a historicalmuseum of crowns, thrones, state costumes, and regalia generally;including in the latter department the royal robes of Peter the Great aswell as his crown, in which there are about nine hundred diamonds; andthat of his widow Catharine I. , which contains three thousand of theseprecious stones. One comes away from the labyrinth of palaces, churches, arsenals, museums, and the treasury, after viewing their accumulation ofriches, quite dazed and surfeited. To examine the latter properlyrequires more than a single day. It is a marvel of accumulated riches, including the crowns of many now defunct kingdoms, such as those ofKazan, Georgia, Astrakhan, and Poland, --all heavy with precious stones. The crown jewels of England and Germany combined would not equal invalue these treasures. The most venerable of the crowns is that ofMonomachus, brought from Byzantium more than eight hundred years ago. This emblem is covered with jewels of the choicest character, amongwhich are steel-white diamonds and rubies of pigeon's-blood hue, such asare rarely obtainable in our day. 

While viewing the many attractions of Moscow one is apt to recall a pagefrom history and remember the heroic, self-sacrificing means which thepeople of this Asiatic city adopted to repel the invading and victoriousenemy. It was an act of sublime desperation to place the torch withinthe sanctuary of Russia and destroy all, sacred and profane, so that theenemy should also be destroyed. It was the grandest sacrifice ever madeto national honor by any people. "Who would have thought that a nationwould burn its own capital?" said Napoleon. 

Strangers are hardly prepared to find Moscow so great a manufacturingcentre, more than fifty thousand of the population being regularlyemployed in manufacturing establishments. There are over a hundredcotton mills within the limits of the city, between fifty and sixtywoollen mills, over thirty silk mills, and other kindred establishments, though enterprise in this direction is mostly confined to textilefabrics. The city is fast becoming the centre of a great railroadsystem, affording the means of rapid and easy distribution for theseveral products of these mills. 

The favorite seat of learning is the Moscow University, founded byPeter the Great in 1755, its four principal faculties being those ofhistory, physics, jurisprudence, and medicine. It is a Stateinstitution, and has at this time some two thousand students. The termsof admission as regards cost to the pupils are merely nominal, theadvantages being open to all youth above seventeen who can pass asatisfactory examination. Here, also, is another large and valuablelibrary open at all times to the public, containing over two hundredthousand well-chosen volumes. This liberal multiplication of educationaladvantages in the very heart of Oriental Russia is an indisputableevidence of progressive civilization. 

One is struck by the multitude of pigeons seen in and about the city. They are held in great reverence by the common people, and no Russianwill harm them. Indeed, they are as sacred here as monkeys in Benares, or doves in Venice, being considered emblems of the Holy Ghost and underprotection of the Church. They wheel about in large blue flocks throughthe air, so dense as to cast shadows, like swift-moving clouds, alighting fearlessly where they choose, to share the beggar's crumbs orthe rich man's bounty. It is a notable fact that this bird was alsoconsidered sacred by the old Scandinavians, who believed that for acertain period after death the soul of the deceased assumed this form tovisit and watch the behavior of the mourners. 

Beggary is sadly prevalent in the streets of Moscow, the number ofmaimed and wretched-looking human beings recalling the same scenes inSpain and Italy, especially in the former country, where beggary seemsto be the occupation of one-third of the people. 

CHAPTER XX. 

We must travel by railway three hundred miles further towards the centreof the empire and in a northerly direction, to reach Nijni Novgorod, that is, Lower Novgorod, being so called to distinguish it from thefamous place of the same name located on the Volkhov, and known asNovgorod the Great. This journey is made in the night, and the cars, which are supposed to afford sleeping accommodations, are furnished withreclining chairs only. However, we get along very well, and fatigue ispretty sure to make one sleep soundly, notwithstanding the want ofinviting conveniences. Having arrived at Nijni-Novgorod early in themorning, we find it to be a peculiar city. The residence of the governorof the district, the courts of law, and the citadel are within theKremlin, where there is also a fine monument to the memory of Mininn andPojarski, the two patriots who liberated the country from the Poles in1612. 

The Kremlin, like that at Moscow, is situated on an elevationoverlooking the town and the broad valley of the Volga. As we view thescene, a vast alluvial plain is spread out before the eye, covered withfertile fields and thrifty woods, through which from northwest tosoutheast flows the river, like a silver thread upon a verdant ground, extending from horizon to horizon. On this river, the main artery ofCentral Russia, are seen scores of swift-moving steamers, while a forestof shipping is gathered about the wharves of the lower town, and alsoupon the Oka River, which here joins the Volga. From this outlook wecount over two hundred steamers in sight at the same time, allside-wheelers and clipper-built, drawn hither by the exigencies of thelocal trade growing out of the great annual fair. The first of thesesteamboats was built in the United States and transported to Russianwaters, since which it has served as a model to builders, who havefurnished many hundreds for river service. 

The flat-boats or barges, which have been towed hither by the steamersfrom various distances, having been unloaded, are anchored in a shallowbend of the river, where they cover an area of a mile square. On most ofthese barges entire families live, it being their only home; andwherever freight is to be transported, thither they go; whether it istowards the Ural Mountains or the Caspian Sea, it is all the same tothem: the Arabs of the desert are not more roving than they. 

The Volga has a course of twenty-four hundred, and the Oka of eighthundred and fifty miles. As the Missouri and the Mississippi rivers havetogether made St. Louis in this country, so these two rivers have madeNijni-Novgorod. This great mart lies at the very centre of the watercommunication which joins the Caspian and the Black seas to the Balticand the White seas; besides which, it has direct railroad connectionwith Moscow, and thence with all Eastern Europe. The Volga and itstributaries pour into its lap the wealth of the Ural Mountains and thatof the vast region of Siberia and Central Asia. It thus becomes veryapparent why and how this ancient city is the point of business contactbetween European industry and Asiatic wealth. 

The attraction which draws most travellers so far into the centre ofRussia, lies in the novelty of the great annual fair held here for aperiod of about eight weeks, and which gathers together for the timebeing some two hundred thousand people, traders and spectators, merchants and rogues, who come from the most distant provinces andcountries of Asia, as well as from immediate regions round about. Thevariety of merchandise brought hither is something to astonish one. Jewelry of such beauty and fashion as would grace the best stores ofParis is here offered for sale, beside the cheapest ornamentsmanufactured by the bushel-basketful at Birmingham, England. Choice oldsilverware is exposed along with iron sauce-pans, tin dippers, and cheapcrockery--variety and incongruity, gold and tinsel, everywhere side byside. There is an abundance of iron and copper from the Urals, driedfish in tall piles from the Caspian, tea from China, cotton from India, silk and rugs from Persia, heavy furs and sables from Siberia, wool inthe raw state from Cashmere, together with the varied products of thetrans-Caucasian provinces, even including droves of wild horses. Fancygoods are here displayed from England as well as from Paris and Vienna, toys from Nuremberg, ornaments of jade and lapis-lazuli from Kashgar, precious stones from Ceylon, and gems from pearl-producing Penang. Variety, indeed! Then what a conglomerate of odors permeateseverything, --boiled cabbage, coffee, tea, and tanned leather, --dominatedby the all-pervading musk; but all this is quite in consonance with thequeer surroundings which meet the eye, where everything presents itselfthrough an Oriental haze. 

If any business purpose actuates the visitor, let him keep his witsabout him, and, above all, remain cool, for it requires an effort not tobe confused by the ceaseless buzzing of such a crowded hive of humanbeings. Sharpers are not unrepresented here, but may be seen in fullforce seeking to take advantage of every opportunity for imposition, sothat many who come hither thrive solely by dishonesty. It is a sort ofthieves' paradise--and Asiatic thieves are marvellously expert. Most ofthese are itinerants, having no booths, tables, or fixtures, except asatchel or box hung about their necks, from which they offer triflingarticles at low prices, a specious disguise under which to prosecutetheir real design. 

The period of great differences in prices at localities wide apart has, generally speaking, passed away, and nearly everywhere the true value ofthings is known. Circumstances may favor sellers and buyers by turns, but intrinsic values are fixed all over the world. Nothing is foundespecially cheap at this great Russian-Asiatic fair except such articlesas no one wants, though occasionally a dealer who is particularlyanxious to get cash will offer his goods at a low price to effect thedesired sale. The Tartar merchant from the central provinces of Asiaknows the true worth of his goods, though in exchange he pays liberalprices for Parisian and English luxuries. Gems which are offered soabundantly here can only be bought at somewhat near to their just valuein the markets of the world. All the tricks of trade are known andresorted to at these gatherings. The merchant begins by demanding aprice ridiculously above the amount for which he is willing to sell. Nodealer has a fixed price at Nijni-Novgorod. The Asiatic enjoysdickering--it is to him the very life of his occupation, and adds zest, if not profit, to his business transactions. 

It is curious to watch the various features, the physical development, the dress, manners, customs, and languages of the throng. It would beimpossible to convey an idea of the ceaseless Babel of noise whichprevails;--the cries designating certain goods, the bartering going onin shrill voices, the laughter mingled with sportive exclamations, andthe frequent disputes which fill the air. But there is no actualquarrelling; the Russian police are too vigilant, too much feared, toosummary for that. Open violence is instantly suppressed, and woe betidethe culprit!

Such is this unique fair, which presents one of the rude and ancientEastern forms of trade--a form which was once also prevalent throughoutEurope, but now rapidly disappearing by the introduction of railroads, even in the East. The glory of Nijni-Novgorod is already beginning towane; but it would seem that the fair still represents all the gayestfeatures of the olden time, having been held here annually since 1366, tradition pointing even to an earlier date. 

The large and populous city formed here, though so temporary, is dividedinto long and broad streets lined with booths, shops, restaurants, tents, and even minor theatres, while the wharves of the rivers arecrowded with bales of rags, grain, hides, skins, casks of wine, madder, and cotton. The total value of the goods disposed of at these annualfairs is estimated as high as eighty million dollars. It is the onlynotable gathering of the sort now to be seen in Russia. With the closeof the day business is mostly laid aside, dancing-girls appear in thecafés, and rude musical instruments are brought forth, each nationalityamusing itself after its own fashion. Strange and not inharmonious airsfall upon the ear, supplemented by songs, the words of which areutterly unintelligible, except to the circle of participants. The wholescene forms a strange picture, as parti-colored as Harlequin's costume, while the whole is watched by the ever-present Russian police. 

A couple of days at the fair serves to acquaint us sufficiently with allof its peculiarities, and we return to the ancient capital of the empireby night train. 

It is a long and rather dreary journey from Moscow to Warsaw, in RussianPoland, the distance being some seven hundred miles by rail, and theroute very monotonous. The country through which we pass is heavilywooded, and affords some attractive sport to foreigners, who resort hereespecially for wolf-shooting. In the summer season these creatures areseldom dangerous to men, except when they go mad, which, in fact, theyare rather liable to do. When in this condition, they rush through fieldand forest, heedless of hunters, dogs, or aught else, biting everycreature they meet, and such victims are pretty sure to die ofhydrophobia. The wolves are at all seasons more or less destructive tosmall domestic stock, and sometimes in the severity of a hard winterthey will gather in large numbers and attack human beings, though as arule they are timid and keep out of the way of men. There are also somedesirable game-birds in these forests. The wild bison still exists here, though it is forbidden to shoot them, as they are considered to belongto the Crown. If they were not fed by man during the long winters, theywould surely starve. 

In the last portion of this journey the country puts on a more agreeableaspect. The beautiful lavender color of the flax-fields interspersedwith the peach-bloom of broad, level acres of buckwheat, produces apleasant and thrifty aspect. These fields are alternated by miles ofintensely green oats, rye, and other cereals. No finer display ofgrowing grain is to be found, except in Western America. The hay-makers, in picturesque groups, are busy along the line of the railroad as wepass, nine-tenths of them being women. The borders of Poland exhibit ascene of great fertility and successful agricultural enterprise. As wecross the frontier, a difference in the dress of the common peoplebecomes noticeable. Men no longer wear red shirts outside of theirpantaloons, and scarlet disappears from the dress of the women, givingplace to more subdued hues. The stolid, square faces of the Russianpeasantry are replaced by a more intelligent cast of features, whilemany representatives of the Jewish race begin to appear, especiallyabout the railway stations, where they offer trifling articles for sale. The dwelling-houses which now come into view are of a superior class tothose left behind in Russia proper. Log cabins disappear entirely, andthatched roofs are rarely seen; good, substantial frame housesappropriately painted become numerous. Small, trim flower-plats are seenfenced in, adjoining the dwellings. Lines of beehives find place nearthese cheerful homes, where the surroundings generally are suggestive ofthrift and industry. 

In passing through Poland the country presents almost one unbroken plainadmirably adapted to agriculture, so much so that it has been called thegranary of Europe. The Polish peasants are extremely ignorant, ifpossible even more so than the Russians proper of the same class; butthey are a fine-looking race, strongly built, tall, active, and wellformed. There are schools in the various districts, but the Polishlanguage is forbidden to be taught in them: only the Russian tongue ispermitted. The peasantry have pride enough to resist this arbitrarymeasure in the only way which is open to them; that is, by keeping theirchildren out of the schools. Education not being compulsory here as itis in Norway and Sweden, little benefit is consequently derived from theschools. With a view to utterly obliterate the Polish language it iseven made a penal offence by Russian law to use it in commercialtransactions. 

The Polish peasantry as a whole are by no means a prepossessing race. Naturally dull, they are furthermore demoralized and degraded by a loveof spirituous liquors, these being unfortunately both cheap and potent. As regards the nationality of Poland, her fate is certainly decided formany years to come, if, indeed, it be not settled for all time. Dismembered as she is, every new generation must amalgamate her more andmore completely with the three powers who have appropriated herterritory and divided the control of her people among them. We continueto speak of Poland as a distinct country, though the name is all thatremains of its ancient independence. The map of Europe has long sincebeen reconstructed in this region, --Austria, Germany, and Russia coollyabsorbing the six millions of Poles, Warsaw becoming thus the capital ofRussian Poland. 

We enter the city by the Praga suburb, crossing the lofty iron bridgewhich here stretches over the Vistula, nearly two thousand feet inlength. 

The city extends about six miles along the left bank of the Vistula, andupon very high ground. The river is navigable at most seasons of theyear, extending the whole length of Poland from north to south, itssource being the Carpathian Mountains, and its mouth at Dantzig. Thecity covers a great surface in proportion to the number of inhabitants, and is enclosed by ramparts pierced by ten gates, all being defended bya strong castle of modern construction. The fortifications are kept atall times up to a war standard, and are very complete in the departmentof modern artillery. The city has nearly half a million inhabitants, one-third of whom are Jews, who monopolize the main branches of trade. 

From the top of the railway station in the Praga district one gets anadmirable view. On the opposite side of the river is seen the citadel, the oldest portion of the town, with its narrow streets and loftyhouses, the castle and its beautiful gardens, as well as the newersection of the city, including the public promenade and groves about theroyal villa of Lazienki. Viewed from Praga, as it slopes upward, theeffect of the city is very pleasing, and a closer examination of itschurches, former palaces, and fine public buildings confirms thefavorable impression. This view should be supplemented by one of abird's-eye character to be obtained from the cupola of the LutheranChurch, which more clearly reveals the several large squares and mainarteries, bordered by graceful lime-trees. 

In spite of its misfortunes, Warsaw ranks to-day as the third city inimportance as well as population in the Russian Empire. It was not madethe capital of Poland until 1566, when it succeeded Cracow. It is nowthe residence of a viceroy representing the Emperor of Russia, and theplace is strongly garrisoned by the soldiers of the Tzar. War anddevastation have deprived it of many of its national and patrioticmonuments, but its squares are still ornamented with numerous admirablestatues, and with a grand array of fine public buildings. In the squareof the royal castle there is a colossal bronze statue of Sigismund III. ;in another quarter a bronze statue of Copernicus is found. It will beremembered that he was a Pole by birth and was educated at Cracow, hisname being Latinized from Kopernik. There is a thirteenth centurycathedral close by, whose pure Gothic contrasts strongly with the Tartarstyle which we have so lately left behind in Russia. This old church isvery gray and crumbling, very dirty, and very offensive to the sense ofsmell, partly accounted for by obvious causes, since about the doors, inside and out, swarm a vile-smelling horde of ragged men, women, andchildren, sad and pitiful to behold. 

Here we find the finest public buildings and most elegant residencesstrangely mingled with wooden hovels; magnificence and squalor side byside, inexorably jumbled together. No other city in all Europe has somany private palaces and elegant mansions as may be seen in an hour'sstroll about Warsaw; but the architecture is often gaudy and in badtaste. Here for centuries there were but two classes or grades ofsociety; namely, the noble, and the peasant. A Polish noble was by law aperson who possessed a freehold estate, and who could prove his descentfrom ancestors formerly possessing a freehold, who followed no trade orcommerce, and who was at liberty to choose his own habitation. Thisdescription, therefore, included all persons who were above the rank oftradesmen or peasants. 

The "Avenues" is the popular drive and promenade of the citizens ofWarsaw. It is bordered by long lines of trees, and surrounded by elegantprivate residences. Here also are inviting public gardens where popularentertainments are presented, and where cafés dispense ices, favoritedrinks, and other refreshments. The Botanical Gardens are close at hand, forming a pleasant resort for the lovers of floral beauty. Just beyondthese gardens is the Lazienki Park, containing the suburban palace builtby King Stanislaus Poniatovski in the middle of the last century, andwhich is now the temporary residence of the Emperor of Russia when hevisits Warsaw. These grounds are very spacious, affording completeseclusion and shady drives. Though it so closely adjoins the city, ithas the effect of a wild forest of ancient trees. The royal villa standsin the midst of a stately grove, surrounded by graceful fountains, tinylakes, and delightful flower-gardens. There are some fine groups ofmarble statuary picturesquely disposed among the tropical plants. 

One is hardly prepared to see so much commercial prosperity and rapidityof growth as is evinced in Warsaw. In matters of current business andindustrial affairs it appears to be in advance of St. Petersburg. Thelarge number of distilleries and breweries are unpleasantly suggestiveof the intemperate habits of the people. The political division ofPoland, to which we have referred, was undoubtedly a great outrage onthe part of the three powers who confiscated her territory, but it hascertainly resulted in decided benefit as regards the interests of thecommon people. There are those who see in the fate of Poland thatretributive justice which Heaven metes out to nations as well as toindividuals. In past ages she was a country ever aggressive upon herneighbors, and it was not until she was sadly torn and weakened byinternal dissensions that Catharine II. First invaded her territory. Nine-tenths of the populace were no better than slaves, in much thesame condition as the Russian serfs before the late emancipation tookplace. They were acknowledged retainers, owing their service to, andholding their farms at the option of the upper class; namely, theso-called nobility of the country. This overmastering class prideditself on the fact of neither promoting nor being engaged in any kind ofbusiness; indeed, this uselessness was one condition attached to itspatent of nobility. These autocratic rulers knew no other interest oroccupation than that of the sword. War and devastation constituted theirprofession, while the common people for ages reaped the fruit of famineand slaughter. Even in what were called times of peace, the court andnobles were constantly engaged in intrigues and quarrels. However hardthese reflections may seem, they are substantiated by historical facts, and are frankly admitted by the intelligent citizens of Warsaw to-day. 

That there is shameful despotism exercised by the present ruling powersall must allow; but that peace, individual liberty, and great commercialprosperity now reign in Poland is equally obvious. In the days which arepopularly denominated those of Polish independence the nobility werealways divided into bitter factions. Revolutions were as frequent asthey are to-day in South America or Mexico, and the strongest partydisposed of the crown, ruling amid tumult and bloodshed. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

From Warsaw we turn towards Munich, the capital of Bavaria, reaching thequaint old city by way of Vienna, a description of which we have givenin a previous chapter. Munich has a population of about two hundredthousand, and it possesses many noble institutions devoted tocharitable, literary, and art purposes. The accumulation of arttreasures is of the choicest character, not exceeded in number orimportance by any other city of Germany, if we except Dresden. Many ofits churches, centuries in age, are of great interest. Nearly all of ourmodern bronze statues have been cast in the famous founderies of Munich. The university, in the University Platz, takes first rank among theeducational institutions of the old world. The English Garden, so-called, is a beautiful and extensive park which was established justone century ago; it is about four miles long by half a mile in width. Here is seen an admirable statue of Count Rumford, the founder of thegarden. In clear weather the distant Alps are visible from here. 

The public library of Munich is remarkably comprehensive, and containsabout nine hundred thousand volumes, besides twenty-four thousandvaluable manuscripts. Few collections in the world are so important. TheBavarian national museum embraces a magnificent array of objectsillustrating the progress of civilization and art. Munich is stronglymarked in its general aspect, manners, and customs. A considerableshare of the most menial as well as of the most trying physical labordevolves upon the women. It is very repulsive to an American to seethem, as one does here, ascending high ladders with buckets of mortar orbricks for building purposes. The stranger is unpleasantly impressedwith the fact that more beer is drunk in Munich than in any othercommunity composed of the same number of people. The obvious troublewith those who consume so much malt liquor is that they keep half tipsyall of the time, and their muddled brains are never in possession oftheir full mental capacity. There is not much absolute drunkenness to beseen in the streets of this capital, but the bloated faces and blearedeyes of the masses show only too plainly their vulgar and unwholesomeindulgence. 

From Munich we proceed to Frankfort-on-the-Main, an ancient andimportant city of Germany, containing a population of one hundred andtwenty thousand. The difference in large communities is remarkable. While some cities with three hundred thousand inhabitants seem drowsyand "slow, " another, like this of Frankfort, with not half thatpopulation, presents the aspect of much more life, activity, and volumeof business. Here we have fine, cleanly streets, and stores almostParisian in elegance and richness of display. The older portions of thetown have the usual narrow lanes and dark alleys of past centuries, withquaint, overhanging fronts to the houses. The city is surrounded onthree sides by very beautiful public gardens. The venerable town hall isan object of universal interest. One visits also the house from whichLuther addressed the multitude in the Dom Platz, or square: nor shouldanother famous residence be forgotten; namely, that in which Goethe wasborn, in memory of whom a colossal bronze statue stands in the GoethePlatz. There is also a group here of three statues in honor ofGutenberg, Faust, and Schöffer, inventors of printing. In the SchillerPlatz is a bronze statue of Schiller. The public library has a hundredand thirty thousand volumes, and there is a museum of natural history, an art gallery of choice paintings, and all the usual philanthropicorganizations appropriate to a populous Christian capital. Frankfort isa great money centre, and is the residence of many very rich bankers. Inthe grounds attached to the residence of one of these wealthy men isexhibited, in a suitable building, the famous marble statue of Ariadne, by Dannecker. There is also here a fine botanical garden with acollection of choice plants open to the public. Thus it will be seenthat Frankfort, upon the whole, though comparatively small, is yet anextremely pleasing city, thriving, cleanly, and attractive. 

Our next place to visit is Cologne, a city situated on the left bank ofthe Rhine. It was a famous and prosperous Roman colony fifteen hundredyears ago, containing amphitheatres, temples, and aqueducts. Thepassage-ways in the ancient portions of the city are remarkably small, but there are some fine modern streets, arcades, and open squares, whichpresent a busy aspect, with an active population of one hundred andsixty thousand. The Rhine is here crossed by a substantial iron bridge, as also by a bridge of boats. The one most prominent attraction ofCologne is its grand, and in some respects unequalled, cathedral, whichwas over six hundred years in process of building. It was not completeduntil so late as 1880, representing an enormous amount of elaboratemasonry. The towers are over five hundred feet high. The effect of theinterior, with its vast height, noble pillars, niches, chapels, andstained glass windows is most impressive, and by many travellers isthought to be unequalled elsewhere. The exterior, with its immenseflying buttresses and myriads of pinnacles, is truly awe-inspiring. There are other old and interesting churches here. That of St. Gereon issaid to contain the bones of the hundreds of martyrs of the ThebanLegion who were slain by order of the Emperor Diocletian in the year286. The Church of St. Peter's, where Rubens was baptized, contains hisfamous picture entitled the "Crucifixion of St. Peter, " painted a shorttime before the artist's death. The stranger is shown the house at No. 10 Sternengasse, where Maria d' Medici died in 1642. Rubens lived inthis same house when a boy of ten years. There is a choice andcomprehensive gallery of paintings at Cologne. 

From this city we turn our steps towards Paris, by the way of Antwerp, Belgium, which is remarkable for its many churches, convents, and noblepublic buildings, beautiful parks, and open squares. It has a populationof fully three hundred thousand, owing its attraction mostly to the factthat here are gathered so many masterpieces of painting. The greatinfluence of Rubens can hardly be fully appreciated without a visit tothis Flemish capital, where he lived so long, where he died, and wherehis ashes rest in the Church of St. Jacques. Here is the burial place ofmany noble families, and among them that of Rubens, his tomb beingsituated just back of the high altar. Above it is a painting by his ownhand, intended to represent the Holy Family, but its object is also wellunderstood as being to perpetuate a series of likenesses of the Rubensfamily; namely, of himself, his two wives, and his daughter, besides hisfather and grandfather. Vandyke and Teniers were also natives ofAntwerp, where their best works still remain, and where the state haserected fitting monuments to their memory. Jordaens, the youngerTeniers, and Denis Calvart, the art master of Guido, the great Italianpainter, were also natives of this city. 

The Cathedral of Antwerp, more remarkable for its exterior thaninterior, is of the pointed style. Did it not contain Rubens'world-renowned pictures, the Descent from the Cross, the Elevation ofthe Cross, and the Assumption, few people would care to visit it. In allthe older portions of the town the houses have a queer way of standingwith their gable ends to the street, as we see them in Amsterdam andHamburg, showing it to be a Dutch fashion. Dogs are universally usedhere in place of donkeys for drawing small carts. Beggars there are noneto be seen, to the credit of the city be it said. 

From Antwerp we make our way to Paris, whence to take a brief trip intoSwitzerland, which, after a journey by rail of three hundred andtwenty-five miles, we enter on the northwestern corner, at Bâle, aconsiderable city of nearly seventy thousand inhabitants, situated onthe left bank of the Rhine. Its earliest history was that of a Romancolony; consequently there are many portions of the place especially"quaint and olden. " Being situated at the junction of the frontiers ofFrance, Germany, and Switzerland, it has a considerable trade andevinces much commercial life. It has many admirable institutions, apublic library which contains about a hundred thousand volumes, and ajustly famed university which also has a library of two hundred thousandvolumes. The town hall is a curious old structure three centuries oldand of the Gothic style. Most cities have some specialty inmanufacturing, and Bâle is not without its peculiarity in this respect. It consists of the production of silk ribbons of exquisite finish and ingreat variety, which find their way to distant and profitable markets. 

There is an admirably arranged picture gallery and art museum here, principally remarkable for the number of paintings by the youngerHolbein, but containing, also, many other fine works of the modernpainters. The cathedral dates back nearly nine hundred years, or, to beexact, to 1010. It was originally of the Byzantine order, but has beenrepaired and added to until it has assumed a Gothic shape. The materialis red sandstone. It has two lofty towers, and the portal is ornamentedwith mounted statues of St. George and St. Martin. About six miles fromBâle, on the river near its confluence with the Ergolz, is Augst, uponthe site of the great Roman city of Augusta Rauracorum, founded in thereign of Augustus. From these ruins have been taken many valuable relicswhich are deposited in the museum of Bâle. 

From Bâle we take the railway southward to Lausanne, situated on theborders of Lake Geneva, where we find a population numbering somethirty-three thousand. This city occupies a beautiful and commandingsituation overlooking the lake and valley. Its streets are hilly andirregular, but are well kept and cleanly. The view from the high pointsof the town is very fine, the Jura Mountains enclosing a portion of thelandscape, which is vine-clad and varied in its systematic cultivation. If we stop at the Hotel Gibbon, which is a good house, we shall see inits garden overlooking the lake, the spot where the historian Gibboncompleted his "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. " Lausanne is adelightful summer resort, cool and healthful. 

Geneva, with a population of about fifty thousand, is located on thesame lake a short journey southward, being one of the largest andwealthiest towns in Switzerland. It is situated at the point where theriver Rhone emerges from the lake, forming a favorite watering-placewith large and admirable hotels, but many of the streets are steep, narrow, and crooked. The Rhone separates the town into two parts, and ishere crossed by eight bridges. We get from Geneva a superb view of theMont Blanc group, and the relative height of the several peaks is betterrealized than from a nearer point. Mont Blanc is upwards of fifteenthousand feet in height. 

Geneva has few attractions except its position and scenery, being in thevicinity of the most famous mountains in Switzerland. The history of theplace is, however, very interesting. Calvin resided here nearly thirtyyears. Rousseau was born here in 1712, and it has been the birthplace ofother famous scholars, botanists, naturalists, and philosophers. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI. , and his daughter, Madame de Staël, were natives of Geneva. In the environs, say four miles from Geneva, Voltaire built a famous château, making it his home for a number ofyears. From here one goes to Chamouni, if disposed formountain-climbing, --the immediate region of Mont Blanc. 

The Lake of Geneva, or Lake Leman, the name by which it is best known, is forty-five miles long, varying from two to eight miles in width. Wewill cross the lake by steamer to the charming little town of Vevay, situated on the northern side, and containing some nine thousandinhabitants. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters thelake, stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by adrawbridge, --palace, castle, and prison, all in one. Some of its darkdamp cells are hewn out of the solid rock beneath the surface of thelake. This fortress of the Middle Ages has been rendered familiar to usby Byron's poetic pen. It was built by Amedeus IV. , Count of Savoy, in1238. Here languished Bonnivard in his underground cell for six years, during which time he wore a prisoner's chains for his heroic defence ofGenevan liberty. 

A short journey northward by railway brings us to Berne, the capital ofSwitzerland, and which contains less than forty thousand inhabitants. Itis situated upon a lofty promontory above the winding Aar, which nearlysurrounds it, and is crossed here by two stone bridges. The view of thesnow-capped Bernese Alps from Berne is remarkably fine andcomprehensive. The town has all the usual charitable and educationalorganizations, with a public library containing fifty thousand volumes. Many of the business streets are lined by arcades for foot passengers. Fountains abound, each one being surmounted by some grotesque figure. The cathedral is a fine Gothic structure, dating from 1457. The bear, ofwhose name the word Berne is the German equivalent, forms the principalfigure in the crest or arms of the city. Near the Aarburg gate is asmall menagerie of these animals, kept up at all times, and at thepublic expense. The figure of a bear appears to one in all sorts ofconnections about the city. There is here a curious and famousclock-tower. Just as the hour is about to strike, a wooden figure ofchanticleer appears and crows. He is followed by another puppet whichstrikes the hour upon a bell, and then come forth a number of bears fromthe interior of the clock, each one making an obeisance to an enthronedfigure, which in turn inclines its sceptre and opens its mouth. The townis noted for the manufacture of choice musical boxes, which are sold allover Europe and America. 

We go by railway from Berne to Lucerne, which is situated on the lake ofthe same name, and contains a population of twenty thousand. The ancientwalls which served the town in olden times are still in goodpreservation. Lucerne is located between the Rigi and Pilatus (loftymountains), while it faces the snow-clad Alps of Uri and Engelberg. Herethe river Reuss issues from the lake with great force. The SchweizerhofQuay, beautifully ornamented with trees, borders the lake, and is afamous promenade for visitors. The chief object of interest, after thevery remarkable scenery, is the lion-sculptured rock, in a gardenadjoining the town, designed to commemorate the Swiss guard, whosacrificed themselves in fidelity to their royal master, the king ofFrance, at the beginning of the French Revolution. It was modelled byThorwaldsen. The lake of Lucerne is unsurpassed in Europe for its scenicbeauty. It is twenty miles in length, and of irregular width; thegreatest depth reaches five hundred feet. 

A short trip northward brings us to Zurich, which has a population ofeighty thousand, and is situated on the borders of the lake whose nameit bears. It is recognized as the Athens of Switzerland, theintellectual capital of the country, as well as being one of the busiestof manufacturing centres, silk and cotton goods forming the staple. Theeducational facilities afforded at Zurich are recognized all overEurope. The scenery of the suburbs is very fine and peculiarly Swiss, the immediate neighborhood being highly cultivated, and the distanceformed by snowy Alps. Lavater, the great physiognomist, Gesner, thecelebrated naturalist, and Pestalozzi, the educational reformer, wereborn at Zurich. The shores of this beautiful lake are covered withvineyards, grain-fields, and pleasant gardens interspersed with the mostpicturesque cottages and capacious villas. Zurich is divided into twoparts by the rapid river Limmat, somewhat as the Rhone divides Geneva. The Platz-promenade is an avenue of shady trees on the banks of theclear, swift river, which is much frequented by the populace. Itterminates just where the small river Sihl joins the Limmat. The formeris an insignificant stream except in the spring, when it assumesconsiderable importance through the body of water which it conducts intothe bosom of the larger river. 

Switzerland is but a small division of Europe. Its greatest length fromeast to west is about two hundred miles, and its width north and southis about one hundred and forty. Two-thirds of its surface consists oflofty Alps, as we have shown, the scenery being thus marked by toweringmountains, vast glaciers, beautiful lakes, fertile valleys, andglittering cascades. Owing to the great elevation of most of thecountry, the climate is uniformly rather cold. The population does notexceed three millions. The different languages spoken in Switzerlandshow that the people have no common origin, but come from differentraces. In the west, French is the language which is in common use, andthese people are believed to have descended from the Burgundians; in thenorth, where German is spoken, a common origin is indicated with theGermans of Swabia; while in the south, both the language and thephysical appearance of the people is that of the Italians. 

On our way towards England from Zurich, we pass through Schaffhausen, about forty miles from the former city, on the right bank of the Rhine, having a population of about ten thousand. It is a place of considerablebusiness activity, very quaint and antique in general aspect, the styleof architecture reminding one of that seen in Chester, England. Thechief object of attraction to strangers in this neighborhood is thefamous falls of the Rhine, which form three tremendous cascades, wherethe river is three hundred feet in width, and the falls are eighty feetin height. Schaffhausen is the capital of the canton of the same name, and retains many of the ancient features of a Swabian town of the periodof the Empire. The cathedral, an early Romanesque structure, bears thedate of 1052. It contains a remarkable bell, which shows by its datethat it was placed here about four hundred years ago. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

We shall speak only incidentally of London; to describe such a mammothcity even superficially would require an entire volume. It is situatedon the river Thames, fifty miles from its mouth, containing a populationof about five millions. It is consequently the largest metropolis in theworld. Many of the older streets are confused, narrow, and intricate, but the modern portion of the city consists of broad, straightthoroughfares and fine substantial buildings. No capital is bettersupplied with public parks, the most notable being Hyde Park, coveringabout four hundred acres in the heart of London, and forming the mostpopular promenade and drive during the favorite hours of the day, whenthere is always a brilliant display of wealth and fashion. 

[Illustration: TOWER OF THE HOUSE OF PARLIAMENT. ]

It was in existence at the time of Cæsar's invasion and has flourishedever since. Of the many churches, new and old, that known as WestminsterAbbey is the most interesting, being the shrine of England's illustriousdead. It has been a sacred temple and a royal sepulchre for manycenturies; but the towers were completed by the famous Englisharchitect, Sir Christopher Wren, who also designed St. Paul's Cathedral, the grandest structure of its kind in the country. Old St. Paul's wasdestroyed by fire in 1665-6. A Christian church has occupied the samesite from a very early period. The present edifice is five hundred feetlong and more than one-fourth as wide. The height of the dome to the topof the cross is over three hundred and sixty feet, while the grand andharmonious proportions of the whole are beyond description. The Housesof Parliament form a very imposing architectural pile. The VictoriaTower is seventy-five feet square and nearly three hundred and fiftyfeet high. The clock-tower is forty feet square and three hundred andeighteen feet high. The face of the clock, placed at this greatelevation, must be very large to be discernible upon the street, and istwenty-three feet in diameter. 

The British Museum is a noble institution, both in its object and itsgeneral appearance. Its front measures three hundred and seventy feet inlength, the central portion being decorated with a grand line of loftycolumns in the Ionic style. These columns are five feet in diameter andforty-five feet in height. The collection of Greek and Romanantiquities, curiosities from all parts of the world, and valuablerelics, undoubtedly exceed in interest and comprehensiveness any othersimilar museum. The library contains over a million volumes andthousands of precious manuscripts. The National Gallery of Paintings onTrafalgar Square has been formed at an enormous expense, and is worthyof the great metropolis, though it is exceeded in the number of examplesand in the individual merit of many of the paintings by some of thecontinental galleries of Europe. The Zoölogical Garden, adjoiningRegent's Park, is one of the great attractions to strangers, and ofnever-failing interest to the people, being probably the most completeand extensive collection of wild and domestic animals, quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles in the world. Regent's Park is even larger thanHyde Park. Besides these noble, health-dispensing parks, --thesebreathing-places for a dense population, --the metropolis is dotted hereand there with large squares, varying in extent from four to six acreseach. The most notable of these are Belgrave Square, Trafalgar Square, Grosvenor Square, Portman Square, Eaton Square, and Russell Square. 

[Illustration: THE TOWER OF LONDON. ]

Twelve bridges other than railroad bridges cross the river Thames withinthe city boundary. The largest manufacturing interest in London is thatof the breweries, wherein eleven million bushels of malt are annuallyconsumed. 

Buckingham Palace, the town residence of Queen Victoria, occupies alocation facing St. James's Park, and is a spacious building, but of noarchitectural pretention. The famous tower of London, according totradition, was originally built by Julius Cæsar, and is situated on theeast side of the city, on the left bank of the Thames. It is no longerused as a prison, but is a national armory and museum of warlikeimplements of antiquity. London has an underground railway runningbeneath the streets and houses by means of tunnels, and also throughcuttings between high walls, forming a complete belt round the innersections of the city, while branch lines diverge to the suburbs. Statistics show that the railway company which controls the line conveysabout eighty millions of passengers annually, at an average rate oftwopence each, or four cents of our American currency, per trip. Thereare over fifty regularly licensed theatrical establishments in the city. The charitable organizations of London are on a scale commensurate withits great wealth and population, while its educational facilities are onan equally extensive scale. 

Travellers who land in England at Holyhead, on their way to London, goto the great metropolis by way of Chester, which is one of the mostinteresting cities in Great Britain. It has a population of a littleover thirty thousand, and retains more of its ancient character than anyother city of England. The old defences have been carefully preserved, and charming views of the surrounding country may be enjoyed from thepromenade which follows the course of the wall. Many of the houses areso constructed that the second floors form a series of continuousgalleries or covered ways for foot passengers, known as the "Rows. "There is an ancient cathedral here of considerable interest, renderedfamiliar by the numerous pictures of its several parts which have beenso often published. One of the most popular race-courses in England issituated just outside of the city walls of Chester. There is a finemodern Gothic residence in the environs, belonging to the Marquis ofWestminster, known as Eaton Hall, and which people travel long distancesto see, as it is considered one of the finest structures of its kind inthe kingdom. 

A railway journey of a hundred miles from London takes us into abeautiful portion of rural England, to that pleasant watering-place, thetown of Leamington, where some natural springs exist which are believedto possess certain medical properties. There is a resident population oftwenty thousand, which is largely increased during the attractive seasonof the year. This neighborhood is not only remarkable in a historicalpoint of view, but also for the rural beauty and quiet charms of itsscenery. There is here a public garden of twelve or fifteen acres in themiddle of the town, under a high condition of cultivation. 

It is but a short trip by rail from Leamington to Kenilworth Castle, orrather to its ruins. We need not narrate the historical associations ofthis place. Scott, in his admirable novel, "Kenilworth, " has renderedthe reading world familiar with it. The bare and crumbling walls are aneloquent monument of the days of chivalry. The castle is said to havebeen sufficiently extensive to have accommodated on one occasion QueenElizabeth and four hundred lords and ladies attached to her household. It was left to the charming pen of Sir Walter Scott to fix the historyof the time and place upon the memory more effectually than could bedone by the pages of the professed historian. 

From Leamington we may also make an excursion to Warwick Castle, one ofthe grandest and best preserved of mediæval structures to be seen inGreat Britain, and which is occupied by the present Earl of Warwick. This relic of the past, perhaps quite as ancient as Kenilworth, of whichonly the ruins remain, is in a condition of perfect preservation, and webelieve it has never ceased to be occupied by representatives ordescendants of the same family. The castle contains a museum ofantiquity, including a great variety of armor, battle-axes, swords, flags, and war implements generally, which were used by the ancestors ofthe present earl. There are some choice paintings in the spacious halls, while from the windows views may be enjoyed, fully depicting thebeauties of English rural scenery. 

Stratford-on-Avon--the birthplace of Shakespeare--is within a shortdistance by rail: it contains some four thousand inhabitants. Fewforeign travellers fail to visit Stratford. We come to the suggestivespot on a bright, sunny day, and hasten at once to the old church whererest the mortal remains of Shakespeare. Just back of this ancientGothic structure flows the quiet Avon in the same bed where it hasglided for centuries. A group of hay-makers lying idly upon the grass onthe opposite bank are gossiping away the noon hour; a fisherman withpole and line is daintily sounding the shady nooks of the peacefulriver; a few white swans glide gracefully in the shadow of theoverhanging willows, while in the middle distance a flock of sheepnibble the rich green herbage. We find the interior of the church butlittle superior in architecture and ornamentation to most countrychurches. The tomb of the poet is in the chancel. Just over the grave, in a niche of the wall, is a bust of Shakespeare, which was placed thereshortly after his death, and which is believed to be a good and truelikeness of the original. He died at the comparatively early age offifty-three. We take refreshment at the Red Horse Inn, rendered famousby Washington Irving, stroll thoughtfully through the quaint oldvillage, and visit, with thrilling interest, the house in whichShakespeare was born. 

From this remarkable vicinity we take passage over the Great NorthernRailroad, by way of Preston and Carlisle, finally reaching Edinburgh, the thriving and pleasant capital of Scotland. 

It is a peculiarly formed city, being built on three parallel ridges ofconsiderable elevation, and is remarkable for the general excellence andelegance of its architecture. The older portion of the city is situatedupon the loftiest of the ridges, and on which the houses rise to theheight of nine and ten stories along the edges and on the steep slopes. The streets in the old town are narrow and irregular. The newer sectionoccupies a lower ridge, being separated from the old by a valley whichis improved as a public garden and for business purposes. The publicand private buildings are mostly constructed of a white stone resemblingmarble, which is quarried in the neighborhood. The population numbersabout three hundred thousand, occupying a territory which measures justabout two square miles. The longest street commences at the Palace ofHolyrood and ends at Castle Hill, upon the summit of which is EdinburghCastle, standing four hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sea. 

[Illustration: EDINBURGH CASTLE. ]

This might appropriately be called the city of monuments. Among the mostprominent are statues to Sir Walter Scott, Nelson, Playfair, ProfessorWilson, Allan Ramsay, the Duke of Wellington, and Robert Burns. Scott'smonument stands quite by itself on Princes Street, and rises to twohundred feet in height. Few monuments in the world equal this Gothicstructure in architectural beauty. The citizens of Edinburgh may well beproud of their numerous educational institutions and charitableestablishments, in which departments of noble liberality no city inGreat Britain can surpass the Scotch metropolis. Near by Holyrood Palaceare the ruins of the ancient abbey of the same name, founded by David I. Nearly eight hundred years ago. In its chapel Queen Mary was married toLord Darnley. In visiting the castle on the hill we are shown the smallroom wherein Queen Mary became the mother of James VI. , who wasafterwards king of England. The royal infant was lowered from the windowof the little chamber in a basket, when friends received it and thussaved it from its scheming enemies. 

In the High Street we visit the house where John Knox, the greatScottish reformer, lived. Close by, in White Horse Close, is the innwhere Dr. Johnson lodged in 1773, while in the churchyard hard by arethe graves of Adam Smith and Dugald Stewart. It is not possible to feelindifferent to such associations. No grander figure can be found in thehistory of the Reformation than that of John Knox. His biography readslike a romance. Whether serving a two years' sentence in the Frenchgalleys, enduring a siege in the castle of St. Andrews, being tried fortreason by order of Queen Mary, haranguing from the pulpit against whathe considered false religionists, or having his steps dogged byassassins, Knox never swerved from what he believed to be the path ofduty. 

In the immediate environs of the city, to the south of Holyrood, areSalisbury Crags and Arthur's Seat, always visited by strangers, besidesbeing a favorite resort of the citizens of Edinburgh. There is a fineroad-way which surrounds Arthur's Seat, known as "The Queen's Drive. "Scott made this vicinity of more than passing interest by his "Heart ofMid-Lothian, " and the local guides point out the spot where Jeanie Deansis represented to have met Robertson. The "Queen's Drive" affords fromseveral points charmingly comprehensive views. 

A drive of twenty miles through the hills and plains lying to thesoutheast of the city will take us to Melrose, a place only noted forits famous ruins of the Abbey. It was founded by David I. , in 1136, formonks of the Cistercian order, and rebuilt in an elaborate and elegantstyle between the reign of Robert Bruce and James IV. It was the finestchurch, as it is the noblest ruin, in Scotland. Scott has rendered usfamiliar with it. From here we drive to Abbotsford, the home of SirWalter, and which is still kept exactly in the condition in which thepoet left it on the day of his death. We wander through the house, lingering in the library, sit in the chair before the table where he satand wrote in prose and poetry; we examine the curious collection ofarmor and the various historical mementos which he gathered about him, among which are weapons once owned by Rob Roy and the Douglas, and thoseof other real characters about whom his genius has woven such romanticinterest. Abbotsford House is large, imposing, and beautifully situated, the spacious grounds which are attached to it sloping gracefully down tothe banks of the river Tweed, beyond which rise the beautiful SelkirkHills. 

In travelling about the rural districts of Scotland in the vicinity ofEdinburgh, one is impressed by the thrifty appearance of the country, which seems to be cultivated with great care. We see many flocks ofsheep. There is not much attempt at what is called gardening, but a fewstaples in grain are depended upon, and much attention is given to theraising of sheep, horses, and cattle. The men and women are of a strong, vigorous type, hospitable and kindly. The national characteristics ofthe Scotch exhibit themselves in the simplest transactions. They are aremarkably intelligent and well-educated people; steady-going, plodding, economical, very set in their ways and opinions, being rather slowaccording to American ideas, but uncommonly sure and reliable. 

Glasgow differs from Edinburgh in many respects. Its situation is low, and the view is obstructed by a multiplicity of tall, smoky chimneys, with other tokens of manufacturing industry. It is the most populouscity of Scotland, having over half a million of inhabitants, and islocated on the banks of the river Clyde. Except in the manufacturingparts of the town, the architecture and streets are fine andattractive. Dressed freestone is the material most commonly used in theconstruction of the best dwelling-houses and the public buildings. Theriver is crossed by five noble bridges, --two of granite, one ofiron, --and two are suspension bridges. The city reminds one forcibly ofPittsburgh in America. The chemical works, foundries, and workshops ofall kinds, using such quantities of bituminous or soft coal, create anatmosphere of a dense, smoky character. 

Glasgow contains four large and beautifully kept parks. The city is overa thousand years old, but we have no record of its earliest three orfour centuries. Situated in the midst of a district abounding in coaland iron, and upon a river which insures it world-wide commerce, maritime enterprise has been a natural result. Here James Watt made hismemorable improvements in the steam-engine, and here Henry Bell firstdemonstrated in the Old World the practicability of steam navigation. This was in 1812, four years after Fulton's successful experiments uponthe Hudson River in this country, but of which Bell seems to have had noknowledge. Glasgow has many handsome and substantial blocks ofdwelling-houses. Buchanan Street and Queen Street are both remarkablyelegant thoroughfares; the former especially is notable for its largeand attractive stores. Argyle Street is very broad and two miles long, one of the finest avenues in Great Britain. Here, as in Edinburgh, thereare numerous public monuments, among which we observe the equestrianstatues of William III. , the Duke of Wellington, in front of the RoyalExchange; and that of Queen Victoria, in George's Square. There is alsoan obelisk one hundred and forty feet high, erected to the honor ofNelson, besides others of Sir Walter Scott, Sir John Moore, James Watt, Sir Robert Peel, etc. 

There are two chimneys in the city designed to carry off the poisonousgases from the chemical works, which are respectively four hundred andsixty, and four hundred and fifty feet in height, the latter carryingoff the vapor from St. Rollox, the largest chemical manufactory in theworld. These buildings cover fifteen acres of ground, and the works giveemployment to over a thousand men. Cotton factories are also numeroushere, and calico-printing establishments. Beer-brewing is one of thelargest branches of manufacture, as it is also in London. In thebuilding of iron steamships the port of Glasgow leads the world. For along time there was an average of one steamer a day launched on thebanks of the Clyde, in the vicinity, though this number is not quitekept up at the present time. Clyde steamers have a high reputation, andare given the preference for durability and general excellence ofworkmanship. 

Greenock, with a population of about fifty thousand, is one of thefinest seaports in Scotland, having also a large business in ironship-building. This was the native place of James Watt, already spokenof, and here we observe an admirable statue reared to his memory. Thecity is situated a little over twenty miles from Glasgow, on the Firthof Clyde. From here we take passage in a steamer across the Irish Sea toBelfast, the principal city of Northern Ireland. 

Belfast has a population of about two hundred thousand, and next toDublin is the most important city of the country. It is comparativelymodern, its tall chimneys, large factories, and spinning-mills speakingintelligibly of material prosperity. Queen's College is a largestructure in the Tudor style, with a frontage of six hundred feet inlength. There is an admirable museum on College Square containing alarge collection of Irish antiquities. We also find an excellentbotanical garden here, and there are no better school facilities in theUnited Kingdom than are to be enjoyed in this metropolis of NorthernIreland. From Cave Hill, in the suburbs, an elevation over a thousandfeet in height, a most admirable view of the city and its surroundingsmay be enjoyed, the coast of Scotland being visible on the far horizon. The streets of Belfast are regular, broad, and cleanly, and many of thepublic buildings are superb in architectural effect. The city hall, thecustom house, the Ulster Bank, and Linen Hall are all noble structures. This is the great headquarters of the Irish linen trade. 

A short journey of about a hundred miles due south by railway will bringus to Dublin, the capital of Ireland. It has a population of about fourhundred thousand, and is situated on the shore of Dublin Bay, with theriver Liffey flowing through its centre. It is an attractive city withvery beautiful surroundings. There are many grand public buildings, several large parks, a number of interesting old churches, and acathedral, --St. Patrick's, --connected with which are the associations ofsix centuries. The remains of Dean Swift are buried here. Near by is thehouse where Thomas Moore, the poet, was born, and not far away is thebirthplace of the Duke of Wellington. Dublin has its public library, itsmuseum, its Royal College of Surgeons, and its famous Trinity College, where Goldsmith, Swift, Burke, and many others graduated. It has alsomany noble charitable organizations and societies for the diffusion ofscience. The zoölogical garden is one of the most extensive in GreatBritain. Dublin Castle is near the centre of the city, on slightlyelevated ground, containing an armory, a chapel, and various governmentoffices. This city claims great antiquity, having existed as a capitalsince the days of Ptolemy. It was for centuries held by the Danes; in1169 it was taken by the English under Strongbow, whose remains lie inChrist Church Cathedral. 

From Dublin we take passage on board of a steamer for Liverpool, thecommercial metropolis of England, which contains about seven hundredthousand inhabitants. It is situated on the river Mersey, four milesfrom the sea. To the traveller it presents few attractions save those ofa great shipping depot, which is unsurpassed in the department ofmaritime enterprise. 

The moral and physical character of the population, taken in mass, israther low, though the city has many institutions and associationsdesigned to promote intelligence and to fulfil all charitable demands. The exhibitions of intemperance to be met with upon the streets at allhours forms a disgraceful picture of humanity, in which respectLiverpool seems to be more sadly afflicted than are the lowest sectionsof London. 

From here we sail for Nassau, New Providence, a British possession inthe Bahama Islands, lying northeast from Cuba, the largest of the WestIndian Islands. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

Upon landing at Nassau we find everything quite different from our lateexperiences in the large European cities, and are brought face to facewith nature, --with a tropical race and with tropical vegetation. Insteadof palatial edifices we have low native huts, while the people we meethave the bronzed hue of Africans. This island, which was settled byEuropeans as early as 1629, contains nearly a hundred square miles. Thetown has a small free library, several churches, a hospital, and a bank. 

It seems singular that an island like New Providence, which is almostwithout soil, should be so productive in vegetation. It is surrounded bylow-lying coral reefs, and is itself of the same formation. In apulverized condition this limestone forms the earth out of which springpalm, banana, ceba, orange, lemon, tamarind, mahogany, and cocoanuttrees, with various others, besides an almost endless variety offlowers. Science teaches us that all soils are but broken and decomposedrock pulverized by various agencies acting through long periods of time. So the molten lava which once poured from the fiery mouth of Vesuviushas become the soil of thriving vineyards which produce the choicegrapes whence is made the priceless Lachryma Cristi wine of Naples. Thistransformation of lava into soil is not accomplished in the period of asingle life. 

The luscious pineapple, zapota, mango, pomegranate, citron, custard-apple, and other fruits captivate the palate of the stranger, while the profuseness and variety of beautiful ferns and orchids delightthe eye of the northerner. The negroes are mostly engaged in cultivatingpineapples, yams, sweet potatoes, and other vegetables, and a largenumber of the males employ themselves in fishing and gathering sponges. From this locality comes the largest supply of coarse sponge which isused in England and America. There is also a considerable trade carriedon in fine turtle-shell, which is polished in an exquisite manner by thepatient natives. The Bahama sponges are not equal to those obtained inthe Mediterranean. But they are marketable for certain uses, and Nassauexports half a million dollars' worth annually. It is said that spongescan be propagated by cuttings taken from living specimens, which, whenproperly attached to a piece of board and sunk in the sea, will increaseand multiply. Thus the fine Mediterranean sponge can be successfullytransported to the coral reefs of the Bahamas. 

A short drive or walk inland over smooth roads, formed of smooth, levelled coral rocks, brings us to the extensive pineapple fields, wherethis handsome fruit may be seen in the several stages of growth, varyingaccording to the season of the year and the purposes of its use. Ifintended for exportation, the fruit is gathered when well-grown butstill in a green state; if designed for canning, --that is, preserving, --the riper it is, the better it is adapted to the purpose. Great quantities are put in tin cans carefully sealed for use in thisand other countries. The visitor is sure to be impressed by the beautyand grace of the cocoanut-trees, their plume of leaves, often sixty feetfrom the ground, notwithstanding that the bare stem or trunk is rarelyover two feet in thickness. 

There are said to be six hundred of the Bahama Islands, large andsmall, of which Nassau is the capital, and here the Englishgovernor-general resides. Many are mere rocky islets, and not more thantwenty have fixed inhabitants. The sea-gardens, as they are called, situated just off the shore of the main island, are extremelyinteresting. We go out a short distance in a row-boat, and by means of asimple contrivance of wood and glass we can look many fathoms below thesurface of the sea. These water-glasses are easily made, being formed ofa small wooden box three or four inches square, open at the top andhaving a water-tight glass bottom. With the glass portion slightlysubmerged one is able to see distinctly the beautiful coral reefs withtheir marvellous surroundings. There are displayed tiny caves andgrottoes of white coral, star-fishes, sea-urchins, growing sponges, sea-fans, and bright-colored fishes, including the hummingbird fish, andothers like butterflies with mottled fins and scales, together with thatlittle oddity, the rainbow-fish. The prevailing color of this attractivecreature is dark green, but the tinted margins of its scales so reflectthe light as to show all the colors of the rainbow, and hence its name. When bottled in alcohol for preservation, these fish lose their nativecolors. This unique display is enhanced in beauty by the clearness ofthese waters, and the reflected lights from the snow-white sandy bottom, which is dotted here and there by delicate shells of various shapes andcolors. One longs to descend among these coral bowers, --these mermaidgardens, --and pluck a bouquet of the submarine flora in its purple, yellow, and scarlet freshness. 

The surface life of these clear waters is also extremely interesting. Here the floating jelly-fish, called from its phosphorescence theglow-worm of the sea, is observed in great variety, sheltering littlecolonies of young fishes, which rush forth for a moment to capture somepassing mite, and as quickly return again to their cover. If we take upa handful of the floating gulf-weed, we find within the pale yellowleaves and berries, tiny pipe-fish, seahorses, and specimens of thelittle nest-building fishes. Thus this curious weed forms a home forparasites, crabs, and shell-fishes, being itself a sort of mistletoe ofthe ocean. The young of the mackerel and the herring glide rapidly aboutin shoals, just below the surface, near the shore, like myriad pieces ofsilver. Verily there would seem to be more of animal life below thanabove the surface of the waters, which is not an unreasonable conclusionwhen it is remembered that the whole surface of the globe is supposed tohave an area of about two hundred million square miles, and that ofthese only about fifty millions are composed of dry land. 

Much of the drinking-water, and certainly the best in use at Nassau, aswell as on some of the neighboring islands, is procured in a remarkablemanner from the sea. Not far from shore, on the coral reefs, there arenever-failing fresh-water springs, bubbling up from the bottom throughthe salt water with such force as to clearly indicate their locality. Over these ocean springs the people place sunken barrels filled withsand, one above another, the bottoms and tops being first removed. Thefresh water is thus conducted to the surface through the column of sand, which acts as a filter, the water being sweet and palatable, as well asremarkable for its crystal clearness. So on the arid shores of thePersian Gulf, where rain seldom falls, and where there are no rills torefresh the parched soil, fresh water is obtained from springs beneaththe sea. There it is brought to the surface by employing divers, whodescend with leather bags. The mouth of a bag is placed over thebubbling spring, quickly filled and closed again, being then drawn tothe surface by persons awaiting the signal from the diver, who thenhastens to rise for needed air. There is no mystery as to the source ofthese springs. The rain falls on the distant mountains, and finding itsway through the rocky ledges, pursues its course until it gushes forthin the bed of the gulf. 

A fortnightly steamer from New York, bound for Cuba, touches at Nassauon the southward trip to leave the mail, and we will avail ourselves ofthis opportunity to visit the "Queen of the Antilles, " as this island iscalled. At first we steam to the north for half a day, in order to finda safe channel out of the Bahamas, where there is more of shoal than ofnavigable waters, and as we do so, we leave many islands behind usinhabited only by turtles, flamingoes, and sea-birds. But we are soonsteaming due south again towards our destination, namely, the island ofCuba, five hundred miles away. San Salvador is sighted on our starboardbow (right-hand side), the spot where Columbus first landed in the NewWorld. It will be found laid down on most English maps as Cat Island, and is now the home of two or three thousand colored people, thedescendants of imported Africans. The island is nearly as large as NewProvidence. It is said that the oranges grown here are the sweetest andbest that are known. The voyager in these latitudes is constantlysaluted by gentle breezes full of tropical fragrance, intensified ineffect by the distant view of cocoanut, palmetto, and banana trees, clothing the islands in a mantle of green, down to the very water'sedge. As we glide along, gazing shoreward, now and again little groupsof swallows seem to be flitting a few feet above the waves, thensuddenly disappearing beneath the water. These are flying-fish enjoyingan air-bath, either in frolic or in fear; pursued possibly by somedreaded enemy in the sea, which they are trying to escape. 

It is interesting to remain on deck at night and watch the heavens as weglide through the phosphorescent sea. Is it possible that the moon, whose light renders objects so plain that one can see to read smallprint, shines solely by borrowed light? We know it to be so, and alsothat Venus, Mars, and perhaps Jupiter and Saturn shine in a similarmanner with light reflected from the sun. It is interesting to adjustthe telescope, and bring the starry system nearer to the vision. If wedirect our gaze upon a planet, we find its disk or face sharply defined;change the direction, and let the object-glass rest upon a star, and wehave only a point of light more or less brilliant. The glass reveals tous the fact that the "star-dust" which we call the Milky Way is anaccumulation of innumerable single stars. Sweeping the blue expanse withthe telescope, we find some stars are golden, some green, others purple, many silvery white, and some are twins. Our use of the words "first andsecond magnitude" relates mainly to distance. It is most likely only aquestion of distance which regulates our vision or capacity for seeing, and which makes these "lamps of the sky" look larger or smaller to us. 

When the lonely lighthouse which marks Cape Maysi, at the eastern pointof Cuba, comes into view on the starboard bow, the dim form of themountains of Hayti are visible on the opposite horizon. A subterraneanconnection is believed to exist between the mountain ranges of the twoislands. We are now running through the Windward Passage, as it iscalled; by which one branch of the Gulf Stream finds its way northward. The Gulf Stream! Who can explain satisfactorily its ceaseless current?What keeps its tepid waters, in a course of thousands of miles, frommingling with the rest of the sea? And finally whence does it come?Maury, the great nautical authority, says the Gulf of Mexico is itsfountain, and its mouth is the Arctic Sea. The maps make the easternshore of Cuba terminate as sharp as a needle's point, but it proves tobe very blunt in reality, where it forms one side of the gateway to theCaribbean Sea, and where the irregular coast line runs due north andsouth for the distance of many leagues. 

The nights are mostly clear, soft, and lovely in this region. As wedouble Cape Maysi, and the ship is headed westward, the Southern Crossand the North Star blaze in the opposite horizons at the same time, theconstellation on our port side (left-hand), and the North Star on thestarboard side. Each day at noon the captain and his officers determinethe exact position of the ship by "taking the sun, " as it is termed. When the sun reaches the meridian, that is, the point directly overhead, the exact moment is indicated by the nautical instrument known as aquadrant, adjusted to the eye of the observer. The figures marked on thequadrant give the latitude of the ship at the moment of meridian. Theship's time is then made to correspond, --that is to say, it mustindicate twelve o'clock noon, --after which it is compared with an exacttimepiece called a chronometer, which keeps Greenwich (English) time, and the difference enables the observer to determine the longitude. Asfifteen miles are allowed to the minute, there will be nine hundredmiles to the hour. Thus, by means of the chronometer and the quadrant, the sailing-master is enabled to designate his exact situation upon theocean chart. 

Soon after passing the remarkably sheltered port of Guantanamo, whichwas for nearly a century the most notorious piratical rendezvous in theWest Indies, the famous castle of Santiago is seen. It is called MoroCastle, but it is older than the better-known Moro of Havana, by nearlya hundred years. This antique, yellow, Moorish-looking stronghold, whichmodern gunnery would destroy in ten minutes or less, is picturesque tothe last degree, with its crumbling, honey-combed battlements, and queerlittle flanking towers. It is built upon the face of a lofty, dun-colored rock, upon whose precipitous side the fortification isterraced. Its position is just at the entrance of the narrow riverleading to the city, six or eight miles away, so that in passing up thechannel one can speak from the ship's deck to any one who might bestanding on the outer battlement of the Moro. 

The winding channel which leads from the sea to the harbor passesthrough low hills and broad meadows covered with rank verdure, cocoanutgroves, and fishing hamlets. Thrifty palms and intensely green bananasline the way, with here and there upon the pleasant banks a charmingcountry-house in the midst of a garden fragrant with flowers. So closeis the shore all the while that one seems to be navigating upon theland, gliding among trees and over greensward rather than upon bluewater. Steaming slowly up the Santiago River, we presently pass a sharpangle of the hills, leading into a broad sheltered bay, upon whose banksstands the rambling old city of Santiago de Cuba, built on a hillsidelike Tangier, in Africa, and it is almost as Oriental as the capital ofMorocco. The first and most conspicuous objects to meet the eye are thetwin towers of the ancient cathedral, which have withstood so manyearthquakes. 

This city, once the capital of the island of Cuba, was founded byVelasquez, and is now gray with age and decay. The many-colored, one-story houses are ranged in narrow streets, which cross each other atright angles with considerable regularity, though the roadways are in analmost impassable condition. They were once paved with cobblestones, butare now dirty and neglected, a stream of offensive water flowing throughtheir centres, in which little naked children, blacks and whites, are atplay. No wonder that such numbers die here annually of yellow fever. Thesurprise is that it does not prevail all the year round. 

Santiago dates back to the year 1514, making it the oldest city in theNew World, next to San Domingo. From here Cortez sailed in 1518 toinvade Mexico. Here has been the seat of modern rebellion against thearbitrary and bitterly oppressive rule of the home government of Spain. The city contains over forty thousand inhabitants, and is situated sixhundred miles southeast of Havana; after Matanzas, it comes next incommercial importance, its exports reaching the annual aggregate ofeight millions of dollars. After climbing and descending these narrow, dirty streets of Santiago, and watching the local characteristics for afew hours, one is glad to go on board ship again, and leave it allbehind. 

To reach Cienfuegos, our next destination, we take water conveyance, thecommon roads in this district being, if possible, a degree worse thanelsewhere on the island. It is necessary to double Cape Cruz and make acoasting voyage along the southern shore of the island, for a distanceof four hundred miles. This is really delightful sailing in any but thehurricane months; that is, between the middle of August and the middleof October. 

Cienfuegos has some twenty-five thousand inhabitants, a large percentageof whom speak English, nine-tenths of its commerce being with thiscountry. It was in this immediate neighborhood, as Columbus tells us, onthe occasion of his second voyage from Spain, that he saw withastonishment the mysterious king who spoke to his people only by signs, and that group of men who wore long white tunics like the monks ofmercy, while the rest of the people were entirely naked. The town is lowand level, occupying a broad plain. The streets are wide and clean, while the harbor is an excellent and spacious one. It is pitiful tobehold such an array of beggars, and it is strange, too, in so small acity. Here the maimed, the halt, and the blind meet us at every turn. Saturday is the harvest day for beggars in Cuban cities, on whichoccasion they go about by scores from door to door, carrying a largecanvas bag. Each well-to-do family and shop is supplied on this day witha quantity of small rolls of bread, one of which is almost invariablygiven to any beggar who calls, and thus the mendicant's bag presentlybecomes full of rolls. These, mixed with a few vegetables, bits of fish, and sometimes meat and bones, are boiled into a soup which at leastkeeps soul and body together in the poor creatures until anotherSaturday comes round. 

Cienfuegos is in the centre of a great sugar-producing district. Sugar-cane is cultivated much like Indian corn, which it also resemblesin appearance. It is first planted in rows and weeded until it gets highenough to shade its roots, after which it is left pretty much to itselfuntil it reaches maturity. This refers to the first laying out of aplantation, which will afterwards continue to throw up fresh stalks fromthe roots, with a little help from the hoe, for several years. When ripethe cane is of a light golden yellow, streaked here and there with red. The top is dark green, with long narrow leaves depending, --very muchlike those of corn, --from the centre of which shoots upward a silverystem fifteen or eighteen inches in height, and from the tip grows awhite-fringed plume. The effect of a large field at maturity lying undera torrid sun, and gently yielding to the breeze, is very fine. 

Though the modern machinery for crushing, grinding, and extracting thesugar from the cane as lately adopted on the Cuban plantations isexpensive, still the result obtained is so much superior to that of theold methods, that small planters are being driven from the market. Thelow price of sugar and the great competition in its production renderseconomy in the manufacture quite necessary, especially now that slavelabor is abolished. 

The delightful climate is exemplified by the abundance and variety offruits and flowers. Let us visit a private garden in the environs of thecity. Here the mango with its peach-like foliage is found, bending tothe ground with the weight of its ripening fruit; the alligator-pear iswonderfully beautiful in its blossom, suggesting in form and color thepassion-flower; the soft, delicate foliage of the tamarind is like oursensitive plant; the banana-trees are in full bearing, the deep greenfruit (it is ripened and turns yellow off the tree), being in clustersof nearly a hundred, tipped at the same time by a single, pendent, glutinous bud nearly as large as a pineapple. Here we see also thestar-apple-tree, remarkable for its uniform and graceful shape, full ofgreen fruit, with here and there a ripening specimen. The zapota, in itsrusty coat, hangs in tempting abundance. From low, broad-spreading treeshangs the grape fruit, as large as a baby's head and yellow as gold;while the orange and lemon trees, bearing blossoms, and green andripening fruit all together, serve to charm the eye and to fill thegarden with rich fragrance. 

Let us examine one of these products in detail, selecting the banana asbeing the most familiar to us at the north. It seems that the femalebanana-tree (for we must remember that there are sexes in the vegetableas well as in the animal kingdom), bears more fruit than the male, butnot so large. The average clusters of the former comprise about onehundred, but the latter rarely bears over sixty or seventy distinctspecimens of this finger-shaped fruit. The stem grows to about ten feetin height; from the centre of its broad leaves, which gather palm-likeat the top, there springs forth a large purple bud ten inches long, shaped like a huge acorn, though more pointed. This cone-like bud hangssuspended from a strong stem, upon which a leaf unfolds, displaying acluster of young fruit. As soon as these are large enough to support theheat of the sun and the chill of the night dews, the sheltering leafdrops off, and another unfolds, exposing its little brood of fruit; andso the process goes on until six or eight rings of young bananas arestarted, which gradually develop to full size. The banana is a plantwhich dies down to the ground after fruiting, but it annually sproutsagain from the same roots. 

We will continue our journey towards Havana by way of Matanzas, crossingthe island so as to penetrate at once into a section of luxurianttropical nature, where we see the cactus in great variety, floweringtrees, and ever-graceful palms, with occasional trees of the ceba familygrown to vast size. Vegetation here, unlike human beings, seems never togrow old, never to falter in productiveness; crop succeeds crop, harvestfollows harvest; it is an endless cycle of abundance. Miles upon milesof the bright, golden sugar-cane lie in all directions; among theplantations here and there is seen the little cluster of low buildingsconstituting the laborers' quarters, and near by is the tall, whitechimney of the sugar-mill, emitting its thick volume of smoke, like thefunnel of a steamship. A little on one side stands the planter's house, low and white, surrounded by shade-trees and flower-plats. Scores ofdusky Africans give life to the scene, and the overseer, on his littleCuban pony, dashes hither and thither to keep all hands advantageouslyat work. One large gang is busy cutting the ripe cane with sword-likeknives; some are loading the stalks upon ox-carts; some are drivingloads to the mill; and some are feeding the cane between the great steelcrushers, beneath which pours forth a continuous jelly-like stream whichis conducted by iron pipes to the boilers. Men, women, and children arespreading the refuse to dry in the sun, after which it will be used asfuel beneath the boilers. Coopers are heading up hogsheads full of themanufactured article, and other laborers are rolling up empty ones tobe filled. Formerly the overseers were never seen without thelong-lashed whip, but slavery no longer exists as an institution. Thenegroes are free, though they work for very small wages. 

Occasionally in the trip across the island we pass through a crude butpicturesque hamlet, having the mouldering stamp of antiquity, with lowstraggling houses built of rude frames, covered at side and roof withpalm-bark and leaves. Chimneys, there are none, --none even in thecities, --charcoal being alone used, and all cooking is done in the openair. About the doors of the long, irregular posada, or inn, a dozensaddle-horses are seen tied to a bar erected for the purpose, whiletheir owners are smoking and drinking inside; but there are no wheeledvehicles to be seen. The roads are only passable for men on foot orhorseback. The people, the cabins, and the horses all are stained withthe red dust of the soil, recalling our Western Indians in their warpaint. This pigment, or colored dirt, penetrates and adheres toeverything, fills the railroad cars, and decorates the passengers with adingy brick color. It is difficult to realize that these comparativelyindifferent places through which we glide so swiftly are of anyimportance, and the permanent home of any one. When the cars stop at thesmall way-stations, they are instantly boarded by lottery-ticketsellers, boys with tempting fruit, green cocoanuts, ripe oranges, andbananas, all surprisingly cheap. Here, too, is the guava-seller, withneatly sealed tin cans of this favorite preserve. Indeed, it seems torain guava jelly in Cuba. At a shanty beside the road where we stop atnoon, a large mulatto woman retails coffee and island rum, while a scoreof native whites lounge about with slouched hats, hands in pockets, andpuffing cigarettes, --pictures of idleness and indifference. 

Stray dogs hang about the car-wheels and track to pick up the crumbswhich passengers throw away from their lunch-baskets. Just over the wildpineapple hedge close at hand, half a dozen naked negro children hoverround the door of a low cabin; the mother, fat and shining in her onegarment, gazes with arms akimbo at the scene of which she forms atypical part. The engineer imbibes a penny drink of thin Cataline wineand hastens back to his post. The station bell rings, the steam whistleis sounded, and we are quickly on our way again, to repeat the picturesix or eight leagues farther on. 

As we approach Matanzas, the scene undergoes a radical change. Comfortable habitations are multiplied, good roads appear windinggracefully about the country, and groves and gardens come into view withsmall dairy farms. Superb specimens of the royal palm begin to multiplythemselves, always suggestive of the Corinthian column. Scattered aboutthe scene a few handsome cattle are observed cropping the rank verdure. There is no greensward in the tropics, grass is not cultivated, and hayis never made. Such fodder as is fed to domestic animals is cut greenand brought into the city from day to day. 

Notwithstanding the ceaseless novelty of the scene, one becomes a littlefatigued by the long, hot ride; but as we draw nearer to Matanzas, therefreshing air from the Gulf suddenly comes to our relief, full of abracing tonic which renders all things tolerable. The sight of the broadharbor, under such circumstances, lying with its flickering, shimmeringsurface under the afternoon sun, is very beautiful to behold. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

The island of Cuba was discovered by Columbus, in October of the year1492; the continent of America was not discovered until six yearslater, --that is, in 1498. Columbus and his followers found the landinhabited by a peculiar race; hospitable, inoffensive, timid, fond ofthe dance, yet naturally indolent. They had some definite idea of Godand heaven, and were governed by patriarchs whose age gave themprecedence. They spoke the dialect of the Lucagos or Bahamas, from whichislands it was thought they originated, but it would seem morereasonable to suppose that both the people of the Bahamas and of theWest Indian islands originally came from the mainland; that is, eitherfrom north or south of the Isthmus of Panama. 

The natives were at once subjected by the new-comers, who reduced themto a condition of slavery, and proving to be hard taskmasters, the pooroverworked creatures died by hundreds, until they had nearlydisappeared. They were of tawny complexion, and beardless, resembling inmany respects our native Indians. As Columbus described them in hisfirst letter sent to his royal patrons in Spain, they were "loving, tractable, and peaceable; though entirely naked, their manners weredecorous and praiseworthy. " The wonderful fertility of the soil, itsrange of noble mountains, its widespread and well-watered plains, withits extended coast-line and excellent harbors, all challenged theadmiration of the discoverers, so that Columbus recorded in his journalthese words: "It is the most beautiful island that the eyes of man everbeheld, full of excellent ports and deep rivers. "

The Spaniards were surprised to see the natives using rude pipes, inwhich they smoked a certain dried leaf with apparent gratification. Tobacco was native to the soil, and in the use of this now well-nighuniversal narcotic, these simple savages indulged in an original luxury, or habit, which the Spanish invaders were not slow in acquiring. 

The flowers were strongly individualized. The frangipanni, tall, andalmost leafless, with thick, flesh-like shoots, and decked with a small, white blossom, was fragrant and abundant. Here, also, was the wildpassion-flower, in which the Spaniards thought they beheld the emblem ofour Saviour's passion. The golden-hued peta was found beside themyriad-flowering oleander and the night-blooming cereus, while theluxuriant undergrowth was braided with the cactus and the aloe. Theywere also delighted by tropical fruits in confusing variety, of whichthey knew not even the names. 

This was four hundred years ago, and to-day the same flowers and thesame luscious fruits grow upon the soil in similar abundance. Nature inthis land of endless summer puts forth strange eagerness, ever runningto fruits, flowers, and fragrance, as if they were outlets for herexuberant fancy. 

Diego Velasquez, the first governor of the island under Spanish rule, appears to have been an energetic magistrate, and to have ruled affairswith intelligence. He did not live, however, in a period when justiceerred on the side of mercy, and his harsh and cruel treatment of thenatives will always remain a blot upon his memory. Emigration wasfostered by the home government, and cities were established in theseveral divisions of the island; but the new province was mainlyconsidered in the light of a military station by the Spanish governmentin its operations against Mexico. Thus Cuba became the headquarters ofthe Spanish power in the west, forming the point of departure for thosemilitary expeditions which, though small in number, were yet soformidable in the energy of the leaders, and in the arms, discipline, courage, fanaticism, and avarice of their followers, that they werefully adequate to carry out the vast scheme of conquest for which theywere designed. 

The Spaniards who invaded Mexico encountered a people who had attained afar higher degree of civilization than their red brethren of theoutlying Caribbean Islands, or those of the northeastern portion of thecontinent, now forming the United States. Vast pyramids, imposingsculptures, curious arms, fanciful garments, various kinds ofmanufactures, filled the invaders with surprise. There was much whichwas curious and strange in their religion, while the capital of theMexican empire presented a fascinating spectacle to the eyes of Cortezand his followers. The rocky amphitheatre in the midst of which it wasbuilt still remains, but the great lake which was its grandest feature, traversed by causeways and covered with floating gardens, is gone. TheAztec dynasty was doomed. In vain did the inhabitants of the conqueredcity, roused to madness by the cruelty and extortion of the victors, expel them from their midst. Cortez refused to flee further than theshore; the light of his burning vessels rekindled the desperate valor ofhis followers, and Mexico fell, as a few years after did Peru beneaththe sword of Pizarro, thus completing the scheme of conquest, andgiving Spain a colonial empire more splendid than that of any power inChristendom. 

In the meantime, under numerous and often-changed captains-general, theisland of Cuba increased in population by free emigration from Spain, and by the constant cruel importation of slaves from Africa. It may besaid to have been governed by a military despotism from the outset tothe present time, and nothing short of such an arbitrary rule could havemaintained the connection between the island and so exacting a mothercountry, situated more than three thousand miles across the ocean. 

The form of the island is quite irregular, resembling the blade of aTurkish cimeter slightly curved back, or that of a long, narrowcrescent. It stretches away in this shape from east to west, throwingits western end into a curve, and thus forming a partial barrier to theoutlet of the Gulf of Mexico, as if at some ancient period it had been apart of the American continent, severed on its north side from theFlorida Peninsula by the wearing of the Gulf Stream, and from Yucatan onits southwestern point by a current setting into the Gulf. Two channelsare thus formed by which the Mexican Gulf is entered. 

One neither departs from nor approaches the Cuban shore without crossingthat remarkable ocean-river to which we have so often referred in thesepages, --the Gulf Stream, --with banks and bottom of cold water, while itsbody and surface are warm. Its color in the region of the Gulf isindigo-blue, so distinct that the eye can follow its line of demarkationwhere it joins the common water of the sea. Its surface temperature onthe coast of the United States is from 75° to 80°. Its current, of aspeed of four to five miles per hour, expends immense power in itscourse, and forms a body of water in the latitude of the Carolina coastfully two hundred miles wide. Its temperature diminishes very gradually, while it moves thousands of leagues, until one branch loses itself inArctic regions, and the other breaks on the coast of Europe. 

The sea-bottom, especially near the continents, resembles theneighboring land, and consists of hills, mountains, and valleys, likethe earth upon which we live. A practical illustration of this fact isfound in the soundings taken by the officers of our Coast Survey in theCaribbean Sea, where a valley was found giving a water-depth of threethousand fathoms, twenty-five miles south of Cuba. The Cayman Islands, in that neighborhood, are the summits of mountains bordering this deepvalley at the bottom of the sea, which has been found, by a series ofsoundings, to extend over seven hundred miles from between Cuba andJamaica nearly to the Bay of Honduras, with an average breadth of eightymiles. Thus the island of Grand Cayman, scarcely twenty feet abovesea-level, is said to be a mountain-top twenty thousand five hundred andsixty feet above the bottom of the submarine valley beside which itrises, --an altitude exceeding that of any mountain on the North Americancontinent. A little more than five miles, or say twenty-seven thousandfeet, is the greatest depth yet sounded at sea. 

Cuba is the most westerly of the West Indian Islands, and compared withthe others has nearly twice as much superficial extent of territory, being about as large as England proper, without the principality ofWales. Its greatest length from east to west is very nearly eighthundred miles, its narrowest part is over twenty miles, and its averagewidth fifty. The circumference is two thousand miles, and it containsover forty thousand square miles. 

The nearest port of the island to this continent is Matanzas, lyingdue-south from Cape Sable, Florida, a distance of a hundred and thirtymiles. Havana is situated some sixty miles west of Matanzas, and it ishere that the island divides the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico, whosecoast-line measures six thousand miles, finding the outlet for itscommerce along the shore of Cuba, almost within range of the guns inMoro Castle. Lying thus at our very door, as it were, this island standslike a sentinel guarding the approaches to the Gulf of Mexico, whosewaters wash the shores of five of the United States, and by virtue ofthe same position barring the entrance of the great river, theMississippi, which drains half the continent of North America. So, also, Cuba keeps watch and ward over our communication with California by wayof the Isthmus of Panama. It is not surprising, therefore, when werealize the commanding position of the island, that so much interestattaches to its ultimate destiny. 

Matanzas is situated in one of the most fertile portions of the island, the city covering the picturesque hills by which the bay is surrounded. The fortifications are of a meagre character and could not withstand awell-directed attack for half an hour. The custom house is the mostprominent building which strikes the eye on approaching the city bywater. Though built of stone, it is only one story in height, and waserected at the commencement of the present century. The city isconnected with Havana by railway, of which there are nearly a thousandmiles in operation in the island. 

Club life prevails at Matanzas, as usual at the expense of domestic orfamily ties; the same may be said of Havana, and both cities in thisrespect are like London. It is forbidden to discuss politics in theseCuban clubs, the hours being occupied mostly in playing cards, dominoes, chess, and checkers, for money. Gambling is as natural and national inCuba as in China. Many Chinese are seen about the streets and stores ofMatanzas, variously employed, and usually in a most forlorn andimpoverished condition, --poor creatures who have survived their"apprenticeship" and are now free. They were brought here under thedisguise of the Coolie system, as it is called, but which was onlyslavery in another form. These Chinese are peaceful, do not drinkspirituous liquors, work hard, never meddle with politics, and live onone-half they can earn, so as to save enough to pay their passage hometo their beloved land. Few succeed; eight-tenths of those imported intothe island have been not only cheated out of the promised wages, butworked to death!

The famous afternoon drive and promenade of Matanzas was formerly theSan Carlos Paseo. It has fine possibilities, and is lined andbeautifully ornamented with thrifty Indian laurels. It overlooks thespacious harbor and outer bay, but is now entirely neglected andabandoned; even the roadway is green with vegetation, and gullied withdeep hollows. It is the coolest place in the city at the evening hour, but the people have become so poor that there are hardly a dozen privatevehicles in the city. Matanzas, like all the cities of Cuba, is underthe shadow of depressed business, evidence of which meets one on everyhand. 

Havana is a thoroughly representative city, and is the centre of thetalent, wealth, and population of the island. Moro Castle, with itsDahlgren guns peeping out through the yellow stones, and its talllighthouse, stands guard over the narrow entrance of the harbor. Thebattery of La Punta, on the opposite shore, answers to the Moro. Thereare also the long range of cannon and barracks on the city side, and themassive fortress of the Cabanas crowning the hill behind the Moro. Allthese are decorated with the yellow flag of Spain, --the banner of goldand blood. These numerous and powerful fortifications show how importantthe home government regards this island, and yet modern gunnery rendersthese defences comparatively useless. 

The city presents a large extent of public buildings, cathedrals, antique and venerable churches. It has been declared in its prosperityto be the richest city, for its number of square miles, in Christendom, but this cannot be truthfully said of it now. There is nothing grand inits appearance as we enter the harbor, though Baron Humboldt pronouncedit the gayest and most picturesque sight in America. Its architecture isnot remarkable, its enormous prison overshadowing all other publicbuildings. This structure is designed to contain five thousand prisonersat one time. The hills which make up the distant background are notsufficiently high to add much to the general effect. The few palm-treeswhich catch the eye here and there give an Oriental aspect to the scene, quite in harmony with the atmospheric tone of intense sunshine. 

Havana contains numerous institutions of learning, but not of a highcharacter. It has a medical and a law school, but education is at a lowebb. There is a Royal Seminary for girls, but it is scarcely more thana name. The means of obtaining a good education can hardly be said toexist, and most of the youth of both sexes belonging to the wealthierclass are sent to this country for school purposes. The city wasoriginally surrounded by a wall, though the population has long sinceextended its dwellings and business structures far into what was oncethe suburbs. A portion of the old wall is still extant, crumbling anddecayed, but it has mostly disappeared. The narrow streets of the oldtown are paved or macadamized, and cross each other at right angles; butin their dimensions they recall those of Toledo in Spain, whose Moorisharchitecture is also followed here. 

The Paseo is the favorite afternoon drive of the citizens, where theladies in open carriages and the gentlemen on horseback pass and repasseach other, gayly saluting, the ladies with a coquettish flourish of thefan, and the gentlemen with a peculiar wave of the hand. The Alameda, apromenade and garden combined, --every Spanish city has a spot sodesignated, --skirts the shore of the harbor on the city side, near thesouth end of Oficios Street, and is a favorite resort for promenaders, where a refreshing coolness is breathed from off the sea. This Alamedamight be a continuation of the Neapolitan Chiaja (the afternoon resortof Naples). With characteristics quite different, still these shoresremind us of the Mediterranean, Sorrento, Amalfi, and Capri, recallingthe shadows which daily creep up the heights of San Elmo, and disappearwith the setting sun behind the orange-groves. 

The cathedral of Havana, on Empedrado Street, is a structure of muchinterest, its rude pillared front of defaced and moss-grown stoneplainly telling of the wear of time. The two lofty towers are hung withmany bells which daily call to morning and evening prayers, as they havedone for a hundred years and more. The church is not elaboratelyornamented, but strikes one as being unusually plain. It contains a fewoil paintings of moderate merit; but most important of all is the tombwhere the ashes of Columbus so long reposed. All that is visible of thistomb, which is on the right of the altar, is a marble tablet six feetsquare, upon which, in high relief, is a bust of the great discoverer. 

As we view the scene, Military Mass begins. The congregation is verysmall, consisting almost exclusively of women, who seem to do penancefor both sexes in Cuba. The military band, which leads the column ofinfantry, marches, playing an operatic air, while turning one side forthe soldiery to pass on towards the altar. The time-keeping steps of themen upon the marble floor mingle with drum, fife, and organ. Over all, one catches now and then the subdued voice of the priest, reciting hisprescribed part at the altar, where he kneels and reads alternately. Theboys in white gowns busily swing incense vessels; the tall, flaringcandles cast long shadows athwart the high altar; the files of soldierskneel and rise at the tap of the drum; seen through an atmosphereclouded by the fumes of burning incense, all this combines to make up apicture which is sure to forcibly impress itself upon the memory. 

It seems unreasonable that, when the generous, fruitful soil of Cuba iscapable of producing two or three crops of vegetation annually, theagricultural interests of the island should be so poorly developed. Thousands of acres of virgin soil have never been broken. Cuba iscapable of supporting a population of almost any density; certainlyfive or six millions of people might find goodly homes here, and yet thelargest estimate of the present number of inhabitants gives only amillion and a half. When we tread the fertile soil and behold theclustering fruits in such abundance, --the citron, the star-apple, theperfumed pineapple, the luscious banana, and others, --not forgetting thevarious noble woods which caused Columbus to exclaim with pleasure, weare forcibly struck with the thought of how much nature, and how littleman, has done for this "Eden of the Gulf. " We long to see it peopled bythose who can appreciate the gifts of Providence, --men willing to dotheir part in grateful recognition of the possibilities so liberallybestowed by Heaven. 

As we go on shipboard to sail for our American home, some reflectionsnaturally occur to us. To visit Cuba is not merely to pass over a fewdegrees of latitude; it is to take a step from the nineteenth centuryback into the dark ages. In a climate of tropical luxuriance and endlesssummer, we are in a land of starless political darkness. Lying under thelee of a Republic, where every man is a sovereign, is a realm where thelives, liberties, and fortunes of all are held at the will of a singleindividual, who acknowledges no responsibility save to a nominal rulermore than three thousand miles away. 

Healthful in climate, varied in productions, and most fortunatelysituated for commerce, there must yet be a grand future in store forCuba. Washed by the Gulf Stream on half her border, she has theMississippi pouring out its riches on one side, and the Amazon on theother. In such close proximity to the United States, and with so obviousa common interest, her place seems naturally to be within our ownconstellation of stars. 

But as regards the final destiny of Cuba, that question will be settledby certain economic laws which are as sure in their operation as arethose of gravitation. No matter what our individual wishes may be inthis matter, such feelings are as nothing when arraigned against naturallaws. The commerce of the island is a stronger factor in the problemthan is mere politics; it is the active agent of civilization all overthe world. It is not cannon, but ships; not gunpowder, but peacefulfreights which settle the great questions of mercantile communities. Asthe United States take over ninety per cent of her entire exports, towards this country Cuba naturally looks for fellowship and protection. The world's centre of commercial gravity is changing very fast by reasonof the rapid development of the United States, and all lands surroundingthe Union must conform, sooner or later, to the prevailing lines ofmotion. 

[Illustration: Shell. ]