THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY BOOKBINDING [Illustration: WHITE PIGSKIN. --_Basle_, 1512. ] BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE OF BOOKS A HANDBOOK FOR AMATEURS BOOKBINDERS & LIBRARIANS BY DOUGLAS COCKERELL WITH DRAWINGS BY NOEL ROOKE AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS [Illustration] NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1910 COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY _All rights reserved_ EDITOR'S PREFACE In issuing this volume of a series of Handbooks on the ArtisticCrafts, it will be well to state what are our general aims. In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy text-books ofworkshop practice, from the points of view of experts who havecritically examined the methods current in the shops, and puttingaside vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good workmanship, and to set up a standard of quality in the crafts which are moreespecially associated with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope totreat design itself as an essential part of good workmanship. Duringthe last century most of the arts, save painting and sculpture of anacademic kind, were little considered, and there was a tendency tolook on "design" as a mere matter of _appearance_. Such"ornamentation" as there was was usually obtained by following in amechanical way a drawing provided by an artist who often knew littleof the technical processes involved in production. With the criticalattention given to the crafts by Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seenthat it was impossible to detach design from craft in this way, andthat, in the widest sense, true design is an inseparable element ofgood quality, involving as it does the selection of good and suitablematerial, contrivance for special purpose, expert workmanship, properfinish and so on, far more than mere ornament, and indeed, thatornamentation itself was rather an exuberance of fine workmanship thana matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship when separated by toowide a gulf from fresh thought--that is, from design--inevitablydecays, and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced fromworkmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly falls intoaffectation. Proper ornamentation may be defined as a languageaddressed to the eye; it is pleasant thought expressed in the speechof the tool. In the third place, we would have this series put artisticcraftsmanship before people as furnishing reasonable occupation forthose who would gain a livelihood. Although within the bounds ofacademic art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that only avery few per cent. Can fairly hope to succeed as painters andsculptors; yet, as artistic craftsmen, there is every probability thatnearly every one who would pass through a sufficient period ofapprenticeship to workmanship and design would reach a measure ofsuccess. In the blending of handwork and thought in such arts as we propose todeal with, happy careers may be found as far removed from the drearyroutine of hack labour, as from the terrible uncertainty of academicart. It is desirable in every way that men of good education should bebrought back into the productive crafts: there are more than enough ofus "in the city, " and it is probable that more consideration will begiven in this century than in the last to Design and Workmanship. W. R. LETHABY. AUTHOR'S NOTE It is hoped that this book will help bookbinders and librarians toselect sound methods of binding books. It is intended to supplement and not to supplant workshop training forbookbinders. No one can become a skilled workman by readingtext-books, but to a man who has acquired skill and practicalexperience, a text-book, giving perhaps different methods from thoseto which he has been accustomed, may be helpful. My thanks are due to many friends, including the workmen in myworkshop, for useful suggestions and other help, and to the Society ofArts for permission to quote from the report of their SpecialCommittee on leather for bookbinding. I should also like to express my indebtedness to my master, Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, for it was in his workshop that I learned my craft, and anything that may be of value in this book is due to hisinfluence. D. C. _November_ 1901. CONTENTS PART I _BINDING_ PAGE Editor's Preface 7 Author's Note 11 CHAPTER I Introduction 17 CHAPTER II Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pullingto Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints 33 CHAPTER III Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off IndiaProofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--SplittingPaper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum 53 CHAPTER IV Sizing--Washing--Mending 67 CHAPTER V End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing 80 CHAPTER VI Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding 92 CHAPTER VII Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing 98 CHAPTER VIII Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing 114 CHAPTER IX Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing 124 CHAPTER X Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges 139 CHAPTER XI Headbanding 147 CHAPTER XII Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--MitringCorners--Filling-in Boards 152 CHAPTER XIII Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Bindingin Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery 173 CHAPTER XIV Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on Vellum--Inlayingon Leather 188 CHAPTER XV Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament 215 CHAPTER XVI Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration 230 CHAPTER XVII Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books 254 CHAPTER XVIII Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings 259 CHAPTER XIX Leather 263 CHAPTER XX Paper--Pastes--Glue 280 PART II _CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND_ CHAPTER XXI Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected 291 CHAPTER XXII To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing 302 SPECIFICATIONS 307 GLOSSARY 313 REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS (Eight Collotypes) 319 INDEX 337 PART I BINDING CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The reasons for binding the leaves of a book are to keep them togetherin their proper order, and to protect them. That bindings can be made, that will adequately protect books, can be seen from the large numberof fifteenth and sixteenth century bindings now existing on booksstill in excellent condition. That bindings are made, that fail toprotect books, may be seen by visiting any large library, when it willbe found that many bindings have their boards loose and the leathercrumbling to dust. Nearly all librarians complain, that they have tobe continually rebinding books, and this not after four hundred, butafter only five or ten years. It is no exaggeration to say that ninety per cent. Of the books boundin leather during the last thirty years will need rebinding during thenext thirty. The immense expense involved must be a very serious dragon the usefulness of libraries; and as rebinding is always to someextent damaging to the leaves of a book, it is not only on account ofthe expense that the necessity for it is to be regretted. The reasons that have led to the production in modern times ofbindings that fail to last for a reasonable time, are twofold. Thematerials are badly selected or prepared, and the method of binding isfaulty. Another factor in the decay of bindings, both old and new, isthe bad conditions under which they are often kept. The object of this text-book is to describe the best methods ofbookbinding, and of keeping books when bound, taking into account thepresent-day conditions. No attempt has been made to describe allpossible methods, but only such as appear to have answered best on oldbooks. The methods described are for binding that can be done by handwith the aid of simple appliances. Large editions of books are nowbound, or rather cased, at an almost incredible speed by the aid ofmachinery, but all work that needs personal care and thought on eachbook, is still done, and probably always will be done, by hand. Elaborate machinery can only be economically employed when very largenumbers of books have to be turned out exactly alike. The ordinary cloth "binding" of the trade, is better described ascasing. The methods being different, it is convenient to distinguishbetween casing and binding. In binding, the slips are firmly attachedto the boards before covering; in casing, the boards are coveredseparately, and afterwards glued on to the book. Very great effortshave been made in the decoration of cloth covers, and it is a pitythat the methods of construction have not been equally considered. Ifcloth cases are to be looked upon as a temporary binding, then itseems a pity to waste so much trouble on their decoration; and if theyare to be looked upon as permanent binding, it is a pity theconstruction is not better. For books of only temporary interest, the usual cloth cases answerwell enough; but for books expected to have permanent value, somechange is desirable. Valuable books should either be issued in bindings that are obviouslytemporary, or else in bindings that are strong enough to be consideredpermanent. The usual cloth case fails as a temporary binding, becausethe methods employed result in serious damage to the sections of thebook, often unfitting them for rebinding, and it fails as a permanentbinding on account of the absence of sound construction. In a temporary publisher's binding, nothing should be done to thesections of a book that would injure them. Plates should be guarded, the sewing should be on tapes, without splitting the head and tail, or"sawing in" the backs, of the sections; the backs should be glued upsquare without backing. The case may be attached, as is now usual. Fora permanent publisher's binding, something like that recommended forlibraries (page 173) is suggested, with either leather or cloth on theback. At the end of the book four specifications are given (page 307). Thefirst is suggested for binding books of special interest or value, where no restriction as to price is made. A binding under thisspecification may be decorated to any extent that the nature of thebook justifies. The second is for good binding, for books of referenceand other heavy books that may have a great deal of wear. All thefeatures of the first that make for the strength of the binding areretained, while those less essential, that only add to the appearance, are omitted. Although the binding under this specification would bemuch cheaper than that carried out under the first, it would still betoo expensive for the majority of books in most libraries; and as itwould seem to be impossible to further modify this form of binding, without materially reducing its strength, for cheaper work, a somewhatdifferent system is recommended. The third specification isrecommended for the binding of the general run of small books in mostlibraries. The fourth is a modification of this for pamphlets andother books of little value, that need to be kept together tidily foroccasional reference. Thanks, in a great measure, to the work of Mr. Cobden-Sanderson, there is in England the germ of a sound tradition for the bestbinding. The Report of the Committee appointed by the Society of Artsto investigate the cause of the decay of modern leather bindings, should tend to establish a sound tradition for cheaper work. The thirdspecification at the end of this book is practically the same as thatgiven in their Report, and was arrived at by selection, after manylibraries had been examined, and many forms of binding compared. Up to the end of the eighteenth century the traditional methods ofbinding books had altered very little during three hundred years. Books were generally sewn round five cords, the ends of all of theselaced into the boards, and the leather attached directly to the back. At the end of the eighteenth century it became customary to pare downleather until it was as thin as paper, and soon afterwards the use ofhollow backs and false bands became general, and these two thingstogether mark the beginning of the modern degradation of binding, sofar as its utility as a protection is concerned. The Society of Arts Committee report that the bookbinders must sharewith the leather manufacturers and librarians the blame for thepremature decay of modern bindings, because-- "1. Books are sewn on too few, and too thin cords, and the slips arepared down unduly (for the sake of neatness), and are not in all casesfirmly laced into the boards. This renders the attachment of theboards to the book almost entirely dependent on the strength of theleather. "2. The use of hollow backs throws all the strain of opening andshutting on the joints, and renders the back liable to come right offif the book is much used. "3. The leather of the back is apt to become torn through the use ofinsufficiently strong headbands, which are unable to stand the strainof the book being taken from the shelf. "4. It is a common practice to use far too thin leather; especially touse large thick skins very much pared down for small books. "5. The leather is often made very wet and stretched a great deal incovering, with the result that on drying it is further strained, almost to breaking point, by contraction, leaving a very small marginof strength to meet the accidents of use. " The history of the general introduction of hollow backs is probablysomewhat as follows: Leather was doubtless first chosen for coveringthe backs of books because of its toughness and flexibility; because, while protecting the back, it would bend when the book was opened andallow the back to "throw up" (see fig. 1, A). When gold tooling becamecommon, and the backs of books were elaborately decorated, it wasfound that the creasing of the leather injured the brightness or thegold and caused it to crack. To avoid this the binders lined up theback until it was as stiff as a block of wood. The back would then not"throw up" as the book was opened, the leather would not be creased, and the gold would remain uninjured (see fig. 1, B). This was all verywell for the gold, but a book so treated does not open fully, andindeed, if the paper is stiff, can hardly be got to open at all. Toovercome both difficulties the hollow back was introduced, and asprojecting bands would have been in the way, the sewing cord was sunkin saw cuts made across the back of the book. [Illustration: FIG. 1. ] The use of hollow backs was a very ingenious way out of thedifficulty, as with them the backs could be made to "throw up, " and atthe same time the leather was not disturbed (see fig. 1, C). Themethod of "sawing in" bands was known for a long time before thegeneral use of hollow backs. It has been used to avoid the raisedbands on books covered with embroidered material. If a book is sewn on tapes, and the back lined with leather, there isno serious objection to a carefully-made hollow back without bands. The vellum binders use hollow backs made in this way for great accountbooks that stand an immense amount of wear. They make the "hollow"very stiff, so that it acts as a spring to throw the back up. But although, if carefully done, satisfactory bindings may be madewith hollow backs, their use has resulted in the production ofworthless bindings with little strength, and yet with the appearanceof better work. The public having been accustomed to raised bands on the backs ofbooks, and the real bands being sunk in the back, the binders putfalse ones over the "hollow. " To save money or trouble, the bandsbeing out of sight, the book would be sewn on only three or sometimesonly two cords, the usual five false ones still showing at the back. Often only two out of the three bands would be laced into the board, and sometimes the slips would not be laced in at all. Again, falseheadbands worked by the yard by machinery would be stuck on at thehead and tail, and a "hollow" made with brown paper. Then leather sothin as to have but little strength, but used because it is easy towork and needs no paring, would be stuck on. The back would often befull gilt and lettered, and the sides sprinkled or marbled, thusfurther damaging the leather. In every large library hundreds of books bound somewhat on these linesmay be seen. When they are received from the binder they have theappearance of being well bound, they look smart on the shelf, but in afew years, whether they are used or not, the leather will haveperished and the boards become detached, and they will have to berebound. As long as librarians expect the appearance of a guinea binding fortwo or three shillings, such shams will be produced. The librariangenerally gets his money's worth, for it would be impossible for thebinder to do better work at the price usually paid without materiallyaltering the appearance of the binding. The polished calf andimitation crushed morocco must go, and in its place a rougher, thicker leather must be employed. The full-gilt backs must go, thecoloured lettering panel must go, the hollow backs must go, but in theplace of these we may have the books sewn on tapes with the endssecurely fastened into split boards, and the thick leather attacheddirectly to the backs of the sections. (See specification III. Page307. ) Such a binding would look well and not be more expensive than theusual library binding. It should allow the book to open flat, and ifthe materials are well selected, be very durable, and specially strongin the joints, the weak place in most bindings. The lettering on theback may be damaged in time if the book is much used, but if so it caneasily be renewed at a fraction of the cost of rebinding, and withoutinjury to the book. While the majority of books in most libraries must be bound at a smallcost, at most not exceeding a few shillings a volume, there is a largedemand for good plain bindings, and a limited, but growing, demand formore or less decorated bindings for special books. Any decoration but the simplest should be restricted to books bound aswell as the binder can do them. The presence of decoration should beevidence that the binder, after doing his best with the "forwarding, "has had time in which to try to make his work a beautiful, as well asa serviceable, production. Many books, although well bound, are better left plain, or with only alittle decoration. But occasionally there are books that the bindercan decorate as lavishly as he is able. As an instance of bindingsthat cannot be over-decorated, those books which are used in importantceremonies, such as Altar Books, may be mentioned. Such books may bedecorated with gold and colour until they seem to be covered in agolden material. They will be but spots of gorgeousness in a greatchurch or cathedral, and they cannot be said to be over-decorated aslong as the decoration is good. So, occasionally some one may have a book to which he is for somereason greatly attached, and wishing to enshrine it, give the binder afree hand to do his best with it. The binder may wish to make adelicate pattern with nicely-balanced spots of ornament, leaving theleather for the most part bare, or he may wish to cover the outsidewith some close gold-tooled pattern, giving a richness of texturehardly to be got by other means. If he decides on the latter, manypeople will say that the cover is over-decorated. But as a book covercan never be seen absolutely alone, it should not be judged as anisolated thing covered with ornament without relief, but as a spot ofbrightness and interest among its surroundings. If a room andeverything in it is covered with elaborate pattern, then anything witha plain surface would be welcome as a relief; but in a room which isreasonably free from ornament, a spot of rich decoration should bewelcome. It is not contended that the only, or necessarily the best, method ofdecorating book covers is by elaborate all-over gold-tooled pattern;but it is contended that this is a legitimate method of decoration forexceptional books, and that by its use it is possible to get abeautiful effect well worth the trouble and expense involved. Good leather has a beautiful surface, and may sometimes be got of afine colour. The binder may often wish to show this surface andcolour, and to restrict his decoration to small portions of thecover, and this quite rightly, he aiming at, and getting, a totallydifferent effect than that got by all-over patterns. Both methods areright if well done, and both methods can equally be vulgarised ifbadly done. A much debated question is, how far the decoration of a binding shouldbe influenced by the contents of the book? A certain appropriatenessthere should be, but as a general thing, if the binder aims at makingthe cover beautiful, that is the best he can do. The hints given fordesigning are not intended to stop the development of the student'sown ideas, but only to encourage their development on right lines. There should be a certain similarity of treatment between the generalget-up of a book and its binding. It is a great pity that printers andbinders have drifted so far apart; they are, or should be, working forone end, the production of a book, and some unity of aim should beevident in the work of the two. The binding of manuscripts and early printed books should be strongand simple. It should be as strong and durable as the original oldbindings, and, like them, last with reasonable care for four hundredyears or more. To this end the old bindings, with their stout sewingcord, wooden boards, and clasps, may be taken as models. The question is constantly asked, especially by women, if a living canbe made by setting up as bookbinders. Cheap binding can mosteconomically be done in large workshops, but probably the bestbindings can be done more satisfactorily by binders working alone, orin very small workshops. If any one intends to set up as a bookbinder, doing all the workwithout help, it is necessary to charge very high prices to get anyadequate return after the working expenses have been paid. In order toget high prices, the standard of work must be very high; and in orderto attain a high enough standard of work, a very thorough training isnecessary. It is desirable that any one hoping to make money at thecraft should have at least a year's training in a workshop where goodwork is done, and after that, some time will be spent before quitesatisfactory work can be turned out rapidly enough to pay, supposingthat orders can be obtained or the books bound can be sold. There are some successful binders who have had less than a year'straining, but they are exceptional. Those who have not been accustomedto manual work have usually, in addition to the necessary skill, toacquire the habit of continuous work. Bookbinding seems to offer anopening for well-educated youths who are willing to serve anapprenticeship in a good shop, and who have some small amount ofcapital at their command. In addition to the production of decorated bindings, there is much tobe done by specialising in certain kinds of work requiring specialknowledge. Repairing and binding early printed books and manuscripts, or the restoration of Parish Registers and Accounts, may be suggested. CHAPTER II Entering--Books in Sheets--Folding--Collating--Pulling to Pieces--Refolding--Knocking out Joints ENTERING On receiving a book for binding, its title should be entered in a bookkept for that purpose, with the date of entry, and customer's nameand address, and any instructions he may have given, written out infull underneath, leaving room below to enter the time taken on thevarious operations and cost of the materials used. It is well tonumber the entry, and to give a corresponding number to the book. Itshould be at once collated, and any special features noted, such aspages that need washing or mending. If the book should prove to beimperfect, or to have any serious defect, the owner should becommunicated with, before it is pulled to pieces. This is veryimportant, as imperfect books that have been "pulled" are notreturnable to the bookseller. Should defects only be discovered afterthe book has been taken to pieces, the bookbinder is liable to beblamed for the loss of any missing leaves. BOOKS IN SHEETS The sheets of a newly printed book are arranged in piles in theprinter's warehouse, each pile being made up of repetitions of thesame sheet or "signature. " Plates or maps are in piles by themselvesTo make a complete book one sheet is gathered from each pile, beginning at the last sheet and working backwards to signature A. Whena book is ordered from a publisher in sheets, it is such a "gathered"copy that the binder receives. Some books are printed "double, " thatis, the type is set up twice, two copies are printed at once atdifferent ends of a sheet of paper, and the sheets have to be divideddown the middle before the copies can be separated. Sometimes thetitle and introduction, or perhaps only the last sheet, will beprinted in this way. Publishers usually decline to supply in sheetsfewer than two copies of such double-printed books. If a book is received unfolded, it is generally advisable at once tofold up the sheets and put them in their proper order, withhalf-title, title, introduction, &c. , and, if there are plates, tocompare them with the printed list. Should there be in a recently published book defects of any kind, suchas soiled sheets, the publisher will usually replace them onapplication, although they sometimes take a long time to do so. Suchsheets are called "imperfections, " and the printers usually keep anumber of "overs" in order to make good such imperfections as mayoccur. FOLDING Books received in sheets must be folded. Folding requires care, or themargins of different leaves will be unequal, and the lines of printingnot at right angles to the back. Books of various sizes are known as "folio, " "quarto, " "octavo, ""duodecimo, " &c. These names signify the number of folds, andconsequently the number of leaves the paper has been folded into. Thus, a folio is made up of sheets of paper folded once down thecentre, forming two leaves and four pages. The sheets of a quarto havea second fold, making four leaves and eight pages, and in an octavothe sheet has a third fold, forming eight leaves and sixteen pages(see fig. 2), and so on. Each sheet of paper when folded constitutes asection, except in the case of folios, where it is usual to make upthe sections by inserting two or more sheets, one within the other. Paper is made in several named sizes, such as "imperial, " "royal, ""demy, " "crown, " "foolscap, " &c. (see p. 283), so that the terms"imperial folio" or "crown octavo" imply that a sheet of a definitesize has been folded a definite number of times. [Illustration: FIG. 2. ] Besides the traditional sizes, paper is now made of almost any lengthand width, resulting in books of odd shape, and the names folio, quarto, &c. , are rather losing their true meaning, and are often usedloosely to signify pages of certain sizes, irrespective of the numberthat go to a sheet. On receipt, for instance, of an octavo book for folding, the pile ofsheets is laid flat on the table, and collated by the letter orsignature of each sheet. The first sheet of the book proper willprobably be signature B, as signature A usually consists of thehalf-title, title, introduction, &c. , and often has to be folded uprather differently. The "outer" sides, known by the signature letters B, C, D, &c. , shouldbe downwards, and the inner sides facing upwards with the secondsignatures, if there are any, B2, C2, D2, &c. , at the right-handbottom corner. The pages of an octave book, commencing at page 1, are shown at fig. 3. A folder is taken in the right hand, and held at the bottom of thesheet at about the centre, and the sheet taken by the left hand at thetop right-hand corner and bent over until pages 3 and 6 come exactlyover pages 2 and 7; and when it is seen that the headlines and figuresexactly match, the paper, while being held in that position, iscreased down the centre with the folder, and the fold cut up a littlemore than half-way. Pages 4, 13, 5, 12 will now be uppermost; pages 12and 5 are now folded over to exactly match pages 13 and 4, and thefold creased and cut up a little more than half-way, as before. Pages8 and 9 will now be uppermost, and will merely require foldingtogether to make the pages of the section follow in their properorder. If the folding has been done carefully, and the "register" ofthe printing is good, the headlines should be exactly even throughout. [Illustration: FIG. 3. ] The object of cutting past the centre at each fold is to avoid theunsightly creasing that results from folding two or more thicknessesof paper when joined at the top edge. A "duodecimo" sheet has the pages arranged as at fig. 4. The "inset" pages, 10, 15, 14, 11, must be cut off, and the rest ofthe section folded as for an octavo sheet. The inset is foldedseparately and inserted into the centre of the octavo portion. Other sizes are folded in much the same way, and the principle offolding one sheet having been mastered, no difficulty will be found infolding any other. Plates often require trimming, and this must be done with judgment. The plates should be trimmed to correspond as far as possible with theprinting on the opposite page, but if this cannot be done, it isdesirable that something approaching the proportion of margin shown atfig. 2 (folio) should be aimed at. That is to say, the back marginshould be the smallest, the head margin the next, the fore-edge alittle wider, and the tail widest of all. When a plate consists of asmall portrait or diagram in the centre of the page, it looks betterif it is put a little higher and a little nearer the back than theactual centre. [Illustration: FIG. 4. ] Plates that have no numbers on them must be put in order by the listof printed plates, or "instructions to the binder. " The half-title, title, dedication, &c. , will often be found to be printed on oddsheets that have to be made up into section A. This preliminary matteris usually placed in the following order: Half-title, title, dedication, preface, contents, list of illustrations or other lists. If there is an index, it should be put at the end of the book. All plates should be "guarded, " and any "quarter sections, " that is, sections consisting of two leaves, should have their backsstrengthened by a "guard, " or they may very easily be torn in thesewing. Odd, single leaves may be guarded round sections in the sameway as plates. When a book has been folded, it should be pressed (see p. 87). There will sometimes be pages marked by the printer with a star. Thesehave some error in them, and are intended to be cut out. The printershould supply corrected pages to replace them. COLLATING In addition to the pagination each sheet or section of a printed bookis lettered or numbered. Each letter or number is called the "sheet'ssignature. " Printers usually leave out J W and V in lettering sheets. If there are more sections than there are letters in the alphabet, theprinter doubles the letters, signing the sections A A, B B, and so on, after the single letters are exhausted. Some printers use an Arabicnumeral before the section number to denote the second alphabet, as2A, 2B, &c. , and others change the character of the letters, perhapsusing capitals for the first alphabet and italics for the second. Ifthe sheets are numbered, the numbers will of course followconsecutively. In books of more than one volume, the number of thevolume is sometimes added in Roman numerals before the signature, asII A, II B. The main pagination of the book usually commences with Chapter I. , andall before that is independently paged in Roman numerals. It isunusual to have actual numbers on the title or half-title, but if thepages are counted back from where the first numeral occurs, theyshould come right. There will sometimes be one or more blank leaves completing sectionsat the beginning or end. Such blank leaves must be retained, aswithout them the volume would be "imperfect. " To collate a modern book the paging must be examined to see that theleaves are in order, and that nothing is defective or missing. The method of doing this is to insert the first finger of the righthand at the bottom of about the fiftieth page, crook the finger, andturn up the corners of the pages with it. When this is done the thumbis placed on page 1, and the hand twisted, so as to fan out the top ofthe pages. They can then be readily turned over by the thumb and firstfinger of the left hand (see fig. 5). This is repeated throughout thebook, taking about fifty pages at a time. It will of course only benecessary to check the odd numbers, as if they are right, the evenones on the other side of the leaf must be so. If the pages arenumbered at the foot, the leaves must be fanned out from the head. [Illustration: FIG. 5. ] Plates or maps that are not paged can only be checked from the printedlist. When checked it will save time if the number of the page whicheach faces is marked on the back in small pencil figures. In the case of early printed books or manuscripts, which are often notpaged, special knowledge is needed for their collation. It may roughlybe said, that if the sections are all complete, that is, if there arethe same number of leaves at each side of the sewing in all thesections, the book may be taken to be perfect, unless of course wholesections are missing. All unpaged books should be paged through inpencil before they are taken apart; this is best done with a very finepencil, at the bottom left-hand corner; it will only be necessary tonumber the front of each leaf. PULLING TO PIECES After the volume has been collated it must be "pulled, " that is tosay, the sections must be separated, and all plates or maps detached. If in a bound book there are slips laced in the front cover, they mustbe cut and the back torn off. It will sometimes happen that in tearingoff the leather nearly all the glue will come too, leaving the backsof the pages detached except for the sewing. More usually the backwill be left covered with a mass of glue and linen, or paper, which itis very difficult to remove without injury to the backs of thesections. By drawing a sharp knife along the bands, the sewing may becut and the bands removed, leaving the sections only connected by theglue. Then the sections of the book can usually be separated with afine folder, after the thread from the centre of each has beenremoved; the point of division being ascertained by finding the firstsignature of each section. In cases where the glue and leather formtoo hard a back to yield to this method, it is advisable to soak theglue with paste, and when soft to scrape it off with a folder. As thismethod is apt to injure the backs of the sections, it should not beresorted to unless necessary; and when it is, care must be taken notto let the damp penetrate into the book, or it will cause very uglystains. The book must be pulled while damp, or else the glue will dryup harder than before. The separated sections must be piled upcarefully to prevent pages being soiled by the damp glue. All plates or single leaves "pasted on" must be removed. These canusually be detached by carefully tearing apart, but if too securelypasted they must be soaked off in water, unless of course the plateshave been painted with water-colour. If the plates must be soaked off, the leaf and attached plate should be put into a pan of slightly warmwater and left to soak until they float apart, then with a soft brushany remaining glue or paste can be easily removed while in the water. Care must be taken not to soak modern books printed on what is called"Art Paper, " as this paper will hardly stand ordinary handling, and isabsolutely ruined if wetted. The growing use of this paper inimportant books is one of the greatest troubles the bookbinder has toface. The highly loaded and glazed surface of some of the heavy platepapers easily flakes off, so that any guard pasted on these plates isapt to come away, taking with it the surface of the paper. Moreover, should the plates chance to be fingered or in any way soiled, nothingcan remove the marks; and should a corner get turned down, the paperbreaks and the corner will fall off. It is the opinion of experts thatthis heavily loaded Art Paper will not last a reasonable time, and, apart from other considerations, this should be ample reason for notusing it in books that are expected to have a permanent value. Printers like this paper, because it enables them to obtain brilliantimpressions from blocks produced by cheap processes. In "cased" books, sewn by machinery, the head and tail of the sheetswill often be found to be split up as far as the "kettle" stitches. Ifsuch a book is to be expensively bound, it will require mendingthroughout in these places, or the glue may soak into the torn ends, and make the book open stiffly. Some books are put together with staples of tinned iron wire, whichrapidly rust and disfigure the book by circular brown marks. Suchmarks will usually have to be cut out and the places carefully mended. This process is lengthy, and consequently so costly, that it isgenerally cheaper, when possible, to obtain an unbound copy of thebook from the publishers, than to waste time repairing the damage doneby the cloth binder. Generally speaking, the sections of a book cased in cloth by modernmethods are so injured as to make it unfit for more permanent bindingunless an unreasonable amount of time is spent on it. It is a greatpity that publishers do not, in the case of books expected to have apermanent literary value, issue a certain number of copies printed ongood paper, and unbound, for the use of those who require permanentbindings; and in such copies it would be a great help if sufficientmargin were left at the back of the plates for the binder to turn itup to form a guard. If the plates were very numerous, guards made ofthe substance of the plates themselves would make the book too thick;but in the case of books with not more than a dozen plates, printed oncomparatively thin paper, it would be a great advantage. Some books in which there are a large number of plates are cut intosingle leaves, which are held together at the back by a coating of anindiarubber solution. For a short time such a volume is pleasantenough to handle, and opens freely, but before long the indiarubberperishes, and the leaves and plates fall apart. When a book of thiskind comes to have a permanent binding, all the leaves and plates haveto be pared at the back and made up into sections with guards--atroublesome and expensive business. The custom with binders is toovercast the backs of the leaves in sections, and to sew through theovercasting thread, but this, though an easy and quick process, makesa hopelessly stiff back, and no book so treated can open freely. REFOLDING [Illustration: FIG. 6. --Dividers] When the sheets of books that have to be rebound have been carelesslyfolded, a certain amount of readjustment is often advisable, especially in cases where the book has not been previously cut. Thetitle-page and the half-title, when found to be out of square, shouldnearly always be put straight. The folding of the whole book may becorrected by taking each pair of leaves and holding them up to thelight and adjusting the fold so that the print on one leaf comesexactly over the print on the other, and creasing the fold to makethem stay in that position. With a pair of dividers (fig. 6) set tothe height of the shortest top margin, points the same distance abovethe headline of the other leaves can be made. Then against acarpenter's square, adjusted to the back of the fold, the head of onepair of leaves at a time can be cut square (see fig. 7). If the bookhas been previously cut this process is apt to throw the leaves so farout of their original position as to make them unduly uneven. [Illustration: FIG. 7. ] Accurate folding is impossible if the "register" of the printing isbad, that is to say, if the print on the back of a leaf does not lieexactly over that on the front. Crooked plates should usually be made straight by judicious trimmingof the margins. It is better to leave a plate short at tail orfore-edge than to leave it out of square. KNOCKING OUT JOINTS The old "joints" must be knocked out of the sections of books thathave been previously backed. To do this, one or two sections at a timeare held firmly in the left hand, and well hammered on theknocking-down iron fixed into the lying press. It is important thatthe hammer face should fall exactly squarely upon the paper, or it maycut pieces out. The knocking-down iron should be covered with a pieceof paper, and the hammer face must be perfectly clean, or the sheetsmay be soiled. CHAPTER III Guarding--Throwing Out--Paring Paper--Soaking off India Proofs--Mounting very Thin Paper--Splitting Paper--Inlaying--Flattening Vellum GUARDING Guards are slips of thin paper or linen used for strengthening thefold of leaves that are damaged, or for attaching plates or singleleaves. Guards should be of good thin paper. That known as Whatman's Banknotepaper answers very well. An easy way to cut guards is shown in fig. 8. Two or three pieces of paper of the height of the required guardsare folded and pinned to the board by the right-hand corners. A seriesof points are marked at the head and tail with dividers set to thewidth desired for the guards, and with a knife guided by astraight-edge, cuts joining the points are made right through thepaper, but not extending quite to either end. On a transverse cutbeing made near the bottom, the guards are left attached by one endonly (see fig. 9), and can be torn off as wanted. This method preventsthe paper from slipping while it is being cut. [Illustration: FIG. 8. ] [Illustration: FIG. 9. ] A mount cutter's knife (fig. 10) will be found to be a convenient formof knife to use for cutting guards. In using the knife and straight-edge a good deal of pressure should beput on the straight-edge, and comparatively little on the knife. [Illustration: FIG. 10. --Mount Cutter's Knife] To mend the torn back of a pair of leaves, a guard should be selecteda little longer than the height of the pages and well pasted withwhite paste (see page 288). If the pair of leaves are not quiteseparated, the pasted guard held by its extremities may be simply laidalong the weak place and rubbed down through blotting-paper. If theleaves are quite apart, it is better to lay the pasted guard on apiece of glass and put the edges of first one and then the other leafon to it and rub down. On an outside pair of leaves the guard should be inside, so that theglue may catch any ragged edges; while on the inside pair the guardshould be outside, or it will be found to be troublesome in sewing. Inhandling the pasted guards care is needed not to stretch them, or theymay cause the sheet to crinkle as they dry. [Illustration: FIG. 11. ] Plates must be guarded round the sections next them. When there are agreat many plates the back margin of each, to which a guard will beattached, must be pared (see fig. 11, A), or the additional thicknesscaused by the guards will make the back swell unduly. In guardingplates a number can be pasted at once if they are laid one on another, with about an eighth of an inch of the back of each exposed, the topof the pile being protected by a folded piece of waste paper (see fig. 12). To paste, the brush is brought from the top to the bottom of thepile only, and not the other way, or paste will get between the platesand soil them. Guards should usually be attached to the backs ofplates, and should be wide enough to turn up round the adjoiningsection, so that they may be sewn through. Should a plate come in themiddle of a section, the guard is best turned back and slightly pastedto the inside of the sheet and then sewn through in the ordinary way. [Illustration: FIG. 12. ] If plates are very thick, they must be hinged, as shown at fig. 11, B. This is done by cutting a strip of about a quarter of an inch off theback of the plate, and guarding with a wide guard of linen, leaving asmall space between the plate and the piece cut off to form a hinge. It will save some swelling if the plate is pared and a piece ofthinner paper substituted for the piece cut off (see fig. 11, C). Ifthe plates are of cardboard, they should be guarded on both sides withlinen, and may even need a second joint. A book that consists entirely of plates or single leaves must be madeup into sections with guards, and sewn as usual. In books in whichthere are a great many plates, it is often found that two plateseither come together in the centre of a section, or come at oppositesides of the same pair of leaves. Such plates should be guardedtogether and treated as folded sheets (see fig. 13). [Illustration: FIG. 13. ] In order to be sure that the pages of a book to be guarded throughoutwill come in their proper order, it is well to make a plan of thesections as follows, and to check each pair of leaves by it, as theyare guarded:-- Thus, if the book is to be made up into sections of eight leaves, thepairs of leaves to be guarded together can be seen at once if thenumber of the pages are written out-- 1, 3, 5, 7, --9, 11, 13, 15. First the inside pair, 7 and 9, are guarded together with the guardoutside, then the next pair, 5 and 11, then 3 and 13, and then theoutside pair, 1 and 15, which should have the guard outside. A planfor the whole book would be more conveniently written thus-- 1-15 17-31 33-47 3-13 19-29 35-45 5-11 21-27 37-43 7-9 23-25 39-41, and so on. To arrange a book of single leaves for guarding, it is convenient totake as many leaves as you intend to go to a section, and opening themin the centre, take a pair at a time as they come. The number of leaves it is advisable to put into a section will dependon the thickness of the paper and the size and thickness of the book. If the paper is thick, and the backs of the leaves have been pared, four leaves to a section will be found to answer. But if the paper isthin, and does not allow of much paring, it is better to have a largersection, in order to have as little thread in the back as possible. The sheets of any guarded book should be pressed before sewing, inorder to reduce the swelling of the back caused by the guards. THROWING OUT [Illustration: FIG. 14. ] Maps or diagrams that are frequently referred to in the text of abook, should be "thrown out" on a guard as wide as the sheet of thebook. Such maps, &c. , should be placed at the end, so that they maylie open for reference while the book is being read (see fig. 14). Large folded maps or diagrams should be mounted on linen. To do thistake a piece of jaconet and pin it out flat on the board, then evenlypaste the back of the map with thin paste in which there are no lumps, and lay it on the linen, rub down through blotting-paper, and leave todry. Unless the pasting is done evenly the marks of the paste-brushwill show through the linen. If a folded map is printed on very thickpaper each fold must be cut up, and the separate pieces mounted on thelinen, with a slight space between them to form a flexible joint. [Illustration: FIG. 15. ] A folded map must have in the back of the book sufficient guards toequal it in thickness at its thickest part when folded, or the bookwill not shut properly (see fig. 15). PARING PAPER For paring the edge of paper for mending or guarding, take a verysharp knife, and holding the blade at right angles to thecovering-board, draw the edge once or twice along it from left toright. This should turn up enough of the edge to form a "burr, " whichcauses the knife to cut while being held almost flat on the paper. Theplate or paper should be laid face downwards on the glass with theedge to be pared away from the workman, the knife held in the righthand, with the burr downwards. The angle at which to hold the knifewill depend on its shape and on the thickness and character of thepaper to be pared, and can only be learned by practice. If the knifeis in order, and is held at the proper angle, the shaving removed froma straight edge of paper should come off in a long spiral. If theknife is not in proper order, the paper may be badly jagged orcreased. SOAKING OFF INDIA PROOFS Place a piece of well-sized paper in a pan of warm water, then lay themounted India proof, face downwards, upon it and leave it to soakuntil the proof floats off. Then carefully take out the old mount, andthe India proof can be readily removed from the water on the underpaper, and dried between sheets of blotting-paper. MOUNTING VERY THIN PAPER Very thin paper, such as that of some "India" proofs, may be safelymounted as follows:--The mount, ready for use, is laid on a pad ofblotting-paper. The thin paper to be mounted is laid face downwards ona piece of glass and very carefully pasted with thin, white paste. Anypaste on the glass beyond the edges of the paper is carefully wipedoff with a clean cloth. The glass may then be turned over, and thepasted plate laid on the mount, its exact position being seen throughthe glass. SPLITTING PAPER It is sometimes desirable to split pieces of paper when the matter onone side only is needed, or when the matter printed on each side is tobe used in different places. The paper to be split should be wellpasted on both sides with a thickish paste, and fine linen or jaconetplaced on each side. It is then nipped in the press to make the linenstick all over, and left to dry. If the two pieces of jaconet are carefully pulled apart when dry, halfthe paper should be attached to each, unless at any point the pastehas failed to stick, when the paper will tear. The jaconet and paperattached must be put into warm water until the split paper floats off. INLAYING LEAVES OR PLATES [Illustration: FIG. 16. ] When a small plate or leaf has to be inserted into a larger book, itis best to "inlay it"; that is to say, the plate or leaf is let into asheet of paper the size of the page of the book. To do this, a pieceof paper as thick as the plate to be inlaid, or a little thicker, isselected, and on this is laid the plate, which should have beenpreviously squared, and the positions of the corners marked with afolder. A point is made about an eighth of an inch inside each cornermark, and the paper within these points is cut out (see fig. 16). Thisleaves a frame of paper, the inner edges of which will slightlyoverlap the edges of the plate. The under edge of the plate, and theupper edge of the mount, should then be pared and pasted, and theplate laid in its place (with the corners corresponding to the foldermarks). If the edges have been properly pared, the thickness wherethey overlap should not exceed the thickness of the frame paper. If anirregular fragment is to be inlaid, it is done in the same way, exceptthat the entire outline is traced on the new paper with a folder, andthe paper cut away, allowing one eighth of an inch inside the indentedline. FLATTENING VELLUM The leaves of a vellum book that have become cockled from damp orother causes may be flattened by damping them, pulling them outstraight, and allowing them to dry under pressure. To do this take thebook to pieces, clean out any dirt there may be in the folds of theleaves, and spread out each pair of leaves as flatly as possible. Damp some white blotting-paper by interleaving it with common whitepaper that has been wetted with a sponge. One sheet of wet paper totwo of blotting-paper will be enough. The pile of blotting-paper andwet paper is put in the press and left for an hour or two underpressure, then taken out and the common paper removed. The blotting-paper should now be slightly and evenly damp. To flattenthe vellum the open pairs of leaves are interleaved with the slightlydamp blotting-paper, and are left for an hour under the weight of apressing-board. After this time the vellum will have become quitesoft, and can with care be flattened out and lightly pressed betweenthe blotting-paper, and left for a night. The next day the vellumleaves should be looked at to see that they lie quite flat, and theblotting-paper changed for some that is dry. The vellum must remainunder pressure until it is quite dry, or it will cockle up worse thanever when exposed to the air. The blotting-paper should be changedevery day or two. The length of time that vellum leaves take to drywill vary with the state of the atmosphere, and the thickness of thevellum, from one to six weeks. Almost any manuscript or printed book on vellum can be successfullyflattened in this way; miniatures should have pieces of waxed paperlaid over them to prevent the chance of any of the fibres of theblotting-paper sticking. The pressure must not be great; only enoughis needed to keep the vellum flat as it dries. This process of flattening, although so simple, requires the utmostcare. If the blotting-paper is used too damp, a manuscript may beruined; and if not damp enough, the pressing will have no effect. CHAPTER IV Sizing--Washing--Mending SIZING The paper in old books is sometimes soft and woolly. This is generallybecause the size has perished, and such paper can often be madeperfectly sound by resizing. [Illustration: FIG. 17. ] For size, an ounce of isinglass or good gelatine is dissolved in aquart of water. This should make a clear solution when gently warmed, and should be used at about a temperature of 120° F. Care must betaken not to heat too quickly, or the solution may burn and turnbrown. If the size is not quite clear, it should be strained throughfine muslin or linen before being used. When it is ready it should bepoured into an open pan (fig. 17), so arranged that it can be keptwarm by a gas flame or spirit lamp underneath. When this is ready thesheets to be sized can be put in one after another and taken out atonce. The hot size will be found to take out a great many stains, andespecially those deep brown stains that come from water. If there areonly a few sheets, they can be placed between blotting-paper as theyare removed from the size; but if there is a whole book, it is best tolay them in a pile one on the other, and when all have been sized tosqueeze them in the "lying press" between pressing-boards, a pan beingput underneath to catch the liquid squeezed out. When the sheets havebeen squeezed they can be readily handled, and should be spread out todry on a table upon clean paper. When they are getting dry and firmthey can be hung on strings stretched across the room, slightlyoverlapping one another. The strings must first be covered with slipsof clean paper, and the sized sheets should have more paper over themto keep them clean. Before sizing it will be necessary to go through a book and take outany pencil or dust marks that can be removed with indiarubber or breadcrumbs, or the size will fix them, and it will be found exceedinglydifficult to remove them afterwards. When the sheets are dry they should be carefully mended in any placesthat may be torn, and folded up into sections and pressed. A long, comparatively light pressure will be found to flatten them better andwith less injury to the surface of the paper than a short, very heavypressure, such as that of the rolling-machine. In some cases it will be found that sheets of old books are so fardamaged as to be hardly strong enough to handle. Such sheets must besized in rather a stronger size in the following way:--Take a sheet ofheavily-sized paper, such as notepaper, and carefully lay your damagedsheet on that. Then put another sheet of strong paper on the top, andput all three sheets into the size. It will be found that the topsheet can then be easily lifted off, and the size be made to flow overthe face of the damaged sheet. Then, if the top sheet be put on again, the three sheets, if handled as one, can be turned over and theoperation repeated, and size induced to cover the back of the damagedleaf. The three sheets must then be taken out and laid betweenblotting-paper to take up the surplus moisture. The top sheet mustthen be carefully peeled off, and the damaged page laid face downwardson clean blotting-paper. Then the back sheet can be peeled off aswell, leaving the damaged sheet to dry. The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopædia" on Gelatine:-- "Gelatine should never be judged by the eye alone. "Its purity may be very easily tested thus: Soak it in cold water, then pour upon it a small quantity of boiling water. If pure, it willform a thickish, clear straw-coloured solution, free from smell; butif made of impure materials, it will give off a very offensive odour, and have a yellow, gluey consistency. " WASHING When there are stains or ink marks on books that cannot be removed bythe use of hot size or hot water, stronger measures may sometimes haveto be taken. Many stains will be found to yield readily to hot waterwith a little alum in it, and others can be got out by a judiciousapplication of curd soap with a very soft brush and plenty of warmwater. But some, and especially ink stains, require further treatment. There are many ways of washing paper, and most of those in common useare extremely dangerous, and have in many cases resulted in theabsolute destruction of fine books. If it is thought to be absolutelynecessary that the sheets of a book should be washed, the safestmethod is as follows:--Take an ounce of permanganate of potashdissolved in a quart of water, and warmed slightly. In this put thesheets to be washed, and leave them until they turn a dark brown. Thiswill usually take about an hour, but may take longer for some papers. Then turn the sheets out and wash them in running water until alltrace of purple stain disappears from the water as it comes away. Thentransfer them to a bath of sulphurous (not sulphuric) acid and waterin the proportion of one ounce of acid to one pint of water. Thesheets in this solution will rapidly turn white, and if left for sometime nearly all stains will be removed. In case any stains refuse tocome out, the sheets should be put in clear water for a short time, and then placed in the permanganate of potash solution again, and leftthere for a longer time than before; then after washing in clearwater, again transferred to the sulphurous acid. When sheets areremoved from the sulphurous acid they should be well washed for anhour or two in running water, and then may be blotted or squeezed offand hung up on lines to dry. Any sheets treated in this way willrequire sizing afterwards. And if, as is often the case, only a fewsheets at the beginning or end of the book have to be washed, it willbe necessary to tone down the washed sheets to match the rest of thebook by putting some stain in the size. For staining there are manythings used. A weak solution of permanganate of potash gives ayellowish stain that will be found to match many papers. Other stainsare used, such as coffee, chicory, tea, liquorice, &c. Whatever isused should be put in the size. To ascertain that the right depth ofcolour has been obtained, a piece of unsized paper, such as whiteblotting-paper, is dipped in the stained size and blotted off anddried before the fire. It is impossible to judge of the depth ofcolour in a stain unless the test piece is thoroughly dried. If thestain is not right, add more water or more stain as is needed. Experience will tell what stain to use to match the paper of any givenbook. To remove grease or oil stains, ether may be used. Pour it freely in acircle round the spot, narrowing the circle gradually until the stainis covered. Then apply a warm iron through a piece of blotting-paper. Ether should only be used in a draught in a well-ventilated room onaccount of its well-known inflammable and anæsthetical properties. A very dilute (about one per cent. ) solution of pure hydrochloric acidin cold water will be found to take out some stains if the paper isleft in it for some hours. When the paper is removed from thesolution, it must be thoroughly washed in running water. It isimportant that the hydrochloric acid used should be pure, as thecommercial quality (spirits of salts) often contains sulphuric acid. The following recipes are quoted from _De l'organisation et del'administration des Bibliothèques, par Jules Cusin_:-- To remove stains from paper:--"_Mud Stains. _--To take away these kindsof stains, spread some soap jelly very evenly over the stained places, and leave it there for thirty or forty minutes, according to the depthof the stain. Then dip the sheet in clean water, and then havingspread it on a perfectly clean table, remove the soap lightly with ahog's hair brush or a fine sponge; all the mud will disappear at thesame time. Put the sheet into the clear water again, to get rid of thelast trace of soap. Let it drain a little, press it lightly betweentwo sheets of blotting-paper, and finish by letting it dry slowly ina dry place in the shade. "_Stains of Tallow, Stearine, or Fat. _--To take away these stainscover them with blotting-paper and pass over them a warm flat-iron. When the paper has soaked up the grease, change it and repeat theoperation until the stains have been sufficiently removed. After that, touch both sides of the sheets where they have been stained with abrush dipped in essence of turpentine heated to boiling-point. Then torestore the whiteness of the paper, touch the places which werestained with a piece of fine linen soaked in purified spirits of winewarmed in the water-bath. This method may also be employed to get ridof sealing-wax stains. "_Oil Stains. _--Make a mixture of 500 gr. Of soap, 300 gr. Of clay, 60gr. Of quicklime, and sufficient water to make it of the rightconsistency, spread a thin layer of this on the stain, and leave itthere about a quarter of an hour. Then dip the sheet in a bath of hotwater; take it out, and let it dry slowly. "You can also use the following method, generally employed forfinger-marks:-- "_Finger-marks. _--These stains are sometimes very obstinate. Stillthey can generally be mastered by the following method:--Spread overthem a layer of white soap jelly (_savon blanc en gelée_), and leaveit there for some hours. Then remove this with a fine sponge dipped inhot water, and more often than not all the dirt disappears at the sametime. If this treatment is not sufficient, you might replace the soapjelly by soft soap (_savon noir_), but you must be careful not toleave it long on the printing, which might decompose and run, and thatwould do more harm than good. " Sheets of very old books are best left with the stains of age uponthem, excepting, perhaps, such as can be removed with hot water orsize. Nearly all stains _can_ be removed, but in the process old paperis apt to lose more in character than it gains in appearance. MENDING For mending torn sheets of an old book, some paper that matches asnearly as possible must be found. For this purpose it is the customfor bookbinders to collect quantities of old paper. If a piece of thesame tone cannot be found, paper of similar texture and substance maybe stained to match. Supposing a corner to be missing, and a piece of paper to have beenfound that matches it, the torn page is laid over the new paper insuch a way that the wire marks on both papers correspond. Then thepoint of a folder should be drawn along the edge of the torn sheet, leaving an indented line on the new paper. The new paper should thenbe cut off about an eighth of an inch beyond the indented line, andthe edge carefully pared up to the line. The edge of the old papermust be similarly pared, so that the two edges when laid together willnot exceed the thickness of the rest of the page. It is well to leavea little greater overlap at the edges of the page. Both cut edges mustthen be well pasted with white paste and rubbed down betweenblotting-paper. To ensure a perfectly clean joint the pasted edgeshould not be touched with the hand, and pasting-paper, brushes, andpaste must be perfectly clean. In the case of a tear across the page, if there are any overlappingedges, they may merely be pasted together and the end of the tear atthe edge of the paper strengthened by a small piece of pared paper. Ifthe tear crosses print, and there are no overlapping edges, eithertiny pieces of pared paper may be cut and laid across the tear betweenthe lines of print, or else a piece of the thinnest Japanese paper, which is nearly transparent, may be pasted right along the tear overthe print; in either case the mend should be strengthened at the edgeof the page by an additional thickness of paper. In cases where thebacks of the sections have been much damaged, it will be necessary toput a guard the entire length, or in the case of small holes, to fillthem in with pieces of torn paper. The edges of any mend may, withgreat care, be scraped with a sharp knife having a slight burr on theunder side, and then rubbed lightly with a piece of worn finesand-paper, or a fragment of cuttle-fish bone. Care must be taken notto pare away too much, and especially not to weaken the mend at theedges of the sheet. As a general rule, the new mending paper should goon the back of a sheet. Sometimes it is thought necessary to fill up worm-holes in the paper. This may be done by boiling down some paper in size until it is of apulpy consistency, and a little of this filled into the worm-holeswill re-make the paper in those places. It is a very tediousoperation, and seldom worth doing. Mending vellum is done in much the same way as mending paper, excepting that a little greater overlap must be left. It is well toput a stitch of silk at each end of a vellum patch, as you cannotdepend on paste alone holding vellum securely. The overlapping edgesmust be well roughed up with a knife to make sure that the paste willstick. A cut in a vellum page is best mended with fine silk with alacing stitch (see fig. 18). [Illustration: FIG. 18. ] Mending is most easily done on a sheet of plate-glass, of which theedges and corners have been rubbed down. CHAPTER V End Papers--Leather Joints--Pressing END PAPERS If an old book that has had much wear is examined, it will generallybe found that the leaves at the beginning and the end have sufferedmore than the rest of the book. On this ground, and also to enablepeople who must write notes in books to do so with the least injury tothe book, it is advisable to put a good number of blank papers at eachend. As these papers are part of the binding, and have an importantprotective function to perform, they should be of good quality. At alltimes difficulty has been found in preventing the first and lastsection of the book, whether end papers or not, from dragging awaywhen the cover is opened, and various devices have been tried toovercome this defect. In the fifteenth century strips of vellum(usually cut from manuscripts) were pasted on to the back of the bookand on the inside of the boards, or in some cases were merely foldedround the first and last section and pasted on to the covers. Themodern, and far less efficient, practice is to "overcast" the firstand last sections. This is objectionable, because it prevents theleaves from opening right to the back, and it fails in the objectaimed at, by merely transferring the strain to the back of theovercast section. In order to make provision for any strain there may be in opening thecover, it is better to adopt some such arrangement as shown in fig. 19. In this end paper the zigzag opens slightly in response to anystrain. The way to make this end paper is to take a folded sheet of paper alittle larger than the book. Then with dividers mark two points aneighth of an inch from the back for the fold, and paste yourpaste-down paper, B B, up to these points (see fig. 19, II). When thepaste is dry, fold back the sheet (A1) over the paste-down paper, andA2 the reverse way, leaving the form seen in fig. 19, III. A foldedsheet of paper similar to A is inserted at C (fig. 19, V, H), and thesewing passes through this. When the book is pasted down the leaf A1is torn off, and B1 pasted down on the board. If marbled paper isdesired, the marble should be "made, " that is, pasted on to B1. [Illustration: FIG. 19. ] There are considerable disadvantages in using marbled papers, as ifthey are of thick enough paper to help the strength of the binding, the "made" sheet is very stiff, and in a small book is troublesome. Onno account should any marble paper be used, unless it is tough anddurable. The quality of the paper of which most marbled papers aremade is so poor, that it is unsuitable for use as end papers. For mostbooks a self-coloured paper of good quality answers well for thepaste-down sheets. It is a mistake to leave end papers to be pasted on after the book hasbeen forwarded, as in that case they have little constructive value. Every leaf of such an end paper as is described above will open rightto the back, and the zigzag allows play for the drag of the board. Paper with a conventional pattern painted or printed on it may be usedfor end papers. If such a design is simple, such as a sprig repeatedall over, or an arrangement of stars or dots, it may look very well;but over elaborate end papers, and especially those that aim atpictorial effect, are seldom successful. Ends may be made of thin vellum. If so, unless the board is veryheavy, it is best to have leather joints. A single leaf of vellum (in the place of B1 and 2, II, fig. 19) shouldhave an edge turned up into the zigzag with the leather joint, andsewn through. Vellum ends must always be sewn, as it is not safe torely upon paste to hold them. They look well, and may be enriched bytooling. The disadvantage of vellum is, that it has a tendency to curlup if subjected to heat, and when it contracts it unduly draws theboards of the book. For large manuscripts, or printed books on vellum, which are bound in wooden or other thick boards and are clasped, thicker vellum may be used for the ends; that with a slightly brownsurface looks best. The part that will come into the joint should bescraped thin with a knife, and a zigzag made of Japanese paper. Silk or other fine woven material may be used for ends. It is bestused with a leather joint, and may be stuck on to the first paper ofthe end papers (B1, No. 2, fig. 19), and cut with the book. Theglaire of the edge gilding will help to stop the edges fraying out. Inattaching silk to paper, thin glue is the best thing to use; thepaper, not the silk, being glued. Some little practice is needed toget sufficient glue on the paper to make the silk stick all over, andyet not to soil it. When the silk has been glued to the paper, itshould be left under a light weight to dry. If put in the press, theglue may be squeezed through and the silk soiled. If the silk is very thin, or delicate in colour, or if it seems likelythat it will fray out at the edges, it is better to turn the edges inover a piece of paper cut a little smaller than the page of the bookand stick them down. This forms a pad, which may be attached to thefirst leaf of the end papers; a similar pad may be made for filling inthe board. Before using, the silk should be damped and ironed flat on the wrongside. Silk ends give a book a rich finish, but seldom look altogethersatisfactory. If the silk is merely stuck on to the first end paper, the edges will generally fray out if the book is much used. If theedges are turned in, an unpleasantly thick end is made. LEATHER JOINTS Leather joints are pieces of thin leather that are used to cover thejoints on the inside (for paring, see page 154). They add very littlestrength to the book, but give a pleasant finish to the inside of theboard. If there are to be leather joints, the end papers are made up withoutA 1, and the edge of the leather pasted and inserted at D, with apiece of common paper as a protection (see fig. 19, IV). When thepaste is dry, the leather is folded over at E. A piece of blotting-paper may be pasted on to the inside of the wasteleaf, leaving enough of it loose to go between the leather joint andthe first sheet of the end paper. This will avoid any chance of theleather joint staining or marking the ends while the book is beingbound. The blotting-paper, of course, is taken out with the wastesheet before the joint is pasted down. Joints may also be made of linen or cloth inserted in the same way. Acloth joint has greater strength than a leather one, as the latter hasto be very thin in order that the board may shut properly. With leather or cloth joints, the sewing should go through both E andF. PRESSING [Illustration: FIG. 20. ] [Illustration: FIG. 21. --Standing Press] While the end papers are being made, the sections of the book shouldbe pressed. To do this a pressing-board is taken which is a littlelarger than the book, and a tin, covered with common paper, placed onthat, then a few sections of the book, then another tin covered withpaper, and then more sections, and so on, taking care that thesections are exactly over one another (see fig. 20). A secondpressing-board having been placed on the last tin, the pile ofsections, tins, and pressing-boards can be put into the standing-pressand left under pressure till next day. Newly printed plates should beprotected by thin tissue paper while being pressed. Any folded platesor maps, &c. , or inserted letters, must either not be pressed, or havetins placed on each side of them to prevent them from indenting theadjoining leaves. [Illustration: FIG. 22. --French Standing Press] Hand-printed books, such as the publications of the Kelmscott Press, should have very little pressure, or the "impression" of the print andthe surface of the paper may be injured. Books newly printed on vellumor heavily coloured illustrations should not be pressed at all, or theprint may "set off. " The protecting tissues on the plates of a book that has been printedfor more than a year can generally be left out, unless the titles ofthe plates are printed on them, as they are a nuisance to readers andoften get crumpled up and mark the book. In order to make books solid, that is, to make the leaves lie evenlyand closely to one another, it was formerly the custom to beat bookson a "stone" with a heavy hammer. This process has been superseded bythe rolling-press; but with the admirable presses that are now to behad, simple pressing will be found to be sufficient for the "extra"binder. At fig. 21 is shown an iron standing-press. This is screwed down firstwith a short bar, and finally with a long bar. This form of press iseffective and simple, but needs a good deal of room for the long bar, and must have very firm supports, or it may be pulled over. At fig. 22 is shown a French standing-press, in which the pressure isapplied by a weighted wheel, which will, in the first place, by beingspun round, turn the screw until it is tight, and give additionalpressure by a hammering action. This press I have found to answer forall ordinary purposes, and to give as great pressure as can be got bythe iron standing-press, without any undue strain on supports orworkmen. There are many other forms of press by which great pressure can beapplied, some working by various arrangements of cog-wheels, screws, and levers, others by hydraulic pressure. CHAPTER VI Trimming Edges before Sewing--Edge Gilding TRIMMING BEFORE SEWING When the sheets come from the press the treatment of the edges must bedecided upon, that is, whether they are to be entirely uncut, trimmedbefore sewing, or cut in boards. Early printed books and manuscripts should on no account have theiredges cut at all, and any modern books of value are better onlyslightly trimmed and gilt before sewing. But for books of referencethat need good bindings, on account of the wear they have towithstand, cutting in boards is best, as the smooth edge so obtainedmakes the leaves easier to turn over. Gilt tops and rough edges give abook a look of unequal finish. If the edges are to remain uncut, or be cut "in boards" with theplough, the book will be ready for "marking up" as soon as it comesfrom the press; but if it is to be gilt before sewing, it must befirst trimmed. [Illustration: Fig. 23. ] The sheets for trimming with end papers and all plates inserted mustfirst be cut square at the head against a carpenter's square (see fig. 7). Then a piece of mill-board may be cut to the size, it is desiredto leave the leaves, and the sections trimmed to it. To do this threenails should be put into the covering board through a piece ofstraw-board, and the back of the section slid along nails 1 and 2until it touches No. 3 (see fig. 23). The board is slid in the sameway, and anything projecting beyond it cut off. When the understraw-board has become inconveniently scored in the first position, byshifting the lower nail (1) a fresh surface will receive the cuts. Fig. 24 is a representation of a simple machine that I use in myworkshop for trimming. The slides A A are adjustable to any widthrequired, and are fixed by the screws B B. The brass-bound straightedge C fits on to slots in A A, and as this, by the adjustment of theslides, can be fixed at any distance from B B, all sizes of books canbe trimmed. As by this machine several sections can be cut at once, the time taken is not very much greater than if the book were cut inthe plough. [Illustration: FIG. 24. ] Considerable judgment is required in trimming. The edges of the largerpages only, on a previously uncut book, should be cut, leaving thesmaller pages untouched. Such uncut pages are called "proof, " and theexistence of proof in a bound book is evidence that it has not beenunduly cut. Before gilding the edges of the trimmed sections, any uncut foldsthat may remain should be opened with a folder, as if opened aftergilding, they will show a ragged white edge. [Illustration: FIG. 25. ] EDGE GILDING To gild the edges of trimmed sections, the book must be "knocked up"to the fore-edge, getting as many of the short leaves as possible tothe front. It is then put into the "lying press, " with gilding boardson each side (see fig. No. 25), and screwed up tightly. Very littlescraping will be necessary, and usually if well rubbed with finesand-paper, to remove any chance finger-marks or loose fragments ofpaper, the edge will be smooth enough to gild. If the paper is veryabsorbent, the edges must be washed over with vellum size and left todry. The next process is an application of red chalk. For this a piece ofgilder's red chalk is rubbed down on a stone with water, making athickish paste, and the edges are well brushed with a hard brushdipped in this mixture, care being taken not to have it wet enough torun between the leaves. Some gilders prefer to use blacklead or amixture of chalk and blacklead. A further brushing with a dry brushwill to some extent polish the leaves. It will then be ready for anapplication of glaire. Before glairing, the gold must be cut on thecushion to the width required (see p. 200), and may be either taken upon very slightly greased paper, a gilder's tip, or with a piece of netstretched on a little frame (see fig. 26). The gold leaf will adheresufficiently to the net, and can be readily released by a light breathwhen it is exactly over the proper place on the edge. When the gold is ready, the glaire should be floated on to the edgewith a soft brush, and the gold spread evenly over it and left untildry; that is, in a workshop of ordinary temperature, for about anhour. The edge is then lightly rubbed with a piece of leather that hasbeen previously rubbed on beeswax, and is ready for burnishing. It isbest to commence burnishing through a piece of thin slightly waxedpaper to set the gold, and afterwards the burnisher can be useddirectly on the edge. A piece of bloodstone ground so as to have nosharp edges (see fig. 27) makes a good burnisher. [Illustration: FIG. 26] [Illustration: FIG. 27. ] There are several different preparations used for gilding edges. Onepart of beaten up white of egg with four parts of water left to standfor a day and strained will be found to answer well. After the fore-edge is gilt the same operation is repeated at the headand tail. As it is desirable to have the gilding at the head as solidas possible, rather more scraping is advisable here, or the head maybe left to be cut with a plough and gilt in boards. CHAPTER VII Marking up--Sewing--Materials for Sewing MARKING UP This is drawing lines across the back of the sections to show thesewer the position of the sewing cords. Marking up for flexible sewing needs care and judgment, as on itdepends the position of the bands on the back of the bound book. Nearly all books look best with five bands, but very large, thinnishfolios may have six, and a very small, thick book may look better withfour. Generally speaking, five is the best number. In marking uptrimmed sheets for flexible sewing, the length of the back should bedivided from the head into six portions, five equal, and one at thetail slightly longer. From the points so arrived at, strong pencillines should be made across the back with a carpenter's square asguide, the book having been previously knocked up betweenpressing-boards, and placed in the lying press. It is important thatthe head should be knocked up exactly square, as otherwise the bandswill be found to slope when the book is bound. In the case of a bookwhich is to be cut and gilt in boards, before marking up it will benecessary to decide how much is to be cut off, and allowance made, orthe head and tail division of the back will, when cut, be too small. It must also be remembered that to the height of the pages the amountof the "squares" will be added. About a quarter of an inch from either end of the back of a trimmedbook, and a little more in the case of one that is to be cut inboards, a mark should be made for the "kettle" or "catch" stitch. Thismay be slightly sawn in, but before using the saw, the end papers areremoved. If these were sawn, the holes would show in the joint whenthe ends are pasted down. If the book is to be sewn on double cords, or on slips of vellum ortape, two lines will be necessary for each band. It has become the custom to saw in the backs of books, and to sink thebands into the saw cuts, using "hollow backs, " and putting false bandsto appear when bound. This is a degenerate form, to which is due muchof the want of durability of modern bindings. If the bands are not toshow on the back, it is better to sew on tapes or strips of vellumthan to use sawn-in string bands. SEWING The sewing-frame need by bookbinders is practically the same now as isshown in prints of the early sixteenth century, and probably datesfrom still earlier times. It consists of a bed with two uprights and acrossbar, which can be heightened or lowered by the turning of woodennuts working on a screw thread cut in the uprights (see fig. 29). To set up for sewing, as many loops of cord, called "lay cords, " asthere are to be bands, are threaded on to the cross piece, and tothese, by a simple knot, shown at fig. 28, cords are fastened to formthe bands. The "lay cords" can be used again and again until wornout. [Illustration: FIG. 28. ] To fasten the cord below, a key is taken (see fig. 28) and held belowthe press by the right hand; the cord is then pulled up round it bythe left, and held in position on the key by the first finger of theright hand. The key is then turned over, winding up a little of thestring, and the prongs slipped over the main cord. It is then putthrough the slit in the bed of the sewing-press, with the prongs awayfrom the front. The cord is then cut off, and the same operationrepeated for each band. When all the bands have been set up, the bookis laid against them, and they are moved to correspond with the markspreviously made on the back of the book, care being taken that theyare quite perpendicular. If they are of the same length and evenly setup, on screwing up the crossbar they should all tighten equally. It will be found to be convenient to set up the cords as far to theright hand of the press as possible, as then there will be room forthe sewer's left arm on the inner side of the left hand upright. A roll of paper that will exactly fill the slot in the sewing-frame ispushed in in front of the upright cords to steady them and ensurethat they are all in the same plane. When the sewing-frame is ready, with the cords set up and adjusted, the book must be collated to make sure that neither sheets nor plateshave been lost or misplaced during the previous operations. Platesneed special care to see that the guards go properly round the sheetsnext them. [Illustration: FIG. 29. ] The top back corner, on front and back waste end paper, should bemarked. When this has been done, and all is found to be in order, thebook is laid on a pressing-board behind the sewing-frame, thefore-edge towards the sewer, and the front end paper uppermost. As itis difficult to insert the needle into a section placed on the bed ofthe sewing-frame, it will be found convenient to sew upon a largishpressing-board, which will lie on the bed of the frame, and may havesmall catches to prevent it from shifting. When the board is in place, the first section (end paper) is taken in the left hand and turnedover, so that the marks on the back come in the proper places againstthe strings. The left hand is inserted into the place where the sewingis to be, and with the right hand a needle and thread is passedthrough the kettle stitch mark (see fig. 29). It is grasped by thefingers of the left hand, is passed out through the back at the firstmark on the left-hand side of the first upright cord, and pulledtight, leaving a loose end of thread at the kettle stitch. Then withthe right hand it is inserted again in the same place, but from theother side of the cord, and so on round all five bands, and out againat the kettle stitch mark at the tail, using right and left handsalternately. The centre of the next section is then found, and it issewn in the same way from tail to head, the thread being tied to theloose end hanging from the first kettle stitch. Another section islaid on and sewn, but when the kettle stitch is reached, the underthread is caught up in the way shown in fig. 30. These operations arerepeated throughout the whole book. If the back seems likely to swelltoo much, the sections can be lightly tapped down with a loaded stickmade for the purpose, care being taken not to drive the sectionsinwards, as it is difficult to get such sections out again. When allthe sheets and the last end paper have been sewn on, a double catchstitch is made, and the end cut off. This method is known as flexiblesewing "all along. " [Illustration: FIG. 30. ] [Illustration: FIG. 31. ] When one needle full of thread is exhausted, another is tied on, making practically a continuous length of thread going all along eachsection and round every band. The weaver's knot is the best forjoining the lengths of thread. A simple way of tying it is shown atfig. 31. A simple slip knot is made in the end of the new thread andput over the end of the old, and, on being pulled tight, the oldthread should slip through, as shewn at B. The convenience of thisknot is, that by its use a firm attachment can be made quite close upto the back of the book. This is a great advantage, as if the knot ismade at some distance from the back, it will have to be draggedthrough the section two or three times, instead of only once. Theknot, after having been made, must be pulled inside the section, andremain there. Considerable judgment is required in sewing. If a bookis sewn too loosely, it is almost impossible to bind it firmly; and iftoo tightly, especially if the kettle stitches have been drawn tootight, the thread may break in "backing, " and the book have to beresewn. One way to avoid having too much swelling in the back of a bookconsisting of a great many very thin sections is to sew "two sheetson. " In this form of sewing two sections at a time are laid on thesewing-frame. The thread is inserted at the "kettle stitch" of thelower section, and brought out as usual at the first cord, but insteadof being reinserted into the lower section, it is passed into theupper one, and so on, alternately passing into the upper and lowersections. This will give, if there are five bands, three stitches ineach section instead of six, as there would be if the sewing were"all along, " lessening the thread, consequently the swelling by half. It is usual to sew the first and last few sections "all along. " The common method of sewing is to make saw cuts in the back, in whichthin cords can be sunk, and the thread merely passes behind them andnot round them, as in flexible sewing. This method, although veryquick and cheap, is not to be recommended, on account of the injurydone to the backs of the sections by the saw, and because the gluerunning into the saw cuts is apt to make the back stiff, and toprevent the book from opening right to the back. Indeed, were asawn-in book to open right to the back, as it is expected aflexibly-sewn book will do, showing the sewing along the centre ofeach section, the saw marks with the band inserted would show, and bea serious disfigurement. Mediæval books were usually sewn on double cords or strips of leather, and the headband was often sewn at the same time, as shown at fig. 32, A. This is an excellent method for very large books with heavysections, and is specially suitable for large vellum manuscripts, inmany of which the sections are very thick. An advantage of thismethod is, that the twist round the double cord virtually makes a knotat every band, and should a thread at any place break, there is nodanger of the rest of the thread coming loose. This is the only modeof sewing by which a thread runs absolutely from end to end of thesections. The headband sewn at the same time, and so tied down inevery section, is firmer and stronger than if worked on in the way nowusual. In the fifteenth century it was the custom to lace the ends ofthe headbands into the boards in the same way as the other bands. Thismethod, while giving additional strength at the head and tail, andavoiding the somewhat unfinished look of the cut-off ends of themodern headband, is, on the whole, of doubtful advantage, as it isnecessary to cut the "turn in" at the point where strength in theleather is much wanted. At fig. 32 is shown in section the three methods of sewing mentioned. A is the old sewing round double bands; with the headbands worked atthe same time with the same thread; B is the modern flexible sewing, and C the common sawn-in method. [Illustration: FIG. 32. ] Books that are very thin or are to be bound in vellum, are best sewnon tapes or vellum slips. The easiest way to set up the sewing-framefor such sewing is to sling a piece of wood through two of the laycords, and to pin one end of the vellum or tape band round this, pullthe other end tight, and secure it with a drawing-pin underneath theframe. The sewing, in the case of such flat bands, would not go round, but only across them. To avoid undue looseness, every three or fourthreads may be caught up at the back of the band, as shown in fig. 33. [Illustration: FIG. 33. ] MATERIALS FOR SEWING The cord used should be of the best hemp, specially made with only twostrands of very long fibres to facilitate fraying out. For very largebooks where a double cord is to be used, the best water line will befound to answer, care being taken to select that which can be frayedout. If tape is used it should be unbleached, such as the sailmakersuse. Thread should also be unbleached, as the unnecessary bleaching ofmost bookbinder's sewing-thread seems to cause it to rot in acomparatively short time. Silk of the best quality is better than anythread. The ligature silk, undyed, as used by surgeons, is perhaps thestrongest material, and can be had in various thicknesses. It isimpossible to pay too great attention to the selection of sewingmaterials, as the permanency of the binding depends on theirdurability. The rebinding of valuable books is at best a necessaryevil, and anything that makes frequent rebinding necessary, is notonly objectionable on account of the cost involved, but because itseriously shortens the life of the book. Experience is required to judge what thickness of thread to use forany given book. If the sections are very thin, a thin thread must beused, or the "swelling" of the back caused by the additional thicknessof the thread in that part will be excessive, and make the bookunmanageable in "backing. " On the other hand, if the sections arelarge, and a too thin thread is used, there will not be enoughswelling to make a firm "joint. " Broadly speaking, when there are agreat many very thin sections, the thinnest thread may be used; andcoarser thread may be used when the sections are thicker, or fewer innumber. In the case of large manuscripts on vellum it is best to usevery thick silk, or even catgut. Vellum is so tough and durable, thatany binding of a vellum book should be made as if it were expected tolast for hundreds of years. In selecting the thickness of cord for a book, some judgment isrequired. On an old book the bands are best made rather prominent bythe use of thick cord, but the exact thickness to be used is a matterfor taste and experience to decide. A very thick band on a small book is clumsy, while a very thin band onthe back of a heavy book suggests weakness, and is thereforeunsightly. In bindings of early printed books and manuscripts an appearance ofgreat strength is better than extreme neatness. When the sewing is completed, the cords are cut off close to the laycords, and then the keys will be loose enough to be easily removed. The knots remaining on the lay bands are removed, and the keys slungthrough one of them. CHAPTER VIII Fraying out Slips--Glueing up--Rounding and Backing FRAYING OUT SLIPS AND GLUEING UP After sewing, the book should be looked through to see that all sheetsand plates have been caught by the thread, and special attentionshould be given to end papers to see that the sewing lies evenly. The ends of the cords should next be cut off to within about twoinches of the book on each side, and the free portions frayed out. Ifproper sewing cord is used, this will be found to be very easily done, if a binder's bodkin is first inserted between the two strands, separating them, and then again in the centre of each separated strandto still further straighten the fibres (see fig. 34). The fraying out of the thick cord recommended for heavy books is amore difficult operation, but with a little trouble the fibres of anygood cord can be frayed out. Vellum or tape bands will only requirecutting off, leaving about two inches free on each side. The freeparts of the bands are called slips. [Illustration: FIG. 34. ] The book is now ready for glueing up. A piece of waste mill-board oran old cloth cover is put on each side over the slips, and the bookknocked up squarely at the back and head. Then it is lowered into thelying press and screwed up, leaving the back with the protectingboards projecting about three-quarters of an inch. If the back has toomuch swelling in it or is spongy, it is better to leave the slips onone side free and to pull them as tight as possible while the book isheld in the press, or a knocking-down iron may be placed on one sideof the projecting back and the other side tapped with the backinghammer to make the sections lie close to one another, and then theslips pulled straight (fig. 35). The back must now be glued. The gluefor this operation must be hot, and not too thick. It is veryimportant that it should be worked well between the sections with thebrush, and it is well after it has been applied to rub the back with afinger or folder to make quite sure that the glue goes between everysection for its entire length. If the book is too tightly screwed upin the press, the glue is apt to remain too much on the surface; andif not tightly enough, it may penetrate too deeply between thesections. If the glue is thick, or stringy, it may be diluted with hotwater and the glue-brush rapidly spun round in the glue-pot to breakit up and to make it work freely. [Illustration: FIG. 35. ] Very great care is needed to see that the head of a previously trimmedbook is knocked up exactly square before the back is glued, for if itis not, it will be very difficult to get it even afterwards. ROUNDING AND BACKING The amount of rounding on the back of a book should be determined bythe necessities of the case; that is to say, a back that has, throughguarding, or excess of sewing, a tendency to be round, is best notforced to be flat, and a back that would naturally be flat, is bestnot forced to be unduly round. A very round back is objectionablewhere it can be avoided, because it takes up so much of the backmargins of the sheets, and is apt to make the book stiff in opening. On the other hand, a back that is quite flat has to be lined upstiffly, or it may become concave with use. [Illustration: FIG. 36. ] The method of rounding is to place the book with the back projecting alittle over the edge of the press or table, then to draw the back overtowards the workman, and, while in this position, to tap it carefullywith a hammer (see fig. 36). This is repeated on the other side of thebook, and, if properly done, will give the back an even, convex formthat should be in section, a portion of a circle. Rounding and backingare best done after the glue has ceased to be tacky, but before it hasset hard. [Illustration: FIG. 37. ] Backing is perhaps the most difficult and important operation inforwarding. The sewing threads in the back cause that part to bethicker than the rest of the book. Thus in a book with twenty sectionsthere will be in the back, in addition to the thickness of the paper, twenty thicknesses of thread. If the boards were laced on to the book without rounding or backing, and the book were pressed, the additional thickness of the back, having to go somewhere, would cause it to go either convex or concave, or else perhaps to crease up (see fig. 37). The object of rounding isto control the distribution of this swelling, and to make the backtake an even and permanently convex form. [Illustration: FIG. 38. ] If the boards were merely laced on after rounding, there would be agap between the square ends of the board and the edge of the back (seefig. 38), though the convexity and even curve of the back would be tosome extent assured. What is done in backing is to make a groove, intowhich the edges of the board will fit neatly, and to hammer the backsof the sections over one another from the centre outwards on bothsides to form the "groove, " to ensure that the back shall return tothe same form after the book has been opened. [Illustration: FIG. 39. ] To back the book, backing boards are placed on each side (leaving theslips outside) a short distance below the edge of the back (fig. 39). The amount to leave here must be decided by the thickness of theboards to be used. When the backing boards are in position, the bookand boards must be carefully lowered into the lying press and screwedup very tight, great care being taken to see that the boards do notslip, and that the book is put in evenly. Even the most experiencedforwarder will sometimes have to take a book out of the press two orthree times before he gets it in quite evenly and without allowing theboards to slip. Unless the back has a perfectly even curve when put inthe press for backing, no amount of subsequent hammering will put itpermanently right. [Illustration: FIG. 40. ] [Illustration: FIG. 41. ] The backs of the sections should be evenly fanned out one over theother from the centre outwards on both sides. This is done by sidestrokes of the hammer, in fact by a sort of "riveting" blow, and notby a directly crushing blow (see fig. 41, in which the arrows show thedirection of the hammer strokes). If the sections are not evenlyfanned out from the centre, but are either zigzagged by being crushedby direct blows of the hammer, as shown in fig. 42, A, or are unevenlyfanned over more to one side than the other, as shown in fig. 42, B, the back, although it may be even enough when first done, willprobably become uneven with use. A book in which the sections havebeen crushed down, as at fig. 42, A, will be disfigured inside bycreases in the paper. [Illustration: FIG. 42. ] [Illustration: FIG. 43. ] [Illustration: FIG. 44. ] It is a mistake to suppose that a very heavy hammer is necessary forbacking any but the largest books. For flexible books a hammer with acomparatively small face should be used, as by its use the book can bebacked without flattening the bands. It is well to have a hammer headof the shape shown in fig. 43. By using the thin end, the force of acomparatively light blow, because concentrated on a small surface, iseffective. At fig. 44 is shown an ordinary backing hammer. CHAPTER IX Cutting and Attaching Boards--Cleaning off Back--Pressing CUTTING AND ATTACHING BOARDS The first quality of the best black board made from old rope is thebest to use for "extra" binding. It will be found to be very hard, andnot easily broken or bent at the corners. In selecting the thicknesssuitable for any given book, the size and thickness of the volumeshould be taken into account. The tendency of most modern binders isto use a rather over thick board, perhaps with a view to bulk out thevolume. For manuscripts, or other books on vellum, it is best to usewooden boards, which should be clasped. From their stability they forma kind of permanent press, in which the vellum leaves are kept flat. In a damp climate like that of England, vellum, absorbing moisturefrom the atmosphere, soon cockles up unless it is held tightly in someway; and when it is once cockled, the book cannot be made to shutproperly, except with very special treatment. Then also dust and damphave ready access to the interstices of the crinkled pages, resultingin the disfigurement so well known and so deplored by all lovers offine books. For large books a "made" board, that is, two boards pasted together, is better than a single board of the same thickness. In making boardsa thin and a thick board should be pasted together, the thin board togo nearest the book. It will not be necessary to put a double liningon the inside of such boards, as a thin board will always draw a thickone. [Illustration: FIG. 45. ] If mill-boards are used they are first cut roughly to size with themill-board shears, screwed up in the "lying" press. The straight armof the shears is the one to fix in the press, for if the bent arm beundermost, the knuckles are apt to be severely bruised against theend. A better way of fixing the shears is shown at fig. 45. Anyblacksmith will bend the arm of the shears and make the necessaryclips. This method saves trouble and considerable wear and tear tothe "lying" press. Where a great many boards are needed, they may bequickly cut in a board machine, but for "extra" work they should befurther trimmed in the plough, in the same way as those cut by theshears. After the boards have been roughly cut to size, they shouldhave one edge cut straight with the plough. To do this one or twopairs of boards are knocked up to the back and inserted in the cuttingside of the press, with those edges projecting which are to be cutoff, and behind them, as a "cut against, " a board protected by a wastepiece of mill-board. The plough, held by the screw and handle, and guided by the runners onthe press, is moved backwards and forwards. A slight turn of the screwat each movement brings the knife forward. In cutting mill-boardswhich are very hard, the screw should be turned very little each time. If press and plough are in proper order, that part of the board whichprojects above the cheek of the press should be cut off, leaving theedges perfectly square and straight. If the edge of the press has beendamaged, or is out of "truth, " a cutting board may be used betweenthe cheek of the press and the board to be cut, making a true edge forthe knife to run on. [Illustration: FIG. 46. --Lying or Cutting Press] The position of the plough on the press is shown at fig. 46. The sideof the press with runners should be reserved for cutting, the otherside used for all other work. [Illustration: FIG. 47. ] The plough knife for mill-boards should not be ground at too acute anangle, or the edge will most likely break away at the first cut. Theshape shown at fig. 47 is suitable. The knife should be veryfrequently ground, as it soon gets blunt, which adds greatly to thelabour of cutting. After an edge has been cut, each side should be well rubbed with afolder to smooth down any burr left by the plough knife. Then a pieceof common paper with one edge cut straight is pasted on to one side ofthe board, with the straight edge exactly up to the cut edge of theboard. Then a piece of paper large enough to cover both sides of theboard is pasted round it, and well rubbed down at the cut edge. Afterhaving been lined, the boards are nipped in the press to ensure thatthe lining paper shall stick. They are stood up to dry, with thedoubly lined side outwards. The double paper is intended to warp theboard slightly to that side, to compensate for the pull of the leatherwhen the book is covered. If the board is a double one, a singlelining paper will be sufficient, the thinner board helping to draw thethicker. The paste for lining boards must be fairly thin, and verywell beaten up so as to be free from lumps. It is of the utmostimportance that the lining papers should stick properly, for unlessthey stick, no subsequent covering of leather or paper can be made tolie flat. When the lined boards are quite dry, they should be paired with thedoubly lined sides together, and the top back corner marked tocorrespond with the marks on the top back corners of the book. Thennear the top edge, with the aid of a carpenter's square, two pointsare marked in a line at right angles to the cut edge. The pair ofboards is then knocked up to the back and lowered into the press asbefore, so that the plough knife will exactly cut through the points. The same operation is repeated on the two remaining uncut edges. Inmarking out those for the fore-edge, the measurement is taken with apair of compasses (fig. 48) from the joint of the book to thefore-edge of the first section. If the book has been trimmed, or is toremain uncut, a little more must be allowed for the "squares, " and ifit is to be cut in the plough, it must be now decided how much is tobe cut off, remembering that it is much better to have the boards alittle too large, and so have to reduce them after the book is cut, than to have them too small, and either be obliged to get out a newpair of boards, or unduly cut down the book. [Illustration: FIG. 48. ] [Illustration: FIG. 49. ] The height of the boards for a book that has been trimmed, or is toremain uncut, will be the height of the page with a small allowance ateach end for the squares. When a pair of boards has been cut allround, it can be tested for squareness by reversing one board, whenany inequality that there may be will appear doubled. If the boardsare out of truth they should generally be put on one side, to be usedfor a smaller book, and new boards got out. To correct a badly cutpair of boards, it is necessary to reduce them in size, and the bookconsequently suffers in proportion. If the boards have been found tobe truly cut, they are laid on the book, and the position of the slipsmarked on them by lines at right angles to the back. A line is thenmade parallel to the back, about half an inch in (see fig. 49). At thepoints where the lines cross, a series of holes is punched from thefront with a binder's bodkin on a lead plate, then the board is turnedover, and a second series is punched from the back about half an inchfrom the first. If the groove of the back is shallower than thethickness of the board, the top back edge of the board should bebevelled off with a file. This will not be necessary if the groove isthe exact depth. When the holes have been punched, it is well to cut aseries of V-shaped depressions from the first series of holes to theback to receive the slips, or they may be too prominent when the bookis bound. It will now be necessary to considerably reduce the slipsthat were frayed out after sewing, and to remove all glue or any othermatter attached to them. The extent to which they may be reduced is amatter of nice judgment. In the desire to ensure absolute neatness inthe covering, modern binders often reduce the slips to almost nothing. On the other hand, some go to the other extreme, and leave the cordentire, making great ridges on the sides of the book where it is lacedin. It should be possible with the aid of the depressions, cut asdescribed, to use slips with sufficient margin of strength, and yet tohave no undue projection on the cover. A slight projection is notunsightly, as it gives an assurance of sound construction andstrength, and, moreover, makes an excellent starting-point for anypattern that may be used. When the slips have been scraped andreduced, the portion left should consist of long straight silkyfibres. These must be well pasted, and the ends very slightly twisted. The pointed ends are then threaded through the first series of holesin the front of the board, and back again through the second (fig. 50). In lacing-in the slips must not be pulled so tight as to preventthe board from shutting freely, nor left so loose as to make aperceptible interval in the joint of the book. The pasted slips havingbeen laced in, their ends are cut off with a sharp knife, flush withthe surface of the board. The laced-in slips are then well hammered ona knocking-down iron (see fig. 51), first from the front and then fromthe back, care being taken that the hammer face should fall squarely, or the slips may be cut. This should rivet them into the board, leaving little or no projection. If in lacing in the fibres shouldget twisted, no amount of hammering will make them flat, so that it isimportant in pointing the ends for lacing in, that only the points aretwisted just sufficiently to facilitate the threading through theholes, and not enough to twist the whole slip. [Illustration: FIG. 50. ] [Illustration: FIG. 51. ] To lace slips into wooden boards, holes are made with a brace and finetwist bit, and the ends of the frayed out slips may be secured with awooden plug (see fig. 52). Old books were sometimes sewn on bands of leather, but as those sewnon cord seem to have lasted on the whole much better, and as, moreover, modern cord is a far more trustworthy material than modernleather, it is better to use cord for any books bound now. [Illustration: FIG. 52. ] CLEANING OFF THE BACK AND PRESSING [Illustration: FIG. 53. ] When the boards have been laced on and the slips hammered down, thebook should be pressed. Before pressing, a tin is put on each side ofboth boards, one being pushed right up into the joint on the inside, and the other up to the joint, or a little over it, on the outside. While in the press, the back should be covered with paste and left tosoak for a few minutes. When the glue is soft the surplus on thesurface can be scraped off with a piece of wood shaped as shown infig. 53. For important books it is best to do this in the lying press, but some binders prefer first to build up the books in the standingpress, and then to paste the backs and clean them off there. This hasthe advantage of being a quicker method, and will, in many cases, answer quite well. But for books that require nice adjustment it willbe found better to clean off each volume separately in the lyingpress, and afterwards to build up the books and boards in thestanding press, putting the larger books at the bottom. It must beseen that the entire pile is exactly in the centre under the screw, orthe pressure will be uneven. To ascertain if the books are built uptruly, the pile must be examined from both the front and side of thepress. Each volume must also be looked at carefully to see that itlies evenly, and that the back is not twisted or out of shape. This isimportant, as any form given to the book when it is pressed at thisstage will be permanent. Any coloured or newly printed plates will need tissues, as in theformer pressing; and any folded plates or diagrams or inserted letterswill need a thin tin on each side of them to prevent them from markingthe book. Again, the pressure on hand-printed books must not be excessive. The books should be left in the press at least a night. When taken outthey will be ready for headbanding, unless the edges are to be cut inboards. CHAPTER X Cutting in Boards--Gilding and Colouring Edges CUTTING IN BOARDS The knife for cutting edges may be ground more acutely than forcutting boards, and should be very sharp, or the paper may be torn. The plough knife should never be ground on the under side, as if theunder side is not quite flat, it will tend to run up instead ofcutting straight across. Before beginning to cut edges, the positionof the knife should be tested carefully by screwing the plough up, with the press a little open, and noting whereabouts on the left-handcheek the point of the knife comes. In a press that is true the knifeshould just clear the edge of the press. If there is too much packingthe knife will cut below the edge of the press, and if too little, itwill cut above. "Packing" is paper inserted between the knife and the metal plate onthe plough, to correct the position of the knife. When by experimentthe exact thickness of paper necessary for any given knife is found, the packing should be carefully kept when the knife is taken out forgrinding, and put back with it into the plough. The first edge to be cut is the top, and the first thing to do is toplace the boards in the position they will hold when the book isbound. The front board is then dropped the depth of the squarerequired, care being taken that the back edge of the board remainsevenly in the joint. A piece of cardboard, or two or three thicknessesof paper, are then slipped in between the end paper and the back boardto prevent the latter from being cut by the knife. The book is thencarefully lowered into the press, with the back towards the workman, until the top edge of the front board is exactly even with theright-hand cheek, and the press screwed up evenly. The back boardshould show the depth of the square above the left-hand cheek. It isvery important that the edge of the back board should be exactlyparallel with the press, and if at first it is not so, the book mustbe twisted until it is right. The edges can now be cut with the plough as in cutting mill-boards. The tail of the book is cut in the same way, still keeping the backof the book towards the workman, but cutting from the back board. [Illustration: FIG. 54. ] [Illustration: FIG. 55. ] Cutting the fore-edge is more difficult. The waste sheets at each endof the book should be cut off flush with the edge of the board, andmarks made on them below the edge showing the amount of the square, and consequently how much is to be cut off. The curve of the back, andconsequent curve of the fore-edge, must first be got rid of, byinserting a pair of pieces of flat steel called "trindles" (fig. 54)across the back, from the inside of the boards. When these areinserted the back must be knocked quite flat, and, in the case of aheavy book, a piece of tape may be tied round the leaves (see fig. 55)to keep them in position. A pair of cutting boards is placed one oneach side of the leaves, the back one exactly up to the point that theedge of the board came to, and the front one as much below that pointas it is desired the square of the fore-edge should be. The trindlesare removed while the book is held firmly between the cutting boardsby the finger and thumb; book and boards are then lowered verycarefully into the press. The top edge of the front cutting boardshould be flush with the right-hand cheek of the press, and that ofthe back a square above the left-hand cheek (see fig. 56). A furthertest is to look along the surface of the right-hand cheek, when, ifthe book has been inserted truly, the amount of the back cutting boardin sight should exactly correspond with the amount of the paper to becut showing above the front board. It will also be necessary beforecutting to look at the back, and to see that it has remained flat. Ifit has gone back to its old curve, or the book has been put into thepress crookedly, it must be taken right out again and the trindlesinserted afresh, as it is usually a waste of time to try to adjust thebook when it is in the press. The leaves are cut in the same way asthose of the head and tail. [Illustration: FIG. 56. ] GILDING OR COLOURING THE EDGES OF A CUT BOOK Gilding the edges of a book cut in boards is much the same process asthat described for the trimmed book, excepting that when gilt inboards the edges can be scraped and slightly sand-papered. It is thecustom to admire a perfectly solid gilt edge, looking more like asolid sheet of metal, than the leaves of a book. As the essentialcharacteristic of a book is, that it is composed of leaves, this factis better accepted and emphasised by leaving the edges a little rough, so that even when gilt they are evidently the edges of leaves ofpaper, and not the sides of a block, or of something solid. To gild the edges of a cut book the boards should be turned back, andcutting boards put on each side of the book flush with the edge to begilt. For the fore-edge the book must be thrown up with trindlesfirst, unless it is desired to gild in the round, a process whichgives the objectionable solid metallic edge. After the edges have been gilt they may be decorated by tooling, called "gauffering. " This may be done, either by tooling with hot tools directly on thegold while the leaves are screwed up tightly in the press, or bylaying another coloured gold on the top of the first and tooling overthat, leaving the pattern in the new gold on the original colour. But, to my mind, edges are best left undecorated, except for plain gold orcolour. If the edges are to be coloured, they should be slightly scraped, andthe colour put on with a sponge, commencing with the fore-edge, whichshould be slightly fanned out, and held firmly, by placing apressing-board above it, and pressing with the hand on this. Thecolour must be put on very thinly, commencing from the centre of thefore-edge and working to either end, and as many coats put on as arenecessary to get the depth of colour required. The head and tail aretreated in the same way, excepting that they cannot be fanned out, andthe colour should be applied from the back to the fore-edge. If in thefore-edge an attempt is made to colour from one end to the other, andif in the head or tail from the fore-edge to the back, the result willalmost certainly be that the sponge will leave a thick deposit ofcolour round the corner from which it starts. For colouring edges almost any stain will answer, or ordinarywater-colours may be used if moistened with size. When the colour is dry the edge should be lightly rubbed over with alittle beeswax, and burnished with a tooth burnisher (see fig. 57). [Illustration: FIG. 57. ] In addition to plain colour and gilding, the edges of a book may bedecorated in a variety of ways. The fore-edge may be fanned out andpainted in any device in water-colour and afterwards gilded; thepainting will only show when the book is open. The fore-edge for thismust be cut very solid, and if the paper is at all absorbent, must besized with vellum size before being painted. The paints used must besimple water-colour, and the edge must not be touched with the handbefore gilding, as if there is any grease or finger-mark on it, thegold will not stick evenly. Painting on the fore-edge should only beattempted when the paper of the book is thin and of good quality. Morecommon methods of decorating edges are by marbling and sprinkling, butthey are both inferior to plain colouring. Some pleasant effects aresometimes obtained by marbling edges and then gilding over themarbling. CHAPTER XI Headbanding HEADBANDS Modern headbands are small pieces of vellum, gut, or cord sewn on tothe head and tail of a book with silk or thread. They resist thestrain on the book when it is taken from the shelf. The vellum slip orcord must be of such a depth, that when covered with silk it will beslightly lower than the square of the boards. The cut edge of thevellum always slants, and the slip must be placed in position so thatit tilts back rather than forward on the book. To start, ease the boards slightly on the slips and pull them downwith the top edges flush with the top edge of the leaves. If this isnot done the silk catches on the projecting edges as the band isworked. Stand the book in a finishing press, fore-edge to the worker, and tilted forward so as to give a good view of the headband as it isworked. The light must come from the left, and well on to the work. Aneedle threaded with silk is put in at the head of the book, andthrough the centre of the first section after the end papers, anddrawn out at the back below the kettle stitch with about two-thirds ofthe silk. The needle is again inserted in the same place, and drawnthrough until a loop of silk is left. The vellum slip is placed in theloop, with the end projecting slightly to the left. It must be heldsteady by a needle placed vertically behind it, with its point betweenthe leaves of the first section. The needle end of silk is then behindthe headband, and the shorter end in front. The needle end is broughtover from the back with the right hand, passed into the left hand, andheld taut. The short end is picked up with the right hand, broughtover the needle end under the vellum, and pulled tight from the back. This is repeated; the back thread is again drawn up and over the bandto the front, the needle end crosses it, and is drawn behind under thevellum slip, and so on. The crossing of the threads form a "bead, "which must be watched, and kept as tight as possible, and well down onthe leaves of the book. Whenever the vellum or string begins to shiftin position, it must be tied down. This is done when the needle end ofsilk is at the back. A finger of the left hand is placed on the threadof silk at the back, and holds it firmly just below the slip. Theneedle end is then brought up and over the slip, but instead ofcrossing it with the front thread, the needle is passed between theleaves and out at the back of the book, below the kettle stitch, andthe thread gradually drawn tight, and from under the left-hand finger. The loop so made will hold the band firmly, and the silk can then bebrought up and over the slip and crossed in the usual way. The bandshould be worked as far as the end papers, and should be finished witha double "tie down, " after which the front thread is drawn under theslip to the back. Both the ends of silk are then cut off to about halfan inch, frayed out, and pasted down as flatly as possible on the backof the book. The band should be tied down frequently. It is not too much to tiedown every third time the needle end of the silk comes to the back. To make good headbands the pull on the silk must be even throughout. When the ends of the silk are pasted down, the ends of the vellum slipare cut off as near the silk as possible. The correct length of theheadband is best judged by pressing the boards together with thumb andfinger at the opposite ends of the band, so as to compress thesections into their final compass. If the band then buckles in theleast, it is too long and must be shortened. The mediæval headbands were sewn with the other bands (see fig. 32), and were very strong, as they were tied down at every section. Modernworked headbands, although not so strong, are, if frequently tieddown, strong enough to resist any reasonable strain. There are manyother ways of headbanding, but if the one described is mastered, thevarious other patterns will suggest themselves if variety is needed. For very large books a double headband may be worked on two pieces ofgut or string--a thick piece with a thin piece in front. The stringshould first be soaked in thin glue and left to dry. Such a band isworked with a figure of eight stitch. Headbands may also be workedwith two or three shades of silk. As vellum is apt to get hard and tobreak when it is used for headbanding, it is well to paste two piecestogether with linen in between, and to cut into strips as required. Machine-made headbands can be bought by the yard. Such bands aremerely glued on, but as they have but little strength, should not beused. Where leather joints are used, the headbands may be worked on piecesof soft leather sized and screwed up. If the ends are left long andtied in front while the book is being covered, they may beconveniently let into grooves in the boards before the leather jointis pasted down. This method, I think, has little constructive value, but it certainly avoids the rather unfinished look of the cut-offheadband. CHAPTER XII Preparing for Covering--Paring Leather--Covering--Mitring Corners--Filling-in Boards PREPARING FOR COVERING After the headband is worked, a piece of brown or other stout papershould be well glued on at the head and tail, care being taken that itis firmly attached to the back and the headband. When dry, the partprojecting above the headband is neatly cut off, and the part on theback well sand-papered, to remove any irregularity caused by thetie-downs attaching the headband. For most books this will be quitesufficient lining up, but very heavy books are best further lined upbetween the bands with linen, or thin leather. This can be put on bypasting the linen or leather and giving the back a very thin coat ofglue. The only thing now left to do before covering will be to set thesquares and to cut off a small piece of the back corner of each boardat the head and tail, to make it possible for the boards to open andshut without dragging the head-cap out of place. The form of thelittle piece to be cut off varies with each individual binder, but Ihave found for an octavo book that a cut slightly sloping from theinside cutting off the corner about an eighth of an inch each way, gives the best result (see fig. 58). When the corner has been cut off, the boards should be thrown back, and the slips between the book andthe board well pasted. When these have soaked a little, the squares ofthe boards are set; that is, the boards are fixed so that exactly thesame square shows on each board above head and tail. A little largersquare is sometimes an advantage at the tail to keep the head-cap welloff the shelf, the essential thing being that both head and both tailsquares should be the same. In the case of an old book that has notbeen recut, the edges will often be found to be uneven. In such casesthe boards must be made square, and so set that the book stands upstraight. [Illustration: FIG. 58. ] When the slips have been pasted and the squares set, tins can be putinside and outside the boards, and the book given a slight nip in thepress to flatten the slips. Only a comparatively light pressure shouldbe given, or the lining up of the headbands or back will becomecockled and detached. PARING LEATHER While the slips are being set in the press the cover can be got out. Judgment is necessary in cutting out covers. One workman will be able, by careful cutting, to get six covers out of a skin where another willonly get four. The firm part of the skin is the back and sides, andthis only should be used for the best books. The fleshy parts on theflanks and belly will not wear sufficiently well to be suitable forgood bookbinding. The skin should be cut out leaving about an inch all round for turningin when the book is covered, and when cut out it must be pared. If theleather is of European manufacture most of the paring will have beendone before it is sold, and the leather manufacturer will have shavedit to any thickness required. This is a convenience that is partlyresponsible for the unduly thin leather that is commonly used. Thebetter plan is to get the leather rather thick, and for the binder topare it down where necessary. For small books it is essential, inorder that the covers may open freely, and the boards not look clumsy, that the leather should be very thin at the joint and round the edgesof the boards. For such books it is very important that a small, naturally thin skin should be used that will not have to be undulypared down, and that the large and thicker skins should be kept forlarge books. Binders like using large skins because there is much less waste, butif these skins are used for small books, so much of the leathersubstance has to be pared away, that only the comparatively brittlegrained surface remains. By the modern process of dyeing this surfaceis often to some extent injured, and its strength sometimes totallydestroyed. When the cover has been cut to size the book is laid on it with theboards open, and a pencil line drawn round them, a mark being made toshow where the back comes. The skin is then pared, making it thinwhere the edge of the boards will come. Great care must be taken thatthe thinning does not commence too abruptly, or a ridge will beapparent when the leather is on the book. The paring must be done quite smoothly and evenly. Every unevennessshows when the cover is polished and pressed. Care is needed inestimating the amount that will have to be pared off that part of theleather that covers the back and joints. The object of the bindershould be to leave these portions as thick as he can consistently withthe free opening of the boards. The leather at the head-caps must bepared quite thin, as the double thickness on the top of the headbandis apt to make this part project above the edges of the board. This isa great trouble, especially at the tail, where, if the head-capprojects beyond the boards, the whole weight of the book rests on it, and it is certain to be rubbed off when the book is put on the shelf. [Illustration: FIG. 59. ] The method of paring with a French knife (fig. 60, A)--the only formof knife in use by binders that gives sufficient control over theleather--is shown at fig. 59. To use this knife properly, practice isrequired. The main thing to learn is that the knife must be used quiteflat, and made to cut by having a very slight burr on the underside. This burr is got by rubbing the knife on the lithographic stoneon which the paring is done. The handle of the knife should never beraised to such a height above the surface of the stone that it ispossible to get the under fingers of the right hand over the edge ofthe stone. Another form of knife suitable for paring the edges ofleather is shown at fig. 60, B. [Illustration: FIG. 60. ] To test if the leather has been sufficiently pared, fold it over wherethe edge of the board will come, and run the finger along the foldedleather. If the paring has been done properly it will feel quite eventhe whole length of the fold; but if there are any irregularities, they will be very apparent, and the paring must be gone over againtill they have disappeared. When even, the book must be again laid onthe leather with the boards open, and a pencil line drawn round asbefore. If there are leather joints they will have been pared beforethe book was sewn, and care must be taken in paring the turn-in of thecover that it is of the same thickness as the leather joint, or itwill be impossible to make a neat mitre at the back corners. COVERING Before covering, the book must be looked at to see that the bands arequite square and at equal distances apart. Any slight errors in thisrespect can be corrected by holding the book in the lying pressbetween backing boards and gently tapping the bands from one side orthe other with a piece of wood struck with a hammer. This is best donewhen the back is cleaned off, but by damping the bands slightly it maybe done just before covering. The squares must be looked to, and theedges of the board well rubbed with a folder, or tapped with a hammer, to remove any burr that may have been caused by the plough knife, orany chance blow. The back is then moistened with paste, or, in thecase of a very large book, with thin glue, and left to soak. The covercan then be well pasted with thickish paste, that has been previouslywell beaten up. When the cover is pasted, it can be folded with thepasted sides together and left to soak for a few minutes while theback is again looked to, and any roughness smoothed down with thefolder. Before covering, the bands should be nipped up with bandnippers (see fig. 61) to make sure that they are sharp. The coverershould have ready before covering a clean paring stone, one or twofolders, a pair of nickeled-band nippers, a clean sponge, a littlewater in a saucer, a piece of thread, and a strip of smooth wood(boxwood for preference), called a band stick, used for smoothing theleather between the bands, a pair of scissors, and a small sharpknife, a pair of waterproof sheets the size of the book, and, if thebook is a large one, a pair of tying up boards, with tying up string, and two strips of wood covered in blotting-paper or leather. It isbest to have the band nippers for covering nickeled to prevent theiron from staining the leather. The waterproof sheets recommended arethin sheets of celluloid, such as are used by photographers. [Illustration: FIG. 61. ] When these things are ready, the pasted cover should be examined andrepasted if it has dried in any place. The amount of paste to be usedfor covering can only be learned by experience. A thick leather willtake more than a thin one, but, provided the cover sticks tight atevery point, the less paste used the better. If there is too much, itwill rub up and make very ugly, uneven places under the leather; andif there is too little, the cover will not stick. [Illustration: FIG. 62. ] Take the pasted cover and look to see which is the better side of theleather. Lay the front of the book down on this exactly up to themarks that show the beginning of the turn-in. Then draw the leatherover the back and on to the other side, pulling it slightly, but notdragging it. Then stand the book on its fore-edge on a piece of wastepaper, with the leather turned out on either side, as shown at fig. 62, and nip up the bands with nickeled band nippers (see fig. 63). After this is done there will probably be a good deal of loose leatheron the back. This can be got rid of by dragging the leather on to theside; but by far the better plan, when the back is large enough toallow it, is to work up the surplus leather on to the back between thepanels. This requires a good deal of practice, and is very seldomdone; but it can be done with most satisfactory results. The bookshould now have the leather on the back stretched lengthways to makeit cover the bands, but not stretched the other way, and the leatheron the boards should lie perfectly flat and not be stretched at all. The leather on the fore-edge of the board is then rubbed with the handon the outside, and then on to the edge, and then on the inside. Theedge and the inside are smoothed down with a folder, and any excessivepaste on the inside squeezed out and removed. When the fore-edge ofboth boards has been turned in, the head and tail must also be turnedin. A little paste is put on to that part of the leather that willturn in below the headband, and this portion is neatly tucked inbetween the boards and the back. The turned-in edge must lie quiteevenly, or it will result in a ridge on the back. The leather isturned in on the two boards in the same way as described for thefore-edge, and the edge rubbed square with a folder. At fig. 64 isshown a convenient form of folder for covering. At the corners theleather must be pulled over as far as possible with two foldersmeeting at the extreme point, the object being to avoid a cut in theleather at the corner of the board. The folds so formed must be cutoff with the scissors (see fig. 65, A), then one edge tucked neatlyunder the other, (B). Care must be taken throughout not to soil theedges of the leaves. [Illustration: FIG. 63. ] [Illustration: FIG. 64. ] At the headband the fold of leather, pared thin for the purpose, mustbe squeezed together with a folder and pulled out a little to leave aneven projection that can be turned over to form a head-cap. When bothends have been turned in, in this way, the boards must each be openedand pressed against a straight-edge held in the joint (fig. 66) toensure that there is enough leather in the turn-in of the joint toallow the cover to open freely; and the leather of the turn-in at thehead and tail must be carefully smoothed down with a folder. [Illustration: FIG. 65. ] [Illustration: FIG. 66. ] [Illustration: FIG. 67. ] The book may now be shut up if a waterproof sheet is put at each endto prevent the damp of the cover from cockling the paper. It must thenbe stood on its fore-edge and the bands again nipped up with a pair ofnickeled band nippers, and the panels between the bands well presseddown with the band stick to cause the leather to stick at every point. A piece of thread is tied round the back from head to tail, squeezingthe leather in the gap caused by the corners of the board having beencut off. The book is then turned up on end, resting the tail on afolder or anything that will keep the projecting leather for thehead-cap from being prematurely flattened. The head-caps (fig. 67)must now be set. To do this the first finger of the left hand isplaced behind it, and a sharp folder is pressed into the corners ofthe head-cap between the headband and the thread. The leather is thentapped over the headband, and the whole turned over on the stone andrubbed at the back with a folder. This operation requires greatnicety. The shape of head-cap is shown at fig. 67. The nice adjustmentof head-caps and corners, although of no constructional value, are thepoints by which the forwarding of a book is generally valued. [Illustration: FIG. 68. ] If the book is a large one, it will be best to tie it up. The methodof tying up is shown in fig. 68. The tying up cords will make marks atthe side of the bands, that are not unpleasant on a large book. Ifthey are objected to, it is best to tie the book up for abouthalf-an-hour, and then to untie it, and smooth out the marks with theband stick. Even with small books, if the leather seems inclined togive trouble, it is well to tie them up for a short time, then tountie them, to smooth out any marks or inequalities, and to tie themup again. MITRING CORNERS AND FILLING IN A book that has been covered should be left under a light weight untilthe next day, with waterproof sheets between the damp cover and theend paper to prevent the sheets of the book from cockling through thedamp. When the cover is thoroughly set the boards should be carefullyopened, pressing them slightly to the joint to ensure a square andeven joint. If, as is sometimes the case, the turn-in of the leatherover the joint seems to be inclined to bind, the cover should bemerely opened half-way, and the leather of the turns-in of the jointdamped with a sponge, and left to soak for a short time, and then thecover can usually be opened without any dragging. A section of a goodjoint is shown at fig. 69, A, and a bad one at B. [Illustration: FIG. 69. ] [Illustration: FIG. 70. ] The next operation will be to fill in the board and mitre the corners. To fill in the boards, a piece of paper as thick as the turn-in of theleather (engineer's cartridge paper answers very well) should be cut alittle smaller than the board, with one edge cut straight; then withthe straight edge adjusted to the back of the board, and a weightplaced on the centre, the paper is marked round with dividers set tothe intended width of the turn-in of the leather. Then with a sharpknife, paper and leather may be cut through together. The paper shouldthen be marked to show its position on the board, and the ragged edgesof the leather trimmed off. This will leave an even margin of leatheron three sides of the inside of the board, and a piece of paper thatwill exactly fit the remaining space. The corners must next bemitred. To do this, both thicknesses of leather are cut through fromthe corner of the board to the corner of the inside margin. The knifeshould be held slightly slanting to make a cut, as shown at fig. 70. The corners should then be thoroughly damped, and the overlappingleather from both sides removed, leaving what should be a neat andstraight join. If the leather at the extreme corner should prove tobe, as is often the case, too thick to turn in neatly, the cornersshould be opened out and the leather pared against the thumb nail, andthen well pasted and turned back again. The extreme corner may beslightly tapped on the stone with a hammer, and the sides rubbed witha folder, to ensure squareness and sharpness. When all four cornershave been mitred, the filling in papers can be pasted in. As they willprobably stretch a little with the paste, it will be well to cut off aslight shaving, and they should then fit exactly. When the boards havebeen filled in and well rubbed down, the book should be left for somehours with the boards standing open to enable the filling-in papers todraw the boards slightly inwards to overcome the pull of the leather. In cases where there are leather joints the operation is as follows:The waste end paper is removed, and the edge of the board and jointcarefully cleaned from glue and all irregularities, and if, as is mostlikely, it is curved from the pull of the leather, the board must betapped or ironed down until it is perfectly straight. If there isdifficulty in making the board lie straight along the joint beforepasting down, it will be well first to fill in with a well pasted andstretched thin paper, which, if the boards are left open, will drawthem inwards. If the leather joint is pasted down while the board iscurved, the result will be a most unsightly projection on the outside. When the joint has been cleaned out, and the board made to lie flat, the leather should be pasted down and mitred. The whole depth of theturn-in of the covering leather in the joint must not be removed, orit will be unduly weakened. The mitring line should not come from theextreme corner, but rather farther down, and there it is well toleave a certain amount of overlap in the joint, for which purpose theedge of the turn-in leather and the edge of the leather joint shouldbe pared thin. After pasting down the leather joints the boards shouldbe left open till they are dry (see fig. 71). The turn-in and leatherjoint are then trimmed out, leaving an even margin of leather allround the inside of the board, and the panel in the centre filled inwith a piece of thick paper. [Illustration: FIG. 71. ] When corners and filling in are dry, the boards may be shut up, andthe book is ready for finishing. It is a common practice to wash up the covers of books that havebecome stained with a solution of oxalic acid in water. This is adangerous thing to do, and is likely to seriously injure the leather. Leather, when damp, must not be brought in contact with iron or steeltools, or it may be badly stained. CHAPTER XIII Library Binding--Binding very Thin Books--Scrap-Books--Binding on Vellum--Books covered with Embroidery LIBRARY BINDING _Specifications III and IV_ To produce cheaper bindings, as must be done in the case of largelibraries, some alteration of design is necessary. Appearance must tosome extent be sacrificed to strength and durability, and not, as istoo often the case, strength and durability sacrificed to appearance. The essentials of any good binding are, that the sections should besound in themselves, and that there should be no plates or odd sheets"pasted on, " or anything that would prevent any leaf from openingright to the back; the sewing must be thoroughly sound; the sewingmaterials of good quality; the slips firmly attached to the boards;and the leather fairly thick and of a durable kind, although for thesake of cheapness it may be necessary to use skins with flaws on thesurface. Such flawed skins cost half, or less than half, the price ofperfect skins, and surface flaws do not injure the strength of theleather. By sewing on tape, great flexibility of the back is obtained, and much time, and consequent expense, in covering is saved. By usinga French joint much thicker leather than usual can be used, withcorresponding gain in strength. To bind an octavo or smaller book according to the specification given(III, page 307); first make all sections sound, and guard all platesor maps. Make end papers with zigzags. After the sections have beenthoroughly pressed, the book will be ready for marking up and sewing. In marking up for sewing on tapes, two marks will be necessary foreach tape. When there are several books of the same size to be sewn, they may be placed one above the other in the sewing press, and sewnon to the same tapes. It will be found that the volumes when sewn caneasily be slid along the tapes, which must be long enough to providesufficient for the slips of each. The split boards may be "made" of athin black mill-board with a thicker straw-board. To "make" a pair ofsplit boards the pieces of straw-and mill-board large enough to makethe two are got out, and the straw-board well glued, except in thecentre, which should previously be covered with a strip of thinmill-board or tin about four inches wide. The strip is then removed, and the thin black board laid on the glued straw-board and nipped inthe press. When dry, the made board is cut down the centre, which willleave two boards glued together all over except for two inches on oneside of each. The boards then are squared to the book in a mill-boardmachine. The back of the book is glued up, and in the ordinary wayrounded and backed. The edges may be cut with a guillotine. The endsof the tapes are glued on the waste end paper, which should be cut offabout an inch and a half from the back. The split boards are thenopened and glued, and the waste end papers with slips attached areplaced in them (see fig. 72), and the book nipped in the press. Toform a "French joint" the boards should be kept about an eighth of aninch from the back of the book. The book is then ready for covering. The leather must not be pared too thin, as the French joint will giveplenty of play and allow the use of much thicker leather than usual. If time and money can be spared, headbands can be worked, but they arenot absolutely necessary, and a piece of string may be inserted intothe turning of the leather at head and tail in the place of them. Whenthe book is covered, a piece of string should be tied round thejoints, and the whole given a nip in the press. The corners of theboards should be protected by small tips of vellum or parchment. Thesides may be covered with good paper, which will wear quite as well ascloth, look better, and cost less. [Illustration: FIG. 72. ] The lettering of library books is very important (see Chapter XV). BINDING VERY THIN BOOKS Books consisting of only one section may be bound as follows:--A sheetof paper to match the book, and two coloured sheets for end papers, are folded round the section, and a "waste" paper put over all. Astrip of linen is pasted to the back of the waste, and the whole sewntogether by stitching through the fold. The waste may be cut off andinserted with the linen in a split board, as for library bindings. Theback edges of the board should be filed thin, and should not be placedquite up to the back, to allow for a little play in the joints. The leather is put on in the ordinary way, except that the linen atthe head and tail must be slit a little to allow for the turn in. Ifwaterproof sheets are first inserted, the ends may be pasted, theboards shut, and the book nipped in the press. By substituting a pieceof thin leather for the outside coloured paper, a leather joint can bemade. SCRAP-BOOKS Scrap-books, into which autograph letters, sketches, or other paperscan be pasted, may be made as follows:--Enough paper of good qualityis folded up to the size desired, and pieces of the same paper, of thesame height, and about two inches wide, are folded down the centre andinserted between the backs of the larger sheets, as shown at fig. 73. It is best not to insert these smaller pieces in the centre of thesection, as they would be troublesome in sewing. If, after sewing, thebook is filled up with waste paper laid between the leaves, it willmake it manageable while being forwarded. It is best to use a rather darkly-toned or coloured paper, as, if aquite white paper is used, any letters or papers that have becomesoiled, will look unduly dirty. [Illustration: FIG. 73. ] Autograph letters may be mounted in the following ways:--If the letteris written upon both sides of a single leaf, it may be either"inlaid, " or guarded, as shown at fig. 74, A. A letter on a foldedsheet of notepaper should have the folds strengthened with a guard ofstrong thin paper, and be attached by a guard made, as shown at fig. 74, B; or if on very heavy paper, by a double guard, as shown at fig. 74, C. Torn edges of letters may be strengthened with thin Japanesepaper. [Illustration: FIG. 74. ] Thin paper, written or printed only on one side, may be mounted on apage of the book. It is better to attach these by their extreme edgesonly, as if pasted down all over they may cause the leaves to curl up. Letters or any writing or drawing in lead pencil should be fixed withsize before being inserted. Silver prints of photographs are best mounted with some veryquick-drying paste, such as that sold for the purpose by thephotographic dealers. If the leaf on which they are mounted isslightly damped before the photograph is pasted down, it will be lesslikely to cockle. If this is done, waterproof sheets should be put oneach side of the leaf while it dries. If photographs are attached bythe edges only, they will not be so liable to draw the paper on whichthey are mounted; but sometimes they will not lie flat themselves. In cases where very thick letters or papers have to be pasted in, afew more leaves of the book should be cut out, to make a correspondingthickness at the back. VELLUM BINDINGS Vellum covers may be limp without boards, and merely held in place bythe slips being laced through them, or they may be pasted down onboards in much the same way as leather. If the edges of a book for limp vellum binding are to be trimmed orgilt, that should be done before sewing. For the ends a folded pieceof thin vellum may replace the paste-down paper. The sewing should beon strips of vellum. The back is left square after glueing, andheadbands are worked as for leather binding, or may be worked onstrips of leather, with ends left long enough to lace into the vellum(see p. 151). The back and headbands are lined with leather, and thebook is ready for the cover. A piece of vellum should be cut out large enough to cover the book, and to leave a margin of an inch and a half all round. This is markedwith a folder on the under side, as shown at fig. 75, A. Spaces 1 and2 are the size of the sides of the book with surrounding squares;space 3 is the width of the back, and space 4 the width for theoverlaps on the fore-edge. The corners are cut, as shown at 5, and theedges are folded over, as at B. The overlap 4 is then turned over, andthe back folded, as at C. The slips are now laced through slits madein the vellum. [Illustration: FIG. 75. ] A piece of loose, toned paper may be put inside the cover to preventany marks on the book from showing through; and pieces of silk ribbonof good quality are laced in as shown, going through both cover andvellum ends, if there are any, and are left with ends long enough totie (see fig. 76). [Illustration: FIG. 76. ] If paper ends are used, the silk tape need only be laced through thecover, and the end paper pasted over it on the inside. Another simple way of keeping a vellum book shut is shown at fig. 77. A bead is attached to a piece of gut laced into the vellum, and a loopof catgut is laced in the other side, and looped over the bead asshown. If the book is to have stiff boards, and the vellum is to be pastedto them, it is best to sew the sections on tapes or vellum slips, toback the book as for leather, and to insert the ends of the slips in asplit board, leaving a French joint, as described for librarybindings. Vellum is very stiff, and, if it is pasted directly to theback, the book would be hard to open. It is best in this case to usewhat is known as a hollow back. [Illustration: FIG. 77. ] To make a hollow back, a piece of stout paper is taken which measuresonce the length of the back and three times the width. This is foldedin three. The centre portion is glued to the back and well rubbeddown, and the overlapping edges turned back and glued one to the other(fig. 78). This will leave a flat, hollow casing, formed by the singlepaper glued to the back of the book and the double paper to which thevellum may be attached. Or it is better to line up the back withleather, and to place a piece of thick paper the size of the back onto the pasted vellum where the back will be when the book is covered. When the book is ready for covering, the vellum should be cut out andlined with paper. In lining vellum the paste must be free from lumps, and great care must be taken not to leave brush marks. To avoid this, when the lining paper has been pasted it can be laid, paste downwards, on a piece of waste paper and quickly pulled up again; this shouldremove surplus paste and get rid of any marks left by the brush. Whenthe vellum has been lined with paper, it should be given a light nipin the press between blotting-paper, and while still damp it ispasted, the book covered, and the corners mitred. A piece of thinstring is tied round the head-caps and pressed into the French joint. [Illustration: FIG. 78. ] Waterproof sheets are placed inside the covers, and the book thennipped in the press and left to dry under a light weight. If thevellum is very stiff and difficult to turn in, it may be moistenedwith a little warm water to soften it. Books with raised bands have sometimes been covered with vellum, butthe back becomes so stiff and hard, that this method, though it lookswell enough, cannot be recommended. Vellum is a durable material, andcan be had of good quality, but it is so easily influenced by changesof temperature, that it is rather an unsuitable material for mostbindings. BOOKS COVERED WITH EMBROIDERY AND WOVEN MATERIAL To cover a book with embroidered material bind it with split boards, aFrench joint, and a hollow back, as described for vellum (see fig. 78). Glue the back of the book with thin glue well worked up, andturning in the head and tail of the embroidery, put the book down onit so that the back will come exactly in the right place. Press downthe embroidery with the hand to make sure that it sticks. When it isfirmly attached to the back, first one board and then the other shouldbe glued, and the embroidery laid down on it. Lastly, the edges areglued and stuck down on the inside of the board, and the cornersmitred. Velvet or any other thick material can be put down in the sameway. For very thin material that the glue would penetrate and soil, the cover should be left loose, and only attached where it turns in. Aloose lining of good paper may be put between the book and the cover. The inside corners where the cover has been cut should be neatly sewnup. The edges of the boards and head-caps may be protected all roundwith some edging worked in metal thread. It is well in embroideringbook covers to arrange for some portion of the pattern to be of raisedmetal stitches, forming bosses that will protect the surface fromwear. Should any glue chance to get on the surface, the cover should be heldin the steam of a kettle and the glue wiped off, and the cover againsteamed. CHAPTER XIV Decoration--Tools--Finishing--Tooling on Vellum--Inlaying on Leather DECORATION OF BINDING--TOOLS The most usual, and perhaps the most characteristic, way of decoratingbook covers is by "tooling. " Tooling is the impression of heated(finishing) tools. Finishing tools are stamps of metal that have adevice cut on the face, and are held in wooden handles (fig. 79). [Illustration: FIG. 79. ] Tooling may either be blind tooling, that is, a simple impression ofthe hot tools, or gold tooling, in which the impression of the tool isleft in gold on the leather. Tools for blind tooling are best "die-sunk, " that is, cut like a seal. The "sunk" part of the face of the tool, which may be more or lessmodelled, forms the pattern, and the higher part depresses theleather to form a ground. In tools for gold tooling, the surface ofthe tool gives the pattern. Tools may be either complex or simple in design, that is to say, eachtool may form a complete design with enclosing border, as the lowerones on page 323, or it may be only one element of a design, as atfig. 100. Lines may be run with a fillet (see fig. 88), or made withgouges or pallets. Gouges are curved line tools. They are made in sets of arcs ofconcentric circles (see fig. 80, A). The portion of the curves cut offby the dotted line C will make a second set with flatter curves. Gouges are used for tooling curved lines. [Illustration: FIG. 80. ] A "pallet" may be described as a segment of a roll or fillet set in ahandle, and used chiefly for putting lines or other ornaments acrossthe backs of books (see fig. 81). A set of one-line pallets is shownat fig. 80, B. Fillets are cut with two or more lines on the edge. Although the useof double-line fillets saves time, I have found that a few single-linefillets with edges of different gauges are sufficient for running allstraight lines, and that the advantage of being able to alter thedistances between any parallel lines is ample compensation for theextra trouble involved by their use. In addition to the rigid stamps, an endless pattern for either blind or gold tooling may be engraved onthe circumference of a roll, and impressed on the leather by wheeling. [Illustration: FIG. 81. ] The use of a roll in finishing dates from the end of the fifteenthcentury, and some satisfactory bindings were decorated with its aid. The ease with which it can be used has led in modern times to itsabuse, and I hardly know of a single instance of a modern binding onwhich rolls have been used for the decoration with satisfactoryresults. The gain in time and trouble is at the expense of freedom andlife in the design; and for extra binding it is better to build up apattern out of small tools of simple design, which can be arranged inendless variety, than to use rolls. Tools for hand-tooling must not be too large, or it will be impossibleto obtain clear impressions. One inch square for blind tools, orthree-quarters of an inch for gold tools, is about the maximum sizefor use with any certainty and comfort. Tools much larger than thishave to be worked with the aid of a press, and are called blocks. FINISHING The first thing the finisher does to a book is to go over the backwith a polisher and smooth out any irregularities. Two forms of polisher are shown at fig. 82. The lower one is suitablefor polishing backs and inside margins, and the upper for sides. Polishers must be used warm, but not too hot, or the leather may bescorched, and they must be kept moving on the leather. Before usingthey should be rubbed bright on a piece of the finest emery paper, andpolished on a piece of leather. New polishers often have sharp edgesthat would mark the leather. These must be rubbed down with files andemery-paper. Leathers with a prominent grained surface, such as morocco, seal orpig skin, may either have the grain rough or crushed flat. If there isto be much finishing, the grain had better be crushed, but for largebooks that are to have only a small amount of finishing, the grain isbest left unflattened. [Illustration: FIG. 82. ] If the grain of the leather is to be "crushed, " it may be done at thisstage. To do this, one board at a time is damped with a sponge and putin the standing-press, with a pressing plate on the grained side, anda pad of blotting-paper, or some such yielding substance, on the other(see fig. 83). The press is then screwed up tight, and the board leftfor a short time. For some leathers this operation is best done afterthe binding has been finished and varnished, in which case, of course, the boards cannot be damped before pressing. No flexibly sewn bookshould be subject to great pressure after it has been covered, or theleather on the back may crinkle up and become detached. The next thing will be to decide what lettering and what decoration, if any, is to be put on the volume. The lettering should be made outfirst (see page 215). If the book is to be at all elaboratelydecorated, paper patterns must be made out, as described in ChapterXVI. [Illustration: FIG. 83. ] For tooling the back, the book is held in the finishing press betweena pair of backing boards lined with leather (see fig. 84), and thepaper pattern put across the back, with the ends either slightlypasted to the backing boards, or caught between them and the book. For the sides, the pattern is very slightly pasted on to the leatherat the four corners. The book is then put in the finishing press, with the board to be tooled open and flat on the cheek of the press, unless the book is a large one, when it is easier to tool the sidesout of the press. [Illustration: FIG. 84. ] The selected tools, which should be ready on the stove (see fig. 85), are one at a time cooled on a wet pad, and then pressed in theirformer impressions upon the paper. The degree of heat required variesa good deal with the leather used, and will only be learned byexperience. It is better to have the tool too cool than too hot, as itis easy to deepen impressions after the paper is removed; but if theyare already too deep, or are burnt, it will be impossible to finishclearly. Generally speaking, tools should hiss very slightly when puton the cooling pad. In cooling, care must be taken to put the shankof the tools on to the wet pad, as, if the end only is cooled, theheat is apt to run down again, and the tool will still be too hot. [Illustration: FIG. 85. --Finishing Stove] Before removing the paper, one corner at a time should be lifted up, and the leather examined to see that no part of the pattern has beenmissed. In some patterns where the design is close, or in which the backgroundis dotted in, it will not be necessary to blind in every leaf and dotthrough the paper. If the lines with perhaps the terminal leaves areblinded in, the rest can be better worked directly through the gold. This method implies the "glairing in" of the whole surface. It is notsuitable for open patterns, where the glaire might show on the surfaceof the leather. If the book is only to have lines, or some simple straight linepattern, it is often easier to mark it up without the paper, with astraight-edge and folder. In panelling a back, the side lines of allthe panels should be marked in at the same time with a folder, workingagainst the straight-edge, held firmly at the side of the back. If thepanels are worked separately, it is difficult to get the side linessquarely above each other. The lines at the top and bottom of thepanel may be marked in with a folder, guided by a piece of stiffvellum held squarely across the back. If there are lines to be runround the board, they can be marked in with a pair of dividers guidedby the edge of the board, except those at the back. These must bemeasured from the fore-edge of the board and run in with straight-edgeand folder. When straight lines occur in patterns that are blinded through thepaper, it will be enough if the ends only are marked through with asmall piece of straight line, and the lines completed withstraight-edge and folder, after the paper has been removed. Unless the finisher has had considerable experience, it is best todeepen all folder lines by going over them in blind with a fillet orpiece of straight line. When the pattern has been worked in blind, either through a paperpattern or directly on to the leather with the tools, and any inlaysstuck on (see page 213), the cover should be well washed with cleanwater. Some finishers prefer to use common vinegar or diluted aceticacid for washing up books. If vinegar is used it must be of the bestquality, and must not contain any sulphuric acid. Cheap, crude vinegaris certain to be injurious to the leather. Porous leather, such ascalf or sheep skin, will need to be washed over with paste-water, andthen sized. Paste-water is paste and water well beaten up to form a milky liquid, and is applied to the leather as evenly as possible with a sponge. When the paste-water is dry, the leather should be washed with size. Size can be made by boiling down vellum cuttings, or by dissolvinggelatine or isinglass in warm water. For the less porous leathers, such as morocco, seal, or pig skin, nopaste-water or size is necessary, unless the skin happens to be aspecially open one, or the cover has been cut from the flank or belly. Then it is best to put a little paste in the vinegar or water used forwashing up. When the leather is nearly, but not quite, dry theimpressions of the tools must be painted with glaire. Finishers'glaire may be made from the white of eggs well beaten up, diluted withabout half as much vinegar, and allowed to settle. Some finishersprefer to use old, evil-smelling glaire, but provided it is a day old, and has been well beaten up, fresh glaire will work quite well. The impressions of any heavy or solid tools should be given a secondcoat of glaire when the first has ceased to be "tacky, " and if theleather is at all porous, all impressions had better have a secondcoat. As glaire is apt to show and disfigure the leather when dry, it isbest to use it as sparingly as possible, and, excepting where thepattern is very close, to confine it to the impressions of the tools. It is not at all an uncommon thing to see the effect of an otherwiseadmirably tooled binding spoilt by a dark margin round the tools, caused by the careless use of glaire. Glaire should not be used unlessit is quite liquid and clean. Directly it begins to get thick itshould be strained or thrown away. The finisher should not glaire in more than he can tool the same day. When the glaire has ceased to be "tacky, " the gold is laid on. [Illustration: FIG. 86. ] At first it will be found difficult to manage gold leaf. The essentialconditions are, that there should be no draught, and that the cushionand knife should be quite free from grease. The gold cushion andknife are shown at fig. 86. A little powdered bath-brick rubbed intothe cushion will make it easier to cut the gold cleanly. The blade ofthe gold knife should never be touched with the hand, and before usingit, both sides should be rubbed on the cushion. A book of gold is laidopen on the cushion, and a leaf of gold is lifted up on the goldknife, which is slipped under it, and turned over on to the cushion. Alight breath exactly in the centre of the sheet should make it lieflat, when it may be cut into pieces of any size with a slightlysawing motion of the knife. The book with the pattern ready prepared, and the glaire sufficiently dry (not sticky), is rubbed lightly with asmall piece of cotton-wool greased with a little cocoanut oil. Theback of the hand is greased in the same way, and a pad of cleancotton-wool is held in the right hand, and having been made as flat aspossible by being pressed on the table, is drawn over the back of thehand. This should make it just greasy enough to pick up the gold, butnot too greasy to part with it readily when pressed on the book. Aslittle grease as possible should be used on the book, as an excess isapt to stain the leather and to make the gold dull. After experimentit has been found that cocoanut oil stains the leather less than anyother grease in common use by bookbinders, and is more readily washedout by benzine. [Illustration: FIG. 87. ] If the gold cracks, or is not solid when pressed on the book, a secondthickness should be used. This will stay down if the under piece islightly breathed upon. For narrow strips of gold for lines, a little pad covered with softleather may be made, as in fig. 87. It will be found of advantage to first use the bottom leaf of gold inthe book and then to begin at the top and work through, or else thebottom leaf will almost certainly be found to be damaged by the timeit is reached. The gold used should be as nearly pure as it can begot. The gold-beaters say that they are unable to beat pure gold asthin as is usual for gold leaf; but the quite pure gold is a bettercolour than when alloyed, and the additional thickness, althoughcostly, results in a more solid impression of the tools. The cost of a book of twenty-four leaves three and a half inchessquare of English gold leaf of good ordinary quality is from 1s. 3d. To 1s. 6d. , whereas the cost of a book of double thick pure gold leafis 3s. To 3s. 6d. For tooled work it is worth paying the increasedprice for the sake of the advantages in colour and solidity; but forlines and edges, which use up an immense amount of gold, the thinnerand cheaper gold may quite well be used. Besides pure gold leaf, gold alloyed with various metals to change itscolour can be had. None of the alloys keep their colour as well aspure gold, and some of them, such as those alloyed with copper for redgold, and with silver for pale gold, tarnish very quickly. These lastare not to be recommended. For silver tooling aluminium leaf may be used, as silver leaftarnishes very quickly. When the gold is pressed into the impressions of the tools with thepad of cotton-wool, they should be plainly visible through it. The pattern must now be worked through the gold with the hot tools. The tools are taken from the stove, and if too hot cooled on a pad asfor blinding-in. The heat required to leave the gold tooling solid andbright and the impressions clear will vary for different leathers, andeven for different skins of the same leather. For trial a tool may belaid on the pad until it ceases to hiss, and one or two impressionsworked with it. If the gold fails to stick, the heat may be slightlyincreased. If the leather is slightly damp from the preparation the tools willusually work better, and less heat is required than if it has beenprepared for some time and has got dry. Before using, the faces of all tools must be rubbed bright on theflesh side of a piece of leather. It is impossible to tool brightlywith dirty tools. A tool should be held in the right hand, with thethumb on the top of the handle, and steadied with the thumb or firstfinger of the left hand. The shoulder should be brought well over thetool, and the upper part of the body used as a press. If the weight ofthe body is used in finishing, the tools can be worked with fargreater firmness and certainty, and with less fatigue, than if thewhole work is done with the muscles of the arms. Large and solid tools will require all the weight that can be put onthem, and even then the gold will often fail to stick with oneimpression. Tools with small surfaces, such as gouges and dots, mustnot be worked too heavily, or the surface of the leather may be cut. To strike a large or solid tool, it should first be put down flat, andthen slightly rocked from side to side and from top to bottom, butmust not be twisted on the gold. A tool may be struck from whichever side the best "sight" can be got, and press and book turned round to the most convenient position. It is difficult to impress some tools, such as circular flower tools, twice in exactly the same place. Such tools should have a mark on oneside as a guide. This should always be kept in the same position whenblinding-in and tooling, and so make it possible to impress a secondtime without "doubling. " An impression is said to be "doubled" whenthe tool has been twisted in striking, or one impression does not fallexactly over the other. The hot tool should not be held hovering over the impression long, orthe preparation will be dried up before the tool is struck. Toolingwill generally be brighter if the tools are struck fairly sharply, andat once removed from the leather, than if they are kept down a longtime. To "strike" dots, the book should be turned with the head to theworker, and the tool held with the handle inclining slightly towardshim. This will make them appear bright when the book is held the rightway up. Gouges must be "sighted" from the inside of the curve, and struckevenly, or the points may cut into the leather. Short straight linesmay be put in with pieces of line, and longer ones with a fillet. A one line fillet is shown at fig. 88; the space filed out of thecircumference is to enable lines to be joined neatly at the corners. That the lines may be clearly visible through the gold, the bookshould be placed so that the light comes from the left hand of theworker and across the line. It is well to have a basin of water inwhich to cool fillets, as there is so much metal in them, that thedamp sponge or cotton used for cooling tools would very rapidly bedried up. When the fillet has been cooled, the edge should be rubbedon the cleaning pad, and the point exactly adjusted to the corner ofthe line to be run (see fig. 88). The fillet is then run along theline with even pressure. [Illustration: FIG. 88. ] For slightly curved lines, a very small fillet may be used. When all the prepared part of a pattern has been tooled, it is wellrubbed to remove the loose gold with a slightly greasy rag, or with apiece of bottle indiarubber which has been softened in paraffin. Aftera time the rubber or rag may be sold to the gold-beater, who recoversthe gold. To prepare indiarubber for cleaning off gold, a piece ofbottle rubber is cut into small pieces and soaked in paraffin for somehours. This should cause the pieces to reunite into a soft lump. Thiscan be used until it is yellow with gold throughout. When all free gold is rubbed off, the finisher can see where thetooling is imperfect. Impressions which are not "solid" must bereglaired, have fresh gold laid on, and be retooled. But if, as willsometimes happen with the best finishers, the gold has failed to stickproperly anywhere, it is best to wash the whole with water or vinegar, and prepare afresh. As an excess of grease is apt to dull the gold and soil the leather, it is better to use it very sparingly when laying on fresh gold formending. For patching, benzine may be used instead of grease. When thegold is picked up on the cotton-wool pad, rapidly go over the leatherwith wool soaked in benzine, and at once lay down the gold. Benzinewill not hold the gold long enough for much tooling, but it willanswer for about half-an-hour, and give plenty of time for patching. Imperfect tooling arises from a variety of causes. If an impression isclear, but the gold not solid, it is probably because the tool was nothot enough, or was not put down firmly. If only one side of animpression fails to stick, it is usually because the tool was unevenlyimpressed. If an impression is blurred, and the gold has a frostedlook, it is because the leather has been burned, either because thetool was too hot, or kept down too long, or the preparation was toofresh. To mend double or burnt impressions the leather should be wetted andleft to soak a short time, and the gold can be picked out with awooden point. When nearly dry the impressions should be put in againwith a cool tool, reglaired and retooled. It is very difficult to mend neatly if the leather is badly burnt. Sometimes it may be advisable to paste a piece of new leather over aburnt impression before retooling. If a tool is put down in the wrong place by mistake, it is difficultto get the impression out entirely. The best thing to do is to dampthe leather thoroughly, leave it to soak for a little while, and pickup the impression with the point of a pin. It is best not to use aniron point for this, as iron is apt to blacken the leather. Leather is difficult to tool if it has not a firm surface, or if it istoo thin to give a little when the tool is struck. When the tooling is finished, and the loose gold removed with therubber, the leather should be washed with benzine, to remove anygrease and any fragments of gold that may be adhering by the greaseonly. The inside margins of the boards are next polished and varnished, andthe end papers pasted down. Or if there is a leather joint, the panelleft on the board may be filled in (see Chapter XVII). When the end papers are dry, the sides and back may be polished andvarnished. It is important that the varnish should be of good quality, and nottoo thick, or it will in time turn brown and cause the gold to lookdirty. Some of the light French spirit varnishes prepared forbookbinders answer well. Varnish must be used sparingly, and is bestapplied with a pad of cotton-wool. A little varnish is poured on tothe pad, which is rubbed on a piece of paper until it is seen that thevarnish comes out thinly and evenly. It is then rubbed on the bookwith a spiral motion. The quicker the surface is gone over, providedevery part is covered, the better. Varnish will not work well if it isvery cold, and in cold weather both the book and varnish bottle shouldbe slightly warmed before use. Should an excess of varnish be put onin error, or should it be necessary to retool part of the book afterit has been varnished, the varnish can be removed with spirits ofwine. Varnish acts as a preservative to the leather, but has thedisadvantage, if used in excess, of making it rather brittle on thesurface. It must, therefore, be used very sparingly at the joints. Itis to be hoped that a perfectly elastic varnish, that will not tarnishthe gold, will soon be discovered. As soon as the varnish is dry the boards may be pressed, one at atime, to give the leather a smooth surface (see fig. 83), leaving eachboard in the press for some hours. [Illustration: FIG. 89. ] After each board has been pressed separately the book should be shut, and pressed again with pressing plates on each side of it, and withtins covered with paper placed inside each board. Light pressureshould be given to books with tight backs, or the leather may becomedetached. If, on removing from the press, the boards will not keep shut, thebook should be pressed again with a folded sheet of blotting-paper ineach end. The blotting-paper should have the folded edge turned up, and be placed so that this turned-up edge will be in the joint behindthe back edge of the board when the book is shut. A small nipping-press suitable for giving comparatively lightpressure, is shown at fig. 89. TOOLING ON VELLUM Most covering vellum has a sticky surface, that marks if it ishandled. This should be washed off with clean water before tooling. The pattern is blinded in through the paper as for leather, exceptingthat the paper must not be pasted directly to the vellum, but may beheld with a band going right round the board or book. It is best toglaire twice, and to lay on a small portion of gold at a time withbenzine. As vellum burns very readily, the tools must not be too hot, and some skill is needed to prevent them from slipping on the hardsurface. Vellum must not be polished or varnished. INLAYING ON LEATHER Inlaying or onlaying is adding a different leather from that of thecover, as decoration. Thus on a red book, a panel or a border, orother portion, may be covered with thin green leather, or only flowersor leaves may be inlaid, while a jewel-like effect may be obtained bydots, leaves, and flowers, tooled over inlays of various colours. Leather for inlaying should be pared very thin. To do this the leatheris cut into strips, wetted, and pared on a stone with a knife shapedsomewhat as at fig. 60, B. When the thin leather is dry the inlays ofthe leaves and flowers, &c. , may be stamped out with steel punches cutto the shape of the tools; or if only a few inlays are needed, thetools may be impressed on the thin leather, and the inlays cut outwith a sharp knife. The edges of the larger inlays should be paredround carefully. For inlaying a panel or other large surface, theleather is pared very thin and evenly with a French knife, and a pieceof paper pasted on to the grained side and left to dry. When dry, theshape of the panel, or other space to be inlaid, is marked on itthrough the paper pattern, and leather and paper cut through to theshape required. The edges must then be carefully pared, and the pieceattached with paste, and nipped in the press to make it stick. Whenthe paste is dry, the paper may be damped and washed off. The objectof the paper is to prevent the thin leather from stretching when it ispasted. For white inlays it is better to use Japanese paper than leather, aswhite leather, when pared very thin, will show the colours of theunder leather through, and look dirty. If paper is used, it should besized with vellum size before tooling. When many dots or leaves are to be inlaid, the pieces of leather, cutout with the punch, may be laid face downwards on a paring stone, anda piece of paper, thickly covered with paste, laid on it. This, onbeing taken up, will carry with it the "inlays, " and they can bepicked up one at a time on the point of a fine folder, and stuck onthe book. "Inlays" of tools are attached after the pattern has been "blinded"in, and must be again worked over with the tool, in blind, when thepaste is nearly dry. On vellum an effect, similar to that of inlays on leather, can beobtained by the use of stains. CHAPTER XV Lettering--Blind Tooling--Heraldic Ornament LETTERING ON THE BACK Lettering may be done either with separate letters, each on its ownhandle, or with type set in a type-holder and worked across the backas a pallet. Although by the use of type great regularity is ensured, and some time saved, the use of handle letters gives so much morefreedom of arrangement, that their use is advocated for extra binding. Where a great many copies of the same work have to be lettered, theuse of type has obvious advantages. A great deal depends on the design of the letters used. Nearly allbookbinders' letters are made too narrow, and with too greatdifference between the thick and thin strokes. At fig. 90 is shown analphabet, for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Emery Walker. The long tail of the Q is meant to go under the U. It might be well tohave a second R cut, with a shorter tail, to avoid the great spaceleft when an A happens to follow it. I have found that four sizes ofletters are sufficient for all books. [Illustration: FIG. 90. ] [Illustration: FIG. 91. ] [Illustration: FIG. 92. ] To make out a lettering paper for the back of a book, cut a strip ofgood thin paper as wide as the height of the panel to be lettered. Fold it near the centre, and mark the fold with a pencil. This shouldgive a line exactly at right angles to the top and bottom of thestrip. Then make another fold the distance from the first of the widthof the back; then bring the two folds together, and make a third foldin the exact centre. The paper should then be as shown at fig. 91. Supposing the lettering to be THE WORKS OF ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON, select the size of letter you desire to use, and take an E and mark ona piece of spare paper a line of E's, and laying your folded paperagainst it, see how many letters will go in comfortably. Supposing youfind that four lines of five letters of the selected size can be putin, you must see if your title can be conveniently cut up into fourlines of five letters, or less. It might be done as shown at fig. 93. But if you prefer not to split the name STEVENSON, a smaller lettermust be employed, and then the lettering may be as at fig. 94. To find out the position of the lines of lettering on a panel, theletter E is again taken and impressed five times at the side of thepanel, as shown at fig. 92, leaving a little greater distance betweenthe lowest letter and the bottom of the panel, than between theletters. The paper is then folded on the centre fold, and, withdividers set to the average distance between the head of one letterand the head of the next, five points are made through the foldedpaper. The paper is opened, turned over, and the points joined with afine folder worked against the straight-edge. It should leave on thefront five raised lines, up to which the head of the letters must beput. [Illustration: FIG. 93. ] [Illustration: FIG. 94. ] The letters in the top line are counted, and the centre letter marked. Spaces between words are counted as a letter; thus in "THE WORKS, " "W"will be the centre letter, and should be put on the paper first, andthe others added on each side of it. Some thought is needed in judgingwhere to put the centre, as the difference in the width of suchletters as "M" and "W" and "I" and "J" have to be taken into account. As a general rule, lettering looks best if it comfortably fills thepanel, but of course it cannot always be made to do this. The greatestdifficulty will be found in making titles of books that consist of asingle word, look well. Thus if you have "CORIOLANUS" to place on aback which is not more than 5/8-inch wide, if it is put across as oneword, as at fig. 95 (1), it will be illegible from the smallness ofthe type, and will tell merely as a gold line at a little distance. Ifa reasonably large type is used, the word must be broken up somewhat, as at (2), which is perhaps better, but still not at all satisfactory. The word may be put straight along the back, as at fig. (3), but thishardly looks well on a book with raised bands, and should be avoidedunless necessary. [Illustration: FIG. 95. ] The use of type of different sizes in lettering a book should beavoided when possible, and on no account whatever should letters ofdifferent design be introduced. Occasionally, when the reason for itis obvious, it may be allowable to make a word shorter by putting in asmall letter, supposing that only thus could reasonably large type beused. It is especially allowable in cases where, in a set of volumes, there is one much thinner than the others. It is generally better tomake some compromise with the lettering of the thin volume, than tospoil the lettering of the whole set by using too small a letterthroughout (see fig. 115). On very thin books it is sometimes hardly possible to get anylettering at all on the back. In such cases the lettering is best puton the side. In the case of some special books that are to have elaboratelydecorated bindings, and are on that account sufficiently distinct fromtheir neighbours, a certain amount of freedom is permissible with thelettering, and a little mystery is not perhaps out of place. But inmost cases books have to be recognised by their titles, and it is ofthe utmost importance that the lettering should be as clear aspossible, and should fully identify the volume. For lettering half-bindings and other books on which much time cannotbe spared, it would take too long to make out a paper, as describedfor extra bindings, nor is there on such work much occasion for it. For such books the lettering should be written out carefully, thewhole panel prepared and glaired in, and the gold laid on. Then with apiece of fine silk or thread lines may be marked across the gold as aguide to the finisher, and the letters worked from the centreoutward, as described for making out the paper pattern. Of course thismethod does not allow of such nice calculation and adjustment as whena paper pattern is made out; but if a general principle of clearlettering is recognised and accepted, very good results may beobtained. BLIND TOOLING [Illustration: FIG. 96. ] At the end of the book characteristic examples of blind-tooled booksare given (pages 321-25). It will be seen that most of the tools formcomplete designs in themselves. Although the use of detached die-sunktools was general, there were also simple tools used, which, whencombined, made up more or less organic designs, and allowed morefreedom to the finisher (see figs. 96 and 97). [Illustration: FIG. 97. ] Some use may also be made of interlaced strap-work designs, eitherworked with gouges, or a small fillet. A book bound in oaken boards, with a leather back with knotted decoration, is shown at page 330. Ihave found that such binding and decoration is more satisfactory inscheme for old books, than most forms of modern binding. If a design is simple, the cover is marked up with dividers, and thetools impressed direct upon the leather; or, if it is elaborate, apaper pattern is made out, and the tools blinded through the paper, asdescribed for gold tooling. The leather is then damped with water, andthe impressions retooled. [Illustration: FIG. 98. ] The panel lines on most of the bindings before 1500 show evidence ofhaving been put in with a tool which has been pushed along theleather, and not with a wheel. I have found that a tool guided by astraight-edge, and "jiggered" backwards and forwards, makes by far thebest lines for blind-tool work. It should be borne in mind that theline is formed by the raised portion of leather, and so the toolshould be cut somewhat as at fig. 98. This should leave three ridgeson the leather. Blind tooling may be gone over and over until it isdeep enough, and may be combined with various other methods ofworking. For instance, in tooling such a spray as is shown at fig. 99, the leaf would be formed by five impressions of the second tool, shownat A, the extremity of the impressions could be joined with gouges, the stalk and veining could either be run in with a fillet or workedwith gouges. The grapes would best be worked with a tool cut for thepurpose. One edge of all gouge or fillet impressions can be smootheddown with some such tool as shown in section at B. This has to beworked round the gouge lines with a steady hand, and may be fairly hotif it is kept moving. At C is shown a section of a gouge impressionbefore and after the use of this tool. The ground can be dotted in, orotherwise gone over with some small tool to throw up the pattern. Blind tooling can sometimes be used in combination with gold tooling. [Illustration: FIG. 99. ] In the fifteenth century the Venetian binders used little roundels ofsome gesso-like substance, that were brightly coloured or gilt, incombination with blind tooling (see p. 325). This is a method thatmight be revived. What is known as "leather work" is a further development of blindtooling. This method of decoration has been revived lately, but notgenerally with success. "Leather work" may be divided into twobranches; in one the surface of the leather is cut to outline thepattern, and in the other the leather is embossed from the back, whilewet, and the pattern outlined by an indented line. Sometimes the twomethods are combined. As embossing from the back necessitates the workbeing done before the leather is on the book, it is not very suitablefor decorating books. Leather first decorated and then stuck on thebook, never looks as if it was an integral part of the binding. Thecut leather work, which may be done after the book is bound, andleaves the surface comparatively flat, is a better method to employfor books, provided the cuts are not too deep, and are restricted tothe boards, so as not to weaken the leather at the back and joints. Much of the leather used for "leather work" is of very poor quality, and will not last; for modelling it must be thick on the side of thebook, and for the book to open it must be pared thin at the joint, thus making it necessary to use a thick skin very much pared down, andconsequently weakened (see p. 155). Another very common fault inmodelled "leather work" is, that the two sides and the back are oftenworked separately and stuck together on the book, necessitating ajoin, and consequently a weak place in the hinge, where strength ismost wanted. Again, in most modern "leather work, " those who do thedecoration do not, as a rule, do the binding, and often do notunderstand enough of the craft to do suitable work. All those engaged in leather work are advised to learn to bind theirown books, and to only use such methods of decoration, as can becarried out on the bound book. HERALDRY ON BOOK COVERS It is an old and good custom to put the arms of the owner of a libraryon the covers of the books he has bound. The traditional, andcertainly one of the best ways to do this, is to have an arms blockdesigned and cut. To design an arms block, knowledge of heraldry isneeded, and also some clear idea of the effect to be aimed at. A verycommon mistake in designing blocks is to try and get the effect ofhand tooling. Blocks should be and look something entirely different. In hand tooling much of the effect is got from the impressions ofsmall tools reflecting the light at slightly different angles, givingthe work life and interest. Blocked gold being all in one plane, hasno such lights in it, and depends entirely on its design for itseffect. Provided the heraldry identifies the owner, it should be as simplydrawn as it can be; the custom of indicating the tinctures by linesand dots on the charges, generally makes a design confused, obscuringthe coat it is intended to make clear. In designing heraldic blocks itis well to get a good deal of solid flat surface of gold to make theblocked design stand out from any gold-tooled work on the cover. Another way of putting armorial bearings on covers, is to paint themin oil paint. In the early sixteenth century the Venetians copied theEastern custom of sinking panels in their book covers, and paintedcoats of arms on these sunk portions very successfully. The groundworkof the shield itself was usually raised a little, either by somethingunder the leather, or by some gesso-like substance on its surface. Arms blocks should be placed a little above the centre of the cover. Generally, if the centre of the block is in a line with the centreband of a book with five bands, it will look right. Blocks are struck with the aid of an arming or blocking press. Theblock is attached to the movable plate of the press called the"platen. " To do this some stout brown paper is first glued to theplaten, and the block glued to this, and the platen fixed in its placeat the bottom of the heating-box. In blocking arms on a number ofbooks of different sizes, some nice adjustment of the movable bed isneeded to get the blocks to fall in exactly the right place. For blocking, one coat of glaire will be enough for most leathers. Thegold is laid on as for hand tooling. The block should be brought downand up again fairly sharply. The heat needed is about the same as forhand tooling. CHAPTER XVI Designing for Gold-Tooled Decoration DESIGNING TOOLS For gold tooling, such tools as gouges, dots, pieces of straight line, and fillets are to be had ready-made at most dealers. Other tools arebest designed and cut to order. At first only a few simple forms willbe needed, such as one or two flowers of different sizes, and one ortwo sets of leaves (see fig. 100). [Illustration: FIG. 100 (reduced)] In designing tools, it must be borne in mind that they may appear onthe book many times repeated, and so must be simple in outline andmuch conventionalised. A more or less naturalistic drawing of aflower, showing the natural irregularities, may look charming, but ifa tool is cut from it, any marked irregularity becomes extremelyannoying when repeated several times on a cover. So with leaves, unless they are perfectly symmetrical, there should be three of eachshape cut, two curving in different directions, and the third quitestraight (see fig. 101). To have only one leaf, and to have thatcurved, produces very restless patterns. The essence of gold-tooldesign, is that patterns are made up of repeats of impressions oftools, and that being so, the tools must be so designed that they willrepeat pleasantly, and in practice it will be found that any butsimple forms will become aggressive in repetition. [Illustration: FIG. 101. ] Designs for tools should be made out with Indian ink on white paper, and they may be larger than the size of the required tool. Thetool-cutter will reduce any drawing to any desired size, and will, from one drawing, cut any number of tools of different sizes. Thus, ifa set of five leaves of the same shape is wanted, it will only benecessary to draw one, and to indicate the sizes the others are to bein some such way as shown at fig. 102. It is not suggested that special tools should be cut for each pattern, but the need of new tools will naturally arise from time to time, andso the stock be gradually increased. It is better to begin with a veryfew, and add a tool or two as occasion arises, than to try to design acomplete set when starting. [Illustration: FIG. 102. ] Tools may be solid or in outline. If in outline they may be used as"inlay" tools, and in ordering them the tool-cutter should be asked toprovide steel punches for cutting the inlays. COMBINING TOOLS TO FORM PATTERNS It is well for the student to begin with patterns arranged on somevery simple plan, making slight changes in each succeeding pattern. In this way an individual style may be established. The usual plan ofstudying the perfected styles of the old binders, and trying to beginwhere they left off, in practice only leads to the production of exactimitations, or poor lifeless parodies, of the old designs. Whereas apattern developed by the student by slow degrees, through a series ofdesigns, each slightly different from the one before it, will, ifeccentricities are avoided, probably have life and individualinterest. Perhaps the easiest way to decorate a binding is to cover it with somesmall repeating pattern. A simple form of diaper as a beginning isshown at fig. 104. To make such a pattern cut a piece of good, thinpaper to the size of the board of a book, and with a pencil rule aline about an eighth of an inch inside the margin all round. Then withthe point of a fine folder that will indent, but not cut the paper, mark up as shown in fig. 103. The position of the lines A A and B Bare found by simply folding the paper, first side to side, and thenhead to tail. The other lines can be put in without any measurementby simply joining all points where lines cross. By continualre-crossing, the spaces into which the paper is divided can be reducedto any desired size. If the construction lines are accurately put in, the spaces will all be of the same size and shape. It is then evidentthat a repeating design to fill any one of the spaces can be made tocover the whole surface. [Illustration: FIG. 103. ] In fig. 104, it is the diagonal lines only that are utilised for thepattern. To avoid confusion, the cross lines that helped to determinethe position of the diagonals are not shown. [Illustration: FIG. 104 (reduced)] The advantage of using the point of a folder to mark up theconstructional lines of a pattern instead of a pencil, is that thelines so made are much finer, do not rub out, and do not causeconfusion by interfering with the pattern. Any lines that will appearon the book, such as the marginal lines, may be put in with a pencilto distinguish them. Having marked up the paper, select a flower tool and impress it at thepoints where the diagonal lines cross, holding it in the smoke of acandle between every two or three impressions. When the flower hasbeen impressed all over, select a small piece of straight line, andput a stalk in below each flower; then a leaf put in on each side ofthe straight line will complete the pattern. [Illustration: FIG. 105 (reduced)] A development of the same principle is shown at fig. 105, in whichsome gouges are introduced. Any number of other combinations willoccur to any one using the tools. Frequently questions will arise asto whether a tool is to be put this way or that way, and whether aline is to curve up or down. Whenever there is such an alternativeopen, there is the germ of another pattern. All-over diaper patternsmay be varied in any number of ways. One way is to vary the design inalternate spaces. If this is done one of the designs should be suchthat it will divide down the centre both ways and so finish off thepattern comfortably at the edges. The pattern may be based on theupright and the cross-lines of the marking up, or the marking up maybe on a different principle altogether. The designer, after a littlepractice, will be bewildered by the infinite number of combinationsthat occur to him. [Illustration: FIG. 106 (reduced)] The diaper is selected for a beginning, because it is the easiest formof pattern to make, as there is no question of getting round corners, and very little of studying proportion. It is selected also because itteaches the student the decorative value of simple forms repeated onsome orderly system. When he has grasped this, he has grasped theunderlying principle of nearly all successful tooled ornament. Diapersare good practice, because in a close, all-over pattern the tools mustbe put down in definite places, or an appalling muddle will result. Intooling; a repeat of the same few tools, is the best possiblepractice, giving as it does the same work over and over again underprecisely the same conditions, and concentrating, on one book cover, the practice that might be spread over several backs and sides moresparingly decorated, when variety of conditions would confuse thestudent. [Illustration: FIG. 107. ] When the principles of the diaper have been mastered, and the studenthas become familiar with the limitations of his tools, other schemesof decoration may be attempted, such as borders, centres, or panels. A form of border connected with cross-lines is shown at fig. 106. Thisis made up of a repeat of the spray built up of three tools and fourgouges shown at fig. 107, with slight modification at the corners. Other schemes for borders are those in which flowers grow inwards fromthe edge of the boards, or outwards from a panel at the centre, or onboth sides of a line about half an inch from the edge. A pattern mayalso be made to grow all round the centre panel. Borders will be foundmore difficult to manage than simple diapers, and at first, are bestbuilt up on the same principle--the repeat of some simple element. [Illustration: FIG. 108 (reduced)] The decoration may be concentrated on parts of the cover, such as thecentre or corners. A design for a centre is shown at fig. 108, andbelow is shown the way to construct it. A piece of paper is folded, asshown by the dotted lines, and an eighth of the pattern drawn with asoft pencil and folded over on the line A, and transferred by beingrubbed at the back with a folder. This is lined in with a pencil, andfolded over on the line B and rubbed off. This is lined in and foldedover on A and C, rubbed off as before, and the whole lined in. Theovers and unders of the lines are then marked, and gouges selected tofit. Of course it will take several trials before the lines willinterlace pleasantly, and the tools fit in. Another centre, in which aspray is repeated three times, is shown at fig. 109, and any number ofothers will occur to the student after a little practice. A change oftools, or the slight alteration of a line, will give an entirely newaspect to a pattern. At page 334 is shown an all-over pattern growingfrom the bottom centre of the board. In this design the leather wasdark green, with a lighter green panel in the centre. The berries wereinlaid in bright red. Although at first glance it seems an intricatedesign, it is made up like the others of repetitions of simple forms. [Illustration: FIG. 109 (reduced)] When the student has become proficient in the arrangement of tools incombination with lines, a design consisting entirely, or almostentirely, of lines may be tried. This is more difficult, because thelimitations are not so obvious; but here again the principle ofrepetition, and even distribution, should be followed. At fig. 110 isshown a design almost entirely composed of lines, built up on the sameprinciple as the centre at fig. 108. [Illustration: FIG. 110 (reduced)] The ends of the bands form a very pleasant starting-place forpatterns. At pp. 330, 332-6 are shown ways of utilising this method. To look right, a pattern must be consistent throughout. The tools andtheir arrangement must have about the same amount of convention. Goldtooling, dealing, as it does, with flat forms in silhouette only, necessitates very considerable formality in the design of the toolsand of their arrangement on the cover. Modern finishers have become soskilful, that they are able to produce in gold tooling almost anydesign that can be drawn in lines with a pencil, and some trulymarvellous results are obtained by the use of inlays, and speciallycut gouges. As a rule, such patterns simply serve to show the skill ofthe finisher, and to make one wonder who could have been foolishenough to select so limited and laborious a method as gold tooling forcarrying them out. Generally speaking, successful gold-tooled patterns show evidence ofhaving been designed with the tools; of being, in fact, merearrangements of the tools, and not of having been first designed witha pencil, and then worked with tools cut to fit the drawing. This doesnot of course apply to patterns composed entirely of lines, or topatterns composed of lines of dots. If artists wish to design for gold tooling without first mastering thedetails, probably the safest way will be for them to design in linesof gold dots. Some successful patterns carried out in this way wereshown at the Arts and Crafts Exhibition some years ago. Designs for gold-tooled binding should always be constructed on somegeometrical plan, and whatever pattern there is, symmetricallydistributed over the cover. If lettering can be introduced, it will be found to be most usefulwhen arranging a pattern. It gives dignity and purpose to a design, and is also highly decorative. Lettering may be arranged in panels, asat page 332, or in a border round the edge of the board, and in manyother ways. It may either consist of the title of the book, or someline or verse from it or connected with it, or may refer to itshistory, or to the owner. Anything that gives a personal interest to abook, such as the arms of the owner, the initials or name of the giveror receiver of a present, with perhaps the date of the gift, is ofvalue. The use of the small fillet makes it possible to employ long, slightly-curved lines. Gold-tooled lines have in themselves suchgreat beauty, that designers are often tempted to make them meanderabout the cover in a weak and aimless way. As the limitations enforcedby the use of gouges tend to keep the curves strong and small, and asthe use of the small fillet tends to the production of long, weakcurves, students are advised at first to restrict the curved lines intheir patterns to such as can be readily worked with gouges. [Illustration: FIG. 111. ] It must be remembered that a gouge or fillet line is very thin, andwill look weak if it goes far without support. For this reasoninterlaced lines are advocated. Gouge lines are easier to work, and look better, if a small space isleft where the gouges end. This is especially the case where linesbearing leaves or flowers branch from the main stem (see fig. 111). Gouges and fillets need not always be of the same thickness of line, and two or three sets of different gauges may be kept. A finisher canalways alter the thickness of a gouge with emery paper. One method of arranging gold-tooled lines is to treat them in designas if they were wires in tension, and knot and twist them together. Provided the idea is consistently adhered to throughout, such apattern is often very successful. [Illustration: FIG. 112. ] A simple arrangement of straight lines will be sufficientornamentation for most books. Three schemes for such ornamentation areshown. In fig. 112 the "tie-downs" may be in "blind" and the lines ingold. The arrangement shown at fig. 113 leaves a panel at the topwhich may be utilised for lettering. [Illustration: FIG. 113. ] [Illustration: FIG. 114. ] [Illustration: FIG. 115. ] [Illustration: FIG. 115. ] DESIGNING FOR BACKS The decoration of the back of a book is difficult owing to the verysmall space usually available in the panels. The first considerationmust be the lettering, and when that has been arranged, as describedin Chapter XV, a second paper is got out for the pattern. The backpanel should generally be treated in the same style and, if possible, with the same tools as the sides, if they are decorated. It will oftenbe found far easier to design a full-gilt side than a satisfactoryback. A design may be made to fit one panel of the book and repeated on allthose not required for lettering (see pages 332-34), or it may be madeto grow up from panel to panel (see fig. 115). In the case of sets ofbooks in which the volumes vary very much in thickness, some patternmust be made that can be contracted and expanded without altering thegeneral look of the back (see fig. 115). DESIGNING FOR INSIDE OF BOARDS The inside margins of the board permit of a little delicatedecoration. At fig. 116 are shown two ways of treating this part ofthe binding. The inside of the board is sometimes covered all overwith leather, and tooled as elaborately, or more elaborately, than theoutside. If there are vellum ends, they may be enriched with a littletooling. [Illustration: FIG. 116. ] The edges of the boards may have a gold line run on them, and thehead-cap may be decorated with a few dots. CHAPTER XVII Pasting down End Papers--Opening Books PASTING DOWN END PAPERS When the finishing is done, the end papers should be pasted down on tothe board; or if there is a leather joint, the panel left should befilled in to match the end paper. To paste down end papers, the book is placed on the block with theboard open (see fig. 117, A), the waste sheets are torn off, thejoints cleared of any glue or paste, and the boards flattened, asdescribed at page 171 for pasting down leather joints. One of thepaste-down papers is then stretched over the board and rubbed down inthe joint, and the amount to be cut off to make it fit into the spaceleft by the turn-in of the leather is marked on it with dividers, measuring from the edge of the board. A cutting tin is then placed onthe book, the paste-down paper turned over it, and the edges trimmedoff to the divider points with a knife and straight-edge, leavingsmall pieces to cover the ends of the joint (fig. 117, A, c). The cutting and pasting down of these small pieces in the joint arerather difficult; they should come exactly to the edges of the board. [Illustration: FIG. 117. ] When both paste-down papers are trimmed to size, one of them is wellpasted with thin paste in which there are no lumps, with a piece ofwaste paper under it to protect the book. The joints should also bepasted, and the paste rubbed in with the finger and any surplusremoved. The pasted paper is then brought over on to the board, the edgesadjusted exactly to their places, and rubbed down. The joint must nextbe rubbed down through paper. It is difficult to get the paper tostick evenly in the joint, and great nicety is needed here. Allrubbing down must be done through paper, or the "paste-down" will besoiled or made shiny. Some papers stretch very much when pasted, and will need to be cut alittle smaller than needed, and put down promptly after pasting. Thinvellum may be put down with paste in which there is a very littleglue, but thicker vellum is better put down with thin glue. In pastingvellum, very great care is needed to prevent the brush-marks fromshowing through. If the vellum is thin, the board must be lined withwhite or toned paper with a smooth surface. This paper must be quiteclean, as any marks will show through the vellum, and make it lookdirty. When one side is pasted down the book can be turned over withoutshutting the board, and the other board opened and pasted down in thesame way (see fig. 117, B). In turning over a book, a piece of whitepaper should be put under the newly-pasted side, as, being damp, itwill soil very readily. When both ends have been pasted down thejoints should be examined and rubbed down again, and the book stood upon end with the boards open until the end papers are dry. The boardsmay be held open with a piece of cardboard cut as shown at fig. 71. If there are cloth joints they are put down with glue, and the boardpaper is placed nearly to the edge of the joint, leaving very littlecloth visible. In the process of finishing, the boards of a book will nearly alwaysbe warped a little outward, but the pasted end papers should draw theboards a little as they dry, causing them to curve slightly towardsthe book. With vellum ends there is a danger that the boards will bewarped too much. OPENING NEWLY BOUND BOOKS Before sending out a newly bound book the binder should go through it, opening it here and there to ease the back. The volume is laid on atable, and the leaves opened a short distance from the front, and thenat an equal distance from the back, and then in one or two placesnearer the centre of the book, the leaves being pressed down with thehand at each opening. If the book is a valuable one, every leaf shouldthen be turned over separately and each opening pressed down, beginning from the centre and working first one way and then theother. In this way the back will be bent evenly at all points. When abook has been opened, it should be lightly pressed for a short timewithout anything in the joints. If a book is sent out unopened, the first person into whose hand itfalls will probably open it somewhere in the centre, bending thecovers back and "breaking" the back; and if any leaves chance to havebeen stuck together in edge-gilding, they are likely to be torn ifcarelessly opened. A book with a "broken" back will always have atendency to open in the same place, and will not keep its shape. Itwould be worth while for librarians to have newly bound bookscarefully opened. An assistant could "open" a large number of booksin a day, and the benefit to the bindings would amply compensate forthe small trouble and cost involved. CHAPTER XVIII Clasps and Ties--Metal on Bindings CLASPS AND TIES Some books need to be clasped to keep the leaves flat. All bookswritten or printed on vellum should have clasps. Vellum unless keptflat is apt to cockle, and this in a book will force the leaves apartand admit dust. If a book is tightly wedged in a shelf the leaves willbe kept flat, but as the chance removal of any other book from the rowwill remove the pressure, it is much better to provide clasps forvellum books. Very thick books, and those with a great many folded plates, arebetter for having clasps to prevent the leaves from sagging. As nearlyall books are now kept in bookshelves, and as any projection on theside of a book is likely to injure the neighbouring volume, a form ofclasp should be used that has no raised parts on the boards. [Illustration: FIG. 118. ] At fig. 118 is shown a simple clasp suitable for small books withmill-board sides, with details of the metal parts, made of thicksilver wire below. Double boards must be "made, " and the flattenedends of the silver catch inserted between the two thicknesses, andglued in place. About one-eighth of an inch of the end should project. In covering, the leather must be pierced and carefully worked roundthe catch. To make the plait, three strips of thin leather are slippedthrough the ring, and the ends of each strip pasted together. Thethree doubled strips are then plaited and the end of the plait putthrough a hole in the lower board of the book about half an inch fromthe edge, and glued down inside. A groove may be cut in the mill-boardfrom the hole to the edge before covering, to make a depression inwhich the plait will lie, and a depression may be scooped out of theinner surface of the board to receive the ends. At fig. 119 is a somewhat similar clasp with three plaits suitable forlarge books. The metal end and the method of inserting it into woodenboards are shown below. The turned-down end should go right throughthe board, and be riveted on the inside. When the three plaits areworked, a little band of silver may be riveted on just below the ring. [Illustration: FIG. 119. ] A very simple fastening that is sometimes useful is shown at fig. 77. A very small bead is threaded on to a piece of catgut, and the twoends of the gut brought together and put through a larger bead. Theends of the gut with the beads on them are laced into the top boardof the book, with the bead projecting over the edge, and a loop of gutis laced into the bottom board. If the loop can be made exactly theright length, this is a serviceable method. Silk or leather ties may be used to keep books shut, but they are aptto be in the way when the book is read, and as hardly anybody troublesto tie them, they are generally of very little use. METAL ON BINDINGS Metal corners and bosses are a great protection to bindings, but ifthe books are to go into shelves, the metal must be quite smooth andflat. A metal shoe on the lower edge of the boards is an excellentthing for preserving the binding of heavy books. Bosses and other raised metal work should be restricted to books thatwill be used on lecterns or reading desks. The frontispiece is from adrawing of an early sixteenth-century book, bound in white pigskin, and ornamented with brass corners, centres, and clasps; and at page323 is shown a fifteenth-century binding with plain protecting bosses. On this book there were originally five bosses on each board, but thecentre ones have been lost. Bindings may be entirely covered with metal, but the connectionbetween the binding and the book is in that case seldom quitesatisfactory. The most satisfactory metal-covered bindings that I haveseen are those in which the metal is restricted to the boards. Thebook is bound in wooden boards, with thick leather at the back, andplaques of metal nailed to the wood. The metal may be set with jewelsor decorated with enamel, and embossed or chased in various ways. Jewels are sometimes set in invisible settings below the leather ofbindings, giving them the appearance of being set in the leather. Thisgives them an insecure look, and it is better to frankly show themetal settings and make a decorative feature of them. CHAPTER XIX Leather LEATHER Of all the materials used by the bookbinders, leather is the mostimportant and the most difficult to select wisely. It is extremelydifficult to judge a leather by its appearance. "We find now, that instead of leather made from sheep, calf, goat, andpigskins, each having, when finished, its own characteristic surface, that sheepskins are got up to look like calf, morocco, or pigskin;that calf is grained to resemble morocco, or so polished and flattenedas to have but little character left; while goatskins are grained inany number of ways, and pigskin is often grained like levant morocco. So clever are some of these imitations, that it takes a skilled expertto identify a leather when it is on a book. " There have been complaints for a long time of the want of durabilityof modern bookbinding leather, but there has not been until lately anysystematic investigation into the causes of its premature decay. By permission, I shall quote largely from the report of the committeeappointed by the Society of Arts to inquire into the subject. Thereare on this special committee leather manufacturers, bookbinders, librarians, and owners of libraries. The report issued is the resultof an immense amount of work done. Many libraries were visited, andhundreds of experiments and tests were carried out by thesub-committees. There is much useful information in the report thatall bookbinders and librarians should read. The work of the committeeis not yet finished, but its findings may be accepted as conclusive asfar as they go. The committee first set themselves to ascertain if the complaints ofthe premature decay of modern bookbinding leather are justified byfacts, and on this point report that:-- "As regards the common belief that modern binding leather does decayprematurely, the sub-committee satisfied themselves that books boundduring the last eighty or hundred years showed far greater evidence ofdeterioration than those of an earlier date. Many recent bindingsshowed evidence of decay after so short a period as ten, or even fiveyears. The sub-committee came to the conclusion that there is amplejustification for the general complaint that modern leather is not sodurable as that formerly used. To fix the date of the commencement ofthis deterioration was a difficult matter; but they came to theconclusion that while leather of all periods showed some signs ofdecay, the deterioration becomes more general on books bound after1830, while some leathers seem to be generally good until about 1860, after which date nearly all leathers seem to get worse. Thedeterioration of calf bindings at the latter end of the 19th centurymay be attributed as much to the excessive thinness as to the poorquality of the material. " The committee endeavoured to ascertain the relative durability of theleathers used for bookbinding, and after visiting many libraries, andcomparing bindings, they report as follows:-- "As to the suitability of various leathers, the sub-committee came tothe conclusion that of the old leathers (15th and 16th century), whitepigskin, probably alum 'tanned, ' is the most durable, but itsexcessive hardness and want of flexibility renders this leatherunsuitable for most modern work. Old brown calf has lasted fairlywell, but loses its flexibility, and becomes stiff and brittle whenexposed to light and air. Some of the white tawed skins of the 15thand 16th century, other than white pigskin, and probably deerskin, have lasted very well. Some 15th and 16th century sheepskin bindingshave remained soft and flexible, but the surface is soft, and usuallymuch damaged by friction. Vellum seems to have lasted fairly well, butis easily influenced by atmospheric changes, and is much affected bylight. Early specimens of red morocco from the 16th to the end of the18th century were found in good condition, and of all the leathersnoticed, this seems to be the least affected by the various conditionsto which it had been subjected. In the opinion of the committee, mostof this leather has been tanned with sumach or some closely alliedtanning material. Morocco bindings earlier than 1860 were generallyfound to be in fairly good condition, but morocco after that dateseems to be much less reliable, and in many cases has become utterlyrotten. During the latter part of the 18th century it became customaryto pare down calf until it was as thin as paper. Since about 1830hardly any really sound calf seems to have been used, as, whetherthick or thin, it appears generally to have perished. Sheepskinbindings of the early part of the century are many of them still ingood condition. Since about 1860 sheepskin as sheepskin is hardly tobe found. Sheepskins are grained in imitation of other leathers, andthese imitation-grained leathers are generally found to be in a worsecondition than any of the other bindings, except, perhaps, some of thevery thin calfskin. Undyed modern pigskin seems to last well, but somecoloured pigskin bindings had entirely perished. Modern leathers dyedwith the aid of sulphuric acid are all to be condemned. In nearlyevery case Russia leather was found to have become rotten, at least inbindings of the last fifty years. " On the question of the causes of the decay noticed and the bestmethods of preparing leather in the future, I may quote thefollowing:-- "The work of a sub-committee, which was composed of chemists speciallyconversant with the treatment of leather, was directed specially tothe elucidation of the following points: an investigation of thenature of the decay of leather used for bookbinding; an examination ofthe causes which produced this decay; a research into the bestmethods of preparing leather for bookbinding; and a consideration ofthe points required to be dealt with in the preservation of books. "Taking these points in order, the first one dealt with is thequestion of the nature of the decay of leather. To arrive at theirconclusions on this subject, the sub-committee made a number of testsand analyses of samples of decayed leather bookbindings, as well as ofleathers used for binding. The committee found that the most prevalentdecay was what they term a red decay, and this they think may bedifferentiated into old and new, the old red decay being noticeable upto about 1830, and the new decay since that date. In the old decay, the leather becomes hard and brittle, the surface not being easilyabraded by friction. The older form is specially noticeable incalf-bound books, tanned presumably with oak bark. The new formaffects nearly all leathers, and in extreme cases seems absolutely todestroy the fibres. Another form of deterioration, more noticeable inthe newer books, renders the grain of the leather liable to peel offwhen exposed to the slightest friction. This is the most common formof decay noted in the more recent leathers. In nearly all samples ofRussia leather a very violent form of red decay was noticed. In manycases the leather was found to be absolutely rotten in all partsexposed to light and air, so that on the very slightest rubbing with ablunt instrument the leather fell into fine dust. .. . "The second point is the cause of the decay. An extensive series ofexperiments was carried out with a view of determining the causes ofthe decay of bindings. The sub-committee find that this is caused byboth mechanical and by chemical influences. Of the latter, some aredue to mistakes of the leather manufacturer and the bookbinder, othersto the want of ventilation, and to improper heating and lighting oflibraries. In some cases inferior leathers are finished (by methods inthemselves injurious) so as to imitate the better class leathers, andof course where these are used durability cannot be expected. But inthe main the injury for which the manufacturer and bookbinder areresponsible must be attributed rather to ignorance of the effect ofthe means employed to give the leather the outward qualities requiredfor binding, than to the intentional production of an inferiorarticle. .. . Leathers produced by different tanning materials, althoughthey may be equally sound and durable mechanically, vary very much intheir resistance to other influences, such as light, heat, and gasfumes. "For bookbinding purposes, the sub-committee generally condemn the useof tanning materials belonging to the catechol group, although theleathers produced by the use of these materials are for many purposesexcellent, and indeed superior. The class of tanning materials whichproduce the most suitable leather for this particular purpose belongto the pyrogallol group, of which a well known and important exampleis sumach. East Indian or 'Persian' tanned sheep and goat skins, whichare suitable for many purposes, and are now used largely for cheapbookbinding purposes, are considered extremely bad. Books bound inthese materials have been found to show signs of decay in less thantwelve months, and the sub-committee are inclined to believe that nobook bound in these leathers, exposed on a shelf to sunlight or gasfumes, can ever be expected to last more than five or six years. Embossing leather under heavy pressure to imitate a grain has a veryinjurious effect, while the shaving of thick skins greatly reduces thestrength of the leather by cutting away the tough fibres of the innerpart of the skin. The use of mineral acids in brightening the colourof leather, and in the process of dyeing, has a serious effect inlessening its resistance to decay. A good deal yet remains to belearned about the relative permanency of the different dyes. " On analysis free sulphuric acid was found to be present in nearly allbookbinding leather, and it is the opinion of the committee that evena small quantity of this acid materially lessens the durability of theleather. "It has been shown by careful experiment, that even a minute quantityof sulphuric acid used in the dye bath to liberate the colour is atonce absorbed by the leather, and that no amount of subsequent washingwill remove it. In a very large proportion of cases the decay ofmodern sumach-tanned leather has been due to the sulphuric acid usedin the dye bath, and retained in the skin. We have examined very manysamples of leather manufactured and sold specially for bookbindingpurposes, from different factories, bought from different dealers, orkindly supplied by bookbinders and by librarians, and have found themto contain, in a large number of cases, free sulphuric acid, from 0. 5up to 1. 6 per cent. " The publication of the report should tend to fix a standard forbookbinding leather. Hitherto there has been no recognised standard. Bookbinders have selected leather almost entirely by its appearance. It has now been shown that appearance is no test of durability, andthe mechanical test of tearing the leather is insufficient. Soundleather should tear with difficulty, and the torn edges should befringed with long, silky fibres, and any leather which tears veryeasily, and shows short, curled-up fibres at the torn edges, should bediscarded. But though good bookbinding leather will tear withdifficulty, and show long fibres where torn, that is in itself not asufficient test; because it has been shown that the leather that ismechanically the strongest, is not necessarily the most durable andthe best able to resist the adverse influences to which books aresubject in libraries. The report shows that bookbinders and librarians are not, as a generalrule, qualified to select leather for bookbinding. In the old days, when the manufacture of leather was comparatively simple, a bookbindermight reasonably be expected to know enough of the processes employedto be able to select his leather. But now so complicated is themanufacture, and so many are the factors to be considered, that anexpert should be employed. "The committee have satisfied themselves that it is possible to testany leather in such a way as to guarantee its suitability forbookbinding. They have not come to any decision as to the desirabilityof establishing any formal or official standard, though they considerthat this is a point which well deserves future consideration. " It is to be hoped that some system of examining and hall-markingleather by some recognised body, may be instituted. If librarians willspecify that the leather to be employed must be certified to bemanufactured according to the recommendations of the Society of ArtsCommittee, there is no reason why leathers should not be obtained asdurable as any ever produced. This would necessitate the examining andtesting of batches of leather by experts. At present this can be donemore or less privately at various places, such as the YorkshireCollege, Leeds, or the Herolds' Institute, Bermondsey. In the nearfuture it is to be hoped that some recognised public body, such as oneof the great City Companies interested in leather, may be induced toestablish a standard, and to test such leathers as are submitted tothem, hall-marking those that come up to the standard. This wouldenable bookbinders and librarians, in ordering leather, to be surethat it had not been injured in its manufacture. The testing, if doneby batches, should not add greatly to the cost of the leather. On the question of the qualities of an ideal bookbinding leather thecommittee report:-- "It is the opinion of the committee, that the ideal bookbindingleather must have, and retain, great flexibility. .. . (It) must have afirm grain surface, not easily damaged by friction, and should not beartificially grained. .. . The committee is of opinion that a puresumach tannage will answer all these conditions, and that leather can, and will, be now produced that will prove to be as durable as any madein the past. " The committee has so far only dealt with vegetable-tanned leather. Ihave used, with some success, chrome-tanned calfskin. Chrome leatheris difficult to pare, and to work, as it does not become soft whenwet, like vegetable-tanned leather. It will stand any reasonabledegree of heat, and so might perhaps be useful for top-shelf bindingsand for shelf edging. It is extremely strong mechanically, but withoutfurther tests I cannot positively recommend it except for trial. While the strength and probable durability of leather can only bejudged by a trained leather chemist, there remains for the bindersselection, the kind of leather to use, and its colour. Most of the leather prepared for bookbinding is too highly finished. The finishing processes add a good deal to the cost of the leather, and are apt to be injurious to it, and as much of the high finish islost in covering, it would be better for the bookbinder to get rougherleather and finish it himself when it is on the book. The leathers in common use for bookbinding are:-- Goatskin, known as morocco. Calf, known as calf and russia. Sheepskin, known as roan, basil, skiver, &c. Pigskin, known as pigskin. Sealskin, known as seal. _Morocco_ is probably the best leather for extra binding if properlyprepared, but experiment has shown that the expensive Levant moroccosare nearly always ruined in their manufacture. A great many samples ofthe most expensive Levant morocco were tested, with the result thatthey were all found to contain free sulphuric acid. _Calf. _--Modern vegetable-tanned calf has become a highlyunsatisfactory material, and until some radical changes are made inthe methods of manufacturing it, it should not be used forbookbinding. _Sheepskin. _--A properly tanned sheepskin makes a very durable, thoughrather soft and woolly, leather. Much of the bookbinding leather nowmade from sheepskin is quite worthless. Bookbinders should refuse tohave anything to do with any leather that has been artificiallygrained, as the process is apt to be highly injurious to the skin. _Pigskin. _--Pigskin is a thoroughly good leather naturally, and verystrong, especially the alumed skins; but many of the dyed pigskins arefound to be improperly tanned and dyed, and worthless for bookbinding. _Sealskin_ is highly recommended by one eminent librarian, but I havenot yet had any experience of its use for bookbinding. The leather that I have found most useful is the Niger goatskin, brought from Africa by the Royal Niger Company; it is a very beautifulcolour and texture, and has stood all the tests tried, without seriousdeterioration. The difficulty with this leather is that, being anative production, it is somewhat carelessly prepared, and is muchspoiled by flaws and stains on the surface, and many skins are quiteworthless. It is to be hoped that before long some of themanufacturers interested will produce skins as good in quality andcolour as the best Niger morocco, and with fewer flaws. Much leather is ruined in order to obtain an absolutely even colour. Aslight unevenness of colours is very pleasing, and should rather beencouraged than objected to. That the want of interest in absolutelyflat colours has been felt, is shown by the frequency with which thebinders get rid of flat, even colours by sprinkling and marbling. On this point I may quote from the committee: "The sprinkling ofleather, either for the production of 'sprinkled' calf or 'tree' calf, with ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) must be most strongly condemned, as the iron combines with and destroys the tan in the leather, andfree sulphuric acid is liberated, which is still more destructive. Iron acetate or lactate is somewhat less objectionable, but probablythe same effects may be obtained with aniline colours without risk tothe leather. " CHAPTER XX Paper--Pastes--Glue PAPER Paper may be made by hand or machinery, and either "laid" or "wove. ""Laid" papers are distinguished by wire marks, which are absent in"wove" paper. A sheet of hand-made paper has all round it a rough uneven edge calledthe "deckle, " that is a necessary result of its method of manufacture. The early printers looked upon this ragged edge as a defect, andalmost invariably trimmed most of it off before putting books intopermanent bindings. Book-lovers quite rightly like to find traces ofthe "deckle" edge, as evidence that a volume has not been undulyreduced by the binder. But it has now become the fashion to admire the"deckle" for its own sake, and to leave books on hand-made paperabsolutely untrimmed, with ragged edges that collect the dirt, areunsightly, and troublesome to turn over. So far has this craze gone, that machine-made paper is often put through an extra process to giveit a sham deckle edge. Roughly speaking, paper varies in quality according to the proportionof fibrous material, such as rag, used in the manufacture. To makepaper satisfactorily by hand, a large proportion of such fibrousmaterial is necessary, so that the fact that the paper is hand-made isto some extent a guarantee of its quality. There are various qualitiesof hand-made paper, made from different materials, chiefly linen andcotton rags. The best paper is made from pure linen rag, and poorerhand-made paper from cotton rag, while other qualities contain amixture of the two or other substances. It is possible to make a thoroughly good paper by machinery if goodmaterials are used. Some excellent papers are made by machinery; butthe enormous demand for paper, together with the fact that now almostany fibrous material can be made into paper, has resulted in theproduction, in recent years, of, perhaps, the worst papers that haveever been seen. This would not matter if the use of the poor papers were restricted tonewspapers and other ephemeral literature, but when, as is often thecase, paper of very poor quality is used for books of permanentliterary interest, the matter is serious enough. Among the worst papers made are the heavily loaded "Art" papers thatare prepared for the printing of half-toned process blocks. It is tobe hoped that before long the paper makers will produce a paper that, while suitable for printing half-toned blocks, will be moreserviceable, and will have a less unpleasant surface. Several makers produce coloured handmade papers suitable for endpapers. Machine-made papers can be had in endless variety from anynumber of makers. The paper known as "Japanese Vellum" is a very tough material, andwill be found useful for repairing vellum books; the thinnest varietyof it is very suitable for mending the backs of broken sections, orfor strengthening weak places in paper. The following delightful account of paper making by hand is quotedfrom "Evelyn's Diary, 1641-1706. " "I went to see my Lord of St. Alban's house at Byflete, an old largebuilding. Thence to the paper mills, where I found them making acoarse white paper. They cull the raggs, which are linnen, for whitepaper, woollen for brown, then they stamp them in troughs to a pappwith pestles or hammers like the powder-mills, then put it into avessell of water, in which they dip a frame closely wyred with a wyreas small as a haire, and as close as a weaver's reede; on this theytake up the papp, the superfluous water draining thro' the wyre; thisthey dextrously turning, shake out like a pancake on a smooth boardbetween two pieces of flannell, then press it between a greate presse, the flannell sucking out the moisture; then taking it out they ply anddry it on strings, as they dry linnen in the laundry; then dip it inalum-water, lastly polish and make it up in quires. They put some gumin the water in which they macerate the raggs. The mark we find on thesheets is formed in the wyre. " The following are the more usual sizes of printing papers-- Inches. Foolscap 17 × 13½ Crown 20 × 15 Post 19¼ × 15½ Demy 22½ × 17½ Medium 24 × 19 Royal 25 × 20 Double Pott 25 × 15 " Foolscap 27 × 17 Super Royal 27 × 21 Double Crown 30 × 20 Imperial 30 × 22 Double Post 31½ × 19½ The corresponding sizes of hand-made papers may differ slightly fromthe above. Although the above are the principal sizes named, almost any size canbe made to order. The following is an extract from the report of the Committee of theSociety of Arts on the deterioration of paper, published in 1898: "Thecommittee find that the paper-making fibres may be ranged into fourclasses:-- A. Cotton, flax, and hemp. B. Wood, celluloses (_a_) sulphite process, and (_b_) soda and sulphate process. C. Esparto and straw celluloses. D. Mechanical wood pulp. In regard, therefore, to papers for books and documents of permanentvalue, the selection must be taken in this order, and always with dueregard to the fulfilment of the conditions of normal treatment abovedealt with as common to all papers. " "The committee have been desirous of bringing their investigations toa practical conclusion in specific terms, viz. By the suggestion ofstandards of quality. It is evident that in the majority of cases, there is little fault to find with the practical adjustments whichrule the trade. They are, therefore, satisfied to limit their specificfindings to the following, viz. , _Normal standard of quality for bookpapers required for publications of permanent value. _ For such papersthey would specify as follows:-- "_Fibres. _ Not less than 70 per cent. Of fibres of Class A. "_Sizing. _ Not more than 2 per cent. Rosin, and finished with thenormal acidity of pure alum. "_Loading. _ Not more than 10 per cent. Total mineral matter (ash). "With regard to written documents, it must be evident that the propermaterials are those of Class A, and that the paper should be pure, and sized with gelatine, and not with rosin. All imitations ofhigh-class writing papers, which are, in fact, merely disguisedprinting papers, should be carefully avoided. " PASTES To make paste for covering books, &c. , take 2 oz. Of flour, and ¼oz. Of powdered alum, and well mix with enough water to form a thinpaste, taking care to break up any lumps. Add a pint of cold water, and heat gently in an enamelled saucepan. As it becomes warm, itshould be stirred from time to time, and when it begins to boil itshould be continually stirred for about five minutes. It should thenform a thick paste that can be thinned with warm water. Of course anyquantity can be made if the proportions are the same. Paste for use is best kept in a wooden trough, called a "paste tub. "The paste tub will need to be cleaned out from time to time, and allfragments of dry paste removed. This can easily be done if it is left, overnight, filled with water. Before using, the paste should be wellbeaten up with a flat stick. For pasting paper, it should have about the consistency and smoothnessof cream; for leather, it can be thicker. For very thick leather alittle thin glue may be added. Paste made with alum will keep about afortnight, but can be kept longer by the addition of corrosivesublimate in the proportion of one part of corrosive sublimate to athousand parts of paste. Corrosive sublimate, being a deadly poison, will prevent the attack of bookworms or other insects, but for thesame reason must only be used by responsible people, and paste inwhich it is used must be kept out of the way of domestic animals. Several makes of excellent prepared paste can be bought in London. These pastes are as cheap as can be made, and keep good a long time. Paste that has become sour should never be used, as there is dangerthat the products of its acid fermentation may injure the leather. Paste tubs as sold often have an iron bar across them to wipe thebrush on. This should be removed, and replaced by a piece of twistedcord. Paste brushes should be bound with string or zinc; copper oriron will stain the paste. WHITE PASTE FOR MENDING A good paste for mending is made from a teaspoonful of ordinary flour, two teaspoonsful of cornflour, half a teaspoonful of alum, and threeounces of water. These should be carefully mixed, breaking up alllumps, and then should be heated in a clean saucepan, and stirred allthe time with a wooden or bone spoon. The paste should boil for aboutfive minutes, but not too fast, or it will burn and turn brown. Rice-flour or starch may be substituted for cornflour, and for verywhite paper the wheaten flour may be omitted. Ordinary paste is notnearly white enough for mending, and is apt to leave unsightly stains. Cornflour paste may be used directly after it is made, and will keepgood under ordinary circumstances for about a week. Directly it getshard or goes watery, a new batch must be made. GLUE It is important for bookbinders that the glue used should be of goodquality, and the best hide glue will be found to answer well. Toprepare it for use, the glue should be broken up into small pieces andleft to soak overnight in water. In the morning it should be soft andgreatly swollen, but not melted, and can then be put in the glue-potand gently simmered until it is fluid. It is then ready for use. Glueloses in quality by being frequently heated, so that it is well not tomake a great quantity at a time. The glue-pot should be thoroughlycleaned out before new glue is put into it, and the old glue stickinground the sides taken out. Glue should be used hot and not too thick. If it is stringy anddifficult to work, it can be broken up by rapidly twisting the brushin the glue-pot. For paper the glue should be very thin and wellworked up with the brush before using. The following is quoted from "Chambers' Encyclopædia" article onGlue:-- "While England does not excel in the manufacture, it is a recognisedfact that Scottish glue . .. Ranks in the front of the glues of allcountries. A light-coloured glue is not necessarily good, nor adark-coloured glue necessarily bad. A bright, clear, claret colour isthe natural colour of hide glue, which is the best and mosteconomical. "Light-coloured glues (as distinguished from gelatine) are made eitherfrom bones or sheepskins. The glue yielded by these materials cannotcompare with the strength of that yielded by hides. "A great quantity is now made in France and Germany from bones. It isgot as a by-product in the manufacture of animal charcoal. Althoughbeautiful to look at, it is found when used to be far inferior toScottish hide glue. " PART II CARE OF BOOKS WHEN BOUND CHAPTER XXI Injurious Influences to which Books are Subjected _Gas Fumes. _--The investigation of the Society of Arts Committee showsthat-- "Of all the influences to which books are exposed in libraries, gasfumes--no doubt because of the sulphuric and sulphurous acid whichthey contain--are shown to be the most injurious. " The injurious effects of gas fumes on leather have been recognised fora long time, and gas is being, very generally, given up in librariesin consequence. If books must be kept where gas is used, they shouldnot be put high up in the room, and great attention should be paid toventilation. It is far better, where possible, to avoid the use of gasat all in libraries. _Light. _--The committee also report that "light, and especially directsunlight and hot air, are shown to possess deleterious influenceswhich had scarcely been suspected previously, and the importance ofmoderate temperature and thorough ventilation of libraries cannot betoo much insisted on. " The action of light on leather has a disintegrating effect, veryplainly seen when books have stood for long periods on shelves placedat right angles to windows. At Oxford and Cambridge and at the BritishMuseum Library the same thing was noticed. The leather on that side, of the backs of books, next to the light, was absolutely rotten, crumbling to dust at the slightest friction, while at the side awayfrom the light it was comparatively sound. Vellum bindings were evenmore affected than those of leather. The committee advise that library windows exposed to the directsunlight should be glazed with tinted glass. "Some attempts have been made to determine the effect of lighttransmitted through glasses of different colours, and they point tothe fact that blue and violet glass pass light of nearly asdeleterious quality as white glass; while leathers under red, green, and yellow glasses were almost completely protected. There can be nodoubt that the use of pale yellow or olive-green glass in librarywindows exposed to direct sunlight is desirable. A large number ofexperiments have been made on the tinted 'cathedral' glasses ofMessrs. Pilkington Bros. , Limited, with the result that Nos. 812 and712 afforded almost complete protection during two months' exposure tosunlight, while Nos. 704 and 804 may be recommended where only verypale shades are permissible. The glasses employed were subjected tocareful spectroscopic examination, and to colour-measurement by thetintometer, but neither were found to give precise indications as tothe protective power of the glasses, which is no doubt due to theabsorption of the violet, and especially of the invisible ultra-violetrays. An easy method of comparing glasses is to expose under them tosunlight the ordinary sensitised albumenised photographic paper. Those glasses under which this is least darkened are also mostprotective to leather. " _Tobacco. _--Smoking was found to be injurious, and it is certainly amistake to allow it in libraries. "The effect of ammonia vapour, and tobacco fumes, of which ammonia isone of the active ingredients, was also examined. The effect ofammonia fumes was very marked, darkening every description of leather, and it is known that in extreme cases it causes a rapid form of decay. Tobacco smoke had a very similar darkening and deleterious effect(least marked in the case of sumach tanned leathers), and there can beno doubt that the deterioration of bindings in a library where smokingwas permitted and the rooms much used, must have been partly due tothis cause. " _Damp. _--Books kept in damp places will develop mildew, and bothleather and paper will be ruined. Where possible, naturally dry rooms should be used for libraries, andif not naturally dry, every means possible should be taken to renderthem so. It will sometimes be found that the only way to keep thewalls of an old house dry is to put in a proper dampcourse. There arevarious other methods employed, such as lining the walls with thinlead, or painting them inside and out with some waterproofingpreparation: but as long as a wall remains in itself damp, it isdoubtful if any of these things will permanently keep the damp frompenetrating. Bookshelves should never be put against the wall, nor the books on thefloor. There should always be space for air to circulate on all sidesof the bookshelves. Damp is specially injurious if books are keptbehind closely-fitting doors. The doors of bookcases should be leftopen from time to time on warm days. Should mildew make its appearance, the books should be taken out, dried and aired, and the bookshelves thoroughly cleaned. The cause ofthe damp should be sought for, and measures taken to remedy it. Library windows should not be left open at night, nor during dampweather, but in warm fine weather the more ventilation there is, thebetter. _Heat. _--While damp is very injurious to books on account of thedevelopment of mildew, unduly hot dry air is almost as bad, causingleather to dry up and lose its flexibility. On this point the Chairmanof the Society of Arts Committee says:-- "Rooms in which books are kept should not be subject to extremes, whether of heat or cold, of moisture or dryness. It may be said thatthe better adapted a room is for human occupation, the better for thebooks it contains. Damp is, of course, most mischievous, butover-dryness induced by heated air, especially when the pipes are inclose proximity to the bookcases, is also very injurious. " _Dust. _--Books should be taken from the shelves at least once a year, dusted and aired, and the bindings rubbed with a preservative. To dust a book, it should be removed from the shelf, and without beingopened, turned upside down and flicked with a feather duster. If abook with the dust on the top is held loosely in the hand, and dustedright way up, dust may fall between the leaves. Dusting should be donein warm, dry weather; and afterwards, the books may be stood on thetable slightly open, to air, with their leaves loose. Before beingreturned to the shelves, the bindings should be lightly rubbed withsome preservative preparation (see chap. XXII). Any bindings that arebroken, or any leaves that are loose should be noted, and the booksput on one side to be sent to the binder. It would be best when thelibrary is large enough to warrant it, to employ a working bookbinderto do this work; such a man would be useful in many ways. He couldstick on labels, repair bindings, and do many other odd jobs to keepthe books in good repair. A bookbinder could be kept fully employed, binding and repairing thebooks of a comparatively small library under the direction of thelibrarian. BOOKWORMS The insects known as bookworms are the larvæ of several sorts ofbeetles, most commonly perhaps of _Antobium domesticum_ and _Niptushololencus_. They are not in any way peculiar to books and will infestthe wood of bookshelves, walls, or floors. A good deal can be done tokeep "worms" away by using such substances as camphor or naphthalinein the bookcase. Bookworms do not attack modern books very much;probably they dislike the alum put in the paste and the mill-boardsmade of old tarred rope. In old books, especially such as come from Italy, it is often foundthat the ravages of the bookworms are almost entirely confined to theglue on the backs of the books, and it generally seems that the glueand paste attract them. Probably if corrosive sublimate were put inthe glue and paste used it would stop their attacks. Alum is said tobe a preventive, but I have known bookworms to eat their way throughleather pasted on with paste containing alum, when, in recovering, theold wooden boards containing bookworms have been utilised in error. When on shaking the boards of an old book dust flies out, or whenlittle heaps of dust are found on the shelf on which an old book hasbeen standing, it may be considered likely that there are bookwormspresent. It is easy to kill any that may be hatched, by putting thebook in an air-tight box surrounded with cotton wool soaked in ether;but that will not kill the eggs, and the treatment must be repeatedfrom time to time at intervals of a few weeks. Any book that is found to contain bookworms should be isolated and atonce treated. Tins may be put inside the boards to prevent the "worms"eating into the leaves. Speaking of bookworms, Jules Cousin says:-- "One of the simplest means to be employed (to get rid of bookworms) isto place behind the books, especially in the place where the insectsshow their presence most, pieces of linen soaked with essence ofturpentine, camphor, or an infusion of tobacco, and to renew them whenthe smell goes off. A little fine pepper might also be scattered onthe shelf, the penetrating smell of which would produce the sameeffect. " Possibly Keating's Insect Powder would answer as well or better thanpepper. RATS AND MICE Rats and mice will gnaw the backs of books to get at the glue, so, means should be taken to get rid of these vermin if they shouldappear. Mice especially will nibble vellum binding or the edges ofvellum books that have become greasy with much handling. COCKROACHES Cockroaches are very troublesome in libraries, eating the bindings. Keating's Insect Powder will keep them away from books, but only solong as it is renewed at short intervals. PLACING THE BOOKS IN THE SHELVES The Chairman of the Society of Arts Special Committee says on thispoint:-- "It is important that a just medium should be observed between theclose and loose disposition of books in the shelves. Tight packingcauses the pulling off of the tops of book-backs, injurious frictionbetween their sides, and undue pressure, which tends to force offtheir backs. But books should not stand loosely on the shelves. Theyrequire support and moderate lateral pressure, otherwise the leavesare apt to open and admit dust, damp, and mildew. The weight of theleaves also in good-sized volumes loosely placed will often be foundto be resting on the shelf, making the backs concave, and spoiling theshape and cohesion of the books. "In libraries where classification is attempted there must be acertain number of partially filled shelves. The books in these shouldbe kept in place by some such device as that in use in the BritishMuseum, namely, a simple flat angle piece of galvanised iron, on thelower flange of which the end books rest, keeping it down, the uprightflange keeping the books close and preventing them from spreading. " He also speaks of the danger to bindings of rough or badly-paintedbookshelves:-- "Great care should be exercised when bookcases are painted orvarnished that the surface should be left hard, smooth, and dry. Bindings, especially those of delicate texture, may be irreparablyrubbed if brought in contact with rough or coarsely-painted surfaces, while the paint itself, years after its original application, isliable to come off upon the books, leaving indelible marks. In suchcases pasteboard guards against the ends of the shelves are the onlyremedy. " CHAPTER XXII To Preserve Old Bindings--Re-backing TO PRESERVE OLD BINDINGS It is a well-known fact that the leather of bindings that are muchhandled lasts very much better than that on books which remainuntouched on the shelves. There is little doubt that the reason forthis is that the slight amount of grease the leather receives from thehands nourishes it and keeps it flexible. A coating of glair orvarnish is found to some extent to protect leather from adverseoutside influences, but, unfortunately, both glair and varnish tendrather to harden leather than to keep it flexible, and they fail justwhere failure is most serious, that is at the joints. In opening andshutting, any coat of glair or varnish that has become hard willcrack, and expose the leather of the joint and back. Flexibility is anessential quality in bookbinding leather, for as soon as the leatherat the joint of a binding becomes stiff it breaks away when the boardsare opened. It would add immensely to the life of old leather bindings iflibrarians would have them treated, say once a year, with somepreservative. The consequent expense would be saved many times over bythe reduction of the cost of rebinding. Such a preservative must notstain, must not evaporate, must not become hard, and must not besticky. Vaseline has been recommended, and answers fairly well, butwill evaporate, although slowly. I have found that a solution ofparaffin wax in castor oil answers well. It is cheap and very simpleto prepare. To prepare it, some castor oil is put into an earthenwarejar, and about half its weight of paraffin wax shredded into it. Onwarming, the wax will melt, and the preparation is ready for use. A little of the preparation is well worked into a piece of flannel, and the books rubbed with it, special attention being paid to the backand joints. They may be further rubbed with the hand, and finally goneover with a clean, soft cloth. Very little of the preparation need beused on each book. If bindings have projecting metal corners or clasps that are likely toscratch the neighbouring books, pieces of mill-board, which may belined with leather or good paper, should be placed next them, or theymay have a cover made of a piece of mill-board bent round as shown atfig. 120, and strengthened at the folds with linen. This may beslipped into the shelf with the book with the open end outwards, andwill then hardly be seen. [Illustration: FIG. 120. ] Bindings which have previously had metal clasps, &c. , often haveprojecting fragments of the old nails. These should be sought for andcarefully removed or driven in, as they may seriously damage anybindings with which they come in contact. To protect valuable old bindings, cases may be made and lettered onthe back with the title of the book. Loose covers that necessitate the bending back of the boards for theirremoval are not recommended. RE-BACKING Bindings that have broken joints may be re-backed. Any of the leatherof the back that remains should be carefully removed and preserved. Itis impossible to get some leathers off tight backs without destroyingthem, but with care and by the use of a thin folder, many backs can besaved. The leather on the boards is cut a little back from the jointwith a slanting cut, that will leave a thin edge, and is then liftedup with a folder. New leather, of the same colour is pasted on theback, and tucked in under the old leather on the board. The leatherfrom the old back should have its edges pared and any lumps of glue orpaper removed and be pasted on to the new leather and bound tightlywith tape to make sure that it sticks. When the leather at the corners of the board needs repairing, thecorner is glued and tapped with a hammer to make it hard and square, and when it is dry a little piece of new leather is slipped under theold and the corner covered. When the sewing cords or thread of a book have perished it should berebound, but if there are any remains of the original binding theyshould be preserved and utilised. If the old boards have quiteperished, new boards of the same nature and thickness should be gotout and the old cover pasted over them. Such places as the old leatherwill not cover, must first be covered with new of the same colour. Generally speaking, it is desirable that the characteristics of an oldbook should be preserved, and that the new work should be as little inevidence as possible. It is far more pleasant to see an old book in apatched contemporary binding, than smug and tidy in the mostimmaculate modern cover. Part of the interest of any old book is its individual history, whichcan be gathered from the binding, book-plates, marginal notes, namesof former owners, &c. , and anything that tends to obliterate thesesigns is to be deplored. SPECIFICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING These specifications will require modification in special cases, andare only intended to be a general guide. ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- | SHEETS. | END PAPERS. | PRESSING. | EDGES. | SEWING. | BACK. ------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |To be |To be sewn |Books on |To be |To be with|To be I. |carefully|on. To be of |handmade |trimmed |ligature |keptFor Extra |folded, |good paper |paper not |and gilt|silk, |asBinding |or, if |made with |to be |before |flexible, |flatsuitable |an old |zigzag, with |pressed |sewing. |round five|as itfor Valuable|book, all|board papers |unduly. |To be |bands of |can beBooks. Whole|damaged |of self- | |uncut. |best |withoutLeather. |leaves to|coloured | | |sewing |forcing |be |paper of good| | |cord. |it and |carefully|quality, or | | | |without |mended, |vellum. Or to| | | |danger |the backs|be made with | | | |of its |where |leather | | | |becom- |damaged |joint. | | | |ing |to be | | | | |concave |made | | | | |in use. |sound. | | | | | |Single | | | | | |leaves | | | | | |to be | | | | | |guarded | | | | | |round | | | | | |the | | | | | |sections | | | | | |next | | | | | |them. All| | | | | |plates to| | | | | |be | | | | | |guarded. | | | | | |Guards to| | | | | |be sewn | | | | | |through. | | | | | |No past- | | | | | |ing on | | | | | |or over- | | | | | |casting | | | | | |to be | | | | | |allowed. | | | | |------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |As No. |To be of good|Same as |To be |To be with|Same as II. |I. , |paper made |No. I. |cut and |unbleached|for No. For Good |excepting|with zigzag, | |gilt in |thread, |I. Binding for |that any |with board | |boards |flexible, |Books of |mending |papers of | |or |round five|Reference, |may be |self-coloured| |coloured|bands of |Catalogues, |done |paper of good| |or to be|best |&c. , and |rather |quality. | |uncut. |sewing |other heavy |with a |Large or | | |cord. |Books that |view to |heavy books | | | |may have a |strength |to have a | | | |great deal |than |cloth joint. | | | |of use. |extreme |To be sewn | | | |Whole or |neatness. |on. | | | |Half | | | | | |Leather. | | | | | |------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |Same as |To be of good|Same as |To be |To be with|Same as III. |No. II. |paper, sewn |No. I. |uncut, |unbleached|forFor Binding | |on, made with| |or to be|thread |Nos. I. For | |zigzag. | |cut in |across not|and II. Libraries, | | | |guillo- |less than |IV. For | | | |tine and|four |Books in | | | |gilt or |unbleached|current | | | |coloured|linen |use. Half | | | |or to |tapes. |Leather. | | | |have top| | | | | |edge | | | | | |only | | | | | |gilt. | |------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- |Any |Same as No. | |May be |With |Back to IV. |leaves |III. | |cut |unbleached|be leftFor Library |damaged | | |smooth |thread |squareBindings of |at the | | |in |over three|afterBooks of |back or | | |guillo- |unbleached|glueinglittle |plates | | |tine. |linen |up. Interest or |to be | | | |tapes. |Value, |overcast | | | | |Cloth or |into | | | | |Half Linen. |sections. | | | | |------------+---------+-------------+----------+--------+----------+------- SPECIFICATIONS FOR BOOKBINDING--(_continued_). ------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |BOARDS. |HEADBANDS. | COVERS. |LETTERING. |DECORATION. |------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |To be of|To be |Goatskin |To be |To be as |All work I. |the best|worked |(morocco), |legible |much or as |to beFor Extra |black |with silk |pigskin |and to |little as |done inBinding |mill- |on strips |or seal- |identify |the nature |the bestsuitable |board. |of vellum |skin manu-|the |of the book|manner. For Valuable|Two |or catgut |factured |volume. |warrants. |Books. Whole|boards |or cord, |according | | |Leather. |to be |with |to the | | | |made |frequent |recommend-| | | |together|tie-downs. |ations of | | | |for |The head- |the | | | |large |bands to |Society | | | |books, |be "set" |of Arts' | | | |and all |by pieces |Committee | | | |five |of good |on Leather| | | |bands |paper or |for | | | |laced in|leather |Book- | | | |through |glued at |binding. | | | |two |head and |Whole | | | |holes. |tail. The |binding; | | | | |back to be|leather | | | | |lined up |to be | | | | |with |attached | | | | |leather |directly | | | | |all over |to the | | | | |if the |back. | | | | |book is | | | | | |large. | | | |------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |Same as |Same as |Same as |Same as |To be |Work may II. |No. I. , |No. I. |No. I. , |No. I. |omitted, or|be aFor Good |or may | |excepting | |only to |littleBinding for |be of | |that | |consist of |rougher, Books of |good | |properly | |a few lines|but notReference, |grey | |prepared | |or dots or |carelessCatalogues, |board. | |sheepskin | |other |or&c. , and | | |may be | |quite |dirty. Other heavy | | |added. | |simple |Books that | | |Half- | |ornament. |may have | | |binding, | | |a great deal| | |leather | | |of use. | | |only at | | |Whole or | | |back. | | |Half | | |Corners | | |Leather. | | |to be | | | | | |strength- | | | | | |ened with | | | | | |tips of | | | | | |vellum. | | | | | |Sides | | | | | |covered | | | | | |with good | | | | | |paper | | | | | |or linen. | | |------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |To be |To be |Same as |Same as |To be |Same as III. |split |worked |Nos. I. |Nos. I. |omitted. |No. II. For Binding |grey |with |and II. , |and II. | |for |boards, |thread |but skins | | |Libraries, |or |or vellum |may be | | |for Books |straw- |or cord, |used where| | |in current |board |or to be |there are | | |use. Half |with |omitted |surface | | |Leather. |black |and a |flaws that| | | |board |piece of |do not | | | |liner, |cord |affect the| | | |with |inserted |strength. | | | |ends |into the |Leather to| | | |of tapes|turn in |be used | | | |attached|of the |thicker | | | |to |leather at|than is | | | |portion |head and |usual, | | | |of waste|tail in |there | | | |sheet, |their |being | | | |inserted|place. |French | | | |between | |joints. | | | |them. | |Leather at| | | |Boards | |back only;| | | |to be | |paper | | | |left a | |sides; | | | |short | |vellum | | | |distance| |tips. | | | |from the| | | | | |joint | | | | | |to form | | | | | |a French| | | | | |joint. | | | | |------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- |To be |No |Whole |Same as |To be |Same as IV. |split |headbands. |buckram |Nos. I. |omitted. |No. II. For Library |boards, | |or half |II. And | |Bindings of |two | |linen and |III. | |Books of |straw- | |paper | | |little |boards | |sides. | | |Interest or |made | | | | |Value, Cloth|together| | | | |or Half |and ends| | | | |Linen. |of slips| | | | | |insert- | | | | | |ed. | | | | | |French | | | | | |joint to| | | | | |be left. | | | | |------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+-------- GLOSSARY _Arming press_, a small blocking press used for striking arms-blockson the sides of books. _Backing boards_, wedge-shaped bevelled boards used in backing (seeFig. 40). _Backing machine_, used for backing cheap work in large quantities; itoften crushes and damages the backs of the sections. _Bands_, (1) the cords on which a book is sewn. (2) The ridges on theback caused by the bands showing through the leather. _Band nippers_, pincers with flat jaws, used for straightening thebands (see Fig. 61). For nipping up the leather after covering, theyshould be nickelled to prevent the iron staining the leather. _Beating stone_, the "stone" on which books were formerly beaten; nowgenerally superseded by the rolling machine and standing press. _Blind tooling_, the impression of finishing tools without gold. _Blocking press_, a press used for impressing blocks such as thoseused in decorating cloth cases. _Board papers_, the part of the end papers pasted on to the boards. _Bodkin_, an awl used for making the holes in the boards for theslips. _Bolt_, folded edge of the sheets in an unopened book. _Cancels_, leaves containing errors, which have to be discarded andreplaced by corrected sheets. Such leaves are marked by the printerwith a star. _Catch-word_, a word printed at the foot of one page indicating thefirst word of the page following, as a guide in collating. _Cutting boards_, wedge-shaped boards somewhat like backing boards, but with the top edge square; used in cutting the edge of a book andin edge-gilding. _Cutting in boards_, cutting the edges of a book after the boards arelaced on. _Cutting press_, when the lying press is turned, so that the side withthe runners is uppermost, it is called a cutting press (see Fig. 46). _Diaper_, a term applied to a small repeating all-over pattern. Fromwoven material decorated in this way. _Doublure_, the inside face of the boards, especially applied to themwhen lined with leather and decorated. _End papers_, papers added at the beginning and end of a book by thebinder. _Extra binding_, a trade term for the best work. _Finishing_, comprises lettering, tooling, and polishing, &c. _Finishing press_, a small press used for holding books when they arebeing tooled (see Fig. 84). _Finishing stove_, used for heating finishing tools. _Folder_, a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper knife, used infolding sheets and in various other operations. _Foredge_ (fore edge), the front edge of the leaves. Pronounced"forrege. " _Forwarding_, comprises all the operations between sewing andfinishing, excepting headbanding. _Gathering_, collecting one sheet from each pile in a printer'swarehouse to make up a volume. _Glaire_, white of eggs beaten up, and used in finishing and edgegilding. _Half binding_, when the leather covers the back and only part of thesides, a book is said to be half bound. _Head band_, a fillet of silk or thread, worked at the head and tailof the back. _Head cap_, the fold of leather over the head band (see Fig. 67). _Head and tail_, the top and bottom of a book. _Imperfections_, sheets rejected by the binder and returned to theprinter to be replaced. _India proofs_, strictly first proofs only of an illustration pulledon "India paper, " but used indiscriminately for all illustrationsprinted on India paper. _Inset_, the portion of a sheet cut off and inserted in foldingcertain sizes, such as duodecimo, &c. (see Fig. 4). _Inside margins_, the border made by the turn in of the leather on theinside face of the boards (see Fig. 116). _Joints_, (1) the groove formed in backing to receive the ends of themill-boards. (2) The part of the binding that bends when the boardsare opened. (3) Strips of leather or cloth used to strengthen the endpapers. "_Kettle stitch_, " catch stitch formed in sewing at the head and tail. _Lacing in_, lacing the slips through holes in the boards to attachthem. _Lying press_, the term applied to the under side of the cutting pressused for backing, usually ungrammatically called "laying press. " _Marbling_, colouring the edges and end papers in various patterns, obtained by floating colours on a gum solution. _Millboard machine_, machine used for squaring boards; should only beused for cheap work, as an edge cut by it will not be as square as ifcut by the plough. _Mitring_, (1) lines meeting at a right angle without overrunning aresaid to be mitred. (2) A join at 45° as in the leather on the insideof the boards. _Overcasting_, over-sewing the back edges of single leaves or weaksections. _Peel_, a thin board on a handle used for hanging up sheets fordrying. _Plate_, an illustration printed from a plate. Term often incorrectlyapplied to illustrations printed from woodcuts. Any full-pageillustration printed on different paper to the book is usually calleda "plate. " _Pressing plates_, plates of metal japanned or nickelled, used forgiving finish to the leather on a book. _Press pin_, an iron bar used for turning the screws of presses. _Proof_, edges left uncut as "proof" that the book has not been undulycut down. _Register_, (i. ) when the print on one side of a leaf falls exactlyover that on the other it is said to register. (ii. ) Ribbon placed ina book as a marker. _Rolling machine_, a machine in which the sheets of a book are subjectto heavy pressure by being passed between rollers. _Sawing in_, when grooves are made in the back with a saw to receivethe bands. _Section_, the folded sheet. _Semée_ or _Semis_, an heraldic term signifying sprinkled. _Set off_, print is said to "set off" when part of the ink from a pagecomes off on an opposite page. This will happen if a book is pressedtoo soon after printing. _Sheet_, the full size of the paper as printed, forming a section whenfolded. _Signature_, the letter or figure placed on the first page of eachsheet. _Slips_, the ends of the sewing cord or tape that are attached to theboards. _Squares_, the portion of the boards projecting beyond the edges ofthe book. _Start_, when, after cutting, one or more sections of the book comeforward, making the fore edge irregular, they are said to havestarted. _Straight edge_, a flat ruler. _Tacky_, sticky. _T. E. G. _, top-edge gilt. _Trimmed. _ The edges of a book are said to be trimmed when the edgesof the larger (or projecting) leaves only have been cut. _Tub_, the stand which supports the lying press. Originally an actualtub to catch the shavings. _Uncut_, a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper havenot been cut with the plough or guillotine. _Unopened_, the book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheetshave not been cut. _Waterproof sheets_, sheets of celluloid, such as are used byphotographers. _Whole binding_, when the leather covers the back and sides of avolume. _Wire staples_ are used by certain machines in the place of thread forsecuring the sections. _Groove_, that part of the sections which is turned over in backing toreceive the board. REPRODUCTIONS OF BINDINGS I. , II. , AND III. FIFTEENTH CENTURY BLIND-TOOLED BINDINGS IV. SIXTEENTH CENTURY BINDING WITH SIMPLE GOLD-TOOLING V. , VI. , VII. , AND VIII. MODERN BINDINGS DESIGNED BY THE AUTHOR [Illustration: I. --German Fifteenth Century. Pigskin. Actual size, 8¾" × 6¼". ] [Illustration: II. --German Fifteenth Century. Calf. Actual size 12½" × 8½". ] [Illustration: III. --Italian Fifteenth Century. Sheepskin, with coloured roundels. Actual size, 11½" × 8¼". ] [Illustration: IV. --Italian Sixteenth Century. Actual size, 12½" × 8½". Goatskin. ] [Illustration: V. --Half Niger morocco, with sides of English oak. Actual size, 17" × 11½". ] [Illustration: VI. --Niger morocco, inlaid green leaves. Actual size, 8¼" × 5½". ] [Illustration: VII. --Green levant, inlaid with lighter green panel and red dots. Actual size, 6¾" × 4½". ] [Illustration: VIII. --Niger morocco, executed by a student of the Central School of Arts and Crafts. Actual size, 11¾" × 9¼". ] INDEX ARMING PRESS, 229, 313 Arms blocks, 228 Art paper, 48, 282 Autograph letters, 179 BACKING, 117 Backing hammer, 123 Back, lining up, 152 Band nippers, 160, 163 Bands, 313 Bandstick, 160 Beating, 90 Beating stone, 90, 313 Benzine, 207, 209 Binding, decoration of, 21, 30, 188, 233 Binding, collotype reproductions of, 321-336 Binding, embroidered, 186 Binding early printed books, 31, 46, 113 Binding, extra, 308 Binding, jewelled, 263 Binding, library, 27, 173, 308 Binding, manuscripts, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223 Binding, metal-covered, 263 Binding, vellum, 180 Binding very thin books, 177 Blind tooling, 188, 222 Blocking press, 229, 313 Blocks, striking, 229 Boards, 124 Boards, attaching, 132 Boards, cutting, 125 Boards, filling in, 170 Boards, lining, 129 Boards, pressing, 193, 210 Boards, split, 28, 175, 311 Bodkin, 114 Bookbinding as a profession, 32 Books in sheets, 34 Bookworms, 297 Borders, designing, 240 Borders, inside, 253 CALF, 27, 277 Cancelled sheets, 43 Cased books, 19, 49 Castor oil, 303 Catch stitch, 99 Catch words, 314 Celluloid, sheets of, 161 Centres, designing, 241 Chrome leather, 276 Clasps and ties, 183, 259 Cleaning off back, 137 Cloth casing, 19, 49 Cloth joints, 86, 257 Cobden-Sanderson, T. J. , xii. , 22 Cockroaches, 300 Cocoanut oil, 200 Collating, 43 Colouring edges, 144 Combining tools to form patterns, 232 Compasses, 131 Cord sewing, 111 Corners, mitring, 165, 168 Cousin, Jules, 74, 299 Covering, 23, 159, 176, 310 Crushing the grain of leather, 192 Cutting in boards, 139 Cutting mill-boards, 124 Cutting press, 128 DAMP, effect of, on bindings, 294 Decoration of bindings, 21, 30, 188, 233 Designing tools, 230 Diaper patterns, 236 Dividers, 51 Dots, striking, 205 Doubluves, 253, 314 Dressing for old bindings, 302 Dust and dusting, 296 EARLY printed books, binding, 31, 46, 113 Edge colouring, 144 Edge gauffering, 144 Edge gilding, 95, 144 Edge sizing, 95, 146 Edges, painted, 146 Embroidered bindings, 186 End papers, 80, 254 End, painted, 83 End, vellum, 84 Ends, silk, 84 Entering, 33 Evelyn's Diary (quotation), 282 "Extra" binding, 308, 314 FALSE bands, 26 Fillet, 190, 206 Fillet, small, 206, 246 Filling in boards, 170 Finishing, 191 Finishing press, 194 Finishing tools, 188 Finishing stove, 195 Flattening vellum, 65 Folder, 164 Folding, 36 Fraying out slips, 114 French joint, 176 French paring knife, 156 French standing press, 91 GAS fumes, effect of, 291 Gathering, 35 Gauffering edges, 144 Gelatine, 70 Gilding edges, 95, 144 Gilt top, 92 Glaire, 97, 198 Glass, tinted, for libraries, 292 Glossary, 313 Glue, 289 Glueing up, 115 Goatskin, 277 Gold cushion, 200 Gold leaf, 199 Gold knife, 200 Gold, net for, 96 Gold, pad for, 201 Gold tooling, 188, 191 Gouges, 189, 205, 247 Groove (_see_ Joint) Guarding, 42, 53 Guarding plates, 50, 56, 316 HAMMER, backing, 123 Hand-made paper, 280 Headbanding, 108, 147, 176 Headcaps, 156, 166 Heat, effect of, on bindings, 295 Heraldry on bindings, 227 Hinging plates, 57 Hollow backs, 25, 185 IMPERFECTIONS, 35 India proofs, soaking off, 62 India proofs, mounting, 63 Indiarubber for gold, 207 Inlaying leather, 213, 232, 243 Inlaying leaves or plates, 64 Inset, 40, 315 Inside margins, 253 JACONET, 60, 64 Japanese paper, 282 Japanese vellum, 282 Jewelled bindings, 263 Joint, 165, 169 Joint, cloth, 86, 257 Joint, French, 176 Joint, knocking out, 53 Joint, leather, 86, 171 KETTLE stitch, 49, 99, 105 Keys, sewing, 101 Knife, mountcutters', 54 Knife, French paring, 156 Knife, gold, 200 Knife, plough, 129, 139 Knocking down iron, 53, 134 Knocking out joints, 53 Knot, 100, 106 LACING in slips, 132 Lay cords, 100 Laying press (_see_ Lying press) Leather, 27, 263 Leather, chrome, 276 Leather, crushing grain of, 192 Leather, inlaying, 213, 232, 243 Leather joints, 86, 171 Leather, paring, 154 Leather, polishing, 191 Leather, sprinkling and marbling, 27, 279 Leather, stretching, 23, 161 Leather, testing, 274 Leather work, 226 Leaves, inlaying, 64 Lettering, 28, 215, 246 Letters, autograph, 179 Library binding, 27, 173, 308 Light, effect of, on leather, 292 Lining up back, 152 Lithographic stone, 157, 160 Loose covers, 304 Lying press, 128 MANUSCRIPTS, binding of, 31, 108, 113, 125, 135, 223 Manuscripts, collating, 46 Maps, throwing out, 60 Marbled paper, 83 Margins, inside, 253 Marking up, 98 Materials for sewing, 111 Mending, 76 Mending tooling, 208 Mending vellum, 79 Metal on bindings, 262 Millboards, 124 Millboard machine, 127, 315 Millboard shears, 126 Mitring corners, 165, 168 Morocco, 277 Morocco, "Persian, " 271 Mount-cutters' knife, 54 Mounting India-proofs, 63 Mounting very thin paper, 63 NET for gilding edges, 96 Niger morocco, 278 Nipping press, 211 Nippers, band, 160, 163 OIL, cocoanut, 200 Opening newly-bound books, 257 Overcasting, 51 "Overs, " 35 Oxalic acid, use of, 173 PAD for gold, 201 Paging, 44 Painted edges, 146 Painted end papers, 83 Pallets, 189 Paper, 280 Paper, art, 48, 283 Paper, hand-made, 280 Paper, Japanese, 282 Paper, marbled, 83 Paper, sizes of, 36, 283 Paper, sizing, 67 Paper, splitting, 63 Paper, washing, 71 Paraffin wax, 303 Paring leather, 154 Paring paper, 61 Paring stone, 157, 160 Pastes, 286 Paste water, 198 Pasting down end papers, 254 Patterns, 232 "Peel, " 316 Permanent binding, 19 "Persian" morocco, 271 Pigskin, 278 Plates, detaching, 48 Plates, guarding, 56 Plates, hinging, 57 Plates, inlaying, 64 Plates, trimming, 40 Plough, 128 Plough knife, 129, 139 Polishing, 191 Preserving old bindings, 302 Press, arming, 229, 313 Press, blocking, 229, 313 Press, cutting, 128 Press, finishing, 194 Press, lying, 128 Press, nipping, 211 Press pin, 316 Press, sewing (_see_ Sewing frame) Press, standing, 88 Pressing boards, 193, 210 Pressing in boards, 138 Pressing plates, 192, 316 Pressing sections, 87 "Proof, " 316 Publishers' binding, 20 Pulling to pieces, 46 QUARTER sections, 42 Quires, books in, 34 RATS and mice, 299 Re-backing, 305 Re-binding, 18, 306 Refolding, 51 Register of printing, 52, 316 Representations of bindings, 321-336 Roll, 190 Rounding, 117 SAWING in, 20, 25, 100, 108 Scrap books, 178 Sealskin, 278 Sections, pressing, 87 Sewing, 100 Sewing cord, 111 Sewing frame, 100 Sewing keys, 101 Sewing on tapes, 26, 111, 174 Sewing on vellum slips, 111, 181 Sewing silk, 112 Sewing, tape for, 112 Sewing thread, 112 Sheepskin, 277-308 Sheets, books in, 34 Sheets, waterproof, 161 Signatures, 34, 43 Silk ends, 84 Silk sewing, 112 Sizes of paper, 36, 283 Sizing, 67 Sizing edges, 95-146 Sizing leather, 198 Sizing paper, 67 Slips, 317 Slips, fraying out, 114 Slips, lacing in, 132 Soaking off India proofs, 62 Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Leather for Bookbinding, 22, 264 Society of Arts, Report of Committee on Paper, 284 Specifications, 308 Split boards, 28, 175, 311 Splitting paper, 63 Sprinkling leather, 27, 279 Squares, 131, 153, 317 Standing press, 88 Standing press, French, 89, 91 Staples, wire, 49 "Starred" sheets, 43 Stove, finishing, 195 Stone, lithographic, 157, 160 Striking dots, 205 Striking tools, 204 TAPE, sewing on, 26, 112, 174 Temporary binding, 20 Testing leather, 274 Thin books, binding, 177 Thin paper, mounting, 63 Thread, sewing, 112 Throwing out maps, 60 Ties and clasps, 183, 259 Tobacco smoke, effect of, on binding, 294 Tooling, blind, 188, 222 Tooling, gold, 24, 188, 191 Tooling on vellum, 212 Tools, designing, 188, 230 Tools, finishing, 188, 230 Training for bookbinding, 32 Trimming before sewing, 93 Trimming machine, 94 Trimming plates, 40 Tub, 317 Tying up, 167 VARNISH, 209 Vellum binders, 26 Vellum bindings, 180 Vellum ends, 84 Vellum, flattening, 65 Vellum, Japanese, 282 Vellum, mending, 79 Vellum slips, sewing on, 111, 183 Vellum tooling on, 212 WALKER, Emery, 216 Washing, 71 Waterproof sheets, 161 Weaver's knot, 106 Wooden boards, 32, 135, 223, 330 Worm holes, 78, 297 THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS. Edited by W. R. LETHABY. The series will appeal to handicraftsmen in the industrial andmechanic arts. It consists of authoritative statements by experts inevery field for the exercise of ingenuity, taste, imagination--thewhole sphere of the so-called "dependent arts. " BOOKBINDING AND THE CARE OF BOOKS. A Handbook for Amateurs, Bookbinders, and Librarians. By DOUGLAS COCKERELL. With 120 Illustrations and Diagrams by Noel Rooke, and 8 collotype reproductions of binding. 12mo. $1. 25 net. SILVERWORK AND JEWELRY. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in Metal. By H. WILSON. With 160 Diagrams and 16 full-page Illustrations, 12mo. $1. 40 net. WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND WORKMANSHIP. By GEORGE JACK. With Drawings by the Author and other Illustrations. $1. 40 net. STAINED-GLASS WORK. A Text-Book for Students and Workers in Glass. By C. W. WHALL. With Diagrams by two of his Apprentices, and other Illustrations. $1. 50 net; postage, 14 cents additional. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES Obvious typographic errors have been corrected. For the detailed listsee below. The tables have been slightly modified to optimizepresentation. page 014--typo fixed: changed 'Making' to 'Marking'page 138--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'page 159--typo fixed: changed 'wook' to 'wood'page 173--typo fixed: changed 'CHAPTER VIII' to 'CHAPTER XIII'page 198--typo fixed: changed 'isinglas' to 'isinglass'page 249--spelling normalized: changed 'tie downs' to 'tie-downs'page 253--spelling normalized: changed 'headcap' to 'head-cap'page 298--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'page 303--spelling normalized: changed 're-binding' to 'rebinding'page 304--spelling normalized: changed 'millboard' to 'mill-board'page 310--spelling normalized: changed 'Goat-skin' to 'Goatskin'page 314--spelling normalized: changed 'head-banding' to 'headbanding'page 315--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'page 339--spelling normalized: changed 'millboards' to 'mill-boards'page 341--spelling normalized: changed 'Re-folding' to 'Refolding'