CULINARY HERBS

 Their Cultivation, Harvesting, Curing and Uses

 By

 M. G. KAINS

 _Associate Editor American Agriculturist_

 Ah, Zephyrus! art here, and Flora too! Ye tender bibbers of the rain and dew, Young playmates of the rose and daffodil, Be careful, ere ye enter in, to fill Your baskets high With fennel green, and balm, and golden pines, Savory, latter-mint, and columbines, Cool parsley, basil sweet, and sunny thyme; Yea, every flower and leaf of every clime, All gather'd in the dewy morn: hie Away! fly, fly!

 --_Keats, "Endymion"_

[Illustration: Herbs and Children, a Happy Harmony]

 NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

 LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO. , Limited 1912

 Copyright, 1912 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY _All Rights Reserved_

 ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON, ENGLAND

 Printed in U. S. A. 

 * * * * *

PREFACE

A small boy who wanted to make a good impression once took his littlesweetheart to an ice cream parlor. After he had vainly searched the listof edibles for something within his means, he whispered to the waiter, "Say, Mister, what you got that looks tony an' tastes nice for nineteencents?"

This is precisely the predicament in which many thousand people aretoday. Like the boy, they have skinny purses, voracious appetites andmighty yearnings to make the best possible impression within theirmeans. Perhaps having been "invited out, " they learn by actualdemonstration that the herbs are culinary magicians which convert cheapcuts and "scraps" into toothsome dainties. They are thus aroused to thefact that by using herbs they can afford to play host and hostess to alarger number of hungry and envious friends than ever before. 

Maybe it is mainly due to these yearnings and to the memories ofmother's and grandmother's famous dishes that so many inquiriesconcerning the propagation, cultivation, curing and uses of culinaryherbs are asked of authorities on gardening and cookery; and maybe it isbecause no one has really loved the herbs enough to publish a book onthe subject. That herbs are easy to grow I can abundantly attest, for Ihave grown them all. I can also bear ample witness to the fact that theyreduce the cost of high living, if by that phrase is meant pleasing thepalate without offending the purse. 

For instance, a few days ago a friend paid twenty cents for soup beef, and five cents for "soup greens. " The addition of salt, pepper and otheringredients brought the initial cost up to twenty-nine cents. This madeenough soup for ten or twelve liberal servings. The lean meat removedfrom the soup was minced and mixed with not more than ten cents' worthof diced potatoes, stale bread crumbs, milk, seasoning and herbs beforebeing baked as a supper dish for five people, who by their bland smilesand "scotch plates" attested that the viands both looked "tony" andtasted nice. 

I am glad to acknowledge my thanks to Mr. N. R. Graves of Rochester, N. Y. , and Prof. R. L. Watts of the Pennsylvania State AgriculturalCollege, for the photographic illustrations, and to Mr. B. F. Williamson, the Orange Judd Co. 's artist, for the pen and ink drawingswhich add so much to the value, attractiveness and interest of thesepages. 

If this book shall instill or awaken in its readers the wholesome though"cupboard" love that the culinary herbs deserve both as permanentresidents of the garden and as masters of the kitchen, it will haveaccomplished the object for which it was written. 

 M. G. KAINS. New York, 1912. 

CONTENTS Page

 Preface v

 A Dinner of Herbs 7

 Culinary Herbs Defined 11

 History 12

 Production of New Varieties 15

 Status and Uses 19

 Notable Instance of Uses 21

 Methods of Curing 22

 Drying and Storing 25

 Herbs as Garnishes 30

 Propagation, Seeds 32 Cuttings 34 Layers 36 Division 37

 Transplanting 39

 Implements 41

 Location of Herb Garden 44

 The Soil and Its Preparation 45

 Cultivation 47

 Double Cropping 48

 Herb Relationships 49

 The Herb List: Angelica 55 Anise 59 Balm 63 Basil 65 Borage 71 Caraway 73 Catnip 77 Chervil 79 Chives 80 Clary 81 Coriander 82 Cumin 84 Dill 87 Fennel 89 Finocchio 93 Fennel Flower 94 Hoarhound 95 Hyssop 96 Lavender 97 Lovage 99 Marigold 100 Marjoram 101 Mint 105 Parsley 109 Pennyroyal 119 Peppermint 119 Rosemary 120 Rue 122 Sage 125 Samphire 129 Savory, Summer 131 Savory, Winter 132 Southernwood 133 Tansy 134 Tarragon 134 Thyme 137

ILLUSTRATIONS

 Page

 Herbs and Children, a Happy Harmony _Frontispiece_

 Spading Fork 1

 Barrel Culture of Herbs 2

 Transplanting Board and Dibble 5

 Assortment of Favorite Weeders 8

 Popular Adjustable Row Marker 10

 Popular Spades 13

 Lath Screen for Shading Beds 16

 Harvesting Thyme Grown on a Commercial Scale 18

 Garden Hoes of Various Styles 20

 Dried Herbs in Paper and Tin 22

 Herb Solution Bottle 24

 Paper Sacks of Dried Herbs for Home Use 26

 Hand Cultivator and Scarifier 27

 Flat of Seedlings Ready to Be Transplanted 32

 Glass Covered Propagating Box 34

 Flower Pot Propagating Bed 35

 Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage 38

 Marker for Hotbeds and Cold Frames 39

 Leading Forms of Trowels 40

 Wooden Dibbles 43

 Combination Hand Plow 45

 Surface Paring Cultivator 47

 Thinning Scheme for Harvesting 48

 Center Row Hand Cultivator 50

 Hand Plow 52

 Prophecy of Many Toothsome Dishes 56

 Anise in Flower and in Fruit 60

 Sweet Basil 66

 Borage, Famous for "Cool Tankard" 70

 Caraway for Comfits and Birthday Cakes 74

 Catnip, Pussy's Delight 78

 Coriander, for Old-Fashioned Candies 82

 Dill, of Pickle Fame 86

 Sweet Fennel 90

 Sweet Marjoram 102

 Mint, Best Friend of Roast Lamb 106

 Curled Parsley 110

 Rue, Sour Herb of Grace 124

 Sage, The Leading Herb for Duck and Goose Dressing 126

 Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage Leaves 129

 Dainty Summer Savory 130

 Tarragon, French Chef's Delight 135

 Thyme for Sausage 137

CULINARY HERBS

In these days of jaded appetites, condiments and canned goods, howfondly we turn from the dreary monotony of the "dainty" menu to thememory of the satisfying dishes of our mothers! What made us, likeOliver Twist, ask for more? Were those flavors real, or was itassociation and natural, youthful hunger that enticed us? Can we everforget them; or, what is more practical, can we again realize them? Wemay find the secret and the answer in mother's garden. Let's peep in. 

The garden, as in memory we view it, is not remarkable except for itsneatness and perhaps the mixing of flowers, fruits and vegetables as wenever see them jumbled on the table. Strawberries and onions, carrotsand currants, potatoes and poppies, apples and sweet corn and many otheras strange comrades, all grow together in mother's garden in the utmostharmony. 

[Illustration: Spading Fork]

All these are familiar friends; but what are those plants near thekitchen? They are "mother's sweet herbs. " We have never seen them on thetable. They never played leading roles such as those of the cabbage andthe potato. They are merely members of "the cast" which performed thesmall but important parts in the production of the pleasing _toutensemble_--soup, stew, sauce, or salad--the remembrance of which, likethat of a well-staged and well-acted drama, lingers in the memory longafter the actors are forgotten. 

[Illustration: Barrel Culture of Herbs]

Probably no culinary plants have during the last 50 years been soneglected. Especially during the "ready-to-serve" food campaign of theclosed quarter century did they suffer most. But they are again cominginto their own. Few plants are so easily cultivated and prepared foruse. With the exception of the onion, none may be so effectivelyemployed and none may so completely transform the "left-over" as totempt an otherwise balky appetite to indulge in a second serving withoutbeing urged to perform the homely duty of "eating it to save it. "Indeed, sweet herbs are, or should be the boon of the housewife, sincethey make for both pleasure and economy. The soup may be made of themost wholesome, nutritious and even costly materials; the fish may beboiled or baked to perfection; the joint or the roast and the salad maybe otherwise faultless, but if they lack flavor they will surely failin their mission, and none of the neighbors will plot to steal the cook, as they otherwise might did she merit the reputation that she otherwisemight, by using culinary herbs. 

This doleful condition may be prevented and the cook enjoy an enviableesteem by the judicious use of herbs, singly or in combination. It isgreatly to be regretted that the uses of these humble plants, which seemto fall lower than the dignity of the title "vegetable, " should be solittle understood by intelligent American housewives. 

In the flavoring of prepared dishes we Americans--people, as the Frenchsay, "of one sauce"--might well learn a lesson from the example of theEnglish matron who usually considers her kitchen incomplete without adozen or more sweet herbs, either powdered, or in decoction, orpreserved in both ways. A glance into a French or a German culinarydepartment would probably show more than a score; but a careful searchin an American kitchen would rarely reveal as many as half a dozen, andin the great majority probably only parsley and sage would be brought tolight. Yet these humble plants possess the power of rendering evenunpalatable and insipid dishes piquant and appetizing, and this, too, ata surprisingly low cost. Indeed, most of them may be grown in anout-of-the-way corner of the garden, or if no garden be available, in abox of soil upon a sunny windowsill--a method adopted by many foreignersliving in tenement houses in New York and Jersey City. Certainly theymay be made to add to the pleasure of living and, as Solomon declares, "better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox withcontention. "

It is to be regretted that the moving picture show and the soda waterfountain have such an influence in breaking up old-fashioned familyevenings at home when everyone gathered around the evening lamp to enjoyhomemade dainties. In those good old days the young man was expected tobecome acquainted with the young woman in the home. The girl took pridein serving solid and liquid culinary goodies of her own construction. Her mother, her all-sufficient guide, mapped out the sure, safe, andorthodox highway to a man's heart and saw to it that she learned how toplay her cards with skill and precision. Those were the days when alarger proportion "lived happy ever after" than in modern times, whenrecreation and refreshment are sought more frequently outside thaninside the walls of home. 

But it is not too late to learn the good old ways over again and enjoythe good old culinary dainties. Whoever relishes the summer cups thatcheer but do not inebriate may add considerably to his enjoyment byusing some of the sweet herbs. Spearmint adds to lemonade the pleasingpungency it as readily imparts to a less harmful but more notoriousbeverage. The blue or pink flowers of borage have long been famous forthe same purpose, though they are perhaps oftener added to a mixture ofhoney and water, to grape juice, raspberry vinegar or strawberry acid. All that is needed is an awakened desire to re-establish home comfortsand customs, then a little later experimentation will soon fix the herbhabit. 

[Illustration: Transplanting Board and Dibble]

The list of home confections may be very pleasingly extended by candyingthe aromatic roots of lovage, and thus raising up a rival to the candiedginger said to be imported from the Orient. If anyone likes corianderand caraway--I confess that I don't--he can sugar the seeds to makethose little "comfits, " the candies of our childhood which our motherstried to make us think we liked to crunch either separately or sprinkledon our birthday cakes. Those were before the days when somebody's namewas "stamped on every piece" to aid digestion. Can we ever forget thepicnic when we had certain kinds of sandwiches? Our mothers minced sweetfennel, the tender leaves of sage, marjoram or several other herbs, mixed them with cream cheese, and spread a layer between two thin slicesof bread. Perhaps it was the swimming, or the three-legged racing, orthe swinging, or all put together, that put a razor edge on ourappetites and made us relish those sandwiches more than was perhapspolite; but will we not, all of us who ate them, stand ready to disputewith all comers that it was the flavors that made us forget "ourmanners"?

But sweet herbs may be made to serve another pleasing, an æstheticpurpose. Many of them may be used for ornament. A bouquet of the palepink blossoms of thyme and the delicate flowers of marjoram, thefragrant sprigs of lemon balm mixed with the bright yellow umbels ofsweet fennel, the finely divided leaves of rue and the long glassy onesof bergamot, is not only novel in appearance but in odor. In sweetnessit excels even sweet peas and roses. Mixed with the brilliant redberries of barberry and multiflora rose, and the dark-green branches ofthe hardy thyme, which continues fresh and sweet through the year, ahandsome and lasting bouquet may be made for a midwinter tabledecoration, a fragrant reminder of Shakespeare's lines in "A Winter'sTale":

 "Here's flowers for you; Hot lavender, mints, savory, marjoram; The marigold, that goes to bed wi' the sun And with him rises weeping. "

The rare aroma of sweet marjoram reminds so many city people of theirmother's and their grandmother's country gardens, that countless muslinbags of the dried leaves sent to town ostensibly for stuffing poultrynever reach the kitchen at all, but are accorded more honored places inthe living room. They are placed in the sunlight of a bay window whereOld Sol may coax forth their prisoned odors and perfume the air withmemories of childhood summers on the farm. 

Other memories cling to the delicate little lavender, not so muchbecause the owner of a well-filled linen closet perfumed her spotlesshoard with its fragrant flowers, but because of more tenderremembrances. Would any country wedding chest be complete without itslittle silk bags filled with dried lavender buds and blooms to add thefinishing touch of romance to the dainty trousseau of linen and lace?What can recall the bridal year so surely as this same kindly lavender?

A DINNER OF HERBS

In an article published in _American Agriculturist_, Dora M. Morrellsays: "There is an inference that a dinner of herbs is rather a poorthing, one not to be chosen as a pleasure. Perhaps it might be if itcame daily, but, for once in a while, try this which I am going to tellyou. 

"To prepare a dinner of herbs in its best estate you should have a bedof seasonings such as our grandmothers had in their gardens, rows ofsage, of spicy mint, sweet marjoram, summer savory, fragrant thyme, tarragon, chives and parsley. To these we may add, if we take herbs inthe Scriptural sense, nasturtium, and that toothsome esculent, theonion, as well as lettuce. If you wish a dinner of herbs and have notthe fresh, the dried will serve, but parsley and mint you can get atmost times in the markets, or in country gardens, where they often growwild. 

"Do you know, my sister housewife, that if you were to have a barrelsawed in half, filled with good soil, some holes made in the side andthen placed the prepared half barrel in the sun, you could have an herbgarden of your own the year through, even if you live in a city flat? Inthe holes at the sides you can plant parsley, and it will grow to coverthe barrel, so that you have a bank of green to look upon. On the top ofthe half barrel plant your mint, sage, thyme and tarragon. Thyme is sopleasing a plant in appearance and fragrance that you may acceptablygive it a place among those you have in your window for ornament. 

[Illustration: Assortment of Favorite Weeders]

"The Belgians make a parsley soup that might begin your dinner, orrather your luncheon. For the soup, thicken flour and butter together asfor drawn butter sauce, and when properly cooked thin to soupconsistency with milk. Flavor with onion juice, salt and pepper. Justbefore serving add enough parsley cut in tiny bits to color the soupgreen. Serve croutons with this. 

"For the next course choose an omelette with fine herbs. Any cookbookwill give the directions for making the omelette, and all that will benecessary more than the book directs is to have added to it mincedthyme, tarragon and chives before folding, or they may be stirred intothe omelette before cooking. 

"Instead of an omelette you may have eggs stuffed with fine herbs andserved in cream sauce. Cut hard-boiled eggs in half the long way andremove the yolks. Mash and season these, adding the herbs, as finelyminced as possible. Shape again like yolks and return to the whites. Cover with a hot cream sauce and serve before it cools. Both of thesedishes may be garnished with shredded parsley over the top. 

"With this serve a dish of potatoes scalloped with onion. Prepare byplacing in alternate layers the two vegetables; season well with salt, pepper and butter, and then add milk even with the top layer. This dishis quite hearty and makes a good supper dish of itself. 

"Of course you will not have a meal of this kind without salad. For thistry a mixture of nasturtium leaves and blossoms, tarragon, chives, mint, thyme and the small leaves of the lettuce, adding any other green leavesof the spicy kind which you find to taste good. Then dress these with asimple oil and vinegar dressing, omitting sugar, mustard or any suchflavoring, for there is spice enough in the leaves themselves. 

"Pass with these, if you will, sandwiches made with lettuce ornasturtium dressed with mayonnaise. You may make quite a different thingof them by adding minced chives or tarragon, or thyme, to themayonnaise. The French are very partial to this manner of compoundingnew sauces from the base of the old one. After you do it a few times youalso will find it worth while. 

[Illustration: Popular Adjustable Row Marker]

"When it comes to a dessert I am afraid you will have to go outside ofherbs. You can take a cream cheese and work into it with a silver knifeany of these herbs, or any two of them that agree with it well, andserve it with toasted crackers, or you can toast your crackers withcommon cheese, grating above it sage and thyme. "

Whether this "dinner of herbs" appeals to the reader or not, I ventureto say that no housewife who has ever stuffed a Thanksgiving turkey, aChristmas goose or ducks or chickens with home-grown, home-preparedherbs, either fresh or dried, will ever after be willing to buy thepaper packages or tin cans of semi-inodorous, prehistoric dust whichmasquerades equally well as "fresh" sage, summer savory, thyme orsomething else, the only apparent difference being the label. 

To learn to value herbs at their true worth one should grow them. Thenevery visitor to the garden will be reminded of some quotation from theBible, or Shakespeare or some other repository of interesting thoughts;for since herbs have been loved as long as the race has lived on theearth, literature is full of references to facts and fancies concerningthem. Thus the herb garden will become the nucleus around which clusterhoary legends, gems of verse and lilts of song, and where one almoststoops to remove his shoes, for

 "The wisdom of the ages Blooms anew among the sages. "

CULINARY HERBS DEFINED

It may be said that sweet or culinary herbs are those annual, biennialor perennial plants whose green parts, tender roots or ripe seeds havean aromatic flavor and fragrance, due either to a volatile oil or toother chemically named substances peculiar to the individual species. Since many of them have pleasing odors they have been called sweet, andsince they have been long used in cookery to add their characteristicflavors to soups, stews, dressings, sauces and salads, they arepopularly called culinary. This last designation is less happy than theformer, since many other herbs, such as cabbage, spinach, kale, dandelion and collards, are also culinary herbs. These vegetables are, however, probably more widely known as potherbs or greens. 

HISTORY

It seems probable that many of the flavoring herbs now in use weresimilarly employed before the erection of the pyramids and also thatmany then popular no longer appear in modern lists of esculents. Ofcourse, this statement is based largely upon imperfect records, perhaps, in many cases only hints more or less doubtful as to the variousspecies. But it seems safe to conclude that a goodly number of the herbsdiscussed in this volume, especially those said to be natives of theMediterranean region, overhung and perfumed the cradle of the human racein the Orient and marked the footsteps of our rude progenitors as theystrode more and more sturdily toward the horizon of promise. This ideaseems to gain support also from the fact that certain Eastern peoples, whom modern civilization declares to have uneducated tastes, stillemploy many herbs which have dropped by the wayside of progress, or likethe caraway and the redoubtable "pusley, " an anciently popular potherb, are but known in western lands as troublesome weeds. 

Relying upon Biblical records alone, several herbs were highly esteemedprior to our era; in the gospels of Matthew and Luke reference is madeto tithes of mint, anise, rue, cummin and other "herbs"; and, more than700 years previously, Isaiah speaks of the sowing and threshing ofcummin which, since the same passage (Isaiah xxviii, 25) also speaks of"fitches" (vetches), wheat, barley and "rie" (rye), seems then to havebeen a valued crop. 

[Illustration: Popular Spades]

The development of the herb crops contrasts strongly with that of theother crops to which reference has just been made. Whereas these latterhave continued to be staples, and to judge by their behavior during thelast century may be considered to have improved in quality and yieldsince that ancient time, the former have dropped to the most subordinateposition of all food plants. They have lost in number of species, andhave shown less improvement than perhaps any other groups of plantscultivated for economic purposes. During the century just closed onlyone species, parsley, may be said to have developed more than anoccasional improved variety. And even during this period the list ofspecies seems to have been somewhat curtailed--tansy, hyssop, horehound, rue and several others being considered of too pronounced and evenunpleasant flavor to suit cultivated palates. 

With the exception of these few species, the loss of which seems not tobe serious, this absence of improvement is to be regretted, because withimproved quality would come increased consumption and consequentbeneficial results in the appetizing flavor of the foods to which herbsare added. But greatly improved varieties of most species can hardly beexpected until a just appreciation has been awakened in individualcultivators, who, probably in a majority of cases, will be lovers ofplants rather than men who earn their living by market gardening. 

Until the public better appreciates the culinary herbs there will be acomparatively small commercial demand; until the demand is sufficient tomake growing herbs profitable upon an extensive scale, market gardenerswill devote their land to crops which are sure to pay well; hence theopportunity to grow herbs as an adjunct to gardening is the most likelyway that they can be made profitable. And yet there is still another;namely, growing them for sale in the various prepared forms and sellingthem in glass or tin receptacles in the neighborhood or by advertisingin the household magazines. There surely is a market, and a profitableone if rightly managed. And with right management and profit is to comedesire to have improved varieties. Such varieties can be developed atleast as readily as the wonderful modern chrysanthemum has beendeveloped from an insignificant little wild flower not half asinteresting or promising originally as our common oxeye daisy, awell-known field weed. 

Not the least object of this volume is, therefore, to arouse justappreciation of the opportunities awaiting the herb grower. Besides thevery large and increasing number of people who take pleasure in thegrowing of attractive flowering and foliage plants, fine vegetables andchoice fruits, there are many who would find positive delight in thebreeding of plants for improvement--the origination of newvarieties--and who would devote much of their leisure time to thiswork--make it a hobby--did they know the simple underlying principles. For their benefit, therefore, the following paragraphs are given. 

PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES

Besides the gratification that always accompanies the growing of plants, there is in plant breeding the promise that the progeny will in some waybe better than the parent, and there is the certainty that when a stablevariety of undoubted merit has been produced it can be sold to anenterprising seedsman for general distribution. In this way the amateurmay become a public benefactor, reap the just reward of his labors andkeep his memory green!

The production of new varieties of plants is a much simpler process thanis commonly supposed. It consists far more in selecting and propagatingthe best specimens than in any so-called "breeding. " With the majorityof the herbs this is the most likely direction in which to seek success. 

Suppose we have sown a packet of parsley seed and we have five thousandseedlings. Among these a lot will be so weak that we will naturallypass them by when we are choosing plantlets to put in our garden beds. Here is the first and simplest kind of selection. By this means, and bynot having space for a great number of plants in the garden, we probablyget rid of 80 per cent of the seedlings--almost surely the leastdesirable ones. 

[Illustration: Lath Screen for Shading Beds]

Suppose we have transplanted 1, 000 seedlings where they are to grow andproduce leaves for sale or home use. Among these, provided the seed hasbeen good and true, at least 90 per cent will be about alike inappearance, productivity and otherwise. The remaining plants may showvariations so striking as to attract attention. Some may be tall andscraggly, some may be small and puny; others may be light green, stillothers dark green; and so on. But there may be one or two plants thatstand out conspicuously as the best of the whole lot. These are the onesto mark with a stake so they will not be molested when the crop is beinggathered and so they will attain their fullest development. 

These best plants, and only these, should then be chosen as the seedbearers. No others should be allowed even to produce flowers. When theseed has ripened, that from each plant should be kept separate duringthe curing process described elsewhere. And when spring comes again, each lot of seed should be sown by itself. When the seedlings aretransplanted, they should be kept apart and labeled No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, etc. , so the progeny of each parent plant can be known and its historykept. 

The process of selecting the seedlings the second year is the same as inthe first; the best are given preference, when being transplanted. Inthe beds all sorts of variations even more pronounced than the firstyear may be expected. The effort with the seedlings derived from eachparent plant should be to find the plants that most closely resembletheir own parents, and to manage these just as the parents were managed. No other should be allowed to flower. 

This process is to be continued from year to year. If the selection iscarefully made, the grower will soon rejoice, because he will observe alarger and a larger number of plants approaching the type of plant hehas been selecting for. In time practically the whole plantation will becoming "true to type, " and he will have developed a new variety. If hisideal is such as to appeal to the practical man--the man who growsparsley for money--and if the variety is superior to varieties alreadygrown, the originator will have no difficulty in disposing of his stockof seed and plants, if he so desires, to a seedsman, who will gladly paya round price in order to have exclusive control of the "new creation. "Or he may contract with a seedsman to grow seed of the new variety forsale to the trade. 

[Illustration: Harvesting Thyme Grown on a Commercial Scale]

It may be said, further, that new varieties may be produced by placingthe pollen from the flowers of one plant upon the pistils in theflowers of another and then covering the plant with fine gauze to keepinsects out. With the herbs, however, this method seems hardly worthwhile, because the flowers are as a rule very small and the worknecessarily finicky, and because there are already so few varieties ofmost species that the operation may be left to the activities ofinsects. It is for this reason, however, that none but the choicestplants should be allowed to bloom, so none but desirable pollen mayreach and fertilize the flowers of the plants to be used as seedproducers. 

STATUS AND USES

Some readers of a statistical turn of mind may be disappointed to learnthat figures as to the value of the annual crops of individual herbs, the acreage devoted to each, the average cost, yield and profit an acre, etc. , are not obtainable and that the only way of determining theapproximate standing of the various species is the apparent demand foreach in the large markets and stores. 

Unquestionably the greatest call is for parsley, which is used inrestaurants and hotels more extensively as a garnish than any otherherb. In this capacity it ranks about equal with watercress and lettuce, which both find their chief uses as salads. As a flavoring agent it isprobably less used than sage, but more than any of the other herbs. Itis chiefly employed in dressings with mild meats such as chicken, turkey, venison, veal, with baked fish; and for soups, stews, andsauces, especially those used with boiled meats, fish and fricassees ofthe meats mentioned. Thus it has a wider application than any other ofthe culinary herbs. 

Sage, which is a strongly flavored plant, is used chiefly with such fatmeats as pork, goose, duck, and various kinds of game. Large quantitiesare mixed with sausage meat and, in some countries, with certain kindsof cheese. Throughout the United States it is probably the mostfrequently called into requisition of all herbs, probably outranking anytwo of the others, with the exception of parsley. 

[Illustration: Garden Hoes of Various Styles]

Thyme and savory stand about equal, and are chiefly used like parsley, though both, especially the former, are used in certain kinds ofsausage. Marjoram, which is similarly employed, comes next, then followbalm, fennel, and basil. These milder herbs are often mixed for much thesame reason that certain simple perfumes are blended--to produce a newodor--combinations of herbs resulting in a new compound flavor. Suchcompounds are utilized in the same way that the elementary herbs are. 

In classes by themselves are tarragon and spearmint, the former of whichis chiefly used as a decoction in the flavoring of fish sauces, and thelatter as the universal dressing with spring lamb. Mint has also a moreconvivial use, but this seems more the province of the W. C. T. U. Thanof this book to discuss. 

Dill is probably the most important of the herbs whose seeds, ratherthan their leaves, are used in flavoring food other than confectionery. It plays its chief role in the pickle barrel. Immense quantities ofcucumber pickles flavored principally with dill are used in therestaurants of the larger cities and also by families, the foreign-borncitizens and their descendants being the chief consumers. The demand forthese pickles is met by the leading pickle manufacturers who preparespecial brands, generally according to German recipes, and sell them tothe delicatessen and the grocery stores. If they were to rely upon mefor business, they would soon go bankrupt. To my palate the dill pickleappeals as almost the acme of disagreeableness. 

NOTABLE INSTANCE OF USES

The flavors of the various herbs cover a wide range, commencing withfennel and ending with sage, and are capable of wide application. In onecase which came under my observation, the cook made a celery-flavoredstew of some meat scraps. Not being wholly consumed, the survivingdebris appeared a day or two later, in company with other odds andends, as the chief actor in a meat pie flavored with parsley. Alas, aleft-over again! "Never mind, " mused the cook; and no one who partook ofthe succeeding stew discovered the lurking parsley and its overpoweredprogenitor, the celery, under the effectual disguise of summer savory. By an unforeseen circumstance the fragments remaining from this laststew did not continue the cycle and disappear in another pie. Had thisbeen their fate, however, their presence could have been completelyobscured by sage. This problem in perpetual progression or culinaryhomeopathy can be practiced in any kitchen. But hush, tell it not in thedining-room!

[Illustration: Dried Herbs in Paper and Tin]

METHODS OF CURING

Culinary herbs may be divided into three groups; those whose foliagefurnishes the flavor, those whose seed is used and those few whoseroots are prepared. In the kitchen, foliage herbs are employed eithergreen or as decoctions or dried, each way with its special advocates, advantages and applications. 

Green herbs, if freshly and properly gathered, are richest in flavoringsubstances and when added to sauces, fricassees, stews, etc. , revealtheir freshness by their particles as well as by their decidedly finerflavor. In salads they almost entirely supplant both the dried and thedecocted herbs, since their fresh colors are pleasing to the eye andtheir crispness to the palate; whereas the specks of the dried herbswould be objectionable, and both these and the decoctions impart asomewhat inferior flavor to such dishes. Since herbs cannot, however, always be obtained throughout the year, unless they are grown in windowboxes, they are infused or dried. Both infusing and drying are similarprocesses in themselves, but for best results they are dependent uponthe observance of a few simple rules. 

No matter in what condition or for what purpose they are to be used theflavors of foliage herbs are invariably best in well-developed leavesand shoots still in full vigor of growth. With respect to the plant as awhole, these flavors are most abundant and pleasant just before theflowers appear. And since they are generally due to essential oils, which are quickly dissipated by heat, they are more abundant in themorning than after the sun has reached the zenith. As a general rule, therefore, best results with foliage herbs, especially those to be usedfor drying and infusing, may be secured when the plants seem ready toflower, the harvest being made as soon as the dew has dried and beforethe day has become very warm. The leaves of parsley, however, may begathered as soon as they attain that deep green characteristic of themature leaf; and since the leaves are produced continuously for manyweeks, the mature ones may be removed every week or so, a process whichencourages the further production of foliage and postpones theappearance of the flowering stem. 

To make good infusions the freshly gathered, clean foliage should beliberally packed in stoppered jars, covered with the choicest vinegar, and the jars kept closed. In a week or two the fluid will be ready foruse, but in using it, trials must be made to ascertain its strength andthe quantity necessary to use. Usually only the clear liquid isemployed; sometimes, however, as with mint, the leaves are very finelyminced before being bottled and both liquid and particles employed. 

[Illustration: Herb Solution Bottle]

Tarragon, mint and the seed herbs, such as dill, are perhaps more oftenused in ordinary cookery as infusions than otherwise. An objection todecoctions is that the flavor of vinegar is not always desired in aculinary preparation, and neither is that of alcohol or wine, which aresometimes used in the same way as vinegar. 

DRYING AND STORING

When only a small quantity of an herb is to be dried, the old plan ofhanging loose bunches from the ceiling of a warm, dry attic or a kitchenwill answer. Better, perhaps, is the use of trays covered with clean, stout manilla paper upon which thin layers of the leaves are spread. These are placed either in hot sunlight or in the warm kitchen wherewarm air circulates freely. They must be turned once a day until all themoisture has been evaporated from the leaves and the softer, moredelicate parts have become crisp. Then they may be crunched and crumbledbetween the hands, the stalks and the hard parts rejected and the powderplaced in air-tight glass or earthenware jars or metal cans, and storedin a cool place. If there be the slightest trace of moisture in thepowder, it should be still further dried to insure against mold. Priorto any drying process the cut leaves and stems should be thoroughlywashed, to get rid of any trace of dirt. Before being dried as notedabove, the water should all be allowed to evaporate. Evaporation may behastened by exposing the herbs to a breeze in a shallow, loose basket, awire tray or upon a table. While damp there is little danger of theirbeing blown away. As they dry, however, the current of air should bemore gentle. 

The practice of storing powdered herbs in paper or pasteboard packagesis bad, since the delicate oils readily diffuse through the paper andsooner or later the material becomes as valueless for flavoringpurposes as ordinary hay or straw. This loss of flavor is particularlynoticeable with sage, which is one of the easiest herbs to spoil by badmanagement. Even when kept in air-tight glass or tin receptacles, asrecommended, it generally becomes useless before the end of two years. 

[Illustration: Paper Sacks of Dried Herbs for Home Use]

When large quantities of herbs are to be cured a fruit evaporator may beemployed, the herbs being spread thinly upon wire-bottomed trays so thatan ample current of air may pass through them. Care must be taken tokeep the temperature inside the machine below 120 degrees. The greatestefficiency can be secured by placing the trays of most recently gatheredherbs at the top, the partially dried ones being lowered to positionsnearer the source of heat. In this way the fresh, dry, warm air comes incontact first with the herbs most nearly dried, removes the lastvestige of moisture from them and after passing through the interveningtrays comes to those most recently gathered. 

[Illustration: Hand Cultivator and Scarifier]

Unless the evaporator be fitted with some mechanism which will permitall the trays to be lowered simultaneously, the work of changing thetrays may seem too irksome to be warranted. But where no changes oftrays are made, greater care must be given to the bottom trays becausethey will dry out faster than those at the top. Indeed in such cases, after the apparatus is full, it becomes almost essential to move thetrays lower, because if fresh green herbs, particularly those which aresomewhat wet, be placed at the bottom of the series, the air will becomeso charged with moisture from them that the upper layers may for a timeactually absorb this moisture and thus take longer to dry. Besides this, they will surely lose some of their flavoring ingredients--the verythings which it is desired to save. 

No effort should be made to hasten the drying process by increasing thetemperature, since this is likely to result as just mentioned. Apersonal experience may teach the reader a lesson. I once had a largeamount of parsley to cure and thought to expedite matters by using theoven of a gas stove. Suffice it to tell that the whole quantity wasruined, not a pinch was saved. In spite of the closest regulation theheat grew too great and the flavor was literally cooked out of theleaves. The delicate oil saturated everything in the house, and for aweek or more the whole place smelled as if chicken fricassee was beingmade upon a wholesale plan. 

Except as garnishes, herbs are probably more frequently used in a drystate than in all other ways put together. Perhaps this is because themethod of preparing them seems simpler than that of infusion, becauselarge quantities may be kept in small spaces, and because they can beused for every purpose that the fresh plants or the decoctions can beemployed. In general, however, they are called into requisitionprincipally in dressings, soups, stews and sauces in which theirparticles are not considered objectionable. If clear sauces or soups aredesired, the dried herbs may still be used to impart the flavor, theirparticles being removed by straining. 

The method of preparing dill, anise, caraway and other herbs whose seedis used, differs from that employed with the foliage herbs mainly in theripeness of the plants. These must be gathered as soon as they showsigns of maturity but before the seeds are ready to drop from them. Inall this work especial care must be paid to the details of cleaning. Fora pleasing appearance the seed heads must be gathered before they becomethe least bit weather-beaten. This is as essential as to have the seedripe. Next, the seed must be perfectly clean, free from chaff, bits ofbroken stems and other debris. Much depends upon the manner of handlingas well as upon harvesting. Care must be taken in threshing to avoidbruising the seeds, particularly the oily ones, by pounding too hard orby tramping upon them. Threshing should never be done in damp weather;always when the air is very dry. 

In clear weather after the dew has disappeared the approximately ripeplants or seed heads must be harvested and spread thinly--never packedfirmly--upon stout cloth such as ticking, sailcloth, or factory cotton. A warm, open shed where the air circulates freely is an admirable place, since the natural temperature of the air is sufficient in the case ofseeds to bring about good results. Usually in less than a week the topswill have become dry enough to be beaten out with a light flail or arod. In this operation great care must be taken to avoid bruising orotherwise injuring the seed. The beating should therefore be done in asheet spread upon a lawn or at least upon short grass. The force of theblows will thus be lessened and bruising avoided. 

For cleaning herb seeds sieves in all sizes from No. 2 to No. 40 areneeded. The sizes represent various finenesses of mesh. All above No. 8should be of brass wire, because brass is considerably more durable andless likely to rust than iron. The cloths upon which the herbs arespread should be as large as the floor upon which the threshing is to bedone except when the floor is without cracks, but it is more convenientto use cloths always, because they facilitate handling and temporarystoring. Light cotton duck is perhaps best, but the weave must be close. A convenient size is 10 x 10 feet. 

After the stalks have been removed the seed should be allowed to remainfor several days longer in a very thin layer--the thinner thebetter--and turned every day to remove the last vestige of moisture. Itwill be even better still to have the drying sheet suspended so air maycirculate below as well as above the seed. Not less than a week for thesmallest seeds and double that time for the larger ones is necessary. Toavoid loss or injury it is imperative that the seed be dry before it isput in the storage packages. Of course, if infusions are to be made allthis is unnecessary; the seed may be put in the liquor as soon as thebroken stems, etc. Are removed subsequent to threshing. 

HERBS AS GARNISHES

As garnishes several of the culinary herbs are especially valuable. Thisis particularly true of parsley, which is probably more widely used thanany other plant, its only close rivals being watercress and lettuce, which, however, are generally inferior to it in delicacy of tint andform of foliage, the two cardinal virtues of a garnish. 

Parsley varieties belong to three principal groups, based upon the formof the foliage: (1) Plain varieties, in which the leaves are nearly asthey are in nature; (2) moss-curled varieties in which they arecuriously and pleasingly contorted; and (3) fern leaved, in which thefoliage is not curled, but much divided into threadlike parts. 

The moss-curled varieties are far more popular than the other two groupsput together and are the only ones used especially as garnishes withmeat dishes in the hotels and restaurants of the large cities. Theplain-leaved sorts cannot be compared in any way except in flavor withthe varieties of the other groups. But the fern-leaved kinds, whichunfortunately have not become commercially well known, surpass even thefinest varieties of the moss-curled group, not only in their exquisiteand delicate form, but in their remarkably rich, dark-green coloring andblending of light and shade. But the mere fact that these varieties arenot known in the cities should not preclude their popularity in suburbanand town gardens and in the country, where every householder is monarchof his own soil and can satisfy very many æsthetic and gustatory desireswithout reference to market dictum, that bane alike of the marketgardener and his customer. 

Several other herbs--tansy, savory, thyme, marjoram, basil, andbalm--make pretty garnishes, but since they are not usually consideredso pleasant to nibble at, they are rarely used. The pleasing effect ofany garnish may be heightened by adding here and there a few herbflowers such as thyme or savory. Other flowers may be used in the sameway; for instance, nasturtium. 

There is no reason why herbs so used should not be employed severaltimes over, and afterwards dried or bottled in vinegar if they be freefrom gravy, oils, fats, etc. , and if in sufficient quantity to make sucha use worth while. Other pretty garnishes which are easily obtained arecorn salad, peppergrass, mustard, fennel, and young leaves of carrot. But surpassing all these in pleasing and novel effects are the curled, pink, red and white-leaved varieties of chicory and nasturtium flowersalone or resting upon parsley or other delicate foliage. So much by wayof digression. 

PROPAGATION

SEEDS

[Illustration: Flat of Seedlings Ready to Be Transplanted]

Most herbs may be readily propagated by means of seeds. Some, however, such as tarragon, which does not produce seed, and several otherperennial kinds, are propagated by division, layers, or cuttings. Ingeneral, propagation by means of seed is considered most satisfactory. Since the seeds in many instances are small or are slow to germinate, they are usually sown in shallow boxes or seed pans. When the seedlingsare large enough to be handled they are transplanted to small pots orsomewhat deeper flats or boxes, a couple of inches being allowed betweenthe plants. When conditions are favorable in the garden; that is, whenthe soil is moist and warm and the season has become settled, theplantlets may be removed to permanent quarters. 

If the seed be sown out of doors, it is a good practice to sow a fewradish seeds in the same row with the herb seeds, particularly if theselatter take a long time to germinate or are very small, as marjoram, savory and thyme. The variety of radish chosen should be a turnip-rootedsort of exceedingly rapid growth, and with few and small leaves. Theradishes serve to mark the rows and thus enable cultivation to commencemuch earlier than if the herbs were sown alone. They should be pulledearly--the earlier the better after the herb plantlets appear. Nevershould the radishes be allowed to crowd the herbs. 

By the narration of a little incident, I may illustrate the necessity ofsowing these radish seeds thinly. Having explained to some juvenilegardeners that the radish seeds should be dropped so far apart among theother seeds that they would look lonesome in the bottoms of therows--not more than six seeds to the foot--and having illustrated mymeaning by sowing a row myself, I let each one take his turn at sowing. While I watched them all went well. But, alas, for precept and example!To judge by the general result after the plants were up, the seedsmanmight justifiably have guaranteed the seed to germinate about 500 percent, because each boy declared that _he_ sowed _his_ rows thinly. Nevertheless, there was a stand of radishes that would have gladdenedthe heart of a lawn maker! The rows looked like regiments drawn up inclose order and not, as was desired, merely lines of scatteredskirmishers. In many places there were more than 100 to the foot!Fortunately the variety was a quick-maturing kind and the crop, for suchit became, was harvested before any damage was done the slow-appearingseedlings, whose positions the radishes were intended to indicate. 

CUTTINGS

[Illustration: Glass-Covered Propagating Box]

No herbs are so easy to propagate by means of cuttings as spearmint, peppermint, and their relatives which have underground stems. Everyjoint of these stems will produce a new plant if placed in somewhatmoist soil. Often, however, this ability is a disadvantage, because theplants are prone to spread and become a nuisance unless watched. Hencesuch plants should be placed where they will not have their roots cut bytools used close to them. When they seem to be extending, their bordersshould be trimmed with a sharp spade pushed vertically full depth intothe soil and all the earth beyond the clump thus restricted should beshaken out with a garden fork and the cut pieces of mint removed. Further, the forked-over ground should be hoed every week during theremainder of the season, to destroy lurking plantlets. 

The other perennial and biennial herbs may be readily propagated bymeans of stem cuttings or "slips, " which are generally as easy to manageas verbenas, geraniums and other "house plants. " The cuttings may bemade of either fully ripened wood of the preceding or the currentseason, or they may be of firm, not succulent green stems. Aftertrimming off all but a few of the upper leaves, which should be clippedto reduce transpiration, the cuttings--never more than 4 or 5 incheslong--should be plunged nearly full depth in well-shaded, rather light, porous, well-drained loam where they should remain undisturbed untilthey show evidences of growth. Then they may be transplanted. While inthe cutting bed they must never be allowed to become dry. This isespecially true of greenwood cuttings made during the summer. Theseshould always have the coolest, shadiest corner in the garden. Thecuttings taken in the spring should be set in the garden as soon asrooted; but the summer cuttings, especially if taken late, shouldgenerally be left in their beds until the following spring. They may, however, be removed for winter use to window boxes or the greenhousebenches. 

[Illustration: Flower Pot Propagating Bed]

Often the plants grown in window boxes may supply the early cuttings, which may be rooted in the house. Where a greenhouse is available, afew plants may be transplanted in autumn either from the garden or fromthe bed of summer cuttings just mentioned, kept in a rather cooltemperature during the winter and drawn upon for cuttings as the stemsbecome sufficiently mature. The rooting may take place in a regularcutting bench, or it may occur in the soil out of doors, the plantletsbeing transplanted to pots as soon as they have rooted well. 

If a large number of plants is desired, a hotbed may be called intorequisition in early spring and the plants hardened off in cold framesas the season advances. Hardening off is essential with all plants grownunder glass for outdoor planting, because unless the plants be inured tooutside temperatures before being placed in the open ground, they willprobably suffer a check, if they do not succumb wholly to theunaccustomed conditions. If well managed they should be injured not atall. 

LAYERS

Several of the perennial herbs, such as sage, savory, and thyme, may beeasily propagated by means of layers, the stems being pegged down andcovered lightly with earth. If the moisture and the temperature befavorable, roots should be formed in three or four weeks and the stemseparated from the parent and planted. Often there may be severalbranches upon the stem, and each of these may be used as a new plantletprovided it has some roots or a rooted part of the main stem attached toit. By this method I have obtained nearly 100 rooted plants from asingle specimen of Holt's Mammoth sage grown in a greenhouse. And fromthe same plant at the same time I have taken more than 100 cuttings. This is not an exceptional feat with this variety, the plants of whichare very branchy and often exceed a yard in diameter. 

Layering is probably the simplest and most satisfactory method ofartificial propagation under ordinary conditions, since the stems arealmost sure to take root if undisturbed long enough; and since rootedplants can hardly fail to grow if properly transplanted. Then, too, lessapparent time is taken than with plants grown from cuttings and far lessthan with those grown from seed. In other words, they generally producea crop sooner than the plants obtained by the other methods set inoperation at the same time. 

DIVISION

Division of the clumps of such herbs as mint is often practiced, a sharpspade or a lawn edger being used to cut the clump into pieces about 6inches square. The squares are then placed in new quarters and packedfirmly in place with soil. This method is, however, the leastsatisfactory of all mentioned, because it too frequently deprives theplants of a large amount of roots, thus impairs the growth, and duringthe first season or two may result in unsymmetrical clumps. If done inearly spring before growth starts, least damage is done to the plants. 

[Illustration: Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage About Half Natural Size]

Artificial methods of propagation, especially those of cuttage andlayerage, have the further advantage over propagation by means of seeds, in the perpetuation of desired characters of individual plants, one ormore of which may appear in any plantation. These, particularly if moreproductive than the others, should always be utilized as stock, notmerely because their progeny artificially obtained are likely to retainthe character and thus probably increase the yield of the plantation, but principally because they may form the nucleus of a choice strain. 

[Illustration: Marker for Hotbeds and Cold Frames]

Except in the respects mentioned, these methods of propagation are notnotably superior to propagation by means of good seed, which, by theway, is not overabundant. By the consumption of a little extra time, anydesired number of plants may be obtained from seed. At any rate, seed iswhat one must start with in nearly every case. 

TRANSPLANTING

No more care is required in transplanting herbs than in resetting otherplants, but unless a few essentials are realized in practice the resultsare sure to be unsatisfactory. Of course, the ideal way is to grow theplants in small flower pots and when they have formed a ball of roots, to set them in the garden. The next best is to grow them in seed pans orflats (shallow boxes) in which they should be set several inches apartas soon as large enough to handle, and in which they should be allowedto grow for a few weeks, to form a mass of roots. When these plants areto be set in the garden they should be broken apart by hand with aslittle loss of roots as possible. 

[Illustration: Leading Forms of Trowels]

But where neither of these plans can be practiced, as in the growing ofthe plants in little nursery beds, either in hotbeds, cold frames or inthe garden border, the plants should be "pricked out, " that is, transplanted while very small to a second nursery bed, in order to makethem "stocky" or sturdy and better able to take care of themselves whenremoved to final quarters. If this be done there should be no need ofclipping back the tops to balance an excessive loss of roots, anecessity in case the plants are not so treated, or in case they becomelarge or lanky in the second bed. 

In all cases it is best to transplant when the ground is moist, as itis immediately after being dug or plowed. But this cannot always bearranged, neither can one always count upon a shower to moisten the soiljust after the plants have been set. If advantage can be taken of anapproaching rainfall, it should be done, because this is the ideal timefor transplanting. It is much better than immediately after, which isperhaps next best. Transplanting in cloudy weather and toward evening isbetter than in sunny weather and in the morning. 

Since the weather is prone to be coy, if not fickle, the manual part oftransplanting should always be properly done. The plants should alwaysbe taken up with as little loss of roots as possible, be kept exposed tothe air as short a time as possible, and when set in the ground have thesoil packed firmly about their roots, so firmly that the operator maythink it is almost too firm. After setting, the surface soil should bemade loose, so as to act as a mulch and prevent the loss of moisturefrom the packed lower layer. If the ground be dry a hole may be madebeside the plant and filled with water--LOTS OF WATER--and when it hassoaked away and the soil seems to be drying, the surface should be madesmooth and loose as already mentioned. If possible such times should beavoided, because of the extra work entailed and the probable increasedloss due to the unfavorable conditions. 

IMPLEMENTS

When herbs are grown upon a commercial scale the implements needed willbe the same as for general trucking--plows, harrows, weeder, etc. --tofit the soil for the hand tools. Much labor can be saved by usinghand-wheel drills, cultivators, weeders and the other tools that havebecome so wonderfully popular within the past decade or two. Sometypical kinds are shown in these pages. These implements areindispensable in keeping the surface soil loose and free from weeds, especially between the rows and even fairly close to the plants. Indoing this they save an immense amount of labor and time, since they canbe used with both hands and the muscles of the body with less exertionthan the hoe and the rake require. 

Nothing, however, can take the place of the hand tools for getting amongand around the plants. The work that weeding entails is tiresome, butmust be done if success is to crown ones efforts. While the plants arelittle some of the weeders may be used. Those with a blade or a seriesof blades are adapted for cutting weeds off close to the surface; thosewith prongs are useful only for making the soil loose closer to theplants than the rake dare be run by the average man. Hoes of varioustypes are useful when the plants become somewhat larger or when one doesnot have the wheel cultivators. In all well-regulated gardens thereshould be a little liberal selection of the various wheel and handtools. 

Only one of the hand tools demands any special comment. Many gardenerslike to use a dibble for transplanting. With this tool it is so easy tomake a hole, and to press the soil against the plant dropped in thathole! But I believe that many of the failures in transplanting resultfrom the improper use of this tool. Unless the dibble be properlyoperated the plant may be left suspended in a hole, the sides of whichare more or less hard and impervious to the tiny, tender rootlets thatstrive to penetrate them. From my own observation of the use of thistool, I believe that the proper place for the dibble in the novicesgarden is in the attic, side by side with the "unloaded" shotgun, whereit may be viewed with apprehension. 

[Illustration: Wooden Dibbles]

In spite of this warning, if anyone is hardy enough to use a dibble, lethim choose the flat style, not the round one. The proper way is tothrust the tool straight down, at right angles to the direction of therow, and press the soil back and forth with the flat side of the bladeuntil a hole, say 2 or 3 inches across and 5 or 6 inches deep, has beenformed. In the hole the plantlet should then be suspended so all theroots and a little of the stem beneath the surface will be covered whenthe soil is replaced. Replacing the soil is the important part of theoperation. The dibble must now be thrust in the soil again, parallel andclose to the hole, and the soil pushed over so the hole will becompletely closed from bottom to top. Firming the soil completes theoperation. 

There is much less danger of leaving a hole with the flat than with theround dibble, which is almost sure to leave a hole beneath the plant. Iremember having trouble with some lily plants which were not thriving. Supposing that insects were at the roots, I carefully drew the earthaway from one side, and found that the earth had not been brought upcarefully beneath the bulbs and that the roots were hanging 4 or 5inches beneath the bulbs in the hole left by the dibble and not properlyclosed by the careless gardener. 

I therefore warn every dibble user to be sure to crowd over the soilwell, especially at the lower end of the hole. For my own part, I relyupon my hands. Digits existed long before dibbles and they are much morereliable. What matter if some soil sticks to them; it is notunresponsive to the wooing of water!

LOCATION OF HERB GARDEN

In general, the most favorable exposure for an herb garden is toward thesouth, but lacking such an exposure should not deter one from plantingherbs on a northern slope if this be the only site available. Indeed, such sites often prove remarkably good if other conditions arepropitious and proper attention is given the plants. Similarly, asmooth, gently sloping surface is especially desirable, but even ingardens in which the ground is almost billowy the gardener may oftentake advantage of the irregularities by planting the moisture-lovingplants in the hollows and those that like dry situations upon theridges. Nothing like turning disadvantages to account!

No matter what the nature of the surface and the exposure, it is alwaysadvisable to give the herbs the most sunny spots in the garden, placeswhere shade from trees, barns, other buildings and from fences cannotreach them. This is suggested because the development of the oils, uponwhich the flavoring of most of the herbs mainly depends, is best in fullsunshine and the plants have more substance than when grown in theshade. 

[Illustration: Combination Hand Plow, Harrow, Cultivator and Seed Drill]

THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION

As to the kind of soil, Hobson's choice ranks first! It is not necessaryto move into the next county just to have an herb garden. This is one ofthe cases in which the gardener may well make the best of however bad abargain he has. 

But supposing that a selection be possible, a light sandy loam, underlaid by a porous subsoil so as to be well drained, should be giventhe preference, since it is warmed quickly, easily worked, and may bestirred early in the season and after a rain. Clay loams are lessdesirable upon every one of the points mentioned, and very sandy soilsalso. But if Hobson has one of these, there will be an excellentopportunity to cultivate philosophy as well as herbs. And the gardenermay be agreeably surprised at the results obtained. No harm in trying!Whatever the quality of the soil, it should not be very rich, because insuch soils the growth is apt to be rank and the quantity of oil small inproportion to the leafage. 

The preparation of the soil should commence as soon as the grass in theneighborhood is seen to be sprouting. Well-decayed manure should bespread at the rate of not less than a bushel nor more than double thatquantity to the square yard, and as soon as the soil is dry enough tocrumble readily it should be dug or plowed as deeply as possible withoutbringing up the subsoil. This operation of turning over the soil shouldbe thoroughly performed, the earth being pulverized as much as possible. To accomplish this no hand tool surpasses the spading fork. 

One other method is, however, superior especially when practiced uponthe heavier soils--fall plowing or digging. In practicing this methodcare should be taken to plow late when the soil, moistened by autumnrains, will naturally come up in big lumps. These lumps must be leftundisturbed during the winter for frost to act upon. All that will benecessary in the spring will be to rake or harrow the ground. The clodswill crumble. 

[Illustration: Surface Paring Cultivator]

I once had occasion to try this method upon about 25 acres of land whichhad been made by pumping mud from a river bottom upon a marsh thusconverted into dry ground by the sedimentation. Three sturdy horses wereneeded to do the plowing. The earth turned up in chunks as large as aman's body. Contrary to my plowman's doubts and predictions, Jack Frostdid a grand milling business that winter! Clods that could hardly bebroken in the autumn with a sledge hammer crumbled down in the spring atthe touch of a garden rake!

CULTIVATION

Having thoroughly fined the surface of the garden by harrowing andraking, the seeds may be sown or the plants transplanted as alreadynoted. From this time forward the surface must be kept loose and open bysurface cultivation every week or 10 days and after every shower thatforms a crust, until the plants cover the whole ground. This frequentcultivation is not merely for the purpose of keeping the weeds in check;it is a necessary operation to keep the immediate surface layer powdery, in which condition it will act as a mulch to prevent the loss of waterfrom the lower soil layers. When kept in perfect condition by frequentstirring the immediate surface should be powdery. Yes, _powdery_! Within1 inch of the surface, however, the color will be darker from thepresence of moisture. When supplied with such conditions, failures mustbe attributed to other causes than lack of water. 

DOUBLE CROPPING

When desired, herbs may be used as secondary crops to follow such earlyvegetables as early cabbage and peas; or, if likely to be needed stillearlier, after radishes, transplanted lettuce and onions grown fromsets. These primary crops, having reached marketable size, are removed, the ground stirred and the herb plants transplanted from nursery beds orcold frames. 

[Illustration: Thinning Scheme for Harvesting]

Often the principal herbs--sage, savory, marjoram and thyme--are setclose together, both the rows and the plants in them being nearer thanrecommended further on. The object of such practice is to get severalcrops in the following way: When the plants in the rows commence tocrowd one another each alternate plant is removed and sold or cured. This may perhaps be done a second time. Then when the rows begin tocrowd, each alternate row is removed and the remainder allowed todevelop more fully. The chief advantages of this practice are not onlythat several crops may be gathered, but each plant, being supplied withplenty of room and light, will have fewer yellow or dead leaves thanwhen crowded. In the diagram the numbers show which plants are removedfirst, second, third and last. 

HERB RELATIONSHIPS

Those readers who delight to delve among pedigrees, genealogies andfamily connections, may perhaps be a little disappointed to learn that, in spite of the odorous nature of the herbs, there are none whosehistory reveals a skeleton in the closet. They are all harmless. Now andthen, to be sure, there occur records of a seemingly compromisingnature, such as the effects attributed to the eating or even thehandling of celery; but such accounts, harrowing as they may appear, areinsufficient to warrant a bar sinister. Indeed, not only is the mass ofevidence in favor of the defendant, but it casts a reflection upon thecredibility of the plaintiff, who may usually be shown to have indulgedimmoderately, to have been frightened by hallucinations or even to havearraigned the innocent for his own guilt. Certain it is that there isnot one of the sweet herbs mentioned in this volumes that has not longenjoyed a more or less honored place in the cuisine of all thecontinents, and this in spite of the occasional tootings of somewould-be detractor. 

Like those classes of society that cannot move with "the four hundred, "the herbs are very exclusive, more exclusive indeed, than theirsuperiors, the other vegetables. Very few members have they admittedthat do not belong to two approved families, and such unrelated ones asdo reach the charmed circles must first prove their worthiness and thenhold their places by intrinsic merit. 

[Illustration: Center Row Hand Cultivator]

These two coteries are known as the Labiatæ and the Umbelliferæ, theformer including the sages, mints and their connections; the latter theparsleys and their relatives. With the exception of tarragon, whichbelongs to the Compositæ, parsley and a few of its relatives which havedeserted their own ranks, all the important leaf herbs belong to theLabiatæ; and without a notable exception all the herbs whose seeds areused for flavoring belong to the Umbelliferæ. Fennel-flower, whichbelongs to the natural order Ranunculaceæ, or crowfoot family, is acandidate for admission to the seed sodality; costmary and southernwoodof the Compositæ seek membership with the leaf faction; rue of theRutaceæ and tansy of the Compositæ, in spite of suspension for theirboldness and ill-breeding, occasionally force their way back into thedomain of the leaf herbs. Marigold, a composite, forms a clique byitself, the most exclusive club of all. It has admitted no members! Andthere seem to be no candidates. 

The important members of the Labiatæ are:

 Sage (_Salvia officinalis_, Linn. ). Savory (_Satureia hortensis_, Linn. ). Savory, winter (_Satureia montana_, Linn. ). Thyme (_Thymus vulgaris_, Linn. ). Marjoram (_Origanum Marjoram_; _O. Onites_, Linn. ; and _M. Vulgare_, Linn. ). Balm (_Melissa officinalis_, Linn. ). Basil (_Ocimum Basilicum_, Linn. , and _O. Minimum_, Linn. ). Spearmint (_Mentha spicata_, Linn. , or _M. Viridis_, Linn. ). Peppermint (_Mentha Piperita_, Linn. ). Rosemary (_Rosmarinus officinalis_, Linn. ). Clary (_Salvia Sclarea_, Linn. ). Pennyroyal (_Mentha Pulegium_, Linn. ). Horehound (_Marrubium vulgare_, Linn. ). Hyssop (_Hyssopus vulgaris_, Linn. ). Catnip (_Nepeta Cataria_, Linn. ). Lavender (_Lavandula vera_, D. C. ; _L. Spica_, D. C. ). 

These plants, which are mostly natives of mild climates of the oldworld, are characterized by having square stems; opposite, simple leavesand branches; and more or less two-lipped flowers which appear in theaxils of the leaves, occasionally alone, but usually several together, forming little whorls, which often compose loose or compact spikes orracemes. Each fertile blossom is followed by four little seedlike fruitsin the bottom of the calyx, which remains attached to the plant. Thefoliage is generally plentifully dotted with minute glands that containa volatile oil, upon which depends the aroma and piquancy peculiar tothe individual species. 

The leading species of the Umbelliferæ are:

 Parsley (_Carum Petroselinum_, Benth. And Hook. ). Dill (_Anethum graveolens_, Linn. ). Fennel (_Foeniculum officinale_, Linn. ). Angelica (_Archangelica officinalis_, Hoofm. ). Anise (_Pimpinella anisum_, Linn. ). Caraway (_Carum Carui_, Linn. ). Coriander (_Coriandrum sativum_, Linn. ). Chervil (_Scandix Cerefolium_, Linn. ). Cumin or Cummin (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn. ). Lovage (_Levisticum officinale_, Koch. ). Samphire (_Crithmum maritimum_, Linn. ). 

[Illustration: Hand Plow]

Like the members of the preceding group, the species of the Umbelliferæare principally natives of mild climates of the old world, but many ofthem extend farther north into the cold parts of the continent, evenbeyond the Arctic Circle in some cases. They have cylindrical, usuallyhollow stems; alternate, generally compound leaves the basis of whosestalks ensheath the branches or stems; and small flowers almost alwaysarranged in compound terminal umbels. The fruits are composed of twoseedlike dry carpels, each containing a single seed, and usuallyseparating when ripe. Each carpel bears five longitudinal prominent ribsand several, often four, lesser intermediate ones, in the intervalsbetween which numerous oil ducts have their openings from the interiorof the fruit. The oil is generally found in more or less abundance alsoin other parts of the plant, but is usually most plentiful in thefruits. 

The members of the Compositæ used as sweet herbs are, with the exceptionof tarragon, comparatively unimportant, and except for having theirflowers in close heads "on a common receptacle, surrounded by aninvolucre, " have few conspicuous characters in common. No further spaceexcept that required for their enumeration need here be devoted to them. And this remark will apply also to the other two herbs mentioned furtherbelow. 

COMPOSITÆ

Marigold, Pot (_Calendula officinalis_, Linn. ). Tansy (_Tanacetumvulgaris_, Linn. ). Tarragon (_Artemisia Dracunculus_, Linn. ). Southernwood (_Artemisia Abrotanum_, Linn. ). 

RUTACEÆ

Rue (_Ruta graveolens_, Linn. ). 

BORAGINACEÆ

Borage (_Borago officinalis_, Linn. ). 

RANUNCULACEÆ

Fennel-flower (_Nigella sativa_, Linn. ). 

Before dismissing this section of the subject, it may be interesting toglance over the list of names once more. Seven of these plants wereformerly so prominent in medicine that they were designated "official"and nearly all the others were extensively used by physicians. At thepresent day there are very few that have not passed entirely out ofofficial medicine and even out of domestic practice, at least so far astheir intrinsic qualities are concerned. Some, to be sure, are stillemployed because of their pleasant flavors, which disguise thedisagreeable taste of other drugs. But this is a very different matter. 

One of the most notable of these is fennel. What wonders could thatplant not perform 300 years ago! In Parkinson's "Theatricum Botanicum"(1640) its "vertues" are recorded. Apart from its use as food, forwhich, then, as now, it was highly esteemed, without the attachment ofany medicinal qualities as an esculent, it was considered efficacious incases of gout, jaundice, cramps, shortness of breath, wheezing of thelungs; for cleansing of the blood and improving the complexion; to useas an eye-water or to increase the flow of milk; as a remedy for serpentbites or an antidote for poisonous herbs and mushrooms; and for peoplewho "are growen fat to abate their unwieldinesse and make them moregaunt and lanke. "

But let us peep into the 19th edition of the United States Dispensatory. Can this be the same fennel which "is one of our most gratefularomatics, " and which, because of "the absence of any highly excitantproperty, " is recommended for mixing with unpleasant medicines? Ask anydruggist, and he will say it is used for little else nowadays than formaking a tea to give babies for wind on their stomachs. Strange, buttrue it is! Similar statements if not more remarkable ones could be madeabout many of the other herbs herein discussed. Many of these are spokenof as "formerly considered specific" for such and such troubles but "nowknown to be inert. "

The cause is not far to seek. An imaginative and superstitious peopleattached fanciful powers to these and hundreds of other plants which theintervening centuries have been unable wholly to eradicate, for amongthe more ignorant classes, especially of Europe, many of these relics ofa dark age still persist. 

But let us not gloat over our superior knowledge. After a similar lapseof time, may not our vaunted wisdom concerning the properties of plantslook as ridiculous to the delver among our musty volumes? Indeed, itmay, if we may judge by the discoveries and investigations of only thepast fifty years. During this time a surprisingly large number of plantshave been proved to be not merely innocuous instead of poisonous, asthey were reputed, but fit for human food and even of superiorexcellence!

THE HERB LIST

=Angelica= (_Archangelica officinalis_, Hoffm. ), a biennial or perennialherb of the natural order Umbelliferæ, so called from its supposedmedicinal qualities. It is believed to be a native of Syria, fromwhence it has spread to many cool European climates, especially Laplandand the Alps, where it has become naturalized. 

[Illustration: Prophecy of Many Toothsome Dishes]

_Description. _ Its roots are long, spindle-shaped, fleshy, and sometimesweigh three pounds; its stems stout, herbaceous, fluted, often more than4 feet tall, and hollow; its leaves long-stalked, frequently 3 feet inlength, reddish purple at the clasping bases, and composed, in thelarger ones, of numerous small leaflets, in three principal groups, which are each subdivided into three lesser groups; its flowersyellowish or greenish, small and numerous, in large roundish umbels; itsseeds pale yellow, membranous-edged, oblong flattened on one side, convex on the other, which is marked with three conspicuous ribs. 

_Cultivation. _ Since the seeds lose their vitality rapidly, rarely beingviable after the first year, they should be sown as soon as ripe in latesummer or early autumn, or not later than the following spring afterhaving been kept during the winter in a cold storeroom. The soil shouldbe moderately rich, rather light, deep, well drained, but moist and wellsupplied with humus. It should be deeply prepared and kept loose andopen as long as tools can be used among the plants, which may be left tocare for themselves as soon as they shade the ground well. 

In the autumn, the seeds may be sown where the plants are to remain orpreferably in a nursery bed, which usually does not need protectionduring the winter. In the spring a mild hotbed, a cold frame or anursery bed in the garden may be used, according to the earliness ofplanting. Half an inch is deep enough to cover the seeds. The seedlingsshould be transplanted when still small for their first summer's growth, a space of about 18 inches being allowed between them. In the autumnthey should be removed to permanent quarters, the plants being set 3feet apart. 

If well grown, the leaves may be cut for use during the summer aftertransplanting; the plants may not, however, produce seed until thefollowing season. Unless seed is desired, the tops should be cut anddestroyed at or before flowering time, because, if this be not done, thegarden is apt to become overrun with angelica seedlings. If the seedsare wanted, they should be gathered and treated as indicated on page 28. After producing seed, the plants frequently die; but by cutting down thetops when the flower heads first appear, and thus preventing theformation of seed, the plants may continue for several years longer. 

_Uses. _ The stems and leaf stalks, while still succulent, are eaten as asalad or are roasted or boiled like potatoes. In Europe, they arefrequently employed as a garnish or as an adjunct to dishes of meat andfish. They are also largely used for making candied angelica. (Seebelow. ) Formerly the stems were blanched like celery and were verypopular as a vegetable; now they are little used in the United States. The tender leaves are often boiled and eaten as a substitute forspinach. Less in America than in Europe, the seeds, which, like otherparts of the plant, are aromatic and bitterish, are used for flavoringvarious beverages, cakes, and candies, especially "comfits. " Oil ofangelica is obtained from the seeds by distillation with steam orboiling water, the vapor being condensed and the oil separated bygravity. It is also obtained in smaller quantity from the roots, 200pounds of which, it is said, yield only about one pound of the oil. Likethe seeds, the oil is used for flavoring. 

_Angelica candied. _ Green says: The fresh roots, the tender stems, theleaf stalks and the midribs of the leaves make a pleasing aromaticcandy. When fresh gathered the plant is rather too bitter for use. Thisflavor may be reduced by boiling. The parts should first be slicedlengthwise, to remove the pith. The length of time will depend somewhatupon the thickness of the pieces. A few minutes is usually sufficient. After removal and draining the pieces are put in a syrup of granulatedsugar and boiled till full candy density is reached. The kettle is thenremoved from the fire and the contents allowed to cool. When almost coldthe pieces are to be taken out and allowed to dry. 

=Anise= (_Pimpinella Anisum_, Linn. ), an annual herb of the natural orderUmbelliferæ. It is a native of southwestern Asia, northern Africa andsouth-eastern Europe, whence it has been introduced by man throughoutthe Mediterranean region, into Germany, and to some extent into othertemperate regions of both hemispheres, but seems not to be knownanywhere in the wild state or as an escape from gardens. To judge fromits mention in the Scriptures (Matthew xxiii, 23), it was highlyvalued as a cultivated crop prior to our era, not only in Palestine, but elsewhere in the East. Many Greek and Roman authors, especiallyDioscorides, Theophrastus, Pliny and Paladius, wrote more or less fullyof its cultivation and uses. 

[Illustration: Anise in Flower and in Fruit]

From their days to the present it seems to have enjoyed generalpopularity. In the ninth century, Charlemagne commanded that it be grownupon the imperial farms; in the thirteenth, Albertus Magnus speakshighly of it; and since then many agricultural writers have devotedattention to it. But though it has been cultivated for at least twothousand years and is now extensively grown in Malta, Spain, southernFrance, Russia, Germany and India, which mainly supply the market, itseems not to have developed any improved varieties. 

_Description. _--Its roots are white, spindle-shaped and rather fibrous;its stems about 18 inches tall, branchy, erect, slender, cylindrical;its root leaves lobed somewhat like those of celery; its stem leavesmore and more finely cut toward the upper part of the stem, near the topof which they resemble fennel leaves in their finely divided segments;its flowers yellowish white, small, rather large, in loose umbelsconsisting of many umbellets; its fruits ("seeds") greenish-gray, small, ovoid or oblong in outline, longitudinally furrowed and ridged on theconvex side, very aromatic, sweetish and pleasantly piquant. 

_Cultivation. _--The seeds, which should be as fresh as possible, nevermore than two years old, should be sown in permanent quarters as soon asthe weather becomes settled in early spring. They should be planted 1/2inch deep, about 1/2 inch asunder, in drills 15 or 18 inches apart, andthe plants thinned when about 2 inches tall to stand 6 inches asunder. An ounce of seed should plant about 150 feet of drill. The plants, whichdo not transplant readily, thrive best in well-drained, light, rich, rather dry, loamy soils well exposed to the sun. A light application ofwell-rotted manure, careful preparation of the ground, clean andfrequent cultivation, are the only requisites in the management of thiscrop. 

In about four months from the sowing of the seed, and in about one monthfrom the appearance of the flowers, the plants may be pulled, orpreferably cut, for drying. (See page 25. ) The climate and the soils inthe warmer parts of the northern states appear to be favorable to thecommercial cultivation of anise, which it seems should prove aprofitable crop under proper management. 

_Uses. _--The leaves are frequently employed as a garnish, for flavoringsalads, and to a small extent as potherbs. Far more general, however, isthe use of the seeds, which enter as a flavoring into variouscondiments, especially curry powders, many kinds of cake, pastry, andconfectionery and into some kinds of cheese and bread. Anise oil isextensively employed for flavoring many beverages both alcoholic andnon-spirituous and for disguising the unpleasant flavors of variousdrugs. The seeds are also ground and compounded with other fragrantmaterials for making sachet powders, and the oil mixed with other fluidsfor liquid perfumes. Various similar anise combinations are largely usedin perfuming soaps, pomatums and other toilet articles. The veryvolatile, nearly colorless oil is usually obtained by distillation withwater, about 50 pounds of seed being required to produce one pound ofoil. At Erfurt, Germany, where much of the commercial oil is made, the"hay" and the seeds are both used for distilling. 

=Balm= (_Melissa officinalis_, Linn. ), a perennial herb of the naturalorder Labiatæ. The popular name is a contraction of _balsam_, the planthaving formerly been considered a specific for a host of ailments. Thegeneric name, _Melissa_, is the Greek for _bee_ and is an allusion tothe fondness of bees for the abundant nectar of the flowers. 

Balm is a native of southern Europe, where it was cultivated as a sourceof honey and as a sweet herb more than 2, 000 years ago. It is frequentlymentioned in Greek and Latin poetry and prose. Because of its use foranointing, Shakespeare referred to it in the glorious lines (KingRichard II. , act iii, scene 2):

 "Not all the water in the rough, rude sea Can wash the balm from an anointed king. "

As a useful plant it received attention from the pen of Pliny. From itshome it has been introduced by man as a garden plant into nearly alltemperate climates throughout the world, and is often found as an escapefrom gardens where introduced--occasionally in this role in the earliestsettled of the United States. Very few well-marked varieties have beenproduced. A variegated one, now grown for ornament as well as forculinary purposes, is probably the same as that mentioned by Mawe in1778. 

_Description. _--The roots are small and fibrous; the stems, about 18inches tall, very numerous, erect or spreading, square; the leaves, green (except as mentioned), broadly ovate with toothed margins, opposite, rather succulent, highly scented; the flowers, few, whitish, or purplish, in small, loose, axillary, one-sided clusters borne frommidsummer until late autumn; the seeds very small--more than 50, 000 tothe ounce. 

_Cultivation. _--Balm is readily propagated by means of divisions, layers, cuttings, and by its seeds, which germinate fairly well evenwhen four years old. Owing to its small size, the seed should be plantedin a seedpan or flat in a greenhouse or hotbed, where all conditions canbe controlled. The soil should be made very fine and friable, the thinlyscattered seeds merely pressed upon the surface with a block or a brick, and water applied preferably through the bottom of the seedpan, whichmay be set in a shallow dish of water until the surface of the soil_begins_ to appear moist. 

When an inch tall the seedlings should be pricked out 2 inches apart inother, deeper flats and when about 4 inches tall set in the garden about1 foot asunder in rows about 18 inches apart. When once established theymay be increased readily by the artificial means mentioned. (See page34. ) Ordinary clean cultivation throughout the season, the removal ofdead parts, and care to prevent the plants from spreading unduly, arethe only requisites of cultivation. Preferably the soil should be poor, rather dry, little if at all enriched and in a sunny place. The foliageof seedling plants or plants newly spring-set should be ready for use bymidsummer; that of established plants from early spring until lateautumn. For home use and market it should be cured as recommended onpage 25, the leaves being very thinly spread and plentifully suppliedwith air because of their succulence. The temperature should be ratherlow. 

_Uses. _--The foliage is widely used for flavoring soups, stews, sauces, and dressings, and, when fresh, to a small extent with salads. Otto oroil of balm, obtained by aqueous distillation from the "hay, " is a paleyellow, essential and volatile oil highly prized in perfumery for itslemon-like odor, and is extensively employed for flavoring variousbeverages. 

=Basil= (_Ocymum basilicum_, Linn. ), an annual herb of the order Labiatæ. The popular name, derived from the specific, signifies royal or kingly, probably because of the plant's use in feasts. In France it is known asherb royale, royal herb. The generic name is derived from _Oza_, a Greekword signifying odor. 

The plant is a native of tropical Asia, where for centuries, especiallyin India, it has been highly esteemed as a condiment. Probably the earlyGreek and Roman writers were well acquainted with it, but commentatorsare not decided. They suppose that the _Okimon_ of Hippocrates, Dioscorides and Theophrastus is the same as _Ocimum hortense_ ofColumella and Varro. 

The plant's introduction into England was about 1548, or perhaps alittle earlier, but probably not prior to 1538, because Turner does notmention it in his "Libellus, " published in that year. It seems to havegrown rapidly in popularity, for in 1586 Lyte speaks of it as if wellknown. In America it has been cultivated somewhat for about a centurypartly because of its fragrant leaves which are employed in bouquets, but mainly for flavoring culinary concoctions. In Australia it is alsomore or less grown, and in countries where French commerce or otherinterests have penetrated it is well known. 

[Illustration: Sweet Basil]

There are several related species which, in America less than in Europeor the East, have attracted attention. The most important of these isdwarf or bush basil (_O. Minimum_, Linn. ), a small Chilian species alsoreported from Cochin China. It was introduced into cultivation in Europein 1573. On account of its compact form it is popular in gardens as anedging as well as a culinary herb, for more than a century it has beengrown in America. Sacred basil (_O. Sanctum_), an oriental species, iscultivated near temples in India and its odoriferous oil extracted forreligious uses. Formerly the common species was considered sacred by theBrahmins who used it especially in honor of Vishnu and in funeral rites. An African species, _O. Fruticosum_, is highly valued at the Cape ofGood Hope for its perfume. 

_Description. _--From the small, fibrous roots the square stems standerect about 1 foot tall. They are very branching and leafy. The leavesare green, except as noted below, ovate, pointed, opposite, somewhattoothed, rather succulent and highly fragrant. The little white flowerswhich appear in midsummer are racemed in leafy whorls, followed by smallblack fruits, popularly called seeds. These, like flaxseed, emit amucilaginous substance when soaked in water. About 23, 000 weigh anounce, and 10 ounces fill a pint. Their vitality lasts about eightyears. 

Like most of the other culinary herbs, basil has varied little inseveral centuries; there are no well-marked varieties of modern origin. Only three varieties of common basil are listed in America; Vilmorinlists only five French ones. Purple basil has lilac flowers, and whengrown in the sun also purple leaf stems and young branches. Lettuce-leaved basil has large, pale-green blistered and wrinkled leaveslike those of lettuce. Its closely set clusters of flowers appearsomewhat late. The leaves are larger and fewer than in the commonvariety. 

The dwarf species is more compact, branching and dainty than the commonspecies. It has three varieties; one with deep violet foliage and stemsand lilac white flowers, and two with green leaves, one very dense andcompact. 

East Indian, or Tree Basil (_O. Gratissimum_, Linn. ), a well-knownspecies in the Orient, seems to have a substitute in _O. Suave_, alsoknown by the same popular name, and presumably the species cultivated inEurope and to some extent in America. It is an upright, branchingannual, which forms a pyramidal bush about 20 inches tall and often 15inches in diameter. It favors very warm situations and tropicalcountries. 

_Cultivation. _--Basil is propagated by seeds. Because these are verysmall, they are best sown in flats under glass, covered lightly withfinely sifted soil and moistened by standing in a shallow pan of wateruntil the surface shows a wet spot. When about an inch tall, theseedlings must be pricked out 2 inches apart each way in larger-sizedflats. When 3 inches tall they will be large enough for the garden, where they should be set 1 foot asunder in rows 15 to 18 inches apart. Often the seed is sown in the mellow border as early in the spring asthe ground can be worked. This method demands perhaps more attentionthan the former, because of weeds and because the rows cannot be easilyseen. When transplanting, preference should be given to a sunnysituation in a mellow, light, fertile, rather dry soil thoroughly wellprepared and as free from weeds as possible. From the start the groundmust be kept loose, open and clean. When the plants meet in the rowscultivation may stop. 

First gatherings of foliage should begin by midsummer when the plantsstart to blossom. Then they may be cut to within a few inches of theground. The stumps should develop a second and even a third crop if careis exercised to keep the surface clean and open. A little dressing ofquickly available fertilizer applied at this time is helpful. For seedsome of the best plants should be left uncut. The seed should ripen bymid-autumn. 

For winter use plants may be transplanted from the garden, or seedlingsmay be started in September. The seeds should be sown two to the inchand the seedlings transplanted to pots or boxes. A handy pot is the4-inch standard; this is large enough for one plant. In flats the plantsshould be 5 or 6 inches apart each way. 

_Uses. _--Basil is one of the most popular herbs in the French cuisine. It is especially relished in mock turtle soup, which, when correctlymade, derives its peculiar taste chiefly from the clovelike flavor ofbasil. In other highly seasoned dishes, such as stews and dressings, basil is also highly prized. It is less used in salads. A golden yellowessential oil, which reddens with age, is extracted from the leaves foruses in perfumery more than in the kitchen. 

The original and famous Fetter Lane sausages, formerly popular withCockney epicures, owed their reputation mainly to basil. During thereigns of Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth farmers grew basil in potsand presented them with compliments to their landladies when these paidtheir visits. 

[Illustration: Borage, Famous for "Cool Tankard"]

=Borage= (_Borago officinalis_, Linn. ), a coarse, hardy, annual herb ofthe natural order Boraginaceæ. Its popular name, derived from thegeneric, is supposed by some to have come from a corruption of _cor_, the heart, and _ago_, to affect, because of its former use as a cordialor heart-fortifying medicine. _Courage_ is from the same source. TheStandard Dictionary, however, points to _burrago_, rough, and relates itindirectly by cross references to _birrus_, a thick, coarse woolen clothworn by the poor during the thirteenth century. The roughness of thefull-grown leaves suggests flannel. Whichever derivation be correct, each is interesting as implying qualities, intrinsic or attributed, tothe plant. 

The specific name indicates its obsolete use in medicine. It is one ofthe numerous plants which have shaken off the superstitions which acredulous populace wreathed around them. Almost none but the leastenlightened people now attribute any medicinal virtues whatever to it. 

The plant is said to come originally from Aleppo, but for centuries hasbeen considered a native of Mediterranean Europe and Africa, whence ithas become naturalized throughout the world by Europeans, who grew itprobably more for medicinal than for culinary purposes. According toAinslie, it was among the species listed by Peter Martyr as planted onIsabella Island by Columbus's companions. The probability is that it wasalso brought to America by the colonists during Queen Elizabeth's time. It has been listed in American seedsmen's catalogues since 1806, but thedemand has always been small and the extent to which it is cultivatedvery limited. 

_Description. _--Borage is of somewhat spreading habit, branchy, about 20inches tall. Its oval or oblong-lanceolate leaves and other green partsare covered with whitish, rather sharp, spreading hairs. The flowers, generally blue, sometimes pink, violet-red, or white, are looselyracemed at the extremities of the branches and main stems. 

 "The flaming rose glooms swarthy red; The borage gleams more blue; And low white flowers, with starry head, Glimmer the rich dusk through. "

 --_George MacDonald_ _"Songs of the Summer Night, " Part III_

The seeds are rather large, oblong, slightly curved, and a ridged andstreaked grayish-brown. They retain their vitality for about eightyears. 

_Cultivation. _--No plant is more easily grown. The seed need only bedropped and covered in any soil, from poor to rich, and the plants willgrow like weeds, and even become such if allowed to have sway. Borageseems, however, to prefer rather light, dry soils, waste places andsteep banks. Upon such the flavor of the flowers is declared to besuperior to that produced upon richer ground, which develops a rankergrowth of foliage. 

In the garden the seeds are sown about 1/2 inch asunder and in rows 15inches apart. Shortly after the plants appear they are thinned to stand3 inches apart, the thinnings being cooked like spinach, or, if smalland delicate, they may be made into salads. Two other thinnings may begiven for similar purposes as the plants grow, so that at the finalthinning the specimens will stand about a foot asunder. Up to this timethe ground is kept open and clean by cultivation; afterwards the boragewill usually have possession. 

_Uses. _--More popular than the use of the foliage as a potherb and asalad is the employment of borage blossoms and the tender upper leaves, in company or not with those of nasturtium, as a garnish or an ornamentto salads, and still more as an addition to various cooling drinks. Thebest known of these beverages is cool tankard, composed of wine, water, lemon juice, sugar and borage flowers. To this "they seem to giveadditional coolness. " They are often used similarly in lemonade, negus, claret-cup and fruit juice drinks. 

The plant has possibly a still more important though undeveloped use asa bee forage. It is so easily grown and flowers so freely that it shouldbe popular with apiarists, especially those who own or live near wasteland, dry and stony tracts which they could sow to it. For such placesit has an advantage over the many weeds which generally disputepossession in that it may be readily controlled by simple cultivation. It generally can hold its own against the plant populace of such places. 

=Caraway= (_Carum carui_, Linn. ), a biennial or an annual herb of thenatural order Umbelliferæ. Its names, both popular and botanical, aresupposed to be derived from Caria, in Asia Minor, where the plant isbelieved first to have attracted attention. From very early ages thecaraway has been esteemed by cooks and doctors, between which a friendlyrivalry might seem to exist, each vying to give it prominence. At thepresent time the cooks seem to be in the ascendancy; the seeds or theiroil are rarely used in modern medicine, except to disguise the flavor ofrepulsive drugs. 

[Illustration: Caraway for Comfits and Birthday Cakes]

Since caraway seeds were found by O'Heer in the debris of the lakehabitations of Switzerland, the fact seems well established that theplant is a native of Europe and the probability is increased that the_Careum_ of Pliny is this same plant, as its use by Apicus would alsoindicate. It is mentioned in the twelfth-century writings as grown inMorocco, and in the thirteenth by the Arabs. As a spice, its use inEngland seems to have begun at the close of the fourteenth century. Fromits Asiatic home it spread first with Phoenician commerce to westernEurope, whence by later voyageurs it has been carried throughout thecivilized world. So widely has it been distributed that the traveler mayfind it in the wilds of Iceland and Scandinavia, the slopes of sunnySpain, the steeps of the Himalayas, the veldt of southern Africa, thebush of Australia, the prairies and the pampas of America. 

Caraway is largely cultivated in Morocco, and is an important article ofexport from Russia, Prussia, and Holland. It has developed no clearlymarked varieties; some specimens, however, seem to be more distinctlyannual than others, though attempts to isolate these and thus secure aquick-maturing variety seem not to have been made. 

_Description. _--The fleshy root, about 1/2 inch in diameter, isyellowish externally, whitish within, and has a slight carroty taste. From it a rosette of finely pinnated leaves is developed, and later thesparsely leaved, channeled, hollow, branching flower stem which risesfrom 18 to 30 inches and during early summer bears umbels of littlewhite flowers followed by oblong, pointed, somewhat curved, light brownaromatic fruits--the caraway "seeds" of commerce. These retain theirgerminating power for about three years, require about 10, 000 seeds tomake an ounce and fifteen ounces to the quart. 

_Cultivation. _--Frequently, if not usually, caraway is sown togetherwith coriander in the same drills on heavy lands during May or earlyJune. The coriander, being a quick-maturing plant, may be harvestedbefore the caraway throws up a flowering stem. Thus two crops may besecured from the same land in the same time occupied by the carawayalone. Ordinary thinning to 6 or 8 inches between plants is done whenthe seedlings are established. Other requirements of the crop are allembraced in the practices of clean cultivation. 

Harvest occurs in July of the year following the seeding. The plants arecut about 12 inches above ground with sickles, spread on sheets to dryfor a few days, and later beaten with a light flail. After threshing, the seed must be spread thinly and turned daily until the last vestigeof moisture has evaporated. From 400 to 800 pounds is the usual range ofyield. 

If seed be sown as soon as ripe, plants may be secured which matureearlier than the main crop. Thus six or eight weeks may be saved in thegrowing season, and by continuing such selection a quick-maturing strainmay be secured with little effort. This would also obviate the troubleof keeping seed from one year to the next, for the strain would bepractically a winter annual. 

_Uses. _--Occasionally the leaves and young shoots are eaten eithercooked or as an ingredient in salads. The roots, too, have been esteemedin some countries, even more highly than the parsnip, which, however, largely because of its size, has supplanted it for this purpose. But theseeds are the important part. They find popular use in bread, cheese, liquors, salads, sauces, soups, candy, and especially in seed cakes, cookies and comfits. The colorless or pale yellow essential oildistilled with water from the seeds, which contain between 5% and 7-1/2%of it, has the characteristic flavor and odor of the fruit. It isextensively employed in the manufacture of toilet articles, such asperfumery, and especially soaps. 

=Catnip=, or =cat mint= (_Nepeta cataria_, Linn. ), a perennial herb of thenatural order Labiatæ. The popular name is in allusion to the attractionthe plant has for cats. They not only eat it, but rub themselves upon itpurring with delight. The generic name is derived from the Etrurian cityNeptic, in the neighborhood of which various species of the genusformerly became prominent. 

Like several of its relatives catnip is a well-known weed. It has becomenaturalized in America, and is most frequently observed in dry, wasteplaces, especially in the East, though it is also often found in gardensand around dwellings throughout the United States and Canada. 

_Description. _--Its erect, square, branching stems, from 18 to 36 inchestall, bear notched oval or heartshaped leaves, whitish below, and duringlate summer terminal clusters of white flowers in small heads, farapart below, but crowded close above. The fruits are small, brown, ovoid, smooth and with three clearly defined angles. An ounce containsabout 3, 400 seeds. Viability lasts for five years. 

[Illustration: Catnip, Pussy's Delight]

_Cultivation. _ Catnip will grow with the most ordinary attention on anyfairly dry soil. The seed need only be sown in autumn or spring wherethe plants are to remain or in a nursery bed for subsequenttransplanting. If to be kept in a garden bed they should stand 18 to 24inches apart each way. Nothing is needful except to keep down weeds inorder to have them succeed for several years on the same spot. 

_Uses. _--The most important use of the plant is as a bee forage; forthis purpose waste places are often planted to catnip. As a condimentthe leaves were formerly in popular use, especially in the form ofsauces; but milder flavors are now more highly esteemed. Still, theFrench use catnip to a considerable extent. Like many of its relatives, catnip was a popular medicinal remedy for many fleshly ills; now it ispractically relegated to domestic medicine. Even in this it is amoribund remedy for infant flatulence, and is clung to only byunlettered nurses of a passing generation. 

=Chervil= (_Scandix Cerefolium_, Linn. ), a southern Europe annual, withstems about 18 inches tall and bearing few divided leaves composed ofoval, much-cut leaflets. The small white flowers, borne in umbels, arefollowed by long, pointed, black seeds with a conspicuous furrow fromend to end. These seeds, which retain their germinability about threeyears, but are rather difficult to keep, may be sown where the plantsare to stay, at any season, about eight weeks before a crop is desired;cultivation is like that of parsley. During summer and in warm climates, cool, shady situations should be chosen, otherwise any situation andsoil are suitable. The leaves, which are highly aromatic, are used, especially in France and England, for seasoning and for mixed salads. Chervil is rarely used alone, but is the chief ingredient in what theFrench call _fines herbes_, a mixture which finds its way into a host ofculinary concoctions. The best variety is the Curled, which, though ithas the same flavor as the plain, is a prettier garnish. 

=Chives= (_Allium Schoenoprasum_, Linn. ), a bulbous, onion-likeperennial belonging to the Liliaceæ. Naturally the plants form thicktufts of abundant, hollow, grasslike leaves from their little oval bulbsand mat of fibrous roots. The short flower stems bear terminal clustersof generally sterile flowers. Hence the plants are propagated byplanting the individual bulbs or by division of clumps in early spring. Frequently chives are planted in flower borders as an edging, for whichpurpose the compact growth and dainty flowers particularly recommendthem. They should not be allowed to grow in the same place more thanthree years. 

Strictly speaking, chives do not belong with the herbs, but their leavesare so frequently used instead of onions for flavoring salads, stews andother dishes, and reference has been so often made to them in thesepages, that a brief description has been included. For market the clumpsare cut in squares and the whole plant sold. Treated in this way thegreengrocers can keep them in good condition by watering until sold. Foruse the leaves are cut with shears close to the ground. If allowed tostand in the garden, cuttings may be made at intervals of two or threeweeks all through the season. 

=Clary= (_Salvia sclarea_, Linn. ), a perennial herb of the natural orderLabiatæ. The popular name is a corruption of the specific. In thediscussion on sage will be found the significance of the generic name. Syria is said to be the original home of clary, but Italy is alsomentioned. The presumption is in favor of the former country, as it isthe older, and the plant was probably carried westward from it bysoldiers or merchants. In England clary was known prior to 1538, whenTurner published his garden lore, but in America, except in foreigners'gardens, it is rarely seen. It has been listed in seedsmen's catalogssince 1806. 

_Description. _--The large, very broad, oblong, obtuse, toothed, woollyhaired, radical leaves are grayish green and somewhat rumpled like thoseof Savoy cabbage. From among them rise the 2-foot tall, square, branching, sparsely leaved stems, which during the second year bearsmall clusters of lilac or white showy flowers in long spikes. Thesmooth brown or marbled shining seeds retain their germinating power forthree years. 

_Cultivation. _--The plants thrive in any well-drained soil. Seed may besown during March in drills 18 inches apart where the plants are toremain or in a seedbed for transplanting 18 inches asunder in May. Cleancultivation is needed throughout the summer until the plants have fullpossession of the ground. In August the leaves may be gathered, and ifthis harvest be judiciously done the production of foliage shouldcontinue until midsummer of the second year, when the plants willprobably insist upon flowering. After this it is best to rely upon newplants for supplies of leaves, the old plants being pulled. 

_Uses. _--In America, the leaves are little used in cookery, and even inEurope they seem to be less popular than formerly, sage having takentheir place. Wine is sometimes made from the plant when in flower. As anornamental, clary is worth a place in the hardy flower border. 

[Illustration: Coriander, for Old-Fashioned Candies]

=Coriander= (_Coriandrum sativum_, Linn. ), "a plant of little beauty andof easiest culture, " is a hardy annual herb of the natural orderUmbelliferæ. The popular name is derived from the generic, which comesfrom the ancient Greek Koris, a kind of bug, in allusion to thedisagreeable odor of the foliage and other green parts. The specificname refers to its cultivation in gardens. Hence the scientific namedeclares it to be the cultivated buggy-smelling plant. 

Coriander has been cultivated from such ancient times that its land ofnativity is unknown, though it is said to be a native of southern Europeand of China. It has been used in cookery and of course, too, inmedicine; for, according to ancient reasoning, anything with sopronounced and unpleasant an odor must necessarily possess powerfulcurative or preventive attributes! Its seeds have been found in Egyptiantombs of the 21st dynasty. Many centuries later Pliny wrote that thebest quality of seed still came to Italy from Egypt. Prior to the Normanconquest in 1066, the plant was well known in Great Britain, probablyhaving been taken there by the early Roman conquerors. Before 1670 itwas introduced into Massachusetts. During this long period ofcultivation there seems to be no record or even indication of varieties. In many temperate and tropical countries it has become a frequent weedin cultivated fields. 

_Description. _--From a cluster of slightly divided radical leavesbranching stems rise to heights of 2 to 2-1/2 feet. Toward their summitsthey bear much divided leaves, with linear segments and umbels of smallwhitish flowers, followed by pairs of united, hemispherical, brownish-yellow, deeply furrowed "seeds, " about the size of a sweet peaseed. These retain their vitality for five or six years. The seeds donot have the unpleasant odor of the plant, but have a rather agreeablesmell and a moderately warm, pungent taste. 

_Cultivation. _--Coriander, a plant of the easiest culture, does best ina rather light, warm, friable soil. In Europe it is often sown withcaraway, which, being a biennial and producing only a rosette of leavesat the surface of the ground the first year, is not injured when theannual coriander is cut. The seed is often sown in the autumn, thoughspring sowing is perhaps in more favor. The rows are made about 15inches apart, the seeds dropped 1 inch asunder and 1/2 inch deep and theplantlets thinned to 6 or 8 inches. Since the plants run to seedquickly, they must be watched and cut early to prevent loss andconsequent seeding of the ground. After curing in the shade the seed isthreshed as already described (see page 28). On favorable land the yieldmay reach or even exceed 1, 500 pounds to the acre. 

_Uses. _--Some writers say the young leaves of the plant are used insalads and for seasoning soups, dressings, etc. If this is so, I canonly remark that there is no accounting for tastes. I am inclined tothink, however, that these writers are drawing upon their imagination orhave been "stuffed" by people who take pleasure in supplyingmisinformation. The odor is such as to suggest the flavor of "buggy"raspberries we sometimes gather in the fence rows. Any person whorelishes buggy berries may perhaps enjoy coriander salad or soup. 

Only the seed is of commercial importance. It is used largely in makingcomfits and other kinds of confectionery, for adding to bread, and, especially in the East, as an ingredient in curry powder and othercondiments. In medicine its chief use now is to disguise the taste ofdisagreeable drugs. Distillers use it for flavoring various kinds ofliquors. 

=Cumin= (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn. ), a low-growing annual herb of the Nilevalley, but cultivated in the Mediterranean region, Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, India, China, and Palestine from very early times, (See Isaiahxviii, 25-27 and Matthew xxiii, 23. ) Pliny is said to have considered itthe best appetizer of all condiments. During the middle ages it was invery common use. All the old herbals of the sixteenth and theseventeenth centuries figure and describe and extol it. In Europe it isextensively cultivated in Malta and Sicily, and will mature seed as farnorth as Norway; in America, today, the seed is cataloged by someseedsmen, but very little is grown. 

_Description. _--The plant is very diminutive, rarely exceeding a heightof 6 inches. Its stems, which branch freely from the base, bear merelinear leaves and small lilac flowers, in little umbels of 10 to 20blossoms each. The six-ribbed, elongated "seeds" in appearance resemblecaraway seeds, but are straighter, lighter and larger, and in formationare like the double seeds of coriander, convex on one side and concaveon the other. They bear long hairs, which fold up when the seed is dry. 

After the seed has been kept for two years it begins to lose itsgerminating power, but will sprout reasonably well when three years old. It is characterized by a peculiar, strong aromatic odor, and a hottaste. 

_Culture. _--As soon as the ground has become warm the seed is sown indrills about 15 inches apart where the plants are to remain. Except forkeeping down the weeds no further attention is necessary. The plantsmature in about two months, when the stems are cut and dried in theshade. (See page 28. ) The seeds are used in India as an ingredient incurry powder, in France for flavoring pickles, pastry and soups. 

[Illustration: Dill, of Pickle Fame]

=Dill= (_Anethum graveolens_, Linn. ), a hardy annual, native of theMediterranean and the Black Sea regions, smaller than common fennel, which it somewhat resembles both in appearance and in the flavor of thegreen parts, which are, however, less agreeable. 

In ancient times it was grown in Palestine. The word translated, "anise"in Matthew xxiii, 23, is said to have been "dill" in the original Greek. It was well known in Pliny's time, and is often discussed by writers inthe middle ages. According to American writings, it has been grown inthis country for more than 100 years and has become spontaneous in manyplaces. 

_Description. _--Ordinarily the plants grow 2 to 2-1/2 feet tall. Theglaucous, smooth, hollow, branching stems bear very threadlike leavesand in midsummer compound umbels with numerous yellow flowers, whosesmall petals are rolled inward. Very flat, pungent, bitter seeds arefreely produced, and unless gathered early are sure to stock the gardenwith volunteer seedlings for the following year. Under fair storageconditions, the seeds continue viable for three years. They are ratherlight; a quart of them weighs about 11 ounces, and an ounce is said tocontain over 25, 000 seeds. 

_Cultivation. _--Where dill has not already been grown seed may be sownin early spring, preferably in a warm sandy soil, where the plants areto remain. Any well-drained soil will do. The drills should be 1 footapart, the seeds scattered thinly and covered very shallow; a bed 12feet square should supply abundance of seed for any ordinary family. Tosow this area 1/4 to 1/2 ounce of seed is ample. For field use the rowsmay be 15 inches apart and the seed sown more thinly. It should not becovered much more than 1/4 inch. Some growers favor fall sowing, becausethey claim the seed is more likely to germinate than in the spring, andalso to produce better plants than spring-sown seed. 

At all times the plants must be kept free from weeds and the soil looseand open. When three or four weeks old the seedlings are thinned to 9inches, or even a foot apart. As soon as the seed is ripe, shortly aftermidsummer, it must be gathered with the least possible shaking andhandling, so as to prevent loss. It is well to place the stems as cutdirectly in a tight-bottomed cart or a wheelbarrow, with a canvasreceptacle for the purpose, and to haul direct to the shade where dryingis to occur. A good place for this is a barn, upon the floor of which alarge canvas sheet is spread, and where a free circulation of air can besecured. (See page 28. )

_Uses. _--The French use dill for flavoring preserves, cakes and pastry. For these purposes it is of too strong and pronounced a character to berelished by American palates. The seeds perhaps more often appear insoups, sauces and stews, but even here they are relished more by ourEuropean residents than by native Americans. Probably they are most usedin pickles, especially in preserving cucumbers according to Germanrecipes. Thousands of barrels of such pickles are sold annually, moreespecially in the larger cities and to the poorer people; but as thispickle is procurable at all delicatessen stores, it has gained greatpopularity among even the well-to-do. An oil is distilled from the seedsand used in perfuming soap. The young leaves are said to be used inpickles, soups and sauces, and even in salads. For the last purpose theyare rather strong to suit most people, and for the others the seeds arefar more popular. 

Dill vinegar is a popular household condiment. It is made by soaking theseed in good vinegar for a few days before using. The quantity ofingredients to use is immaterial. Only a certain amount of the flavorcan be dissolved by the vinegar, and as few samples of vinegar arealike, the quantities both to mix and of the decoction to use must beleft to the housewife. This may be said, however, that after one lot ofseed has been treated the vinegar may be poured off and the seedssteeped a second time to get a weaker infusion. The two infusions maythen be mixed and kept in a dark cupboard for use as needed. 

=Fennel= (_Foeniculum officinale_, All. ), a biennial or perennial herb, generally considered a native of southern Europe, though common on allMediterranean shores. The old Latin name _Foeniculum_ is derived from_foenum_ or hay. It has spread with civilization, especially whereItalians have colonized, and may be found growing wild in many parts ofthe world, upon dry soils near the sea coast and upon river banks. 

[Illustration: Sweet Fennel]

It seems to be partial to limestone soils, such as the chalky lands ofEngland and the shelly formation of Bermuda. In this latter community Ihave seen it thriving upon cliffs where there seemed to be only a pinchof soil, and where the rock was so dry and porous that it would crumbleto coarse dust when crushed in the hand. The plant was cultivated by theancient Romans for its aromatic fruits and succulent, edible shoots. Whether cultivated in northern Europe at that time is not certain, butit is frequently mentioned in Anglo-Saxon cookery prior to the Normanconquest. Charlemagne ordered its culture upon the imperial farms. Atpresent it is most popular in Italy, and France. In America it is inmost demand among French and Italians. Like many other plants, fennelhas had a highly interesting career from a medical point of view. But itno longer plays even a "small part" in the drama. Hints as to itshistory may be found on page 54. 

_Description. _--Common garden or long, sweet fennel is distinguishedfrom its wild or better relative (_F. Vulgare_) by having much stouter, taller (5 to 6 feet) tubular and larger stems, less divided, moreglaucous leaves. But a still more striking difference is seen in theleaf stalks which form a curved sheath around the stem even as far up asthe base of the leaf above. Then, too, the green flowers are borne onmore sturdy pedicels in the broader umbels, lastly the seeds are doublethe size of the wild fennel seeds, 1/4 or 1/2 inch long. They are convexon one side, flat on the other, and are marked by five yellowish ribs. Though a French writer says the seed degenerates "promptly, " andrecommends the use of fresh seed annually, it will not be wise to throwaway any where it is not wanted to germinate, unless it is over fouryears old, as seed as old even as that is said to be satisfactory forplanting. 

_Cultivation. _--In usual garden practice fennel is propagated by seeds, and is grown as an annual instead of as a biennial or a perennial. Theplants will flourish in almost any well-drained soil, but seem to preferlight loams of a limy nature. It is not particular as to exposure. Theseed may be sown in nursery beds or where the plants are to remain. Inthe beds, the drills may be 6 inches apart, and not more than 1-3 inchdeep, or the seed may be scattered broadcast. An ounce will be enoughfor a bed 10 feet square. When the plants are about 3 inches tall theyshould be transplanted 15 or 18 inches asunder in rows 2 to 2-1/2 feetapart. Some growers sow in late summer and in autumn so as to have earlycrops the following season; they also make several successional sowingsat intervals of one or two weeks, in order to supply the demands oftheir customers for fresh fennel stalks from midsummer to December oreven later. The plants will grow more or less in very cold, that is, notactually freezing weather. 

If sown in place, the rows should be the suggested 2 to 2-1/2 feetapart, and the plants thinned several times until the required distanceis reached. Thinnings may be used for culinary purposes. For family usehalf an ounce of seed, if fairly fresh, will produce an ample supply ofplants, and for several years, either from the established roots or byreseeding. Unless seed is needed for household or sowing purposes, theflower stems should be cut as soon as they appear. 

_Uses. _--Fennel is considered indispensable in French and Italiancookery. The young plants and the tender leaves are often used forgarnishes and to add flavor to salads. They are also minced and added tosauces usually served with puddings. The tender stems and the leaves areemployed in soups and fish sauces, though more frequently they are eatenraw as a salad with or without dressing. The famous "Carosella" ofNaples consists of the stems cut when the plant is about to bloom. These stems are considered a great delicacy served raw with the leafstalks still around them. Oil, vinegar and pepper are eaten with them. By sowing at intervals of a week or 10 days Italian gardeners manage tohave a supply almost all the year. 

The seeds are used in cookery, confectionery and for flavoring liquors. Oil of fennel, a pale yellow liquid, with a sweetish aromatic odor andflavor, is distilled with water. It is used in perfumery and forscenting soaps. A pound of oil is the usual yield of 500 pounds of theplant. 

=Finocchio=, or =Florence fennel= (_F. Dulce_, D. C. ), deserves specialmention here. It appears to be a native of Italy, a distinct dwarfannual, very thick-set herb. The stem joints are so close together andtheir bases so swelled as to suggest malformation. Even when full grownand producing seed, the plant rarely exceeds 2 feet. The large, finelycut, light green leaves are borne on very broad, pale green or almostwhitish stalks, which overlap at their bases, somewhat like celery, butmuch more swelled at edible maturity, to form a sort of head orirregular ball, the "apple, " as it is called, sometimes as large as aman's fist. The seeds are a peculiar oblong, much broader than long, convex on one side and flat on the other, with five conspicuous ribs. 

Cultivation is much the same as for common fennel, though owing to thedwarf nature of the plant the rows and the plants may be closertogether. The seedlings should be 5 or 6 inches asunder. They are verythirsty things and require water frequently. When the "apple" attainsthe size of an egg, earth may be drawn up slightly to the base, whichmay be about half covered; cutting may begin about 10 days later. Florence fennel is generally boiled and served with either a butter or acream dressing. It suggests celery in flavor, but is sweeter and is evenmore pleasingly fragrant. In Italy it is one of the commonest and mostpopular of vegetables. In other European countries it is also wellknown, but in America its cultivation is almost confined to Italiangardens or to such as supply Italian demands in the large cities. In NewYork it is commonly sold by greengrocers and pushcart men in the Italiansections. 

=Fennel Flower= (_Nigella sativa_, Linn. ), an Asiatic annual, belonging tothe Ranunculaceæ, grown to a limited extent in southern Europe, butscarcely known in America. Among the Romans it was esteemed in cookery, hence one of its common names, Roman coriander. The plant has a ratherstiff, erect, branching stem, bears deeply cut grayish-green leaves andterminal grayish-blue flowers, which precede odd, toothed, seed vesselsfilled with small, triangular, black, highly aromatic seeds. For gardenuse the seed is sown in spring after the ground gets warm. The drillsmay be 15 to 18 inches apart and the plants thinned to 10 or 12 inchesasunder. No special attention is necessary until midsummer, when theseed ripens. These are easily threshed and cleaned. After drying theyshould be stored in sacks in a cool, dry place. They are used just asthey are or like dill in cookery. 

=Hoarhound=, or =horehound= (_Marrubium vulgare_, Linn. ), a perennial plantof the natural order Labiatæ, formerly widely esteemed in cookery andmedicine, but now almost out of use except for making candy which somepeople still eat in the belief that it relieves tickling in the throatdue to coughing. In many parts of the world hoarhound has becomenaturalized on dry, poor soils, and is even a troublesome weed in suchsituations. Bees are very partial to hoarhound nectar, and make apleasing honey from the flowers where these are abundant. This honey hasbeen almost as popular as hoarhound candy, and formerly was obtainableat druggists. Except in isolated sections, it has ceased to be sold inthe drug stores. The generic name _Marrubium_ is derived from a Hebrewword meaning bitter. The flavor is so strong and lasting that the modernpalate wonders how the ancient mouth could stand such a thing incookery. 

The numerous branching, erect stems and the almost square, toothed, grayish-green leaves are covered with a down from which the common namehoarhound is derived. The white flowers, borne in axillary clustersforming whorls and spikes, are followed by small, brown, oblong seedspointed at one end. These may be sown up to the third year afterripening with the expectation that they will grow. Spring is the usualtime for sowing. A dry, poor soil, preferably exposed to the south, should be chosen. The plants may stand 12 to 15 inches apart. After oncebecoming established no further attention need be given except toprevent seed forming, thus giving the plant less chance to become anuisance. Often the clumps may be divided or layers or cuttings may beused for propagation. No protection need be given, as the plants arehardy. 

An old author gives the following recipe for hoarhound candy: To onepint of a strong decoction of the leaves and stems or the roots add 8 or10 pounds of sugar. Boil to candy height and pour into molds or smallpaper cases previously well dusted with finely powdered lump sugar, orpour on dusted marble slabs and cut in squares. 

=Hyssop= (_Hyssopus officinalis_, Linn. ), a perennial evergreen undershrubof the Labiatæ, native of the Mediterranean region. Though well known inancient times, this plant is probably not the one known as hyssop inBiblical writings. According to the Standard Dictionary the Biblical"hyssop" is "an unidentified plant . . . Thought by some to have been aspecies of marjoram (_Origanum maru_); by others, the caper-bush(_Capparis spinosa_); and by the author of the 'History of BiblePlants, ' to have been the name of any common article in the form of abrush or a broom. " In ancient and medieval times hyssop was grown forits fancied medicinal qualities, for ornament and for cookery. Exceptfor ornament, it is now very little cultivated. Occasionally it is foundgrowing wild in other than Mediterranean countries. 

_Description. _--The smooth, simple stems, which grow about 2 feet tall, bear lanceolate-linear, entire leaves and small clusters of usuallyblue, though sometimes pink or white flowers, crowded in terminalspikes. The small, brown, glistening three-angled seeds, which have alittle white hilum near their apices, retain their viability threeyears. Leaves, stems and flowers possess a highly aromatic odor and ahot, bitter flavor. 

_Cultivation. _--Hyssop succeeds best in rather warm, limy soil. It maybe readily propagated by division, cuttings, and seed. In cold climatesthe last way is the most common. Seed is sown in early spring, either ina cold frame or in the open ground, and the seedlings transplanted inearly summer. Even where the plants survive the winters, it is advisableto renew them every three or four years. When grown in too rich soil, the growth will be very lush and will lack aroma. Plants should standnot closer than 6 inches in the rows, which should be at least 18 inchesapart. They do best in partial shade. 

_Uses. _--Hyssop has almost entirely disappeared from culinary practicebecause it is too strong-flavored. Its tender leaves and shoots are, however, occasionally added to salads, to supply a bitter taste. Thecolorless oil distilled from the leaves has a peculiar odor and anacrid, camphorescent taste. Upon contact with the air it turns yellowand changes to a resin. From 400 to 500 pounds of the fresh plant yielda pound of oil. The oil is used to some extent in the preparation oftoilet articles. 

=Lavender=, (_Lavendula vera_, D. C. ; _L. Angustifolia_, Moench. ; _L. Spica_, Linn. ), a half-hardy perennial undershrub, native of dry, calcareous uplands in southern Europe. Its name is derived from theLatin word _Lavo_, to wash, a distillation of the flowers beinganciently used in perfuming water for washing the body. The plant formsa compact clump 2 to 2-1/2 feet tall, has numerous erect stems, bearingsmall, linear gray leaves, above which the slender, square, flower stemsarise. The small violet-blue flowers are arranged in a short, terminalspike, and are followed by little brown, oblong, shiny seeds, with whitedots at the ends, attached to the plant. The seeds remain viable forabout five years. 

_Cultivation. _--Lavender succeeds best on light, limy or chalky soil, but will do well in any good loam. In gardens it is usually employed asan edging for flower beds, and is most frequently propagated by divisionor cuttings, seed being used only to get a start where plants cannot besecured in the other ways mentioned. In cold climates the plants musteither be protected or removed to a greenhouse, or at least a coldframe, which can be covered in severe weather. The seed is sown indoorsduring March, and if crowding, pricked out 2 inches asunder. When theground has become warm, the plants are set in the open 15 to 20 inchesasunder. It delights in a sunny situation, and is most fragrant on poorsoil. Rich soil makes the plant larger but the flowers poorer inperfume. 

_Uses. _--The plant is sometimes grown for a condiment and an addition tosalads, dressings, etc. , but its chief use is in perfumery, the flowersbeing gathered and either dried for use in sachet bags or distilled fortheir content of oil. In former years no girl was supposed to be readyfor marriage until, with her own hands, she had made her own linen andstored it with lavender. And in some sections the lavender is stillused, though the linen is nowadays purchased. 

In southern France and in England considerable areas are devoted tolavender for the perfumery business. The flower stems are cut in August, covered at once with bast matting to protect them from the sun and takento the stills to obtain the thin, pale yellow, fragrant oil. Four-year-old plants yield the greatest amount of oil, but the productis greater from a two-year plantation than from an older one, the plantsthen being most vigorous. Two grades of oil are made, the best beingused for lavender water, the poorer for soap making. In a good seasonabout one pound of oil is obtained from 150 to 200 pounds of the cutplants. 

=Lovage= (_Levisticum officinale_, Koch. ), a perennial, native of theMediterranean region. The large, dark-green, shining radical leaves areusually divided into two or three segments. Toward the top the thick, hollow, erect stems divide to form opposite, whorled branches which bearumbels of yellow flowers, followed by highly aromatic, hollowed fruits("seeds") with three prominent ribs. Propagation is by division or byseeds not over three years old. In late summer when the seed ripens, itis sown and the seedlings transplanted either in the fall or as early inspring as possible to their permanent places. Rich, moist soil isneeded. Root division is performed in early spring. With cultivation andalternation like that given to Angelica, the plants should last forseveral years. 

Formerly lovage was used for a great variety of purposes, but nowadaysit is restricted almost wholly to confectionery, the young stems beinghandled like those of Angelica. So far as I have been able to learn, theleaf stalks and stem bases, which were formerly blanched like celery, are no longer used in this way. 

=Marigold= (_Calendula officinalis_, Linn. ), an annual herb of the naturalorder Compositæ, native of southern Europe. Its Latin name, suggestiveof its flowering habit, signifies blooming through the months. Our wordcalendar is of the same derivation. Its short stems, about 12 inchestall, branch near their bases, bear lanceolate, oblong, unpleasantlyscented leaves, and showy yellow or orange flowers in heads. The curved, gray seeds, which are rough, wrinkled and somewhat spiny, retain theirgerminating power for about three years. 

_Cultivation. _--For the garden the seed is usually started in a hotbedduring March or April and the plants pricked out in flats 2 inches apartand hardened off in the usual way. When the weather becomes settled theyare set a foot or 15 inches apart in rather poor soil, preferably lightand sandy, with sunny exposure. Often the seed is sown in the open andthe seedlings thinned and transplanted when about 2 inches tall. 

_Uses. _--The flower heads are sometimes dried and used in broths, soups, stews, etc. , but the flavor is too pronounced for American palates. Onegardener remarked that "only a few plants are needed by a family. " Ithink that two would produce about twice as much as I would care to usein a century. For culinary use the flowers are gathered when in fullbloom, dried in the shade and stored in glass jars. The fresh flowershave often been used to color butter. 

The marigold, "homely forgotten flower, under the rose's bower, plain asa weed, " to quote Bayard Taylor, is a general favorite flowering plant, especially in country gardens. It is so easily grown, is so free abloomer, and under ordinary management continues from early summer untileven hard frosts arrive, that busy farmers wives and daughters love it. Then, too, it is one of the old-fashioned flowers, about which so manyhappy thoughts cling. What more beautiful and suggestive lines could onewish than these:

 "The marigold, whose courtier's face Echoes the sun, and doth unlace Her at his rise, at his full stop Packs up and shuts her gaudy shop. "

 --_John Cleveland_ "_On Phillis Walking before Sunrise_"

 "Youth! Youth! how buoyant are thy hopes! They turn Like marigolds toward the sunny side, "

 --_Jean Ingelow_ "_The Four Bridges_"

=Marjoram. =--Two species of marjoram now grown for culinary purposes(several others were formerly popular) are members of the Labiatæ ormint family--pot or perennial marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_, Linn. ) andsweet or annual (_O. Marjorana_). Really, both plants are perennials, but sweet marjoram, because of its liability to be killed by frost, isso commonly cultivated in cold countries as an annual that it hasacquired this name, which readily distinguishes it from its hardyrelative. Perennial marjoram is a native of Europe, but has becomenaturalized in many cool and even cold temperate climates. It is oftenfound wild in the Atlantic states in the borders of woods. 

[Illustration: Sweet Marjoram]

The general name _origanum_, meaning delight of the mountain, is derivedfrom two Greek words, _oros_, mountain; and _ganos_, joy, some of thespecies being found commonly upon mountain sides. Under cultivation ithas developed a few varieties the most popular of which are a variegatedform used for ornamental purposes, and a dwarf variety noted for itsability to come true to seed. Both varieties are used in cookery. Theperennial species seems to have had the longer association withcivilization; at least it is the one identified in the writings ofPliny, Albertus Magnus and the English herbalists of the middle ages. Annual marjoram is thought to be the species considered sacred in Indiato Vishnu and Siva. 

_Description. _--Perennial marjoram rises even 2 feet high, in branchyclumps, bears numerous short-stemmed, ovate leaves about 1 inch long, and terminal clusters or short spikes of little, pale lilac or pinkblossoms and purple bracts. The oval, brown seeds are very minute. Theyare, however, heavy for their size, since a quart of them weighs about24 ounces. I am told that an ounce contains more than 340, 000, and wouldrather believe than be forced to prove it. 

Annual marjoram is much more erect, more bush-like, has smaller, narrower leaves, whiter flowers, green bracts and larger, but lighterseeds--only 113, 000 to the ounce and only 20 ounces to the quart!

_Cultivation. _--Perennial marjoram when once established may be readilypropagated by cuttings, division or layers, but it is so easy to growfrom seed that this method is usually employed. There is little dangerof its becoming a weed, because the seedlings are easily destroyed whilesmall. The seed should be sown during March or April in flats or bedsthat can be protected from rain. It is merely dusted on the surface, thesoil being pressed down slightly with a board or a brick. Until theseedlings appear, the bed should be shaded to check evaporation. Whenthe plants are 2 or 3 inches tall they may be transplanted to the placeswhere they are to remain, as they are not so easy to transplant aslettuce and geraniums. The work should be done while the plants are verysmall, and larger numbers should be set than will ultimately be allowedto grow. I have had no difficulty in transplanting, but some people whohave had prefer to sow the seed where the plants are to stand. 

If to be used for edging, the dwarf plants may be set 3 or 6 inchesapart; the larger kinds require a foot or 15 inches in which to develop. In field cultivation the greater distance is the more desirable. Fromthe very start the plants must be kept free from weeds and the soilloose and open. Handwork is essential until they become established. Theplants will last for years. 

Annual marjoram is managed in the same kind of way as to seeding andcultivation; but as the plant is tender, fresh sowings must be madeannually. To be sure, plants may be taken up in the fall and used formaking cuttings or layers towards spring for the following seasons beds. As annual marjoram is somewhat smaller than the perennial kind (exceptthe dwarf perennial variety), the distances may be somewhat less, say 9or 10 inches. Annual marjoram is a quick-growing plant--so quick, infact, that leaves may be secured within six or eight weeks of sowing. The flowers appear in 10 to 12 weeks, and the seed ripens soon after. 

When it is desired to cure the leaves for winter use, the stems shouldbe cut just as the flowers begin to appear, and dried in the usualmanner. (See page 25. ) If seed is wanted, they should be cut soon afterthe flowers fall or even before all have fallen--when the scales aroundthe seeds begin to look as if drying. The cut stems must be dried onsheets of very fine weave, to prevent loss of seed. When the leaves arethoroughly dry they must be thrashed and rubbed before being placed insieves, first of coarse, and then of finer mesh. 

_Uses. _--The leaves and the flower and tender stem tips of both specieshave a pleasant odor, and are used for seasoning soups, stews, dressingsand sauces. They are specially favored in France and Italy, but arepopular also in England and America. In France marjoram is cultivatedcommercially for its oil, a thin, light yellow or greenish liquid, withthe concentrated odor of marjoram and peppermint. It has a warm, andslightly bitter taste. About 200 pounds of stems and leaves are neededto get a pound of oil. Some distillation is done in England, where 70pounds of the plant yield about one ounce of oil. This oil is used forperfuming toilet articles, especially soap, but is perhaps less popularthan the essential oil of thyme. 

=Mint= (_Mentha viridis_, Linn. )--Spearmint, a member of the Labiatæ, is avery hardy perennial, native to Mediterranean countries. Its genericname is derived from the mythological origin ascribed to it. Poetsdeclared that Proserpine became jealous of Cocytus's daughter, Minthe, whom she transformed into the plant. The specific name means green, hence the common name, green mint, often applied to it. The old Jewishlaw did not require that tithes of "mint, anise and cumin" should bepaid in to the treasury, but the Pharisees paid them while omitting theweightier matters, justice, mercy, and faith (Matthew xxiii, 23). Fromthis and many other references in old writings it is evident that minthas been highly esteemed for many centuries. In the seventeenth centuryJohn Gerarde wrote concerning it that "the smelle rejoyceth the heart ofman. " Indeed, it has been so universally esteemed that it is found wildin nearly all countries to which civilization has extended. It has beenknown as an escape from American gardens for about 200 years, and issometimes troublesome as a weed in moist soil. 

[Illustration: Mint, Best Friend of Roast Lamb]

_Description. _--From creeping rootstocks erect square stems rise to aheight of about 2 feet, and near their summits bear spreading brancheswith very short-stemmed, acute-pointed, lance-shaped, wrinkled leaveswith toothed edges, and cylindrical spikes of small pink or lilacflowers, followed by very few, roundish, minute, brown seeds. 

_Cultivation. _--The plant may be easily propagated by means of cuttings, offsets and division in spring. They may be expected to yield somewhatof a crop the first season, but much more the second. In field culturethey will continue profitable for several years, provided that eachautumn the tops are cut off near the ground and a liberal dressing ofmanure, compost or even rich soil is given. In ordinary garden practiceit is well also to observe this plan, but usually mint is there allowedto shift for itself, along with the horseradish and the Jerusalemartichoke when such plants are grown. So treated, it is likely to givetrouble, because, having utilized the food in one spot, its stems seekto migrate to better quarters. Hence, if the idea is to neglect theplants, a corner of the garden should be chosen where there is no dangerof their becoming a nuisance. It is best to avoid all such trouble byrenewing or changing the beds every 5 or 6 years. 

Mint will grow anywhere but does best in a moist, rich loam and partialshade. If in a sheltered spot, it will start earlier in the spring thanif exposed. Upon an extensive scale the drills should be 2 inches deepand 12 to 15 inches apart. Bits of the rootstocks are dropped atintervals of 6 to 12 inches in the rows and covered with a wheel hoe. For a new plantation the rootstocks should be secured when the stemshave grown 2 or 3 inches tall. 

For forcing, the clumps are lifted in solid masses, with the soilattached, and placed in hotbeds or forcing house benches. Three or fourinches of moist soil is worked in among and over them and watered freelyas soon as growth starts. Cuttings may be made in two or three weeks. Often mint is so grown in lettuce and violet houses both upon and underthe benches. During winter and spring there is enough of a demand forthe young tender stems and leaves to make the plants pay. It is saidthat the returns from an ordinary 3 x 6-foot hotbed sash should be $10to $15 for the winter. For drying, the stems should be cut on a dry daywhen the plants are approaching full bloom and after the dew hasdisappeared in the morning. They should be spread out very thinly in theshade or in an airy shed. (See page 25. ) If cut during damp weather, there is danger of the leaves turning black. 

_Uses. _--In both the green and the dried state mint is widely used inEurope for flavoring soups, stews and sauces for meats of unpronouncedcharacter. Among the Germans pulverized mint is commonly upon the tablein cruets for dusting upon gravies and soups, especially pea and beanpurees. 

In England and America the most universal use of mint is for making mintsauce, _the_ sauce _par excellence_ with roast spring lamb. Nothing canbe simpler than to mince the tender tops and leaves very, very finely, add to vinegar and sweeten to taste. Many people fancy they don't likeroast lamb. The chances are that they have never eaten it with wellmademint sauce. In recent years mint jelly has been taking the place of thesauce, and perhaps justly, because it can not only be kept indefinitelywithout deterioration, but because it looks and is more tempting. It maybe made by steeping mint leaves in apple jelly or in one of the variouskinds of commercial gelatins so popular for making cold fruit puddings. The jelly should be a delicate shade of green. Of course, before pouringinto the jelly glasses, the liquid is strained through a jelly bag toremove all particles of mint. A handful of leaves should color andflavor four to six glasses full. 

=Parsley= (_Carum Petroselinum_, Linn. ), a hardy biennial herb of thenatural order Umbelliferæ, native to Mediterranean shores, andcultivated for at least 2, 000 years. The specific name is derived fromthe habitat of the plant, which naturally grows among rocks, the Greekword for which is _petros_. Many of the ancient writings containreferences to it, and some give directions for its cultivation. Thewritings of the old herbalists of the 15th century show that in theirtimes it had already developed several well-defined forms and numerousvarieties, always a sure sign that a plant is popular. Throughout theworld today it is unquestionably the most widely grown of all gardenherbs, and has the largest number of varieties. In moist, moderatelycool climates, it may be found wild as a weed, but nowhere has it becomea pest. 

 "Ah! the green parsley, the thriving tufts of dill; These again shall rise, shall live the coming year. "

 --_Moschus_

[Illustration: Curled Parsley]

_Description. _--Like most biennials, parsley develops only a rosette ofleaves during the first year. These leaves are dark green, long stalkedand divided two or three times into ovate, wedge-shaped segments, andeach division either entire, as in parsnip, or more or less finely cutor "curled. " During the second season the erect, branched, channeledflower stems rise 2 feet or more high, and at their extremities bearumbels of little greenish flowers. The fruits or "seeds" are light brownor gray, convex on one side and flat on the other two, the convex sidemarked with fine ribs. They retain their germinating power for threeyears. An interesting fact, observed by Palladius in 210 A. D. , is thatold seed germinates more freely than freshly gathered seed. 

_Cultivation. _--Parsley is so easily grown that no garden, and indeed nohousehold, need be without it. After once passing the infant stage nodifficulty need be experienced. It will thrive in any ordinary soil andwill do well in a window box with only a moderate amount of light, andthat not even direct sunshine. Gardeners often grow it beneath benchesin greenhouses, where it gets only small amounts of light. No one needhesitate to plant it. 

The seed is very slow in germinating, often requiring four to six weeksunless soaked before sowing. A full day's soaking in tepid water is nonetoo long to wake up the germs. The drills may be made in a cold frameduring March or in the open ground during April. 

It is essential that parsley be sown very early in order to germinate atall. If sown late, it may possibly not get enough moisture to sprout, and if so it will fail completely. When sown in cold frames or beds fortransplanting, the rows may be only 3 or 4 inches apart, though it isperhaps better, when such distances are chosen, to sow each alternaterow to forcing radishes, which will have been marketed by the time theparsley seedlings appear. In the open ground the drills should be 12 to15 inches apart, and the seed planted somewhat deeper and farther apartthan in the presumably better-prepared seedbed or cold frame. One inchbetween seeds is none too little. 

In field culture and at the distances mentioned six or seven pounds ofseed will be needed for the acre. For cultivation on a smaller scale anounce may be found sufficient for 50 to 100 feet of drill. This quantityshould be enough for any ordinary-sized family. In all open groundculture the radish is the parsley's best friend, because it not onlymarks the rows, and thus helps early cultivation, but the radishesbreak, loosen and shade the soil and thus aid the parsley plants. 

When the first thinning is done during May, the parsley plants may beallowed to stand 2 inches asunder. When they begin to crowd at thisdistance each second plant may be removed and sold. Four to six littleplants make a bunch. The roots are left on. This thinning will not onlyaid the remaining plants, but should bring enough revenue to pay thecost, perhaps even a little more. The first cutting of leaves fromplants of field-sown seed should be ready by midsummer, but as notedbelow it is usually best to practice the method that will hastenmaturity and thus catch the best price. A "bunch" is about the amountthat can be grasped between the thumb and the first finger, 10 to 15stalks. 

It is usual to divide the field into three parts so as to have asuccession of cuttings. About three weeks are required for a new crop ofleaves to grow and mature after the plants have been cut. Larger yieldscan be secured by cutting only the fully matured leaves, allowing theothers to remain and develop for later cuttings. Three or four times asmuch can be gathered from a given area in this way. All plain leaves ofsuch plants injure the appearance and reduce the price of the buncheswhen offered for sale. 

If protected from frost, the plants will yield all winter. They may beeasily transplanted in cold frames. These should be placed in some warm, sheltered spot and the plants set in them 4 by 6 inches. Mats orshutters will be needed in only the coldest weather. Half a dozen to adozen stalks make the usual bunch and retail for 2 or 3 cents. 

In the home garden, parsley may be sown as an edging for flower beds andborders. For such purpose it is best to sow the seed thickly during lateOctober or November in double rows close together, say 3 or 4 inches. Sown at that time, the plants may be expected to appear earlier than ifspring sown and to form a ribbon of verdure which will remain green notonly all the growing season, but well into winter if desired. It isbest, however, to dig them up in the fall and resow for the yearsucceeding. 

For window culture, all that is needed is a box filled with rich soil. The roots may be dug in the fall and planted in the box. A sunny windowis best, but any window will do. If space is at a premium, a nail kegmay be made to yield a large amount of leaves. Not only may the tops befilled with plants, but the sides also. Holes should be bored in thestaves about 4 inches apart. (See illustration, page 2. ) A layer ofearth is placed in the bottom as deep as the lowest tier of holes. Thenroots are pushed through these holes and a second layer of earth put in. The process is repeated till the keg is full. Then plants are set on thetop. As the keg is being filled the earth should be packed very firmly, both around the plants and in the keg. When full the soil should bethoroughly soaked and allowed to drain before being taken to the window. To insure a supply of water for all the plants, a short piece of pipeshould be placed in the center of the keg so as to reach about half waytoward the bottom. This will enable water to reach the plants placed inthe lower tiers of holes. If the leaves look yellow at any time, theymay need water or a little manure water. 

As parsley is grown for its leaves, it can scarcely be over fertilized. Like cabbage, but, of course, upon a smaller scale, it is a grossfeeder. It demands that plenty of nitrogenous food be in the soil. Thatis, the soil should be well supplied with humus, preferably derived fromdecaying leguminous crops or from stable manure. A favorite commercialfertilizer for parsley consists of 3 per cent nitrogen, 8 per centpotash and 9 per cent phosphoric acid applied in the drills atthe rate of 600 to 900 pounds to the acre in two or threeapplications--especially the nitrogen, to supply which nitrate of sodais the most popular material. 

A common practice among market gardeners in the neighborhood of New Yorkhas been to sow the seed in their cold frames between rows of lettucetransplanted during March or early April. The lettuce is cut in May, bywhich time the parsley is getting up. When grown by this plan the cropmay be secured four or five weeks earlier than if the seed is sown inthe open ground. The first cutting may be made during June. After thisfirst cutting has been made the market usually becomes overstocked andthe price falls, so many growers do not cut again until early Septemberwhen they cut and destroy the leaves preparatory to securing an autumnand winter supply. 

When the weather becomes cool and when the plants have developed a newand sturdy rosette of leaves, they are transplanted in shallow trencheseither in cold frames, in cool greenhouses (lettuce and violet houses), under the benches of greenhouses, or, in fact, any convenient place thatis not likely to prove satisfactory for growing plants that require moreheat and light. 

This method, it must be said, is not now as popular near the largecities as before the development of the great trucking fields in theAtlantic coast states; but it is a thoroughly practical plan and wellworth practicing in the neighborhood of smaller cities and towns notadequately supplied with this garnishing and flavoring herb. 

A fair return from a cold frame to which the plants have beentransplanted ranges from $3 to $7 during the winter months. Since manysashes are stored during this season, such a possible return deserves tobe considered. The total annual yield from an acre by this method mayvary from $500 to $800 or even more--gross. By the ordinary fieldmethod from $150 to $300 is the usual range. Instead of throwing awaythe leaves cut in September, it should be profitable to dry these leavesand sell them in tins or jars for flavoring. 

When it is desired to supply the demand for American seed, which ispreferred to European, the plants may be managed in any of the waysalready mentioned, either allowed to remain in the field or transplantedto cold frames, or greenhouses. If left in the field, they should bepartially buried with litter or coarse manure. As the ground will not beoccupied more than a third of the second season, a crop of early beets, forcing carrots, radishes, lettuce or some other quick-maturing crop maybe sown between the rows of parsley plants. Such crops will mature bythe time the parsley seed is harvested in late May or early June, andthe ground can then be plowed and fitted for some late crop such asearly maturing but late-sown sweet corn, celery, dwarf peas, late beetsor string beans. 

When seed is desired, every imperfect or undesirable plant should berooted out and destroyed, so that none but the best can fertilize eachother. In early spring the litter must be either removed from the plantsand the ground between the rows given a cultivation to loosen thesurface, or it may be raked between the rows and allowed to remain untilafter seed harvest. In this latter case, of course, no other crop can begrown. 

Like celery seed, parsley seed ripens very irregularly, some umbelsbeing ready to cut from one to three weeks earlier than others. Thisquality of the plant may be bred out by keeping the earliest maturingseed separate from the later maturing and choosing this for producingsubsequent seed crops. By such selection one to three weeks may be savedin later seasons, a saving of time not to be ignored in gardeningoperations. 

In ordinary seed production the heads are cut when the bulk of the seedis brown or at least dark colored. The stalks are cut carefully, toavoid shattering the seed off. They are laid upon sheets of duck orcanvas and threshed very lightly, at once, to remove only the ripestseed. Then the stalks are spread thinly on shutters or sheets in the sunfor two days and threshed again. At that time all seed ripe enough togerminate will fall off. Both lots of seed must be spread thinly on thesheets in an airy shed or loft and turned daily for 10 days or two weeksto make sure they are thoroughly dry before being screened in a fanningmill and stored in sacks hung in a loft. 

_Varieties. _--There are four well-defined groups of parsley varieties;common or plain, curled or moss-leaved, fern-leaved, and Hamburg. Thelast is also known as turnip-rooted or large-rooted. The objections toplain parsley are that it is not as ornamental as moss-leaved orfern-leaved sorts, and because it may be mistaken for fools parsley, aplant reputed to be more or less poisonous. 

In the curled varieties the leaves are more or less deeply cut and thesegments reflexed to a greater or less extent, sometimes even to theextent of showing the lighter green undersides. In this group areseveral subvarieties, distinguished by minor differences, such as extentof reflexing and size of the plants. 

In the fern-leaved group the very dark green leaves are not curled butdivided into numerous threadlike segments which give the plant a verydelicate and dainty appearance. 

Hamburg, turnip-rooted or large-rooted parsley, is little grown inAmerica. It is not used as a garnish or an herb, but the root is cookedas a vegetable like carrots or beets. These roots resemble those ofparsnips. They are often 6 inches long and 2 inches in diameter. Theircultivation is like that of parsnips. They are cooked and served likecarrots. In flavor, they resemble celeriac or turnip-rooted celery, butare not so pleasing. In Germany the plant is rather popular, but, exceptby our German gardeners, it has been little cultivated in this country. 

_Uses. _--The Germans use both roots and tops for cooking; the former asa boiled vegetable, the latter as a potherb. In English cookery theleaves are more extensively used for seasoning fricassees and dressingsfor mild meats, such as chicken and veal, than perhaps anything else. InAmerican cookery parsley is also popular for this purpose, but is mostextensively used as a garnish. In many countries the green leaves aremixed with salads to add flavor. Often, especially among the Germans, the minced green leaves are mixed with other vegetables just beforebeing served. For instance, if a liberal dusting of finely mincedparsley be added to peeled, boiled potatoes, immediately after draining, this vegetable will seem like a new dish of unusual delicacy. Thepotatoes may be either served whole or mashed with a little butter, milkand pepper. 

=Pennyroyal= (_Mentha Pulegium_, Linn. ), a perennial herb of the naturalorder Labiatæ, native of Europe and parts of Asia, found wild andnaturalized throughout the civilized world in strong, moist soil on theborders of ponds and streams. Its square, prostrate stems, which readilytake root at the nodes, bear roundish-oval, grayish-green, slightlyhairy leaves and small lilac-blue flowers in whorled clusters of ten ora dozen, rising in tiers, one above another, at the nodes. The seed islight brown, oval and very small. Like most of its near relatives, pennyroyal is highly aromatic, perhaps even more so than any other mint. The flavor is more pungent and acrid and less agreeable than that ofspearmint or peppermint. 

Ordinarily the plant is propagated by division like mint, or more rarelyby cuttings. Cultivation is the same as that of mint. Plantationsgenerally last for four or five years, and even longer, when wellmanaged and on favorable soil. In England it is more extensivelycultivated than in America for drying and for its oil, of which latter ayield of 12 pounds to the acre is considered good. The leaves, green ordried, are used abroad to flavor puddings and other culinarypreparations, but the taste and odor are usually not pleasant toAmerican and English palates and noses. 

=Peppermint= (_Mentha piperita_, Linn. ) is much the same in habit ofgrowth as spearmint. It is a native of northern Europe, where it may befound in moist situations along stream banks and in waste lands. InAmerica it is probably even more common as an escape than spearmint. Like its relative, it has long been known and grown in gardens andfields, especially in Europe, Asia and the United States. 

_Description. _--Like spearmint, the plant has creeping rootstocks, whichrapidly extend it, and often make it a troublesome weed in moist ground. The stems are smaller than those of spearmint, not so tall, and are morepurplish. They bear ovate, smooth leaves upon longer stalks than thoseof spearmint. The whorled clusters of little, reddish-violet flowersform loose, interrupted spikes. No seed is borne. 

_Cultivation. _--Although peppermint prefers wet, even swampy, soil, itwill do well on moist loam. It is cultivated like spearmint. InMichigan, western New York and other parts of the country it is growncommercially upon muck lands for the oil distilled from its leaves andstems. Among essential oils, peppermint ranks first in importance. It isa colorless, yellowish or greenish liquid, with a peculiar, highlypenetrating odor and a burning, camphorescent taste. An interesting useis made of it by sanitary engineers, who test the tightness of pipejoints by its aid. It has the faculty of making its escape and betrayingthe presence of leaks. It is largely employed in the manufacture ofsoaps and perfumery, but probably its best known use is for flavoringconfectionery. 

=Rosemary= (_Rosemarinus officinalis_, Linn. )--As its generic nameimplies, rosemary is a native of sea-coasts, "rose" coming from _Ros_, dew, and "Mary" from _marinus_, ocean. It is one of the many Labiatæfound wild in limy situations along the Mediterranean coast. In ancienttimes many and varied virtues were ascribed to the plant, hence its"officinalis" or medical name, perhaps also the belief that "whererosemary flourishes, the lady rules!" Pliny, Dioscorides and Galin allwrite about it. It was cultivated by the Spaniards in the 13th century, and from the 15th to the 18th century was popular as a condiment withsalt meats, but has since declined in popularity, until now it is usedfor seasoning almost exclusively in Italian, French, Spanish and Germancookery. 

_Description. _--The plant is a half-hardy evergreen, 2 feet or moretall. The erect, branching, woody stems bear a profusion of littleobtuse, linear leaves, green above and hoary white beneath. On theirupper parts they bear pale blue, axillary flowers in leafy clusters. Thelight-brown seeds, white where they were attached to the plant, willgerminate even when four years old. All parts of the plant arefragrant--"the humble rosemary whose sweets so thanklessly are shed toscent the desert" (Thomas Moore). One of the pleasing superstitionsconnected with this plant is that it strengthens the memory. Thus it hasbecome the emblem of remembrance and fidelity. Hence the origin of theold custom of wearing it at weddings in many parts of Europe. 

 "There's rosemary, that's for remembrance; pray, love, remember: And there is pansies, that's for thoughts. "

 --_Hamlet, Act iv, Scene 5. _

_Cultivation. _--Rosemary is easily propagated by means of cuttings, rootdivision and layers in early spring, but is most frequently multipliedby seed. It does best in rather poor, light soil, especially if limy. The seed is either sown in drills 18 to 24 inches apart or in checks 2feet asunder each way, half a dozen seeds being dropped in each "hill. "Sometimes the seedbed method is employed, the seed being sown eitherunder glass or in the open ground and the seedlings transplanted. Cultivation consists in keeping the soil loose and open and free fromweeds. No special directions are necessary as to curing. In frostlesssections, and even where protected by buildings, fences, etc. , inmoderate climates, the plants will continue to thrive for years. 

_Uses. _--The tender leaves and stems and the flowers are used forflavoring stews, fish and meat sauces, but are not widely popular inAmerica. Our foreign-born population, however, uses it somewhat. InFrance large quantities, both cultivated and wild, are used fordistilling the oil of rosemary, a colorless or yellowish liquidsuggesting camphor, but even more pleasant. This oil is extensively usedin perfuming soaps, but more especially in the manufacture of eau decologne, Hungary water and other perfumes. 

=Rue= (_Ruta graveolens_, Linn. ), a hardy perennial herb of roundish, bushy habit, native of southern Europe. It is a member of the samebotanical family as the orange, Rutaceæ. In olden times it was highlyreputed for seasoning and for medicine among the Greeks and the Romans. In Pliny's time it was considered to be effectual for 84 maladies!Today it "hangs only by its eyelids" to our pharmacopoeia. Apicusnotes it among the condiments in the third century, and Magnus elevencenturies later praises it among the garden esculents. At present it islittle used for seasoning, even by the Italians and the Germans, andalmost not at all by English and American cooks. Probably because of itsacridity and its ability to blister the skin when much handled, rue hasbeen chosen by poets to express disdain. Shakespeare speaks of it as the"sour herb of grace, " and Theudobach says:

 "When a rose is too haughty for heaven's dew She becometh a spider's gray lair; And a bosom, that never devotion knew Or affection divine, shall be filled with rue And with darkness, and end with despair. "

_Description. _--The much branched stems, woody below, rise 18 to 24inches and bear small oblong or obovate, stalked, bluish-green glaucousleaves, two or three times divided, the terminal one broader and notchedat the end. The rather large, greenish-yellow flowers, borne in corymbsor short terminal clusters, appear all summer. In the round, four orfive-lobed seed vessels are black kidney-shaped seeds, which retaintheir vitality two years or even longer. The whole plant has a veryacrid, bitter taste and a pungent smell. 

_Cultivation. _--The plant may be readily propagated by means of seed, bycuttings, by layers, and by division of the tufts. No special directionsare needed, except to say that when in the place they are to remain theplants should be at least 18 inches apart--21 or 24 inches each waywould be even better. Rue does well on almost any well-drained soil, butprefers a rather poor clayey loam. It is well, then, to plant it in themost barren part of the garden. As the flowers are rather attractive, rue is often used among shrubbery for ornamental purposes. When so grownit is well to cut the stems close to the ground every two or threeyears. 

[Illustration: Rue, Sour Herb of Grace]

_Uses. _--Because of the exceedingly strong smell of the leaves, rue isdisagreeable to most Americans, and could not become popular as aseasoning. Yet it is used to a small extent by people who like bitterflavors, not only in culinary preparations, but in beverages. The wholeplant is used in distilling a colorless oil which is used in makingaromatic vinegars and other toilet preparations. A pound of oil may besecured from 150 to 200 pounds of the plant. 

=Sage= (_Salvia officinalis_, Linn. ), a perennial member of the Labiatæ, found naturally on dry, calcareous hills in southern Europe, andnorthern Africa. In ancient times, it was one of the most highlyesteemed of all plants because of its reputed health-insuringproperties. An old adage reads, "How can a man die in whose garden sageis growing?" Its very names betoken the high regard in which it washeld; salvia is derived from _salvus_, to be safe, or _salveo_, to be ingood health or to heal; (hence also salvation!) and _officinalis_ stampsits authority or indicates its recognized official standing. The namesage, meaning wisdom, appears to have had a different origin, but as theplant was reputed to strengthen the memory, there seems to be ground forbelieving that those who ate the plant would be wise. 

_Description. _--The almost woody stems rise usually 15 to 18 incheshigh, though in Holt's Mammoth double these sizes is not uncommon. Theleaves are oblong, pale green, finely toothed, lance-shaped, wrinkledand rough. The usually bluish-lilac, sometimes pink or white flowers, borne in the axils of the upper leaves in whorls of three or four, formloose terminal spikes or clusters. Over 7, 000 of the small globular, almost black seeds, which retain their vitality about three years, arerequired to weigh an ounce, and nearly 20 ounces to the quart. 

_Cultivation. _--Sage does best upon mellow well-drained soil ofmoderate fertility. For cultivation on a large scale the soil should beplowed deeply and allowed to remain in the rough furrows during thewinter, to be broken up as much as possible by the frost. In the springit should be fined for the crop. Sage is easily propagated by division, layers and cuttings, but these ways are practiced on an extensive scaleonly with the Holt's Mammoth variety, which produces no seed. For othervarieties seed is most popular. This is sown in drills at the rate oftwo seeds to the inch and covered about 1/4 inch deep. At this rate andin rows 15 inches apart about 8 pounds of seed will be needed to theacre. 

[Illustration: Sage, the Leading Herb for Duck and Goose Dressing]

Usually market gardeners prefer to grow sage as a second crop. Theytherefore raise the plants in nursery beds. The seed is sown in veryearly spring, not thicker than already mentioned, but in rows closertogether, 6 to 9 inches usually. From the start the seedlings are keptclean cultivated and encouraged to grow stocky. By late May or earlyJune the first sowings of summer vegetables will have been marketed andthe ground ready for the sage. The ground is then put in good conditionand the sage seedlings transplanted 6 or 8 inches apart usually. Cleancultivation is maintained until the sage has possession. 

When the plants meet, usually during late August, the alternate ones arecut, bunched and sold. At this time one plant should make a good bunch. When the rows meet in mid-September, the alternate rows are marketed, aplant then making about two bunches. By the middle of October the finalcutting may be started, when the remaining plants should be large enoughto make about three bunches each. This last cutting may continue wellinto November without serious loss of lower leaves. If the plants arenot thinned, but are allowed to crowd, the lower leaves will turn yellowand drop off, thus entailing loss. 

For cultivation with hand-wheel hoes the plants in the rows should notstand closer than 2 inches at first. As soon as they touch, each secondone should be removed and this process repeated till, when growing in acommercial way, each alternate row has been removed. Finally, the plantsshould be 12 to 15 inches apart. For cultivation by horse the rows willneed to be farther apart than already noted; 18 to 24 inches is theusual range of distances. When grown on a large scale, sage usuallyfollows field-grown lettuce, early peas or early cabbage. If not cut tooclosely or too late in the season sage plants stand a fair chance tosurvive moderate winters. The specimens which succeed in doing so may bedivided and transplanted to new soil with little trouble. This is thecommon practice in home gardens, and is usually more satisfactory thangrowing a new lot of plants from seed each spring. 

For drying or for decocting the leaves are cut when the flowers appear. They are dried in the shade. If a second cutting is to be made, and ifit is desired that the plants shall live over winter, this secondcutting must not be made later than September in the North, because thenew stems will not have time to mature before frost, and the plants willprobably winterkill. 

Sage seed is produced in open cups on slender branches, which grow wellabove the leaves. It turns black when ripe. The stems which bear itshould be cut during a dry afternoon as soon as the seeds are ripe andplaced on sheets to cure; and several cuttings are necessary, becausethe seed ripens unevenly. When any one lot of stems on a sheet is dry alight flail or a rod will serve to beat the seed loose. Then smallsieves and a gentle breeze will separate the seed from the trash. Afterscreening the seed should be spread on a sheet in a warm, airy place fora week or so to dry still more before being stored in cloth sacks. Afair yield of leaves may be secured after seed has been gathered. 

[Illustration: Relative Sizes of Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage Leaves]

_Uses. _--Because of their highly aromatic odor sage leaves have longbeen used for seasoning dressings, especially to disguise the too greatlusciousness of strong meats, such as pork, goose and duck. It is one ofthe most important flavoring ingredients in certain kinds of sausage andcheese. In France the whole herb is used to distill with water in orderto secure essential oil of sage, a greenish-yellow liquid employed inperfumery. About 300 pounds of the stems and leaves yield one pound ofoil. 

=Samphire= (_Crithmum maritimum_, Linn. ), a European perennial of theUmbelliferæ, common along rocky sea coasts and cliffs beyond the reachof the tide. From its creeping rootstocks short, sturdy, more or lesswidely branched stems arise. These bear two or three thick, fleshysegmented leaves and umbels of small whitish flowers, followed byyellow, elliptical, convex, ribbed, very light seeds, which rarelyretain their germinating power more than a year. In gardens the seed istherefore generally sown in the autumn as soon as mature in fairly rich, light, well-drained loam. The seedlings should be protected with a mulchof straw, leaves or other material during winter. After the removal ofthe mulch in the spring no special care is needed in cultivation. Theyoung, tender, aromatic and saline leaves and shoots are pickled invinegar, either alone or with other vegetables. 

[Illustration: Dainty Summer Savory]

=Savory, Summer= (_Satureia hortensis_, Linn. ), a little annual plant ofthe natural order Labiatæ indigenous to Mediterranean countries andknown as an escape from gardens in various parts of the world. InAmerica, it is occasionally found wild on dry, poor soils in Ohio, Illinois, and some of the western states. The generic name is derivedfrom an old Arabic name, _Ssattar_, by which the whole mint family wasknown. Among the Romans both summer and winter savory were popular 2, 000years ago, not only for flavoring, but as potherbs. During the middleages and until the 18th century it still maintained this popularity. Upto about 100 years ago it was used in cakes, puddings and confections, but these uses have declined. 

_Description. _--The plant, which rarely exceeds 12 inches in height, haserect, branching, herbaceous stems, with oblong-linear leaves, taperingat their bases, and small pink or white flowers clustered in the axilsof the upper leaves, forming penciled spikes. The small, brown, ovoidseeds retain their viability about three years. An ounce contains about42, 500 of them, and a quart 18 ounces. 

_Cultivation. _--For earliest use the seed may be sown in a spent hotbedor a cold frame in late March, and the plants set in the open duringMay. Usually, however, it is sown in the garden or the field where theplants are to remain. In the hotbed the rows may be 3 or 4 inches apart;in the field they should be not less than 9 inches, and only thisdistance when hand wheel-hoes are to be used, and each alternate row isto be removed as soon as the plants begin to touch across the rows. Halfa dozen seeds dropped to the inch is fairly thick sowing. As the seed issmall, it must not be covered deeply; 1/4 inch is ample. When the rowsare 15 inches apart about 4 pounds of seed will be needed to the acre. For horse cultivation the drills should be 20 inches apart. Both summerand winter savory do well on rather poor dry soils. If started inhotbeds, the first plants may be gathered during May. Garden-sown seedwill produce plants by June. For drying, the nearly mature stems shouldbe cut just as the blossoms begin to appear. No special directions areneeded as to drying. (See page 25. )

_Uses. _--Both summer and winter savory are used in flavoring salads, dressings, gravies, and sauces used with meats such as veal, pork, duck, and goose and for increasing the palatability of such preparations ascroquettes, rissoles and stews. Summer savory is the better plant of thetwo and should be in every home garden. 

=Savory, Winter= (_Satureia montana_, Linn. ), a semi-hardy, perennial, very branching herb, native of southern Europe and northern Africa. Likesummer savory, it has been used for flavoring for many centuries, but isnot now as popular as formerly, nor is it as popular as summer savory. 

_Description. _--The numerous woody, slender, spreading stems, often morethan 15 inches tall, bear very acute, narrow, linear leaves and palelilac, pink, or white flowers in axillary clusters. The brown, rathertriangular seeds, which retain their vitality about three years, aresmaller than those of summer savory. Over 70, 000 are in an ounce, and ittakes 15 ounces to fill a quart. 

_Cultivation. _--Winter savory is readily propagated by means ofcuttings, layers and division as well as seeds. No directions differentfrom those relating to summer savory are necessary, except that seed ofwinter savory should be sown where the plants are to remain, because theseedlings do not stand transplanting very well. Seed is often sown inlate summer where the climate is not severe or where winter protectionis to be given. The plant is fairly hardy on dry soils. When onceestablished it will live for several years. 

To increase the yield the stems may be cut to within 4 or 5 inches ofthe ground when about ready to flower. New shoots will appear and may becut in turn. For drying, the first cutting may be secured during July, the second in late August or September. In all respects winter savory isused like summer savory, but is considered inferior in flavor. 

=Southernwood= (_Artemisia Abrotanum_, Linn. ), a woody-stemmed perennialbelonging to the Compositæ and a native of southern Europe. It growsfrom 2 to 4 feet tall, bears hairlike, highly aromatic leaves and headsof small yellow flowers. The plant is often found in old-fashionedgardens as an ornamental under the name of Old Man. In some countriesthe young shoots are used for flavoring cakes and other culinarypreparations. 

=Tansy= (_Tanacetum vulgare_, Linn. ), a perennial of the Compositæ, nativeof Europe, whence it has spread with civilization as a weed almost allover the world. From the very persistent underground parts annual, usually unbranched stems, sometimes 3 feet tall, are produced in more orless abundance. They bear much-divided, oval, oblong leaves and numeroussmall, yellow flower-heads in usually crowded corymbs. The small, nearlyconical seeds have five gray ribs and retain their germinability forabout two years. 

Tansy is easily propagated by division of the clumps or by seed sown ina hotbed for the transplanting of seedlings. It does well in anymoderately fertile garden soil, but why anyone should grow it except forornament, either in the garden or as an inedible garnish, is more than Ican understand. While its odor is not exactly repulsive, its acrid, bitter taste is such that a nibble, certainly a single leaf, would lastmost people a lifetime. Yet some people use it to flavor puddings, omelettes, salads, stews and other culinary dishes. Surely a peculiarorder of gustatory preference! It is said that donkeys will eatthistles, but I have never known them to eat tansy, and I am free toconfess that I rather admire their preference for the thistles. 

=Tarragon= (_Artemisia Dracunculus_, Linn. ), a fairly hardy, herbaceousrather shrubby perennial of the Compositæ, supposed to be a native ofsouthern Russia, Siberia, and Tartary, cultivated for scarcely morethan 500 years for its leaves and tender shoots. In all civilizedcountries its popular name, like its specific name, means dragon, thoughwhy it should be so called is not clear. 

[Illustration: Tarragon, the French Chef's Delight]

_Description. _--The plant has numerous branching stems, which bearlance-shaped leaves and nowadays white, sterile flowers. Formerly theflowers were said to be fertile. No one should buy the seed offered astarragon. It is probably that of a related plant which resemblestarragon in everything except flavor--which is absent! _Tagetes lucida_, which may be used as a substitute for true tarragon, is easilypropagated by seed and can be procured from seedsmen under its own name. As tarragon flowers appear to be perfect, it is possible that someplants may produce a few seeds, and that plants raised from these seedsmay repeat the wonder. Indeed, a variety which naturally produces seedmay thus be developed and disseminated. Here is one of the possibleopportunities for the herb grower to benefit his fellow-men. 

_Cultivation. _--At present tarragon is propagated only by cuttings, layers and division. There is no difficulty in either process. The plantprefers dry, rather poor soil, in a warm situation. In cold climates itshould be partially protected during the winter to prevent alternatefreezing and thawing of both the soil and the plant. In moist and heavysoil it will winterkill. Strawy litter or conifer boughs will serve thepurpose well. Half a dozen to a dozen plants will supply the needs of afamily. As the plants spread a good deal and as they grow 15 to 18inches tall, or even more, they should be set in rows 18 to 24 inchesapart each way. In a short time they will take possession of the ground. 

_Uses. _--The tender shoots and the young leaves are often used insalads, and with steaks, chops, etc. , especially by the French. They areoften used as an ingredient in pickles. Stews, soups, croquettes, andother meat preparations are also flavored with tarragon, and forflavoring fish sauces it is especially esteemed. 

Probably the most popular way it is employed, however, is as a decoctionin vinegar. For this purpose, the green parts are gathered preferably inthe morning and after washing are placed in jars and covered with thebest quality vinegar for a few days. The vinegar is then drawn off asneeded. In France, the famous vinegar of Maille is made in this way. 

The leaves may be dried in the usual way if desired. For this purposethey are gathered in midsummer. A second cutting may be made in lateSeptember or early October. Tarragon oil, which is used for perfumingtoilet articles, is secured by distilling the green parts, from 300 to500 pounds of which yield one pound of oil. 

[Illustration: Thyme for Sausage]

=Thyme= (_Thymus vulgaris_, Linn. ), a very diminutive perennial shrub, ofthe natural order Labiatæ, native of dry, stony places on Mediterraneancoasts, but found occasionally naturalized as an escape from gardens incivilized countries, both warm and cold. From early days it has beenpopularly grown for culinary purposes. The name is from the Greek word_thyo_, or sacrifice, because of its use as incense to perfume thetemples. With the Romans it was very popular both in cookery and as abee forage. Like its relatives sage and marjoram, it has practicallydisappeared from medicine, though formerly it was very popular becauseof its reputed properties. 

_Description. _--The procumbent, branched, slender, woody stems, whichseldom reach 12 inches, bear oblong, triangular, tapering leaves from1/4 to 1/2 inch long, green above and gray beneath. In the axils of theupper leaves are little pink or lilac flowers, which form whorls andloose, leafy spikes. The seeds, of which there are 170, 000 to the ounce, and 24 ounces to the quart, retain their germinating power for threeyears. 

_Cultivation. _--Thyme does best in a rather dry, moderately fertile, light soil well exposed to the sun. Cuttings, layers and divisions maybe made, but the popular way to propagate is by seed. Because the seedis very small, it should be sown very shallow or only pressed upon thesurface and then sprinkled with finely sifted soil. A small seedbedshould be used in preference to sowing in the open ground first, becausebetter attention can be given such little beds; second, because the areawhere the plants are ultimately to be can be used for an early-maturingcrop. In the seedbed made out of doors in early spring, the drills maybe made 4 to 6 inches apart and the seeds sown at the rate of 5 or 6 tothe inch. A pound should produce enough plants for an acre. In handsowing direct in the field, a fine dry sand is often thoroughly mixedwith the seed to prevent too close planting. The proportion chosen issometimes as great as four times as much sand as seed. Whether sowndirect in the field or transplanted the plants should finally not standcloser than 8 inches--10 is preferred. When first set they may be halfthis distance. In a small way one plant to the square foot is a goodrate to follow. The young plants may be set in the field during June, oreven as late as July, preferably just before or just after a shower. Thealternate plants may be removed in late August or early September, thealternate rows about three weeks later and the final crop in October. 

Thyme will winter well. In home garden practice it may be treated likesage. In the coldest climates it may be mulched with leaves or litter toprevent undue thawing and freezing and consequent heaving of the soil. In the spring the plants should be dug, divided and reset in a newsituation. 

When seed is desired, the ripening tops must be cut frequently, becausethe plants mature very unevenly. But this method is often more wastefulthan spreading cloths or sheets of paper beneath the plants and allowingthe seed to drop in them as it ripens. Twice a day, preferably aboutnoon, and in the late afternoon the plants should be gently jarred tomake the ripe seeds fall into the sheets. What falls should then becollected and spread in a warm, airy room to dry thoroughly. When thismethod is practiced the stems are cut finally; that is, when the bulk ofthe seed has been gathered. They are dried, threshed or rubbed and thetrash removed, by sifting. During damp weather the seed will notseparate readily from the plants. 

Of the common thyme there are two varieties: narrow-leaved andbroad-leaved. The former, which has small grayish-green leaves, is morearomatic and pleasing than the latter, which, however, is much morepopular, mainly because of its size, and not because of its superiorityto the narrow-leaved kind. It is also known as winter or German thyme. The plant is taller and larger and has bigger leaves, flowers and seedsthan the narrow-leaved variety and is decidedly more bitter. 

_Uses. _--The green parts, either fresh, dried or in decoction, are usedvery extensively for flavoring soups, gravies, stews, sauces, forcemeats, sausages, dressings, etc. For drying, the tender stems aregathered after the dew is off and exposed to warm air in the shade. Whencrisp they are rubbed, the trash removed and the powder placed instoppered bottles or tins. All parts of the plant are fragrant becauseof the volatile oil, which is commercially distilled mainly in France. About one per cent of the green parts is oil, which after distillationis at first a reddish-brown fluid. It loses its color on redistillationand becomes slightly less fragrant. Both grades of oil are usedcommercially in perfumery. In the oil are also crystals (thymol), whichresemble camphor and because of their pleasant odor are used as adisinfectant where the strong-smelling carbolic acid would beobjectionable. 

Besides common thyme two other related species are cultivated to someextent for culinary purposes. Lemon thyme (_T. Citriodorus_, Pers. ), like its common relative, is a little undershrub, with procumbent stemsand with a particularly pleasing fragrance. Wild thyme, ormother-of-thyme (_T. Serpyllum_, Linn. ), is a less grown perennial, withviolet or pink flowers. It is occasionally seen in country home gardens, and is also used somewhat for seasoning. 

INDEX

 Page

 Angelica, 56 candied, 59

 Anise, 59 in Bible, 13

 Bags of herbs, 6

 Balm, 63 demand for, 20

 Barrel of herbs, 8

 Basil, 65 demand for, 20 tree, 68

 Bible, herbs mentioned in, 12

 Borage, 71

 Bouquet of herbs, 6

 Bride's trousseau, 7

 Caraway, 73

 Catnip, 77

 Chervil, 79

 Chives, 80

 Clary, 81

 Cleveland, John, quoted, 101

 Coriander, 82

 Cultivation, 47

 Cumin, 84 in Bible, 13

 Curing, 22

 Cuttings, propagation by, 34

 Dibbles tabooed, 42

 Dill, 87 demand for, 21 for pickles, 21

 Dinner of herbs, 7

 Division, propagation by, 37

 Double cropping, 48

 Drying, 25

 Drying seeds, 28

 Eggs, stuffed, 9

 Evaporator, 26

 Fennel, 89 demand for, 20 Florence, 93

 Fennel Flower, 94

 Finocchio, 93

 Garnishes, 19, 30

 Herb history, 12

 History of herbs, 12

 Hoarhound, 95

 Hyssop, 96

 Ingelow, Jean quoted, 101

 Lavender, 97 and linen, 7

 Layers, propagation by, 36

 Lovage, 99

 Lunch, herb, 8

 MacDonald, George, quoted, 72

 Marigold, 100

 Marjoram, 101 demand for, 20

 Market gardening, herb, 14

 Medicine, herbs in, 53

 Mint, 105 demand for, 21 in Bible, 13

 Moschus quoted, 109

 Moving pictures, 4

 Omelette, herb, 9

 Packages for selling, 14

 Parsley, 109 in most demand, 19

 Peppermint, 119

 Pictures, moving, 4

 Pillows full of herbs, 6

 Propagation, 32

 Rosemary, 120

 Rue, 122 in Bible, 13

 Sage, 125 in demand, 20

 Salad, herb, 9

 Samphire, 129

 Sandwiches, herb and cheese, 5 lettuce and nasturtium, 10

 Savory, demand for, 20 summer, 131 winter, 132

 Seeds, propagation by, 32

 Selection for variety, 15

 Shakespeare quoted, 6, 63, 121

 Sieves, sizes to use, 29

 Soda water, 4

 Soil preparation, 45

 Solomon's herb dinner, 3

 Soup, parsley, 8

 Southernwood, 133

 Storing, 25

 Superstitions about herbs, 54

 Tagetes lucida, 135

 Tansy, 134

 Tarragon, 134

 Theudobach quoted, 123

 Thyme, 137 demand for, 20 lemon, 141

 Transplanting, 39

 Varieties, production of, 15

 Water, importance of, 41