LORD'S LECTURES BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY, VOLUME XIV THE NEW ERA A Supplementary Volume, by Recent Writers, as Set Forth in the Preface and Table of Contents. BY JOHN LORD, LL. D. , AUTHOR OF "THE OLD ROMAN WORLD, " "MODERN EUROPE, "ETC. , ETC. PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. In preparing the new edition of Dr. Lord's great work, it has beenthought desirable to do what the venerable author's death in 1894 didnot permit him to accomplish, and add a volume summarizing certain broadaspects of achievement in the last fifty years. It were manifestlyimpossible to cover in any single volume--except in the dry, cyclopaedicstyle of chronicling multitudinous facts, so different from the vivid, personal method of Dr. Lord--all the growths of the wonderful periodjust closed. The only practicable way has been to follow our author'sprinciple of portraying _selected historic forces_, --to take, asrepresentative or typical of the various departments, certain greatcharacters whose services have signalized them as "Beacon Lights" alongthe path of progress, and to secure adequate portrayal of these by menknown to be competent for interesting exposition of the several themes. Thus the volume opens with a paper on "Richard Wagner: Modern Music, " byHenry T. Finck, the musical critic of the _New York Evening Post_, andauthor of various works on music, travel, etc. ; and then follow in orderthese: "John Ruskin: Modern Art, " by G. Mercer Adam, author of "A Précisof English History, " recently editor of the _Self-Culture Magazine_ andof the Werner Supplements to the Encyclopaedia Britannica; "HerbertSpencer: The Evolutionary Philosophy, " and "Charles Darwin: His Place inModern Science, " both by Mayo W. Hazeltine, literary editor of the _NewYork Sun_, whose book reviews over the signature "M. W. H. " have for yearsmade the _Sun's_ book-page notable; "John Ericsson: Navies of War andCommerce, " by Prof. W. F. Durand, of the School of Marine Engineering andthe Mechanic Arts in Cornell University; "Li Hung Chang: The Far East, "by Dr. William A. P. Martin, the distinguished missionary, diplomat, andauthor, recently president of the Imperial University, Peking, China;"David Livingstone: African Exploration, " by Cyrus C. Adams, geographical and historical expert, and a member of the editorial staffof the _New York Sun_; "Sir Austen H. Layard: Modern Archaeology, " byRev. William Hayes Ward, D. D. , editor of _The Independent_, New York, himself eminent in Oriental exploration and decipherment; "MichaelFaraday: Electricity and Magnetism, " by Prof. Edwin J. Houston ofPhiladelphia, an accepted authority in electrical engineering; and, "Rudolf Virchow: Modern Medicine and Surgery, " by Dr. Frank P. Foster, physician, author, and editor of the _New York Medical Journal_. The selection of themes must be arbitrary, amid the numberless lines ofdevelopment during the "New Era" of the Nineteenth Century, in whichevery mental, moral, and physical science and art has grown anddiversified and fructified with a rapidity seen in no other fivecenturies. It is hoped, however, that the choice will be justified bythe interest of the separate papers, and that their result will be sucha view of the main features as to leave a distinct impression of thegeneral life and advancement, especially of the last half ofthe century. It is proper to say that the preparation and issuance of Dr. Lord's"Beacon Lights of History" were under the editorial care of Mr. John E. Howard of Messrs. Fords, Howard, and Hulbert, the original publishers ofthe work, while the proof-sheets also received the critical attention ofMr. Abram W. Stevens, one of the accomplished readers of the UniversityPress in Cambridge, Mass. Mr. Howard has also supervised the newedition, including this final volume, which issues from the same choicetypographical source. NEW YORK, September, 1902. CONTENTS. RICHARD WAGNER. MODERN Music. BY HENRY T. FINCK. Youth-time; early ambitions as a composer. Weber, his fascinator and first inspirer. "Der Freischütz" and "Euryanthe" prototypes of his operas. Their supernatural, mythical, and romantic elements. What he owed to his predecessors acknowledged in his essay on "The Musicof the Future" (1860). Marriage and early vicissitudes. "Rienzi, " "The Novice of Palermo, " and "The Flying Dutchman". Writes stories and essays for musical publications. After many disappointments wins success at Dresden. "Tannhäuser" and "Lohengrin". Compromises himself in Revolution of 1849 and has to seek safety inSwitzerland. Here he conceives and partly writes the "Nibelung Tetralogy". Discouragements at London and at Paris. "Siegfried" and "Tristan and Isolde". Finds a patron in Ludwig II. Of Bavaria. Nibelung Festival at Bayreuth. "Parsifal" appears; death of Wagner at Vienna (1882). Beethoven, Schubert, and Chopin. Other eminent composers and pianists. Liszt as a contributor to current of modern music. Berlioz, Saint-Saëns, Tchaikovsky, Dvorák, Strauss, and Weber. "The Music of the Future" the music of the present. JOHN RUSKIN. MODERN ART. BY G. MERCER ADAM. Passionate and luminous exponent of Nature's beauties. His high if somewhat quixotic ideal of life. Stimulating writings in ethics, education, and political economy. Frederic Harrison on Ruskin's stirring thoughts and melodious speech. Birth and youth-time; Collingwood's "Life" and his own "Praeterita". Defence of Turner and what it grew into. Architectural writings, lectures, and early publications. Interest in Pre-Raphaelitism and its disciples. Growing fame; with admiring friends and correspondents. On the public platform; personal appearance of the man. Economic and socialistic vagaries. F. Harrison on "Ruskin as Prophet" and teacher. Inspiring lay sermons and minor writings. Reformer and would-be regenerator of modern society. Attitude towards industrial problems of his time. Founds the communal "Guild of St. George". Philanthropies, and lecturings in "Working Men's College". Death and epoch-making influence, in modern art. HERBERT SPENCER. THE EVOLUTIONARY PHILOSOPHY. BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE. Constructs a philosophical system in harmony with the theory ofevolution. Birth, parentage, and early career. Scheme of his system of Synthetic Philosophy. His "Facts and Comments;" views on party government, patriotism, andstyle. His religious attitude that of an agnostic. The doctrine of the Unknowable and the knowable. "First Principles;" progress of evolution in life, mind, society, andmorality. The relations of matter, motion, and force. "Principles of Biology;" the data of; the development hypothesis. The evolutionary hypothesis _versus_ the special creation hypothesis;arguments. Causes and interpretation of the evolution phenomena. Development as displayed in the structures and functions of individualorganisms. "Principles of Psychology;" the evolution of mind and analysis of mentalstates. "Principles of Sociology;" the adaptation of human nature to the socialstate. Evolution of governments, political and ecclesiastical; industrialorganizations. Qualifications; Nature's plan an advance, and again a retrogression. Social evolution; equilibriums between constitution and conditions. Assisted by others in the collection, but not the systemization, of hisillustrative material. "Principles of Ethics;" natural basis for; secularization of morals. General inductions; his "Social Statics". Relations of Mr. Spencer and Mr. Darwin to the thought of the NineteenthCentury. CHARLES DARWIN. HIS PLACE IN MODERN SCIENCE. BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE. The Darwinian hypothesis a rational and widely accepted explanation ofthe genesis of organic life on the earth. Darwin; birth, parentage, and education. Naturalist on the voyage of the "Beagle". His work on "Coral Reefs" and the "Geology of South America". Observations and experiments on the transmutation of species. Contemporaneous work on the same lines by Alfred R. Wallace. "The Origin of Species" (1859). His "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" (1868). "The Descent of Man" (1871). On the "Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals" (1872). "Fertilization of Orchids" (1862), "The Effects of Cross andSelf-Fertilization" (1876), and "The Formation of Vegetable Mouldthrough the Action of Worms" (1881). Ill-health, death, and burial. Personality, tastes, and mental characteristics. His beliefs and agnostic attitude toward religion. His prime postulate, that species have been modified during a longcourse of descent. Antagonistic views on the immutability of species. His theory of natural selection: that all animal and plant life has acommon progenitor, difference in their forms arising primarily frombeneficial variations. Enunciates in the "Descent of Man" the great principle of Evolution, andthe common kinship of man and the lower animals. Biological evidence to sustain this view. Man's moral qualities, and the social instinct of animals. Religious beliefs not innate, nor instinctive. Bearing of this on belief in the immortality of the soul. As a scientist Darwin concerned only with truth; general acceptance ofhis theory of the origin of species. JOHN ERICSSON. NAVIES OF WAR AND COMMERCE. BY PROF. W. F. DUKAND. Ericsson's life-work little foreseen in his youth and earlysurroundings. His impress on the engineering practice of his time. Dependence, in our modern civilization, on the utilization of the greatnatural forces and energies of the world. Life-periods in Sweden, England, and the United States. Birth, parentage, and early engineering career. An officer in the Swedish army, and topographical surveyor for hisnative government. Astonishing insight into mechanical and scientific questions. His work, 1827 to 1839, when he came to the United States. "A spendthrift in invention;" versatility and daring. The screw-propeller _vs_. The paddle-wheel for marine propulsion. Designs and constructs the steam-frigate "Princeton" and the hot-airship "Ericsson". The Civil War and his services in the art of naval construction. His new model of a floating battery and warship, "The Monitor". The battle between it and the "Merrimac" a turning-point in naval aspectof the war. "The Destroyer, " built in connection with Mr. Delamater. Improves the character and reduces friction in the use of heavyordnance. Work on the improvement of steam-engines for warships. Death, and international honors paid at his funeral. His work in improving the motive-power of ships. Special contributions to the art of naval war. Ships of low freeboard equipped with revolving turrets. Influence of his work lives in the modern battleship. Other features of work which he did for his age. Personality and professional traits. Essentially a designer rather than a constructing engineer. LI HUNG CHANG. THE FAR EAST. BY W. A. P. MARTIN, D. D. , LL. D. Introductory; Earl Li's foreign fame; his rising star. Intercourse with China by land. The Great Wall; China first known to the western world through itsconquest by the Mongols. The houses of Han, Tang, and Sang. The diplomat Su Wu on an embassy to Turkey. Intercourse by sea. Expulsion of the Mongols; the magnetic needle. Art of printing; birth of alchemy. Manchu conquest; Macao and Canton opened to foreign trade. The Opium War. Li Hung Chang appears on the scene. His contests for academical honors and preferment. The Taiping rebellion. Li a soldier; General Ward and "Chinese Gordon". The Arrow War; the treaties. Lord Elgin's mistake leads to renewal of the war. Fall of the Peiho forts and flight of the Court. The war with France. Mr. Seward and Anson Burlingame. War ended through the agency of Sir Robert Hart. War with Japan. Perry at Tokio (Yeddo); overturn of the Shogans. Formosa ceded to Japan. China follows Japan and throws off trammels of antiquated usage. War with the world. The Boxer rising; menace to the Peking legations. Prince Ching and Viceroy Li arrange terms of peace. Li's death; patriot, and patron of educational reform. DAVID LIVINGSTONE. AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT. BY CYRUS C. ADAMS. Difficulties of exploration in the "Dark Continent" Livingstone's belief that "there was good in Africa, " and that it wasworth reclaiming. His early journeyings kindled the great African movement. Youthful career and studies, marriage, etc. Contact with the natives; wins his way by kindness. Sublime faith in the future of Africa. Progress in the heart of the continent since his day. Interest of his second and third journeyings (1853-56). Visits to Britain, reception, and personal characteristics. Later discoveries and journeyings (1858-1864, 1866-1873). Death at Chitambo (Ilala) Lake Bangweolo, May 1, 1873. General accuracy of his geographical records; his work, as a whole, stands the test of time. Downfall of the African slave-trade, the "open sore of the world". Remarkable achievements of later explorers and surveyors. The work of Burton, Junker, Speke, and Stanley. Father Schynse's chart. Surveys of Commander Whitehouse. Missionary maps of the Congo Free State and basin. Other areas besides tropical Africa made known and opened up. Pygmy tribes and cannibalism in the Congo basin. Human sacrifices now prohibited and punishable with death. Railway and steamboat development, and partition of the continent. South Africa: the gold and diamond mines and natural resources. Future philanthropic work. SIR AUSTEN HENRY LAYARD. MODERN ARCHAEOLOGY. BY WILLIAM HAYES WARD, D. D. , LL/D. Overthrow of Nineveh and destruction of the Assyrian Empire. Kingdoms and empires extant and buried before the era of Hebrew andGreek history. Bonaparte in Egypt, and the impulse he gave to French archaeology. Champollion and his deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions. Paul Émile Botta and his discoveries in Assyria. His excavations of King Sargon's palace at Khorsabad. Layard begins his excavations and discoveries at Nineveh. Sir Stratford Canning's (Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe) gift to theBritish Museum of the marbles of Halicarnassus. Layard's published researches, "Nineveh and its Remains, " and "Babylonand Nineveh". His work, "The Monuments of Nineveh" (1849-53). Obelisk and monoliths of Shalmaneser II. , King of Assyria, discovered byLayard at Nimroud. George Smith and his discovery of the Babylonian account of the Deluge. Light thrown by these discoveries on the Pharaoh of the Bible, and onMelchizedek, who reigned in Abraham's day. Other archaeologists of note, Glaser, De Morgan, De Sarzec, and Botta. Relics of Buddha, and the Hittite inscriptions. The Moabite Stone, and work of the English Palestine Exploration Fund atJerusalem. Dr. Schliemann's labors among the ruins of Troy. Researches and discoveries at Crete. The mounds, pyramids, and temples of the American aborigines. The cliff-dwellers and the Mayas, Incas, and Toltecs. The Calendar Stone and statue of the gods of war and death found inMexico. What treasure yet remains to be recovered of a past civilization. MICHAEL FARADAY. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. BY EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH. D. "The Prince of Experimental Philosophers". Unprecocious as a child; environment of his early years. His early study of Mrs. Marcet's "Conversations on Chemistry, " and thearticles on electricity in the "Encyclopaedia Britannica". Appointed laboratory assistant at the London Royal Institution. Inspiration received from his teacher, Sir Humphry Davy. Investigations in chemistry, electricity, and magnetism. His discovery (1831) of the means for developing electricity direct frommagnetism. Substitutes magnets for active circuits. Simplicity of the apparatus used in his successful experiments. Some of the results obtained by him in his experimental researches. What is to-day owing to him for his discovery and investigation of allforms of magneto-electric induction. His discovery of the relations between light and magnetism. Action of glass and other solid substances on a beam of polarized light. His paper on "Magnetization of Light and the Illumination of the Linesof Magnetic Force". His contribution (1845) on the "Magnetic Condition of All Matter". Investigation of the phenomena which he calls "the Magne-crystallicforce". Extent of his work in the electro-chemical field. His invention of the first dynamo. His alternating-current transformer. Induction coils and their use in producing the Röntgen rays. Edison's invention of the fluoroscope. Faraday's gift to commercial science of the electric motor. His dynamo-electric machine. Modern electric transmissions of power. Tesla's multiphase alternating-current motor. Faraday's electric generator and motor. The telephone, aid given by Faraday's discoveries in the invention anduse of the transmitter. Modern power-generating and transmission plants a magnificenttestimonial to the genius of Faraday. Death and honors. RUDOLF VIRCHOW. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. BY FRANK P. FOSTER, M. D. Jenner demonstrates efficacy of vaccination against small-pox. Debt to the physicists, chemists, and botanists of the new era. Appendicitis (peritonitis), its present frequency. Experimental methods of study in physiology. Hahnemann, founder of homoeopathy, and physical diagnosis of the sick. The clinical thermometer and other instruments of precision. Animal parasites the direct cause of many diseases. Bacteria and the germ theory of disease. Pasteur, viruses, and aseptic surgery. Consumption and its germ; the corpuscles and their resistance tobacterial invasion. Antitoxines as a cure in diphtheria. Their use in surgery; asepticism and Lord Lister. Listerism and midwifery. American aid in the treatment of fractures. Use of artificial serum in disease treatment. Koch's tuberculin and its use in consumption. Chemistry as a handmaid of medicine. Brown-Séquard and "internal secretions". Febrile ailment and cold-water applications. Surgical anaesthetics; Long, Morton, and Simpson. Ovariotomy operations by McDowell and Bell. Professional nursing. Virchow and the literature of medicine, anatomy, and physiology; hisdeath; his "Archiv, " "Cellular-Pathology, " etc. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS VOLUME XIV. Dr. Jenner Vaccinates a Child _After the painting by George Gaston Melingue_ Richard Wagner _After the painting by Franz von Lenbach_ John Ruskin _After a photograph from life_ Herbert Spencer _After a photograph from life_ Charles Robert Darwin _After the painting by G. F. Watts, R. A. _ John Ericsson _From a contemporaneous engraving_ Li Hung Chang _After a photograph from life_ David Livingstone _After a photograph from life_ Sir Austen Henry Layard _After the painting by H. W. Phillips_ Michael Faraday _After a photograph from life_ Rudolf Virchow _After a photograph from life_ BEACON LIGHTS OF HISTORY. RICHARD WAGNER: MODERN MUSIC. BY HENRY T. FINCK. If the Dresden schoolboys who attended the _Kreuzschule_ in the years1823-1827 could have been told that one of them was destined to be thegreatest opera composer of all times, and to influence the musicians ofall countries throughout the second half of the nineteenth century, theywould, no doubt, have been very much surprised. Nor is it likely thatthey could have guessed which of them was the chosen one. For RichardWagner--or Richard Geyer, as he was then called, after hisstepfather--was by no means a youthful prodigy, like Mozart or Liszt. Itis related that Beethoven shed tears of displeasure over his first musiclessons; nevertheless, it was obvious from the beginning that he had aspecial gift for music. Richard Wagner, on the other hand, apparentlyhad none. When he was eight years old his stepfather, shortly before hisdeath, heard him play on the piano two pieces from one of Weber'soperas, which made him wonder if Richard might "perhaps" have talent formusic. His piano teacher did not believe even in that "perhaps, " buttold him bluntly he would "never amount to anything" as a musician. For poetry, however, young Richard had a decided inclination in hisschool years; and this was significant, inasmuch as it afterwards becamehis cardinal maxim that in an opera "the play's the thing, " and themusic merely a means of intensifying the emotional expression. Beforehis time the music, or rather the singing of florid tunes, had been "thething, " and the libretto merely a peg to hang these tunes on. In thisrespect, therefore, the child was father to the man. At the age ofeleven he received a prize for the best poem on the death of aschoolmate. At thirteen he translated the first twelve books of Homer'sOdyssey. He studied English for the sole purpose of being able to readShakspeare. Then he projected a stupendous tragedy, in the course ofwhich he killed off forty-two persons, many of whom had to be broughtback as ghosts to enable him to finish the play. This extravagance also characterized his first efforts as a composer, when he at last turned to music, at the age of sixteen. One of his firsttasks, when he had barely mastered the rudiments of composition, was towrite an overture which he intended to be more complicated thanBeethoven's Ninth Symphony. Heinrich Dorn, who recognized his talentamid all the bombast, conducted this piece at a concert. At therehearsal the musicians were convulsed with laughter, and at theperformance the audience was at first surprised and then disgusted atthe persistence of the drum-player, who made himself heard loudly everyfourth bar. Finally there was a general outburst of hilarity whichtaught the young man a needed lesson. Undoubtedly the germs of his musical genius had been in Wagner's brainin his childhood, --for genius is not a thing that can be acquired. Theyhad simply lain dormant, and it required a special influence to developthem. This influence was supplied by Weber and his operas. In 1815, twoyears after Wagner's birth, the King of Saxony founded a German opera inDresden, where theretofore Italian opera had ruled alone. Weber waschosen as conductor, and thus it happened that Wagner's earliest anddeepest impressions came from the composer of the "Freischütz. " In hisautobiographic sketch Wagner writes: "Nothing gave me so much pleasureas the 'Freischütz. ' I often saw Weber pass by our house when he camefrom rehearsals. I always looked upon him with a holy awe. " It was luckyfor young Richard that his stepfather, Geyer, besides being aportrait-painter, an actor, and a playwright, was also one of Weber'stenors at the opera. This enabled the boy, in spite of the family'spoverty, to hear many of the performances. In fact, Wagner, like Weber, owes a considerable part of his success as a writer for the stage to thefact that he belonged to a theatrical family, and thus gradually learned"how the wheels go round. " Such practical experience is worth more thanyears of academic study. While Wagner cordially acknowledged the fascination which Weber's musicexerted on him in his boyhood, he was hardly fair to Weber in his laterwritings. In these he tries to prove that his own music-dramas are anoutgrowth of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony. When Beethoven wrote that work, Wagner argues, he had come to the conclusion that purely instrumentalmusic had reached a point beyond which it could not go alone, whereforehe called in the aid of poetry (sung by soloists and chorus), and thusintimated that the art-work of the future was the musical drama, --acombination of poetry and music. This is a purely fantastic notion on Wagner's part. There is no evidencethat Beethoven had any such purpose; he merely called in the aid of thehuman voice to secure variety of sound and expression. Poetry and musichad been combined centuries before Beethoven in the opera and inlyric song. No, the roots of Wagner's music-dramas are not to be found in Beethoven, but in Weber. His "Freischütz" and "Euryanthe" are the prototypes ofWagner's operas. The "Freischütz" is the first masterwork, as Wagner'soperas are the last, up to date, of the romantic school; and it embodiesadmirably two of the principal characteristics of that school: one, adelight in the demoniac, the supernatural--what the Germans call_gruseln_; the other, the use of certain instruments, alone or incombination, for the sake of securing peculiar emotional effects. Inboth these respects Wagner followed in Weber's footsteps. With theexception of "Rienzi" and "Die Meistersinger, " all of his operas, fromthe "Flying Dutchman" to "Parsifal, " embody supernatural, mythical, romantic elements; and in the use of novel tone colors for specialemotional effects he opened a new wonder-world of sound, to which Weber, however, had given him the key. "Lohengrin, " the last one of what are usually called Wagner's "operas, "as distinguished from his "music-dramas" (comprising the last seven ofhis works), betrays very strongly the influence of Weber's othermasterwork, "Euryanthe. " This opera, indeed, may also be called thedirect precursor of Wagner's music-dramas. It contains eight "leadingmotives, " which recur thirty times in course of the opera; and thedramatic recitatives are sometimes quite in the "Wagnerian" manner. Butthe most remarkable thing is that Weber uses language which practicallysums up Wagner's idea of the music-drama. "'Euryanthe, '" he says, "is apurely dramatic work, which depends for its success solely on theco-operation of the united sister-arts, and is certain to lose itseffect if deprived of their assistance. " When Wagner wrote his essay on "The Music of the Future" for theParisians (1860) he remembered his obligations to the Dresden idol ofhis boyhood by calling attention to "the still very noticeableconnection" of his early work, "Tannhäuser, " with "the operas of mypredecessors, among whom I name especially Weber, " He might havementioned others, --Gluck, for instance, who curbed the vanity of thesingers, and taught them that they were not "the whole show;" Marschner, whose grewsome "Hans Heiling" Wagner had in mind when he wrote his"Flying Dutchman;" Auber, whose "Masaniello, " with its dumb heroine, taught Wagner the importance and expressiveness of pantomimic music, ofwhich there are such eloquent examples in all his operas. During histhree and a half years' sojourn in Paris, just at the opening of hiscareer as an opera composer (1839-1842), he learned many thingsregarding operatic scenery, machinery, processions, and details, whichhe subsequently turned to good account. Even Meyerbeer, the ruler of themusical world in Paris at that time, was not without influence on him, though he had cause to disapprove of him because of his submission tothe demands of the fashionable taste of the day, which contrasted sostrongly with Wagner's own courageous defiance of everythinginconsistent with his ideals of art. The result to-day--Meyerbeer's falland Wagner's triumph--shows that courage, like honesty, is, in the longrun, the best policy, and, like virtue, its own reward. It is important to bear in mind all these lessons that Wagner learnedfrom his predecessors, as it helps to explain the enormous influence heexerted on his contemporaries. Wonderful as was the power andoriginality of his genius, even he could not have achieved such resultshad he not had truth on his side, --truth, as hinted at, in moments ofinspiration, by many of his predecessors. Wagner was most shamefully misrepresented by his enemies during hislifetime. A thousand times they wrote unblushingly that he despised andabused the great masters, whereas in truth no one ever spoke of themmore enthusiastically than he, or was more eager to learn of them, though, to be sure, he was honest and courageous enough also to callattention to their shortcomings. In all his autobiographic writingsthere is not a more luminous passage than the following, in which herelates his experiences as conductor at the Riga Opera in 1838, when hewas at work on "Rienzi":-- "The peculiar gnawing melancholy which habitually overpowered me when Iconducted one of our ordinary operas was interrupted by aninexpressible, enthusiastic delight, when, here and there, during theperformance of nobler works, I became conscious of the incomparableeffects that can be produced by musico-dramatic combinations on thestage, --effects of a depth, sincerity, and direct realistic vivacity, such as no other art can produce. I felt quite elated and ennobledduring the time that I was rehearsing Méhul's enchanting 'Joseph' withmy little opera company. " "Such impressions, " he continues, "likeflashes of lightning" revealed to him "unsuspected possibilities. " Itwas by utilizing these "possibilities" and hints, and at the same timeavoiding the errors and blemishes of his predecessors, that hissuperlative genius was enabled to create such unapproachable masterworksas "Siegfried" and "Tristan and Isolde. " The way up to those peaks was, however, slow and toilsome. For years hegroped in darkness, and light came but gradually. It has already beenintimated that his genius was slow in developing. A brief review of hisromantic career will bring out this and other interesting points. At the time when Richard Wagner was born (May 22, 1813), Leipzig was insuch a state of commotion on account of the war to liberate Germany fromthe Napoleonic yoke that the child's baptism was deferred severalmonths. To his schooldays reference has been made already, and we maytherefore pass on to the time when he tried to make his living as anoperatic conductor. Although he was then only twenty-one years old, heshowed remarkable aptitude for this kind of work from the beginning, andit was through no fault of his that misfortune overtook every operacompany with which he had anything to do. The bankruptcy, in 1836, ofthe manager of the Magdeburg Opera, affected him most disastrously, forit came at the moment when he had arranged for the first performance ofan opera he had written, entitled, "Das Liebesverbot, " or "The Novice ofPalermo, " and which therefore was given only once. Many years later anattempt was made to revive this juvenile work at Munich, but the projectwas abandoned because, as the famous Wagnerian tenor, Heinrich Vogl, informed the writer of this article, "Its arias and other numbers weresuch ludicrous and undisguised imitations of Donizetti and other popularcomposers of that time that we all burst out laughing, and kept up themerriment throughout the rehearsal. " This is of interest because itshows that Wagner, like that other great reformer, Gluck, began hiscareer by writing fashionable operas in the Italian style. A stillearlier opera of his, "The Fairies, "--the first one he completed, --wasnot produced till 1888, fifty-five years after it had been written, andfive years after Wagner's death. This has been performed a number oftimes in Munich, but it is so weak and uninteresting in itself that itrequired a splendid stage setting, and the "historic" curiosity ofWagner's admirers to make it palatable. It is significant that alreadyin these early works, Wagner wrote his own librettos, --a policy which hepursued to the end. Königsberg was the next city where the opera company with which he wasconnected, failed. This was the more embarrassing to him, as he had inthe meantime been so unwise as to marry a pretty actress, Minna Planer, who was destined, for a quarter of a century, to faithfully share hisexperiences, --chiefly disappointments. The pittance he got as conductorof these small German opera companies did not pay his expenses, all theless as he was fond of luxurious living, and, like most artists, theworld over, foolishly squandered his money when he happened to have any. At Riga, where Wagner next attempted to establish himself, the operacompany again got into trouble, and his financial straits became suchthat, relying on his future ability to meet his obligations, he resolvedto leave that part of the world altogether and seek his fortune inParis. He knew that the Prussian Meyerbeer had won fame and fortunethere, --why should not he have the same good luck? He had unboundedconfidence in his own ability, and what increased his hopes of aParisian success, was that he had already completed two acts of a grandhistoric opera, "Rienzi, " based on Bulwer's novel, and written in thesensational and spectacular style of Meyerbeer. He supposed that all hehad to do was to go to Paris, finish this opera, get it accepted throughthe influence of his countryman and colleague, Meyerbeer, and--wake upsome morning famous and wealthy. He was not the first man who builtcastles in Spain. To-day a trip from Riga to Paris is a very simple affair. You get into atrain, and in about twenty-four hours are at your goal. In 1839 therewere no such conveniences. Wagner had to go to the Prussian seaport ofPillau, and there board a sailing vessel which took him to London inthree weeks and a half. His journey, however, was a much more romanticaffair than a railway trip would have been. In the first place, it was areal flight--from his creditors whom he had to evade. Next he had tododge the Russian sentries, whose boxes were placed on the boundary lineonly a thousand yards apart. A friend discovered a way of accomplishingthis feat, and Wagner presently found himself on the ship, with hiswife and his enormous Newfoundland dog. In his trunk he had what hehoped would help him to begin a brilliant career in Paris: one operacompleted, --"The Novice of Palermo;" two acts of another, --"Rienzi;" andin his head he had the plot and some of the musical themes for athird, --"The Flying Dutchman. " The sea voyage came just in time to give him local color for this weirdnautical opera. Three times the vessel was tossed by violent storms, andonce the captain was obliged to seek safety in a Norwegian harbor. Thesailors told Wagner their version of the "Flying Dutchman" legend, andaltogether these adventures were the very thing he wanted at the time, and aided him in making his opera realistic, both in its text and itsmusic, which imitates the howling of the storm winds and "smells of thesalt breezes. " So for once our young musician had a streak of luck. But it did not lastlong. He found Paris a very large city, and with very little use forhim. He made the most diverse efforts to support himself, nearly alwayswithout success. Once it seemed as if his hopes were to be fulfilled. The Théâtre de la Renaissance accepted his "Novice of Palermo;" but atthe last moment there was the usual bankruptcy of the management, --thefourth that affected him! Then he wrote a Parisian Vaudeville, but ithad to be given up because the actors declared it could not be executed. The Grand Opera, on which he had fixed his eye, was absolutely out ofthe question. He was brought to such straits that he offered to sing inthe chorus of a small Boulevard theatre, but was rejected. His wifepawned her jewels; on several occasions it is said that she even wentinto the street to beg a few pennies for their supper. It was doubtlessduring these years of starvation that Wagner acquired those gastrictroubles which in later years often prevented him from working more thanan hour or two a day. A few German friends occasionally gave a little pecuniary aid, but theonly regular source of income was musical hackwork for the publisherSchlesinger, who gladly availed himself of Wagner's skill in having himmake vocal scores of operas, or arrange popular melodies for the pianoand other instruments. Wagner also wrote stories and essays for musicalperiodicals, for which he received fair remuneration; but his attempt tocompose romances and become a parlor favorite failed. Nobody wanted hissongs, and he finally offered them to the editor of a periodical inGermany for two dollars and a half to four dollars apiece. This may seemludicrously pathetic; but then had not poor Schubert, a little more thana decade before this, sold much better songs for twenty cents each! Meyerbeer no doubt aided Wagner, but considering his very greatinfluence in Paris, he achieved surprisingly little for him. The scoreof "Rienzi" had been completed in 1840, and in the spring of the nextyear, Wagner went to Meudon, near Paris, and there composed the music of"The Flying Dutchman, " in seven weeks, but neither of these operasseemed to have the least chance to appear on the boards of the GrandOpera. The best their author could do was to sell the libretto of "TheFlying Dutchman" for one hundred dollars, reserving the right to set itto music himself. The outcome of all these disappointments was that he finally lost hopeso far as Paris was concerned, and sent his "Rienzi" to Dresden and his"Flying Dutchman" to Berlin. The "Novice of Palermo" he had given upentirely after the bankruptcy of the Renaissance Théâtre, because, as hewrote, "I felt that I could no longer respect myself as its composer. "Meyerbeer had, at his request, kindly sent a note to the intendant ofthe Dresden Opera, in which he said, among other things, that he hadfound the selections from "Rienzi, " which Wagner had played for him, "highly imaginative and of great dramatic effect. " Tichatschek, thefamous Dresden tenor, examined the score, and liked the title role; thechorus director, Fischer, also pleaded for the acceptance of the opera;and so at last Wagner got word in Paris that it would be produced inDresden. As Berlin, too, retained the manuscript of his other opera, there was reason enough for him to end his Parisian sojourn and returnto his native country. He went overland this time, and, to cite his ownwords, "For the first time I saw the Rhine; with tears in my eyes I, thepoor artist, swore eternal allegiance to my German fatherland. " It was fortunate in every way that he went to Dresden. His operarequired many alterations and improvements, which he alone could make. He was permitted to superintend the rehearsals, which was, of course, agreat advantage to the opera. The singers grew more and moreenthusiastic over the music, and when the first public performance wasgiven, on October 20, 1842, the audience also was delighted and remainedto the very end, although the performance lasted six hours. The composerimmediately applied the pruning-knife and reduced the duration to fourhours and a half (from 6 to 10. 30, --opera hours were early in thosedays); but the tenor, Tichatschek, declared with tears in his eyes, "Ishall not permit any cuts in my part! It is too heavenly. " Those were proud and happy days for Wagner. "I, who had hitherto beenlonely, deserted, homeless, " he wrote, "suddenly found myself loved, admired, by many even regarded with wonderment. " "Rienzi" was repeated anumber of times to overcrowded houses, though the prices had been putup. It was regarded as "a fabulous success, " and the management waseager to follow it up with another. So the score of "The FlyingDutchman" was demanded of Berlin (where they seemed in no hurry to useit), and at once put into rehearsal. It was produced in Dresden onJanuary 2, 1843, only about ten weeks after "Rienzi, "--an almostunprecedented event in the life of an opera composer. Wagner conductedthe second opera himself (also "Rienzi, " after the first fewperformances), and gave so much satisfaction that he was shortlyafterwards appointed to the position of royal conductor (which he heldabout six years). So far, all seemed well. But disappointments soon began to overshadowhis seeming good luck. The first production of the "Flying Dutchman" canhardly be called a success. Wagner himself characterized the performanceas being, in its main features, "a complete failure, " and the stagesetting "incredibly awkward and wooden" (very different from what it isin Dresden to-day). Mme. Schroeder-Devrient was an admirable "Senta, "and received enthusiastic applause; but the opera itself puzzled theaudience rather than pleased it. The music-lovers of Dresden had expected another opera _à la_ Meyerbeer, like "Rienzi, " with its arias and duos, its din and its dances, itspomps and processions, its scenic and musical splendors. Instead ofthat, they heard a work utterly unlike any opera ever before written; anopera without arias, duets, and dances, without any of the glitter thathad theretofore entertained the public; an opera that simply related alegend in one breath, as it were, --like a dramatic ballad; an opera thatindulged in weird chromatic scales, and harsh but expressive harmonies, with an unprecedented license. Here was the real Wagner, but even inthis early and comparatively crude and simple phase, Wagner was toonovel and revolutionary to be appreciated by his contemporaries; henceit is not to be wondered at that the "Flying Dutchman, " after fourperformances in Dresden, and a few in Cassel and Berlin, disappearedfrom the stage for ten years. Although Wagner was now royal conductor, he did not succeed in securinga revival of this opera at Dresden. His next work, "Tannhäuser, " wasnevertheless promptly accepted. The score was completed on April 13, 1845, and six, months later (October 19), the first performance wasgiven. Wagner had thrown himself with all his soul into the compositionof this score. To a friend in Berlin he wrote: "This opera must be good, or else I never shall be able to do anything worth while. " The public atfirst seemed to agree with him. Seven performances were given before theend of the season, and it was resumed the following year; yet Wagnercame to the conclusion that he had written the opera "for a few intimatefriends, but not for the public, " to cite his own words. What the publichad expected and desired was shown by its enthusiastic reception of"Rienzi, " and its colder treatment of the "Dutchman. " But "Tannhäuser"was like the second opera; in fact, even "more so. " Wagner had outlivedthe time when he was willing to make concessions to current taste andfashion; thenceforth he went his own way, eager, indeed, for approval, but stubbornly refusing to win it by sacrificing his high art ideals. Here was true heroism, genuine manliness! Had he been willing to writemore operas like "Rienzi, " he might have revelled in wealth (he lovedwealth!) and basked in the sunshine of popularity, like Meyerbeer. Butnot one inch of concession did he make for the sake of the much-covetedriches and popular favor. Yet was not his next work, "Lohengrin, " of a popular character? Popularto-day, yes; but in the days of his Dresden conductorship he could noteven get it accepted for performance at his own opera-house! It wascompleted in August, 1847 (the last act having been written first andthe second last), but although he remained in Dresden two years longer, all his efforts to get it staged failed, for various reasons. And when, at last, Liszt gave it for the first time, on August 28, 1850, atWeimar, whence it gradually made its way to other opera-houses, itsreception everywhere showed that it was very far from being considered a"popular" work. The critics, especially, vied with one another inabusing this same "Lohengrin, " which at present is sung more frequentlythan any other opera; and they continued to abuse it until about twentyyears ago. "An abyss of ennui, " "void of all melody, " "an insult to thevery essence of music, " "a caricature of music, " "algebraic harmonies, ""no tangible ideas, " "not a dozen bars of melody, " "an opera withoutmusic, " "an incoherent mass of rubbish, "--are a few of the "critical"opinions passed on this opera, which is now regarded in all countries asa very wonderland of beautiful melodies and expressive harmonies. The non-acceptance in Dresden of this glorious opera, concerning whichWagner wrote, "It is the best thing I have done so far, " was only one ofmany trials and disappointments which daily harassed him. He was overhead and ears in debt, because, in his confidence in the immediatesuccess of his operas, he had had them printed at once, at his ownexpense. The opera-houses were very slow in accepting them, and thisleft him in a sad predicament. There were, moreover, enemieseverywhere, --ignorant, old-fashioned professionals, who objected to hisway of interpreting the masters (though it was afterwards admitted thathe was epoch-making as an interpreter of their deepest thoughts). Allthis galled him; and, furthermore, no attention whatever was paid to hispet plans for reforming the Dresden Opera, and theatrical mattersin general. In the state of mind brought about by this condition of affairs, itneeded but a firebrand to start an explosion. This firebrand wassupplied by the revolutionary uprising of 1849. Now, although Wagner hadnever really cared much for politics (to his friend Fischer he oncewrote: "I do not consider true art possible until politics cease toexist"), he was foolish enough to believe that a general overturning ofaffairs would benefit art-matters, too, and facilitate his operaticreforms; so he became, as he himself admits, "a revolutionist in behalfof the theatre. " He actively assisted the insurgents, and theconsequence was that, when the rebellion failed, he had to leave Dresdenand seek safety in flight. Three of the leaders of the insurrection--Roeckel, Bakunin, and Heubner;personal friends of Wagner--were captured and imprisoned; he himself wasso lucky as to escape to Weimar, where Franz Liszt took care of him. Itso happened that Liszt, who had given up his career as concert pianist(though all the world was clamoring to hear him), and was conducting theWeimar Opera, had been preparing a performance of "Tannhäuser, " to whichWagner would, under normal conditions, have been invited as a matter ofcourse. He was now there, but as a political fugitive, wherefore it wasnot deemed advisable to have him attend the public performance; but hedid secretly witness a rehearsal, and was delighted to find that Liszt'sgenius had enabled him to penetrate into the innermost recesses of thismusic. It was impossible, however, for him to stay any longer. TheDresden police had issued a warrant for the arrest of "the royalKapellmeister Richard Wagner, " who was to be "placed on trial for activeparticipation in the riots which have taken place here. " No time was, therefore, to be lost. Late in the evening of May 18, Liszt's noblepatroness, the Princess Wittgenstein, received this note from him: "Canyou give the bearer sixty thalers? Wagner is obliged to fly, and Icannot help him at this moment. " Early the next morning Wagner, provided with a false pass, left Weimarand headed for Switzerland, which was to be his home for the greaterpart of the following twelve years of his exile from Germany. Had hebeen caught, like his friends, and, like them, imprisoned during theseyears, it is not likely that the world would now possess those sevenmonuments of his ripest genius, "Rheingold, " "Die Walküre, " "Siegfried, ""Götterdämmerung, " "Tristan and Isolde, " "Die Meistersinger, " and"Parsifal. " Even as it was, the world has undoubtedly lost an immortalopera or two through his unfortunate participation in the rebellion. Forduring the first four years of his exile, he did not compose any music. He reasoned that he had written four good operas and nobody seemed towant them; why, therefore, should he compose any more? At the same time, he realized that there were natural reasons why hisoperas were not understood. They were written in such a novel style, both vocal and instrumental, that the singers, players, and conductorsfound it difficult to perform them correctly, the consequence being thatthey did not specially impress the audiences, which, moreover, werebewildered by finding themselves listening to works so radicallydifferent from what they had been accustomed to in the opera-houses. Inthe hope of remedying this state of affairs Wagner devoted several yearsto writing essays, in which he explained his aims and ideals for thebenefit both of performers and listeners. Little attention was, however, paid to these essays, and although they are valuable aesthetictreatises, most lovers of Wagner would gladly give them for the operashe might have written in the same time, --operas uniting thecharacteristics of "Lohengrin" and "The Valkyrie. " Wagner's letters to Liszt and other friends show that he sufferedtortures, and was often brought to the verge of suicide by the thoughtthat, as a political refugee, he was unable to go to Germany tosuperintend the production of his works. His one consolation was that, as he put it, through the friendship of Liszt his art had found a homeat Weimar at the moment when he himself became homeless. Weimar became, as it were, a sort of preliminary Bayreuth, to which pilgrimages weremade to hear Wagner's operas. Liszt not only produced the "FlyingDutchman, " "Tannhäuser, " and "Lohengrin, " but wrote eloquent essays onthem, and in every possible way advanced the good cause. It has beenjustly said that by his efforts he accelerated the vogue of Wagner'soperas fully ten years. He also helped him pecuniarily, and inducedothers to do the same. Never in the world's history has one artist doneso much for another as Liszt did for Wagner during all the years of hisexile in Switzerland. Few persons would consider residence in Switzerland (the usual home inthose days of political refugees) a special hardship; nor would Wagnerhave considered it in that light except for the solicitude he felt forthe children of his brain. Otherwise he greatly enjoyed life in thatglorious country, and the Alpine ozone nourished and stimulated hisbrain. Moreover, from the creative point of view, it was an actualadvantage for him to be away from the opera-houses of the greatcapitals. In Switzerland, except for a short time when he was connectedwith the Zurich opera, he heard no operatic music except such as his ownbrain created. Undoubtedly this helps to account for the astoundingoriginality of the music-dramas he wrote in Switzerland. These music-dramas go as far beyond "Lohengrin" in certain directions as"Lohengrin" goes beyond the operas of Wagner's predecessors. It was areckless thing to do, to make another such giant stride before the worldhad caught up with his first, and he had to suffer the consequences;but genius disregards prudence, and looks to the future alone. What hewas now writing was what his enemies tauntingly called "the music of thefuture, " because, as they said, nobody liked it at present; but what hehimself called the "art work of the future, " in which all the fine artsare inseparably united. The biggest of his works, the "Nibelung Tetralogy, " was conceived andfor the most part written in Switzerland. Before leaving Dresden he hadalready written the poem of an opera which he called "Siegfried'sDeath. " Returning to this in his exile he came to the conclusion, gradually, that the legend on which it is based, and which he hadsketched out in prose at the beginning, contained the material for two, three, nay, four operas. Accordingly, he wrote the poems of these:first, "Götterdämmerung, " then "Siegfried, " "Die Walküre, " and"Rheingold. " The music to these four dramas was, however, composed inthe reverse order, in which they were to be performed. Wagner indulged in no illusions regarding these music-dramas. He knewthat they were beyond the capacity of even the best royal opera-housesof that time, and that they could be performed only under exceptionalconditions, such as he finally succeeded, after herculean efforts andmany disappointments, in securing at Bayreuth in 1876. It is of greatinterest to note that the germs of a sort of "Bayreuth festival plan"can be found in his letters as early as 1850, --the year when "Lohengrin"had its first hearing. Thus a full quarter of a century elapsed betweenthe conception of this festival plan and its execution. But Wagner hadthe patience of Job, as well as his capacity for suffering. Amid privations of all sorts, he wrote the sublime music of thesedramas, beginning with "Rheingold, " on Nov. 1, 1853, --the first time hehad put new operatic melodies on paper since the completion of"Lohengrin, " in August, 1847. In his head, to be sure, he had beencarrying much of the Nibelung music for some time, for he habituallycreated his leading melodies at the same time as the verse; and the fourNibelung poems were in print in 1853. On May 28, 1854, the score of"Rheingold" was completed, and four weeks later he began the sketches of"The Valkyrie, " the completed score of which was in his desk by the endof March, 1856. In the meantime his poverty had compelled him, much against his wishes, to accept an offer from the London Philharmonic Society to conduct theirconcerts for a season (March to June, 1855). He had reason to bitterlyregret this action. With the limited number of rehearsals at his commandit was impossible for him to make the orchestra follow his intentionsand reveal his greatness as a conductor. He was not allowed to make theprogrammes, and the directors, ignorant of the fact that they hadengaged the greatest musical genius of the century, gave no Wagnerconcert, and put only a few short selections from his early operas onthe programs. Thus his hopes of creating a desire for the hearing of hiscomplete operas, which had been one of his motives in going to London, were frustrated. He was, moreover, constantly abused for doing thingsdifferently from Mendelssohn, and the leading critics referred to hisbest music as "senseless discord, " "inflated display of extravagance andnoise, " and so on. Almost the only pleasant episode was the sympathy andinterest of Queen Victoria, who had a long talk with him, and informedhim that his music had enraptured her. For all this trouble and loss of time (he found himself unable in Londonto do any satisfactory work on the uncompleted "Valkyrie" score), hereceived the munificent sum of $1, 000, --considerably less than manyWagner singers to-day get for one evening's work. Shortly before leavingLondon he wrote to a friend that he would bring home about 200francs, --$40! For this he had wasted four months of precious time andendured endless "contrarieties and vulgar animosities, " to use hisown words. Equally unsuccessful were his efforts, a few years later, to betterhimself financially by a series of concerts in Paris (1860). Theyresulted in a large deficit. Nor was he benefited by the performances ofhis "Tannhäuser, " which were given at the grand opera in March, 1861, byorder of Napoleon, at the request of the influential PrincessMetternich. He had refused to interpolate a vulgar ballet in the secondact for the benefit of the members of the aristocratic Jockey Club, whodined late and insisted on having a ballet on entering the opera-house. They took their revenge by creating such a disturbance every eveningthat after the third performance Wagner refused to allow any furtherrepetitions, although the house on the third night had been completelysold out. He was to receive $50 for each performance. The result was$150, or less than 50 cents a day, for a year's hard work and no end ofworry in connection with the rehearsals. How many men are there in the annals of art who would have refused, after all these disappointments and bitter lessons, to make _some_concessions? Wagner was writing a gigantic work, the Nibelung Tetralogy, which, he was convinced, would never yield a penny's profit during hislifetime. Sometimes despair seized him. In one of his letters heexclaims: "Why should I, poor devil, burden and torture myself with suchterrible tasks, if the present generation refuses to let me have even aworkshop?" Yet the only deviation he made from his plan was that whenhe had reached the second act of the third of the Nibelung dramas, thepoetic "Siegfried, " in June, 1857, he made up his mind to abandon theTetralogy for the time being, and compose an opera which might beperformed separately and once more bring him into contact withthe stage. This opera was "Tristan and Isolde;" but instead of being a concession, it turned out to be the most difficult and Wagnerian of all hisworks, --an opera with much emotion but little action, no processions orchoruses such as "Lohengrin" still had, and, of course, no arias ortunes whatever. "Tristan and Isolde" was completed in 1859, and Wagnerwould have much preferred to have its performance in Paris commanded byNapoleon in place of "Tannhäuser. " What the Jockey Club would have donein that case is inconceivable, for, compared with "Tristan, ""Tannhäuser" is almost Meyerbeerian, if not Donizettian. No singers, moreover, could have been found in Paris able to interpret this work, with its new vocal style, --"speech-song, " as the Germans call it. EvenGermany could do nothing, at first, with this opera. In Vienna, afterfifty-four rehearsals, it was abandoned, in 1863, as "impossible, " andthat city did not produce it till after Wagner's death. Instead ofbringing him into immediate contact with the stage, it was not heard_anywhere_ till seven years after its completion. There was one more card for him to play. All his operas, so far, hadbeen tragedies. What if he were to write a comic opera? Would not thatbe likely to get him access to the stage again, and help himfinancially? He had the plan for a comic opera; indeed, he had sketchedit as early as 1845, at the same time as the plot of "Lohengrin. "Sixteen years it lay dormant in his brain. At last he wrote out the poemin Paris, immediately after the "Tannhäuser" disaster there. Perhaps itwould be more accurate to call "Die Meistersinger" a humorous opera; forwhile the story of the mediaeval knight who wins the goldsmith'sdaughter has comic features, its chief characteristic is humor, withthat undercurrent of seriousness that belongs to all masterpieces ofhumor. To a certain extent, it is a musical and poetic autobiography, the victorious young Knight Walter, who sings as he pleases, withoutregard to pedantic rules, representing Wagner himself and the "music ofthe future, " while the vain and malicious Beckmesser stands for thecritics, and Hans Sachs for enlightened public opinion. It was during the time that he wrote the gloriously melodious andspontaneous music to this poem that the most important event of his lifehappened. Work on the score was repeatedly interrupted by the necessityof making some money. Most of his concerts in German cities, undertakenfor this purpose, did not yield him any profits. In Russia, however, hewas very successful, and as he had the promise of a repetition of hissuccess, he rented a fine villa at Penzing, near Vienna, and proceededto enjoy life for a change. Who can blame him for this? As he said to afriend not long after this, "I am differently organized from others, have sensitive nerves, must have beauty, splendor, and light. Is itreally such an outrageous thing if I lay claim to the little bit ofluxury which I like, --I, who am preparing enjoyment for the world andfor thousands?" Unfortunately the second Russian project failed, through no fault of hisown, and as he had borrowed money at usurious rates on his expectedprofits, he found himself compelled to fly once more from his creditors. After spending a short time in Switzerland, he went to Stuttgart, wherehe persuaded his friend Weissheimer to go with him into the SuabianAlps, where he intended to hide for half a year, until he could finishhis "Meistersinger, " and with the score raise money for his creditors. The wagon had already been ordered for the next morning, May 3, 1864, and Wagner was packing his trunk, when a card was brought up to him withthe inscription: "von Pfistenmeister, Secrétaire aulique de S. M. Le roide Bavière, " and the message that the Baron came by order of the King ofBavaria, and was very anxious to see him. King Ludwig II. Of Bavaria had declared, while he was still crownprince, that as soon as he became king he would show the world howhighly he held the genius of Wagner in honor. He kept his word. One ofhis first acts was to despatch Baron von Pfistenmeister to search forWagner, and not to return without him. He was to tell him that the kingwas his most ardent admirer; that he wanted him to come at once toMunich, to live there in comfort, at the king's expense, to complete hisNibelung operas, and produce them forthwith. Was it a wonder that whenthe Baron had left, Wagner, who was thus suddenly raised from the depthof despair (he had even meditated suicide) to the height of happiness, fell on Weissheimer's neck, and wept for joy. Surely the brain of a Dumas could not have conceived a more romanticevent than this sudden transformation of one who was a fugitive fromdebtor's prison into the favorite of a young and enthusiastic king. Atlast Wagner had an opportunity to bring forward his music-dramas. "Tristan and Isolde" was sung at the Munich Opera on June 10, 1865, withan excellent cast, and Hans von Bülow as conductor. "Die Meistersinger"followed on June 21, 1868. Both these works were received with enthusiasmby the ever-growing band of Wagner-lovers. His plan of building aspecial theatre in Munich for the performance of his Nibelung operascould not be carried out, however, even with the king's aid; for hisgreat influence with the king (he was rumored to be even his politicaland religious adviser, though this was not true), aroused so muchhostile feeling that Wagner finally decided to have his Nibelungfestival at the old secluded town of Bayreuth. At the suggestion of the eminent pianist, Carl Taussig, Wagner societieswere formed in the cities of Europe and America to raise funds for thisfestival and give Wagner a chance to establish a tradition by showingthe world how his operas should be performed. With the aid of these andliberal contributions by his ever-devoted king, Wagner was able, aftermany trials, tribulations, and postponements, to bring out, at last, hisgreat Tetralogy, on August 13, 14, 16, and 17, of the year 1876. It wasbeyond comparison the most interesting and important event in the wholehistory of music. Wagner had personally visited the opera-housesthroughout the land and selected the best singers. The audience includedthe Emperors of Germany and Brazil, King Ludwig, the Grand Dukes ofWeimar and Baden, eminent composers like Liszt, Grieg, Saint-Saëns, andmany other notable persons. The impression made by the great work wasthe deeper because of the unusual circumstances: the theatre speciallyconstructed after Wagner's novel plan; the amphitheatric seats; theconcealed orchestra; the stereoscopic clearness and nearness of thestage scenes, etc. The necessity of charging very high rates ($225 for the four dramas)naturally prevented the audiences from being large, and the result wasthat Wagner had a deficit of $37, 000 on his hands as the reward for hisgenius and years of business worries. When, however, his last work, thesublime, semi-religious "Parsifal, " was produced in 1882, there was abalance in his favor. He was then in his sixty-ninth year, and theexertion of producing this final masterpiece was too great for him. Torecuperate, he went to Venice, where he died on Feb. 13, 1882. KingLudwig sent a special train to convey his body to Bayreuth, where it wasburied in the garden behind his villa Wahnfried. Since Wagner's death the Bayreuth festivals have been kept up withever-increasing success, under the guidance of his widow Cosima, thedaughter of Liszt (whom he married in 1870, four years after the deathof his first wife), and their son, Siegfried, who has in recent yearsalso won some success as an opera composer. The performances at Bayreuthare no longer what they were during Wagner's lifetime, --models for allthe world; but they are still of unique interest. In truth, headquarterslike Bayreuth are no longer needed, for all the German cities now viewith one another in their efforts to interpret the Wagner operasaccording to the composer's intentions; and his influence on othermusicians, which began with the performance of "Lohengrin" under Liszt, in 1850, is to-day greater than ever, --more powerful, perhaps, than thatever exerted by any other master. But while an eminent German critic wrote not long ago that "themusic-drama of Wagner constitutes modern opera, " it would be a hugemistake to make Wagnerism synonymous with modern music in general. Apartfrom the opera, there are several other very powerful currents, andwhile most of them can be traced to the first half of the nineteenthcentury, they are none the less modern. Their principal sources areBeethoven, Schubert, and Chopin, to whom we must add, in the second halfof the century, Liszt. The symphonies of Haydn and Mozart are like toy-houses compared with themassive architecture of Beethoven's. He not only elaborated the forms, but varied the rhythms, broadened the melody, and deepened theexpression of orchestral music. In his works, too, are to be found thegerms of romanticism, which others, notably Mendelssohn and Schumann, developed so fascinatingly in their best works. Most of Mendelssohn'scompositions have had their day; but Schumann is still a force in modernmusic and will long remain so. Brahms, the musical Browning, is, musically speaking, a son of Schumannand a grandson of Beethoven. While even Brahms did not escape theinfluence of Wagner, nor that of the romanticists Schubert and Chopin, still, in his essence, he represents reaction against modern romanticismand an atavistic return to the spirit of Beethoven. He has been, fordecades, the idol of Wagner's enemies; yet, in truth, there was nooccasion for opposing these two men, since they worked in entirelydifferent fields. Brahms wrote no operas, while Wagner wrote little butoperas. The real antagonist of Brahms is Liszt, who also worked only forthe concert hall and who represents poetic or pictorial music (programmemusic), while Brahms stands for absolute music, or music _per se_, without any poetic affiliations. While Schubert in his youth also came under the influence of his greatcontemporary, Beethoven, he soon emancipated himself completely fromhim, even in the symphony, in which, as Schumann pointed out, he openedup "an entirely new world" of melody, color, and emotion. Hisorchestration is more varied, euphonious, and enchanting thanBeethoven's, and in this direction he did for the symphony what Weberdid for the opera. By using the brass instruments pianissimo, for colorinstead of for loudness, he opened a path in which later masters, including Wagner, eagerly followed him. Schubert was also the firstcomposer who revealed the exquisite beauty and the great emotional powerof the freest modulation from key to key. His poetic impromptus forpiano became the model for Mendelssohn's "Songs without Words, " and themultitudinous forms of modern short pieces, while his melodious, dainty, graceful valses were the forerunners of the exquisite dance-music whichsubsequently made Vienna famous, and which reached its climax in JohannStrauss the younger, universally known as "the waltz king. " In all these respects, Schubert was epoch-making; and if the beautifuldetails he suggested to his successors up to the present day could betaken out of their works there would be some surprising blanks. Especially also is this true in the realm of lyric song, for, aseverybody knows, he practically created the art song as we know and loveit. The greatest of his immediate successors, Schumann and Franz, cheerfully admitted that they could never have written such songs asthey gave the world but for Schubert, and the same confession might bemade by the latest of the great songwriters, Grieg, Richard Strauss, andour American MacDowell. Schubert's best songs have never been equalled. They belong in the realm of modern music quite as much as Wagner'smusic-dramas and Liszt's symphonic poems. Chopin is another composer who, although he died in 1849 (Schubert diedin 1828), is as modern as the masters just named. He was as boldlyoriginal as Schubert, and as great a magician in the art of arousingdeep emotion by means of novel, unexpected modulations. As an originatorof new harmonic progressions he has had only three equals, --Bach, Schubert, and Wagner. Harmonies as ultra-modern as those of Wagner's"Parsifal" may be found in some of the mazurkas of Chopin. He was, asRubinstein called him, "the soul of the pianoforte. " No one before orafter him knew how to make that instrument speak so eloquently. Byingeniously scattering the notes of a chord over the keyboard whileholding down the pedal, he practically gave the player three or fourhands, and greatly enlarged the harmonic and coloristic possibilities ofthe pianoforte. Liszt, Rubinstein, Paderewski, and others have gonefarther still in the same direction, but he showed the way, and most ofhis pieces are as delightful and as modern now as they were on the daywhen they were written. He wrote a few sonatas, but the majority of hisworks are short pieces such as are characteristic of the modernromantic school. Before Chopin modernized pianoforte music the world's greatest composershad been Italians, Germans, and Frenchmen. Chopin's father was aFrenchman, but his mother was a native of Poland, and he was born inthat country. While his music has the French qualities of elegance andclearness (which every one admires in the works of Gounod, Bizet, Massenet, and other Parisian masters), in its essence it is Polish--afact of special significance, for from this time on other nations thanthe three mentioned--especially the Slavic and Scandinavian--begin toplay a prominent role in music. In this brief sketch only the greatestnames can be considered, --such names as Rubinstein, Tschaikowsky, Dvorák, Grieg. Rubinstein was not only one of the greatest pianists, but one of themost spontaneous and fertile melodists of all times. His frequentlycareless workmanship and his foolish, savage hostility to the dominantWagner movement prevented him from enjoying the fruits of his raregenius. He felt that, had it not been for the all-absorbing Wagner, hehimself might have been as popular as Mendelssohn. Although a Russian, there is little local color in his music, for the enchanting exoticmelodic intervals in his "Persian" songs are Oriental in general, ratherthan Russian in particular. Similar exotic intervals may be found in the"Aïda" of Verdi, a pure Italian. Rubinstein, like Mendelssohn andMeyerbeer, was a Hebrew. His day will yet come, for his Dramatic andOcean symphonies are among the grandest orchestral works in existence. His countryman, Tschaikowsky, also was neglected during his lifetime;but since his death he has become, especially in London, almost aspopular as Wagner; and deservedly so, for he was a genius of thehighest type, less in his songs and pianoforte works than in hissymphonies and symphonic poems, which include some of the most inspiredpages in modern music. In some of his compositions there is a barbaricsplendor which proclaims the Russian and delights those who like exoticnovelty in music. Like all the Russians, Tschaikowsky was stronglyinfluenced by Liszt; indeed, it may be said that in Russia Liszt wasmore potent in shaping the course of modern music than even Wagner. Another Slavic composer, the Bohemian Dvorák, is of special interest toAmericans not only because he is one of the greatest of modernorchestral writers (a colorist of rare charm), but because he presidedfor several years over Mrs. Thurber's National Conservatory of Music inNew York, and there wrote that truly melodious and deeply emotionalwork, "From the New World, " which has become almost as popular asTschaikowsky's "Pathétique. " His Bohemian rhythms have a unique charm. Among the Scandinavian composers the greatest, by far, is Grieg, one ofthe most original melodists and harmonists of all times. His songs, inparticular, are destined to immortality; they are among the very bestwritten since Schubert. Of his pianoforte and chamber music, too, it canbe said that everything is new, free from commonplace, and ultra-modern. He has written mostly short pieces, and for that reason has had to wait(like Chopin in his day) a long time for full recognition of his genius, the critics not having yet got over the foolish habit of measuringart-works with a yardstick. Like Chopin, moreover, Grieg has had theill-fortune of having his most original and individual traits accreditedto his nation and described as "national peculiarities. " His music doescontain such peculiarities; but it is necessary to distinguish betweenwhat is Norwegian and what is Griegian. Grieg's little pieces and songsare big with genius. The Hungarian Liszt is another immortal master who, beside the fruits ofhis individual genius, contributed to the current of modern music someof those exotic national traits which distinguish it from that ofearlier epochs when it was almost exclusively Italian, French, andGerman. His fifteen Hungarian rhapsodies constitute, however, only asmall part of the invaluable legacy he has left the world. He was themost many-sided of all musicians, --the greatest of all pianists, and oneof the best composers of oratorios, songs, orchestral, and pianoforteworks, --everything, in short, except operas and chamber music. He wasalso the greatest of teachers and (with the exception of Wagner) thegreatest of conductors; as such, he carried out both his own andWagner's new and revolutionary principles of interpretation, which havegradually made the orchestral conductor a personage of even greaterimportance, in concert hall and opera-house, than the prima donna, travelling, like her, from city to city, to delight lovers of music. One might have expected that the prince of pianists, being at the sametime a composer, would do for the pianoforte what Bach had done forchoral and organ music, Beethoven for the symphony, Schubert for the artsong, and Wagner for the opera. But he could not, for Chopin hadanticipated him. In only one direction was it possible to go beyondChopin, --in that of making the piano capable of reproducing orchestraleffects. This, Liszt achieved in his own works and his transcriptions. But, after all, the grandest pianoforte, while delightful as such, isbut a poor substitute for an orchestra. Hence it was natural that Lisztshould give up the pianoforte as his specialty and devote himselfparticularly to the orchestra. In this domain he was destined to achieve reforms similar to those ofWagner in the opera. The "classical" symphony, like the old-fashionedopera, consists of detached numbers, or movements, that have no organicconnection with one another. For the detached numbers of the operaWagner substituted his "continuous melody;" and he provided an organicconnection of all the parts by means of the "leading motives" orcharacteristic melodies and chords which recur whenever the situationcalls for them. In the same spirit Liszt transformed the symphony intothe symphonic poem, which is continuous and has a leading motive unitingall its parts. There is another aspect to the symphonic poem, in which Liszt deviatedfrom Wagner. In Wagner's operas there is plenty of descriptive orpictorial music, but no program music, properly speaking; for even insuch things as the Ride of the Valkyries, or the Magic Fire Scene, themusic does not depend on a programme, but is explained by the scenery. In programme music, on the other hand, the scene or the poetic idea issimply explained in the programme, or else merely hinted at in the titleof the piece. Crude attempts in this direction were made centuries ago, but programme music as an important branch of music is a modernphenomenon. Beethoven encouraged it by his "Pastoral Symphony, " and theFrench Berlioz did some very remarkable things in this line in hisdramatic symphonies; but it remained for Liszt to hit the nail on thehead in his symphonic poems. The French Saint-Saëns followed him, ratherthan his countryman Berlioz; so did Tschaikowsky, Dvorák, and mostmodern composers, up to Richard Strauss, whose symphonic poems are themost widely discussed, praised, and abused compositions of our time. To the great names contained in the preceding paragraphs another mustbe added, --that of an Italian. By an odd coincidence, Verdi was born inthe same year as Wagner, 1813. But what is far more remarkable is thatat the close of their careers, so different otherwise, these two greatcomposers met again--in their music, Verdi as a Wagnerian convert. Up tohis fifty-eighth year Verdi had written two dozen operas, all made up ofstrings of arias in the old-fashioned way, --superb arias, many of them, especially in "Il Trovatore" and "Aïda, " but still arias. Then he restedfrom his labors sixteen years; and when he appeared on the stage again, with his "Otello" and "Falstaff, " he had adopted Wagner's maxims thatarias are out of place in a music-drama; that "the play's the thing, "and that the music should follow the text word for word. Surely, this was the most remarkable of Wagner's triumphs and conquests. He who had been denounced for decades as being unable to write properlyfor the voice was actually taken up as a model by the greatest composerof Italy, the land of song. Moreover, all the young composers of Italyhave turned their backs on the traditions of Italian opera. The chiefambition of Mascagni, Leoncavallo, Puccini, and all the others has beento be called "the Italian Wagner;" and their operas are much more likeWagner's than like Rossini's and Donizetti's, being free from arias andthe vocal embroideries that formerly were the essence of Italian opera. The same is true of the operas written in recent decades in France, Germany, and other countries. Massenet, Saint-Saëns, Humperdinck, Goldmark, Richard Strauss, Paderewski, and all the others have followedin Wagner's footsteps. Such, briefly told, is the story of Richard Wagner and Modern Music. The"music of the future" has become the music of the present. What thefuture will bring no one can tell. Croakers say, as they have alwayssaid, that the race of giants has died out. But who knew, fifty yearsago, that Wagner and Liszt, or even their predecessors, Chopin andSchumann, and the song specialist, Robert Franz, were giants? We know itnow, and future generations will know whether we have giants among us. Things of beauty that will be a joy forever have been created by men ofgenius now living in Europe; such men as the Norwegian Grieg, theBohemian Dvorák, the French Saint-Saëns and Massenet, the HungarianGoldmark, the German Humperdinck and Richard Strauss, the PolishPaderewski. England has more good composers and listeners than it everhad before; and the same is true of America. We have no school of operayet, but the best operettas of Victor Herbert and De Koven deservemention by the side of those of the French. Offenbach, Lecocq, andAudran, the Viennese Strauss, Suppé, and Milloecker, the EnglishSullivan. The orchestral compositions of our John K. Paine aremasterworks, and the songs and pianoforte pieces of MacDowell are equalto anything produced in Europe since Chopin and Franz. We have severalother men of great promise, and altogether the outlook for America, aswell as for Europe, is bright. AUTHORITIES. The books, pamphlets, and newspaper articles on Wagner would fill alibrary. He has been more written about than any writers exceptShakspere, Goethe, and Dante. He was also fond of writing about himself. His autobiography (extending only to 1865) has not yet been given to thepublic; but there are many autobiographic pages in the ten volumes ofhis literary works, which have been Englished by Ellis. Of great valueare Wagner's letters to Liszt and to other friends. These were utilizedfor the first time in "Wagner and His Works, " the most elaboratebiography in the English language, by the author of the foregoingarticle. Shorter American and English books on Wagner have been writtenby Kobbé, Krehbiel, Henderson, Hueffer, Newman, &c. Of French writersLavignac, Jullien, Mendès, Servières, Schuré, may be mentioned. Of greatvalue are Kufferath's monographs on the Wagner operas and Liszt'sanalyses. In Germany the standard work of reference is the third editionof Glasenopp, in six volumes, four of which are now (1902) in print. Other German writers are Porges, Wolzogen, Pohl, Nohl, Tappert, Chamberlain, &c. The best histories of Modern Music in general areLanghaus's larger work and Riemann's "Geschichte der Musik seitBeethoven. " The best general work for reference is "Great Composers andTheir Works, " edited by Professor Paine of Harvard. References to about10, 000 articles on Wagner may be found in Oesterlein's "Katalog EinerRichard Wagner Bibliothek, " 3 vols. JOHN RUSKIN. 1819-1900. MODERN ART. BY G. MERCER ADAM. What John Ruskin has done in a prosaic, commercial, and Philistine age, in teaching the world to love and study the Beautiful, in opening to itthe hidden mysteries and delights of art, and in inciting the passionfor taking pleasure in and even possessing embodiments of it, that ageowes to the great prose-poet and enthusiastic author of "ModernPainters. " Neither before nor since his day has literature known such apassionate and luminous exponent of Nature's beauties, such aninculcator in men's minds of the art of observing her ways and methods, or one who has given the world such deep insight into what constitutesthe true and the beautiful in art. For these things, and for opening newworlds of instruction and delight to his age in the realm of art, heightened by the charm of his marvellous prose, we can readily pardonRuskin for his weaknesses and perverseness, --for his dogmatisms, hisfervors, and ecstasies, his exaggerations of praise and blame, and evenfor the missionary propagation of his often unsound economic gospel, valuable though it may be in illustrating and enforcing morality in itsaesthetic aspect. Despite his enemies, and all that the critics havesaid contradicting his theories, Ruskin was a surprise and a revelationto his time. In not a little of all that he said and did, it is true, wecannot concur; nor can we fail to see the errors he fell into throughhis want of reserve and his headlong haste to say and do the things hesaid and did; nevertheless, he was a great and inspiring teacher inthings that appeal to our sense of the beautiful, and earnest in hiszeal to raise men's intellectual and moral standard of life. Like mostenthusiasts and geniuses, he had, now and then, his hours of reaction, waywardness, and gloom; but there was much that was noble and ennoblingin the man, as well as rich and fructifying in his thought. Even in hissocial and moral exhortations, tinctured as they are with medievalism, and however much we may here again disagree with him, he had much thatwas uplifting and inspiring to say to his time, --a time that had greatneed of his apostolic counsellings and his fervent inculcations ofmorality, industry, religion, and humanity. Throughout Mr. Ruskin's works--and they are amazingly manifold--a strongand intense purpose runs, given to the highest and noblest ends; andthough their author at times wearies his reader by his diffuseness andhis digressions, and to some is almost fanatical in his reverence forart, he is ever imaginative and eloquent, and has created for us a new, instructive, and uniquely fresh and thoughtful body of art-literature. The truth of infinite value he teaches is "realism, "--the doctrine thatall truth and beauty are to be attained by a reverent and faithful studyof nature, and not, as a reviewer expresses it, "by substituting vagueforms, bred by imagination on the mists of feeling, in place ofdefinite, substantial reality. The thorough acceptance of this doctrinewould remould our life; and he who teaches its application, even to anysingle department of human activity, and with such power as Mr. Ruskin's, is a prophet for his generation. " In all his various laborsand aims, Mr. Ruskin set before himself a high, if somewhat quixotic, ideal of life, and with great earnestness did much, not only for theelevation of his fellow-men, but for the development of sound artistictaste and the enriching and spiritualizing of life by seeking tosurround it at all times with the true and the beautiful, and with theold-time virtues of purity, manliness, and courage. Among the "Beacon Lights" of the age there can be no question thatRuskin is worthy of an exalted place, since few men of our modern time, rich as it is in eminent thinkers and writers, has done more than he toillumine the many subjects with which he has so fascinatinglydealt, --and that not only in art and its cult of the Beautiful, but inethics, education, and political economy. The energies, activities, andimpulses he constantly put forth, as well as the high principles thatever guided him in his earnest endeavor to improve the intellectual andmoral condition of his kind, mark his era as a great artistic epoch inthe onward and upward progress of the race. By stimulus, suggestion, andinspiration he has powerfully influenced his time, though manifestly nota little of the seed he abundantly and hopefully scattered has fallenupon barren ground. Nevertheless, where the seed has fallen andgerminated, the yield has been large: "his spirit has passed far widerthan he ever knew or conceived; and his words, flung to the winds, haveborne fruit a hundredfold in lands that he never thought of or designedto reach. " With what pride and gratitude should not the age regard himand his memory, --one who has quickened the sensibilities of men inlooking upon nature; opened our dull eyes to its manifold beauties; madeplain to the average intelligence what Art is and stands for; implantedin our souls worship of the beautiful; shown working-men how to use theirtools in the highest interests of their craft, and taught maidens whatand how to read as well as how and in what spirit to sew and cook. Theworld too often acknowledges its true teachers and prophets only when itbegins to build them some belated tomb. "This, at any rate, " gratefullyexclaims Frederic Harrison, [1] "we will not suffer to be done toJohn Ruskin. " [Footnote 1: Written by Mr. F. H. On Professor Ruskin's eightiethbirthday (February 8, 1899). ] "We may all of us recall to-day with love and gratitude the enormousmass of stirring thoughts and melodious speech about a thousand things, divine and human, beautiful and good, which for a whole half-century theauthor of 'Modern Painters' has given to the world. They cover everyphase of nature, every type of art, of history, society, economics, religion; the past and the future; all rules of human duty, whetherpersonal or social, domestic or national. .. . He spake to us of trees, from the cedar of Lebanon unto the hyssop on the wall; he spake also ofbeasts, and of fowl, and of creeping things, and of fishes. He has putnew beauty for us into the sky and the clouds and the rainbow, into theseas at rest or in storm, into the mountains and into the lakes, intothe flowers and the grass, into crystals and gems, into the mightiestruins of past ages, and into the humblest rose upon a cottage wall. Hehas done for the Alps and the cathedrals of Italy and France, for Veniceand Florence, what Byron did for Greece. We look upon them all now withnew and more searching eyes. Whole schools of art, entire ages of oldworkmanship, the very soul of the Middle Age, have been revealed with anew inspiration and transfigured in a more mysterious light. Poetry, Greek sculpture, mediaeval worship, commercial morality, the training ofthe young, the nobility of industry, the purity of the home, --a thousandthings that make up the joy and soundness of human life have beenirradiated by the flashing searchlight of one ardent soul: irradiated, let us say, as this dazzling ray shot round the horizon, glancing fromheaven to earth, and touching the gloom with fire. We need not, evento-day, be tempted from truth, or pretend that the light is permanent orcomplete. It has long ceased to flash round the welkin, and its veryscintillations have disturbed our true vision. But we remember still itsdazzling power and its revelation of things that our eyes had not seen. "What we especially love to dwell on to-day is this: that in all thisunrivalled volume of printed thoughts, in this encyclopaedic range oftopic by this most voluminous and most versatile of modern writers [maywe not say of all English writers?] there is not one line that is base, or coarse, or frivolous; not a sentence that was framed in envy, malice, wantonness, or cruelty; not one piece that was written to win money, orpopularity, or promotion; not a line composed for any selfish end or inany trivial mood. Think what we may of this enormous library of print, we know that every word of it was put forth of set purpose without anyhidden aim, utterly without fear, and wholly without guile; to make theworld a little better, to guide, inspire, and teach men, come whatmight, scoff as they would, turn from him as they chose, though theyleft him alone, a broken old man crying in the wilderness, with none tohear or to care. They might think it all utterly vain; we may think muchof it was in vain: but it was always the very heart's blood of a raregenius and a noble soul. " Before entering, somewhat in detail, into Ruskin's vast and variedlabors, let us briefly outline the scope and character of the work whichgave the art critic and prophet of his time his chief fame. Thepersonal incidents in his life need not detain us at the outset, as theyare not specially eventful, and may be more fully gathered from theexcellent "Life" of Ruskin, by his friend and some-time secretary, W. G. Collingwood, or from the delightfully interesting reminiscences by themaster himself in his autobiographic "Praeterita, " published near theclose of his long, arduous, and fruitful career. John Ruskin was born inLondon on the 8th of February, 1819. He was of Scotch ancestry, hisfather being a prosperous wine merchant in London, who acquiredconsiderable wealth in trade, which the son in time inherited, and noblyused in his many private benevolences and philanthropic enterprises. Thecomfortable circumstances in which he was born, coupled with hisfather's own love of pictures and books, were helpful in givingencouragement and direction to the young student's studies and tastes. His mother, a deeply religious woman, was, moreover, influential inimplanting the serious element in Ruskin's character and life, and infamiliarizing him with the Bible, whose noble English, in King James'version, manifestly entered early into the youth's ardent, propheticsoul, and, as a writer, had much to do in forming his magnificent prosestyle. Ruskin was in early years--indeed, far on in his manhood--indelicate health, and consequently he was educated privately till hepassed to Christ Church College, Oxford, where, at the age of twenty, hewon the Newdigate prize for verse, and graduated in 1842. His taste forart was manifested at an early age, and after passing from theuniversity he studied painting under J. D. Harding and Copley Fielding;but his masters, as he tells us in "Praeterita, " were Rubens andRembrandt. At the outset of his career Ruskin, as is well known, was led to take upa defence of J. M. W. Turner (1775-1851) and the contemporary school ofEnglish landscape-painting against the foreign trammels, which hadfastened themselves upon modern art, and especially to prove thesuperiority of modern landscape-painters over the old masters. Thisrevolutionary opinion, though at first it was hotly contested, established the new critic's position as a writer on art, and thedefence, or exposition rather, grew into the famous work called "ModernPainters" (5 vols. , 1843-60). This elaborate work deals with generalaesthetic principles, and, notwithstanding its occasional extravagances, alike of praise and censure, its charm is irresistible, presenting uswith its brilliant and original author's ideas of beauty, to which hefreshly and powerfully awakened the world, while enshrining throughoutthe work the most enchanting word-poems on mountain, leaf, cloud, andsea, which, it is not too much to say, will live forever in Englishliterature. In the second volume Mr. Ruskin takes up the Italianpainters, and discusses at length the merits of their respectiveschools; in the others, as well as in the work as a whole, we have abody of principles which should govern high art-work, as well as newideas as to what should constitute the equipment of the painter, andthat not only as regards the technique of his art, but in the effect tobe produced on the onlooker in viewing the skilled work of one who, above all accomplishments, should be lovingly and intimately in contactwith nature. From the study of painting Mr. Ruskin passed for a time to that ofarchitecture. In this department we have from his pen "The Seven Lampsof Architecture" (1849) and "The Stones of Venice" (1851-53). In thesetwo complementary works their author sets forth as in an impressivesermon the new and admonitory lesson that architecture is the exponentof the national characteristics of a people, --the higher and nobler sortexemplifying the religious life and moral virtue in a nation, thedebased variety, on the other hand, expressing the ignoble qualities ofnational vice and shame. The text of "The Stones" is Venice, and thedesign of the volumes, in the author's words, is to show that the Gothicarchitecture of Venice "had arisen out of, and indicated, a state ofpure domestic faith and national virtue;" while its renaissancearchitecture "had arisen out of and indicated a state of concealednational infidelity and domestic corruption. " The earlier work, "TheSeven Lamps, "--the Lamp of Sacrifice, of Truth, Power, Beauty, Life, Memory, Obedience, --looks upon architecture "as the revealing medium orlamp through which flame a people's passions, --the embodiment of theirpolity, life, history, and religious faith in temple and palace, martand home. " Akin to these two eloquent works, in which their authorthoughtfully sets forth the civic virtues and moral tone, as well as thedebased characteristics, by which architecture is produced at certaineras in a people's life, is the earlier volume on "The Poetry ofArchitecture" (1837), which discusses the relation between architectureand its setting of landscape or other environment, illustrated byexamples drawn from regions he had visited, --the English Lakeland, France, Switzerland, Spain, and northern Italy. After these works followed lectures on drawing, perspective, decoration, and manufacture, with later theories (crotchets, some have impiouslycalled them) on political economy, Pre-Raphaelitism, _et cetera_, with aflood of opinions on social, ethical, and art subjects, enriched by rareintellectual gifts and much religious fervor. Ruskin's whole writingsform a body of literature unique of its kind, pervaded with great charmof literary style, and inspired by a high moral purpose. Ruskin'sexcursions into non-aesthetic fields, and the strange jumble ofChristian communism to which, late in life, he gave vehement expression, it must be honestly admitted, have detracted much from his early fame. In everything he wrote the Ruskinian spirit comes strongly out, coloredwith an amiable egotism and enforced by great assurance of conviction. The moral purpose he had in view, and the charm and elevated tone of hiswritings, lead us to forget the wholly ideal state of society he soughtto introduce, while we are won to the man by the passion of his nobleenthusiasms. Like Carlyle and Emerson, Ruskin was by his parents intended for theministry; but for the ministry he had himself no inclination. Thebroadening out early of his mind and the freeing of his thought ondoctrinal subjects, which took him far from the narrow evangelicalism ofhis youth, made the ministry of the church repugnant to him, though hewas always a deeply religious man and a force ever making forrighteousness. At the same time, he numbered many divines among his mostcherished friends, and he frequently, and with admitted edification, wasto be found in chapel and church. Meanwhile he continued busily toeducate himself for whatever profession he might choose or drift into, supplemented by such fitful periods of schooling as his delicate healthpermitted, as well as by many jaunts with his parents to the Englishlakes and other parts of the kingdom, and by frequent tours on theContinent, especially in Italy and Switzerland. Before he arrived at histeens, young Ruskin had composed much, both in prose and verse, and heearly manifested an aptitude for drawing, as well as a decided taste forart, which, it is said, was in some measure incited by the gift, from apartner of his father, of a copy of the poet Rogers' "Italy, " withengravings by Turner. Nor, early in manhood, did he escape a youth'sfond dream of love, for as a worshipper of beauty, and an enthusiast ofthe "Wizard of the North, " we find him drawn tenderly to a daughter ofLockhart, editor of the "Quarterly Review, " a grandchild of his famouscountryman, Sir Walter Scott. The affair, however, though encouraged byhis parents, who longed to see their son settled in life, came tonought, chiefly owing to the young lover's weak physical frame anduncertain health. Later on, unhappily, he was caught in the toils ofanother Scottish lass, for whom, it is related, he had written "The Kingof the Golden River" (1841), and whose rare beauty had readily attractedhim. With her, in 1848, he made an ill-assorted marriage, only to find, some years afterwards, his heart riven and a bitter ingredient droppedinto his life's chalice by a fatal defection on the wife's part, shehaving become enamoured of the then rising young painter, Millais, whomRuskin had trustingly invited to his house to paint her portrait. Thesequel of the affair is a pitiful one, which Ruskin ever afterward hiddeep in his heart, though at the time, finding that the woman was unableto live at the intellectual and spiritual altitude of her loyal husband, the latter, with a magnanimity beyond parallel, pardoned both Millaisand the erring one, consented to a divorce, and actually stood by her atthe altar as the faithless one took upon herself new vows unto a newhusband. The estrangement and loss of a wife gave Ruskin afresh toArt, --his true and fondly cherished bride. At this period, as we know, English painting was at a low ebb, mediocreand conventional, though with a show of artificial brilliance. Ruskin, with his scorn of the artificial and scholastic, threw himself into thework of overturning the established, complacent school of the time, andwith splendid enthusiasm and an unfailing belief in himself and hisideas he undertook to reform what had been, and to raise currentconceptions of art to a more exalted and lofty plane. We have seen whathe had already achieved in his first dashing period of literaryactivity, in the production of the early volumes of "Modern Painters, "and in his "Seven Lamps" and "Stones of Venice. " While he was at work onthe concluding volumes of the first and last of these great books therearose in England the somewhat fantastic movement in art, launched by thePre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which included such Ruskinites and otherdevotees of early Christian and mediaeval painting as Rossetti, Millais, Morris, Burne-Jones, and Holman Hunt. Towards this new school ofsymbolists and affectationists Ruskin was not at first drawn, since itseemed to him unduly idealistic, if not mystic, and smacked not alittle, as he thought, of popery. Later, however, he saw good in it, asa breaking away from academic trammels; while he recognized the earnestenthusiasm of the little band of artists and artist-poets, as well astheir technical dexterity and brilliance. With ready decision as well aswith his accustomed zeal for art, Ruskin ended by defending andapplauding the new innovators, particularly as their chief motive wasthe one the master had always strenuously pled for, --adherence to thesimplicity of nature. Their scrupulous attention to detail, characteristic of the Pre-Raphaelites, later on bore good results, evenafter the Brotherhood fell apart, especially in William Morris'sapplication of their art-principles to household decoration andfurnishings. But for the time the movement was loudly mocked anddecried, and perhaps all the more because of Ruskin's espousal of thefervid band, his letters of defence in the London "Times, " and hisdiscussion in his booklet on "Pre-Raphaelitism. " Heedless of the outcry, Ruskin pursued his own self-confident course, and by the year 1860 hehad completed his "Modern Painters, " and, in spite of objurgation anddetraction, had won a great name for himself as a critic and expounder, while expanding himself over almost the whole world of art. We have said that Pre-Raphaelitism, as a movement in art, wascontemporaneously jeered at; while to-day, among superficial orinappreciative students of the period, seriously to mention it or any ofits cultured brotherhood is to provoke a smile. Nevertheless, there wasnot a little high merit in the movement, which Ruskin was keen-eyed andfriendly enough to recognize, while much that is worthy afterwards cameout of it in the later work of the more notable of its members as wellas in that of their unenrolled associates and the admirers of thePre-Raphaelite method. What the movement owed to Ruskin is now franklyconceded, in the lesson the brotherhood took to heart from hiscounsellings, --to divest art of conventionality, and to work withscrupulous fidelity and sincerity of purpose. Nor was contemporary artalone the gainer by the movement; it also had its influence on poetry, though this has been obscured--so far as any beneficial influence can betraced at all--by the tendency manifested in some of the more amorouspoetic swains of the period, who professed to derive their inspirationfrom the Brotherhood, to identify themselves with what has been styledthe "Fleshly School" of verse. Of the latter number, Swinburne, in hisearly "Poems and Ballads, " was perhaps the greatest sinner, thoughatoned for in part by the lyrical art and ardor of his verse, and muchmore by the higher qualities and scholarly characteristics of his laterdramatic Work. Nor is Dante Rossetti himself, in some of his poems, freefrom the same taint, despite the fact of his interesting individualityas the chief inspirer and laborer among the Brotherhood. Yet themovement owed much to both his brush and his pen of other and nobler, because reverential, work, as those will admit who know "The BlessedDamozel, " "Sister Helen, " and his fine collection of sonnets, "The Houseof Life, " as well as his famous paintings, "The Girlhood of MaryVirgin, " and his Annunciation picture, "Ecce Ancilla Domini. " Of theproduct of other Pre-Raphaelites of note, --such as Ford Madox Brown, Millais, Morris, Woolner the sculptor, Coventry Patmore, and HolmanHunt, --much that is commendable as well as finely imaginative came fromtheir hands, and justified Ruskin in his gallant advocacy of themovement, its founders, and their work. By this time, of which we have been writing, Ruskin had reached theearly meridian of his powers, and, as we have hinted, had wrested fromthe unwilling many a juster recognition of his amazing industry andgenius. To his fond and indulgent parents this was a great source ofpride and satisfaction, and the practical evidence of it was the throngof visitors to the family seats of Herne Hill and Denmark Hill, in thethen London suburbs, where Ruskin long had his home, and by theattentions and honor paid to their son by universities, academies, andpublic bodies, as well as by many eminent personages and theintellectual _élite_ of the nation. Among those with whom the youngcelebrity was then ultimate and reckoned among his admiringcorrespondents were, besides Turner (who died in 1851) and the chiefartists of the time, the Carlyles and the Brownings, Mary RussellMitford, Charlotte Bronté, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Monckton Milnes (LordHoughton), Charles Eliot Norton, Lady Trevelyan (Macaulay's sister), Whewell, Maurice, Kingsley, Dr. John Brown (author of "Rab and hisFriends"), Tennyson, and Dean Milman. To these might be added manynotable foreigners whom he either met with in his continental travels orwho were attracted to him by a lively interest in his writings. In hishome, thanks to a wealthy and indulgent father, he was surrounded withevery comfort, short of luxury, if we except under the latter the largesums expended on the purchase of "Turners" and many famous foreignpictures, and a vast and increasing collection of favorite books andother treasures and curios. Of the author's home-life we get many delightful reminiscences in"Praeterita, " with entertaining talks of his childhood days, hisyouthful companions, his toys and animate pets, his early playfuladventures in authorship, and other garrulities with which, late in lifewhen the work, as it remains, was incompletely put together, he beguiledthe weariness and feebleness of old age. But we are anticipating, for weare writing of Ruskin when his hand was yet on the plough, and theplough was still in the furrow, and half a long life's arduous work wasyet before him. At this era, no brain could well have been more activeor fuller of philanthropies than his, for we approach the second periodof his life's grand activities, --the era of a new departure in theinterests that occupied him and the herculean tasks he set himselfto do. Before recording some of the achievements of this time and glancing atthe inciting causes of the transition which marks the era we have nowreached, let us note the demands made upon Mr. Ruskin's thought andlabor by universities and public institutions, whose audiences desiredto have him appear before them in person and address them upon topics inwhich he and they were interested. These appearances on the lectureplatform were now numerous, since many throughout the kingdom were eagerto see and know the man whose art criticisms, principles that govern thebeautiful, and stimulating thought on all subjects, had made so deep animpression on the reflecting minds of the age. His earliest appearanceon the rostrum was at Edinburgh, where he delivered four lecturesbefore the Philosophical Institution, chiefly on landscape-painters andon Christian art, with a plea for the use of Gothic in domesticarchitecture. Subsequent appearances were at Manchester, where he spokeon the Political Economy of Art and the relation of art to manufactures;at the South Kensington Museum, London, which had just been opened; andlater at Oxford, where further on in his career he became SladeProfessor of Art in his own University. From the accounts of thesepublic lectures we get opinions as to the personal appearance of Ruskinat the period which add to our knowledge of him from paintings, drawings, and photographs, though not a few of these accounts vary fromthose given us in books, chiefly sketched by his lady friends andcorrespondents. The more trusty of the contemporary pictures speak ofhim as having "light, sand-colored hair; his face more red than pale;the mouth well cut, with a good deal of decision in its curve, thoughsomewhat wanting in sustained dignity and strength; an aquiline nose;his forehead by no means broad or massive, but the brows full and wellbound together; the eye [says the observer from whom we are quoting] wecould not see, in consequence of the shadows that fell upon his[Ruskin's] countenance from the lights overhead, but we are sure thatthe poetry and passion we looked for almost in vain in other featuresmust be concentrated here. " Miss Mitford speaks of him at this time as"eloquent and distinguished-looking, fair and slender, with a gentleplayfulness, and a sort of pretty waywardness that was quite charming. "Another, a visitor at his London home, characterizes him as "emotionaland nervous, with a soft, genial eye, a mouth thin and severe, and avoice that, though rich and sweet, yet had a tendency to sink into aplaintive and hopeless tone. " Later on in years we have this verbalportrait from a disciple of the great art-teacher, occurring in aninaugural address delivered before the Ruskin Society of Glasgow: "Thatspare, stooping figure, the rough-hewn, kindly face, with its mobile, sensitive mouth, and clear deep eyes, so sweet and honest in repose, sokeen and earnest and eloquent in debate!" When the fifth and last volume of "Modern Painters" was finally off hishands, Mr. Ruskin not only engaged, as we have seen, in occasionallecturing, but began (1861) to add a prolific series of_brochures_--many of them with quaint but significant titles--to hisalready stupendous mass of writing. Their subjects were not aloneaesthetics, but now treated of ethical, social, and political questions, the prophetic declarations and earnest appeals of a man of wide andvaried culture, deep thought, and large experience. The attemptedalliance of political economy with art was a novel undertaking in thatsixth lustrum of the past century, even by a man of Mr. Ruskin'seminence and fame in the world of letters. But Mr. Ruskin was a bold andearnest man, as well as a genius; and he had too much to tell hisheedless, _laissez-faire_ age to keep silent on themes, remote as theywere from those he had hitherto taught, and of which he desired todeliver his soul, whatever ridicule it might provoke and however adversethe criticism levelled against him. His humanity and moral sense wereoutraged by the manner in which the mass of his countrymen lived, andtrenchant was his castigation of this and eager as well as righteous hisdesire to amend their condition and elevate and inspire their minds. Asan economist, it is true, there was not a little that was false as wellas eccentric in what he preached; moreover, much of his counsel wasdirectly socialistic in its trend, repugnant in large degree to hisEnglish readers and hearers; but all this was atoned for by the honestyand philanthropy of his motives, by his phenomenal fervor and eloquence, and by the literary beauty and charm of every page he wrote. Nevertheless, as in Carlyle--for in these depreciations the style of theseer of Chelsea was deeply upon him--the note of calamity and the wailof despair are too much in evidence in Ruskin's writings at this period, while, like Carlyle also, he was equally precipitate and impulsive inhis attacks on things as they were. Yet in the economic condition justthen of England, and in the circumstances environing the labor world, there was, possibly, justification for the rebukes and objurgations ofonlookers of the type of both of these men, and very humanitarian aswell as practically helpful were Ruskin's counsel and aid to labor andto all who sought to raise and expand their outlook and better theircondition in life. Towards politics Ruskin was never drawn, but had hebeen more prosaic and less given to anathematizing, most valuable wouldhave been his aid in legislation at this era of political and moralreform. But if political science, or science in any other of itsbranches or departments, did not come within his purview, great was therevolution he wrought in the working-man's surroundings, and immense theillumination he shed upon industry and on the spirit in which thelaborer should think and work. Referring to Ruskin at this period of his career, and to his influenceas a social and moral exhorter, Frederic Harrison, from whom we havealready quoted, has an admirable passage on "Ruskin as Prophet, " [2]which, as it is presumably too little known, we take pleasure inembodying in these pages. [Footnote 2: "Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill, and other Literary Estimates, " byFrederic Harrison; London and New York: Macmillan & Co. 1900. ] "The influence of Ruskin, " says Mr. Harrison, "has been part of thegreat romantic, historical, catholic, and poetic revival of whichScott, Carlyle, Coleridge, Freeman, Newman, and Tennyson in our owncountry have been leading spirits within the last two generations inEngland. There is no need to compare him with any one of these as asource of original intellectual force. He owns Scott and Carlyle as hismasters, and he might vehemently repudiate certain of the othersaltogether. His work has been to put this romantic, historical, andgenuine sympathy inspired by Scott, Wordsworth, and Carlyle into a newunderstanding of the arts of form. The philosophic impulse assuredly wasnot his own. It is a compound of Scott, Carlyle, Dante, and the Bible. The compound is strange, for it makes him talk sometimes like a Puritanfather, and sometimes like a Cistercian monk. At times he talks as FloraMacIvor talked to young Waverley; at other times like Thomas Carlyleinditing a Latter-day Pamphlet. But to transfuse into this moderngeneration of Englishmen this romantic, catholic, historical, and socialsympathy as applied to the arts of form, needed gifts that neitherScott, nor Carlyle, nor Newman, nor Tennyson possessed--the eye, if notthe hand, of a consummate landscape painter, a torrent of readyeloquence on every imaginable topic, a fierce and desperate courage thatfeared neither man nor devil, neither failure nor ridicule, and aboveall things an exquisite tenderness that is akin to St. Francis or St. Vincent de Paul. .. . "Here is a man who, laboring for fifty years, has scattered broadcast athousand fine ideas to all who practise the arts, and all who care forart. He has roused in the cultured world an interest in things of artsuch as a legion of painters and ten royal academies could never havedone. He has poured out a torrent of words, some right, some wrong, butsuch as have raised the level of art into a new world, which haveadorned English literature for centuries, and have inspired the Englishrace for generations; he has cast his bread upon the waste and muddywaters with a lavish hand, and has not waited to find it again, thoughit has been the seed of abundant harvest to others. " Again, speaking of what Ruskin sought to accomplish in the regenerationof modern society, and the reformation of our social ideals, and of that"heroic piece of Quixotism" he founded, "the Guild of St. George, " Mr. Harrison remarks:-- "The first life of John Ruskin was the life of a consummate teacher ofart and master of style; the second life was the life of priest andevangelist. .. . Here is the greatest living master [the passage waswritten while Mr. Ruskin was yet alive] of the English tongue, one ofthe most splendid lights of our noble literature, one to whom a dozenpaths of ambition and power lay open, who had everything that could beoffered by genius, fame, wealth, social popularity, and intensesensitiveness to all lovely things--and this man, after thirty years ofuntiring labor, devotes himself to train, teach, delight, and inspire aband of young men, girls, workmen, children, --all who choose to comearound him. He lavishes the whole of his fortune on them; he brings totheir door his treasures of art, science, literature, and poetry; hefounds and endows museums; he offers these costly and preciouscollections to the people; he wears out his life in teaching them theelements of art, the elements of manufacture, the elements of science;he shows workmen how to work, girls how to draw, to sing, to play; hegives up to them his wealth, his genius, his peace, his whole life. Heis not content with writing books in his study, with enjoying art athome or abroad; he must carry his message into the streets. He giveshimself up--not to write beautiful thoughts: he seeks to build up abeautiful world. .. . When I see this author of 'Modern Painters' and the'Stones of Venice, ' the man who has exhausted almost all that Europecontains of the beautiful, who has thought and spoken of almost everyphase of human life, and has entered so deeply into the highestmysteries of the greatest poets--when I see him surrounding himself inhis old age with lads and lasses, schoolgirls and workmen, teaching themthe elements of science and art, reading to them poems and tales, arranging for them games and holidays, ornaments and dresses, lavishingon these young people his genius and his wealth, his fame and hisfuture--I confess my memory goes back instinctively to a fresco I saw inItaly years ago--was it Luini's?--wherein the Master sat in a crowd ofchildren and forbade them to be removed, saying that 'of such is thekingdom of heaven. '" With this generous tribute to and appreciation of Ruskin, despite theeconomic vagaries into which the great critic and teacher of his timefell, we may more confidently approach the busy era of his later andself-sacrificing labors, and with less apology take space to deal--ascompactly and intelligently as we can--with some of the more notable ofthe many books and _brochures_ of the period. Difficult as would be thetask, fortunately there is little need to epitomize these works, as manyof them are better known, and perhaps more attentively read, than hisearlier, bulkier, and more ambitious writings. A few of them lie outsidethe economic gospel of their apostolic author, and these we will firstand briefly deal with. A number of them are instructive and inspiringlay sermons on the mystical union between nature and art, beauty andutility, and their reflex in the reverential homage for the beautifuland the worthy in the mind and character of the English-speaking race. The whole form a great body of fine and thoughtful work, which is asenchaining as its meaning is often profound. The best-known of these laysermons is: "The Queen of the Air" (1869), a splendid blending of hisfancy with the Greek nature-myths of cloud and storm, represented byAthena, goddess of the heavens, of the earth, and of the heart. Theparable drawn is that "the air is given us for our life, the rain forour thirst and baptism, the fire for our warmth, the sun for our light, and the earth for our meat and rest. " Related to the work is "Ethics ofthe Dust" (1865), lectures to little housewives on mineralogy andcrystallography, nature's work in crystallization being the text for adiatribe against sordid living. "Sesame and Lilies, " which belongs alsoto this period of the writer's work, consists of three addresses, delivered at Manchester and at Dublin, designed specially for younggirls, and treating in the main of good and improving literature. Thefirst of them, "Of Kings' Treasuries, " deals with the treasures hiddenin books, the writings of the world's great men; its sequel, "Of Queens'Gardens, " deals with the function and sphere of woman, and, by way ofapplication, with the how and the what to read; the third lecture, on"The Mystery of Life and its Arts, " is a discursive but inspiringconsideration of what life is and how most successfully to battle withit in the way of our work and of our appointed duty. All three lectures, observes a commentator, "tell men and women of the ideals they shouldset before them; how to read and to build character under theinspiration of the nobility of the past, fitting one's self for suchgreat society; how to develop noble womanhood; how to bear one's selftoward the wonder of life, toward one's work in the world, and towardone's duty to others. " Other lectures and _brochures_ of or about this period are "HortusInclusus" (The Enclosed Garden), being "Messages from the Wood to theGarden sent in happy days to two sister ladies, " residing at Coniston, and collected in 1887; "Arrows of the Chace, " letters on varioussubjects to newspapers, gathered and edited in 1880; "The Two Paths, "lectures on art and its application to Decoration and Manufacture(1859); "Ariadne Florentina" (1873), a monograph on Italian wood andmetal engraving; "Aratra Pentelici" (1872), on the elements andprinciples of sculpture; and "The Eagle's Nest" (1872), on the relationof natural science to art. Still pursuing his delightful methods ofinterpreting nature and teaching the world instructive lessons, evenfrom the common things of mother earth, we have a series of threeeloquent discourses, entitled (1) "Proserpina, " studies of Alpine andother wayside flowers, dwelling on the mystery of growth in plants andthe tender beauty of their form; (2) "Deucalion, " a sort of glorifiedgeological text-book, treating of stones and their life-history, andshowing the wearing effect upon them of waves and the action of water;and (3) "Love's Meinie" (1873), a rapture about birds and theirfeathered plumage, delivered at Eton and at Oxford. This trilogy, dealing with botany, geology, and ornithology, was presented to hisaudiences with illustrative drawings, representing the flora met with inhis travels or found in the neighborhood of his new home in theLancashire lakes, with sketches of regions, including thecharacteristics of the soil, in which he had been reared, and talks ofthe note and habit of all birds that were wont to warble over him theirmorning song. "The Pleasures of England, " the "Harbours of England, " andthe "Art of England" further treat of his loved native land, the firstof these being talks on the pleasures of learning, of faith, and ofdeed, illustrated by examples drawn from early English history, and thelast treating of representative modern English artists, chiefly of thePre-Raphaelite school. "The Laws of Fésole" (1878) deals with theprinciples of Florentine draughtsmanship; "St. Mark's Rest, " with theart and architecture of Venice; and "Val d'Arno, " with early Tuscan art, interspersed with the author's accustomed ethical reflections. "Morningsin Florence, " intended for the use of visitors to the art galleries ofthe beautiful city on the Arno, deals in the true artist-spirit with itsfamous examples of Christian art, giving prominence here also to theethical side of the city's history. "In Montibus Sanctis, " and "CoeliEnarrant, " the one comprising studies of mountain form, and the other ofcloud form and their visible causes, though separately published, areonly reprints of the author's larger and nobler embodiment of his viewson art, in "Modern Painters. " "The King of the Golden River, " of whichwe have previously spoken, is a fairy tale of much beauty, which hewrote for the "Fair Maid of Perth" whom he married, and who separatedherself from him on the plea of "incompatibility. " Playful as is thestyle of the story, it is not without a moral, on what constitutes truewealth and happiness. "The Crown of Wild Olive" (1866) consists oflectures on work, traffic, and war; the latter lecture, delivered at theRoyal Artillery Institution at Woolwich, was also separately publishedunder the title of "The Future of England. " The two former, beingaddressed to working-men, laborers, and traders, discuss economicproblems, and set forth tentatively their author's antagonized politicalethics, with which, in drawing this essay to a close, we now ventureto deal. After the magnificent work done by Ruskin in art up to his fortiethyear, that he should turn, for practically the remainder of his life, tothe seemingly vain and profitless task of a social reformer andregenerator of modern society, has to most men been a riddle too elusiveand enigmatic to solve. And yet, in his earlier career, had he nothimself prepared us for just such a departure as he took in the sixties, for in art was he not equally revolutionary and iconoclastic, as well aspersonally self-willed, passionate, and impulsive? Moreover, had notMother Nature endowed him with the gifts of a seer and made himchivalrous as well as intensely sympathetic, while his early traininginclined him to be serious, and even ascetic? Nor were the rebuffs hemet with throughout his career calculated at this stage to make himcourt the applause of his fellow-men or be mindful of the world'scensure or approval. Nor can one well quarrel with what he had now tosay on many a subject, visionary and enthusiast as he always was, andgiven over to mediaeval views and preachments, and to abounding moraland ethical exhortation. Like Carlyle's, his voice was that of onecrying in the wilderness, and yet in the industrial and social conditionof Britain at the era there was need of just such appeals forregeneration and reform as Ruskin strenuously uttered, accompanied byindignant rebukes of grossness, vulgarity, and meanness, as manifestedin masses of the people. If in his strivings after amelioration he wastoo denunciatory as well as too radical, we must remember the temper andmanner of the man, and recognize how difficult it was in him, or in anyiconoclast who scorned modern science as Ruskin scorned it, to reconcilethe age of steam and industrial machinery, which he spurned and wouldhave none of, with the views he held of Christianity, morals, and faith. His views on political economy, which he treated neither as an art nor ascience, might be perverse and wrong-headed, and his method of adaptingprophetic and apostolic principles to the practice of every-day lifeutterly impracticable; but the virtues he counselled the nation tomanifest, and the graces he enjoined of truthfulness, justice, temperance, bravery, and obedience, were qualities needed to becultivated in his time, with a fuller recognition of and firmer trust inGod and His right of sway in the world He had created. What Ruskin's economic views were, and what his relations to theindustrial and social problems of his time, most readers of our authorknow, are mainly to be found in "Fors Clavigera, " a series of letters toworking-men, covering the years 1871-84, and in his early essays onpolitical economy, "Unto this Last" (1860), and "Munera Pulveris"(1863). "Unto this Last" appeared in its original form in the pages ofthe "Cornhill Magazine, " then edited by Thackeray, and our author speaksconfidently of it as embodying his maturest and worthiest thoughts onsocial science. The work, which will be found the key to Ruskin'seconomic gospel, embraces four essays, treating successively of theresponsibilities and duties of those called to fill all offices ofnational trust and service; of the true sources of a nation's riches; ofthe right distribution of such riches; and of what is meant by theeconomic terms, --value, wealth, price, and produce. Under these severalheads, Ruskin expresses his conviction that co-operation and governmentare in all things the law of life, while the deadly things arecompetition and anarchy. Whatever errors the book[3] contains--and theauthor's unconscious arrogance and dogmatism made him blind to them--hisviews were set forth with his accustomed vigor and eloquence, and inthe honest belief that he was more than fundamentally right. It was forsuch helpful work as this, and what he accomplished in the kindredvolume, "Munera Pulveris, " which first appeared in "Fraser's Magazine, "that Ruskin for the time dropped his revelations in art to let a newworld of thought into the "dismal science" of political economy, confound its old-time instructors, and gird at the evils of theage, --the greed, selfishness, and petty bargaining spirit of industrialand commercial life. Nor in conducting such a crusade as this was Ruskinabandoning his old and less controverted gospel of art. He was butcarrying into new and barren fields the high ideals he had hithertocounselled his age to emulate and heed, and in his sympathy with laborseeking to bring into its world the comeliness of beauty and the cheerof prosperity, comfort, and happiness. In "Time and Tide" (1867), andmore at length in "Fors Clavigera, " Ruskin reiterates his message tolabor, to get rid of ever-environing misery by realizing what are thetrue sources of happiness, --pleasure in sincere and honest work, inspired by intelligence, culture, religion, and right living. What hedesires for the working-man he desires also for his family, andconsequently he urges parents to train their sons and daughters to seeand love the beautiful, to cultivate their higher instincts, and callforth and feed their souls. In all this there is much helpful, tonicthought, which the church or the nation, roused to zeal and earnestactivity, might fittingly teach, and so advance the material weal of thepeople, extend the area of public enlightenment and morality, and heraldthe dawn of a new and higher civilization. [Footnote 3: Alluding to the quaint title under which these "Cornhill"essays afterwards appeared, --a title that hints at the gist of thework, --Mr. Ruskin's biographer tells us that the motto was taken fromChrist's parable of the husbandman and the laborers: "Friend, I do theeno wrong. Didst thou not agree with me for a penny? Take that thine is, and go thy way. I will give UNTO THIS LAST even as untothee. "--Matt. Xx. 14. ] Other aspects of Mr. Ruskin's economic gospel are, unfortunately, not sosane and beneficent. His altruism knows no bounds, as his philanthropyand zeal have but few restraints. After the fashion of his mentor, Carlyle, he is carried away by his humanitarianism and his unreservedacceptance of the doctrine of the equality and brotherhood of man. Hencecome his economic heresies in regard to rent and interest, and capitaland usury, his denunciations of the division of labor, his Tolstoianimpoverishment of himself for the benefit of his fellow-man, and hisdictum that the wealth of the nation should be its own, and not accrueto the individual. Hence, also, the wholly ideal state of society heattempted to realize in his communal Guild of St. George, with its rigidgovernment and restraints upon the personal liberty of its members. Ideally beautiful, admittedly, was the plan and scheme of the littlestate, with its disciplinings, exactions, and devout selective creed. But the age is a practical, unimaginative one, and whatever compacts menmake, even for their highest welfare, there are, it is to be feared, few so loyal, tractable, and docile as to place themselves for longunder such tutoring and one-patterned, fashioning forms of co-operativeliving. Into whatever millennial state Ruskin sought to usher his littleband of English followers and disciples, one must speak appreciativelyof his motives in projecting the scheme, and of the money and labor hepersonally lavished upon the Utopian project. Reverently also must onespeak of the catholic creed to which its members were asked tosubscribe: namely, to trust in God, recognize the nobleness of humannature, labor faithfully with one's might, be loyal to one's commoncountry, its laws, and its monarch's or ruler's orders, so far as theyare consistent with the higher law of God; while exacting obedience, anda pledge that one will not deceive, either for gain or other motive;will not rob; will not hurt any living creature nor destroy anybeautiful thing; and will honor one's own body by proper care for it, for the joy and peace of life. All this is very exemplary and beautiful, and not over-hard to live up to, though the working-men of Sheffield intime wearied of the organization, and the Guild and its noble ideals isnow, we believe, but a memory, if we except the art museum and libraryof the Order taken over and still maintained by the town. More practical, may we not say, than this imitation of the Florentine_arti_ of the Middle Ages was the Working Men's College, founded inLondon in the fifties by that other earnest Christian Socialist, F. D. Maurice, in which Ruskin lectured gratuitously, took charge of thedrawing classes, and hied off to the country with its members to sketchfrom nature and otherwise instruct and entertain them. Yet good in manyrespects came of the Guild of St. George, in the impulse it gave to therevival of the then dormant industries, such as the hand-spinning oflinen, hand-weaving of carpets and woollen fabrics, lace-making, wood-carving, and metal-working, besides the stimulus it gave, with theinfusion of higher ideals of workmanship, to the decorative arts, andthe improvement in the sightliness of factories, and in the homes andsurroundings of labor. Here Ruskin's philanthropy and reform zeal showedthemselves most worthily in the financial aid he gave in the pullingdown, in crowded districts of the British metropolis, of poor tenements, and the building up in their place of clean, attractive, and wholesomehabitations. In such benevolences and well-doings, and in this life ofrenunciation and self-sacrifice, Ruskin spent himself, and made seriousinroads into his bodily health and strength, as well as scattered thefortune--about a million dollars--left him by his now deceased father. But this was the manner and character of Ruskin, and this the mode ofexpressing his love for his fellow-man, which in myriad ways showeditself throughout a long and strenuous career of devotion to highideals, and of practical, tender help in all good works. In all hisphilanthropies he was true to his own preachings and counsellings, spending and being spent in the spirit of his Divine Master, his wholesoul aglow with reverence and adoration and tender with a profound moralemotion. Besides his rare endowments as a lover of the beautiful, he hadthat other precious gift, of golden speech, which threw a mantle ofloveliness over every book he wrote and perpetual lustre over the domainof letters. Ruskin's declining years, while hallowed by suffering, were cheered bymany tender attentions and unexpected kindnesses, and by therecognition, by many notable public bodies and eminent contemporaries, of his long life of great service and devotion to his kind. In ourmodern age, from which, in his loved Coniston home, he passed from lifeJan. 20, 1900, no one more reverently than he has looked deeper into themystery of life, thought more concernedly of its problems, shed morepassionately and eloquently about him love for the beautiful, orpractically and helpfully done more--layman only though he was--forreligion and humanity. At his death the nation paid honor to his memoryby offering his remains a resting-place in the great fane of England'sillustrious dead, Westminster Abbey; but Ruskin had himself otherwiseordered the disposal of his body. "Bury me, " he said, "at Coniston. "And there, on the fifth day after his falling softly asleep, amid aconcourse of loving friends, the earthly tenement of the great artcritic and lover of righteousness was laid to rest, his grave strewnwith myriad wreaths, garlands, and crosses of beautiful, bright flowers. Here, after his long, strenuous, militant career, do we leave thisinspiring teacher and "consecrated priest of the Ideal, " his gentle soulfinding rest and peace after the myriad troubles and tumults of life. Still now is the once active, fertile, stimulating mind of the man whoso effectively roused his generation from its complacent smugness andindifference in its appreciation of the beautiful, and with ardentboldness challenged established beliefs in art and defied theconventionality and authority of his time. His has been a powerful forcein innumerable departments of human thought, and epoch-making theinfluence he has exerted in giving to the world new ideals of thebeautiful and in shaping modern opinion and taste in art. How great isthe work he has done, and what a library of stimulating, inspiring bookshe has left us, comparatively few realize, as they little realize whatthe age owes to him for his noble activities in well-doing and his manyand impressive lessons and influence. In a commonplace, commercial time, how stimulating as well as ardent have been his appeals forsensitiveness of perception in regard to art, and of the tone andspirit in which it ought to be viewed and valued! And with what tender, reverent feeling has he not opened our hearts to compassion and toconsideration for the welfare of our fellow-man, and how potent havebeen his counsellings pointing to the true and abiding sources ofpleasure in life! Long must his formative opinions and influence extend, and in the minds of all who think and reflect abiding must be the charmas well as the power of his imaginative, glowing thought. That he metwith opposition and hostility in his day was but the price to be paidfor the disturbing, correcting, disciplining, yet inspiring part heplayed in the work he so impulsively set himself to do. One smiles nowat the epithets of scorn and contumely once hurled at him, at the manwho, little understood as he has been, has done so much to uplift andpurify the thought of his time and do battle with the forces opposed toreform and arrayed against those of light and truth. And how great werethe weapons with which he was armed, and how varied as well asmarvellous the talents he brought into play in the onslaught uponshallowness, convention, and ignorance! Truly, he has done much for histime, and great has been the gain Modern Art has won from his inspiringlessons and thought. The coming of such a man, and at the time that washis, one cannot help reflecting, was one of the providences of anoverruling Power, and adequately to estimate his influence and work, and the tone and temper in which he wrought, we have but to considerwhat the age would have been, in countless departments of thought andactivity, had the century now passed possessed no John Ruskin. AUTHORITIES. Collingwood, W. G. Life of Ruskin. Harrison, Frederic. Tennyson, Ruskin, Mill, and other Estimates. Mather, Marshall. John Ruskin, his Life and Teaching. Bayne, Peter. Lessons from my Masters--Carlyle, Tennyson, and Ruskin. Japp, Alex. H. Carlyle, Tennyson, and Ruskin. Spielmann, M. H. John Ruskin. Waldstein, Charles. Work of John Ruskin. Ward, May Alden. Prophets of the Nineteenth Century: Carlyle, Ruskin, and Tolstoi. Bates, Herbert. Annotated edition, with Introduction, of Ruskin's"Sesame and Lilies" and "The King of the Golden River. " Ruskin's "Praeterita": An Autobiography. HERBERT SPENCER. 1820- THE EVOLUTIONARY PHILOSOPHY. BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE. Herbert Spencer occupies a unique place in the history of human thought, because he has been the first to attempt the construction of aphilosophical system in harmony with the theory of Evolution and withthe results of modern science. To his contemporaries he is known almostexclusively as the author of the colossal work which he has chosen tocall the "Synthetic Philosophy. " Concerning his personality very littleinformation has been published, and it is doubtful whether he will deemit worth while to leave behind him the materials for a detailedbiography. About his private life we know even less than we know aboutthat of Kant. The very few facts obtainable may be summed up in a scoreof sentences. I. Herbert Spencer was born on April 27, 1820, at Derby, in England, andwas an only surviving child. His father was a schoolmaster in the townnamed, and secretary of a philosophical society. From him the son seemsto have imbibed the love of natural science and the faculty ofobservation conspicuous in his work. The father was particularlyinterested in entomology, and Spencer himself used to collect, describe, and draw insects when a boy. At the age of thirteen he was sent to studywith an uncle, Rev. Thomas Spencer, a liberal clergyman and a scholar, with whom he remained three years, carrying on the study of naturalhistory, which he had begun in childhood. He now devoted himself tomathematics, evincing a singular capacity for working out originalproblems. At this time, too, he became familiar with physical andchemical investigations, and already exhibited a strong tendency toexperimental inquiry and original research. His aversion to linguisticstudies put a university career out of the question. At the age ofseventeen he entered the office of Sir Charles Fox and began work as acivil engineer, but about eight years afterward he gave up thisprofession, and devoted the whole of his time to scientific experimentsand studies, and to contributions on philosophical questions to variousperiodicals. As early as 1842, in a series of letters to theNonconformist newspaper on "The Proper Sphere of Government, " hepropounded a belief in human progress based on the modifiability ofhuman nature through adaptation to its social surroundings, and heasserted the tendency of these social arrangements to assume ofthemselves a condition of stable equilibrium. From 1848 to 1853 he wassub-editor of the Economist newspaper, and in his first important work, "Social Statics, " published in 1850, he developed the ethical andsociological ideas which had been set forth in his published letters. The truth that all organic development is a change from a state ofhomogeneity to a state of heterogeneity is regarded by Spencer as theorganizing principle of his subsequent beliefs. It was graduallyexpounded and applied by him in a series of articles contributed to the"North British, " the "British Quarterly, " the "Westminster, " and otherreviews. In these essays, and especially in the volume of "Principles ofPsychology, " published in 1855, the doctrine of Evolution began to takedefinite form, and to be applied to various departments of inquiry. Itwas not until four years later--a fact to be carefully borne in mind bythose who would estimate correctly the relation of Spencer toDarwin--that the publication of the latter's "Origin of Species"afforded a wide basis of scientific truth for what had hitherto beenmatter of speculation, and demonstrated the important part played bynatural selection in the development of organisms. As early as March, 1860, Spencer issued a prospectus, in which he set forth the general aimand scope of a series of works which were to be issued in periodicalparts, and would, collectively, constitute a system of philosophy. In1862 appeared the "First Principles, " and in 1867 the "Principles ofBiology. " In 1872 the "Principles of Psychology" was published; thefirst part of the "Principles of Ethics" in 1879; and his "Principles ofSociology" in three volumes, begun in 1876, was completed in 1896. Inthe preface to the third volume of the last-named work the authorexplains that the fourth volume originally contemplated, which was todeal with the linguistic, intellectual, moral, and aesthetic phenomena, would have to remain unwritten by reason of the author's age andinfirmities. The astounding extent of Herbert Spencer's labors becomes, indeed, the more marvellous when one considers that impaired health hasfor many years incapacitated him for persistent application. Owingpartly to his ill health, and partly to the absorbing nature of hisoccupation, his life has been a retired one, and in the ordinary senseof the term, uneventful. He has never married, and, although the highopinion of his writings formed by contemporaries has led to manyacademic honors being pressed upon him at home and abroad, these haveall been declined. It only remains to mention that in 1882 he visitedthe United States, where the importance of his speculations had beenearly recognized, and that his home is now in Brighton, England. II. In Mr. Spencer's latest book, "Facts and Comments, " a little light isthrown on the author's habits, opinions, and predilections. Referring tothe athleticism to which so much attention is paid just now in Englishand American universities, he points out how erroneous it is to identifymuscular strength with constitutional strength. Not only is there errorin assuming that increase of muscular power and increase of generalvigor necessarily go together, but there is error in assuming that thereverse connection cannot hold. As a matter of fact, the abnormal powersacquired by gymnasts may be at the cost of constitutional deterioration. In a paper on "Party Government" the author maintains that what we boastof as political freedom consists in the ability to choose a despot, or agroup of oligarchs, and, after long misbehavior has produceddissatisfaction, to choose another despot or group of oligarchs: havingmeanwhile been made subject to laws, some of which are repugnant. Abolish the existing conventional usages, with respect to partyfealty, --let each member of parliament feel that he may express by hisvote his adverse belief respecting a government measure, withoutendangering the government's stability, --and the whole vicious system ofparty government would disappear. In a paper on "Patriotism, " Mr. Spencer says that to him the cry "Our country, right or wrong, " seemsdetestable. The love of country, he adds, is not fostered in him byremembering that when, after England's Prime Minister had declared thatEnglishmen were bound in honor to the Khedive to reconquer the Soudan, they, after the reconquest, forthwith began to administer it in the nameof the Queen and the Khedive, thereby practically annexing it; and when, after promising through the mouths of two colonial Ministers not tointerfere in the internal affairs of the Transvaal, the BritishGovernment proceeded to insist on certain electoral arrangements, andmade resistance the excuse for a desolating war. As to the transparentpretence that the Boers commenced the war, Mr. Spencer reminds us thatin the far West of the United States, where every man carries his lifein his hands and the usages of fighting are well understood, it is heldthat he is the real aggressor who first moves his hand toward hisweapon. The application to the South African contest is obvious. In anessay on "Style, " Mr. Spencer tells us that his own diction has been, from the beginning, unpremeditated. It has never occurred to him to takeany author as a model. Neither has he at any time examined the writingof this or that author with a view of observing its peculiarities. Thethought of style, considered as an end in itself, has rarely, if ever, been present with him, his sole purpose being to express ideas asclearly as possible, and, when the occasion called for it, with as muchforce as might be. He has observed, however, he says, that somedifference has been made in his style by the practice of dictation. Upto 1860 his books and review articles were written with his own hand. Since then they have all been dictated. He thinks that there isfoundation for the prevailing belief that dictation is apt to causediffuseness. The remark was once made to him, it seems, by two goodjudges--George Henry Lewes and George Eliot--that the style of "SocialStatics" is better than the style of his later volumes; Mr. Spencerwould ascribe the contrast to the deteriorating effect of dictation. Arecent experience has strengthened him in this conclusion. When latelyrevising "First Principles, " which originally was dictated, the cuttingout of superfluous words, clauses, sentences, and sometimes paragraphs, had the effect of abridging the work by about one-tenth. Touching thestyle of other writers, Mr. Spencer points out the defects in somepassages quoted from Matthew Arnold and Froude. He says that he isrepelled by the ponderous, involved structure of Milton's prose, and hedissents from the applause of Ruskin's style on the ground that it istoo self-conscious, and implies too much thought of effect. On the otherhand, he has always been attracted by the finished naturalness ofThackeray. A word should here be said about the misconception of Mr. Spencer'sposition with reference to the fundamental postulate of religions, --amisconception which used to be more current than it is now. He cannotfairly be described as a materialist. He is no more a materialist thanhe is a theist. He is, in the strictest sense of the word, an agnostic. He was the most conspicuous example of the _thing_ before Huxleyinvented the _word_. The misconception was shared by no less a man thanthe late Benjamin Jowett, the well-known master of Balliol College, Oxford, who, in one of his published "Letters, " says: "I sometimes thinkthat we platonists and idealists are not half so industrious as thoserepulsive people who only 'believe what they can hold in their hand, 'Bain, H. Spencer, etc. , who are the very Tuppers of philosophy. " It ishard to see how the law of evolution and other generalizations of anabstract kind with which Mr. Spencer's name is associated can be held inanybody's hands. Letting that pass, however, Mr. Spencer has himselfsuggested that, since the system of synthetic philosophy begins with adivision entitled the "Unknowable, " having for its purpose to show thatall material phenomena are manifestations of a Power which transcendsour knowledge, --that "force as we know it can be regarded only as aConditioned effect of the Unconditioned Cause"--there has been therebyafforded sufficiently decided proof of belief in something which cannotbe held in the hands. It is, indeed, absurd to apply the epithet"materialist" to a man who has written in "The Principles ofPsychology": "Hence, though of the two it seems easier to translateso-called matter into so-called spirit than to translate so-calledspirit into so-called matter (which latter is, indeed, whollyimpossible), yet no translation can carry us beyond our symbols. " III. Any exposition of the "Synthetic Philosophy" must, of course, begin withthe volume entitled "First Principles. " In the first part of thispreliminary work the author carries a step further the doctrine of theUnknowable put into shape by Hamilton and Mansel. He points out thevarious directions in which science leads to the same conclusion, andshows that in their united belief in an Absolute that transcends notonly human knowledge but human conception lies the only possiblereconciliation of science and religion. In the second part of the samebook Mr. Spencer undertakes to formulate the laws of the Knowable. Thatis to say, he essays to state the ultimate principles discerniblethroughout all manifestations of the Absolute, --those highestgeneralizations now being disclosed by science, such, for example, as"the Conservation of Force, " which are severally true, not of one classof phenomena, but of _all_ classes of phenomena, and which are thus thekeys to all classes of phenomena. The conclusions reached in "First Principles" may be thus summed up:over and over again in the five hundred pages devoted to theirformulation, it is shown in various ways that the deepest truths we canreach are simply statements of the widest uniformities in ourexperiences of the relations of Matter, Motion, and Force; and thatMatter, Motion, and Force are but symbols of the Unknown reality. APower of which the nature remains forever inconceivable, and to which nolimits in Time and Space can be imagined, works in us certain effects. These effects have certain likenesses of kind, the most general of whichwe class together under the names of Matter, Motion, and Force; andbetween these effects there are likenesses of connection, the mostconstant of which we class as laws of the highest certainty. Analysisreduces these several kinds of effects to one kind of effect; and theseseveral kinds of uniformity to one kind of uniformity. The highestachievement of Science is the interpretation of all orders of phenomenaas differently conditioned manifestations of this one kind of effect, under differently conditioned modes of this one kind of uniformity. Whenscience has done this, however, it has done nothing more thansystematize our experiences, and has in no degree extended the limits ofour experiences. We can say no more than before whether theuniformities are as absolutely necessary as they have become to ourthought relatively necessary. The utmost possibility for us is aninterpretation of the process of things, as it presents itself to ourlimited consciousness; but how this process is related to the actualprocess we are unable to conceive, much less to know. Similarly we are admonished to remember that, while the connectionbetween the phenomenal order and the ontological order is foreverinscrutable, so is the connection between the conditioned forms of beingand the unconditioned form of being forever inscrutable. Theinterpretation of all phenomena in terms of Matter, Motion, and Force isnothing more than the reduction of our complex symbols of thought to thesimplest symbols; and when the equation has been brought to its lowestterms, the symbols remain symbols still. Hence the reasonings containedin "First Principles" afford no support to either of the antagonisthypotheses respecting the ultimate nature of things. Their implicationsare no more materialistic than they are spiritualistic, and no morespiritualistic than they are materialistic. The establishment ofcorrelation and equivalence between the forces of the outer and theinner worlds serves to assimilate either to the other, according as weset out with one or the other. He who rightly interprets the doctrinepropounded in "First Principles" will see that neither the forces ofthe outer, nor the forces of the inner, world can be taken as ultimate. He will see that, though the relation of subject and object rendersnecessary to us the antithetical conceptions of Spirit and Matter, theone is no less than the other to be regarded as but a sign of theUnknown Reality which underlies both. In logical order the formulation of "First Principles" should have beenfollowed by the application of them to Inorganic Nature. This greatdivision of Mr. Spencer's subject is passed over, however; partlybecause, even without it, the scheme is too extensive to be carried outin the lifetime of one man; and partly because the interpretation ofOrganic Nature, after the proposed method, is of more immediateimportance. Before noting how Mr. Spencer applies his fundamentalprinciples to the interpretation of the phenomena of life, it may bewell to put before the reader's eye the "formula of evolution" in theauthor's own language: "Evolution is an integration of matter andconcomitant dissipation of motion; during which the matter passes froman indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite, coherentheterogeneity; and during which the retained motion undergoes a paralleltransformation. " This law of evolution is equally applicable to allorders of phenomena, --"astronomic, geologic, biologic, psychologic, sociologic, etc. , "--since these are all component parts of one cosmos, though disguised from one another by conventional groupings. It isobvious that, so long as evolution is merely established by induction, it belongs, not to philosophy, but to science. To belong to philosophyit must be deduced from the persistence of force. Mr. Spencer holds thatthis can be done. For any finite aggregate, being unequally exposed tosurrounding forces, will become more diverse in structure, everydifferentiated part will become the parent of further differences; atthe same time, dissimilar units in the aggregate tend to separate, andthose which are similar, to cluster together ("segregation"); and thissubdivision and dissipation of forces, so long as there are any forcesunbalanced by opposite forces, must end at last in rest; the penultimatestage of this process "in which the extremest multiformity and mostcomplex moving equilibrium are established, " being the highestconceivable state. The various derivative laws of phenomenal changes arethus deducible from the persistence of force. It remains to apply themto inorganic, organic, and superorganic existences. The detailedtreatment of inorganic evolution is omitted, as we have said, fromSpencer's plan, and he proceeds to interpret "the phenomena of life, mind, and society in terms of Matter, Motion, and Force. " IV. The first volume of the "Principles of Biology" consists of three parts, the first of which sets forth the data of biology, including thosegeneral truths of physics and chemistry with which rational biology muststart. The second part is allotted to the inductions of biology, or, inother words, to a statement of the leading generalizations whichnaturalists, physiologists, and comparative anatomists have established. The third and final part of the first volume of the "Principles ofBiology" deals with the speculation commonly known as "the developmenthypothesis, " and considers its _a priori_ and _a posteriori_ evidences. The inductive evidences for the evolutionary hypothesis, ascontra-distinguished from the special-creation hypothesis, are dealtwith in four chapters. The "Arguments from Classification" are these:Organisms fall into groups within groups; and this is the arrangementwhich we see results from evolution where it is known to take place. Ofthese groups within groups, the great or primary ones are the mostunlike, the sub-groups are less unlike, the sub-sub-group still lessunlike, and so on; and this, too, is a characteristic of groupsdemonstrably produced by evolution. Moreover, indefiniteness ofequivalence among the groups is common to those which we know have beenevolved, and to those supposed in the volume before us to have beenevolved. There is the further significant fact that divergent groups areallied through their lowest rather than their highest members. Of the"Arguments from Embryology, " the first is that, when developing embryosare traced from their common starting-point, and their divergencies andre-divergencies are symbolized by a genealogical tree, there is manifesta general parallelism between the arrangement of its primary, secondary, and tertiary branches, and the arrangement of the divisions andsubdivisions of Mr. Spencer's classifications. Nor do the minordeviations from this general parallelism, which look like difficulties, fail on closer observation to furnish additional evidence; since thosetraits of a common ancestry which embryology reveals are, ifmodifications have resulted from changed conditions, liable to bedisguised in different ways and degrees, in different lines ofdescendants. Mr. Spencer next considers the "Arguments from Morphology. "Apart from those kinships among organisms disclosed by theirdevelopmental changes, the kinships which their adult forms show areprofoundly significant. The unities of type found under such differentexternals are inexplicable, except as results of community of descent, with non-community of modification. Again, each organism analyzed apartshows, in the likenesses obscured by unlikenesses of its componentparts, a peculiarity which can be ascribed only to the formation of amore heterogeneous organism out of a more homogeneous one. And, oncemore, the existence of rudimentary organs, homologous with organs thatare developed in allied animals or plants, while it admits of no otherrational interpretation, is satisfactorily interpreted by the hypothesisof evolution. Last of the inductive evidences are the "Arguments fromDistribution. " While the facts of distribution in space areunaccountable as results of designed adaptation of organisms to theirhabitats, they are accountable as results of the competition of species, and the spread of the more fit into the habitats of the less fit, followed by the changes which new conditions induce. Though the facts ofdistribution in time are so fragmentary that no positive conclusion canbe drawn, yet all of them are reconcilable with the hypothesis ofevolution, and some of them yield strong support, --especially the nearrelationship existing between the living and extinct types in each greatgeographical area. Thus of these four categories of evidence, eachfurnishes several arguments which point to the same conclusion. Thiscoincidence would give to the induction a very high degree ofprobability, even were it not enforced by deduction. As a matter offact, the conclusion deductively reached is in harmony with theinductive conclusion. Mr. Spencer has deductively shown that, by itslineage and its kindred, the evolution-hypothesis is as closely alliedwith the proved truths of modern science as is the antagonisthypothesis, that of special creation, with the proved errors of ancientignorance. He has shown that, instead of being a mere pseud-idea, itadmits of elaboration into a definite conception, so showing itslegitimacy as an hypothesis. Instead of positing a purely fictitiousprocess, the process which it alleges proves to be one actually going onaround us. To which may be added that the evolution-hypothesis presentsno radical incongruities from a moral point of view. On the other hand, the special-creation hypothesis is shown to be not even a thinkablehypothesis, and, while thus intellectually illusive, to have moralimplications irreconcilable with the professed beliefs of those whohold it. Passing from the evidence that Evolution has taken place to thequestion--How has it taken place?--Mr. Spencer finds in known agenciesand known processes adequate causes of its phenomena. In astronomic, geologic, and meteorologic changes, ever in progress, ever combining innew and more involved ways, we have a set of inorganic factors to whichall organisms are exposed; and in the varying and complicated actions oforganisms on one another we have a set of organic factors that alterwith increasing rapidity. Thus, speaking generally, all members of theEarth's flora and fauna experience perpetual rearrangements of externalforces. Each organic aggregate, whether considered individually or as acontinuously existing species, is modified afresh by each freshdistribution of external forces. To its pre-existing differentiationsnew differentiations are added; and thus that lapse to a moreheterogeneous state, which would have a fixed limit were thecircumstances fixed, has its limits perpetually removed by the perpetualchange of the circumstances. These modifications upon modifications, which result in evolution, structurally considered, are theaccompaniments of those functional alterations continually required tore-equilibrate inner with outer actions. That moving equilibrium ofinner actions corresponding with outer actions, which constitutes thelife of an organism, must either be overthrown by a change in the outeractions or must undergo perturbations that cannot end until there is areadjusted balance of functions and correlative adaptation ofstructures. But where the external changes are either such as are fatalwhen experienced by the individuals, or such as act on the individualsin ways that do not affect the equilibrium of their functions, then thereadjustment results through the effects produced on the species as awhole: there is indirect equilibration. By the preservation insuccessive generations of those whose moving equilibria are less atvariance with the requirements, there is produced a changed equilibriumcompletely in harmony with the requirements. Even were this the whole of the evidence assignable for the belief thatorganisms have been gradually evolved, Mr. Spencer holds that the beliefwould have a warrant higher than is possessed by many beliefs which areregarded as established. As a matter of fact, however, the evidence isfar from exhausted. At the outset of the first volume of "Principles ofBiology, " it was remarked by the author that the phenomena presented bythe organic world as a whole cannot be properly dealt with apart fromthe phenomena presented by each organism in the course of its growth, development, and decay. The interpretation of either class of phenomenaimplies interpretation of the other, since the two are in reality partsof one process. Hence the validity of any hypothesis respecting the oneclass of phenomena may be tested by its congruity with phenomena of theother class. In the second volume of "The Principles of Biology, " Mr. Spencer passes to the more special phenomena of development, asdisplayed in the structures and functions of individual organisms. Ifthe hypothesis that plants and animals have been progressively evolvedbe true, it must furnish us with keys to these special phenomena. Mr. Spencer finds that the hypothesis does this, and by doing it givesnumberless additional vouchers for its truth. It is impossible for ushere to review, even in outline, the extensive field traversed in thesecond volume of "Principles of Biology. " We would not omit, however, to direct attention to the interesting conclusion reached by Mr. Spencertoward the close of the volume with regard to the future of the humanrace considered from the viewpoint of the possible pressure ofpopulation upon subsistence. He points out that in man all theequilibrations between constitution and conditions, between thestructure of society and the nature of its members, between fertilityand mortality, advance simultaneously towards a common climax. Inapproaching an equilibrium between his nature and the ever-varyingcircumstances of his inorganic environment, and in approaching anequilibrium between his nature and all the requirements of the socialstate, man is at the same time approaching that lowest limit offertility at which the equilibrium of population is maintained by theaddition of as many infants as there are subtractions by death. V. Next in logical order and in order of publication come the two volumescollectively entitled "The Principles of Psychology. " In these volumesan attempt is made to trace objectively the evolution of mind fromreflex action through instinct to reason, memory, feeling, and will, from the interaction of the nervous system with its environment. Subjectively, mental states are analyzed, and it is contended that allof them--including those primary scientific ideas, the perceptions ofmatter, motion, space, and time, assumed in the "First Principles"--canbe analyzed into a primitive element of consciousness, something whichcan be defined only as analogous to a nervous shock. These perceptionshave now become innate in the individual. They may be called--as Kantcalled space and time--forms of intuition; but they have been acquiredempirically by the race, through the persistence of the correspondingphenomena in the environment, and from the accumulated experiences ofeach individual being transmitted in the form of modified structure tohis descendants. This principle of heredity is one of the laws by whichindividuals are connected with one another into an organic whole; and wethus pass to what Spencer calls superorganic evolution, implying theco-ordinated actions of many individuals, and giving rise to the scienceof sociology. It is this science which Mr. Spencer undertakes to expound in the threevolumes entitled the "Principles of Sociology. " The first of thesevolumes presents a statement of the several sets of factors enteringinto social phenomena. These factors are, first, human ideas andfeelings considered in their necessary order of evolution; secondly, surrounding natural conditions; and, thirdly, those ever-complicatingconditions to which society itself gives origin. Under the caption "TheInductions of Sociology, " are set forth the general facts, structuraland functional, gathered from a survey of societies and their changes;in other words, the empirical generalizations that are arrived at bycomparing different societies, or successive stages of the samesocieties. The author then examines the evolution of governments, general and local, as this is determined by natural causes; theirseveral types and metamorphosis; their increasing complexity andspecialization, and the progressive limitation of their functions. Frompolitical the author turns to ecclesiastical organization. He traces thedifferentiation of religious government from secular; its successivecomplications and the multiplication of sects; the growth and continuedmodification of religious ideas, as caused by advancing knowledge andchanging moral character; and the gradual reconciliation of these ideaswith the truths of abstract science. A good deal of space is devoted towhat the author calls ceremonial organization, by which he means thatthird kind of government which, having a common root with the others, and slowly becoming separate from and supplementary to them, serves toregulate the minor actions of life. Finally, Mr. Spencer discussesindustrial organization; that is to say, the development of productiveand distributive agencies, considered in its necessary causes, comprehending not only the progressive division of labor and theincreasing complexity of each industrial agency, but also thesuccessive forms of industrial government as passing through like phaseswith political government. Many pages would be requisite adequately to describe the result of theinquiries prosecuted by Mr. Spencer during some twenty years, andembodied in the three volumes entitled "Principles of Sociology. " Theultimate conclusions reached, however, may be summed up in a fewparagraphs. It is the author's final conviction that, if the process ofevolution, which, unceasing throughout past time, has brought life toits present height, continues throughout the future, as we cannot butanticipate, then, amid all the rhythmical changes in each society, amidall the lives and deaths of nations, amid all the supplantings of raceby race, there will go on that adaptation of human nature to the socialstate which began when savages first gathered together into hordes formutual defence, --an adaptation finally complete. Mr. Spencer foreseesthat many will think this a wild imagination. Though everywhere aroundthem are creatures with structures and instincts which have beengradually so moulded as to subserve their own welfares and the welfaresof their species, yet the immense majority ignore the implication thathuman beings, too, have been undergoing in the past, and will undergo inthe future, progressive adjustments to the lives imposed on them bycircumstances. There are a few, nevertheless, who think it rational toconclude that what has happened with all lower forms must happen withthe highest forms, --a few who infer that among types of men those mostfitted for making a well-working society will hereafter, as heretofore, from time to time, emerge and spread at the expense of types lessfitted, until a fully fitted type has arisen. It is, at the same time, conceded that the view thus suggested cannot beaccepted without qualification. If we carry our thoughts as far forwardas palaeolithic implements carry them back, we are introduced, not to anabsolute optimism, but to a relative optimism. The cosmic process bringsabout retrogression, as well as progression, where the conditions favorit. Only amid an infinity of modifications, adjusted to an infinity ofchanges of circumstances, do there now and then occur some whichconstitute an advance: other changes, meanwhile, caused in otherorganisms, usually not constituting forward steps in organization, andoften constituting steps backward. Evolution does not imply a latenttendency to improve everywhere in operation. There is no uniform ascentfrom lower to higher, but only an occasional production of a form, which, in virtue of greater fitness for more complex conditions, becomescapable of a longer life of a more varied kind. And, while such highertype begins to dominate over lower types, and to spread at theirexpense, the lower types survive in habitats or modes of life that arenot usurped, or are thrust into inferior habitats or modes of life inwhich they retrogress. Mr. Spencer's examination of "The Principles of Sociology" has led himto the belief that what holds with organic types must hold also withtypes of society. Social evolution throughout the future, like socialevolution throughout the past, must, while producing, step after step, higher societies, leave outstanding many lower. Varieties of men adaptedhere to inclement regions, there to regions that are barren, andelsewhere to regions unfitted, by ruggedness of surface or insalubrity, for supporting large populations, will, in all probability, continue toform small communities of simple structures. Moreover, during futurecompetitions among the higher races, there will probably be left, in theless desirable regions, minor nations formed of men inferior to thehighest; at the same time that the highest overspread all the greatareas which are desirable in climate and fertility. But while the entireassemblage of societies thus fulfils the law of evolution by increase ofheterogeneity, --while within each of them contrasts of structure, causedby differences of environments and entailed occupations, causeunlikenesses implying further heterogeneity, we may infer that theprimary process of evolution--integration--which, up to the presenttime, has been displayed in the formation of larger and larger nations, will eventually reach a still higher stage, and bring yet greaterbenefits. As when small tribes were welded into great tribes, the headchief stopped inter-tribal warfare; as, when small feudal governmentsbecame subject to a king, feudal wars were prevented by him, --so, intime to come, a federation of the highest nations, exercising supremeauthority (already foreshadowed by occasional agreements among "thePowers"), may, by forbidding wars between any of its constituentnations, put an end to the re-barbarization which is continually undoingcivilization. When, eventually, this peace-maintaining federation has been formed, Mr. Spencer looks for effectual progress towards that equilibrium betweenconstitution and conditions, --between inner faculties and outerrequirements, --implied by the final stage of human evolution. Adaptationto the social state, now perpetually hindered by anti-social conflict, may then go on unhindered; and all the great societies, in otherrespects differing, may become similar in those cardinal traits whichresult from complete self-ownership of the unit, and from exercise overhim of nothing more than passive influence by the aggregate. On the onehand, by continual repression of aggressive instincts and by continualexercise of feelings which prompt ministration to public welfare, and, on the other hand, by the lapse of restraints gradually becoming lessnecessary, there will be produced, in Mr. Spencer's forecast, a kind ofman so constituted that, while fulfilling his own desires, he willfulfil also the social needs. Already, small groups of men, shielded bycircumstances from external antagonisms, have been moulded into forms ofmoral nature so superior to our own that the account of their goodnessalmost savors of romance; and it is reasonable to infer that what haseven now happened on a small scale may, under kindred conditions, ultimately happen on a large scale. Prolonged studies, showing amongother things the need for certain qualifications above indicated, butalso revealing facts like that just named, have not caused our author torecede from the belief expressed nearly fifty years ago that "theultimate man will be one whose private requirements coincide with publicones. He will be that manner of man who, in spontaneously fulfilling hisown nature, incidentally performs the functions of a social unit; andyet is only enabled so to fulfil his own nature by all others doingthe like. " Before taking leave of the "Principles of Sociology, " we should cautionthe reader against a misconception that might seem, at first sight, tofind some warrant in the following remark of a sympathetic reviewer:"Like Aristotle, he [Mr. Spencer] has had to delegate large portions ofhis work to be done for him by others. " As our author has himselfpointed out in "Facts and Comments, " the reviewer's reference will berightly interpreted by those who know that the work delegated byAristotle to others was simply the _collection_ of materials for hisNatural History, not the classification of those materials, much lessthe drawing of inductions from them. As not one reader in ten knowsthis, however, wrong impressions are likely to be made by the reviewer'sremark. Mr. Spencer's name being especially associated with the"Synthetic Philosophy, " the sentence quoted will suggest to many thethought that large portions of that work were written by deputy. This, of course, the reviewer did not mean to say. The work to which hereferred is entitled "Descriptive Sociology, or groups of sociologicalfacts, classified and arranged by Herbert Spencer, compiled andabstracted by David Duncan, Richard Scheppig and James Collier, " eightparts of which have thus far appeared. Knowing that he should be unableto read all the works of travel and history containing the facts heshould need when dealing with the science of society, Mr. Spencerengaged these gentlemen--first one, then two, then three--to read up forhim and arrange the extracts they made in a manner prescribed. With muchmaterial he had himself accumulated in the course of many years, ourauthor incorporated a much larger amount of material derived from thecompilations just mentioned when writing the "Principles of Sociology. " VI. It is the two volumes entitled the "Principles of Ethics" to which weshall lastly invite attention. The six parts of which this work iscomposed were published in an irregular manner. Part I. , presenting thedata of ethics, was issued in 1879; Part IV. , a treatise on "Justice, "in 1891; Parts II. And III. , which set forth respectively the inductionsof ethics and the ethics of individual life, and which, along with PartI. , form the first volume, were issued in 1892; Parts V. And VI. , whichtreat respectively of negative beneficence and positive beneficence, were issued in 1893, and, along with Part IV. , constitute the secondvolume. With regard to the "Principles of Ethics, " considered as awhole, it should be noted that the author was prompted to prepare thework, notwithstanding the ill health by which he was incessantlyinterrupted, by the conviction that the establishment of rules ofconduct on a scientific basis is a pressing need. Now that moralinjunctions are losing the authority given by their supposed sacredorigin, the secularization of morals is becoming imperative. Those whoreject the current creed appear to assume that the controlling agencyconferred by it may safely be thrown aside. On the other hand, thosewho defend the current creed allege that, in the absence of the guidanceit yields, no guidance can exist, divine commandments being, in theiropinion, the only possible guides. Dissenting from both of thesebeliefs, Mr. Spencer has had for his primary purpose in the two volumesunder review to show that, apart from any supposed supernatural basis, the principles of ethics have a natural basis. In these two volumes thisnatural basis is set forth, and its corollaries are elaborated. If theconclusions to which the general law of evolution introduces us are notin all cases as definite as might be wished, yet our author submits thatthey are more definite than those to which we are introduced by thecurrent creed. Complete definiteness is not, of course, to be expected. Right regulation of the actions of so complex a being as man, livingunder conditions so complex as those presented by a society, evidentlyforms a subject-matter unlikely to admit of specific statementsthroughout its entire range. The principal inductions drawn from the data collected in the first ofthese volumes may be set forth in a few sentences. Multitudinous proofsare brought forward of the fact that the ethical sentiment prevailing indifferent societies, and in the same society under different conditions, are sometimes diametrically opposed. In Europe and in the United Statesto have committed a murder disgraces for all time a man's memory, anddisgraces for generations all who are related to him. By the Pathans, however, a contrary sentiment is displayed. One who had killed a Mellah(priest) and failed to find refuge from the avengers, said at length: "Ican but be a martyr; I will go and kill a Sahib. " He was hanged aftershooting a sergeant, perfectly satisfied "at having expiated hisoffence. " The prevailing ethical sentiment in England is such that a manwho should allow himself to be taken possession of and made anunresisting slave would be regarded with scorn; but the people ofDrekete, a slave-district of Fiji, "said it was their duty to becomefood and sacrifices for the chiefs, " and that "they were honored bybeing considered adequate to such a noble task. " Less extreme, thoughakin in nature, is the contrast between the feelings which the historyof Englishmen has recorded within a few centuries. In Elizabeth's time, Sir John Hawkins initiated the slave-trade, and, in commemoration of theachievement, was allowed to put in his coat-of-arms: "a demi-moorproper, bound with a cord, "--the honorableness of his action being thusassumed by himself, and recognized by Queen and public. At the presentday, on the other hand, the making slaves of men, called by Wesley "thesum of all villanies, " is regarded in England with detestation; and formany years the British government maintained a fleet to suppress theslave-trade. Again, peoples who have emerged from the primitivefamily-and-clan organization, hold that one who is guilty of a crimemust himself bear the punishment, and it is thought extreme injusticethat the punishment should fall upon any one else. The remote ancestorsof the English people thought and felt differently, as do still theAustralians, whose "first great principle with regard to punishment isthat all the relatives of a culprit, in the event of his not beingfound, are implicated in his guilt: the brothers of the criminalconceive themselves to be quite as guilty as he is. " Then, too, amongcivilized peoples the individualities of women are so far recognizedthat the life and liberty of a wife are not supposed to be bound up withthose of her husband; and she now, having obtained a right to exclusivepossession of property, contends for complete independence, domestic andpolitical. It is, or was, otherwise in Fiji. The wives of the Fijianchiefs consider it a sacred duty to suffer strangulation on the deathsof their husbands. A woman who had been rescued by an Englishman"escaped during the night, and, swimming across the river, andpresenting herself to her own people, insisted upon the completion ofthe sacrifice which she had in a moment of weakness reluctantlyconsented to forego. " Another foreign observer tells of a Fijian womanwho loaded her rescuer "with abuse, and ever afterwards manifested themost deadly hatred towards him. " In England and on the Continent thereligious prohibition of theft and the legal punishment of it are joinedwith a strong social reprobation, so that the offence of a thief isnever condoned. In Beloochistan, on the other hand, quite contrary ideasand feelings are current. There "a favorite couplet is to the effectthat the Biloch who steals and murders, secures Heaven to sevengenerations of ancestors. " In England and the United States reprobationof untruthfulness is strongly expressed, alike by the gentleman and thelaborer. In many parts of the world it is not so. In Blantyre, forexample, according to MacDonald, "to be called a liar is rather acompliment. " Once more: English sentiment is such that the meresuspicion of incontinence on the part of a woman is enough to blight herlife; but there are peoples whose sentiments entail no such effect, and, in some cases, a reverse effect is produced: "Unchastity is, with theWetyaks, a virtue. " It seems, then, that in respect of all the leadingdivisions of human conduct, different races of men, and the same racesat different stages, entertain opposite beliefs, and displayopposite feelings. In Mr. Spencer's opinion, the evidence here brought to a focus ought todissipate once for all the belief in a moral sense, as commonlyentertained. A long experience of mankind, however, prevents him fromindulging in such an expectation. Among men at large, lifelongconvictions are not to be destroyed either by conclusive arguments ormultitudinous facts. Only to those who are not by creed or cherishedtheory committed to the hypothesis of a supernaturally created humanspecies will the evidence above summed up prove that the human mind hasno originally implanted conscience. Mr. Spencer himself at one timeespoused the doctrine of the intuitive moralists, but it has graduallybecome clear to him that the qualifications required practicallyobliterate the doctrine as enunciated by them. It has become clear tohim, in other words, that if among civilized folk the current belief isthat a man who robs and does not repent will be eternally damned, whilean accepted proverb among the Bilochs is, that "God will not favor a manwho does not steal and rob, " it is impossible to hold that men have incommon an innate perception of right and wrong. At the same time, while the inductions drawn by Mr. Spencer from thedata of ethics show that the moral-sense doctrine in its original formis not true, they also show that it adumbrates a truth, and a muchhigher truth. For the facts cited, chapter after chapter, unite inproving that the sentiments and ideas current in each society becomeadjusted to the kinds of activity predominating in it. A life ofconstant external enmity generates a code in which aggression, conquest, revenge, are inculcated, while peaceful occupations are reprobated. Conversely, a life of settled internal amity generates a codeinculcating the virtues conducing to harmonious co-operation, --justice, honesty, veracity, regard for others' claims. The implication is that, if the life of internal amity continues unbroken from generation togeneration, there must result not only the appropriate code, but theappropriate emotional nature, --a moral sense adapted to the moralrequirements. Men so conditioned will acquire to the degree needful forcomplete guidance that innate conscience which the intuitive moralistserroneously supposed to be possessed by mankind at large. There needsbut a continuance of absolute peace externally and a rigorous insistenceon non-aggression internally, to insure the moulding of men into a formnaturally characterized by all the virtues. This general induction isre-enforced by especial induction. Now as displaying this high trait ofnature, now as displaying that, Mr. Spencer has instanced variousuncivilized peoples who, inferior to us in other respects, are morallysuperior to us. He has also pointed out that such peoples are, one andall, free from inter-tribal antagonisms. The peoples showing thisconnection between external and internal peacefulness on the one hand, and superior morality on the other, are of various races. In the IndianHills are found some who are by origin Mongolian, Kelarian, Dravidian;in the forests of Malacca, Burma, and in secluded parts of China existsuch tribes of yet other bloods; in the East Indian archipelago aresome belonging to the Papuan stock; in Japan there are the amiableAinos, who have no traditions of internecine strife; and in North Mexicoexists yet another such people unrelated to the rest, the Pueblos. Ourauthor holds that no more conclusive proof could be wished than thatsupplied by these isolated groups of men, who, widely remote in localityand differing in race, are alike in the two respects that circumstanceshave long exempted them from war, and that they are now organicallygood. May we not reasonably infer, asks Mr. Spencer, in conclusion, thatthe state reached by these small, uncultured tribes may be reached bythe great cultured nations, when the life of internal amity shall beunqualified by the life of external enmity? We bring to an end our review of the "Synthetic Philosophy" by pointingout that the ethical doctrine constituting the culmination of the systemwhich is set forth in the "Principles of Ethics" is fundamentally acorrected and elaborated version of the doctrine propounded in "SocialStatics" issued as long ago as 1850. The correspondence between the twoworks is shown not only by the coincidence of their constructivedivisions, but also by the agreement of their cardinal ideas. As in theone, so in the other, Man, in common with lower creatures, is held to becapable of indefinite change by adaptation to conditions. In both he isregarded as undergoing transformation from a nature appropriate to hisaboriginal wild life, to a nature appropriate to a settled civilizedlife; and in both this transformation is described as a moulding into aform fitted for harmonious co-operation. In both works, too, thismoulding is said to be effected by the repression of certain primitivetraits no longer needed, and the development of needful traits. As inthe first work, so in this last, the great factor in the progressivemodification is shown to be sympathy. It was contended in "SocialStatics, " as it is contended in the "Principles of Ethics, " thatharmonious social co-operation implies that limitation of individualfreedom which results from sympathetic regard for the freedoms ofothers; and that the law of equal freedom is the law in conformity towhich equitable individual conduct and equitable social arrangementsco-exist. Mr. Spencer's theory in 1850 was, as his theory still is, thatthe mental products of Sympathy which constitute what is called "themoral sense, " arise as fast as men are disciplined into social life; andthat along with them arise intellectual perceptions of right humanrelations, which become clearer as the form of social life becomesbetter. Further, in the earlier work it was inferred, as it is inferredin the latest, that there is being effected a conciliation of individualnatures with social requirements; so that there will eventually beachieved the greatest individuation, along with the greatest mutualdependence, --an equilibrium of such kind that each, in fulfilling thewants of his own life, will aid in fulfilling the wants of all otherlives. We observe, finally, that, in the first work, there were drawnessentially the same corollaries respecting the rights of individualsand their relations to the State that are drawn in the "Principlesof Ethics. " A word may be said in conclusion about the difference between therelation of Mr. Spencer on the one hand and Darwin on the other to thethought of the Nineteenth Century. The fact is not to be lost sight ofthat the principles of the Evolutionary, or, as Mr. Spencer prefers toterm it, the Synthetic, philosophy were formulated before thepublication of the "Origin of Species. " What the ultimately generalacceptance of the theory propounded in Darwin's work did for Mr. Spencerwas precisely this: it greatly strengthened the biological evidence forthe evolutionary hypothesis. That hypothesis was upheld, however, byevidence drawn not merely from biology, but from many other sources. Moreover, while the Darwinian theory of natural selection, supplementedas it was by the adoption of the Lamarkian factors, --the effect of useand disuse and the assumed transmissibility of acquiredcharacter, --merely attempted to explain the mode in which the changes inorganic life have taken place upon the earth, the evolutionaryhypothesis put forth by Mr. Spencer professed to be applicable to thewhole sphere of the knowable. It is further to be borne in mind that Mr. Spencer has devoted a large part of his life to tracing in detail theapplications of his fundamental principles to social, political, religious, and ethical phenomena. Darwin, on the other hand, strictlyconfined himself to the biological field, and left to disciples the taskof indicating the bearing of the Darwinian theory upon sociology, theology, and morals. AUTHORITIES. The Complete Works of Herbert Spencer (The Synthetic Philosophy). Also, "Facts and Comments, " by Herbert Spencer (Appleton's). John Fiske's "Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy. " F. H. Collins's "Epitome of the Synthetic Philosophy. " A. D. White's "Herbert Spencer: The Completion of the SyntheticPhilosophy. " CHARLES ROBERT DARWIN. 1809-1882; HIS PLACE IN MODERN SCIENCE. BY MAYO W. HAZELTINE. There is no doubt that, by the judgment of a large majority ofscientists, the place of pre-eminence in the history of science duringthe nineteenth century should be assigned to Charles Robert Darwin. Thetheory associated with his name deserves to be called epoch-making. TheDarwinian hypothesis, indeed, should not be confounded with the cosmictheory of Evolution which was formulated earlier and independently byHerbert Spencer, and supported by many arguments drawn from sourcesoutside the field of natural history. The specific merit of theDarwinian hypothesis is that it furnishes a rational and almostuniversally accepted explanation of the mode in which changes have takenplace in the development of organic life upon the earth. With thepossible cosmical applications of his theory Darwin did not concernhimself, though the bearing of his hypothesis upon wider problems was atonce discerned, and has been set forth by Spencer and others. Beforestating, however, the conclusions at which Darwin arrived in his "Originof Species, " the "Descent of Man, " and other writings, and beforeindicating the extent to which these conclusions have been adopted, weshould say a word about his interesting, amiable, and exemplarypersonality. Concerning his private life, there is no lack ofinformation. He himself wrote an autobiographical sketch which has beenamplified by his son Francis Darwin, and supplemented with numerousextracts from his correspondence. I. Charles Robert Darwin was born at Shrewsbury, Feb. 12, 1809. His motherwas a daughter of Josiah Wedgwood, the well-known Staffordshire potter, and his father, Dr. Robert Waring Darwin, was a son of Erasmus Darwin, celebrated in the eighteenth century as a physician, a naturalist, and apoet. It is a curious fact that in some of his speculations ErasmusDarwin anticipated the views touching the evolution of organic lifesubsequently announced by Lamarck, and ultimately incorporated byCharles Darwin in the theory that bears his name. The only taste kindredto natural history which Dr. Darwin possessed in common with his fatherand his son was a love of plants. The garden of his house in Shrewsbury, where Charles Darwin spent his boyhood, was filled with ornamentaltrees and shrubs, as well as fruit-trees. When Charles Darwin was about eight years old, he was sent to aday-school, and it seems that even at this time his taste for naturalhistory, and especially for collecting shells and minerals, was welldeveloped. In the summer of 1818 he entered Dr. Butler's great school inShrewsbury, well known to the amateur makers of Latin verse by thevolume entitled "Sabrinae Corolla. " He expressed the opinion in laterlife that nothing could have been worse for the development of his mindthan this school, as it was strictly classical, nothing else beingtaught except a little ancient biography and history. During his wholelife he was singularly incapable of mastering any language. With respectto science, he continued collecting minerals with much zeal, and afterreading White's "Selborne" he took much pleasure in watching the habitsof birds. Towards the close of his school life he became deeplyinterested in chemistry, and was allowed to assist his elder brother insome laboratory experiments. In October, 1825, he proceeded to EdinburghUniversity, where he stayed for two years. He found the lecturesintolerably dull, with the exception of those on chemistry. Curiouslyenough, while walking one day with a fellow-undergraduate, the latterburst forth in high admiration of Lamarck and his views on evolution. Sofar as Darwin could afterwards judge, no impression was made upon hisown mind. He had previously read his grandfather's "Zoönomia, " in whichsimilar views had been propounded, but no discernible effect had beenproduced upon him. Nevertheless, it is probable enough that the hearingrather early in life such views maintained and praised may have favoredhis upholding them under a different form in the "Origin of Species. " While at Edinburgh, Darwin was a member of the Plinian Society, and reada couple of papers on some observations in natural history. After twosessions had been spent at Edinburgh, Darwin's father perceived that theyoung man did not like the thought of being a physician, and proposedthat he should become a clergyman. In pursuance of this proposal, hewent to the University of Cambridge in 1828, and three years later tooka B. A. Degree. In his autobiography the opinion is expressed that atCambridge his time was wasted. It was there, however, that he becameintimately acquainted with Professor Henslow, a man of remarkableacquirements in botany, entomology, chemistry, mineralogy, and geology. During his last year at Cambridge Darwin read with care and interestHumboldt's "Personal Narrative, " and Sir John Herschel's "Introductionto the Study of Natural Philosophy. " These books influenced himprofoundly, arousing in him a burning desire to make even the mosthumble contribution to the structure of natural science. At Henslow'ssuggestion he began the study of biology, and in 1831 accompaniedProfessor Sedgwick in the latter's investigations amongst the olderrocks in North Wales. It was Professor Henslow who secured for young Darwin the appointment ofnaturalist to the voyage of the "Beagle. " This voyage lasted from Dec. 27, 1831, to Oct. 2, 1836. The incidents of this voyage will be foundset forth in Darwin's "Public Journeys. " The observations made by him ingeology, natural history, and botany gave him a place of considerabledistinction among scientific men. In 1844 he published a series ofobservations on the volcanic islands visited during the voyage of the"Beagle, " and two years later "Geological Observations on SouthAmerica. " These two books, together with a volume entitled "CoralReefs, " required four and a half years' steady work. In October, 1846, he began the studies embodied in "Cirripedia" (barnacles). The outcomeof these studies was published in two thick volumes. The time came whenDarwin doubted whether the work was worth the consumption of the timeemployed, but probably it proved of use to him when he had to discuss inthe "Origin of Species" the principles of a natural classification. FromSeptember, 1854, and during the four ensuing years, Darwin devotedhimself to observing and experimenting in relation to the transmutationof species, and in arranging a huge pile of notes upon the subject. Asearly as October, 1838, it had occurred to him as probable, or at leastpossible, that amid the struggle for existence which everywhere goes onin the animal world, favorable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavorable ones to be destroyed. The result would be the formationof new species. It was not until June, 1842, however, that Darwin allowed himself thesatisfaction of writing a very brief abstract of his theory inthirty-five pages. This was enlarged two years later into one of 230pages. Early in 1856, Sir Charles Lyell, the well-known geologist, advised him to write out his views upon the subject fully, and Darwinbegan to do so on a scale three or four times as extensive as that whichwas afterwards followed in his "Origin of Species. " He got through abouthalf the work on this scale. His plans were overthrown, owing to thecurious circumstance that, in the summer of 1858, Mr. Alfred E. Wallace, who was then in the Malay archipelago, sent him an essay "On theTendency of Varieties to depart indefinitely from the Original Type. " Itturned out upon perusal that this essay contained exactly the sametheory as that which Darwin was engaged in elaborating. Mr. Wallaceexpressed the wish that, if Darwin thought well of the essay, he shouldsend it to Lyell. It was Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph Hooker whoinsisted that Darwin should allow an abstract from his manuscript, together with a letter to Prof. Asa Gray, dated Sept. 5, 1857, to bepublished at the same time with Wallace's essay. Darwin was unwilling totake this course, being then unacquainted with Mr. Wallace's generousdisposition. As a matter of fact, the joint productions excited verylittle attention, and the only published notice of them asserted thatwhat was new in them was false, and that what was true was old. From theindifference evinced to the papers which first propounded the theory ofnatural selection, Darwin drew the inference that it is necessary forany new view to be explained at considerable length in order to obtainthe public ear. In September, 1858, Darwin, at the earnest advice of Lyell and Hooker, set to work to prepare a volume on the transmutation of species. Thebook cost him more than thirteen months' hard labor. It was published inNovember, 1859, under the title of "Origin of Species. " This, whichDarwin justly regarded as the chief work of his life, was from the firsthighly successful. The first edition was sold on the day of publication, and the book was presently translated into almost every European tongue. Darwin himself attributed the success of the "Origin" in large part tohis having previously written two condensed sketches, and to his havingfinally made an abstract of a much larger manuscript, which itself wasan abstract. By this winnowing process he had been enabled to select themore striking facts and conclusions. As to the current assertion thatthe "Origin" succeeded because the subject was in the air, or becausemen's minds were prepared for it, Darwin was disposed to doubt whetherthis was strictly true. In previous years he had occasionally soundednot a few naturalists, and had never come across a single one who seemedto doubt about the permanence of species. Probably men's minds wereprepared in this sense, that innumerable well-verified facts were storedaway in the memories of naturalists, ready to take their proper placesas soon as any theory which would account for them should be stronglysupported. Darwin himself thought that he gained much by a delay inpublishing, from about 1839, when the "Darwinian" theory was clearlyconceived, to 1859; and that he lost nothing, because he cared verylittle whether men attributed most originality to him or to Wallace. Darwin's "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication" was begunin 1860, but was not published till 1868. The book was a big one, andcost him four years and two months' hard labor. It gives in the firstvolume all his personal observations, and an immense number of facts, collected from various sources, about domestic productions, animal andvegetable. In the second volume the causes and laws of variation, inheritance, etc. , are discussed. Towards the end of the work ispropounded the hypothesis of Pangenesis, which has been generallyrejected, and which the author himself looked upon as unverified, although by it a remarkable number of isolated facts could be connectedtogether and rendered intelligible. The "Descent of Man" was published in February, 1871. Touching thiswork, Darwin has told us that, as soon as he had become (in 1837 or1838) convinced that species were mutable productions, he could notavoid the belief that man must come under the same law. Accordingly, hecollected notes on the subject for his own satisfaction, and not for along time with any intention of publishing. In the "Origin of Species, "the derivation of any particular species is never discussed; but inorder that no honorable man should accuse him of concealing his views, Darwin had thought it best to add that by that work, "light would bethrown on the origin of man and his history. " It would have impeded theacceptance of the theory of natural selection if Darwin had paraded, without giving any evidence, his conviction with respect to man'sorigin. When he found, however, that many naturalists accepted hisdoctrine of the evolution of species, it seemed to him advisable to workup such notes as he possessed, and to publish a special treatise on theorigin of man. He was the more glad to do so, as it gave him anopportunity of discussing at length sexual selection, a subject whichhad always interested him. Darwin's book on the "Expression of Emotion in Men and Animals" waspublished in the autumn of 1872. This had been intended to form achapter on the subject in the "Descent of Man, " but as soon as Darwinbegan to put his notes together he saw that it would require a separatetreatise. In July, 1875, appeared the book on "Insectivorous Plants. "The fact that a plant should secrete, when properly excited, a fluidcontaining an acid and ferment closely analogous to the digestive fluidof an animal, was certainly a remarkable discovery. In the autumn of1876 appeared "The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization, " a work inwhich are described the endless and wonderful contrivances for thetransportation of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. About the same time was brought out an enlarged edition of the"Fertilization of Orchids, " originally published in 1862. Among theminor works issued during the later years of Darwin's life may bementioned particularly the little book on "The Formation of VegetableMould through the Action of Worms. " This was the outgrowth of a shortpaper read before the Geological Society more than fourteenyears before. In order to appreciate the enormous amount of research accomplished byCharles Darwin, it is needful to keep in mind the conditions ofill-health under which almost continually he worked. For nearly fortyyears he never knew one day of the health of ordinary men. His life wasone long struggle against the weariness and drain of sickness. Duringhis last ten years there were signs of amendment in several particulars, but a loss of physical vigor was apparent. Writing to a friend in 1881, he complained that he no longer had the heart or strength to begin anyprolonged investigations. In February and March, 1882, he frequentlyexperienced attacks of pain in the region of the heart, attended withirregularity of the pulse. On April 18 he fainted, and was brought backto consciousness with great difficulty. He seemed to recognize theapproach of death, and said, "I am not the least afraid to die. " On theafternoon of Wednesday, April 19, he passed away. On April 26 he wasinterred in Westminster Abbey. The funeral was attended byrepresentatives of France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Russia, and bydelegates of the universities and learned societies of which he had beena member. Among the pall-bearers were Sir John Lubbock, Sir JosephHooker, Professor Huxley, Mr. A. R. Wallace, Mr. James Russell Lowell, the Duke of Argyll, and the Duke of Devonshire. The grave isappropriately placed in the north aisle of the nave, only a few feetfrom the last resting-place of Sir Isaac Newton. II. An outline of Darwin's personality would not be complete without aglance at some of his mental characteristics, and at his attitude towardreligion. Of his intellectual powers, he himself speaks withextraordinary modesty in his autobiography. He points out that he alwaysexperienced much difficulty in expressing himself clearly and concisely, but he opines that this very difficulty may have had the compensatingadvantage of forcing him to think long and intently about everysentence, and thus enabling him to detect errors in reasoning and in hisown observations, or in those of others. He disclaimed the possession ofany great quickness of apprehension or wit, such as distinguishedHuxley. He protested, also, that his power to follow a long and purelyabstract train of thought was very limited, for which reason he feltcertain that he never could have succeeded with metaphysics ormathematics. His memory, too, he described as extensive, but hazy. Sopoor in one sense was it that he never could remember for more than afew days a single date or a line of poetry. On the other hand, he didnot accept as well founded the charge made by some of his critics that, while he was a good observer, he had no power of reasoning. This, hethought, could not be true, because the "Origin of Species" is one longargument from the beginning to the end, and has convinced many ablemen. No one, he submits, could have written it without possessing somepower of reasoning. He was willing to assert that "I have a fair shareof invention, and of common sense or judgment, such as every fairlysuccessful lawyer or doctor must have, but not, I believe, in any higherdegree. " He adds humbly that perhaps he was "superior to the common runof men in noticing things which easily escape attention, and inobserving them carefully. " Writing in the last year of his life, he expressed the opinion that intwo or three respects his mind had changed during the preceding twentyor thirty years. Up to the age of thirty or beyond it poetry of manykinds gave him great pleasure. Formerly, too, pictures had given himconsiderable, and music very great, delight. In 1881, however, he said:"Now for many years I cannot endure to read a line of poetry; I havetried lately to read Shakspeare, and found it so intolerably dull thatit nauseated me. I have also almost lost my taste for pictures or music. Music generally sets me thinking too energetically of what I have beenat work on, instead of giving me pleasure. I retain some taste for finescenery, but it does not cause me the exquisite delight which itformerly did. " Darwin was convinced that the loss of these tastes wasnot only a loss of happiness, but might possibly be injurious to theintellect, and more probably to the moral character, by enfeebling theemotional side of one's nature. So far as he could judge, his mind hadbecome in his later years a kind of machine for grinding general lawsout of large collections of facts, and that atrophy had taken place inthat part of the brain on which the higher aesthetic tastes depend. Curiously enough, however, he retained his relish for novels, and forbooks on history, biography, and travels. It is well known that Darwin was extremely reticent with regard to hisreligious views. He believed that a man's religion was essentially aprivate matter. Repeated attempts were made to draw him out upon thesubject, and some of these were partially successful. Writing to a Dutchstudent in 1873, he said: "I may say that the impossibility ofconceiving that this grand and wondrous universe, with our consciousselves, arose through chance seems to me the chief argument for theexistence of God; but whether this is an argument of real value I havenever been able to decide. I am aware that if we admit a First Cause, the mind still craves to know whence it came and how it arose. Nor can Ioverlook the difficulty from the immense amount of suffering through theworld. I am also induced to defer to a certain extent to the judgment ofthe many able men who have fully believed in God; but here again I seehow poor an argument this is. The safest conclusion seems to me thatthe whole subject is beyond the scope of man's intellect; but man can dohis duty. " To questions put by a German student in 1879, he replied:"Science has nothing to do with Christ, except in so far as the habit ofscientific research makes a man cautious in admitting evidence. Formyself I do not believe that there ever has been any revelation. As fora future life, every man must judge for himself between conflictingvague probabilities. " In the same year he told another correspondent:"In my most extreme fluctuations I have never been an atheist in thesense of denying the existence of a God. I think that generally (andmore and more as I grow older), but not always, that an Agnostic wouldbe the more correct description of my state of mind. " His latest view isindicated in a letter dated July 3, 1881. Here he expressed the "inwardconviction that the universe is not the result of chance. " He adds, however: "But, then, with me the horrid doubt always arises whether theconvictions of man's mind, which has been developed from the mind of thelower animals, are of any value, or at all trustworthy. Would any onetrust the convictions in a monkey's mind, if there are any convictionsin such a mind?" The Duke of Argyll has recorded the few words on thesubject spoken by Darwin in the last year of his life. The Duke saidthat it was impossible to look at the wonderful contrivances forcertain purposes in nature, and fail to recognize that they were theeffect and the expression of mind. Darwin looked at the Duke very hard, and said, "Well, that often comes over me with overwhelming force; butat other times"--here he shook his head vaguely--"it seems to go away. " III. We pass to a consideration of Darwin's masterworks, the "Origin ofSpecies, " the "Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, " andthe "Descent of Man. " Before indicating the conclusions reached in thefirst of these works, we should point out to what extent Darwin had beenpreceded by dissenters from the belief once almost universallyentertained by biologists that species were independently created, and, once created, were immutable. Lamarck was the first naturalist whosedivergent views upon the subject excited much attention. In writingspublished at various dates from 1801 to 1815, he upheld the doctrinethat all species, including man, are descended from other species. Hepronounced it probable that all changes in the organic, as well as inthe inorganic world, were the result of law, and not of miraculousinterposition. He seems to have been led to his opinion that the changeof species had been gradual by the difficulty experienced indistinguishing species from varieties by the almost perfect gradation offorms in certain groups, and by the analogy of domestic productions. With respect to the means of modification, he attributed something tothe direct action of the physical conditions of life, something to thecrossing of already existing forms, and much to use and disuse, or, inother words, to the effect of habit. Finally, he held that charactersacquired by an existing individual might be transmitted to itsoffspring. In 1813 Dr. W. C. Wells read before the Royal Society "An Account of aWhite Female, Part of whose Skin resembles that of a Negro. " In thispaper the author distinctly recognized the principle of naturalselection, but applied it only to the races of man, and in man only tocertain characters. After remarking that negroes and mulattoes enjoy animmunity from certain tropical diseases, he observed, first, that allanimals tend to vary in some degree, and, secondly, thatagriculturalists improve their domesticated animals by selection. Headded that what is done in the latter case by art seems to be done withequal efficacy, though more slowly, by nature in the formation ofvarieties of mankind fitted for the countries which they inhabit. Againin 1831 Mr. Patrick Matthew published a work on "Naval Timber andArboriculture, " in which he put forth precisely the same viewconcerning the origin of species as that propounded by Mr. Wallace andby Darwin. Unfortunately for himself, the view was cursorily suggestedin scattered passages of an appendix to a work on a different subject, so that it remained unnoticed until Mr. Matthew himself drew attentionto it in 1860, after the publication of the "Origin of Species. " Weobserve finally that Mr. Herbert Spencer, in an essay published in 1852, and republished six years later, contrasted the theories of the creationand the development of organic beings. He argued from the analogy ofdomestic productions, from the changes which the embryos of many speciesundergo, from the difficulty of distinguishing species and varieties, and from the principle of general gradation, that species have beenmodified; and he attributed the modification to the change ofcircumstances. The two volumes comprising the "Origin of Species" constitute, as theauthor said, one long argument. It is, of course, impossible in thespace at our command to recapitulate in detail even the leading factsand inferences which are brought forward to prove that species have beenmodified during a long course of descent. We must confine ourselves to asuccinct statement of the author's general conclusions. What heundertakes to prove is that the modification of species during a longcourse of descent has been effected chiefly through the naturalselection of numerous successive slight favorable variations, aided inan important manner by the inherited effects of the use and disuse ofparts; and in an unimportant manner, --that is, in relation to adaptivestructures, whether past or present, by the direct action of externalconditions, and by variations which seem to us, in our ignorance, toarise spontaneously. It should be observed that Darwin does notattribute the modification exclusively to natural selection. What heasserts is: "I am convinced that natural selection has been the main, but not the exclusive, means of modification. " He submits that a falsetheory would hardly explain in so satisfactory a manner as does thetheory of natural selection the several large classes of factsmarshalled in the two volumes now under review. If it be objected thatthis is an unsafe method of arguing, Darwin rejoins that it is a methodusual in judging of the common events of life, and has often been usedby the greatest natural philosophers. The undulatory theory of light, for instance, has thus been arrived at; and the belief in the revolutionof the earth on its own axis was, until lately, supported by scarcelyany direct evidence. It is no valid objection to the Darwinian theory ofthe origin of species that science as yet throws no light on the farhigher problem of the essence or origin of life. Neither has any oneexplained what is the essence of the attraction of gravity, thoughnobody now objects to following out the results consequent on thisunknown element of attraction. Why, it may be asked, did nearly all the most eminent naturalists andgeologists until recently decline to believe in the mutability ofspecies? Darwin replies that the belief that species were immutableproductions was almost unavoidable as long as the history of the worldwas thought to be of short duration. Even now that we have acquired someidea of the lapse of time, men are too apt to assume without proof thatthe geological record is so perfect that it would have afforded plainevidence of the mutation of species if they had really undergonemutation. The chief cause, however, of the once-prevalent unwillingnessto admit that one species has given birth to other and distinct speciesis the fact that men are slow to admit great changes of which they donot see the steps. The difficulty is the same which was experienced bymany geologists when Lyell first insisted that long lines of inlandcliffs had been formed and great valleys excavated, not by catastrophes, but by the slow-moving agencies which we see still at work. The humanmind cannot grasp the full meaning of the term of even a million years;cannot add up and perceive the full effects of many slight variationsaccumulated during an almost infinite number of generations. When the first edition of the "Origin of Species" was published in 1859, Darwin wrote that he by no means expected to convince experiencednaturalists whose minds were stocked with a multitude of facts, allregarded during a long course of years from a point of view directlyopposite to his. He looked forward with confidence, however, to thefuture, to young and rising naturalists, who would be able to view bothsides of the question with impartiality. He predicted that, when theconclusions reached by him and by Mr. Wallace concerning the origin ofspecies should be generally accepted, there would be a considerablerevolution in natural history. Naturalists, for instance, would beforced to acknowledge that the only distinction between species andwell-marked varieties is that the latter are known or believed to beconnected at the present day by intermediate gradations, whereas specieswere formerly, though they are not now, thus connected. It might thuscome to pass that forms generally acknowledged in 1859 to be merelyvarieties, would thereafter be thought worthy of specific names; inwhich case scientific and common language would come into accordance. Inshort, Darwin looked forward to the time when species would have to betreated in the same manner as genera are treated by those naturalistswho admit that genera are merely artificial combinations made forconvenience. Darwin also foresaw that when his theory of the origin of species shouldbe adopted, other and more general departments of natural history wouldrise greatly in interest. The terms used by naturalists--such terms asaffinity, relationship, community of type, paternity, morphology, adaptive characters, rudimentary and abortive organs, etc. --would ceaseto be metaphorical, and would have a plain signification. "When, " hewrote, "we no longer look at an organic being as a savage looks at aship, as something wholly beyond his comprehension; when we regard everyproduction of nature as one which has had a long history; when wecontemplate every complex structure and instinct as the summing up ofmany contrivances, each useful to the possessor, in the same way as anygreat mechanical invention is the summing up of the labor, theexperience, the reason, and even the blunders of numerous workmen; whenwe thus view each organic being, how far more interesting--I speak fromexperience--does the study of natural history become. " Once more: "Whenwe can feel assured that all the individuals of the same species, andall the closely allied species of most genera, have within a not veryremote period descended from one parent, and have migrated from some onebirthplace; and when we better know the many means of migration, then, by the light which geology now throws, and will continue to throw, onformer changes of climate and of the level of the land, we shall surelybe enabled to trace in an admirable manner the former migrations of theinhabitants of the whole world. " When Darwin published the "Origin of Species, " he was aware thattheologians and philosophers seemed to be fully satisfied with the viewthat each species had been independently created, and was immutable. Tohis own mind, however, it accorded better with what was known of thelaws impressed on matter by the Creator that the production andextinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should havebeen due to secondary causes like those determining the birth and deathof the individual. "When I view, " he said, "all beings not as specialcreations, but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which livedlong before the first bed of the Cambrian system was deposited, theyseem to me to become ennobled. " And again: "As all the living forms oflife are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before theCambrian epoch, we may feel certain that the ordinary succession bygeneration has never once been broken, and that no cataclysm hasdesolated the whole world. Hence we may look with some confidence to asecure future of great length. And as natural selection works slowly byand for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments willtend to progress towards perfection. " For his own part, Darwin could see no good reason why the viewspropounded in the two volumes comprising the "Origin of Species" shouldshock the religious feelings of any one. Touching the likelihood ofsuch a result, he reassured himself by recalling the fact that thegreatest discovery ever made by man--namely, the law of the attractionof gravitation--was attacked by Leibnitz "as subversive of natural, andinferentially, of revealed, religion. " Darwin was confident that, if anysuch impressions were made by his theory, they would prove buttransient, and that ultimately men would come to see that it is just asnoble a conception of the Deity to believe that He created a feworiginal forms capable of self-development into other and needful formsas to believe that it required the fresh act of creation to supply thevoids caused by the action of His laws. IV. It was, as we have said, in 1868 that Darwin published the two volumescollectively entitled "Variation of Animals and Plants underDomestication. " It is the second and largely corrected edition broughtout in 1875 which we have under our eye. It is the outcome of the viewsmaintained by the author in this work and elsewhere that not only thevarious domestic races but the most distinct genera and orders withinthe same great class--for instance, mammals, birds, reptiles, andfishes--are all the descendants of one common progenitor, and the wholevast amount of difference between these forms has primarily arisen fromsimple variability. Darwin recognized that he who for the first timeshould consider the subject under this point of view would be struckdumb with amazement. He submits, however, that the amazement ought to belessened when we reflect that beings almost infinite in number during analmost infinite lapse of time have often had their whole organizationrendered in some degree plastic, and that each slight modification ofstructure which was in any way beneficial under excessively complexconditions of life has been preserved, whilst each which was in any wayinjurious has been rigorously destroyed. The long-continued accumulationof beneficial variations will infallibly have led to structures asdiversified, as beautifully adapted for various purposes, and asexcellently co-ordinated as we see in the animals and plants around us. Hence Darwin regards selection as the paramount power, whether appliedby man to the formation of domestic beings or by nature to theproduction of species. Employing a favorite metaphor, he said: "If anarchitect were to rear a noble and commodious edifice without the use ofcut stone, by selecting from the fragments at the base of a precipicewedge-form stones for his arches, elongated stones for his lintels, andflat stones for his roof, we should admire his skill and regard him asthe paramount power. Now, the fragments of stone, though indispensableto the architect, bear to the edifice built by him the same relationwhich the fluctuating variations of organic beings bear to the variedand admirable structures ultimately acquired by their modifieddescendants. " Some critics of the Darwinian theory of the origin of species havedeclared that natural selection explains nothing, unless the precisecause of each slight individual difference be made clear. Darwin rejoinsthat if it were explained to a savage utterly ignorant of the art ofbuilding how the edifice had been raised, stone upon stone, and whywedge-formed fragments were used for the arches, flat stones for theroof, etc. ; and if the use of each part and of the whole building werepointed out, --it would be unreasonable if he declared that nothing hadbeen made clear to him, because the precise cause of the shape of eachfragment could not be told. This, in Darwin's opinion, is a nearlyparallel case, with the objection that selection explains nothingbecause we know not the cause of each individual difference in thestructure of each being. The shape of the fragments of stone at the baseof the hypothetical precipice may be called accidental, but the term isnot strictly applicable; for the shape of each depends on a longsequence of events, all obeying natural laws; on the nature of the rock, on the lines of deposition or cleavage, on the form of the mountain, which depends on its upheaval and subsequent denudation, and, lastly, on the storm or earthquake which throws down the fragments. In regard to the use, however, to which the fragments may be put, theirshape may be strictly said to be accidental. Here Darwin acknowledgedthat we are brought face to face with a great difficulty in alluding towhich he felt that he was travelling beyond his proper province. "Anomniscient Creator must have foreseen every consequence which resultsfrom the laws imposed by Him. But can it be reasonably maintained thatthe Creator intentionally ordered, if we use the words in any ordinarysense, that certain fragments of rock should assume certain shapes, sothat the builder might erect his edifice? If the various laws which havedetermined the shape of each fragment were not predetermined for thebuilder's sake, can it be maintained with any greater probability thatHe specially ordained for the sake of the breeder each of theinnumerable variations in our domestic animals and plants, --many ofthese variations being of no service to man, and not beneficial, farmore often injurious, to the creatures themselves? Did He ordain thatthe crop and tail-feathers of the pigeon should vary in order that thefancier might make his grotesque pouter and fan-tail breeds? Did Hecause the frame and mental qualities of the dog to vary in order that abreed might be formed of indomitable ferocity with jaws fitted to pindown the bull for man's brutal sport?" It is obvious, however, that if we give up the principle in onecase, --if we do not admit that the variations of the primeval dog wereintentionally guided in order that the greyhound, for instance, thatperfect image of symmetry and vigor, might be formed, --no shadow ofreason can be assigned for the belief that variations similar in natureand the result of the same general laws which have been the groundworkthrough natural selection of the formation of the most perfectly adaptedanimals in the world, man included, were intentionally and speciallyguided. Darwin, therefore, was unable to follow the distinguishedbotanist, Prof. Asa Gray, in his belief that "variation has been ledalong certain beneficial lines, " like a stream "along definite anduseful lines of irrigation. " Darwin's conclusion was that, if we assumethat each particular variation was from the beginning of all timepreordained, then that plasticity of organization which leads to manyinjurious deviations of structure, as well as the redundant power ofreproduction which inevitably leads to a struggle for existence, and, asa consequence, to a natural selection or survival of the fittest, mustappear to us superfluous laws of nature. V. Next to the "Origin of Species, " the volume which sets forth Darwin'stheory of the "Descent of Man" naturally excited the most widespreadattention. This book, which took the author three years to write, waspublished in 1871, a second and carefully revised edition appearingthree years later. The data brought together occupy more than sixhundred pages. The conclusions reached may be summed up in a fewparagraphs. The principal induction from the evidence is that man isdescended from some less highly organized form. It was Darwin'sconviction that the grounds upon which this conclusion rests will neverbe shaken, for the close similarity between man and the lower animals inembryonic development, as well as in innumerable points of structure andconstitution, both of high and of the most trifling importance, --therudiments which he retains and the abnormal reversions to which he isoccasionally liable, --are facts which cannot be disputed. Viewed in thelight of our knowledge of the whole organic world, their meaning isunmistakable. The great principle of evolution stands out clear and firmwhen these groups of facts are considered in connection with others, such as the mutual affinities of the members of the same group, theirgeographical distribution in past and present times, and theirgeological succession. It is pronounced incredible that all these factsshould speak falsely. He who is not content to look like a savage at thephenomena of nature as disconnected cannot any longer believe that manis the product of a separate act of creation. He will be forced to admitthat the close resemblance of the embryo of man to that, for instance, of a dog, --the construction of his skull, limbs, and whole frame on thesame plan with that of other mammals, independently of the uses to whichthe parts may be put; the occasional reappearance of various structures, for instance, of several muscles which man does not normally possess, but which are common to the Quadrumana, and a crowd of analogousfacts, --all point in the plainest manner to the conclusion that man isthe co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor. Darwin recognized that the high standard of our intellectual powers andmoral disposition constitutes the greatest difficulty which presentsitself after we have been driven by the mass of biological evidence toaccept his conclusion as to the origin of man. Touching this point, heobserves: "Every one who admits the principle of evolution must see thatthe mental powers of the higher animals, which are the same in kind withthose of man, though so different in degree, are capable of advancement. Thus the interval between the mental powers of one of the higher apesand of a fish, or between those of an ant and scale-insect, is immense;yet their development does not offer any special difficulty, for withour domesticated animals the mental faculties are certainly variable, and the variations are inherited. No one doubts that their mentalfaculties are of the utmost importance to animals in a state of nature. Therefore the conditions are favorable for their development throughnatural selection. The same conclusion may be extended to man; theintellect must have been all-important to him, even at a very remoteperiod, as enabling him to invent and use language, to make weapons, tools, traps, etc. , whereby, with the aid of his social habits, he longago became the most dominant of all living creatures. " It is further pointed out that a great stride in the development ofman's intellect must have followed as soon as the half-art andhalf-instinct of language came into use; for the continued use oflanguage must have reacted on the brain, and produced an inheritedeffect, and this again will have reacted on the improvement of language. The largeness of the brain in man relatively to his body, compared withthe size of that organ in the lower animals, is attributable in chiefpart to the early use of some simple form of language, that engine whichaffixes signs to all sorts of objects and qualities, and excites trainsof thought which would never arise from the mere impression of thesenses, or, if they did arise, could not be followed out. The higherintellectual powers of man, such as those of ratiocination, abstraction, self-consciousness, etc. , probably follow from the continued improvementand exercise of the other mental faculties. How man's moral qualities came to be developed is an interesting problemwhich is considered by Darwin at some length. He holds that theirfoundation lies in the social instincts under which term are includedfamily ties. These instincts are highly complex, and, in the case of thelower animals, give special tendencies toward certain definite actions. But the more important elements are love and the distinct emotion ofsympathy. Animals endowed with the social instincts take pleasure in oneanother's company, warn one another of danger, defend and aid oneanother in many ways. These instincts do not extend to all theindividuals of the species, but only to those of the same community. As, however, they are highly beneficial to the species, they have in allprobability been acquired through natural selection. In Darwin'sjudgment the moral nature of man has reached its present standard partlythrough the advancement of his reasoning powers, and consequently, of ajust public opinion, but especially from his sympathies having beenrendered more tender and widely diffused through the effects of habit, example, instruction, and reflection. It is pronounced not improbablethat, after long practice, virtuous tendencies may be inherited. Let us look a little more closely at the matter, for the difficulty ofexplaining morality forms one of the greatest obstacles to theacceptance of the Darwinian account of the descent of man. What do wemean by a moral being? Manifestly, a moral being is one who is capableof reflecting on his past actions and their motives, and of approving ofsome while he disapproves of others. Man is the one being who certainlydeserves this designation, though attempts have recently been made toshow that a rudimentary morality may be traced in some of the loweranimals. In the fourth chapter of the book before us, Darwin undertakesto demonstrate that the moral sense follows, --first, from the enduringand ever-present nature of the social instincts; secondly, from man'sappreciation of the approbation and disapprobation of his fellows; and, thirdly, from the high activity of his mental faculties, with pastimpressions extremely vivid; in these latter respects he differs fromthe lower animals. Owing to this condition of mind, man cannot avoidlooking both backwards and forwards, and comparing past impressions. Hence, after some temporary desire or passion has mastered his socialinstincts, he reflects and compares the now weakened impression of suchpast impulses with the ever-present social instincts; and he then feelsthat sense of dissatisfaction which all unsatisfied instincts leavebehind them, and resolves to act differently for the future. Thisdissatisfaction Darwin would identify with conscience. Any instinctpermanently stronger or more enduring than another gives rise to afeeling which we express by saying that it _ought_ to be obeyed. Darwinsuggests that a pointer dog, if able to reflect on his past conduct, would say to himself I _ought_ (as indeed we say of him) to have pointedat that hare, and not have yielded to the passing temptation ofhunting it. The belief in God has often been advanced as not only the greatest, butthe most decisive, of all the distinctions between man and the loweranimals. Darwin brings forward in the book before us a quantity ofreasons for holding it to be impossible that this belief is innate orinstinctive in man. In some races of men, for instance, we encounter atotal want of the idea of God. On the other hand, a belief inall-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be universal, and apparentlyfollows from a considerable advance in man's reason, and from a stillgreater advance in the faculties of imagination, curiosity, and wonder. "I am aware, " says Darwin, "that the assumed instinctive belief in Godhas been used by many persons as an argument for His existence. But thisis a rash argument, as we should thus be compelled to believe in theexistence of many cruel and malignant spirits only a little morepowerful than man; for the belief in them is far more general than in abeneficent deity. The idea of a universal and beneficent Creator doesnot seem to arise in the mind of man until he has been elevated bylong-continued culture. " How does the belief in the advancement of man from some low organizedform bear on the belief in the immortality of the soul? Sir John Lubbockhas proved that the barbarous races of man possess no clear belief ofthe kind; but, as Darwin continually reminds us, arguments derived fromthe primeval beliefs of savages are of little or no avail on either sideof a question. Attention is directed by Darwin to the more relevant factthat few persons feel any anxiety from the impossibility of determiningat what precise period in the development of the individual, from thefirst trace of a minute germinal vesicle, man becomes an immortal being. He submits that there should be no greater cause for anxiety because theperiod cannot possibly be determined in the gradually ascendingorganic scale. Darwin was well aware that the conclusions arrived at in the work beforeus--namely, that man is descended from some lowly organized form--wouldbe highly distasteful to many. The very persons, however, who regard theconclusions with distaste admit without hesitation that they aredescended from barbarians. Darwin recalls the astonishment which hehimself felt on first seeing a party of Fuegians on a wild and brokenshore, when the reflection rushed upon his mind that such men had beenhis ancestors. These men were absolutely naked and bedaubed with paint, their long hair was tangled, their mouths frothed with excitement, andtheir expression was wild, startled, and distrustful. They possessedhardly any arts, and, like wild animals, lived on what they could catch;they had no government, and were merciless to every one not of their ownsmall tribe. Remembering the impression made on him by the Fuegians, Darwin suggests that he who has seen a savage in his native land willnot feel much shame if forced to acknowledge that the blood of some morehumble creature flows in his veins. "For my own part, " he says, "I wouldas soon be descended from that heroic little monkey who braved hisdreaded enemy in order to save the life of his keeper, --or from that oldbaboon, who, descending from the mountains, carried away in triumph hisyoung comrade from a crowd of astonished dogs, --as from a savage whodelights to torture his enemies, offers up bloody sacrifices, practisesinfanticide without remorse, treats his wives like slaves, knows nodecency, and is haunted by the grossest superstitions. " Darwin holds, infine, that man may be excused for feeling some pride at having risen, though not through his own exertions, to the very summit of the organicscale; it is further submitted that the fact of his having thus risen, instead of having been aboriginally placed there, may give him hope fora still higher destiny in the distant future. As a scientist, however, Darwin is not concerned with hopes or fears, but simply with the truth, as man's reason enables him to discern it. Wemust recognize, he thinks, as the truth, established by an overwhelmingarray of inductive evidence, that man, with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which he feels for the most debased, with benevolencewhich extends not only to other men, but to the humblest livingcreature, with his godlike intellect, which has penetrated into themovements and constitution of the solar system--with all these exaltedpowers--man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of hislowly origin. VI. We have said that Darwin's theory of the origin of species, togetherwith its corollary, the descent of man, has met with almost universalacceptance by scientists. We have to use the qualifying adverb, becausesome of Darwin's contemporaries, including Virchow and Owen, not tomention St. George Mivart and the Duke of Argyll, have withheld theiradhesion. Since his death, moreover, his disciples have tended to splitinto two schools. On the one hand, Weismann has rejected the Lamarckianfactors, --the effect of use and disuse upon organs, and thetransmissibility of acquired characters. The importance of these factorshas been emphatically re-asserted, on the other hand, by Lankester andothers. Whether biologists, however, range themselves in theNeo-Darwinian or in the Neo-Lamarckian camp, the value of the principleof natural selection is acknowledged by all, and nobody now asserts theindependent creation and permanence of species. AUTHORITIES. The Complete Works of Darwin, published by D. Appleton and Company. The Works of Alfred Russel Wallace. Francis Darwin's "Life of Charles Darwin. " Huxley's Writings, _passim_. Haeckel's "Natural History of Creation. " Weismann's "Studies in the Theory of Descent" and subsequent papers. Romanes's "Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution. " Lankester's "Degeneration. " Fiske's "Darwinism and Other Essays. " For adverse criticism of Darwin, read Mivart's "Genesis of Species, " andthe Duke of Argyll's "Unity of Nature. " JOHN ERICSSON. 1803-1889. NAVIES OF WAR AND COMMERCE. BY W. F. DURAND, PH. D. The exact combination of inspiration, heredity, and environment whichserves to produce genius will perhaps ever be a problem beyond the skillof human intelligence. When the rare elements do combine, however, theresult is always worthy of most careful study, both because greatachievements furnish a healthy stimulus to emulation, and because someglimpse may be gained of Nature's working in the formation of herrarest products. Few lives better illustrate these remarks than that of John Ericsson. Born of middle-class parentage and with no apparent source of heredityfrom which to draw the stores of genius which he displayed throughouthis life, and with surroundings in boyhood but little calculated toawaken and inspire the life-work which later made him famous, from thisbeginning and with these early surroundings John Ericsson becameunquestionably the greatest of the engineers of the age in which helived and of the century which witnessed such mighty advances along allengineering lines. The imprint left by Ericsson's life on theengineering practice of his age was deep and lasting, and if one maydare look into the future, the day is far removed when engineers willhave passed beyond their dependence on his life and labors. It is perhaps not amiss that, before looking more closely at theachievements of Ericsson's life and activity, note should be taken ofthe large dependence of our present civilization and mode of life on theengineer and his work. In different ages of the world's history each has received its name, appropriate or fanciful as the case may have been. For the modern age noname is perhaps more adequately descriptive than the "Age of Energy, "the age in which our entire fabric of civilization rests upon theutilization of the energies of nature for the needs of humanity, and toan extent little appreciated by those who have not considered the matterfrom this point of view. If we consider the various elements which enterinto our modern civilization, --the items which enter into the daily lifeof the average man or woman; the items which we have come to consider asnecessities and those which we may consider as luxuries; the items whichgo to make up our needs as expressed in terms of shelter, food, intercommunication between man and his fellow, and pleasure, --the mostcasual consideration of such will serve to show distributed throughoutalmost the entire fabric of our civilization dependence at some point onthe power of the steam-engine, the water-wheel, or windmill, the subtleelectric current, or the heat-energy of coal, petroleum oil, or naturalgas. The harnessing and efficient utilization of these great naturalenergies is the direct function of the engineer, or more especially ofthe dynamic engineer, and in this noble guild of workers, Ericssoncarved for himself an enduring place and left behind a record whichshould serve as an inspiration to all who are following the same pathwayin later years. No one feature perhaps better differentiates our modern civilizationfrom that of earlier times, four hundred years ago, or even one hundred, than that of intercommunication between man and his fellow. Compare theopportunities for such intercommunication in the present with those inthe time of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Isaac Newton, George Washington, orNapoleon I. We now have our steamships, steam and electric railroads, cable, telegraph, and telephone. A few years ago not a single one wasknown. The modern age is one which demands the utmost in the possibilityof communication between man and his kind, and in this respect the wideworld is now smaller than the confines of an English county acentury ago. In this field, as we shall see, Ericsson did some of his greatest work, and left perhaps his most permanent record for the future. Ericsson's life falls most naturally into three periods chronologicallyor geographically, and likewise into three periods professionally, though the latter mode of subdivision has by no means the sameboundaries as the former. The first mode of subdivision gives us thelife in Sweden, the life in England, and the life in the United States. The second mode gives us the life of struggle and obscurity, the life ofstruggle, achievement, and recognition, and the calmer and easier lifeof declining years with recognition, reward, and the assurance of alife's work well done. John Ericsson was born in the province of Vermland, Sweden, in 1803. Hisfather was Olof Ericsson, a mine owner and inspector who was welleducated after the standard of his times, having graduated at thecollege in Karlstad, the principal town of the province. His mother wasBritta Sophia Yngstrom, a woman of Flemish-Scotch descent, and to whomEricsson seems to have owed many of his stronger characteristics. Threechildren were born: Caroline in 1800, Nils in 1802, and John in 1803. OfJohn's earliest boyhood we have but slight record, but there seems tohave been a clear foreshadowing of his future genius. He was consideredthe wonder of the neighborhood, and busied himself day after day withthe machinery of the mines, drawing the form on paper with his rudetools or making models with bits of wood and cord, and endeavoring thusto trace the mystery of its operation. In 1811 the Ericsson family fell upon evil times. Due to a war withRussia, business became disturbed and in the end Olof Ericsson becamefinancially ruined. This brought the little family face to face with therealities of life, and we soon after find the father occupying aposition as inspector on the Göta Canal, a project which was just thenoccupying serious attention after having been neglected for nearly onehundred years, and nearly three hundred years after it was firstproposed in 1526. Through this connection, in 1815, John and NilsEricsson were appointed as cadets in a corps of Mechanical Engineers tobe employed in carrying out the Government's plans with reference to thecanal. During the winter of 1816-17 and at the age of thirteen, JohnEricsson received regular instruction from some of his officers inAlgebra, Chemistry, Field Drawing, and Geometry, and the Englishlanguage. Ericsson's education previous to this seems to have consistedchiefly in lessons at home or from tutors, after the manner of the time. He had thus received instruction in the ordinary branches and indrawing and some chemistry. His training in drawing seems to have beenunusually thorough and comprehensive, and with a natural genius for suchwork, his later remarkable skill at the drawing board is doubtless in nosmall measure due to the excellent instruction which he received in hisearly years. His progress in his duties as a young engineer was rapid, and he was soon given employment in connection with the canal-work, involving much responsibility and calling for experience and skill. At length on reaching the age of seventeen he became stirred withmilitary ambition, and, dissatisfied with his present prospects, he lefthis position with its opportunities for the future, and entered theSwedish army as ensign of a regiment of Field Chasseurs. This regimentwas famous for its rifle practice, and Ericsson was soon one of its mostexpert marksmen. The routine of army life was, however, far from beingsufficient to satisfy the uneasy genius of John Ericsson, and we soonfind him engaged in topographical surveying for the Government, and sorapid and industrious in his work that as the surveyors were paid inaccordance with the amount accomplished, he was carried on the pay rollsas two men, and paid as such, in order that the amount which he receivedmight not seem too excessive for one individual. Even this was notsufficient to exhaust his energy, and about this time he conceived theidea of publishing a book of plates descriptive of the machinerycommonly employed in the mining operations of his day. To this end hecollected a large number of sketches which he had prepared in hisearlier years, and made arrangements to take up the work of preparationfor publication. The drawings selected were to be engraved for the book, and, nothing daunted by the undertaking, Ericsson proposed to do thiswork himself. After some discouragement the engraving was undertaken, and eighteen copper plates of the sixty-five selected, averaging in sizefifteen by twenty inches, were completed within a year. In various waysthe project met with delays, and it soon became apparent that the rapidadvance in the applications of machinery to mining would render the workout of date, and it was at length abandoned. At about this time Ericsson seems to have taken up seriously his work onhis so-called "flame-engine, " certain experiments made by his fatherhaving suggested to him the hope that a source of power might in thisway be developed which would be more economical than the steam-engine. At this point we see entering into Ericsson's life an idea which neverleft him, which controlled much of his work in mid-life, and whichattracted no small part of his attention throughout his closing years. This idea was the discovery of some form of heat-engine which should bemore economical than the steam-engine, especially as it was in his day. The flame-engine idea grew rapidly, and soon absorbed his chiefattention. Military life now lost its attraction, and in 1826 obtainingleave of absence he left his native land and turned his face towardLondon, doubtless with the hope strong within him that a substitute forthe steam-engine had been found, and that his future lay secure and easybefore him. The characteristic features of Ericsson's life up to this time, when hehad reached his twenty-third year, are energy, industry, independence, all in most pronounced degree, and combined with a most astonishinginsight into mechanical and scientific questions. It was not a period ofachievement, but one of formation and of development in those qualitieswhich were soon to make him famous in both worlds. Of his work duringthis period of life little or nothing outside the idea embodied in theflame-engine can be said to belong to the permanent record of his life'sachievement. This appeared in the "Caloric" engine, and still later inthe well-known Ericsson "Air" engine of the present day. This era was one of development and promise, and richly were thepromises fulfilled in the achievements of his later years. A carefulstudy of his life to this point is sufficient to show that, with healthand time, such a nature would certainly leave a mark wide and deep onthe world in which it was placed. His characteristics were such thatachievement was the very essence of life, and, with the promise andpotency as revealed in this first twenty-three years of his life, we maybe well prepared for the brilliant record of the remaining sixty-three. With Ericsson's arrival in London began the second important period ofhis life. His first efforts were directed toward the introduction of theflame-engine, but he soon found unexpected difficulties in the use ofcoal as fuel instead of wood, and it became clear that in order to livehe must turn his attention to other matters for a time. Then followed aseries of remarkable pieces of work in which Ericsson's genius showeditself, either in original invention or in the adaptation andimprovement of the existing facts and material of engineering practice. While thus occupied, his leave from his regiment expired, and he seemsto have overlooked taking proper steps to have it renewed. He was thusplaced technically in the attitude of a deserter. Through theintervention of a friend, however, he was soon afterward restored, andpromoted to the rank of Captain in the Swedish Army. This commission heimmediately resigned, and thus his record became technically cleared ofall reproach. To give a mere list of the work with which Ericsson was occupied duringthe years from 1827 to 1839, when he removed to the United States, wouldbe no small task, and reference to the more important only can be heremade. Compressed air for transmitting power, forced draft for boilers bymeans of centrifugal blowers, steam boilers of new and improved types, the surface condenser for marine engines, the location of the engines ofa ship for war purposes below the water line, the steam fire-engine, thedesign and construction of the "Novelty" (a locomotive for the Rainhillcontest in 1829, when Stephenson's "Rocket" was awarded the prize, though Ericsson, heavily handicapped in time and by lack of a track onwhich to adjust and perfect the "Novelty, " achieved a result apparentlyin many ways superior to Stephenson's with the "Rocket"), variousdesigns for rotary engines, an apparatus for making salt from brine, further experimental work with various forms of heat, or so-called"caloric" engines, and the final development, in 1833, of a type fromwhich great results were for a time expected, superheated steam andengines for its use, a deep-sea-sounding apparatus embodying the sameprinciple as that later developed by Lord Kelvin in the well-knownapparatus of the present day, a machine for cutting files automatically, various types of steam-engines, and finally his work in connection withthe introduction of the screw-propeller as a means of propulsion forsteam vessels. These are some of the important lines of work on whichEricsson was engaged during the twelve years of his life in London. Inconnection with some he was undoubtedly a pioneer, and deserves creditas an original inventor; in connection with others, his work was that ofimprovement or adaptation; but in all his influence was profound, andthe legacy which we have received from this period of engineeringprogress is due in no small degree to Ericsson, and to his work inLondon during these years. At a later point we shall refer in somefurther detail to these questions, but desire for the moment, rather, togain a broad and comprehensive view of his life as a whole. Ericsson has been by some called a spendthrift in invention, and theterm is not without some justice in its application. His genius wasuneasy, and his mind was oppressed by the wealth of his ideas. It wasthis very wealth which led him from one idea to another, without alwaystaking sufficient time in which to develop and perfect his plans. Richin invention, he cared but little for exploitation, and when the truthof his predictions was demonstrated, or the ground of his expectationjustified, he was eager for new achievements and new combinations of thematerials of engineering progress. In this spirit of struggle andunrest, he passed the years in London, rapidly becoming known for hisversatility in invention, and for his daring and originality in thedetails of his engineering work. From 1833 to 1839, or during the secondhalf of this term of residence in London, he became in increasingmeasure absorbed in his work connected with the screw-propeller as ameans of marine propulsion. Ericsson's name in the popular mind has been most commonly associatedwith the "Monitor" and her fight with the "Merrimac" in the Civil War, and next, probably, with the screw-propeller as a means of marinepropulsion. It will, therefore, be proper at the present point to referin some further detail to the circumstances connected with his relationto the introduction of the screw-propeller. Regarding this question an entire volume might be written without doingmore than justice to the subject, but only a brief statement of thechief facts can be here attempted. As early as the Seventeenth Century the possibility of developing apropulsive thrust by the use of a submerged helicoidal, or screw, propeller, had been vaguely recognized, and during the following, orEighteenth Century, the same idea had been brought forward. It had beenviewed in this connection, however, merely as a curiosity, and led to noimmediate results. Later, in 1804, Francis B. Stevens, of New Jersey, inan experimental boat on the Hudson, operated twin screws, anddemonstrated their applicability to the requirements of marine practice. These propellers, in fact, had a form far more nearly approaching themodern screw-propeller than did those which came somewhat later, andwhich marked the real entry of the screw-propeller into actual andpractical service. Again, in 1812, Ressel, a student in the University of Vienna, began tostudy the screw-propeller, and his first drawing dates from this time. In 1826 he carried on experiments in a barge driven by hand, and in 1827an Austrian patent was granted him. Two years later he applied his screwto a boat with an engine of six horse-power, and a speed of six milesper hour was said to have been attained. Then came a burstingsteam-pipe, and the police put a stop to the experiments, which seem tohave had no further results. Likewise in 1823 Captain Delisle, of the French Engineers, presented amemorial to his Government in which he urged the use of the submergedpropeller for the propulsion of steam vessels. No especial attention wasgiven to the suggestion, however, and it was apparently forgotten untillater, when the propeller had become a demonstrated success. Then thismemorial was remembered, and its author brought forward to receive hisshare of credit in connection with the adaptation of the propeller tomarine propulsion. These various attempts to introduce the screw-propeller seem curiouslyenough to have had no lasting result. They were not followed up, and inthe mean time had to some extent passed out of memory, or, ifremembered, the absence of result can hardly have acted as an incentiveto fresh effort. At the same time it must be admitted that thescrew-propeller as a possibility for marine propulsion was known in avague way to the engineering practice of the day, and it is at this timeof course quite impossible to say how much may have been known byEricsson, Smith, or others concerned in later developments, or to whatextent they may have been dependent for suggestion on what had precededthem. The question of who invented the screw-propeller in the absolutesense is entirely futile and without answer. No one could ever havereasonably advanced any such unique claim. At the best it is simply aquestion of the relative influence in the introduction, improvement, andpractical application of what was the common property of the engineeringpractice of the day. In 1833, or at the period now under consideration, however, thepaddle-wheel was the recognized instrument of marine propulsion. Sincethe beginning of the century it had been growing in use with the gradualgrowth in the application of steam, and at this time it held the fieldalone. Some years earlier it appears that some of the objections to thepaddle-wheel had become plainly apparent to Ericsson, although, occupied with other matters as he was, there was no immediate result. Heapparently recognized that the slow revolutions possible with thepaddle-wheel did not favor the improvement of the steam-engine along thelines which have since been followed, and he saw clearly that forwarship purposes the engines employed, exposed above the water-line todestruction from the shell of an enemy, were entirely out of thequestion. Finally in 1833 and 1834 we find him employed by a carryingcompany in London to conduct numerous trials with submerged propellersin the London and Birmingham canal. In an affidavit made in March, 1845, he states that in 1833 his attention was particularly called to thesubject of oblique propulsion, and that under his direction propellersof various patterns and embodying these principles were fitted on acanal-boat named the "Francis, " and later in 1834 to another called the"Annatorius. " Shortly after this, or in 1835, his ideas took moredefinite form, and he refers to his work in a letter to his friend JohnBourne in the following terms:-- "1835. Designed a rotary propeller to be actuated by steam-powerconsisting of a series of segments of a screw attached to a thin broadhoop supported by arms so twisted as also to form part of a screw. Thepropeller subsequently applied to the steamship 'Princeton' wasidentical with my said design of 1835. Even the mode adopted todetermine, by geometrical construction, the twist of the blades and armsof the 'Princeton's' and other propellers was identical with my designof the year last mentioned. " At about this same time, or in 1835, the attention of Mr. F. P. Smithseems to have been drawn to the subject of the screw-propeller, and wefind him taking out a patent for his form, consisting of an elongatedhelix or spiral of several turns, under date of May 31, 1836. Ericsson'spatent followed some six weeks later, or on July 13, 1836. While it thusappears that Ericsson had been studying the problem since 1833 orearlier, according to his own statements, there is no evidence thatSmith's attention was drawn to the matter earlier than 1835. Delay onEricsson's part in the matter of patent gives the earlier date to Smith. The mere date of a patent, however, is of small moment for our presentpurposes. It must be admitted that the modern form of screw-propeller isquite unlike either of these original forms, although they all involveof course the same fundamental principles. Ericsson's propeller mayproperly be called an engineering success, built on sound principles, but improved and largely modified by the results of later experience andresearch. Smith's propeller, while capable of propelling a boat, was thedesign of an amateur rather than of an engineer, and in comparison withEricsson's seemed to show a somewhat less accurate appreciation of theunderlying principles upon which the propeller operates. In the present case, as we have noted above, the question is not so muchone of invention as of influence in introduction, adaptation, andimprovement. The screw-propeller was already known, but had not beenintroduced into and made a part of actual engineering practice. Servicesin this direction are all that can be claimed for any of those concernedwith the question during the third decade of the Nineteenth Century. From this point of view we must give to Ericsson large credit. He hadthe courage of his convictions, and did not allow his work in thisdirection to lapse for lack of effort on his part to secure itsintroduction into the practice of the day. Thus, in 1837, the "Francis B. Ogden" was built for the special purposeof testing the power of the screw-propeller, and was operated on theThames for the benefit of the British Admiralty and many others. Shortlyafter this, and largely through the influence of Capt. Robert F. Stockton of the American Navy and Francis B. Ogden, the American Consulat Liverpool, Ericsson began to consider a visit to the United Statesfor the purpose of building, under Stockton's auspices, a vessel for theUnited States Navy. While these negotiations were under way, in 1838, hebuilt for Captain Stockton a screw-steamer named the "Robert F. Stockton, " the trials of which attracted much attention from the publicat large and from engineers of the time. At about the same periodEricsson's propeller was fitted to a canal-boat called the "Novelty, "plying between Manchester and London. This was presumably the firstinstance of a screw-propeller employed on a vessel actually used forcommercial purposes. Finally, in pursuance of Ericsson's plans with Captain Stockton, he leftEngland Nov. 1, 1839, and started for New York in the steamer "GreatWestern, " where he arrived November 23, after a long and stormy passage. We now reach the final scene of Ericsson's life and professionalactivities. His visit was at first intended only as temporary, and heseems to have anticipated an early return after carrying out his planswith reference to a ship for the United States Navy. To quote from aletter to his friend, Mr. John O. Sargent, he says: "I visited thiscountry at Mr. Ogden's most earnest solicitations to introduce mypropeller on the canals and inland waters of the United States. I had atthe same time strong reasons for supposing that Stockton would be ableto start the 'big frigate' for which I had prepared such laborious plansin England. " The event was otherwise determined, however, and during theremaining fifty years of his life he lived and wrought in the New World, and as a citizen of his adopted country. If the record of his twelve years of work in London was long, that forthe remaining and maturer years of his life may well be imagined asvastly greater. During the earlier part of this period, or until theCivil War, when all his energies were concentrated upon his work inconnection with the "Monitor" type of warship, we find the same wealthof invention and human energy, but for the most part directed alonglines related to marine and naval construction. It was a period oftraining for the fuller fruitage of his genius during the Civil War. Shortly after his arrival, or in 1840, a prize was offered by theMechanics' Institute of New York for the best plan of a steamfire-engine. With his previous experience in London, Ericsson easilycarried off the palm and was awarded the prize. He further occupiedhimself with the introduction of propellers on boats engaged in theinland navigation of the United States, with the design and constructionof the United States steam frigate "Princeton, " with the development ofthe compound principle in the steam-engine, then in 1851 with hishot-air ship "Ericsson, " or ship propelled by hot-air or caloricengines, as they were then termed, and later with caloric engines insmaller sizes for stationary purposes, of which several thousand weresold during the next succeeding years. In the work of introducing his propellers good progress was made, especially in boats built for use on the Great Lakes, so that by 1844, when the U. S. S. "Princeton" went into commission, there were in use sometwenty-five vessels with the screw-propeller as a means of propulsion. The project of building a vessel for the American Navy, the purposewhich had most strongly attracted Ericsson to the United States, suffered long delay in connection with the arrangements between CaptainStockton and the naval authorities at Washington. At length, in 1841, Captain Stockton was authorized to proceed with the construction of ascrew steam frigate of about one thousand tons. This was the U. S. S. "Princeton, " which marks an epoch as the first screw vessel-of-war. Shewas followed by the French "Pomone" in 1843, and the English "Amphion"in 1844, for the equipment of which Ericsson's agent in England, CountVon Rosen, received commissions from the French and English governmentsrespectively. The "Princeton" was completed in due time and was equipped with two12-inch wrought-iron guns, one brought by Ericsson from England and onedesigned and built under the direction of Captain Stockton. At thetrials of the ship in 1844 the latter gun exploded, killing theSecretaries of State and of the Navy, besides other prominent visitorson board, and wounding several others. This terrible disaster threw anentirely undeserved stigma upon the ship herself and upon Ericsson'swork, and it was not until many years after that his name was entirelyfree from some kind of reproach in connection with the "Princeton" andthe deplorable results of the accident on board. These are some of the principal lines of work with which Ericssonoccupied himself during the twenty-two years between 1839 and 1861. Atthe latter date came the supreme opportunity of his life, and hisservices in the art of naval construction during the remainder of theCivil War, which was then in progress, are a part of the history of thatgreat struggle. Here, as with the propeller, volumes might be written inthe attempt to give a full account of the inception, growth, and finalvindication of Ericsson's ideas regarding naval offence and defence, asexpressed by the means available in the engineering practice of the day. The leading points only can be summarized. The question of armored ships was in the air. The advantages of armorhad been already demonstrated on the French ship "Gloire" and others inconnection with the naval part of the Crimean War, and there was afeeling that ironclads of some kind were a necessity of the situation. These facts were perhaps more clearly realized at the South than at theNorth; and early in 1861 we find Mr. Stephen R. Mallory, the ConfederateSecretary of the Navy, taking active steps to raise the "Merrimac, "which had been sunken at the Norfolk Navy Yard, and convert her into anarmor-clad. Information regarding this project naturally became known tothe Federal authorities, and occasioned President Lincoln and the entireCabinet the most serious anxiety. At length on August 3, 1861, theappointment of a Board was authorized, the duty of which it should be toexamine into the question fully, obtain plans, and recommend theconstruction of such armor-clads as they should judge best suited to thedemands of the situation. Shortly after this, Ericsson forwarded to President Lincoln acommunication in which he offered to construct a vessel "for thedestruction of the Rebel fleet at Norfolk and for scouring the Southernrivers and inlets of all craft protected by Rebel batteries. " For onereason or another this communication does not seem to have produced anyimmediate result. Later, however, when the Board made its report datedSeptember 16, they registered the opinion that the present demand calledfor "vessels invulnerable to shot, of light draft of water, before goinginto a more perfect system of large iron-clad seagoing vessels of war. "In pursuance of this idea they recommended the construction of threevessels, --Ericsson's floating battery, a broadside vessel later known asthe "Ironsides, " and the "Galena. " Mr. C. S. Bushnell, who wasinstrumental in bringing Ericsson's plans actually before the Board, later associated with himself and Ericsson in the project two gentlemenof means, and large manufacturers of iron plate, Mr. John A. Griswoldand Mr. John F. Winslow, who advanced most of the money needed, Mr. Bushnell supplying the remainder. The keel was laid Oct. 25, 1861, andthe "Monitor, " as she was named by Ericsson, was launched Jan. 30, 1862, and was turned over to the Government Feb. 19, 1862. This brief recordof construction leaves untold all history of the ceaseless struggleagainst time and of the superb organization and distribution of the workwhich made possible the completion of such a piece of work in the periodof one hundred working days. One important fact which goes far to explain this astonishing speed indesign and construction is found in the fact that Ericsson was notdealing with an entirely new and freshly developed proposition. He hasstated that the thought of a floating battery, which should be small insize, but impregnable to the heaviest guns known and yet heavily armedherself, had long occupied his thoughts in connection with the problemof the defence of Sweden. Ericsson never forgot his native land, andgave to her political troubles and to the question of her defenceagainst her more powerful neighbors much serious thought. As a result ofthis study, he had produced as early as 1854 a design embodying all theessential features of the "Monitor, " and this design, shown by a model, was in that year sent to Napoleon III. , who was then at war with Russia. This was in the hope that he might in this way contribute to theoverthrow of the latter, the hereditary enemy of his native land. The design, however, was not adopted, and after it was returned was laidaside to collect the dust of his office, until the experiences of theCivil War brought it again to the light. The plan in all its mainfeatures had therefore long been matured, and it only remained toproceed rapidly with the details and with the realization of the idea inthe most suitable materials to be obtained. The result of the battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac" inHampton Roads is a part of history. The relentless devastation which thelatter had begun on the old wooden ships of the American Navy at HamptonRoads was stayed, and the wild fears at the North concerning thedestruction which she might cause to the shipping and to the seaboardcities was calmed. The "Merrimac" met her master, and retired from theconflict crippled and shorn of power for further evil. A short timelater she sank beneath the waters of the Chesapeake, and is nowremembered only as the antagonist of the "Monitor. " If the result of this battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merrimac"marked a turning-point in the naval aspect of the Civil War, it wroughta no less marked change in the standing and fortunes of her designer. Some of his engineering efforts had not met with the success for whichhe or his friends had hoped. The engines of the air-ship, while asuccess as a piece of mechanism, were so enormous and heavy that she hadto be considered as a commercial failure, and the venture was notrepeated; the deplorable accident on the "Princeton" was by some held tobe in part chargeable to Ericsson, though a later and full knowledge ofthe circumstances shows that such was in no wise the case. Again, Ericsson, as an experimenter and pioneer, was by some considered as adreamer, and before the "Monitor" was completed there was no lack ofcroakers who prophesied failure or who openly ridiculed the idea. Thiscondition was of course natural. In many ways Ericsson was ahead of hisage; and, again, it must not be supposed that he avoided mistakes orthat all of his work fully realized the expectations which were basedupon it. Furthermore, Ericsson's spirit was proud, and he was littledisposed to accept criticism from those whom he felt to be unqualifiedto pass adequate judgment on his work, while he was especially impatientunder the system by which government work was done. He was therefore butlittle disposed to pleasantly submit to the exasperating delays andinterferences with his work which arose from the methods of doingpublic business, and it is no more than the simple truth to say thatduring the preceding years the relations between Ericsson and theofficials of the Navy Department had often become seriously strained, and they were seldom in cordial accord regarding the various questionswhich arose in connection with his public work. With the demonstration made by the "Monitor, " however, the attitude ofthe public changed in a moment, and Ericsson was hailed on every hand asa public benefactor. He received the thanks of Congress on March 28, 1862, and of the Legislature of the State of New York a little later. Besides these, he was the recipient of numbers of memorials andmementoes, and of such praise in every form as might well have disturbedthe equilibrium of a mind less well balanced. In all this change ofpublic opinion, the one thing which must have given him the deepestsatisfaction was the change in the attitude of the naval authorities atWashington. He was now considered as one whose ideas had demonstratedtheir right to serious and respectful attention, and a large fleet ofvessels of the monitor type was ordered, similar to but larger than theprototype, and containing such minor changes as experience hadsuggested. Yet even this was not accomplished without objection. Theofficers of the navy were accustomed to the old type of wooden ship, and were slow to realize that naval war was, after all, an engineeringproblem, and that the ideas of the engineer must now be substituted forthose which had been sanctified by long ages of past experience. Still, the demonstration was too convincing to admit of serious question, andEricsson and his associates in business were busily occupied during theremainder of the war in the design and construction of a numerous fleetof vessels of the monitor type. Ericsson's work during this period was enormous. One design followedanother in quick succession, while work of supervision and inspectionand cares of a business nature all combined to make a burden which wouldhave broken down a nature less determined and self-centred, and a bodyless inured to physical endurance and sustained nervous tension. This prodigious load was not so much but that he found time to devote tothe needs of other nations, and in 1862 he offered to construct for theChilian government a monitor similar to those under construction for theUnited States, while later a similar offer was made to the PeruvianGovernment. With the close of the Civil War Ericsson found still furthertime to devote to the introduction of this type of vessel into foreignnavies, and a considerable part of his time seems to have been occupiedwith projects of this character, and more particularly with the questionof the naval defence of his native land. As regards the introduction ofwarships of the monitor type, the results were not so pronounced asmight have been expected, and while the influence of the idea is seen inthe practice of every maritime nation in regard to the construction ofits warships, still, for the most part, the leading nations preferred tomake application of the idea in their own way rather than order suchvessels direct from their original designer. Yet in not a few cases theoriginal type was faithfully copied, though it is not always clear towhat extent Ericsson himself may have had direct contact with theirdesigns. In 1866 the Swedes were able to test the first of a small fleetof monitors built after Ericsson's plans. This was called the "JohnEricsson, " and was armed with two 15-inch guns presented to Sweden byEricsson himself. Later, in 1868, he designed for Spain andsuperintended the construction of thirty small gunboats for use inCuban waters. For nearly ten years now Ericsson had devoted most of his energies tothe art of war. It was a time of change and unrest. Heavy guns and armorhad brought about a complete break with the past. The torpedo, which hadmade its appearance in crude form during the Civil War, was attractingmore and more attention, and questions of naval offence and defence andof the best governmental policy were attracting the serious attention ofall whose duty led them into relation with such matters. Into thisproblem in its broadest aspects Ericsson threw himself in the early'seventies with all the ardor of his younger days. It is proper to explain here that there was one feature of the earlierplans which were submitted to Napoleon III. In 1854, which he did notembody in the "Monitor, " and which, indeed, was omitted from allpublished plans and descriptions of the system given out in formeryears. This was a system of submarine or subaqueous attack, which, hestates in a letter to John Bourne, had attracted his attention since1826. The time now seemed ripe for the presentation and development ofthis idea, and he accordingly developed his designs for a torpedo, andfor a method of firing it under water from a gun carried in the bow of aboat, and suitably opening to allow the discharge of the torpedoprojectile. This was Ericsson's so-called "Destroyer" system, and wasembodied finally in a boat called the "Destroyer, " which he built incompany with his friend, Mr. C. H. Delamater, and with which he carriedon numerous experiments. In the end, however, the system did not commenditself to the naval authorities, and the "Destroyer" was left on herdesigner's hands, an instance of difference of opinion between Ericssonand those charged with the duty of naval administration, and with nosupreme test of war to provide opportunity for the determination as towhich were the more correct in their judgment. With the "Destroyer, "and his work in connection with her, closes the record of Ericsson'sconnection with the advance in naval construction. During these later years of his life it must not be supposed that he wasless busily occupied than in earlier life. His was a nature which knewno rest, and to the last day of his life he was literally in theharness. Only brief mention however can be made of some of the moreimportant lines of work which interested the closing years ofEricsson's life. In connection with his naval designs, he devoted much study to theimprovement of heavy ordnance, both as to the gun and its mounting. Inparticular, his mounting of the guns in the "Monitor" was quiteoriginal, and the friction arrangement for absorbing the recoil was agreat improvement over methods then in use, and served as a model formany copies and adaptations of the same principles in later years byother designers. In 1863 he also designed and built for the acceptanceof the Government a forged 13-inch wrought-iron gun. While his designwas an advance on those of the day, the demands on the makers of ironforgings were more than could be successfully met, and the gun developedsome slight cracks in the test, which prevented further developments onthis line. Ericsson always maintained that the tests to which this gunwas submitted were unfairly severe, and he showed how the defects couldbe remedied by a steel lining. But the Naval Bureau of Ordnance insistedthat this should be done at his own expense, and as he had already lostsome $20, 000 on the gun, he was unwilling to proceed farther, and thematter was allowed to lapse. Throughout his entire career the improvement of the steam-engineoccupied a large share of Ericsson's attention, and in particular wasthis the case in connection with his naval designs. From the"Princeton, " in 1841, to the "Destroyer, " in 1878, there succeeded onelong series of types and forms of steam-engine, each in his opinion thebest adapted to the circumstances of the case. Naturally, opinionsdiffer, and he was brought into competition with other able engineers, and his designs were often called into question or subjected tocriticism. In 1863, in competition with Chief Engineer Isherwood of thenavy, engines were designed for twin ships, the "Madawaska, " afterwardknown as the "Tennessee, " and the "Wampanoag, " afterward called the"Florida. " This was a battle royal of types and modes of application ofthe power of the steam-engine to the propulsion of ships. The result wasa victory for Isherwood, although the "Madawaska, " which was firstsubjected to trial, made a speed higher than any warship at that timeafloat. This was exceeded by the "Wampanoag" a short time later; butneither engine was of an enduring type, and after a time the machineryof the "Madawaska" was removed, and she was repowered with a later typeof machinery, and long did service as the "Tennessee" in the list ofwooden frigates of the navy. The "Florida" was too expensive to maintainin commission, and the special circumstances which had called her intoexistence having passed by, she was laid up at New London, and neveragain saw active service. Keenly as Ericsson was interested in the steam-engine, it must beadmitted that he always showed a more profound interest in some form ofengine which should be able to displace it with a superior efficiency;and hence his long series of efforts relating to the flame-engine, thecaloric engine, the gas-engine, and finally the solar engine, --witheither steam or heated air as the medium for carrying the heat. Duringthe last years of his life some of his most patient and careful studywas given to the perfection of a solar engine, or engine for utilizingdirectly the heat of the sun instead of that of coal or other carboncompounds. Besides this direct line of study and experimentation, hegave during these years much thought to various scientific problemsconnected with solar energy, the tides, gravitation, the nature of heat, etc. , etc. A plan for deriving power direct from the tides, improvementsin high-speed engines for electric-lighting purposes, furtherimprovements in his hot-air engine in small sizes for commercialpurposes, --these are some of the further lines of work which occupiedthe attention of his closing years. But the most cunningly devised of all mechanisms, the heart and brain, must sooner or later tire and cease from their labors. The motive energybecomes exhausted, and the mechanism must cease its work. So it was withJohn Ericsson. In the first hour of the morning of March 8, 1889, Ericsson died. This was within one day of the twenty-seventh anniversaryof the battle at Hampton Roads, the event with which the name ofEricsson will always be associated, and which has given to it asignificance that will never be forgotten. His remains were firstinterred in New York, and then, in 1890, in accordance with the requestof the Swedish Government, they were returned with impressive servicesto his native land, where they now rest. In his death he received hishighest honors, for his remains were conveyed across the Atlantic by theU. S. S. "Baltimore, " one of the new ships of the navy specially detailedfor that service, and on both sides, in the United States and in Sweden, the event was marked with every honor and ceremony which could indicatethe significance of his life and services for his adopted land and forthe world at large. The two pieces of work which perhaps will be most permanently linkedwith the name of Ericsson are the screw-propeller as a means of marinepropulsion, and the "Monitor" as a type of warship. In addition tothese, however, his life-work was rich in results which bore directrelation to many other improvements in the broad field of marineengineering and naval architecture. Of these a few of the more importantmay be mentioned, such as the surface condenser, distiller, andevaporator, forced draft for combustion, placing machinery of warshipsbelow the water-line, and their protection by coal, ventilation byfan-blowers, together with a vast variety of items involved in theconception and design of the "Monitor" as a whole, and in his othernaval designs. In order to appreciate the influence of Ericsson's life and work on thefield of marine construction, a brief glance may profitably be taken atthis branch of engineering work as it was before Ericsson's time, and asit is now. The material employed for shipbuilding was almost entirely wood. Thiswas displaced in the 'sixties and 'seventies by iron, which in turn wasdisplaced by steel, so that at the present time, except for specialreason, no material other than steel is thought of for this purpose. With the gradual displacement of wood by iron in the mercantile marine, Ericsson's relation was only indirect. Some of the earlier mercantilevessels in which he was interested were of wood and some of iron. In thefield of warship construction, however, his influence through the"Monitor" was more direct, especially as to the value of metal armor asa protection against great gun-fire. Still, it is no more than justiceto say that with the change from wood to iron which took place duringthe active part of his life, Ericsson had only an indirect relation, andthe change would doubtless have come about at the same time, and in muchthe same general way as it did, independent of any influence which hiswork may have had upon the question. Turning to the means of propulsion, we find sails as the main, or almost only, reliance during the earlyyears of the century. The steam-engine operating paddle-wheels had cometo be recognized as a possibility, and under certain conditions as acommercial success. The screw-propeller as a means of propulsion wasknown only as a freak idea, and was without status or recognition as acommercial or practical means for propelling ships. So far as thescrew-propeller was thought of as a means of propulsion, it lay under asuspicion of loss of efficiency due to the oblique nature of its action, and this was supposed to be such as to render it necessarily andessentially less efficient than the paddle-wheel. Ericsson lived to see the use of sails almost entirely discarded for warpurposes, and for mercantile purposes relegated to ships for specialservice and of continually decreasing importance. He lived to see thesteam-engine take its place as the only means for supplying the powerrequired to propel warships, and attain a position of almost equalrelative importance in the mercantile marine. He lived to see thepaddle-wheel grow in importance and estimation as a means of propulsiononly in turn to be supplanted by the screw-propeller, which graduallyincreased in engineering favor from the days of its obscure infancyuntil it became the only means employed for the propulsion of shipsnavigating the high seas, while it had become a most serious rival tothe paddle-wheel even for the purposes of interior and shallow-waternavigation, --long a field considered as peculiarly suited to thepaddle-wheel and to the engines adapted to its operation. Regarding the change from wind to steam for the motive-power of ships, Ericsson did his full share among the engineers of his day, but it wouldbe unfair to many others to claim for him any exclusive orpreponderating influence in this movement, and in such matters it isdifficult to clearly define the services of any one man. The lines ofprogress, however, have been in accord with his studies, and his workhas certainly had a most direct and powerful influence upon themovement. The most important points of contact between Ericsson's workand these advances were in connection with his introduction of thesurface condenser, the use of artificial draft, devices for heating feedwater, his studies in superheated steam and its use, and his work inconnection with the development of the compound principle insteam-engines, his relation to the introduction of the screw-propeller, and to the use of twin screws at a later time. He also devised andadapted many new types of engines for marine purposes, having respect tothe geometrical character of the connections by means of which areciprocating motion of the piston may be transformed into a rotarymotion of the shaft. In particular, he was the first to introduce andshow the advantages of engines directly connected to thepropeller-shaft, instead of through the more indirect and clumsy modeswhich others had previously thought necessary. Aside from his relation to the screw-propeller, perhaps no item of hiswork in connection with the steam-engine is of more importance than thesurface condenser, with its variant forms in the distiller andevaporator. If Ericsson had done nothing else, his claims to recognitionand remembrance as an engineer and benefactor might have been wellfounded on his work in this connection. As it is, the fact that he wasso largely instrumental in their perfection and adaptation to marineuses is wellnigh forgotten in the brighter light of his otherachievements. Regarding Ericsson's relation to the successful introduction of thescrew-propeller, little need be added to what has already been said. Whatever may be urged regarding dates and patents or earlier years inwhich the screw-propeller was used, it is a fact that in 1833-35 it wasnot recognized as an accepted mode of propulsion. While known as apossibility, it had no standing in the engineering practice of the day. A few years later it was recognized as an accepted mode of propulsionand had gained a permanent and definite place in the practice of theday, --a place which has continued to grow in importance until itsearlier rival, the paddle-wheel, is almost on the brink of relegation tomuseums of antiquities, except possibly for rare and specialshallow-water uses. A careful and dispassionate study of the facts, sofar as they can be known at the present time, seems to indicate clearlythat of those who were concerned in successfully adapting thescrew-propeller to the needs of marine propulsion and in laying thefoundation for these changed conditions, especially in the UnitedStates, none was so prominent as Ericsson, or so fairly deserving of thechief credit; and with this judgment the mature thought of the presentday seems to agree with little dissent. Turning to a consideration from a similar point of view of Ericsson'sservices in connection with warship design and construction, note may befirst taken of the condition of the art of naval warfare in the years1840-50, or when Ericsson first began his labors in this field. The material used was wood, the means of propulsion sails, with somethought of steam-engines and paddle-wheels; the means of offence werecast-iron guns large in number but small in size, the largest being 9 or11 inches in diameter and throwing a shell of some 75 or 130 poundsweight, while the means of defence consisted solely in the "woodenwalls, " and modern ideas regarding armor had not even appeared abovethe horizon. Ericsson's contributions to the art of naval warfare are embodied in the"Princeton, " the "Monitor" and its class, and the "Destroyer. " In the"Princeton" the material used was wood, and in the "Monitor" and"Destroyer" iron, following simply the developments of the age. In thethree the means of propulsion was by screw-propeller. In the "Princeton"the means of offence were two 12-inch wrought-iron guns, as alreadynoted. In the "Monitor" and its type the means of offence were two11-inch smooth-bore cast-iron guns, followed later by larger guns of 13and 15 inches of similar type. In the double-turreted monitors four suchguns were of course installed. In the "Destroyer" the means of offencewas a single gun for discharging a torpedo under water at the bow. Onthe "Princeton" the means of defence consisted still in wooden walls, while in the "Monitor" and its class the change was profound andcomplete. The essential idea of the "Monitor" was low freeboard andthus small exposed surface to the ship herself, combined with themounting of guns in circular revolving turrets, thus giving anall-around fire and on the whole making possible an adequate protectionof the exposed parts of the ship and providing for the combination inmaximum proportions of armored protection and heavy guns for offence. Onthe "Destroyer" the means of defence consisted simply in a lightdeflecting deck armor forward, the vessel being intended to fight bowson and depending on her means of offence rather than defence, which weremade quite secondary in character. The "Monitor, " however, was Ericsson's great contribution to the art ofnaval war, and with it his name will always be associated. It broke withthe past in every way. It reduced the number of guns from many to few, two or at most four; it reduced the freeboard from the lofty topsides ofthe old ship-of-the-line to an insignificant two or three feet, and thusmade of the target a circular fort and a low-lying strip of armor. Itplaced the guns in this circular fort and covered it with armor thickenough to insure safety against any guns then afloat, and thus, asperfectly as the engineering means of the day would permit, insured thecombination of offensive and defensive features in maximum degree. Itcleared away at one stroke masts, sails, and all the lofty top-hamperwhich since time immemorial had seemed as much an essential feature ofthe fighting ship as the guns themselves. It transformed the design ofthe fighting ship from the older ideals expressed in the Americanfrigate "Constitution, " or the English "Victory, " to the simplest termsof offence, defence, and steam motive-power. It made of the man-of-war amachine rather than a ship, an engine of destruction to be operated byengineers rather than by officers of the ancient and traditional type. There is small wonder that in all quarters the idea of ships of thistype was not received with enthusiasm. The break with the past was toodefinite and complete. The monitor type represented simply the solutionof the problem of naval warfare worked out by a man untrammelled by thetraditions of the past and determined only on reducing such a ship tothe simplest terms of offence and defence as expressed by theengineering materials and possibilities of the day. Judged from thisstandpoint, the vessel seems beyond criticism. She filled perfectly theideal set before himself by her designer, and represents as a completeand harmonious whole what must still be recognized as the most perfectsolution of the problem in terms of the possibilities of those days. It is proper here that due reference should be made to the claims inbehalf of Mr. Theodore R. Timby as an inventor of the turret and of themonitor idea as expressed thereby. These claims and the main facts inthe case have long been known, and there should certainly be no attemptto take from any one his due share in the developments which gave to ournation a "Monitor" in her hour of need. It is well known that Mr. Timbybetween 1840 and 1850 conceived the idea of a revolving fort of ironmounted with numerous guns and intended to take the place of the masonryor earth-structures in common use for such purposes. He seems also tohave conceived of a similar structure for use on a ship of lowfreeboard, and a model showing such a design was constructed. In 1843 hefiled a caveat for the invention of the revolving turret. Here thematter apparently rested until 1862, and after the battle between the"Monitor" and "Merrimac, " when he took out a patent which was dated July8, 1862, covering "a revolving tower for defensive and offensivewarfare, whether on land or water. " Ericsson's associates in thebusiness of building monitors for the Government acquired these patentsof Timby, presumably as shrewd business men, in order to quiet any claimon his part, and to have the plan available for land forts, should theopportunity arise to push the business in this direction. There is noquestion but that Ericsson was antedated by Timby in the suggestion of arevolving turret, at least in so far as public notice is concerned. Ericsson frankly admitted this, and stated that he made no claim toabsolute originality in this respect. He further stated what isundoubtedly true, that the main idea in the turret, that of a circularrevolving fort, antedates the Nineteenth Century as a whole, and itsorigin is lost in the uncertainties of early tradition. It is simply oneof those early ideas which naturally must have been known in essencesince time immemorial, and as such it was the common property of theengineering practice of the century. It belongs neither to Timby nor toEricsson, and no claims regarding priority in this respect are worthy ofserious consideration. The question is not who first conceived the ideaof a revolving fort, but who designed and built the "Monitor" as shewas, and as she met the "Merrimac" on the 9th of March, 1862. The answerto the latter is too well known a part of the history of the times toadmit of question or to call for further notice. Ericsson's claim forrecognition in this respect rests not on any priority of idea regardingthe use of a circular fort, but rather upon the actual "Monitor" as shewas built and as she crushed at one blow the sea-power of the South, andrepresenting as it did a completely and carefully designed whole, datingback to the earlier dealings with Napoleon III. In 1854. This is an agewhich judges men by what they do, and judged by this standard Ericsson'sclaims in connection with the monitor type of warship are never likelyto be seriously questioned. Taking Ericsson's life and work, what portion remains as a permanentacquisition or as a part of the practice of the present age? This is aquestion which merits at least a moment's notice. We should not make the mistake of thinking that permanency isnecessarily a test of merit, or that the value of his services to theworld should be judged by such parts of his work as are plainly apparentin the practice of the present day. A piece of work must be judged bythe circumstances which brought it forth, and by the completeness andperfection of its adaptation to the needs and possibilities of its age. We have then the steam fire-engine; compressed air which he earlyemployed in England, and which has become an instrument of enormousimportance in connection with the industrial progress of the age, although this is in no especial degree due to his efforts; the surfacecondenser, distiller, and evaporator are a permanently and absolutelyessential part of modern marine practice; the screw-propeller has almostsole possession of the field of marine propulsion; modern marine enginesand boilers in naval practice are always placed below the water-line andare protected by deflective deck armor and frequently by coal as well;the turret has become a permanent and accepted part of the practice ofthe age, while the monitor type in its essential feature seems to beevanescent. The modern battleship is a vastly more complex structure, andrepresents more complex ideas and combinations than did Ericsson's"Monitor. " It contains a battery of guns of the heaviest type known tonaval ordnance. At present such guns are usually of 12-inch bore andthrow a shell of about 800 pounds weight, with an initial velocity ofnearly 3, 000 feet per second. Then there is a supporting battery ofguns, 6, 7, or 8 inches in diameter of bore, and finally a secondarybattery of smaller quick-firing guns, throwing shells of from 1 pound to20 or 30 pounds weight, and added to these there may be a torpedo outfitas well. The exigencies of fighting ships at sea and in all weathersseems to have pronounced against the monitor type with its low freeboardas unsuitable for use on the open sea, while the enormous advances inmodern guns and armor have made a totally different problem of thedistribution of means offensive and defensive. Again, the monitor typewas never intended for long cruising, or indeed for other service thanthe defence of coasts and harbors. The policy of building a vessel thusadapted only to an inner line of defence, and not adapted to an outerline of defence and offence as well, has been further called inquestion, and the judgment of the present day has decided against suchpolicy. It is true that in the so-called "new navy, " begun in 1883, onemonitor, the "Monterey, " has been built, while four others of oldertype have been somewhat modernized, and there are three monitorsbuilding at the present time. It may be doubted, however, if they willbe followed by others, at least so long as the conditions of navalwarfare and the spirit of public policy remain as they now are. The monitor type was a perfect solution of the problem of its day, andnobly it answered the calls made on it. The problem has now changed, theconditions affecting its solution have also changed, and it is nodiscredit to the original type that it now seems to have had its day, and that it must give way to other forms more perfectly expressing thespirit of the present age, and the means available for the solution ofpresent-day problems in the art of naval war. In many ways, however, the influence of Ericsson's work still lives inthe modern battleship, and while in our modern designs we have gottenfar away from the essential features of the monitor type, yet it is nottoo much to say that the germ of the modern battleship is in many waysfound in the "Monitor, " especially as expressed in terms ofconcentration of heavy gun-fire and localized protection of gunpositions; and in more ways than may be suspected, the influence ofEricsson and of his work had its part in the developments which have ledto the splendid designs of the present day. Returning again to our note of the dependence of the present age onEricsson, mention may be made of the blower for forcing the combustionin steam-boilers as a well-established feature of standard marinepractice, and one absolutely essential to the development of the highestattainable speeds, such as are required in warships, and especially inthose of the torpedo and modern "Destroyer" types. Likewise the use ofthe fan for ventilation, as used by him in his early practice, hasbecome a necessity of modern conditions both on naval and passengerships, for the health and comfort of both passengers and crew. His longseries of experiments and his years of labor on air and other forms of"caloric" engine are only represented by the "Ericsson air-engine" nowon the market, and having its fair share of service in locations wheresimplicity of operation and scarcity of water may naturally suggestits use. Of his labors in connection with a solar engine, and with otherquestions which occupied much of the time of his closing years, we havebut little direct result. Others are at work on the idea of the solarengine, and it may be that a practicable solution of the problem willbe found. Ericsson's lasting imprint on engineering practice, curious as it mayseem, was made in his earlier and middle life, rather than in his lateryears, and we have even more in the way of permanent acquisition fromhis earlier than from his middle years. This results from the fact thatin middle life he was largely engaged on warship designs, admirablyadapted to the needs of the time and to the possibilities of the age, but no longer suited to either, while in later life he no longer foundit necessary to work at problems which would produce a direct financialreturn, and therefore interested himself in a variety of questionssomewhat farther removed from the walks of every-day engineeringpractice than those with which he was occupied in earlier life. In personality Ericsson possessed the most pronounced and self-centredcharacteristics. Professionally he felt that to him had been granted alarger measure of insight than to others into the mysteries of nature asexpressed in the laws of mechanics, and he was therefore little disposedto listen to the advice or criticism of those about him. This wasundoubtedly one of Ericsson's most pronounced professional faults. Hedid not realize that with all his insight into the laws of mechanics andall his capacity for applying these laws to the solution of the problemsunder consideration, he might well make some use of the work of hisfellow-laborers in the same field. So little disposed was he to thus usethe work of others that a given device or idea which had been inprevious use was often rejected and search made for another, differentand original, even though it might involve only some relatively trivialpart of the work. He was simply unwilling to follow in the lead ofothers. He must lead or have none of it, and thus the fact that a deviceor expedient was in common use would furnish an argument against ratherthan for its adoption. His natural mode of work was utterly to disregardprecedent and to seek for fundamental solutions of his problems, havingonly in view the conditions to be fulfilled, the laws of mechanics, andthe engineering materials of construction. This habit of independenceand of seclusion within the narrow circle of his own work so grew uponhim in later years that mechanical science made many advances of whichhe took little or no note, and of which he refused to avail himself, even though he might have done so greatly to his own advantage. In his later years, in a letter to his friend Captain Adlersparre, hesays: "Do not laugh at me now, Captain, when I say that nobody canmislead me. Do not condemn me if I at the same time confess that I amdirected by nobody's judgment but my own, and that I never consultanybody and take nobody's advice. " In all matters connected with hiswork his will was imperious, and he would brook no interference orcriticism. His temper was high, his organization sensitive, and manytimes throughout his life, relations with his best friends becamestrained by his instability of temper or impatience with what he mightconstrue as a criticism regarding his work. With this instability oftemper, however, was combined a deep-seated tenderness and kindness ofheart, and he was as quick to forget the cause of offence as he was tomanifest displeasure upon occasion. Notwithstanding the asperities of Ericsson's character in regard to hisprofessional work, and his entire lack of effort to make friends amongthe learned of his day, recognition and unsought honors came in uponhim. He was elected to honorary membership in the societies of note inthe United States and Sweden, and in addition to the thanks of Congressand of the Legislature of the State of New York, he received aresolution of thanks from the Swedish Riksdag, or Parliament, in 1865. In 1862 he was granted the rarely bestowed Rumford medal, and receivedat other times during his life medals, honors, and decorations such ashave perhaps fallen to no other who has wrought in the same field ofhuman effort. While recognition of this character pleased him greatlywhen it came spontaneously and willingly, he placed but little value onthat which he thought grudgingly or tardily tendered, and in one or twoinstances refused membership in societies which he thought granted inthat manner. A large measure of this independence of character is necessary to theperformance of the work which Ericsson did. Had he been ever ready tolisten to the views of others, and to modify his ideas in accordancewith them, his greatest achievements would never have been accomplished. In Ericsson, however, this characteristic was carried to an undueextreme, and he might unquestionably have accomplished more had he beenable to co-operate with others and to accept and use freely the bestwork of contemporaries in his own field. Ericsson was essentially a designing rather than a constructingengineer. His genius lay in new adaptations of the principles ofmechanics or in new combinations of the elements of engineering practicein such way as to further the purposes in view. His mode of expressionwas the drawing-board. While he wrote vigorously and well, and while hewas a frequent contributor in later years to scientific literature, especially on the subject of solar physics, yet his best and naturalmode of expression was the graphical representation of his designs onthe drawing-board. Forms and combinations took shape in his brain andwere transferred to the drawing with marvellous speed and skill. Thosewho have been associated with him bear testimony that the amount of hiswork was simply astounding, and that only by a combination of the mostremarkable celerity and industry could they have been accomplished. These drawings were furthermore so minute in detail and so accurate indimension that as a rule he did not find it necessary to give furtherattention to the matter after it had left his hands. Of the many partsof a complicated mechanism, one could be sent for construction to oneshop and another elsewhere, all ultimately coming together and making aharmonious and perfectly fitting whole. In no other way could suchastonishing speed in the detailed construction of the "Monitor" andother vessels of her type possibly have been made; and the fact thatsuch speed in construction was obtained, and largely in this manner, isby no means the least impressive of the many evidences of Ericsson'sgenius as a designer. The designs once completed on the drawing-board, however, Ericsson'sinterest in the work ceased in great measure, and as a rule he paid butlittle attention to constructive details, and took but slight interestin the completed whole. Thus he is said to have visited his "Destroyer"but once after she was built, and then simply in search of hisassistant. He also declined an invitation from the Assistant Secretaryof the Navy to visit Hampton Roads and inspect the "Monitor" immediatelyafter her fight with the "Merrimac. " He seemed to have no curiosity toinspect his work after it had left his hands, or to receive a report asto the practical working of his designs. This shows a peculiar lack ofappreciation of the value of intimate contact with constructive andoperative engineering work. No one could hope to avoid errors, or torealize by drawing-board alone the best possible solution of engineeringproblems. Ericsson wilfully handicapped himself in this manner, andmight unquestionably have more effectively improved and perfected hisideas had he been disposed to combine with his designs at thedrawing-board practical contact with his work as constructed. His work was all done in his office at his house. For the lasttwenty-five years of his life he lived at 36 Beach Street, New York, where he wrought every day in the year, and often until far into thenight. His office contained, beside his drawing-table and otherfurniture, a long table, on which at times, when overcome by fatigue, hewould stretch himself and take a short nap, using a dictionary or lowwooden box for a pillow. His relations with his native land were always close, and, as alreadyhinted, he gave much of his best effort to the study of means for herdefence. Toward his friends and relatives he was the embodiment ofwatchful care and generosity. His private benefactions were for hismeans large, and were given with a whole-hearted generosity which musthave added much to the love and esteem in which the recipients regardedhim. His public benefactions were also notable, and during the lateryears of his life he gave away regularly no inconsiderable share of hisincome. Though gifted with reasonable prudence, he had no conception ofthe "business sense, " and no capacity as a money-getter. After acquiringby his inventions and enterprise a modest competence, he devoted himselfalmost entirely to work less directly related to a financial return, andlived comfortably upon the principal which his earlier effortshad provided. Ericsson had absolute faith in himself and in his mission to renderavailable the energies of nature for the uses of humanity andcivilization. His character was framed about the central idea offidelity to this mission. He was dogmatic and optimistic as regards hisown work; he had a contemptuous indifference to the work of others, anda disregard of the help which he might derive from a closer study ofsuch work. He trained himself, body, mind, and affections, solely withreference to his mission, and allowed no interference with it. He wasthe embodiment of physical and mental vigor, prodigious industry, continuity of purpose, indomitable courage, capacity for greatconcentration of mind, and oblivion to all distracting surroundings. With such characteristics, combined with the rare endowment of mentalcapacity and insight regarding the principles of engineering science, small wonder is it that his life was one so rich in results. It couldnot have been otherwise, and the results simply came as a consequenceof the combination of the characteristics of the man and thesurroundings in which he was placed. The question as to how much more or how much better he might have donehad he possessed more faith in the work of others and a willingness tobe guided in some measure by their experience is of course idle. Ericsson was a combination of certain capacities and characteristics; acombination of other capacities and characteristics would not have beenEricsson, and any discussion of such a supposition is therefore asidefrom the purpose of this sketch. John Ericsson lived in a period of rapid engineering development andchange. Old ideals were passing away, and the heritage which theNineteenth Century was able to pass on to the Twentieth was inpreparation. In this preparation Ericsson bore a large and mostimportant part. So long as ships traverse the seas, Ericsson's name willbe remembered for his work in connection with the introduction of thescrew-propeller. So long as the memory of naval warfare endures, Ericsson's name will be remembered for the part which he bore in thetransition from wood to iron, from unarmored ships to turrets and armor, from scattered to concentrated energy of gun-fire, and for his generalshare in the developments which have led to the ideal of a battleshipprevailing at the opening of the Twentieth century. For these and formany other achievements he will be remembered, and his life and worksshould serve as a constant stimulus to those upon whom the engineeringwork of the present age has fallen, to see that with equal fidelity theylive up to the possibilities of their endowments and opportunities, andserve with like fervency and zeal the needs of the age in which theyare placed. AUTHORITIES. Contributions to the Centennial Exhibition: Ericsson, John. The Life of John Ericsson: Church, W. C. History of the Steam Engine: Thurston, R. H. Steam Navy of the United States: Bennett, Frank M. Who invented the Screw Propeller?: Nicol, James. The Naval and Mail Steamers of the United States: Stuart, Charles B. A Chronological History of the Origin and Development of SteamNavigation: Preble, Rear Admiral G. H. A Treatise on the Screw Propeller, Screw Vessels, and Screw Engine asadapted for Purposes of Peace and War: Bourne, John. LI HUNG CHANG. 1823-1901. THE FAR EAST. BY W. A. P. MARTIN, D. D. , LL. D INTRODUCTORY. Five years ago Earl Li was at the head of the "Tsungli Yamen, " orForeign Office in Peking. The present writer, having known him long andintimately, called one morning to request a letter of recommendation toaid in raising money for an International Institute projected by theRev. Dr. Reid. "He's got one letter; why does he want another?" askedLi, in a tone of mingled surprise and irritation. "True, " said I, "butthat is from the Tsungli Yamen. Nobody in America knows anything aboutthe Yamen. What he wants is a personal letter from you; because the onlyChinese name besides Confucius that is known outside of China is LiHung Chang. " "I'll give it! I'll give it!" he exclaimed, smiling from ear to ear at thethought of his world-wide reputation. This was taking him on his weak side; but it was fact, not flattery. Over forty years ago Li's rising star first came to view in connectionwith operations against the rebels in the vicinity of Shanghai, and fromthat day to this, every war, domestic or foreign, has served to raise ithigher and make it shine the brighter. It reached its zenith in 1901, when after settling terms of peace with several foreign powers he passedoff the stage at the ripe age of fourscore. What better type to setforth his age and nation than the man who, through a long career ofunexampled activity, won for himself a triple crown of literary, military, and civil honors? In physique he was a noble specimen of hisrace, over six feet in height, and in his earlier years uncommonlyhandsome. The first half of his existence was passed in comparativeobscurity at Hofei in Anhui, a region remote from contact withforeign nations. It was there his character was formed, on native models; there hecarried off the higher prizes of the literary arena; and there he becamefitted for the role of China's typical statesman. His career in outline may be stated in a few words. His native provincebeing overrun by rebels, he passed from the school-room to the camp, andgot his earliest lessons in the military art under the leadership of theeminent viceroy Tseng Ko Fan. The neighboring province of Kiangsufalling into the hands of rebel hordes a few years later, he won renownby recapturing its principal cities, by the aid of such men as theAmerican Ward and the English Gordon. His success as a general made himgovernor of Kiangsu, and his success as governor raised him to the rankof viceroy, holding for many years a post at one or other of the foci offoreign trade north or south. Beyond the borders of China he was twice sent on special embassies, andonce he made the tour of the globe; but his most brilliant achievementwas in twice making peace on honorable terms, when his country was lyingprostrate before a victorious enemy. It remains to expand this incomparable catalogue; but to makeintelligible that remarkable series of events in which he bore such aconspicuous part, we must first invite our readers to accompany us in ahistorical retrospect in which we shall point out the opening and growthof foreign intercourse. I. INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA BY LAND. Of the nature of that intercourse in its earlier period, there exists amonument that speaks volumes. That is no other than the Great Wall;which, hugest of the works of man, stretches along the northern frontierof China proper for one thousand five hundred miles from the sea to thedesert of Gobi. Erected 255 B. C. It shows that even at that early datethe enemies most dreaded by the Chinese were on the north. Yet howsignally it failed to effect its purpose! For since that epoch theprovinces of Northern China have passed no fewer than seven centuriesunder Tartar sway. Two Tartar dynasties have succeeded in subjugatingthe whole empire, and they have transmitted beyond the seas a reputationwhich quite eclipses the fame of China's ancient sovereigns. In fact, that which first made China known to the western world was itsconquest by the Mongols in the thirteenth century. Barbarous nomads, with longing eyes forever directed to the sunny plains of the south, they also conquered India, bringing under their sceptre the two richestregions of the globe. Of Genghis and Kubla, it may be asserted that theyrealized a more extended dominion than Alexander, Caesar, or Napoleonever dreamed of. But "Extended empire, like expanded gold, Exchanges solid strength for feeble splendor. " Their tenure of China was of short duration, --less than a century. InIndia, however, their successors, the great Moguls, continued tomaintain a semblance of sovereignty even down to our own times, whenthey were wiped from the blackboard for having taken part in theSepoy mutiny. Liberal beyond precedent, Kubla Khan encouraged the establishment of aChristian bishopric, in which John de Monte Corvino was the firstrepresentative of the Holy See. He also welcomed those adventurousItalians, the Polos, and sought to make use of them to opencommunication with Europe. Yet we cannot forbear to express a doubt, whether, aside from the Christian religion, Europe in that age had muchin the way of civilization to impart to China. Three of the native dynasties, which preceded the Mongol conquest, madethemselves famous by advancing the interests of civilization. The houseof Han (B. C. 202-A. D. 221) restored the sacred books, which the builderof the Great Wall had destroyed in order to obliterate all traces offeudalism and make the people submit to a centralized government. Evendown to the present day, the Chinese are proud to describe themselves as"sons of Han. " The house of Tang, A. D. 618-908, is noted above all forthe literary style of its prose-writers and the genius of its poets. InSouth China the people are fond of calling themselves "sons of Tang. "The house of Sung, A. D. 970-1127, shows a galaxy of philosophers andscholars, whose expositions and speculations are accepted as thestandard of orthodoxy. More acute reasoners it would be difficult tofind in any country; and in the line of erudition they have never beensurpassed. It is reported that in 643 the Emperor Theodosius sent an envoy toChina with presents of rubies and emeralds. Nestorian missionaries alsopresented themselves at court. The Emperor received them with respect, heard them recite the articles of their creed, and ordered a temple tobe erected for them at his capital. This was in the palmy period of theTangs, when the frontiers of the Empire had been pushed to the bordersof the Caspian Sea. If China in part or in whole was sometimes conquered by Tartars, it isonly fair to state that the greatest of the native sovereigns more thanonce reduced the extramural Tartars to subjection. Between the two racesthere existed an almost unceasing conflict, which had the effect ofcivilizing the one and of preventing the other from lapsinginto lethargy. About B. C. 100, Su Wu, one of China's famous diplomatists, was sent onan embassy to the Grand Khan of Tartary. An ode, which he addressed tohis wife on the eve of his perilous expedition, speaks alike for thedomestic affections of the Chinese and for their ancientliterary culture. "Twin trees whose boughs together twine, Two birds that guard one nest, We'll soon be far asunder torn As sunrise from the west. "Hearts knit in childhood's innocence, Long bound in Hymen's ties, One goes to distant battlefields, One sits at home and sighs. "Like carrier dove, though seas divide, I'll seek my lonely mate; But if afar I find a grave, You'll mourn my hapless fate. "To us the future's all unknown; In memory seek relief. Come, touch the chords you know so well, And let them soothe our grief. " II. INTERCOURSE BY SEA. In 1388 the Mongols were expelled. The Christian bishopric was sweptaway, and left no trace; but a book of the younger Polo, describing thewealth of China, gave rise to marvellous results. Together with themagnetic needle, which originated in China, it led to centuries ofeffort to open a way by sea to that far-off fairyland. It was from MarcoPolo that Columbus derived his inspiration to seek a short road to thefar East by steering to the West, --finding a new world athwart hispathway. It was the same needle, if not the same book, that impelledVasco da Gama to push his way across the Indian Ocean, after the Cape ofGood Hope had been doubled by Bartholomew Diaz. A century later the samebook led Henry Hudson to search for some inlet or strait that mightopen a way to China, when, instead of it, he discovered the port ofNew York. The mariner's compass, which wrought this revolution on the map of theworld, is only one of many discoveries made by the ancient Chinese, which, unfruitful in their native land, have, after a change of climate, transformed the face of the globe. The polarity of the loadstone was observed in China over a thousandyears before the Christian era. One of their emperors, it is said, provided certain foreign ambassadors with "south-pointing chariots, " sothat they might not go astray on their way home. To this day themagnetic needle in China continues to be called by a name which meansthat it points to the south. It heads a long list of contraries in thenotions of the Chinese as compared with our own, such, for example, asbeginning to read at the back of a book; placing the seat of honor onthe left hand; keeping to the left in passing on the street, with manyothers, so numerous as to suggest that the same law that placed theirfeet opposite to ours must have turned their heads the other way. To theChinese the "south-pointing needle" continued to be a mere plaything tobe seen every day in the sedan chair of a mandarin, or in wheeledvehicles. If employed on the water, it was only used incoasting voyages. So with gunpowder, of which the Arabs were transmitters, not inventors. In other lands it revolutionized the art of war, clothing their peoplewith irresistible might, while in its native home it remainedundeveloped and served chiefly for fireworks. Have we not seen, even inthis our day, the rank and file of the Chinese army equipped with bowsand arrows? The few who were provided with firearms, for want ofgunlocks, had to set them off by a slow-match of burning tow; andcannon, meant to guard the mouth of the Peiho, were trained on thechannel and fixed on immovable frames. The art of printing was known in China five centuries before it made itsway to Europe. The Confucian classics having been engraved on stone tosecure them from being again burned up, as they had been by the builderof the great wall, the rubbings taken from those stones were printing. It required nothing but the substitution of wood for stone and of_relievo_ for _intaglio_ to give that art the form it now has. Thesmallest scrap of printed paper in the lining of a tea chest, or wrappedabout a roll of silk, would suffice to suggest the whole art to a mindlike that of Gutenberg. In China it never emerged from the state of woodengraving. The "Peking Gazette, " the oldest newspaper in the world, isprinted on divisible types, but they are of wood, not metal, more thanone attempt to introduce metallic types having proved unsuccessful, forthe want of that happy alloy known as type-metal. It is from us thatthey have learned the art of casting type, especially that splendidachievement, the making of stereotype plates, and, later, electrotypeplates, by the aid of electricity and acid solutions. Chemistry, fromwhich this beautiful art takes its rise, carries us back to China, forit was there that alchemy had its birth, as I have elsewhere shown. [4] [Footnote 4: "The Lore of Cathay. " New York: Fleming R. Revell Co. , p. 41. ] Man's first desire is long life; his second, to be rich. The Taoistphilosophy commenced with the former before the Christian era, but itwas not long in finding its way to the latter. A powerful impulse wasthus given to research in the three departments of science, --chemistry, botany, and geography. As in the case of gunpowder, the Arabstransmitted these discoveries to the West, and along with them theChinese doctrine as to the twofold objects of alchemic studies, --theelixir of life and the philosopher's stone. From this double root sprang the chemistry of the West, which in no meansense has fulfilled its promise by prolonging life and enrichingmankind. In all these the West has performed the part of a nursingmother, but she has brought the nursling back full grown, and preparedto repay its obligation to its true parent by effective service. Portuguese merchants made their way to Canton early in the sixteenthcentury, but it was not till the latter part of the century thatCatholic missionaries entered on their grand crusade. In 1601 the Jesuitpioneer Matteo Ricci and his associates, impelled by religion and armedwith science, presented themselves at the court of Peking. The Chinesehad been able to reckon the length of the year with remarkable accuracytwo thousand years before the time of Christ, but their science had madeno headway. The missionaries found their calendar in a state ofconfusion, vanquished the native astronomers in fair competition, andwere formally installed as keepers of the Imperial Observatory; andthese missionaries supervised the casting of the bronze instrumentswhich have since been taken to Berlin. This honor they retained even after the fall of the native dynasty thatpatronized them. When the Manchus effected their conquest in 1644, notonly were the Jesuit missionaries left in charge of the observatory, butthe heir apparent was placed under their instruction. Coming to thethrone in 1662, under the now illustrious title of _Kanghi_, the youngprince showed himself a generous patron as he had previously been arespectful pupil. He was apparently not averse to the idea of hispeople's adopting Christianity as their national religion, and allowedthe missionaries a free hand to plant churches throughout the vastinterior. Rarely if ever has so fine an opportunity offered for makingan easy conquest of a pagan empire. It was lost through the jealousy ofcontending societies, and especially through the blunder of aninfallible Pope. The Dominicans denounced the Jesuits for tolerating thepractice of pagan rites, such as the worship of ancestors, and foremploying for God the name of a pagan deity. The name which they thenobjected to was Shang-ti, Supreme Ruler, a venerable designation for theSupreme Power found in the earliest of the Chinese canonical books, andat this day accepted by a large proportion of Protestant missionaries. The question as to its fitness was referred to the Emperor, who decidedin favor of the Jesuits. It was then brought before the Papal See, condemned as idolatrous, and Tien Chu, the Lord of Heaven, adopted inits stead. That Shang-ti, however pure in origin, had come to be appliedto a whole class of deities was perfectly true, but the name proposed inits stead was not free from a taint of idolatry, --Tien Chu, Lord ofHeaven, being one of eight divinities, and worshipped along with Ti Chu, Lord of Earth, Hai Chu, Lord of the Sea, etc. The manner in which his opinions had been set aside by the Pope had nodoubt a repelling influence on the mind of the Emperor, so that if hehad ever felt inclined to embrace Christianity, he drew back in hislater years. Not only so, but he left behind him a series of Maxims inwhich he censures the foreign creed and warns his people against it. These Maxims were ordered to be read in public by mandarins, and theycontinue to be recited and expounded as a sort of religious ritual. Isit surprising that this lost opportunity was followed by a century and ahalf of open persecution? That most of the churches survived, not onlyattests the zeal with which the Faith had been propagated, it throws apleasing light on the force of the Chinese character. At the dawn of ournew epoch, there were still some half a million converts, --with here andthere a foreign Father hiding in their midst. In bringing about this change of policy there was indeed anotherinfluence at work. Had not the Emperor of China heard some rumors ofwhat was going on in the dominion of his cousin, the Great Mogul--howthe French were dispossessing the Portuguese; and how the English lateron succeeded in expelling the French? How could they doubt that a largecommunity of native Christians would act as an auxiliary to any foreigninvader? A suspicion of this kind had in fact sprung up under thepreceding dynasty. In consequence of it not a single seaport exceptMacao was opened to foreign trade; and when foreigners went to Canton, they were lodged in a suburb and not allowed to penetrate within thewalls of the provincial capital. Such misgivings as to the designs offoreigners we find strikingly expressed in a book of that period called"Strange Stories of an Idle Student. " One story is as follows: When Red-Haired Barbarians first appeared onour coast they were not allowed to come ashore. They begged, however, tobe permitted to spread a carpet on which to dry their goods, and thisbeing granted, they took the carpet by its corners and stretched it sothat it covered several acres. On this, they debarked in great forceand, drawing their swords, took possession of the surrounding country. III. THE OPIUM WAR. The first great event that woke China from her dream of solitarygrandeur was the war with England, which broke out in 1839 and wasclosed three years later by the Treaty of Nanking. It was not, however, all that was needed to effect that object. It made the giant rub hereyes and give a reluctant assent to terms imposed by superior force. Butmany a rude lesson was still required before she came to perceive hertrue position, as on the lower side of an inclined plane. To bring herto this discovery four more foreign wars were to follow before the endof the century, culminating in a siege in Peking and massacresthroughout the northern provinces which may be looked on as the fifthact in a long and bloody tragedy. In the last three wars Li Hung Chang was a prominent actor. In thefirst two he took no part. Yet was it the shock which they gave to theempire that drove him from a life of literary seclusion to do battle ina more public arena. The Opium War of 1839 is not improperly so designated, but nothing ismore erroneous than to infer that it was waged by England for thepurpose of forcing the product of her Indian poppy fields on the marketsof China. Opium was the occasion, not the cause. The cause, if we are toput it in a single word, was the overbearing arrogance of an Orientaldespotism, which refused to recognize any equal in the familyof nations. In the Straits settlements and in the seaports of India, Chinesemerchants had been brought under sway of the bewitching narcotic. Itfound its way to their southern seaports, and without being recognizedas an article of commerce, the trade expanded with startling rapidity. The Emperor, Tao Kwang, one of the most humane of rulers, resolved totake measures for the suppression of the vice. He had come to the thronein 1820; and there is a story that he was moved to action by theuntimely fate of his eldest son, who had fallen a victim to theseductive poison. Commissioner Lin, whom he selected to carry out his prohibitory policy, was a fit instrument for such a master, equally virtuous in his aimsand equally tyrannical in his mode of proceeding. Arriving at Canton, his first object was to get possession of the forbidden drug, which wasstored on ships outside the harbor. This he thought to accomplish bysurrounding the whole foreign community by soldiers and threatening themwith death if the opium was not promptly surrendered. While its ownersor their agents hesitated, Captain Elliot, the British Superintendent ofTrade, came up from Macao, and demanded to share the duress of hisnationals. He then called on them to deliver up the drug to him to beused in the service of the Queen for the ransom of the lives of hersubjects, assuring them that they would be reimbursed from the publictreasury. No fewer than twenty-one thousand chests, valued at ninemillion dollars, were brought in from the opium ships and formallyhanded over to Commissioner Lin. The foreign community was set free, andthe drug destroyed by being mixed with quicklime. War was made to punish this outrage on the rights of the foreigncommunity, and to exact indemnity for the seizure of their property. Canton was not captured, but held to ransom, and the haughty Viceroysent into exile. Other cities were taken and held; and, in 1842, atreaty of peace was signed at Nanking by which five ports were opened toforeign trade. The embargo on opium was not withdrawn; but the defeat ofthe Chinese resulted in a virtual immunity from seizure together with agrowth of the traffic, such as to justify the ill-odored name which thatwar still bears in history. Treaties with other powers followed in quick succession. On demand ofthe French Minister, the Emperor recalled his prohibitory decreesagainst Christianity and issued an Edict of Toleration. If the openingof the ports gave a stimulus to trade, the decree of toleration opened adoor for missionary enterprise. As yet, however, neither merchant normissionary was allowed to penetrate into the interior; while the capitaland the whole of the northern seacoast remained inaccessible. This wasobviously a state of things that could not be permanent; yet fifteenyears were to pass before another war came to settle the terms ofintercourse on a broader basis. When the war broke out, Li Hung Chang was seventeen years of age, livingat Hofei in Anhui. As there were then no newspapers in China it may bedoubted whether he heard of it until a British squadron sailed up toNanking and extorted a treaty at the cannon's mouth. Li was rudelystartled by the appearance of a new force, to which there was noallusion in any of his ancient books. Along with the sailing-ships therewere two or three small steamers. It struck the Chinese withastonishment to see them make head against wind and tide. _Shin Chuan_, "ships of the gods, " is the name they gave those mysterious vessels. Little could Li foresee the part he was destined to take in creating asteam navy for China. Descended from a long line of scholars, he was supposed to be born tothe pursuit of letters. He did, in fact, devote himself to study withunflagging zeal, because he had as yet no temptation to turn aside. Wasthere not, moreover, an open door before his face inviting him to winfor himself the honors of a mandarinate? In his native town he placedhis foot on the first step of the ladder by gaining the degree of A. B. , or, in Chinese, "Budding Genius. " At the provincial capital he nextcarried off the laurel of the second degree, which is worth more thanour A. M. , not merely because it is not conferred in course, but becauseit falls to the lot of only one in a hundred among some thousands ofcompetitors. These provincial tournaments occur but once in three years;and the successful candidates proceed to Peking to compete for the thirddegree, or D. C. L. , --_Tsin-shi_, or, "Fit for Office. " Here the chancesamount to three per cent. Li's fortunes were again propitious, and in company with two or threehundred new-made doctors, he was summoned to the palace to contend inpresence of the emperor for the honor of a seat in the ImperialAcademy, --the Hanlin, or "Forest of Pencils. " Here also he met withsuccess, but he was not among the first three whose names are marked bythe vermilion pen of majesty, each of whom sheds lustre on his nativeprovince. The highest of the three is called Chuang Yuen, "Head of theList" or "Prince of Letters. " In the 'fifties it fell to a native ofNingpo, where I then lived. His good luck was announced to his wife bythe magistrate in person, who conducted her to the six gates, at each ofwhich she scattered a handful of rice, as an omen of good fortune. Inthe 'sixties, when I had removed to Peking, this honor was for the firsttime conferred on a Manchu, a son of the General Saishanga. His daughterwas deemed a fit consort for the heir to the throne, wearing for a shorttime the tiara of empress, and committing suicide on the death ofher lord. In the two previous contests, handwriting goes for nothing, but in thisit is not without weight, as the avowed object is to select scribes forthe service of the throne. On those occasions extent of erudition andoriginality of thought are the qualities most esteemed; but this timethe order of merit is decided by superficial elegance of style, and byfacility in the composition of verse. However defective the standard of learning, this long course ofcompetition, extending over ten or fifteen years, has the effect ofbringing before the throne a body of men each of whom is the survivor ofa hundred contests. No country can boast a better system for theselection of talent, and the government guards it with jealous care. Ihave known more than one examiner put to death for tampering with thisballot-box of the Empire. For ages it has provided the state with ableofficers; nor is its least merit that of converting a dangerousdemagogue into a quiet student. While waiting for an appointment, Li heard with dismay that Nanking hadbeen taken by a body of rebels, and that his native province was indanger of being overrun by them. A new career opened before him, --onethat led more directly to the highest offices within the gift of thesovereign. Asking a commission in the army, he was assigned to aposition on the staff of Tsengkofan, father of the Marquis Tseng, whowas afterwards Minister to England. This rebellion, among the strangest of strange things, now claims ourattention. IV. THE TAIPING REBELLION. In April, 1853, the news reached us that Nanking had fallen into thehands of a body of rebels who, by a curious irony, called themselvesTaipings, "Soldiers of Peace. " They were Chinese, not Manchus, and their leaders were all from theextreme south. Starting near Canton, they had proclaimed as theirobject the expulsion of the Tartars. Overrunning Kwangsi and Hunan, theyhad got possession of Hankow and the two adjacent cities, --a centre ofwealth which may be compared to the three cities that form our GreaterNew York. Everywhere they put to flight the government forces; but theydid not choose to stop anywhere short of the ancient capital of theMings. Seizing some thousands of junks, they filled them with theplunder of that rich mart, and sweeping down the river, carried byassault every city on its banks until they reached Nanking. Itsresistance was quickly overcome; and putting to death the entiregarrison of twenty-five thousand Manchus, they announced their intentionto make it the capital of their empire, as Hung Wu had done when hedrove out the Mongols and restored freedom to the Chinese race. In a few months they despatched an expedition to expel the Manchus fromPeking. But that proved a more difficult task than they expected. Beforethe detachment had arrived at Tientsin, it was met on the Grand Canal bya strong force under Sengkolinsin, the Mongol prince. Obliged to winteron the way, it was divided and cut off in detail; this defeat making itevident to all the world that the Manchu domination might still hope fora considerable lease of life. The blood and rapine which everywheremarked their pathway alienated the sympathy of foreigners from theSoldiers of Peace. Nor did the new power at Nanking manifest the leastanxiety to obtain foreign aid, feeling assured of ultimate triumph. Yet, indifferent as they were to the co-operation of foreigners, the Taipingsproclaimed themselves Christians, and appeared to aim their blows noless at lifeless idols than at living enemies. Shangti, the SupremeRuler, the God of the ancient sages, was the object of their worship. They found his name in the Christian Bibles, and they published theBible as the source of their new faith. Their faith amounted to afrenzy, giving them courage in battle, but not imparting theself-control essential to Christian morality. Filling their coffers withspoil, they stocked their harems with the wives and daughters of theirenemies. If their lives had been more decent, they might have had abetter chance to secure the favor of those powerful nations which hadnow become the arbiters of destiny in China. The leader of the movement was a Cantonese by the name of Hung SiuChuen. A copy of the Bible having fallen into his hands, he applied to aBaptist missionary for instruction. How much he learned may be inferredfrom the fact that he gave his followers a new form of baptism, requiring them to wash the bosom as a sign for cleansing the heart. Hehad ecstatic visions, and preached a crusade against idolatry and theManchus. The ease with which the Manchus had been beaten by the Britishin 1842 had revealed their weakness, and the new faith supplied therebels with a fresh source of power. They mixed the teachings of theGospel with new revelations as freely as Mohammed did in propagating thereligion of the Koran. The chief called himself the younger brother ofJesus Christ. His prime minister assumed the title of the Holy Ghost;and his counsels were given out as decrees from Heaven. All this had anair of blasphemy that shocked the sensibilities of foreigners, andcompelled them to stand aloof or to support the Manchus. The native authorities were permitted to engage foreign ships and seamento operate against the rebels, who sustained a siege in Nanking almostas long as the siege of Troy. From Shanghai, Suchau, and other citiesthe Taipings were driven out by the aid of foreigners, chiefly led byWard and Gordon, the former an American, the latter a Briton. GeneralWard was never under the command of Li Hung Chang; but to him more thanto any other foreigner belongs the honor of turning the tide of theTaiping Rebellion. A soldier of fortune, he offered to throw his swordinto the government scale if it were paid for with many times its weightin gold. Gathering a nondescript force of various nationalities, herecaptured the city of Sungkiang, and followed this up by such a seriesof successes that his little troop came to be known as the"Ever-victorious Army. " Falling before the walls of Tseki, he wasinterred with pomp at the scene of his first victory, where a temple waserected to his memory, and he is now reckoned among the "Joss" of theChinese Empire. His force was taken into Li's pay. General Gordon (the same who fell at Khartoum) acted under the directionof Li Hung Chang; and his chief exploit was the recovery of Suchau. Unable to resist his artillery, the rebel chiefs offered to capitulate. They were assured by him that their lives would be spared. To this LiHung Chang consented, and the stronghold was at once surrendered. Regardless of his plighted faith, Li caused the five leaders to bebeheaded, an act of treachery which filled Gordon with such fury that hewent from camp to camp, looking for Li, determined to put a bullet inhis head. Li, however, avoided a meeting until Gordon's wrath had timeto subside, and that treacherous act laid the foundation of his futurefortunes. He was made governor of the province, and for forty years herose in power and influence. Not only was this terrible rebellion which laid waste the fairestprovinces a sequel to the first war with England, it was prolonged andaggravated by a second war which broke out in 1857. In 1863, the laststronghold of the rebels was recaptured, and the rebellion finallysuppressed, after twelve years of dismal carnage. In bringing about thisresult, no names are more conspicuous than those of Li Hung Chang andGeneral Gordon, whose sobriquet of "Chinese Gordon" ever afterwardscharacterized him. Li's good fortune served him well in this war. Havingwon the favor of the Court, he was in command of the forces of easternKiangsu, and all the brilliant successes of Ward and Gordon werecredited to him. He was not only made governor of the province, but alsocreated an Earl in perpetuity. V. THE "ARROW" WAR; THE TREATIES. Never did a smaller spark ignite a greater conflagration. In 1856 anative junk named the "Arrow, " sailing under a British flag, was seizedfor piracy, her flag hauled down and her crew thrown into prison atCanton. On demand of Sir John Bowring, Governor of Hong Kong, they werehanded over to Consul Parkes (later Sir Harry); but he refused toreceive them because they were not accompanied by a suitable apology. The haughty Viceroy Yeh put them all to death, provoking reprisals onthe part of the British, resulting in the occupation of Canton and thecapture of Peking after three campaigns to the north. In this war England had France for ally; as the two powers had beenassociated in that hugest of blunders, the Crimean War. Nor was thealliance a less blunder on this occasion. Napoleon's excuse forparticipation was the murder of a missionary in Kwangsi; but his realmotive was a desire to checkmate Great Britain, and prevent the conquestof new territory. In the Opium War she had stopped at Nanking, leavingthe pride of China unhumbled, and the state of relations so unstablethat another war was required to place them on a better footing. England, with unselfish generosity, invited the co-operation of Russiaand the United States. Either power might have found as good a pretextfor hostile action as that of France; but they chose to maintain anattitude of neutrality, offering only such moral support as might enablethem to gather up the apples after the others had shaken the tree. In1857 Canton was taken and held by the allies. The next spring the envoysof the four powers, each with a considerable naval force, proceeded tothe mouth of the Peiho, the gateway to a capital as secluded andexclusive as that of the Grand Lama. The forts made a show ofresistance, but they were put to silence in less than half an hour; andnegotiations which had been opened by the neutrals were resumedat Tientsin. Dr. S. Wells Williams was Chinese secretary to the United Statesminister, Mr. William B. Reed; and I acted as interpreter for the spokenlanguage. An article in favor of Christian missions occasioned somedelay; and Mr. Reed, who was vain and shallow, said to us, "Now, gentlemen, hurry up with your missionary article for I intend to sign mytreaty on the 18th of June [Waterloo day] with or without that clause. "Fancy a mind that could think of a treaty obtained by British guns asentitling him to be associated with Wellington! Yet Mr. Reed had theeffrontery to say that he "expected us to make the missionary societiesduly sensible of their obligations" to him. That twenty-ninth articlewas the gem of the treaty; and it had the honor of being copied intothat of Lord Elgin, which was signed eight days later. High-minded, philanthropic, and upright, Lord Elgin made a mistake whichled to a renewal of the war. He refused to place Tientsin on the list ofopen ports, because, as he said, "Foreign powers would make use of it tooverawe the Chinese capital, "--just as if overawing was not a matter ofprime necessity. He hastened away to India to aid in suppressing theSepoy mutiny, eventually becoming viceroy after another campaign inChina. His brother, Sir F. Bruce, succeeded him as minister in China;and twelve months later (July, 1859) the ministers of the four powerswere again at the mouth of the Peiho on their way to Peking for theexchange of ratified copies of the several treaties. The United Statesminister was John E. Ward, a noble-hearted son of Georgia, and the chiefof our little squadron was the gallant old Commodore Tatnall. We were not a little surprised to see the demolished forts completelyrebuilt, and frowning defiance. We were told by officers who came downto the shore that no vessel would be allowed to pass; but that the wayto Peking was open to us _via_ Peitang, a small port to the north. To this Mr. Ward made no objection, but the British, who had so recentlyheld the keys of the capital, were indignant to be met by such a rebuff. They steamed ahead between the forts, leaving the Chinese to take theconsequences. All at once the long line of batteries opened fire. One ortwo gunboats were sunk; two or three were stranded. A storming party wasrepulsed, and Admiral Hope, who was dangerously wounded, begged ourAmerican commodore to give him a lift by towing up a flotilla of bargesfilled with a reserve force. "Blood is thicker than water, " exclaimedTatnall, in tones that have echoed round the globe, and Ward making noobjection, he threw neutrality to the winds, and proceeded to tow up thebarges. Our little steamer was commanded by Lieutenant Barker, nowAdmiral Barker of the New York Navy Yard. Even this failed to retrieve the day, the tide having fallen too low fora successful landing. For the British admiral nothing remained but towithdraw his shattered forces, and prepare for another campaign. For theUnited States minister a dazzling prospect now presented itself, --thatof intervening to prevent the renewal of war. From Peitang we proceededby land two days. Then we continued our voyage for five days by boat onthe Upper Peiho. At Peking, calling on the genial old Kweiliang, who had signed thetreaty in 1858, Mr. Ward was astonished at his change of tone. "You wishto see the Emperor. That goes as a matter of course; but his Majestyknows you helped the British, and he requires that you go on your kneesbefore the throne in token of repentance. " "Tell him, " said Mr. Ward tome, "that I go on my knees only to God and woman. " "Is not the Emperorthe same as God?" replied the old courtier, taking no notice of atribute to woman that was unintelligible to an Oriental mind. "You neednot really touch the ground with your knees, " he continued; "but merelymake a show of kneeling. There will be eunuchs at hand to lift you up, saying 'Don't kneel! Don't kneel!'" The eunuchs, as Mr. Ward well knew, would be more likely to push us to our knees than to lift us up; and hewisely decided to decline the honor of an audience on such terms. Displeased by his obstinacy, the Emperor ordered him to quit the capitalwithout delay, and exchange ratifications at the sea-coast. A report waslong current in Peking that foreigners have no joints in their knees;hence their reluctance to kneel. Thus vanished for Mr. Ward thealluring prospect of winning for himself and his country the beatitudeof the peacemaker. The summer of 1860 saw the Peiho forts taken, and an allied force ofthirty thousand men advancing on Peking. The court fled to Tartary, andthe summer palace was laid in ashes to punish the violation of a flag oftruce, the bearers of which were bound hand and foot, and left to perishwithin its walls. For three days the smoke of its burning, carried by anorthwest wind, hung like a pall over the devoted city, whoseinhabitants were so terrified that they opened the gates half an hourbefore the time set for bombardment. No soldiers were admitted, but thedemands of the Allies were all acceded to, and supplementary treatiessigned within the walls by Lord Elgin and Baron Gros. Peking was openedto foreign residence. The French succeeded in opening the whole countryto the labors of missionaries. Legations were established at thecapital, and a new era of peace and prosperity dawned on thedistracted empire. VI. THE WAR WITH FRANCE. If the opening of Peking required a prolonged struggle, it was followedby a quarter-century of pacific intercourse. China had at her helm anumber of wise statesmen, --such as Prince Kung and Wensiang. TheInspectorate of Customs begun under Mr. Lay took shape under the skilfulmanagement of Sir Robert Hart, and from that day to this it has provedto be a fruitful nursery of reforms, political and social. Not only were students sent abroad for education at the instance andunder the leadership of Yung Wing, but a school for interpreters wasopened in the capital, which, through the influence of Sir Robert Hart, was expanded into the well-known Imperial College. On his nomination thepresent writer was called to the head of it, and Wensiang proposed toconvert it into a great national university by making it obligatory onthe members of the Hanlin Academy, the Emperor's "Forest of Pencils, " tocome there for a course of instruction in science and international law. Against this daring innovation, Wojin, a Manchu tutor of the Emperor, protested, declaring that it would be humiliating to China to have herchoicest scholars sit at the feet of foreign professors. The scheme fellthrough, but before many years the Emperor himself had taken up thestudy of the English language, and two of our students were selected tobe his instructors. One of them is at this present time (1902) Chineseminister at the Court of St. James. Several of our students have haddiplomatic missions, and one, after serving as minister abroad, is now aleading member of the Board of Foreign Affairs in Peking. A pressopened in connection with the college printed numerous text-books oninternational law, political economy, physics, and mathematics, translated by the president, professors, and students. America was fortunate in the choice of the first minister whom she sentto reside at Peking. This was Anson Burlingame, who, after doing much toencourage the Chinese in the direction of progress, was by them made thehead of the first embassy which they sent to foreign nations. Hissuccess in other countries was largely due to the sympathy with which hehad been received in the United States by Secretary Seward, and to theadvice and recommendations with which he was provided by that greatstatesman. So deep an interest did Mr. Seward take in China that he wentin person to study its condition before the close of his career. In hisvisit to Peking he was accompanied by his nephew, George F. Seward, whowas United States Consul at Shanghai. The latter has since that dateworthily represented our country as minister at Peking; but it may bedoubted whether in that high position he ever performed an internationalservice equal in importance to one performed during his consulship, forwhich he has recently received the cross of the Legion of Honor. Inlaying out their new concession at Shanghai, the French had excited thehostility of the people by digging up and levelling down many of thosegraves that occupied so much space outside of the city walls, and wherethe Chinese who worshipped their ancestors were to be seen every dayburning paper and heaping up the earth. A furious mob fell on the Frenchpolice, chased them from the field, and menaced the French settlementwith knife and firebrand. The consuls were appealed to for aid, but noone responded except Mr. Seward, who headed a strong force from one ofour men-of-war, dispersed the mob, and secured the safety of the foreignsettlement. But for his timely intervention who knows that the Frenchconsulate would not have been reduced to ashes? If the consulate hadbeen burned down, a war would have been inevitable, with a chain ofconsequences that baffles the imagination. In 1871 a horrid atrocity was perpetrated by Chinese at Tientsin whichcertainly would have led to war with France if Napoleon III. Had not atthat very time been engaged in mortal combat with Germany. The populacewere made to believe that the sisters at the French hospital had beenseen extracting the eyeballs from their patients to use in themanufacture of magical drugs. They were set upon by a maddenedmultitude, a score or more of them slaughtered, and the buildings wherethey had cared for the sick and suffering turned to a heap of ruins. Count Rocheschouart, instead of reserving the case to be settled at alater day, thought best to accept from the Chinese government anapology, with an ample sum in the way of pecuniary compensation. Thatgrewsome superstition has led to bloodshed in more than one partof China. In the summer of 1885 I was called one day from the Western Hills to theTsungli-Yamen, or Foreign Office, on business of great urgency. Onarriving, I was informed that the Chinese gunboats in the river Min hadbeen sunk by the French the day before; that they had also destroyed theArsenal at the mouth of the river. "This, " said the Secretary, "meanswar, and we desire to know how non-combatants belonging to the enemy andresident in our country are to be treated according to the rules ofInternational Law. " While I was copying out the principles andprecedents bearing on the subject, the same Secretary begged me tohasten my report, "because, " said he, "the Grand Council is waiting forit to embody in an Imperial Decree. " True enough, the next day a decreefrom the throne announced the outbreak of war; but it added thatnon-combatants belonging to the enemy would not be molested. Two of ourprofessors were Frenchmen, and they were both permitted to continue incharge of their classes without molestation. Hostilities were brought to a happy conclusion by the agency of SirRobert Hart. One of his customs cruisers employed in the light-houseservice having been seized by the French, Mr. Campbell was sent to Paristo see the French President and petition for its release. Learning thatPresident Grévy would welcome the restoration of peace, and ascertainingwhat conditions would be acceptable, Sir Robert laid them before theChinese government, putting an end to a conflict which, if suffered togo on, might have ruined the interests of more than one country. In thiswar and in those peace negotiations the conduct of the Chinese wasworthy of a civilized nation. Yet the result of their experience was tomake them more ready to appeal to arms in cases of difficulty. Li's connection with this war was very real, though not conspicuous. Changpeilun, director of the arsenal at Foochow, was his son-in-law. Notonly was Li disposed to aid him in taking revenge, he was himselfbuilding a great arsenal in the north; and it was, no doubt, owing toefficient succor from this quarter that Formosa was able to hold outagainst the forces of the French. VII. WAR WITH JAPAN. Both in its inception and in its tragic ending the notable conflict withJapan connects itself with the name of Li Hung Chang. The Island Empireon the East had long been known to the Chinese, though until our timesno regular intercourse subsisted between the two countries. It isrecorded that a fleet freighted with youth and maidens was despatchedthither by the builder of the Great Wall to seek in those islands of theblest for the herb of immortality; but none of them returned. It was tobe a colony, and the flowery robe by which its object is veiled is notsufficient to hide the real aim of that ambitious potentate. Yet, through that expedition and subsequent emigrations, a pacific conquestwas effected which does honor to both nations, planting in those islandsthe learning of China, and blending with their native traditions theessential teachings of her ancient sages. For centuries prior to our age of treaties, non-intercourse had beenenforced on both sides, --the Japanese confining their Chinese neighbors, as they did the Dutch, to a little islet in the port of Nagasaki; andChina seeing nothing of Japan except an occasional descent of Japanesepirates on her exposed sea-coast. To America belongs the honor of opening that opulent archipelago to thecommerce of the world. Our shipwrecked sailors having been harshlytreated by those islanders, a squadron was sent under Commodore Perry toYeddo (now Tokio) in 1855, to punish them if necessary and to provideagainst future outrages. With rare moderation he merely handed in astatement of his terms and sailed away to Loochoo to give them time forreflection. Returning six months later, instead of the glove of combathe was received with the hand of friendship, and a treaty was signedwhich provided for the opening of three ports and the residence of anAmerican chargé d'affaires. In the autumn of 1859 it was my privilege tovisit Yeddo in company with Mr. Ward and Commodore Tatnall. We wereentertained by Townsend Harris and shown the sights of the city of theShoguns when it was still clothed in its mediaeval costume. The longswaddling-garb of the natives had a semi-savage aspect, and the abjectservility with which their todzies (interpreters) prostrated themselvesbefore their officers excited a feeling of contempt. Like the mayors of the palace in mediaeval France, the Shoguns orgenerals had relegated the Mikado to a single city of the interior;while for six hundred years they had usurped the power of the Empire, practically presenting the spectacle of two Emperors, one "spiritual"(or nominal), one "temporal" (or real). Little did we imagine thatwithin five years the Shoguns would be swept away, and the Mikadorestored to more than his ancient power. The conflagration was kindledby a spark from our engines. The feudal nobles, of whom there were fourhundred and fifty, each a prince within his own narrow limits, wereindignant that the Shogun had opened his ports to those aggressiveforeigners of the West. Raising a cry of "Kill the foreigners!" theyoverturned the Shoguns and restored the Mikado. Their fury, however, subsided when they found that the foreigner was too strong to beexpelled. A few more years saw them patriotically surrendering theirfeudal powers in order to make the central government strong enough toface the world. About the same time our Western costume was adopted, andalong with it the parliamentary system of Great Britain and the schoolsystem of America. Some foreigners were shallow enough to laugh at themwhen they saw those little soldiers in Western uniform; and the Chinesedespised them more than ever for abandoning the dress of theirforefathers. To protect themselves at once against China and Russia, the Japanesefelt that the independence of Corea was to them indispensable. The Kinghad been a feudal subject to China since the days of King Solomon; andwhen at the instance of Japan he assumed the title of Emperor, theChinese resolved to punish him for such insolence. This was in 1894. TheJapanese took up arms in his defence; and though they had some hardfighting, they soon made it evident that nothing but a treaty of peacecould keep them out of Peking. Li Hung Chang, who had long been Viceroy at Tientsin and who had builta northern arsenal and remodelled the Chinese army, had to confesshimself beaten. For him it was a bitter pill to be sent as a suppliantto the Court of the Mikado. That China was beaten was not his fault. Yethe was held responsible by his own government and departed on thathumiliating mission as if with a rope about his neck. Fortunately forhim, during his mission in Japan an assassin lodged a bullet in hishead, and the desire of Japan to undo the effect of that shameful actmade negotiation an easy task, converting his defeat into a sort oftriumph. Happily, too, he enjoyed the counsel and assistance of J. W. Foster, formerly United States Secretary of State. Formosa, one of thebrightest jewels in the Chinese crown, had to be handed over to Japan, and lower Manchuria would have gone with it, had not Russia, supportedby Austria and Germany, compelled the Japanese to withdraw their claims. The next turn of the kaleidoscope shows us China seeking to follow theexample of Japan in throwing off the trammels of antiquated usage. In1898, when the tide of reform was in full swing, the Marquis Ito ofJapan paid a visit to Peking, and as president of the University, I hadthe honor of being asked to meet him along with Li Hung Chang at adinner given by Huyufen, mayor of the city, and the grand secretary, Sunkianai. It was a lesson intended for them when he told us how, onhis returning from England in the old feudal days, his prince asked himif anything needed to be reformed in Japan. "Everything, " he replied. The lesson was lost on the three Chinese statesmen, progressive thoughthey were, for China was then on the eve of a violent reaction whichthreatened ruin instead of progress. VIII. WAR WITH THE WORLD. The last summer of the century saw the forts at the mouth of the Peihocaptured for the third time since the beginning of 1858. It was theopening scene in the last act of a long drama, and more imposing thanany that had gone before, not in the number of assailants nor in theobstinacy of resistance, but in the fact that instead of one or twonations as hitherto, all the powers of the modern world were nowcombined to batter down the barriers of Chinese conservatism. Gettingpossession of Tientsin, not without hard fighting, they advanced onPeking under eight national flags, against the "eight banners" of theManchu tribes. What was the mainspring of this tragic movement? What unforeseenoccurrence had effected a union of powers whose usual attitude is mutualjealousy or secret hostility? In a word, it was _humanity_. Spurningpetty questions of policy, they combined their forces to extinguish aconflagration kindled by pride and superstition, which menaced the livesof all foreigners in North China. In 1898, when the Emperor had entered on a career of progress, theEmpress Dowager was appealed to by a number of her old servants to savethe Empire from a young Phaeton, who was driving so fast as to be indanger of setting the world on fire. Coming out of her luxuriousretreat, ten miles from the city, where she had never ceased to keep aneye on the course of affairs, she again took possession of the throneand compelled her adopted son to ask her to "teach him how to govern. "This was the _coup d'état_. In her earlier years she had not beenopposed to progress, but now that she had returned to power at theinstance of a conservative party, she entered upon a course of reactionwhich made a collision with foreign powers all but inevitable. She hadbeen justly provoked by their repeated aggressions. Germany had seized aport in Shantung in consequence of the murder of two missionaries. Russia at once clapped her bear's paw on Port Arthur. Great Britain setthe lion's foot on Weihaiwei; and France demanded Kwang Chan Bay, all"to maintain the balance of power. " Exasperated beyond endurance, theEmpress gave notice that any further demands of the sort would be met byforce of arms. The governor of Shantung appointed by her was a Manchu by the name ofYuhien, who more than any other man is to be held responsible for theoutbreak of hostilities. He it was who called the Boxers from theirhiding-places and supplied them with arms, convinced apparently of thereality of their claim to be invulnerable. For a hundred years they hadexisted as a secret society under a ban of prohibition. Now, however, they had made amends by killing German missionaries, and he hoped bytheir aid to expel the Germans from Shantung. On complaint of the GermanMinister he was recalled; but, decorated by the hands of the EmpressDowager, he was transferred to Shansi, where later on he slaughtered allthe missionaries in that province. In Shantung he was succeeded by Yuen Shikai, a statesmanlike official, who soon compelled the Boxers to seek another arena for theiroperations. Instead of creeping back to their original hiding-place theycrossed the boundary and directed their march toward Peking, --on the waynot merely laying waste the villages of native Christians, but tearingup the railway and killing foreigners indiscriminately. They had made aconvert of Prince Tuan, father of the heir apparent. He it was whoencouraged their advance, believing that he might make use of them tohelp his son to the throne. Their numbers were swelled by multitudes whofancied that they would suffer irreparable personal loss through theintroduction of railways and modern labor-saving machinery; and Chinacan charge the losses of the last war to those misguided crowds. Fortunately several companies of marines, amounting to four hundred andfifty men, arrived in Peking the day before the destruction of thetrack. The legations were threatened, churches were burnt down, nativeChristians put to death, and fires set to numerous shops simply becausethey contained foreign goods. Then it was that the foreign admiralscaptured the forts, in order to bring relief to our foreign community. That step the Chinese Foreign Office pronounced an act of war, andordered the legations and all other foreigners to quit the capital. Theministers remonstrated, knowing that on the way we could not escapebeing butchered by Boxers. On the 20th of June, the German Minister waskilled on his way to the Foreign Office. The legations and otherforeigners at once took refuge in the British legation, previouslyagreed on as the best place to make a defence. Professor James waskilled while crossing a bridge near the legation. That night we werefired on from all sides, and for eight weeks we were exposed to a dailyfusillade from an enemy that counted more on reducing us by starvationthan on carrying our defences by storm. About midnight on August 13, we heard firing at the gates of the city, and knew that our deliverers were near. The next day, scaling the wallsor battering down the gates, they forced their way into the city andeffected our rescue. The day following, the Roman Catholic Cathedral wasrelieved, --the defence of which forms the brightest page in the historyof the siege, and in the afternoon we held a solemn service ofthanksgiving. The palaces were found vacant, the Empress Dowager havingfled with her entire court. She was the same Empress who had fled fromthe British and French forty years before. She was not pursued, because Prince Ching came forward to meet theforeign ministers, and he and Li Hung Chang were appointed to arrangeterms of peace. Li was Viceroy at Canton. Had he been in his oldviceroyalty at Tientsin, this Boxer war could not have occurred. Thatits fury was limited to the northern belt of provinces was owing to thewisdom of Chang[5] and Liu, the great satraps of Central China whoengaged to keep their provinces in order, if not attacked by foreigners. [Footnote 5: Chang is regarded as the ablest of China's viceroys. Hepublished, prior to the _coup d'état_, a notable book, in which heargues that China's only hope is in the adoption of the sciences andarts of the West. ] I called on the old statesman in the summer of 1901, after the last ofthe treaties was signed. He seemed to feel that his work was finished, but he still had energy enough to write a preface for my translation ofHall's "International Law, " and before the end of another month hislong life of restless activity had come to a close at the age ofseventy-nine. By posthumous decree, he was made a Marquis. In the autumn the court returned to Peking, the way having been openedby Li's negotiations. Thanks to the lessons of adversity, the Dowagerhas been led to favor the cause of progress. Not only has she re-enactedthe educational reforms proposed by the Emperor, but she has gone a stepfarther, and ordered that instead of mere literary finish, a knowledgeof arts and sciences shall be required in examinations for theCivil Service. The following words I wrote in an obituary notice, a few days after Li'sdeath:-- "For over twenty years Earl Li has been a conspicuous patron ofeducational reform. The University and other schools at Tientsin werefounded by him; and he had a large share in founding the ImperialUniversity in Peking. During the last twenty years I have had the honorof being on intimate terms with him. Five years ago he wrote a prefacefor a book of mine on Christian Psychology, --showing a freedom fromprejudice very rare among Chinese officials. "Another preface which he wrote for me is noteworthy from the fact thatit is one of the last papers that came from his prolific pencil. Havingfinished a translation of 'Hall's International Law' (begun before thesiege), I showed it to Li Hung Chang not two weeks ago. The old man tooka deep interest in it, and returned it with a preface in which he says'I am now near eighty; Dr. Martin is over seventy. We are old and soonto pass away; but we both hope that coming generations will be guided bythe principles of this book. ' "With all his faults--those of his time and country--Li Hung Chang was atrue patriot. For him it was a fitting task to place the keystone in thearch that commemorates China's peace with the world. " DAVID LIVINGSTONE. 1813-1873. AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT. BY CYRUS C. ADAMS. Africa is the most ancient and the most recent conquest of the humanrace. As far as the light of history can be projected into the past, wesee Egypt among the first and foremost on the threshold of civilization. The continent discovered last and opened last to the enterprises of theworld is still Africa. Why is it that we see there both the dawn ofcivilization and the tardiest development of human progress? The reasons are not far to seek. The physical conformation of no othercontinent is so unfavorable for exploration and development. Africa'sstraight coast-lines, affording little shelter to the primitive ships ofearly mariners, repelled the enterprising Phoenicians and otherseafarers in their eager search for new lands worth colonizing. Nor wasit easy for explorers to penetrate into the interior. In its surfaceAfrica has been compared to an inverted saucer, --the high plateausoccupying most of the interior descending to the sea by short, abrupt, and steep slopes, so that the wide and peaceful rivers of the plateausare lashed into foam as they approach the ocean by many series of rapidsand cataracts. In all the other continents rivers have been the lines of leastresistance to the advance of man. Civilization has developed first alongthe great rivers. The valleys were first settled, and up these valleysman carried his industries and commerce far inland. Thus the Euphratesand Tigris of Mesopotamia, the Ganges and Indus of India, and the Hoangand Yangtse of China, were the creators of history; but this is true inAfrica only of the Nile. All the other rivers have been impedimentsinstead of helpful factors in the formidable task of exploration anddevelopment. The trying climate, also, gave Africa odious repute and delayed forcenturies the study and utilization of the continent. When the Britishexpedition under Captain Tuckey attempted to ascend the Congo, in 1816, to see if it were really the lower part of the Niger River, as had beenconjectured, nearly all of its members perished miserably among therapids less than two hundred miles from the sea. Such tragedies as thisparalyzed enterprise in Africa until white men learned that the climatewas not so deadly, after all, if they adhered to the manner of life, thehygienic rules, that should be observed in that tropical expanse. In all the other continents, also, explorers have had the advantage ofdomestic animals to carry their food and camp equipment; but in largeparts of tropical Africa the horse, ox, and mule cannot live. The biteof the little tsetse fly kills them. Its sting is hardly so annoying asthat of the mosquito, but near the base of its proboscis is a little bagcontaining the fatal poison. Camels have been loaded near Zanzibar forthe journey to Tanganyika, but they did not live to reach the greatlake. The "ship of the desert" can never be utilized in the humidregions of tropical Africa. The elephant is found from sea to sea, but he has not proved to be soamenable to domestication as his Asian brother. He may yet be reduced touseful servitude. The efforts in this direction in the German and Frenchcolonies are somewhat encouraging, though in 1901 only six elephants hadthus far been broken to work and were daily used as beasts of burden. Explorers of tropical Africa have always been compelled to rely uponhuman porterage, the most expensive and unsatisfactory form oftransportation, with the result that nearly all the great lines ofexploration have been extended through the continent at enormous cost. So most other parts of the world were occupied, colonized, civilized, before Africa was explored. A continent one-fourth larger than our ownwas for centuries neglected and despised. "Nothing good can come out ofAfrica" became proverbial. Seventy years ago Africa, away from thecoasts and the Nile, was almost a blank upon our maps, save for fancifuldetails that are ludicrously grotesque in the light of our presentknowledge (1902). Then dawned the era of David Livingstone. Sixty-two years ago thishumble Scotchman went to South Africa as a missionary. It was not longbefore he became imbued with the idea that missionary service could notbe projected on broad, economic, and effective lines till the field wasknown. The explorer, he said, must precede the teacher and the merchant. We can work best for Christianity and civilization after we learn whatthe people are and know the nature of their environment. This was thethought that took him into the unknown; that inspired him withunflagging courage and zeal throughout twenty years of weary plodding inthe African wilderness among hundreds of tribes who never before hadseen a white man. And all the years he was studying the country andwinning the love of its people, his faith in Africa, in its aboundingresources worth the world's seeking, in the capacity of its people fordevelopment, steadily grew till it became the all-pervading impulse ofhis life. Livingstone's faith converted the world to the belief that, after all, there was good in Africa. "I shall never forget, " said Stanley, one day in New York, "the timewhen I stood with Livingstone on the shore of Lake Tanganyika, and heraised his trembling hand above his head, leaned towards me as he lookedme in the eye, and said in a voice broken with emotion: 'The day iscoming when the whole world will know that Africa is worth reclaiming, and that its people may be brought out of barbarism. The world needsAfrica; and teachers, merchants, railroads, and every influence ofcivilization will be spread through this continent to fit it for theplace in human interests that belongs to it. ' I thought then thatLivingstone was an enthusiast and a visionary; but long ago I learned tobelieve that every word he said was true. " Europe and America were thrilled by the simple narrative of thosetwenty-two thousand miles of wanderings that brought into the light ofday millions of human beings who had been as much unknown to us asthough they inhabited Mars. Livingstone did not live to know it, but itwas he who kindled the great African Movement, --an outburst of zeal forgeographic discovery and economic development such as was neverseen before. Thirteen years ago (1889) a Frenchman named De Bissy completed thelargest map yet made of Africa. In the preparation of this great work, which occupied much of his time for eight years, he used as his sourcesof information nearly eighteen hundred route and other maps, nearly allof which were the result of the work of explorers in the precedingquarter of a century. All that we know of the geography of overthree-fourths of Africa is the work of the past half-century sinceLivingstone made his first journey in 1849; and we know far more ofinner Africa to-day than was known of inner North America three hundredyears after Columbus discovered the western world. A little over acentury ago, our great-grandfathers were reading in their schoolgeographies that North America had no conspicuous mountains except theAlleghanies; and these mountains and the Andes of South America werebelieved to be one and the same chain, interrupted by the Gulf ofMexico. Many men not yet bent with years can remember when the interiorof Africa was a white space on the maps; but it is not possible to-dayto make such a geographical blunder as we have mentioned, about any partof Africa. It is because of the work he did in those twenty years, sowing all thewhile the seeds from which sprang the great African Movement, that "thegentle master of African exploration" is acclaimed to-day as one of theworld's great men, and that his body rests in Westminster Abbey amongthe illustrious dead of Britain. The son of a worthy weaver in Blantyre, Scotland, Livingstone's earlylife was that of a poor boy, working in a spinning-mill, quiet, sober, affectionate, and faithful in every relation of life. Moved at last bythe thirst for knowledge that has distinguished many a humble Scotchboy, he entered the University at Glasgow, studying during the wintermonths and spending the summers at his trade in the factory, fittinghimself all the while for the conquests he little dreamed he was toachieve over difficulties almost insurmountable. A classmate spoke ofhim as a pale, thin, retiring young man, but frank and mostkind-hearted, ready for any good and useful work, even for chopping theUniversity fuel and grinding wheat for the bread. In 1838, when he wastwenty-five years old, he went to London to be examined as a candidatefor the African missionary service. Two years later he was sent to SouthAfrica, where for eight or nine years he labored among the nativesearnestly and unostentatiously north of the place now famous as the siteof the Kimberley diamond mines. It was here that he became intimatelyacquainted with the celebrated missionary, Robert Moffatt, whosedaughter he married. His devoted wife accompanied him in some of hislater travels, but long before he finished his work her body was laid torest under the shade of a tree that for years was pointed out to allvisitors to the Lower Zambesi. In 1849, began the series of explorations that continued till hisdeath. "The end of geographical discovery is the beginning of missionaryenterprise, " he wrote. Burning with zeal to reveal Africa to the world, Livingstone never forgot the main aim of his life, --to open ways for theplanting of mission stations among all the scores of tribes he visited. "I hope God will in mercy permit me to establish the Gospel somewhere inthis region, " he wrote from the land of the Barotse, on the UpperZambesi. Does he now look down from his eternal home upon that very landwhose churches and schools are the fruition of the labors of FrenchProtestants; whose king, in London to attend the coronation of EdwardVII. , said he wanted more teachers and more men to train his people tobuild houses and work iron? He prayed that he might live to see "thedouble influence of the spirit of commerce and Christianity employed tostay the bitter fountain of African misery. " The glowing zeal of theChristian philanthropist and the untiring ardor of the born explorerwere perfectly blended in the spirit of the great pioneer of modernAfrican discovery. Livingstone's routes through Africa would extend about seven timesbetween New York City and San Francisco; and in his almost endlessmarches over plain, through jungle, across mountains and wide rivers, the natives met him almost without exception in a generous andhospitable spirit. Love was the secret of his success. He won his way bykindness. Give the barbarous African time to see that you wish him well, that you would do him good in ways he knows are helpful, and hisaffection is evoked. It was said that the British could never establish their rule over thegreat Wabemba tribe, southwest of Tanganyika, without a militarycampaign. In 1894, two humble Catholic fathers entered Lobemba, walkedstraight to the chief town, and were told that if they did not leave thecountry in one day they would be killed. As the stern message wasdelivered, they saw an old woman on the ground in great pain from asevere wound. The news soon spread that these unwelcome strangers hadwashed and dressed the wound, and made the old woman comfortable. "Thesepeople love men, " was the word that passed from lip to lip, as the sickand suffering came out from the town to be treated, while thousands ofnatives looked on. At nightfall the white men were told they mightremain another day; they ministered for eleven days to those who neededhelp, and were then invited to remain the rest of their lives. Themission stations of the White Fathers are to-day scattered all overLobemba; the country is open in every corner to the whites, and in 1899British rule was established. The victory was won, not with guns, butby gentle, helpful kindness. Livingstone never believed that the sympathies of our common humanityare extinct even in the bosom of a savage. Enfolded in the panoply ofChristian kindness, he passed unscathed among the most warlike tribes. No memory of wrong or pain rankled in the heart of any man, woman, orchild he ever met. He is known to-day as "the good old man" wherever hispath led him in those twenty years. When explorers began to study the healthful highlands of the Akikuyutribe in East Africa a few years ago, the natives rushed to arms. "Keepaway from us, " they said. "One of your white men came through the land, stealing food from our gardens, and killing all who said he ought to payus for our vegetables. We want nothing to do with thieves and murdererslike you. " But no vengeance fell on the head of any white traveller who everfollowed in the footsteps of Livingstone. Those explorers have achievedmost who adhered to his example of unfailing kindness, mercy, andjustice. The brutal German, whose crimes made the Akikuyu hostile to allwhites, marked his path with blood from the Indian Ocean to VictoriaNyanza. Serpa Pinto, renowned for the scientific value of his work, aroused condemnation and disgust because he fought his way through manytribes, among whom Livingstone and Arnot had wandered almost alone andin perfect safety. Fortunately, there have not been many explorersmilitant. The brilliant discoveries of Grenfell, Delcommune, Lemaire, and others, who are in the first rank of African pioneers, were madewithout harming a native. Let us glance at a few of Livingstone's discoveries and form our ownconclusions as to whether his sublime faith in the future of Africa hasthus far been justified by events. In the depths of the wilderness hediscovered the large lake, Mweru, through which the Upper Congo flows. Though white influences have reached that remote region only within thepast two or three years, a little steamboat now plies those waters. Aphotograph of Mpweto, one of the white settlements on the lake, showsthe commodious quarters of the Europeans, two long lines of cabins inwhich the native workmen live, and well-tilled gardens extending for ahalf-mile along the shore. Livingstone brought to light the coal fieldsof the Zambesi, the only coal yet known in tropical Africa. While theselines are being written, the British of Rhodesia are preparing to openmines along these deposits. He told the world of the Victoria Falls ofthe Zambesi, the largest known, a mile wide and twice as high asNiagara. The installation of an electrical plant at this great source ofpower is now in progress, and it is hoped within three years totransmit electrically all the power required to work the large coppermines in the north, the coal fields in the east, and to move trains onthe Cape to Cairo Railroad for a distance of three hundred miles. Therecent improvements in long-distance transmission of power encouragesthe belief that the Victoria Falls may some day possess large industrialutility for a wide region around them. Coffee plantations on the hillsoverlooking the long expanse of Nyassa, the splendid freshwater seawhich Livingstone revealed in its setting of mountains, are sellingtheir superior product in London at a high price. The town of Blantyre, among the Nyassa highlands which Livingstone first described, has anewspaper, telegraphic and cable communication with all the world, andindustrial schools in which the manual arts are taught to hundreds ofnatives. Here is the large brick church, now famous, built by nativecraftsmen, who before Livingstone's time had never seen a white man, andlived in a state of barbarism; an edifice that would adorn the suburbsof any American city, and of which the explorer, Joseph Thomson, said:"It is the most wonderful sight I have seen in Africa. " The natives madethe brick, burned the lime, sawed and hewed the timbers, and erected thebuilding to the driving of the last nail. They had the capacity, and itwas evoked by the genius of one of the most remarkable men in Africa, Missionary Scott of Blantyre. Steamboats are afloat on five of the siximportant seas of the great lake region of Central Africa; on two of thethree which Livingstone discovered. Only a beginning has been made, forthe field stretches from ocean to ocean; but the man who, in 1873--theyear of Livingstone's death, --should have predicted one-half of theachievement of the present generation would have been laughed at as acrack-brained visionary. Even the surface of Africa is changing, and the truth of Livingstone isnot always the truth of to-day. In his first journey, in which he bravedthe perils of the South African thirst lands, he reached the broad andplacid expanse of Lake Ngami, covering an area of three hundred squaremiles. In the gradual desiccation of that region, the lake has nowentirely disappeared. Its place is wholly occupied by a partly marshyplain covered with reeds, and no vestige of water surface is to be seen. He found the little Lake Dilolo so exactly balanced on a flat plainbetween two great river systems that one stream from the lake flowednorth to the Congo and another south to the Zambesi; but for years pastthere has been no connection between the lake and the Congo. He soughtin vain, like many explorers after him, for the outlet to LakeTanganyika. The mystery was not solved till, more than twenty yearsafter, Burton discovered the lake; the solution came when the explorerThomson and Missionary Hore found the waters of Tanganyika pouring in aperfect torrent down the valley of the Lukuga to the Congo. Theexplanation of the strange phenomenon is that for a series of years theevaporation exceeds the water receipts, the level of the lake steadilyfalls, and the valley of the Lukuga becomes choked with grass; then aperiod follows when the water receipts exceed the evaporation, and thewaters rise, burst through the barriers of vegetation in the Lukuga, andare carried to the Congo once more. It was his second and third journeys that established Livingstone's fameas a great explorer. In those journeys (1853-56) his routes were fromthe Upper Zambesi to Loanda in Portuguese West Africa, and then fromLoanda to the mouth of the Zambesi, nearly twelve thousand miles oftravel. The third journey was the first crossing of the continent; andwhile traversing the wide savannas of the uplands and revealing theZambesi, the fourth largest river of Africa, from source to delta, hewas able to verify one of the most brilliant generalizations ever madeby a geologist. Sir Roderick Murchison, President of the RoyalGeographical Society, in 1852, deducing his conclusions from the veryfragmentary and imperfect knowledge of Africa then extant, evolved hisstriking hypothesis as to the physical conformation of the continent, which has been briefly mentioned above and is the accepted fact ofto-day. Livingstone was able to prove the accuracy of this hypothesis, and he dedicated his "Missionary Travels" to its distinguished author. The Makalolo chief, Sekeletu, on the Zambesi River, supplied Livingstonewith men, ivory, and trading commissions, that helped the humble andunknown white man, lacking all financial resources except his slendersalary, to make the two great journeys which kindled the world'sinterest and led to the wonderful achievements of our generation. Inthis noteworthy incident we see the human agencies through which Africawill attain the full stature allotted to her. The Caucasian and theNegro each has his onerous part in the work of bringing the civilizedworld and Africa into touch and accord. When Livingstone went home, after his third journey, hisfellow-countrymen crowded to see and hear the explorer, who had addedmore facts to geographical knowledge than any other man of his time. They saw a person of middle age, plainly and rather carelessly dressed, whose deep-furrowed and well-tanned face indicated a man of quick andkeen discernment, strong impulses, inflexible resolution, and habitualself-command. They heard a speaker whose command of his mother tonguewas imperfect, and who apologized for his broken, hesitating speech bysaying that he had not spoken the English language for nearly sixteenyears. In no public place did he ever allude to his personal sufferings, though fever had brought him to death's door and the years had beencrowded with the most harrowing cares. The work he had done and wouldcarry on to the end, the new Africa he alone could describe, the faiththat had grown and strengthened in every week of his long pilgrimagethat the world needed Africa, its resources and peoples, were the burdenof every utterance. The great London meeting where he first appearedtook practical measures to support him in the work he had begun unaided;and one of the resolutions adopted, declaring that "the importantdiscoveries of Dr. Livingstone will tend hereafter greatly to advancethe interest of civilization, commerce, and freedom among the numeroustribes and nations of that vast continent, " was prophetic of all thebest fruits of the colossal work that has been done to the present time. During his two years at home, Livingstone wrote his "MissionaryTravels. " He returned to England once more (1864-65), when he published"A Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi, " and in 1866 went back toAfrica to resume the explorations which ended only with his death. Between 1849 and 1873 he was four years in Europe and twenty years inthe field, eating native food, sleeping in straw huts (in one of whichhe died), lost to view for many years at a time because he had no meansof communication with the coasts. It was this fact that led to Stanley'ssuccessful search for Livingstone in 1871. Perhaps no other explorerever gave so many years to continuous field-work. In this respect he farsurpassed the record of any other of the African pioneers. The discoveries in his last journeys, covering the periods from 1858 to1864, and from 1866 to 1873, were as brilliant and fruitful as hisearlier work, but not so astonishing, because his first years were givento revealing the broader aspects of Africa and its tribes, while hislater labors were devoted to more detailed research in a smaller field. This region, about as large as Mexico and Central America, extends northand south, from Tanganyika to the Zambesi, and covers the wide region ofthe Congo sources between Nyassa and Lake Bangweolo. The greatestresults were the discovery of Lake Nyassa and the Shire River, now thewater route into East Central Africa; Lakes Bangweolo and Mwero; and themapping of the eastern part of the sources of the Upper Congo, whichLivingstone believed to the day of his death were the ultimate fountainsof the Nile. Livingstone's "Last Journeys" was published from themanuscript which his faithful servants brought to the seacoast with themortal remains of their gentle master. Not far from the south coast of Bangweolo stands a wooden constructionto which is affixed a bronze tablet bearing the simple inscription, "Livingstone died here. Ilala, May 1, 1873. " It has taken the place ofthe tree under which he died, and where his heart, which had been sotrue to Africa, was buried. As the tree was nearly dead, the sectionbearing the rude inscription cut by one of his servants was carefullyremoved and is now in London. Livingstone's geographical delineations were remarkably accurate, considering the inadequate surveying instruments with which he worked. Dr. Ravenstein, one of the greatest authorities on African cartography, has said: "I should be loath to reject Livingstone's work simply becausethe ground which he was the first to explore has since his death beengone over by another explorer. " It would be marvellous, however, if inthe course of twenty years of exploration he had not made some blunders. His map of Lake Bangweolo, for example, was very inaccurate. The LokingaMountains, which he mapped to the south of the lake, have not been foundby later explorers. These imperfections resulted from the fact that hismap of Bangweolo and its neighborhood was largely based upon nativeinformation. He knew that his map was inadequate, and as soon as he wasable to travel he returned to Bangweolo to complete his survey. He wasmaking straight for the true outlet of the lake, and was withinthirty-five miles of it when one morning his servants found him in hislowly straw hut, dead on his knees. If Livingstone had lived a few weekslonger and been able to travel, he and not Giraud would have given usthe true map of Bangweolo. As a whole, Livingstone's work in geography, anthropology, and naturalhistory, stands the test of time. No river in Africa has yet been laiddown with greater accuracy than the Zambesi as delineated bythis explorer. The success of Livingstone was both brilliant and unsullied. The apostleand the pioneer of Africa, he went on his way without fear, withoutegotism, without desire of reward. He proved that the white man maytravel safely through many years in Africa. He observed richness of soiland abundance of natural products, the guarantees of commerce. Heforetold the truth that the African tribes would be brought into thecommunity of nations. The logical result of the work he began andcarried so far was the downfall of the African slave-trade, which hedenounced as "the open sore of the world. " What eulogy is too great forsuch a work and such a man? In 1898, twenty-one journeys had been made by explorers from sea to sea. Livingstone completed the first journey, from Loanda to the mouth of theZambesi, in one year, seven months, and twenty-two days. Nineteen yearselapsed before Central Africa was crossed again, when Cameron gave twoyears and nearly eight months to the journey. It took Stanley two yearsand eight months to cross Africa, when he solved the great mystery, thecourse of the Congo; and when he went to the relief of Emin Pasha, in1887, he was almost exactly the same time on the road. When Triviercrossed from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, in 1888-89, in nine daysless than a year, the event was held as a remarkably rapid performance. A little later the journey was made by several travellers in from twelveto fifteen months. In 1898, the Englishman, Mr. Lloyd, crossed from LakeVictoria to the mouth of the Congo in three months, about thirteenhundred miles of the journey being by Congo steamboat and railroad. In1902, the journey from the Indian Ocean to Lake Victoria is made by railin two and one-half days, --a journey that occupied Speke for nine, andStanley for eight months. With the present facilities, the continent maybe crossed by way of the lake region and the Congo in about threemonths. The era of long and weary foot-marches has nearly ended; nowsucceeds travel by steam. No influence has been so potent in improving the art of the explorer, orin raising the standard of the work required of him, as the enormousinterest that for thirty years past has centred in African exploration. The larger part of the best achievements of the explorers of the presentgeneration in scientific investigation, and in an approach to scientificmap-making, are found in tropical Africa. Many of the hundreds of theroute surveys are not unworthy to be compared with those of Pogge andWissmann, when they laid down on their map every cultural andtopographic feature for two miles on both sides of their route, fromAngola to the Upper Congo. The extreme care with which some of the bestexplorers have performed their tasks is illustrated by the remarkableachievement of the late Dr. Junker along the Mobangi River. After yearsof service, his scientific equipment had become practically worthless. He started on his four-hundred-mile journey down the river through thejungle, with absolutely no instrument except a compass to aid him indetermining his positions. Endeavoring, by the most scrupulous care, tomake up as far as possible for his lack of scientific outfit, he trudgedthrough the grass, compass in hand, counting every step. Every fifteenminutes he jotted in his notebook the distance and the mean directiontravelled. At night he used these accumulated data to lay down on hisroute map the journey of the day. For many weeks he kept up this tryingroutine till he reached his furthest west, and again till he hadreturned to his starting-point, whose latitude and longitude he hadpreviously determined. When he returned to Europe, Dr. Hassenstein andhe made a map from the data Junker had collected, and fixed the positionof his furthest west. This position was found later by the astronomicalobservations of Lieutenant Le Marinel to be less than two miles outof the way. One of the latest to win a large prize in African discovery is Dr. A. Donaldson Smith, a young physician of Philadelphia, in the northeasternregion known as Somaliland and Gallaland. His method may be mentionedhere as an illustration of the kind of work that geographers nowrequire. Before he began his explorations, he took a thorough course inthe use of surveying instruments and the methods of accurately layingdown his positions and making a route map. Many a cartographer, burningwith desire to draw a good map of a newly explored region, has beendriven to despair by the inadequacy of the route surveys in his hands. Not a few of these surveys have been unworthy of reproduction in thebooks of the explorers who made them, and the best that could be donewas to generalize their information on maps of comparatively smallscale. But Donaldson Smith's route-maps appear in his book on thecomparatively large scale of 1:1, 000, 000 (about sixteen statute miles tothe inch), and they are worthy of that treatment, for his surveys andobservations for geographical positions were recorded in such a waythat their value might be easily ascertained by any one familiar withsuch computations. His route-maps have been found to be admirablemap-making material; thus, he has not only traversed a new region ofgreat extent, but has given in his map ample materials which may beemployed by any atlas-maker in the production of good maps of all theterritory that came under his observation. When Sir Clements Markhampresented to Dr. Smith the Patrons' Medal of the Royal GeographicalSociety, he said: "You have not, like an ordinary explorer, made acommon route survey, but you have made a scientific survey, atriangulation frequently checked by astronomical observations withtheodolite and chronometer. " Most African explorers have been painstaking, conscientious workers, eager in their quest for the truth, desirous to report nothing but thetruth, and treating the lowly and ignorant they have met as men, withsensibilities like their own, capable of gratitude for a kindness andkeenly sensitive to an outrage. The world has recognized and applaudedsuch heroes of discovery, --the men who faced hardship and peril, enduring and sacrificing much that knowledge might grow; who had toconquer not only unkind Nature, but to overcome the ignorant violence ofman. And not a few of the leaders in this work have carried it out witha degree of tactfulness, humanity, gentleness, and kindliness of spiritamounting to genius. Some of them spent months in disguise, collectingfacts of the highest scientific value among fanatical Mohammedans whowould have killed them if they had known their secret. Such men wereBurton in Harrar, Dr. Lenz in Timbuctoo, and De Foucauld and Harris inMorocco, who, in stained skins and borrowed costumes, personatedmerchants and devotees and doctors and Jews; and most of whom haveenriched the literature of discovery with valuable books. Men also suchas Dr. Junker, who, rich as he was, left his home to spend eight yearsalone among the savages of the Welle Makua basin in Central Africa, living on their food and in their huts that he might minutely study thepeople in their country; or Grenfell, who has travelled far more widelyin the Congo basin than Stanley or any of his followers exceptDelcommune, and revealed to the world more river systems and unknownpeoples than they, and who, in his long career as an explorer, neverfired a shot upon a native, though his life was often threatened. Thesemen, and others like them, have exemplified the manysidedness of humanresources against a great variety of peril and obstacle, as no otherexplorers in any other part of the world have had an opportunity to doin equal measure. Their work, with its environment of almostoverwhelming difficulty, should be known to our youth as most forcefulillustrations of what good men may dare and do in good causes and in aworthy manner. There have been some exceptions to this rule. A few men have been lessanxious to perform useful service than to figure in the newspapers andpose before their public. One day a man stood on the north shore ofVictoria Nyanza, and looking south he saw land. When he returned toLondon he published a sensational book, in which he said it wasridiculous for Speke to assert that he had discovered a lake as large asScotland, one of the greatest lakes in the world. "Why, " said thewriter, "I have stood on the north shore of the Victoria Nyanza andlooked south and seen the southern shore. Lake Victoria is only aninsignificant sheet of water, after all the talk of its being secondonly to Lake Superior. " What he really saw was the chain of the Sesse Islands extending far outinto the lake. His book was scarcely off the press when the lettersdescribing Stanley's boat journeys around the shores of Victoria Nyanzabegan to be published in London and New York; and the foolish fellow wascompelled to recall all the copies of his book that had not passedbeyond his reach, and eliminate the statements that made him soridiculous. Fortunately, there are not many explorers of this stripe. All who watched the progress of African discovery were constantlyreminded that geographical progress is usually made only by slow andpainful steps. They saw an explorer emerge from the unknown with hisnotebooks and route maps replete with most interesting facts for thestudent and the cartographer. Then another explorer would enter the sameregion, discover facts that had escaped the notice of the pioneer, correct blunders his predecessor had made and perpetrate blunders of hisown; so explorer followed explorer, each adding something togeographical knowledge, each correcting earlier misconceptions, till thetotal product, well sifted by critical geographers, gave the world afair idea of the region explored; but not the best attainable idea, forscientific knowledge of a region comes only with its detailedexploration by trained observers, equipped with the best appliances foruse in their special fields of research. This is the advanced stage ofgeographical study, which is now being reached in many parts of Africa. It was Livingstone's task, in 1859, to inform us that there was a greatLake Nyassa. It was Rhoades's task, in 1897-1901, to make a careful andaccurate survey of its coast-lines, and to sound its depths, so that wenow have an excellent idea of the conformation of the lake bottom. Between Livingstone and Rhoades came many explorers, each addingimportant facts to our knowledge of this great sheet of water nearlytwice as large as New Jersey. As each explorer came from the wilds, our maps were corrected to conformwith the new information he supplied; and if we should examine the mapsof Africa in school geographies, atlases, and wall maps, from the timeof Livingstone to the present day, we should see that, as relates tonearly every part of Africa, they have been in a continual state oftransition. For years our only map of Victoria Nyanza was that which Speke made onhis second journey to the lake, in 1860-62; but Speke saw the great lakeonly at one point on its south shore, and along its northwest and northcentral coasts. His map, being based very largely upon nativeinformation, was in many respects most incomplete and erroneous. Then came Stanley's survey of the lake, made in a boat journey aroundits coasts, and for years his map supplanted that of Speke. But he wasnot able to follow the shore-line in all its intricate details. Hismapping was a great advance upon that of Speke, but it was necessarilyrough and imperfect. He missed entirely the deep indentation of BaumannGulf and the southwestern prolongation of the lake, surveyed by FatherSchynse, in 1891. Stanley's map, modified by the partial surveys ofvarious explorers, is still our mapping of the lake; but if the readerwill watch the maps for the next year or so, he will doubtless observeimportant changes in the contours of Victoria Nyanza; for all the maps, from Speke to those of 1902, will be placed on the shelf to serve onlyas the historical record of the good, honest work which a number ofexplorers have done. Commander Whitehouse has recently spent thirteenmonths surveying with infinite pains these coasts and islands. "I seemto see, " writes Stanley of this important service, "the sailor, with hissmall crew and his little steel boat, wandering from point to point, crossing and recrossing, going from some island to some headland, takinghis bearings from that headland back again to the island, and to somepoint far away. " Commander Whitehouse has made a new delineation of the entire 2, 200miles of coasts, and the results of his survey will be used in makingall the maps of the lake. His map in turn will undoubtedly be replacedsome day by detailed topographic surveys of the best quality, such asthe British already contemplate making of that entire region. A wall map recently in use in one of the public schools of New York Citywas a curious example of ignorant compilation. It exhibited the VictoriaNyanza of Speke, the Bangweolo of Livingstone, and the Upper Congo ofStanley, all obsolete for practical purposes years before this map wasprinted. Most of our home map-makers were very slow in availingthemselves of the rich materials constantly supplied for the maps by thearmy of explorers in Africa. But the most alert cartographers, particularly between 1880 and 1895, could not keep their maps abreastof the news of discovery as it came to Europe. More men and energy andmoney were utilized in those fifteen years of African discovery than inthe first century and a half of American exploration. The route ormother-maps, some covering a wide extent of country, others devoted to asmall area, or a short line of travel, were going to Europe for theimprovement of atlas sheets by nearly every steamer. Father Schynse'schart of the southwest extension of Victoria Nyanza had hardly beenutilized in European map-houses before it was replaced by Dr. Baumann'smore accurate survey. Mr. Wauters of Belgium withdrew his large map ofthe Congo Basin from the printer four times, in order to include freshinformation before it was finally issued to the public. This process is still going on, though more slowly. The mapping we seeof Lake Tanganyika, one of the longest lakes in the world, has been inuse for seventeen years since missionary Hore made his boat journey ofone thousand miles around its coasts, but the new map of the Mooreexpedition now being introduced gives the main axis of the lake a morenortheast and southwest direction. The Hore map has met the fate thatusually overtakes the early surveys of every region. It rendered goodservice as long as it was the best map; but the Moore expedition hadfirst-rate appliances for computing longitudes, and as Captain Horelacked these, it is not strange that his map has been found to bedefective. The world has been treated to many geographical surprises in the courseof this incessant transformation of the map of the continent. Many of usmay remember in our school geographies, the particular blackness andprominence of the Kong Mountains, extending for two hundred milesparallel with the Gulf of Guinea. They were accepted on the authority ofMungo Park, Caillié, and Bowditch, all reputable explorers who had notseen the mountains, but believed from native information that theyexisted. The French explorer, Binger, in 1887 sought in vain for them. Later explorers have been unable to find them. They are, in fact, amyth, and will be remembered chiefly as a conspicuous instance ofgeographic delusion. It had long been supposed that the navigation ofthe Niger River, the third largest river in Africa, was permanentlyimpaired by the Bussa Rapids, about one hundred miles in length, whereMungo Park was wrecked and drowned. But Major Toutée, a few years ago, when assailed by hostile natives, made a safe journey with his boatsthrough the rapids; and Captain Lenfant, in 1901, carried 500, 000 poundsof supplies up the river and through the rapids to the French stationsbetween Bussa and Timbuktu. He had a small, flat-bottomed steamboat anda number of little boats propelled by fifty black paddlers. He saysthat by the land route he would have required 12, 000 porters, and theywould have been one hundred and thirty days on the road. It was believed that a land portage would always be necessary betweenthe sea and the Zambesi, above the delta, till 1889, when Mr. Rankindiscovered the Chinde branch of the delta, so broad and so deep thatocean vessels may ascend it and exchange freight with the river craft. It has been found that more water pours into the ocean through theCongo's mouth, which is six miles wide, than from all the other riversin Africa together. It is second among the world's rivers, and the darkdetritus it carries to the Atlantic has been distinctly traced on theocean bed for six hundred miles from the land. Some geographers stillbelieved thirty years ago that all the waters of its upper basin mightbe tributary to the Nile. Map-makers have been kept very busy recordingdiscoveries on the Congo. About one hundred explorers, some of themmissionaries and many employees of the Congo Free State, have mapped thewhole basin along its water-courses, and discovered the ultimate sourceof its main stream. Our ideas of the hydrography of this great basinhave been revolutionized since Stanley, second only to Livingstone amongthe great African explorers, in 1877 revealed the course of themain river. On his map, for example, he showed the southern tributaries as probablyflowing nearly due north; but all except one of these rivers rise in theeast and flow far to the west. When Wissmann was sent to the UpperKassai to follow it to the Congo, he was greatly surprised to findhimself floating westward week after week. When he reached the Congo asteamboat was waiting for him at Equatorville, two hundred miles furtherup the river, where he was expected to emerge. Schweinfurth believed theWelle Makua flowed north to Lake Chad on the edge of the Sahara;seventeen years later, after six or seven explorers had tried to solvethe problem, the river was found to be the upper part of the Mobangitributary of the Congo, larger than any rivers of Europe, excepting theVolga and Danube. While Stanley was for five years planting his stationson the Congo, he knew nothing of this great tributary, 1, 500 miles long, whose mouth was hidden by a cluster of islands which his steamersrepeatedly passed. Missionary Grenfell, on his little steamer, wasascending the Congo one day, when accidentally he got into the mouth ofthe Mobangi and went on for one hundred miles before he discovered thathe had left the main river. Few explorers have unwittingly stumbled uponso rich a geographical prize. While exploratory enterprises have been centred largely in tropicalAfrica, no part of the continent has been neglected. We now know thatlarge areas of the Sahara are underlaid by waters which need only bebrought to the surface to cover the desert around them with verdure;that most of the rain falling on the south slopes of the Atlas Mountainssinks into the earth to impermeable strata of rock, along which it makesits way far out into the desert; that where the surface is depressed sothat these waters come near to it, there are wells for the refreshmentof the camel caravans, and oases, blooming islands of green, in thesterile wastes; and that artesian wells bring inexhaustible supplies ofwater within reach, so that millions of date palms have been plantedalong the northern edge of the desert in southern Algiers and Tunis, making these regions the largest sources of the world's supply of dates. It has also been discovered why there are very large areas of dry ordesert lands in Africa. The Sahara and the southwest of Africa aredeserts because the prevailing winds, the carriers of moisture, blowtowards the sea instead of away from it, and consequently are alwaysdry. The winds from the Indian Ocean crossing the highlands of Abyssiniaare wrung nearly dry while passing the mountains, and so Somaliland andthe lowlands to the south of Abyssinia are parched. It has been found that the most of South Africa stands so high above thesea that the influences of a temperate climate are projected fartowards the Equator; so that many white men, women, and children areliving and thriving on farms in Mashonaland, seven degrees of latitudenearer the equator than the south end of Florida. This fact willprofoundly influence the development of South Africa. It is to be thehome of millions of the white race, the seat of a highly civilizedempire, whose business relations with the rest of the world will be tothe advantage of every trading nation. The presence of these millions oftoilers will vitally affect the work of developing tropical Africa whichis now absorbing such enormous treasure and energy; for South Africa isto be brought by railroads to the very doors of the tropical zone. It is hoped that such facts as these, even though very briefly stated, may convey broadly a correct impression of the magnitude of Africanexploration, since its revival about the time that Livingstone died. Itis impossible in brief space to signalize the good work that many of themost conspicuous pioneers have done. The world rendered tardy tribute tothe notable achievements of some of them. When Rebmann discoveredKilimanjaro, not far from the equator, and told of the snows that crownthe loftiest of African summits, it was decided by British geographersthat Rebmann's snow was probably an imaginary aspect. The snow wasthere, and plenty of it, but Rebmann died before justice was done tohis faithful labors. When Paul du Chaillu described the Obongo dwarfs ofWest Africa, his narrative was discredited; but four or five groups ofdwarfs, probably numbering many thousands, are now known to be scatteredfrom the lower border of Abyssinia to the Kalahara desert in the farsouth. The ancients had heard of the dwarfs, but the geographers of theeighteenth century expunged from the maps of Africa about all that thegeographers of Greece and Rome, as well as those of later times, placedon them; and the nineteenth century was slow in crediting the earlyinvestigators even with statements that were wholly or approximatelyaccurate. A curious history is connected with the discovery of the northeasterngroup of pygmies, a little south of Abyssinia. No white man had everseen them, but about fifteen years ago Dr. Henry Schlichter, of theBritish Museum, collected all the information which natives had given tomissionaries, traders, and explorers of the existence of these littlepeople some hundreds of miles from the sea. Sifting all this evidence, he concluded that these dwarfs really existed, and that they lived in aregion which he marked on the map north of Lake Stefanie. DonaldsonSmith had not heard of Schlichter's paper, and knew nothing of thesedwarfs, but he found them in 1895 in the region which Schlichter hadindicated as their probable habitat. The broadest generalization with regard to the African tribes is thatwhich separates most of the peoples south of the Sahara Desert into twogreat groups, --the Negro tribes, whose habitat may be roughly indicatedas extending between the Atlantic and Gallaland in East Africa, with theSahara as their northern, and the latitude of the Cameroons as theirsouthern, boundaries; and the Bantu tribes, occupying nearly all ofAfrica south of the Negroes. The distinction between these two greatgroups is not based upon special differences as to physical structure, mental characteristics, habits, or development, but depends solely uponphilological considerations, the languages of the Negroes and the Bantusforming two distinct groups. Most of the slaves who were brought to ourcountry were Negroes, while most of those transported to Latin Americawere from the Bantu tribes. One fact that stood out above all others in the study of the Africannatives, was the remarkable prevalence of cannibalism in the Congobasin. In all his wanderings, Livingstone met only one cannibaltribe, --the Manyema living between Tanganyika and the Upper Congo; butthough they are not found near the sources of the river, nor near itsmouth, they occupy about one-half of the Congo basin. They are regardedwith fear and abhorrence by all tribes not addicted to the practice. They number several millions. Instead of being the most debased ofhuman creatures, many of them, in physical strength and courage, intheir iron work, carving, weaving, and other arts, are among the mostadvanced of African tribes. The larger part of the natives in theservice of the Congo Free State are from the cannibal tribes. The lawsnow impose severe penalties for acts of cannibalism, and the evil isdecreasing as the influence of the state is extended over wider areas. Afew isolated tribes along the Gulf of Guinea are also cannibals. There is no doubt that the helpful influences of the Caucasian in everypart of Africa so far outweigh his harmful influences that the latterare but a drop in the bucket in comparison. It is most unfortunate thata certain admixture of blundering, severity, brutality, and wickednessseems inseparable from the development of all the newer parts of theworld. The demoralizing drink traffic, the scandalous injustice andcruelty of some of the agents of civilized governments, are not to bebelittled or condoned. But there is also a very bright side to the storyof the white occupancy of Africa. The family of a deceased chief in Central Africa recently preserved hisbody unburied for fourteen months, in the hope that they might prevailupon the British Government to permit the sacrifice of women and slaveson his grave, that he might have companions of his own household in theother world. He was buried at last, without shedding a drop of blood. Human sacrifices are now punishable with death throughout a large partof barbarous Africa, and the terrible evil is being abated as fast asthe influence of the European governments is extended over new regions. The practice of the arts of fetichism, a kind of chicanery, mostinjurious in its effects upon the superstitious natives, is nowpunishable throughout the Congo Free State and British Rhodesia. Arabslave-dealers no longer raid the Congo plains and forests for slaves, killing seven persons for every one they lead into captivity. Slave-raiding has been utterly wiped out in all parts of Africa, exceptin portions of the Sudan and other districts over which white rule hasnot yet been asserted. The Arabs of the Congo, who went there from EastAfrica solely that they might grow rich in the slave trade, are nowsettled quietly on their rice and banana plantations. The sale of strongdrink has been restricted by international agreement to the coastregions, where the traffic has long existed, and its evils are somewhatmitigated there by the regulations now enforced. Fifty thousand Congonatives who would not carry a pound of freight for Stanley in 1880, arenow in the service of the white enterprises, many of them working, notfor barter goods, but for coin. Many of the missionary fields arethriving, and wonderful results have been achieved in some of them. InUganda, where Stanley in 1875 saw King Mtesa impaling his victims, thereare now ninety thousand natives professing Christianity, three hundredand twenty churches, and many thousands of children in the schools. Fifty thousand of the people can read. Between 1880 and 1882 Stanleycarried three little steamboats around 235 miles of rapids to the UpperCongo. Eighty steamers are now afloat there, plying on nearly 8, 000miles of rivers, and connected with the sea by a railroad that has paiddividends from the day it was opened. At the end of 1890 there were only5, 813 miles of railroad in Africa. About 15, 000 miles are now inoperation, and the end of this decade is certain to see 25, 000 miles ofrailroads. Trains are running from Cairo to Khartum, the seat of theMahdist tyranny, in the centre of a vast region which, until recently, had been closed for many years to all the world. These wonderful results are the fruits of the partition of Africa amongthe European states. With the exception of some waste regions in theLibyan desert, which no one has claimed, Morocco, Abyssinia, andLiberia, every square mile of African territory has been divided amongEuropean powers, either as colonies or as spheres of influence. Thescramble of twenty years for African lands is at an end, there now beingno valuable areas that are not covered by the existing agreements. Itis no mere love of humanity that has impelled the European countries todivide these regions among themselves. We can scarcely realize theintensity of the struggle for existence in many of the overcrowded partsof Europe. Their factories are enormously productive, but their peoplewill suffer for food unless they can export manufactures. The cryingneed for new markets, for new sources of raw material, drove thesestates into Africa. And we should be glad, for Africa's sake, that theyhave gone there, even though the desire to make money is one of the mostpowerful incentives. It is under the protective aegis of these governments that explorers aresettling down in smaller areas to see what may be found between theexplored water-courses, to study the continent in detail, to give to ourknowledge of Africa the scientific quality now required. The greatestgeographical work there in recent years is the extension of a line ofstations across tropical Africa by Commander Lemaire, each positionastronomically fixed by the most careful methods, constituting abase-line east and west through Africa to which the scientific mappingof a very large area will be referred. The day of the minuter study of the whole continent has now dawned, andwe are witnessing a most notable work. All the colonial powers, and theGermans most conspicuously, are studying the economic questions relatingto their African possessions. The suitability of climates forcolonists, the essential rules of hygiene, the development ofagriculture, labor supplies, transportation and commercial facilities, and many other problems are receiving the most careful attention. Experiment stations are maintained in the colonies and colonial schoolsat home, to fit young men for service in the field. The Germans havealready proved that cotton and tobacco are certain to become profitableexport crops. The mine-owners of the Witwatersrand, on which Johannesburg stands, havebegun a movement which they hope will result in the immigration of100, 000 white laborers to the mining field. We may look for remarkabledevelopment in South Africa, whose promise is larger than that of anyother part of the continent. Whatever may be said of some of the methodsby which the British have enlarged their empire, their rule has blessedthe barbarous peoples whose countries they have absorbed. The task ofimproving the few millions of blacks in South Africa, and of developingthe large and in some respects wonderful resources of that region, willbe greatly assisted by the incoming of hundreds of thousands ofEuropeans, bringing with them the arts and other blessings ofcivilization. The future of none of the newer parts of the world isbrighter with the hope of great development than the region between theZambesi and the Cape of Good Hope. In order to observe intelligently the progress of South Africa incoming years, the limitations as well as the advantages of the countrymust be kept in view. More than half of it, including the entire westernhalf, is deficient in rainfall and can never be the home of a densewhite population. Some mining will develop on those broad, dry plainsand sandy wastes; some agriculture where irrigation is possible; andgreat wool-growing wherever thrive the nutritious grasses on which13, 000, 000 sheep, scattered over the Karroo of Cape Colony, and4, 000, 000 in the little Orange Free State, were grazing before therecent war. Wool-growing will always be the greatest grazing industry, though cattle and horses are raised in large numbers, and the fine, softhair of the Angora goat is second only to wool in export importance. A narrow strip of fine farm lands across the south end of Africa, another along the southern border of the former Boer republics, and alarge area among the highlands of Mashonaland, far towards the equator, produce nearly all the crops of the temperate zones. It is not yetcertain, however, that South Africa will ever raise enough wheat for agreat white population. On the northern slopes of the hills, east andnortheast of Cape Town, are thousands of acres of grapes. Cape Colony isbecoming one of the important wine countries; and in February and March, large quantities of grapes, peaches, nectarines, and plums are placedin cool rooms on steamships and sent fresh to British markets almostbefore English fruit trees are in bloom. East of the grape region is an area peculiarly adapted for thecultivation of tobacco; and east of the tobacco district, north of thecoastal belt of wheat in a region of sandy scrub, the bush country, arethe ostrich farms, in the hands mainly of men of considerable capital, who supply nearly all the feathers derived from the domesticatedostrich. The plumes are sometimes worth as much as $200 a pound, theordinary feathers bringing from $5 to $7 a pound. Natal is unique in twoof its agricultural industries, being the only colony that is producingtea and important quantities of cane sugar. But gold, widely scattered over the country on the interior plateau, exceeds in value all the other exports together. The world never sawsuch a development of gold mining in a small area as has occurred on theWitwatersrand, where Johannesburg stands. The Witwatersrand (White RiverSlope) is a slight elevation, the water parting between rivers, aboutone and a half miles wide and 125 miles long. On twenty-five miles ofthe rand, at and near Johannesburg, more gold was produced in the yearbefore the Boer war than was yielded by any other country in the world, The other rich mining regions of the Transvaal and other parts of SouthAfrica have been completely dwarfed by the wonderful product of therand. The surveys in Matabeleland and Mashonaland show gold-bearingareas 5, 000 square miles in extent, which as yet have practically nodevelopment. The mining companies on the rand and elsewhere are nowpreparing for far larger operations than ever before. The Kimberley diamond mines, turning out more than $20, 000, 000 worth ofrough stones a year, supply nearly all the diamonds of commerce. Twoother diamond centres in the Orange River Colony have scarcely beentouched, and diamonds are found on the Limpopo River and in otherregions where no mining has been undertaken. The minerals of SouthAfrica, including iron and coal, bid fair to be for many years thelargest sources of wealth; and in wool, hides, mohair, fresh fruits, andsome other products, South Africa may rival other parts of the world. There are no good natural harbors except Delagoa Bay in Portuguese EastAfrica, but by great expenditure the harbors of Cape Town, PortElizabeth, East London, and Durban have been adapted for great commerce. Many persons mistakenly regard Cape Town as the chief commercial centreof South Africa. It is so only in respect of the export of gold anddiamonds. As it is not centrally situated for business with theinterior, more of the things that South Africa sells to and buys fromthe rest of the world, excepting gold and diamonds, pass through PortElizabeth than through any other port. Here is centred the largestwholesale trade. What South Africa needs is more railroads and more white labor. Manufacturing industries on an important scale are yet to come, for asyet the white population is too sparse to develop anything but thenatural products of the country. The broad summing up of the future work in Africa is that the nativewill be taught to help himself. The destiny of the continent dependslargely upon his development, for great parts of Africa may never beadapted to become the home of many white men. The most powerful motives, philanthropic and selfish, incite and will sustain the work of helpingthese millions to rise to a higher plane of humanity. This work, nowwell begun, is the great task which in the present century will call forall the knowledge, patience, humanity, and justice that may be broughtto bear upon the problem of reclaiming Africa. AUTHORITIES. Livingstone's "Missionary Travels, " "A Narrative of an Expedition to theZambesi, " and "Last Journeys;" Blaikie's "Livingstone's Personal Life;"Stanley's "How I found Livingstone. " Stanley's "Through the Dark Continent, " "The Congo and the Founding ofits Free State, " "In Darkest Africa;" Schweinfurth's "The Heart ofAfrica;" Burton's "The Lake Regions of Central Africa;" Speke's "Journalof the Discovery of the Source of the Nile;" Thomson's "To the CentralAfrican Lakes and Back;" Barth's "Travels and Discoveries in CentralAfrica;" Theal's "Compendium of South African History;" Greswell's"Geography of Africa South of the Zambesi"; Noble's "The Redemption ofAfrica" (A History of African Missions). No comprehensive compendium of the history of African exploration hasyet been written. Our knowledge of the geography, peoples and resourcesof Africa is treated with considerable detail in a number of works suchas Reclus's "Africa" (in "The Earth and Its Inhabitants") and Sievers's"Afrika" (German). A very large part of the exploratory enterprises inAfrica have not been described in books, but only in the reports of theexplorers, printed with their original maps in the publications of manygeographical and missionary societies. SIR AUSTEN HENRY LAYARD. 1817-1894. MODERN ARCHAEOLOGY. BY WILLIAM HAYES WARD, D. D. , LL. D. It was twenty-three long centuries ago that a Greek soldier of fortune, who had the honor to be also a disciple of Socrates, was leading tenthousand mercenaries back to their native land after their famousfailure to set the Younger Cyrus on the throne of Persia. Clearchus andthe other generals had been treacherously murdered. Dispirited, almosthopeless, on their way to the longed-for Black Sea, in anticipation ofthe perilous and tedious journey, past wild mountains and wilder Kurds, they toiled up the valley of the Tigris River. Of one incident of theirjourney their historian and leader makes no record. They reached thespot where now stands the city of Mosul. On the bank of the river theireyes fell on a bare and lofty hill. They did not know, they neversuspected, --Xenophon wrote no word of it, --that under that hill layburied the ruins of one of the mightiest conquering cities that had everruled the world. From the palaces of that hill, Ninus and Semiramis andSardanapalus had led their conquering armies, all now coveredwith silence. Two centuries earlier, in 606 B. C. , there had occurred one of the mosttremendous catastrophes recorded in all the grim annals of war. After athousand years of primacy in the East, but twenty years after the deathof Sardanapalus (the Greek name of Asshurbanapal), who had carried hisarmies to Egypt and had made his capital the centre of the world'sculture and magnificence, as it was of its cruel and hated power, Nineveh was captured, buried, and utterly desolated by a horde of savageScythians from the mountains of the north and east, such people as wenow call the Kurds. Its palaces had no lofty Greek columns to stand formemorials, as at Palmyra or Persepolis; and when the outer casings ofbrick and alabaster were cracked away, and the ashes of the upperstories and the clay of the inner constructions, soaked by the rains, covered the ruins of temple and palace, nothing was left to mark thesite but the grass-covered hill. No wonder that the learned scholar ofSocrates saw nothing, knew nothing of the city, most glorious and mostdetested of all the cities of the earth. But in its day the overthrow ofNineveh and the destruction of the Assyrian Empire had been the mostterrible event in the world's history. How the Hebrew prophets gloatedover it! "Where now is the den of the lions, and the feeding-place ofthe young lions, where the lion and the lioness walked, the lion'swhelp, and none made them afraid? Wo to the bloody city; it is all fullof lies and rapine; the prey departeth not. The noise of the whip, andthe noise of the rattling of wheels, and prancing horses, and boundingchariots, the horsemen mounting, and the flashing sword, and theglittering spear, and a multitude of slain, and a great heap of corpses, and there is no end of the bodies. There is no assuaging of the hurt;thy wound is grievous; all that hear the report of thee clap their handsover thee: for upon whom hath not thy wickedness passed continually?"And another prophet had uttered the curse: "The pelican and theporcupine shall lodge in the capitals thereof; their voice shall soundin the windows; desolation shall be in the thresholds; for he hath laidbare the cedar-work. This is the joyous city that dwelt carelessly, thatsaid in her heart, 'I am, and there is none besides me!' How is shebecome a desolation, a place for beasts to lie down in! Every one thatpasseth by her shall hiss, and wag his hand. " Thus fell Nineveh, amid the universal rejoicing of the nations, andthus, seventy years later, fell Babylon also, which, in the shortinterval, Nebuchadnezzar had made more magnificent than even Nineveh hadbeen, beautified for its capture by Cyrus. But before Babylon was thecapital of Chaldea, or Nineveh the capital of Assyria, the city of Calahhad been the seat of its kings, and a mighty mound--they call it Nimroudnow--"as high as St. Paul's steeple, " old travellers loved to say--marksthe place on the east bank of the Tigris, twenty miles south of Nineveh;and, before Calah, Assyria had an earlier capital forty miles stillnearer the Babylonian border, at Asshur, now Kalah-Shergat, on the westof the Tigris; and each capital had its palaces and records, and all arenow equally buried in clay and utter oblivion. And before the Babylon ofNebuchadnezzar, and long centuries before Nineveh or Calah or Asshur, there had been mighty kingdoms in Babylonia, of which the world hadquite forgot the names, only vague rumors remaining in song or legend ofNimrod and Chedorlaomer and Ur of the Chaldees, --only what was preservedin the dimmest records of the Hebrew Scriptures. Empires were lost, buried in chiliads of forgetfulness; would they ever be recovered? And how much else was lost, what kingdoms, what empires buried beforeHebrew or Greek history began to take notice of the world outside andput them in books, no one knew, no one knows even yet, although so muchhas been found. The fame of Egypt was never quite forgotten, nor all itshistory, for Egypt was the world's granary, and closely accessible tothe ships of Corinth and Rome; and Egypt never lost her civilization inall her long succession of enslavement. But what memory had been kept ofthe Ionia and Greece of the days before Homer? What of the earlycivilization of Cyprus and Crete? Only the name of Minos, a judge inHell. What of Persia and Elam? Were they uninhabited before the times ofXerxes and Cyrus? And who were these kings, Cyrus and Xerxes, whosenames burst upon us with dim light out of a black antiquity? Even theywere but shadows on a screen, just seen and disappearing. What kings andkingdoms came before them and passed away? Has history no record? Not aword. Only black vacuity has been left behind them. And there was thatother empire of the East, that of the Hittites, which we now know ruledAsia Minor and Syria and contested the rule of the world with Assyriaand Egypt centuries before Agamemnon and Achilles, but so utterly buriedand forgotten that not a line of its history was left, not even enoughto let the sharpest scholar ask a question or suspect that it ever builtcapitals and fought victories and produced a civilization the harvest ofwhich we still enjoy. Nothing was left of them but their names in aHebrew list of tribes, --"Amorites and Jebusites and Hivites andHittites. " Yet all these lost tribes, nay, lost nations, had left their recordsbehind them, only they were buried under ground and out of sight. Whata travesty it is on history and civilization, what an impeachment of theglory of these later Christian centuries, that the lands which these oldempires crowded with a busy population should now be among the mostdesolate and inaccessible on the face of the earth! There we see thecurse of the Moslem religion, and still more of the Turkish government. Wherever the Turk has carried the sword and the Koran, there is blightand death. Only as soldiers and scholars of Europe have forced their wayinto these seats of ancient empires has it been possible to ask andlearn what is buried beneath their gray desolation. The man who did more than any other to awaken the interest of the worldin the search for forgotten empires was Sir Henry Layard, the excavatorof Nineveh. But before his day another man had startled the world withwhat we may call the discovery of Egypt. That man was NapoleonBonaparte, the man whose sword was a ploughshare turning up the fallowfields of Europe, and sowing strange crops of tyranny and liberty, andwhose ambition it was to set up a new throne in the land of the Pharaohsand Ptolemies. The mighty ruins of Karnak and the imperishable pyramidsfilled him with amazement, and he set the scholars of France at work topublish in massive folios the wonders of that most ancient land. Thenwas found the Rosetta Stone, with its inscription in twolanguages, --Greek, which any scholar could read, and the Egyptianhieroglyphics, which no living man could read. But here was the key. Thewords _Ptolemy_ and _Cleopatra_ were in the Greek text, and it was nothard to find what were the combinations of characters that stood forthese words in the Egyptian. The letters _p, t_, and _l_ were in bothnames. The hieroglyphic signs found in both names must be these threeletters. That beginning gave all the other signs in both words, and therest of the alphabet soon followed. Justly great is the fame of theFrenchman Champollion, who has the honor of having first deciphered andread this lost language, and opened to us the secret treasures of itshistory and religion. But with the exploration of Egypt the scholarship of the world wassatisfied for fifty years. No one seemed to think to ask what might behid under the soil of nearer Palestine and Syria and Asia Minor; muchless did they seek to uncover the buried capitals of Assyria andBabylonia. Scholarship was devoted to books, to old manuscripts inconvent libraries, to recovering what the wise men of Greece and Romehad written, and trying to wrest new facts out of their blundering oldcompilations of ancient history. It did not occur to them that a hundredkings and ten thousand merchants and priests might have left the storiesof their conquests or contracts or liturgies, unrotted in the wet soil, imperishably preserved to be the record of commerce and empires as oldand as great as those of Egypt, but far deeper covered with oblivion. But there they were, kept safe for twenty, thirty, fifty centuries, until the man should come whose mission it was to find them. More than one such man came in the middle of the last century, but oneman is pre-eminent, and typical of all the rest, Sir Austen HenryLayard. Before him one Frenchman, M. Paul Émile Botta, had made a finedash on a palace city a dozen miles north of Nineveh, and had openedwonders such as the world had never seen before. But the man whoseenergy was fullest of impulse, whose enthusiasm compelled BritishAmbassadors and Ministers and Parliaments to do his bidding, who arousedthe world to the importance of the exploration and disinterment of themonuments of Babylonia and Assyria, was the Englishman Layard. He had a youthful passion for adventure, and slender means to gratifyit. I wish you could see him as he is pictured in the volume which givesthe story of his early adventures, before he had settled on his life-workof exploration. There he stands clad in his Bakhtiyari costume, thedress of a mountain tribe in Persia which asserted its independence ofTeheran. It is a well-knit frame, fit to endure hardships. He standsholding the tall matchlock, the curved scimetar by his side, and thelong pistol and the dagger in his belt. Above the yellow shoes andparti-woven stockings a red silk robe falls to his ankles, and over thata green silk garment reaches to his knees, and yet over that a shorterand richly embroidered coat, with open sleeves, is held close about thebody by a wide silken sash woven in the brightest of red and gold, andholding the weapons attached to his waist. On his head is a low flatcap, visorless in front, but with a broad bow in place of a feather, allstriped with the richest embroidery, and with a wide tassel of the samematerial falling far down his back. But the face, with its short bearddyed dark with henna, and its blue eyes, is not that of a warrior, butof a serious scholar or diplomatist. And he needed all the force ofcourage and all the arts of diplomacy for the work he had to do. Layard's early training was in the line of preparation for his life'swork. Much of his boyhood was spent in Italy, where he acquired a tastefor the fine arts, and as much knowledge of them as a child could obtainwho was constantly in the society of artists and connoisseurs. At aboutthe age of sixteen he was sent to England to study the law, for which hewas destined by his parents. After six years in the office of asolicitor, and in the chambers of an eminent conveyancer, --for that isthe way that lawyers were educated then, --he determined to leaveEngland and seek a career elsewhere. He had a relative in Ceylon, whogave him hopes of securing a position there, and for Ceylon he started. A friend of his, ten years older, was bound for the same destination, both fond of adventure, and they agreed to go together, and to go as faras they could by land instead of taking the long sea journey around theCape of Good Hope. Across Europe they passed to Constantinople, throughAustria, Dalmatia, Montenegro, Albania, and Bulgaria; thence across AsiaMinor to Syria and Palestine; thence to Aleppo and down the Tigris toBaghdad. It was an extraordinary and adventurous journey, oftendangerous; but greater danger was to follow. Layard had learned someTurkish, and now he spent the long weeks in Baghdad in the study ofPersian; his companion was quite familiar with Arabic. Before they leftEngland they had received good advice from Sir John MacNeill, theBritish representative at the court of the Shah: "You must either travelas important personages, with a retinue of servants and an adequateescort, or alone, as poor men, with nothing to excite the cupidity ofthe people amongst whom you will have to mix. If you cannot afford toadopt the first course, you must take the latter. " The latter they wereforced to take. Many a young man has the gift to acquire languages--almost any Orientalcan talk three or four--and the ability to rough it and live on the fareof the people, though barbarous; and many a man has the spirit ofadventure; but this young man had one peculiar and unusual qualificationthat directed him to his future career. As a child, he had read the"Arabian Nights" with intense delight, with their stories centred aboutBaghdad. Then every book of Eastern adventure, every bit of travel inSyria, Arabia, or Persia that he could find he had eagerly devoured. Itwas his day and night's longing that he might visit strange lands ofhistory and make explorations and discoveries. So wherever he was, hevisited every ruin and tried to copy every inscription. If his companionwould not turn aside to visit some region of renown and danger, he wouldgo alone and join him later. As they came down the river Tigris in theirboat, they passed the immense mound of Nimroud, and so impressed wasLayard by it that he then, scarce twenty-three years old, resolved thatsome day he would search and learn what was hidden under it; but littledid he imagine what wonderful monuments he was to find there only a fewyears later. Without a servant, as poor men, in a caravan of fanatical and hostilePersian pilgrims returning from the shrines, just travellers trying togo by land through Persia and Afghanistan to India and Ceylon, theyleft Baghdad. It was a time of unusual danger, for the British Ministerhad been recalled from the Persian Court, and war with England wasthreatened. They were taken for spies, and sent to the presence of theShah, and forbidden to follow the route they had chosen and which hadbeen marked out for them by the Council of the Royal GeographicalSociety, to report on rivers and mountains and ruins not yet explored. They were insulted and robbed, and their lives were often in danger; butat last they received from the Shah their firmans. Now they separated. His companion felt that he must go by the quickest route to hisdestination; but Layard had no definite date before him, and he wasanxious to perform the commissions of the Geographical Society, and sohe plunged alone into fresh dangers. But there is no space to tell the rest of the story of his adventuresamong the Bakhtiyari, of his copying of inscriptions, of his return toBaghdad and his decision to give up the plans of life in Ceylon, and ofhis return from Baghdad again to Shuster and Persepolis and otherancient cities of Persia, and his exploration of the Karun River and hisgeographical paper on the subject, his opening of British trade, and hisreturn to Constantinople. At Mosul he found that M. Botta was planningto explore the mounds across the Tigris that covered ancient Nineveh, and he warmly encouraged his plans. At Constantinople he visited SirStratford Canning and delivered to him despatches that had been confidedto his care, in view of a threatened war between Persia and Turkey. Herehe was kept in the service of the British Embassy, and intrusted withimportant and delicate negotiations and investigations which were sohighly appreciated by Sir Stratford that he kept him as his attaché. Meanwhile M. Botta had begun his excavations of a palace of King Sargonat Khorsabad and was sending his reports and drawings to Paris. Theywere all sent by way of Constantinople, and, by M. Botta's generosity, were all seen by Mr. Layard. So deeply was he interested in them, and sointense was his desire to carry on excavations himself, that he securedhis release from the Embassy, and also a grant of three hundred dollarsfrom Sir Stratford's own purse, which, with what he could spare from hisown money, would, he hoped, suffice to begin the work, when, if anythingof value appeared, it was trusted that funds would be secured fromEnglish friends of Oriental learning. Thus, six years after leavingEngland, Mr. Layard, well equipped in knowledge of the people and indiplomatic experience, was ready to launch on his great career, whichbrought him fame and earned him the post in later years of BritishAmbassador at the Porte, which Sir Stratford had held, and--what is fargreater--gave to the world the larger part of its knowledge of the lostempires of Assyria and Babylonia. With these few hundred dollars, and contributing every penny of his ownincome, in October of 1845, he left Constantinople without companion orservant, went by steamer to Samsoun, and then as fast as post-horsescould climb or gallop over mountains and plains, he reached Mosul intwelve days. Here at last he was fitted for his task, supplied for the accomplishmentof his passion. The Arabs say: "I had a horse, but no desert; I had adesert, but no horse; now I have a desert and a horse, and shall I notride?" His boyhood, with the artists of Italy, and learning thelanguages of the continent, had fitted him for his task; then his studyof all the books of Eastern travel, then half a year wandering with atrained companion through Asia Minor and Syria, scarcely leaving untrodone spot hallowed by tradition, or unvisited one ruin consecrated byhistory, with no protection but his arms, living with the people andlearning their prejudices and customs. Then an irresistible desire hadbrought him to the regions beyond the Euphrates, and the mystery ofAssyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea had fascinated him, so that he hadvisited the land of Nimrod, seen the site of their old buried capitals, had been the guest in the tents of Shammar and Aneyzah Arabs, and evenpassed on to see the famous forty columns of Chilminar, old PersianPersepolis, and to penetrate the mountain fastnesses where theBakhtiyari maintained a perilous freedom. Never was man better trainedby enthusiasm and experience for his task, and the late discoveries ofM. Botta had inflamed his desire to surpass what his French friendhad done. His plan was not to begin excavations at Nineveh, opposite Mosul, buttwenty miles south, at the great mound of Nimroud, which bore the nameof the mighty hunter Nimrod. Xenophon and his Ten Thousand had seen andwondered at its pyramid. There he would be free from the army ofmischievous spectators that would swarm from Mosul, had he selected thesite of Nineveh, and from the constant interference of the Turkishgovernor. The Pasha at Mosul was a cruel scoundrel, who was robbing andkilling the people as his whim or greed prompted, and had reduced thetribes of the neighborhood to a state of terror. Accordingly, Mr. Layard, who was armed with protecting letters from the BritishAmbassador and the Porte, thought it wise to conceal his purpose, let itbe reported that he was going on a hunting expedition; and with a fewtools and a supply of guns and spears, on the 8th of November, 1845, accompanied only by his cawass, the soldier attendant detailed for theprotection of travellers, a servant, and one laborer, he floated downthe Tigris, and in four hours reached the bourne of his long hopes. Hehad the mound, he had the money, and now he would dig. The Arabs have strange stories of this ruin. The palace, they say, wasbuilt by Athur, the vizier of Nimrod. There Abraham brake in pieces theidols worshipped by the unbelievers. Nimrod was angry and waged war onthe holy patriarch. Abraham prayed to God: "Deliver me, O God, from thisman who worships stones, and boasts himself to be lord of all kings;"and God said to him, "How shall I punish him?" and the prophet answered, "To thee armies are as nothing, and the strength and power of menlikewise. Before the smallest of thy creatures will they perish. " AndGod was pleased at the faith of his servant, and he sent a gnat thatvexed Nimrod day and night, so that he built himself a room of glass inthat palace that he might dwell therein and shut out the insect. But thegnat entered also, and passed by his ear into his brain, upon which itfed, and increased day by day, so that the servants of Nimrod beat hishead continually with a mallet that he might have some ease from hispain; but he died after suffering these torments four hundred years. Andafter him the mound was named Nimroud. It was dark when Layard and his little company reached the place. Theyfound near by a few huts occupied by poor Arabs, who had been harried bythe Turkish Pasha. There they slept, or tried to sleep. But theexplorer could not sleep. Hear him:-- "Hopes, long cherished, were now to be realized, or were to end indisappointment. Visions of palaces under ground, of gigantic monsters, of sculptured figures, and endless inscriptions, floated before me. After forming plan after plan for removing the earth and extricatingthese treasures, I fancied myself wandering in a maze of chambers fromwhich I could find no outlet. Then, again, all was reburied, and I wasstanding on the grass-covered mound. Exhausted, I was at length sinkinginto sleep, when, hearing the voice of Awad, I rose from my carpet andjoined him outside the tent. The day already dawned. The lofty cone andbroad mound of Nimroud broke like a distant mountain on themorning sky. " Awad, his host, was a little chief among the Arabs, and was engaged totake charge of the diggers. The first morning he had six Arabs at work, and found alabaster slabs with cuneiform inscriptions. He was now surehe would succeed. It is not necessary to give the diary of his work. To be sure, thevillanous Pasha forbade him to continue, and recalled him to Mosul, buta new governor was sent from Constantinople, under whom he had nodifficulty. A great palace had been found, and chamber after chamber wasexcavated, the walls covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions. Thencame strange, gigantic lions with human heads, that had been placed bythe old Assyrian king to guard the entrances to his court. What was theamazement of the Arabs and Turks cannot be told. First, the head wasuncovered. It stood out from the earth, placid and vast. Hear Layardtell the story. He had been away to visit a neighboring chief:-- "I was returning to the mound, when I saw two Arabs urging their maresto the top of their speed. 'Hasten, O Bey, ' exclaimed one of them, 'hasten to the diggers, for they have found Nimrod himself. By Allah! itis wonderful, but it is true! We have seen him with our eyes! There isno God but God!' And both joining in this pious exclamation, theygalloped back to the tent. " Layard hastened to the trench, and there saw what he knew to be the headof a gigantic lion or bull, such as Botta had uncovered at Khorsabad. Itwas in admirable preservation. The expression was calm, yet majestic, and the outline of the features showed a freedom and knowledge of artthat was scarcely to be looked for at so early a period. Says theexplorer:-- "I was not surprised that the Arabs had been amazed and terrified atthis apparition. It required no stretch of imagination to conjure up themost strange fancies. This gigantic head, blanched with age, thus risingfrom the bowels of the earth, might well have belonged to one of thosefearful beings which are pictured in the traditions of the country asappearing to mortals, slowly ascending from the regions below. 'This isnot the work of men's hands, ' exclaimed Sheikh Abdurrahman, who hadgalloped to the mound on the first news, 'but of those infidel giants ofwhom the Prophet, peace be with him! has said that they were higher thanthe tallest date-tree; this is one of the idols which Noah, peace bewith him! cursed before the flood!' In this opinion all the bystandersconcurred. " The Arabs have a ready explanation for every fresh discovery. When someyears later Mr. Layard's assistant and successor in the work ofexcavation, Mr. Rassam, uncovered, at Abu-habba, a remarkable bas-reliefwith the figure of the seated Sun-god and three approaching worshippers, the Arab diggers rushed to him, declaring that they had found Noah andhis three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japhet, and demanded a sheep to makea feast. The report of the wonderful discovery of a royal palace, evidently olderthan those of Nineveh, with magnificent decorations in alabaster andcuneiform inscriptions, reached beyond Mosul to Constantinople. SirStratford Canning was delighted with the result of his expedition. Hehad a passion for discovery as well as diplomacy, and it is to him thatthe British Museum is indebted for the priceless marbles ofHalicarnassus. He now obtained for Mr. Layard a firman, permitting himto make what excavations he wished. Then the news reached London, andthe British Museum made a grant to support the work. All difficultieswere now removed. Conditions were even more favorable for him than theyare now. There was then no Imperial Museum in Constantinople to whichall objects found must be taken, but those that dug had the right tocarry off their prizes to London or Paris. To tell the story of the further excavations is unnecessary. It is allgiven in Layard's two splendid volumes, "Nineveh and its Remains, " and"Babylon and Nineveh;" and the bas-reliefs, statues, bronzes, ivories, and inscriptions are magnificently reproduced in great folio volumes. From Nimroud he went back to Mosul, and there opened the two moundsopposite of Kuyunjik and Neby-Yunus, the site of old Nineveh. There morepalaces and friezes were found of other kings. Then he went back toLondon, closing his successful campaign, more profitable if not moreglorious than those of war, and published the story of his work. Itseffect was marvellous. No such popular book of travels had everappeared; for it was a story of adventure, and also of strangediscovery. Mr. Layard had not suspected that he had the literary gift, but he had it in rare measure. He had gained an inner view of the heartof tribes, Moslem and Christian and semi-pagan, by his sympathy withthem and his knowledge of their tongues. He had lived in their tents andhuts. He had saved them from persecution by Turkish governors. Theirgratitude to him was beyond words, and he told their story withaffection and enthusiasm. Then his discoveries were in the lands madehistoric not only by the campaigns of Xenophon and Alexander, but madealmost sacred by the Bible history. These were the lands whence came thearmies that fought with Israel. These were the kings whose wars are toldin the Jewish records; and the annals of these kings were found in theirpalaces, and they gave full accounts of wars of which the Bible hadgiven the outline. Piety and learning joined to give extraordinaryinterest to these discoveries and to this report of them. Mr. Layardfound himself famous, and the monuments he was bringing to the BritishMuseum were, and still are, the most extraordinary and fascinating inall its corridors. Of course, a new grant was made in behalf of the British Museum, and ofcourse he went back to continue and extend his researches. Now he wishedto go further south, beyond Nimroud to Kalah Shergat, the yet earliercapital of Assyria; and yet further to Babylon, that he might see andtest the multitude of mounds of ancient Chaldea, the real land ofNimrod, the seat of Eden, and the Tower of Babel, far more ancient thanany one of the three capitals of Assyria. While he did scarce more thanto visit and report on the Babylonian mounds, his diggings in Ninevehitself were of vast importance, for there he found the library ofAsshurbanabal, on clay tablets, which has given us our chief knowledgeof the literature and learning of the ancient East. In 1852 he returnedto England to publish his "Monuments of Nineveh, " and left the furtherexploration to his able lieutenant, Mr. Rassam, and to a noblesuccession of explorers who should follow, and to a no less noble lineof scholars who should interpret the inscriptions and recover thehistory of the nations; so that we now know more exactly the history ofBabylonian and Assyrian kings, and from more authentic records, and morecompletely the social condition and business life of the countries, thanwe do the history of Greece, or the life of the Greeks even of the timeof Pericles, and that, too, for a period of three thousand years. To illustrate this fact, let us take the black obelisk of ShalmaneserII. , found by Layard at Nimroud. It is a column of basalt seven feethigh and about two feet wide at the base, from which it narrowsslightly, until near the top it is reduced by three steps. On the foursides is engraved in five rows of bas-reliefs, twenty in all, thepictured history of the royal conquests, the submission of kings, andthe presentation of tribute. Above and below, and between, in twohundred and ten lines, was cut an inscription which explained thefigures, and gave a full historical and, of course, contemporary andofficial account of the glorious events of the royal reign. Not a linewas defaced; at the British Museum it can be seen to-day as perfect aswhen engraved twenty-seven centuries ago. Other monuments of Shalmaneserhave been found. One is a great monolith with a portrait of the king inall his fine array, and with one hundred and fifty-six lines of text. Another is a series of splendid bronze plates that covered great woodengates, on which, in repoussé work, were pictures of the royal victories, and inscriptions explaining them. The Bible tells us of the rivalriesand jealousies of Ahab and Jehu, kings of Israel, and Benhadad andHazael, kings of Damascus. How surprising it is to find here not onlythe story of the successive campaigns of Shalmaneser against these samekings, the number of their chariots and soldiers, but to see picturedbefore us the tribute sent by Jehu. We learn that Shalmaneser reignedfrom 859 to 825 B. C. , and we have the record of all his successivecampaigns, the first twenty-six of which he led in person. There is notanother country of which, before the invention of printing, we have sominute a history; and all had been lost, except the mention of a name ortwo, whether historical or legendary we hardly knew, until Layard andhis fellow-explorers opened the mounds of Assyria. But enough for Layard. He is only one, though the principal one, of allthe explorers of the buried records of the empires of the Tigris andEuphrates. And Babylonia and Assyria are not the only countries thathistory required us to explore. Greece and its neighboring states andislands have not even yet been fairly investigated. Much of Asia Minoris still a virgin field. Syria and Palestine have hardly been scratchedwith the spade. More has been done in Egypt, but more yet is to be done. And when we go into the further east of Persia and Old Elam, not tospeak of the yet farther east of Central Asia, now just beginning toyield strange treasures to daring travellers, and ancient India andChina, --how ancient we know not at all, --there is field for centuries offurther research. For we must go back past empires and kingdoms andtribal conditions to the very beginning of the human race on the earth, even if so it be, to the first _Pithecanthropus_ which men of sciencetell us was the link which connected _Homo sapiens_ with the race ofprimitive simians. And all this, it may well be, is preserved inundecaying records just a few feet under the ground, if one only knewwhere to dig for it; nay, we now know where to dig for the most and bestof it, and we only await the Stratford Cannings, who will give themoney, and the Austen Layards, who have the enthusiasm for the work. After Layard and Rassam, after Rawlinson and Botta, George Smith tookflying trips to the site of Nineveh twice that he might gather theremaining fragments of the great library of Asshurbanabal, and he diedin the field far from home. It was he that found among Layard's tabletsthe Babylonian account of the Deluge, so much like that in the Bible. Hewas the first of a second generation who, following Rawlinson andOppert, decipherers as well as explorers, were able to read as theyfound. I can only mention the names of the Englishmen Taylor and Loftus;of the Frenchmen, Place and De Sarzec; and, later, the Americans, Peters, Hilprecht, and Haynes, who have so faithfully explored theextremely archaic mound of Niffer, which I had the honor to recommendfor excavation after I had visited the mounds of Southern Babylonia inthe winter of 1884-85. And now the Germans, with scientific as well ascommercial and political purpose, with their railroad to pass down thevalley through Baghdad to the Persian Gulf, which gives them predominantinfluence, have sent expeditions well equipped with scholars andengineers to the choicest sites in Babylonia, to Warka, the ancientErech, and to Babylon itself; and with Teuton thoroughness they areexcavating the most famous of ancient ruins and gathering freshtreasures of archaeological research. Nor have they left the land of theHittites unexplored, for Germany claims the first rights, politically, in all Anatolia, the right of succession and possession when the Turk isexpelled, and German archaeological science is bound to be first onthat field. And now what have we found as the fruit of all this labor ofexploration? Is it worth the labor and the expense? Let us look first--it can be only a glance--at Egypt, for Egypt was theland first and most persistently explored. The French Government forscores of years has been at work there. Germans and Italians haveexplored the ruins; two English societies have for years keptexpeditions in the field; and just now a Californian university sends anAmerican Egyptologist to uncover the tombs and read the hieroglyphs ofthe kings. Not only are the figured monuments of Egypt published inprincely folios, but its records have been translated and its losthistory recovered to the world's knowledge. Instead of the bare"Pharaoh" of the Bible, a common designation for all the kings, and inplace of a bare list of names and dynasties copied from Manetho, and soaltered and corrupted in the copying as to be neither Greek norEgyptian, we have, on scarab, or gravestone, or pyramid, orrock-sepulchre wall, in his own spelling, the name of almost every kingfrom the latest time of the Ptolemies back to the first king of thefirst dynasty, five thousand--or was it six thousand?--years beforeChrist. And not their names only, but the very pictures of their wars. We see how they went up the Nile and fought the blacks of Abyssinia, andbrought back the spoils of Punt We see them sending their squadronsinto Syrian Asia, and waging a dubious battle with the Hittites beforethe walls of Hamath, where Rameses in his lion-guarded chariot performsprodigies of valor, and from which he returns not only to paint onsacred walls the picture of his victory, but also to inscribe a copy ofthe treaty of peace with the Hittite king, the earliest treaty in thepreserved annals of diplomacy. Well wrought that Rameses the Great foreternal fame in the sixty years of his reign, fifteen centuries beforethe birth of our Lord. But what fame had been his, had not explorers andexcavators and scholars dug and found and copied and translated what thesands had covered for centuries? And to-day the curious traveller stopsin sight of the pyramids on the banks of the Nile, and enters the BulaqMuseum, and there he sees set up before him the very mummy of Rameseshimself and of a dozen other royal personages, rifled from their tombsand displayed for your amazement and mine. There is the veryPharaoh--you can see his features, you can touch his coffin--who chasedthe Children of Israel out of Egypt. There are the household implements, the furniture of their homes, the jewelry their queens wore, --queens whowere also sisters of the kings, as Sarah was the sister of Abraham. Or would you know of some great revolution in Egypt? These decipherersof the inscriptions will tell you how the Shepherd Kings overthrew thenative dynasty, coming with their armies from Asia long before Rameses, and changed religion and customs; under whom Jacob and his sons foundhospitable welcome, until their hated race was expelled by a strongernative dynasty that knew not Joseph. Or they will tell you of the royalreformer Khuenaten, son of a famous Eastern mother, a queen from thebanks of the Euphrates. Taught by her, perhaps, a purer religion, heattempted to replace the worship of Egypt's bestial gods by the worshipof the one only great God, whose symbol was the sun. But the priestlyclan was too strong for him, and the succeeding Pharaohs destroyed hisrecords and chiselled out his name where it had been cut in stone thatno memory of his sacrilege might be preserved. A royal Moses there couldnot be. The worshipper of one God, whether king or son of Pharaoh'sdaughter, could bring no reformation to Egypt. Or would you learn how Egypt ruled its subject territory? You can readthe correspondence of a dozen local Egyptian governors in Palestine andSyria in the century before Moses led the Hebrew slaves out of Egypt. There is the letter of the King of Jerusalem, where Melchizedek reignedin the times of Abraham; and they tell of rebellions against the fadingpower of Egypt, and of the fear of the advancing Hittites. The earliestkings, those that built the pyramids, appear before us real in theirpersonality, emerging out of misty legend or myth, and, earlier still, even the prehistoric races that antedated the very beginning ofcivilization. Whence came that first dynasty? Who invented writing? Werethey autochthons? Hardly. These are questions left for further explorersto answer. Probably those first messengers of civilization came from theEast, perhaps from Arabia, perhaps from Babylonia, or perhaps the firstBabylonians and Egyptians formed a common stock somewhere near the mouthof the Euphrates. Perhaps the Bible is right in saying that the firstseat of civilized man was in Eden, and that the Euphrates was the chiefriver of Paradise. Or was it from Arabia, the immemorial home of theSemitic tribes, that land of sand and mountain and fertile valley, landof changeless culture and tradition, so near the centres ofcivilization, and yet still the most inaccessible, the least knownportion of the inhabited earth, --was it from Arabia that the wiser, stronger multitude came that first overran the valleys of both the Nileand the Euphrates, bringing to Egypt and Chaldea arts and letters? We donot know. Some future explorer must teach us. But the German Glaser haswithin these few years brought back from hazardous journeys a multitudeof inscriptions that tell of kingdoms that fringed its southern coastand extended we know not how far into the interior in those early dayswhen one of the queens of Sheba brought presents to Solomon, and when, earlier still, we are told there were dukes of Edom before there was anyking in Israel. They say that a railroad is to be built to Mecca; Arabiais not to be always a closed land, neighbor as it is to Egypt. We shallknow one of these days whether, as scholars suspect, out of Arabia andacross the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, where, at the southern end of theRed Sea, Africa almost touches Asia, there came that mighty flood ofmore forceful men, bred in the deserts and hills, who, passing down theNile, first brought history to Egypt; and whether it was this sameSemitic people, as scholars suspect again, that spread resistlesslyeastward to the Euphrates valley, and did an equal service in conqueringand assimilating the black aborigines of these swamps and lagoons. Thespade will tell us. Or was it still further east, in the highlands of Persia, that men firstlearned how to write and record history? We cannot go back so far in thehistory of Babylonia--Professor Hilprecht dares to carry us seventhousand years before Christ--that we do not find its kings fightingagainst Elam. And only in the last decade of the Nineteenth century theFrenchman De Morgan has made marvellous discoveries in the Elamitelands. What a noble passion those Frenchmen have for discovery! ForEgypt did not Napoleon provide the most elephantine books of monumentsand records that printing-presses have yet issued? And from that time tothis have not Frenchmen held the primacy in excavations until, evenwhile England holds and rules Egypt, she leaves, by special convention, the care of its monuments and their exploration to French savants? Andbefore Layard removed a basketful of the earth that covered the palaceof Shalmaneser at Nimroud, had not the Frenchman Botta disclosed thefriezes and sphinxes of Sargon at Khorsabad; and in these late years isit not the Frenchman De Sarzec who has brought from Telloh to the Louvrethe statues of Chaldean kings that lived almost five thousand years ago?And so to France was given the right, for the honor and enrichment ofthe Louvre, to explore Persia; and De Morgan went to Susa, to Shushan, the palace of Xerxes and Darius, of Ahasuerus and Esther, in search ofwhat was far earlier than they, for another Frenchman and his wife, M. And Mme. Dieulafoy, had already excavated the noble palace of thesePersian kings. Far below the palace of Xerxes he has found vastlyearlier remains. There is the column set up, if we can believe theAssyriologists who trust the chronology of Nabonidus, the last king ofBabylon, --and it is not incredible, --three thousand eight hundred yearsbefore Christ, by Naram-Sin, a Babylonian king, to commemorate one ofhis raids into the land of what were perhaps his stronger enemies. Itis a noble composition, with archaic writing, and a stately figure ofthe king climbing the mountains and slaying his enemies; it shows an artthat might well have developed into the best that Greece has produced. But De Morgan has only begun to scratch the surface of the mounds ofElam, and a multitude of scholars believe that out of Elam came thefirst civilization of Chaldea. We shall find out yet; for the record isin the earth, and only waits the man who will dig it out, and then theman who will read it. We are tempted to go further east and recall that in India, the landwhere Alexander made his most distant conquests, a multitude of Englishscholars have been searching the ruins of old temples for the earliestmemorials of the worship of Buddha. Just now they have found hisbirthplace and precious relics. But that takes us too far afield, andwould tempt us to further excursions in Burmah and China. We must comeback to Western Asia and the shores of Europe. As has been indicated, the greatest puzzle of ancient history is that ofthe Hittite empire, which seems to have ruled all Asia Minor at someuncertain time, and to have extended over Syria and Palestine. No soonerhad the greatest Egyptian kings, Thothmes and Rameses, ventured theirarmies into Asia, perhaps in vengeance on the incursions of Ionianpirates, perhaps in requital of the tyrannies of the hated ShepherdKings, than they learned of the Hittites on the shores of the Euphrates. Then, a century or two later, a mass of official correspondence sent bythe Kings of Palestine and Syria, dug up in Egypt, reports that theHittites had appeared as invaders from the north and beseeches militaryaid. But the power of Egypt had waned, and the Hittites were supremeuntil the Assyrians began and carried on for five centuries theuncertain war which ended in the utter overthrow of the Hittites and alltheir allies in a great battle at Carchemish. That great mound ofCarchemish needs to be thoroughly explored. Already an Englishexpedition has very carelessly just opened the hill and exposed, but notfairly published, some few as fine friezes as are to be found in theAssyrian capitals, with unread Hittite inscriptions, and a fine statueof the Hittite Venus; but much remains to reward the student of Orientalhistory and art. At Senjirli a German expedition under Von Luschan hasdone more and better work, handsomely published, but this was a smallerSyrian town, and less was to be expected; and yet here, and near by, were found what was not expected, steles (upright slabs or pillars) withthe portraits of kings in high relief, covered over with longinscriptions in Aramaic, the oldest and longest as yet discoveredanywhere in that language. It was a magnificent result of very moderatelabor, --Hittite friezes, Assyrian and Aramean inscriptions all in onelittle mound. But for the most part we know the art and writing of theHittites from what we have found above ground, in their towns andfortresses in the hills, for little digging has been done. At Pteriumwas a principal sacred capital, and there, on a natural corridor ofrock, they carved a procession of gods and kings and soldiers thatexcites the wonder of scholars. As I write, the announcement comes thatProfessor Sayce has at last discovered the secret of the Hittitehieroglyphs, and we may hope that very soon it will be possible to readthem. But there is vastly more of their records yet to be disinterred. And there remain the two lands most sacred and beloved in poetry andhistory, --the land of Israel and the land of Homer. It is amazing thatso little search has been made to find out what is hidden under the soilof Palestine. Scholars in plenty have walked over the top of it, andhave told all that is on the surface, but almost nothing has been doneunderground, no such excavations as in Egypt or Assyria. I do not forgetthat the English Palestine Exploration Fund has followed out, withtrenches and tunnels, the walls of Jerusalem, nor that one or two oldmounds have been partly explored. But what is this to the great workthat needs to be done? There has been found on the surface the MoabiteStone, at the old capital of Dibon, a wonderful record of early kingsmentioned in the Bible. And there is the short account in the rock-cutconduit of Siloam, of the success of the workmen in the time ofHezekiah, who, beginning at the two ends, did the fine engineering featof having their tunnels meet correctly in the solid rock. But whenJerusalem is fully explored, and the northern capitals of Bethel andTirzah and Samaria, and a hundred other mounds that mark the site ofJewish, Israelite, Philistine, and Amorite cities, we may expectmarvellous discoveries that will illumine our Holy Scriptures. And one region yet remains to be considered, the scattered coasts andislands that owned the Greek speech, and that created the Greekcivilization. It is not the Greece of the Parthenon and Pericles that wewish to discover, for that we fairly know; but the arts and the historyof those earlier Greeks and Trojans that Homer tells of, the age ofAgamemnon and Ulysses, of Helen and Hector and Priam, and of the yetearlier tribes that sailed the Aegean, and settled the Mediterraneanislands, and sent their ships to the Egyptian coasts, and sought goldenfleeces on the Euxine Sea. All about the coast of Asia Minor they lived, while that Hittite power was ruling the interior; and, intermixed withPhoenician trading-posts, they held the great islands of Crete andCyprus and the shores of Sicily and Italy. What shall we call them? Werethey Dorians, or Heraclidae, Achaeans or Pelasgi? Were they of the samerace as the mysterious Etruscans, or shall we name them simplyMycenaeans, as we call the art Mycenaean that ruled the islands andcoasts down to the Homeric age, and we know not how many centuriesearlier, but certainly as far back as the conquering period of theEighteenth Egyptian Dynasty of Thothmes? Their soldiers and merchantsand their fine vases are pictured on the walls of Egypt, and theirpottery has long been studied; but we knew little of them until Dr. Schliemann, the Greek merchant who achieved wealth in the United States, bravely opened the great ruins of Troy, in the full patriotism of hisassurance that Homer's story of the Trojan war was history as well aspoetry. As he found one burnt and buried city under another, --for manytimes was Troy destroyed, --and extended his investigations to Tiryns andother ancient cities, one volume of splendid research followed another, until the trader had compelled the unwilling scholar to confess that hemust dig for both history and art. To be sure, his interpretations werequite too literal at first, but the whole world of classical scholarshiphas learned from him the new method of research. Splendid have been theresults. If we are not sure which stratum represents the city of Priam, we do learn how the people lived, and how fine was their work in silverand gold, and how slight their knowledge of letters. Dr. Schliemann hasnow a multitude of imitators. France and Germany and England and theUnited States each maintain a school of archaeology in Athens, and eachconducts careful explorations. Our American School lost to the French, for lack of money at the right time, the chance to explore Delphi, butit has carried on careful explorations at Corinth and other places. Howwonderful was the discovery, not long ago, of a shipload of bronze andmarble statues wrecked while being transported as spoil of war fromCorinth to Rome! But the most surprising discoveries in the realm of old Greek historyand art are those that have been made in these last two or three yearsin Crete. Crete was a famous centre of ancient Greek legend. Jupiter wasborn and reared on Mount Ida. From another mountain summit in Crete thegods watched the battle on the plains of Troy. There ruled Minos, whofirst gave laws to men, and who at his death was sent by the gods tojudge the shades as they entered the lower world. There was the famousLabyrinth, and there the Minotaur devoured his annual tale of maidensuntil he was slain by Theseus. Was there such a real palace of Minos asthe Greek poets sung? The magnificent palace of the Cretan kings atCnossus has been found, by Mr. Evans, with its friezes, its spiralornaments, its flounce-petticoated women, its treasuries, and itstablets written in a script so old that it cannot yet be read, but whichwill be read as surely as scholarship leaves none of its riddlesunsolved. The childhood of Greece, its mighty infancy, out of which itgrew to be the creator and the example of all the world's culture, iseven now being exposed to our view, safely kept to be recovered by thescholars of our generation. Of interest rather to the student of the curiosities of history are themounds and pyramids and temples built by the aborigines of America; forthese tribes have had absolutely no part in creating our dominantcivilization or developing its art. China and Japan are, at this lateday, giving something to the world's store of beauty and utility; butthe mound-builders and cliff-dwellers, the Mayas and Toltecs and Incas, have given absolutely nothing which the world cared to accept. But thisdoes not argue that it is not worth while to learn what we can of therude civilization of the races whom we have displaced. Their arrowheadsand hatchets are in every little museum. Their mounds, sometimes shapedlike serpents or tortoises or lizards, are scattered over all thecentral States, and many of them have been carefully explored withscanty results. The cliff-dwellers have left somewhat richer remains, more baskets and parched corn, yet nothing of artistic value. We have togo to Mexico and Yucatan and further south to Peru, to find themajestic capitals of the Mayas and Incas, who had really reached a fairdegree of such civilization as stone and copper, without iron, and thebeginnings of picture symbols, without letters, could provide. Humboldtand Stephens, and Lord Kingsborough, and Squier, and Tchudi, and Charnayhave made explorations and found vast and wonderful cities, some of themdeserted and overgrown before Cortez and Pizarro took possession of thelands for Spain and enslaved the people. Where the city of Mexico nowstands was a famous capital, from whose ruins were taken the greatCalendar stone and the double statue of the god of war and the god ofdeath. In Palenque and Uxmal, capitals of Yucatan, were immense palacesand temples, with the weird ornamentation of Mayan imagination; andequal wonders exist in the high uplands where the Incas ruled Peru. Eventheir barbaric art and their unrecorded history must be recovered, tosatisfy the curiosity of the more fortunate races whose boastedChristianity visited on them nothing better than cruel slaughter. Atleast we can give them museums and publish magnificent pictures oftheir ruins. So we may bless the ashes and sand that seemed to destroy and bury themonuments of the mighty empires of the ancient world, but which havekindly covered and preserved them, just as we put our treasures away insome safety-vault while absent on a long journey. The fire burned theupper wooden walls of the city, and it fell in ruins, but under thoseruins, covered by that ashes, were preserved for two thousand, threethousand, five thousand years uninjured, the choicest sculpture and themost precious records of ancient nations, --retained beyond the reach ofvandal hands, until scholarship had grown wise enough to ask questionsof forgotten history, and had sent Layard and Schliemann and De Sarzecand Evans and a hundred other men to dig with their competitive spades. But in all the long list of enthusiasts not one deserves a higher honoror has reaped a richer harvest than Sir Henry Layard. AUTHORITIES. Layard: "Early Adventures;" "Nineveh and its Remains;" "Nineveh andBabylon;" "Monuments of Nineveh. " Botta: "Monument de Ninive. " Loftus:"Chaldea and Susiana. " Y. Place: "Ninive et Assyrie. " Hilprecht:"Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania;" "RecentResearch in Bible Lands. " Perrot and Chipiez: "History of Art inAntiquity. " J. P. Peters: "Nippur. " R. W. Rogers: "History of Babyloniaand Assyria. " F. Lenormant: "Students' Manual of the Ancient History ofthe East;" "The Beginnings of History. " Maspero: "Dawn of Civilization;""Struggle of the Nations;" "Passing of the Empires;" "EgyptianArchaeology;" "Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. " C. J. Ball: "Lightfrom the East. " Egypt Exploration Fund's Publications. F. J. Bliss:"Exploration in Jerusalem;" "A Mound of Many Cities. " Schliemann: "Troyand its Remains;" "Ilios;" "Mycenae;" "Tiryns;" "Troja. " A. J. Evans:"Cnossus;" "Cretan Pictographs. " Tsountas and Manatt: "TheMycenaean Age. " MICHAEL FARADAY. 1791-1867. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. BY EDWIN J. HOUSTON, PH. D. "No man is born into the world whose work Is not born with him. There is always work, And tools to work withal, for those who will. " LOWELL A man was born into the world, on the 22d of September, 1791, whose workwas born with him, and who did this work so well that he became one ofits greatest benefactors. Indeed, much of the marvellous advance made inthe electric arts and sciences, during the last half-century, can bedirectly traced to this work. It was in Newington Butts, in London, England, that the man-child firstopened his eyes on the wonders of the physical world around him. Tothose eyes, in after years, were given a far deeper insight into themysteries of nature than often falls to the lot of man. This man-childwas Michael Faraday, who has been justly styled, by those best capableof judging him, "The Prince of Experimental Philosophers. " The precocity so common in the childhood of men of genius wasapparently absent in the case of young Faraday. The growing boy playedmarbles, and worried through a scant education in reading, writing, andarithmetic, unnoticed, and most probably, for the greater part, severelyleft alone, as commonly falls to the lot of nearly all boys, whetherordinary or extraordinary. At the early age of thirteen, he was takenfrom school and placed on trial as errand-boy in the book-shop of GeorgeRibeau, in London. After a year at this work, he was taken as anapprentice to the book-binding trade, by the same employer, who, onaccount of his faithful services, remitted the customary premium. Atthis work he spent some eight years of his life. But far be it from us even to hint at the absence of genius in the youngchild. Genius is not an acquired gift. It is born in the individual. Apart from the marvellous achievements of the man, a mere glance at themagnificent head, with its high intellectual forehead, the firm lips, the intelligent inquiring eyes, and the bright face, as seen in existingpictures, assures us that they portray an unusual individuality, incompatible with even a suspicion of belonging to an ordinary man. Doubtless the growing child did give early promise of his futuregreatness. Doubtless he was a formidable member of that terrible classof inquiring youngsters who demand the why and the wherefore of allaround them, and refuse to accept the unsatisfactory belief of theirfathers that things "are because they are. " In its self-complacency, thebusy world is too apt to fail to notice unusual abilities inchildren, --abilities that perhaps too often remain undeveloped from lackof opportunities. But whether young Faraday did or did not, at an earlyage, display any unusual promise of his life-work, all his biographersappear to agree that he could not be regarded as a precocious child. Faraday disclaimed the idea that his childhood was distinguished by anyprecocity. "Do not suppose that I was a very deep thinker, or was markedas a precocious person, " says Faraday, when alluding to his early life. "I was a very lively, imaginative person, and could believe in the'Arabian Nights' as easily as the 'Encyclopaedia, ' but facts wereimportant to me, and saved me. I could trust a fact and alwayscross-examined an assertion. So when I questioned Mrs. Marcet's book [heis alluding to her 'Conversations on Chemistry'], by such littleexperiments as I could find means to perform, and found it true to thefacts as I could understand them, I felt that I had got hold of ananchor in chemical knowledge, and clung fast to it. " But while there may be a question as to the existence of precocity inthe young lad, there does not appear to be any reason for believing thathis unusual abilities were the result of direct heredity. His father, anordinary journeyman blacksmith, never exhibited any special intellectualability, though possibly poverty and poor health may have beenresponsible for this failure. His mother, too, it appears, was of butordinary mentality. The environment of those early years--that is, from 1804 to 1813, whilein the book-binding business--was far from calculated to develop anymarked abilities inherent in our young philosopher. What would seem lesscalculated to inspire a wish to obtain a deeper insight into themysteries of the physical world than the trade of book-binding, especially in the case of a boy whose scholastic education ceased atfourteen years and was limited to the mere rudiments of learning? But, fortunately for the world, the inquiring spirit of the lad led him toexamine the inside of the books he bound, and thus, by familiarizinghimself with their contents, he received the inspiration that goodwriting is always ready to bestow on those who properly read it. Twobooks, he afterwards informs us, proved of especial benefit; namely, "Marcet's Conversations on Chemistry, " already referred to, and the"Encyclopaedia Britannica. " To the former he attributes his grounding inchemistry, and to the latter his first ideas in electricity, in both ofwhich studies he excelled in after years. As we have seen, even at thisearly age he followed the true plan for the physical investigator, cross-questioned all statements, only admitting those to the dignity offacts whose truth he had established by careful experimentation. But our future experimental philosopher has not as yet fairly started onthe beginnings of his life-work. The possibilities of the book-bindingtrade were too limited to permit much real progress. A circumstanceoccurred in the spring of 1812 that shaped his entire after-life. Thiswas the opportunity then afforded him to attend four of the lastlectures delivered at the Royal Institution, by the great Sir HumphryDavy. Faraday took copious notes of these lectures, carefully wrote themout, and bound them in a small quarto volume. It was this volume, whichhe afterwards sent to Davy, that resulted in his receiving, on March 1, 1813, the appointment of laboratory assistant in the Royal Institution. His pay for this work was twenty-five shillings a week, with a lodgingon the top floor of the Institute, a very fair compensation forthe times. Very congenial were the duties of the young assistant. They were to keepclean the beloved apparatus of the lecturers, and to assist them intheir demonstrations. The new world thus opened was full of brightpromise. He keenly felt the deficiencies of his early education, anddid his best to extend his learning, so that he might be able to makethe most of his opportunities. But what he perhaps appreciated the mostwas the inspiration he received from the great teacher Davy, who wasthen Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Laboratory of the RoyalInstitution; for Faraday assisted at Davy's lectures, and in an humbleway even aided his investigations, sharing the dangers arising from theexplosion of the unstable substance, chloride of nitrogen, that Davy wasthen investigating. Faraday has repeatedly acknowledged the debt owed tothe inspiration of this teacher. Davy also, in later life generouslyrecognized, in his former assistant, a philosopher greater than himself. As the renowned astronomer, Tycho Brahe, discovered in one of hispupils, John Kepler, an astronomer greater than the master, and asBergman, the Swedish chemist, in a similar manner, discovered thegreater chemist Scheele, so when Davy, in after years, was asked what heregarded as his greatest discovery, he briefly replied, "Michael Faraday. " The task of the scientific historian, who endeavors honestly to recordthe progress of research, and to trace the influence of the work of someindividual on the times in which he lived, is by no means an easy one;for, in scientific work one discovery frequently passes so insensiblyinto another that it is often difficult to know just where one stopsand the other begins, and much difficulty constantly arises as to whomthe credit should be given, when, as is too often the case, thesediscoveries are made by different individuals. It is only when somegreat discovery stands alone, like a giant mountain peak against theclear sky, that it is comparatively easy to determine the extent andcharacter of its influence on other discoveries, and justly to give thecredit to whom the credit is due. Such discoveries form ready points ofreference in the intellectual horizon, and mark distinct eras in theworld's progress. This is true of all work in the domain of physicalscience, but it is especially true in that of electricity and magnetism, in which Faraday was pre-eminent. The scope of each of these sciences isso extended, the number of workers so great, and the applications to thepractical arts so nearly innumerable, that it is often by no means aneasy task correctly to trace their proper growth and development. Faraday's investigations covered vast fields in the domain of chemistry, electricity, and magnetism. It is to the last two only that referencewill here be made. Faraday's life-work in electricity and magnetismbegan practically in 1831, when he made his immortal discovery of thedirect production of electricity from magnetism. His best work inelectricity and magnetism was accomplished between 1831 and 1856, extending, therefore, over a period of some twenty-five years, althoughit is not denied that good work was done since 1856. Consequently, itwas at so comparatively recent a date that most of Faraday's work wasdone that some of the world's distinguished electricians yet live whobegan their studies during the latter years of Faraday's life. Thedifficulties of tracing, at least to some extent, the influence thatFaraday's masterly investigations have had on the present condition ofthe electrical arts and sciences will, therefore, be considerablylessened. The extent of Faraday's researches and discoveries in magnetism andelectricity was so great that it will be impossible, in the necessarilylimited space of a brief biographical sketch, to notice any but the moreprominent. Nor will any attempt be made, except where the nature of theresearch or discovery appears to render it advisable, to follow anystrict chronological order; for, our inquiry here is not so muchdirected to a mere matter of history as to the influence which theinvestigation or discovery exerted on the life and civilization of theage in which we live. There is a single discovery of Faraday that stands out sharply amidstall his other discoveries, great as they were, and is so important inits far-reaching results that it alone would have stamped him as aphilosophical investigator of the highest merits, had he never doneanything else. This was his discovery of the means for developingelectricity directly from magnetism. It was made on the 29th of August, 1831, and should be regarded as inspired by the great discovery made byOersted in 1820, of the relations existing between the voltaic pile andelectro-magnetism. It was in the same year that Ampere had conductedthat memorable investigation as to the mutual attractions and repulsionsbetween circuits through which electric currents are flowing, whichresulted in a theory of electro-magnetism, and finally led to theproduction of the electro-magnet itself. Ampere had shown that a coil ofwire, or helix, through which an electric current is passing, actedpractically as a magnet, and Arago had magnetized an iron bar by placingit within such a helix. In common with the other scientific men of his time, Faraday believedthat since the flow of an electric current invariably producedmagnetism, so magnetism should, in its turn, be capable of producingelectricity. Many investigators before Faraday's time had endeavored tosolve this problem, but it was reserved to Faraday alone to besuccessful. Since success in this investigation resulted from someexperiments he made while endeavoring to obtain inductive action on aquiescent circuit from a neighboring circuit through which an electriccurrent was flowing, we will first briefly examine this experiment. Allhis experiments in this direction were at first unsuccessful. He passedan electric current through a circuit, which was located close toanother circuit containing a galvanometer, --a device for showing thepresence of an electric current and measuring its strength, --but failedto obtain any result. He looked for such results only when the currenthad been fully established in the active circuit. Undismayed by failure, he reasoned that probably effects were present, but that they were toosmall to be observed owing to the feeble inducing current employed. Hetherefore increased the strength of the current in the active wire; butstill with no results. Again and again he interrogates nature, but unsuccessfully. At last henotices that there is a slight movement of the galvanometer needle atthe moment of making and breaking the circuit. Carefully repeating hisexperiments in the light of this observation, he discovers the importantfact that it is only at the moment a current is increasing or decreasingin strength--at the moment of making or breaking a circuit--that theactive circuit is capable of producing a current in a neighboringinactive circuit by induction. This was an important discovery, and inthe light of his after-knowledge was correctly regarded as a solution ofthe production of electricity from magnetism. Observing that the galvanometer needle momentarily swings in onedirection on making the circuit, and in the opposite direction onbreaking it, he establishes the fact that the current induced on makingflows in the opposite direction to the inducing current, and thatinduced on breaking flows in the same direction as the inducing current. Having thus established the fact of current induction, he makes the stepof substituting magnets for active circuits; a simple step in the lightof our present knowledge, but a giant stride at that time. Rememberingthat current induction, or, as he called it, voltaic current induction, takes place only while some effect produced by the current is eitherincreasing or decreasing, he moves coils of insulated wire towards orfrom magnet poles, or magnet poles towards or from coils of wire, andshows that electric currents are generated in the coils while either thecoils or the magnets are in motion, but cease to be produced as soon asthe motion ceases. Moreover, these magnetically induced currents differin no respects from other currents, --for example, those produced by thevoltaic pile, --since, like the latter, they produce sparks, magnetizebars of steel, or deflect the needle of a galvanometer. In this mannerFaraday solved the great problem. He had produced electricity directlyfrom magnetism! With, perhaps, the single exception of the discovery by Oersted, in1820, of the invariable relation existing between an electric currentand magnetism, this discovery of Faraday may be justly regarded as thegreatest in this domain of physical science. These two master minds inscientific research wonderfully complemented each other. Oersted showedthat an electric current is invariably attended by magnetic effects;Faraday showed that magnetic changes are invariably attended by electriccurrents. Before these discoveries, electricity and magnetism werenecessarily regarded as separate branches of physical science, and werestudied apart as separate phenomena. Now, however, they must be regardedas co-existing phenomena. The ignorance of the scientific world hadunwittingly divorced what nature had joined together. In view of the great importance of Faraday's discovery, we shall bejustified in inquiring, though somewhat briefly, into some of theapparatus employed in this historic research. Note its extremesimplicity. In one of his first successful experiments he wraps a coilof insulated wire around the soft iron bar that forms the armature orkeeper of a permanent magnet of the horse-shoe type, and connects theends of this coil to a galvanometer. He discovers that whenever thearmature is placed against the magnet poles, and is therefore beingrendered magnetic by contact therewith, the deflection of the needle ofthe galvanometer shows that the coiled wire on the armature is traversedby a current of electricity; that whenever the armature is removed fromthe magnet poles, and is therefore losing its magnetism, the needle ofthe galvanometer is again deflected, but now in the opposite direction, showing that an electric current is again flowing through the coiledwire on the armature, but reversed in direction. He notices, too, thatthese effects take place only while changes are going on in the strengthof the magnetism in the armature, or when magnetic flux is passingthrough the coils; for, the galvanometer needle comes to rest, andremains at rest as long as the contact between the armature and thepoles remains unbroken. In another experiment he employs a simple hollow coil, or helix, ofinsulated wire whose ends are connected with a galvanometer. On suddenlythrusting one end of a straight cylindrical magnet into the axis of thehelix, the deflection of the galvanometer needle showed the presence ofan electric current in the helix. The magnet being left in the helix, the galvanometer needle came to rest, thus showing the absence ofcurrent. When the bar magnet was suddenly withdrawn from the helix, thegalvanometer needle was again deflected, but now in the oppositedirection, showing that the direction of the current in the helix hadbeen reversed. The preceding are but some of the results that Faraday obtained bymeans of his experimental researches in the direct production ofelectricity from magnetism. Let us now briefly examine just what he wasdoing, and the means whereby he obtained electric currents frommagnetism. We will consider this question from the views of the presenttime, rather than from those of Faraday, although the difference betweenthe two are in most respects immaterial. Faraday knew that the space or region around a magnet is permeated ortraversed by what he called magnetic curves, or lines of magnetic force. These lines are still called "lines of magnetic force, " or by some"magnetic streamings" "magnetic flux, " or simply "magnetism. " They areinvisible, though their presence is readily manifested by means of ironfilings. They are present in every magnet, and although we do not knowin what direction they move, yet in order to speak definitely aboutthem, it is agreed to assume that they pass out of every magnet at itsnorth-seeking pole (or the pole which would point to the magnetic north, were the magnet free to move as a needle), and, after having traversedthe space surrounding the magnet, reenter at its south-seeking pole, thus completing what is called the magnetic circuit. Any space traversedby lines of magnetic force is called a magnetic field. But it is not only a magnet that is thus surrounded by lines ofmagnetic force, or by ether streamings. The same is true of anyconductor through which an electric current is flowing, and theirpresence may be shown by means of iron filings. If an activeconductor--a conductor conveying an electric current, as, for example, acopper wire--be passed vertically through a piece of card-board, or aglass plate, iron filings dusted on the card or plate will arrangethemselves in concentric circles around the axis of the wire. Itrequires an expenditure of energy both to set up and to maintain theselines of force. It is the interaction of their lines of force thatcauses the attractions and repulsions in active movable conductors. These lines of magnetic force act on magnetic needles like other linesof magnetic force and tend to set movable magnetic needles at rightangles to the conducting wire. The setting up of an electric current in a conducting wire is, therefore, equivalent to the setting up of concentric magnetic whirlsaround the axis of the wire, and anything that can do this will producean electric current. For example, if an inactive conducting wire ismoved through a magnetic field; it will have concentric circular whirlsset up around it; or, in other words, it will have a current generatedin it as a result of such motion. But to set up these whirls it is notenough that the conducting wire be moved along the lines of force in thefield. In such a case no whirls are produced around the conductor. Theconductor must be moved so as to cut or pass through the lines ofmagnetic force. Just what the mechanism is by means of which the cuttingof the lines of force by the conductor produces the circular magneticwhirls around it, no man knows any more than he knows just whatelectricity is; but this much we do know, --that to produce the circularwhirls or currents in a previously inactive conductor, the lines offorce of some already existing magnetic field must be caused to passthrough the conductor, and that the strength of the current so producedis proportional to the number of lines of magnetic force cut in a giventime, say, per second; or, in other words, is directly proportional tothe strength of the magnetic field, and to the velocity and length ofthe moving conductor. Or, briefly recapitulating: Oersted showed that an electric current, passed through a conducting circuit, sets up concentric circular whirlsaround its axis; that is, an electric current invariably producesmagnetism; Faraday showed, that if the lines of magnetic force, ormagnetism, be caused to cut or pass through an inactive conductor, concentric circular whirls will be set up around the conductor; that is, lines of magnetic force passed across a conductor invariably set up anelectric current in that conductor. The wonderful completeness of Faraday's researches into the productionof electricity from magnetism may be inferred from the fact that allthe forms of magneto-electric induction known to-day--namely, self-induction, or the induction of an active circuit on itself; mutualinduction, or the induction of an active circuit on a neighboringcircuit; and electro-magnetic induction, and magneto-electric induction, or the induction produced in conductors through which the magnetic fluxfrom electro and permanent magnets respectively is caused to pass--werediscovered and investigated by him. Nor were these investigationscarried on in the haphazard, blundering, groping manner thatunfortunately too often characterizes the explorer in a strange country;on the contrary, they were singularly clear and direct, showing howcomplete the mastery the great investigator had over the subject he wasstudying. It is true that repeated failures frequently met him, butdespite discouragements and disappointments he continued until he hadentirely traversed the length and breadth of the unknown region he wasthe first to explore. Let us now briefly examine Faraday's many remaining discoveries andinventions. Though none of these were equal to his great discovery, yetmany were exceedingly valuable. Some were almost immediately utilized;some waited many years for utilization; and some have never yet beenutilized. We must avoid, however, falling into the common mistake ofholding in little esteem those parts of Faraday's work that did notimmediately result either in the production of practical apparatus, orin valuable applications in the arts and sciences, or those which havenot even yet proved fruitful. Some discoveries and devices are so farahead of the times in which they are produced that several lifetimesoften pass before the world is ready to utilize them. Like immature orunripe fruit, they are apt to die an untimely death, and it sometimescuriously happens that, several generations after their birth, asubsequent inventor or discoverer, in honest ignorance of their priorexistence, offers them to the world as absolutely new. The times beingripe, they pass into immediate and extended public use, so that thelater inventor is given all the credit of an original discovery, and thetrue first and original inventor remains unrecognized. We will first examine Faraday's discovery of the relations existingbetween light and magnetism. Though the discovery has not as yet bornefruit in any direct practical application, yet it has proved of immensevalue from a theoretical standpoint. In this investigation Faradayproved that light-vibrations are rotated by the action of a magneticfield. He employed the light of an ordinary Argand lamp, and polarizedit by reflection from a glass surface. He caused this polarized light topass through a plate of heavy glass made from a boro-silicate of lead. Under ordinary circumstances this substance exerted no unusual action onlight, but when it was placed between the poles of a powerfulelectro-magnet, and the light was passed through it in the samedirection as the magnetic flux, the plane of polarization of the lightwas rotated in a certain direction. Faraday discovered that other solid substances besides glass exert asimilar action on a beam of polarized light. Even opaque solids likeiron possess this property. Kerr has proved that a beam of light passedthrough an extremely thin plate of highly magnetic iron has its plane ofpolarization slightly rotated. Faraday showed that the power of rotatinga beam of polarized light is also possessed by some liquids. But what ismost interesting, in both solids and liquids, is that the direction ofthe rotation of the light depends on the direction in which themagnetism is passing, and can, therefore, be changed by changing thepolarity of the electro-magnet. Faraday did not seem to thoroughly understand this phenomenon. He spokeas if he thought the lines of magnetic force had been rendered luminousby the light rays; for, he announced his discovery in a paper entitled, "Magnetization of Light and the Illumination of the Lines of MagneticForce. " Indeed, this discovery was so far ahead of the times that it wasnot until a later date that the results were more fully developed, first by Kelvin, and subsequently by Clerk Maxwell. In 1865, two yearsbefore Faraday's death, Maxwell proposed the electro-magnetic theory oflight, showing that light is an electro-magnetic disturbance. He pointedout that optical as well as electro-magnetic phenomena required a mediumfor their propagation, and that the properties of this medium appearedto be the same for both. Moreover, the rate at which light travels isknown by actual measurement; the rate at which electro-magnetic wavesare propagated can be calculated from electrical measurements, and thesetwo velocities exactly agree. Faraday's original experiment as to therelation between light and magnetism is thus again experimentallydemonstrated; and, Maxwell's electro-magnetic theory of light nowresting on experimental fact, optics becomes a branch of electricity. Acurious consequence was pointed out by Maxwell as a result of histheory; namely, that a necessary relation exists between opacity andconductivity, since, as he showed, electro-magnetic disturbances couldnot be propagated in substances which are conductors of electricity. Inother words, if light is an electro-magnetic disturbance, all conductingsubstances must be opaque, and all good insulators transparent. This weknow to be the fact: metallic substances, the best of conductors, areopaque, while glass and crystals are transparent. Even such apparentexceptions as vulcanite, an excellent insulator, fall into the law, since, as Graham Bell has recently shown, this substance is remarkablytransparent to certain kinds of radiant energy. In 1778, Brugmans of Leyden noticed that if a piece of bismuth was heldnear either pole of a strong magnet, repulsion occurred. Other observersnoticed the same effect in the case of antimony. These facts appear tohave been unknown to Faraday, who, in 1845, by employing powerfulelectro-magnets rediscovered them, and in addition showed thatpractically all substances possess the power of being attracted orrepelled, when placed between the poles of sufficiently powerfulmagnets. By placing slender needles of the substances experimented onbetween the poles of powerful horse-shoe magnets, he found that they wereall either attracted like iron, coming to rest with their greatestlength extending between the poles; or, like bismuth, were apparentlyrepelled by the poles, coming to rest at right angles to the positionassumed by iron. He regarded the first class of substances as attracted, and the second class as repelled, and called them respectivelyparamagnetic and diamagnetic substances. In other words, paramagneticsubstances, like iron, came to rest axially (extending from pole topole), and diamagnetic substances, like bismuth, equatorially (extendingtransversely between the poles). He reserved the term magneticsubstances to cover the phenomena of both para and dia-magnetism. Hecommunicated the results of this investigation to the Royal Society in apaper on the "Magnetic Condition of All Matter, " on Dec. 18, 1845. The properties of paramagnetism and diamagnetism are not possessed bysolids only, but exist also in liquids and gases. When experimentingwith liquids, they were placed in suitable glass vessels, such as watchcrystals, supported on pole pieces properly shaped to receive them. Under these circumstances paramagnetic liquids, such as salts of iron orcobalt dissolved in water, underwent curious contortions in shape, thetendency being to arrange the greater part of their mass in thedirection in which the flux passed; namely, directly between the poles. Diamagnetic liquids, such as solutions of salts of bismuth and antimony, in a similar manner, arranged the greater part of their mass inpositions at right angles to this direction, or equatorially. At first Faraday attributed the repulsion of diamagnetic substances to apolarity, separate and distinct from ordinary magnetic polarity, forwhich he proposed the name, diamagnetic polarity. He believed that whena diamagnetic substance is brought near to the north pole of a magnet, anorth pole was developed in its approached end, and that thereforerepulsion occurred. He afterwards rejected this view, though it hasbeen subsequently adopted by Weber and Tyndall, the latter of whomconducted an extended series of experiments on the subject. The majorityof physicists, however, at the present time, do not believe in theexistence of a diamagnetic polarity. They point out that the apparentrepulsion of diamagnetic substances is due to the fact that they areless paramagnetic than the oxygen of the air in which they aresuspended. During this investigation Faraday observed some phenomena that led himto a belief in the existence of another form of force, distinct fromeither paramagnetic or diamagnetic force, which he called themagne-crystallic force. He had been experimenting with some slenderneedles of bismuth, suspending them horizontally between the poles of anelectro-magnet. Taking a few of these cylinders at random from a greaternumber, he was much perplexed to find that they did not all come to restequatorially, as well-behaved bars of diamagnetic bismuth should do, though, if subjected to the action of a single magnetic pole, they didshow this diamagnetic character by their marked repulsion. After muchexperimentation, he ascribed this phenomenon to the crystallinecondition of the cylinder. By experimenting with carefully selectedgroups of crystals of bismuth, he believed he could trace the cause ofthe phenomenon to the action of a force which he called themagne-crystallic force. Extended experiments carried on by Plücker on the influence ofmagnetism on crystalline substances led him to believe that a closerelation exists between the ultimate forms of the particles of matterand their magnetic behavior. This subject is as yet far from being fullyunderstood. There was another series of investigations made by Faraday between theyears 1831 and 1840, that has been wonderfully utilized, and mayproperly be ranked among his great discoveries. We allude to hisresearches on the laws which govern the chemical decomposition ofcompound substances by electricity. The fact that the electric currentpossesses the power of decomposing compound substances was known asearly as 1800, when Carlisle and Nicholson separated water into itsconstituent elements, by the passage of a voltaic current. Davy, too, in1806, had delivered his celebrated discourse "On Some Chemical Agenciesof Electricity, " and in 1807, had announced his great discovery of thedecomposition of the fixed alkalies. Faraday showed that the amount of chemical action produced byelectricity is fixed and definite. In order to be able to measure theamount of this action, he invented an instrument which he called avoltameter, or a volta-electrometer. It consisted of a simple device formeasuring the amount of hydrogen and oxygen gases liberated by thepassage of an electric current through water acidulated with sulphuricacid. He showed, by numerous experiments, that the decompositioneffected is invariably proportional to the amount of electricitypassing; that variations in the size of the electrodes, in the pressure, or in the degree of dilution of the electrolyte, had nothing to do withthe result, and that therefore a voltameter could be employed todetermine the amount of electricity passing in a given circuit. He alsodemonstrated that when a current is passed through differentelectrolytes (compound substances decomposed by the passage ofelectricity), the amount of the decompositions are chemically equivalentto each other. The extent of Faraday's work in the electro-chemical field may be judgedby considering some of the terms he proposed for its phenomena, most ofwhich, with some trifling exceptions, are still in use. It was he whogave the name electrolysis to decomposition by the electric current; healso proposed to call the wires, or conductors connected with thebattery, or other electric source, the electrodes, naming that one whichwas connected with the positive terminal, the anode, and that oneconnected with the negative terminal, the cathode. He called theseparate atoms or groups of atoms into which bodies undergoingelectrolysis are separated, the radicals, or ions, and named theelectro-positive ions, which appear at the cathode, the kathions, andthe electro-negative radicals which appear at the anode, the anions. There were many other researches made by Faraday, such as hisexperiments on disruptive electric discharges, his investigations on theelectric eel, his many researches on the phenomena both of frictionalelectricity and of the voltaic pile, his investigations on the contactand chemical theories of the voltaic pile, and those on chemicaldecomposition by frictional electricity; these are but some of the mereimportant of them. Those we have already discussed will, however, amplysuffice to show the value of his work. Rather than take up any others, let us inquire what influence, if any, the various groups of discoverieswe have already discussed have exerted on the electric arts and sciencesin our present time. What practical results have attended thesediscoveries? What actual, useful, commercial machines have been based onthem? What useful processes or industries have grown out of them? And, first, as to actual commercial machines. These researches not onlyled to the production of dynamo-electric machines, but, in point offact, Faraday actually produced the first dynamo. A dynamo-electricmachine, as is well known, is a machine by means of which mechanicalenergy is converted into electrical energy, by causing conductors to cutthrough, or be cut through by, lines of magnetic force; or, briefly, itis a machine by means of which electricity is readily obtained frommagnetism. Faraday's invention of the first dynamo is interesting because at thesame time he made the invention he solved a problem which up to his timehad been the despair of the ablest physicists and mathematicians. Thiswas the phenomenon of Arago's rotating disc. It was briefly as follows:If a copper disc be rotated above a magnet, the needle tends to followthe plate in its rotation; or, if a copper plate be placed at rest aboveor below an oscillating magnet, it tends to check its oscillations andbring the needle quickly to rest. Faraday investigated these phenomenaand soon discovered that a copper disc rotated below two magnet poleshad electric currents generated in it, which flowed radially through thedisc between its circumference and centre. By placing one end of aconducting circuit on the axis of the disc, and the other end on itscircumference, he succeeded in drawing off a continuous electric currentgenerated from magnetism, and thus produced the first dynamo. This wasin 1831. Faraday produced many other dynamos besides this simpledisc machine. Although the disc dynamo in its original form was impracticable as acommercial machine, yet it was not only the forerunner of the dynamo, but was, in point of fact, the first machine ever produced that isentitled to be called a dynamo. He generously left to those who mightcome after him the opportunity to avail themselves of his wonderfuldiscovery. "I have rather, however, " he says, "been desirous ofdiscovering new facts and new relations dependent on magneto-electricinduction than of exalting the force of those already obtained, beingassured that the latter would find their development hereafter. " Howprofoundly prophetic! Could the illustrious investigator see thehundreds of thousands of dynamos that are to-day in all parts of theworld engaged in converting millions of horse-power of mechanical energyinto electric energy, he would appreciate how marvellously hissuccessors have "exalted the force" of some of the effects he had soably shown the world how to obtain. Faraday lived to see his infant dynamo, the first of its kind, developedinto a machine not only sufficiently powerful to maintain electric arclights, but also into a form sufficiently practicable to be continuouslyengaged in producing such light, in one of the lighthouses on theEnglish coast. Holmes produced such a machine in 1862, or some yearsbefore Faraday's death. It was installed under the care of the TrinityHouse, at the Dungeness Lighthouse, in June, 1862, and continued in usefor about ten years. When this machine was shown to Faraday by itsinventor, the veteran philosopher remarked, "I gave you a baby, and youbring me a giant. " The alternating-current transformer is another gift of Faraday to thecommercial world. As is well known, this instrument is a device forraising or lowering electric pressure. The name is derived from the factthat the instrument is capable of taking in at one pressure the electricenergy supplied to it, and giving it out at another pressure, thustransforming it. Faraday produced the first transformer during hisinvestigations on voltaic-current induction. The modernalternating-current transformer, though differing markedly in minordetails from Faraday's primitive instrument, yet in general details isessentially identical with it. The enormous use of both step-up andstep-down transformers--transformers which respectively induce currentsof higher and of lower electromotive forces in their secondary coilsthan are passed through their primaries--shows the great practical valueof this invention. The wonderful growth of the commercial applicationsof alternating currents during the past few decades would have beenimpossible without the use of the alternating-current transformer. It is an interesting fact that it was not in the form of the step-downalternating-current transformer that Faraday's discovery ofvoltaic-current induction was first utilized, but in the form of astep-up transformer, or what was then ordinarily called an inductioncoil. As early as 1842, Masson and Bréguet constructed an inductioncoil by means of which minute sparks could be obtained from thesecondary, in vacuo. In 1851, Ruhmkorff constructed an induction coil sogreatly improved, by the careful insulation of its secondary circuit, that he could obtain from it torrents of long sparks in ordinary air. The Ruhmkorff induction coil has in late years been greatly improvedboth by Tesla and Elihu Thomson, who, separately and independently ofeach other, have produced excellent forms of high-frequencyinduction coils. Induction coils have long been in use for purposes of research, and inlater years have been employed in the production both of the Röntgenrays used in the photography of the invisible, and the electro-magneticwaves used in wireless telegraphy. Röntgen's discovery was published in 1895. It was rendered possible bythe prior work of Geissler and Crookes on the luminous phenomenaproduced by the passage of electric discharges through high vacua inglass tubes. Röntgen discovered that the invisible rays, or radiation, emitted from certain parts of a high-vacuum tube, when high-tensiondischarges from induction coils were passing, possessed the curiousproperty of traversing certain opaque substances as readily as lightdoes glass or water. He also discovered that these rays were capable ofexciting fluorescence in some substances, --that is, of causing them toemit light and become luminous, --and that these rays, like the rays oflight, were capable of affecting a photographic plate. From theseproperties two curious possibilities arose; namely, to see throughopaque bodies, and to photograph the invisible. Röntgen called theserays X, or unknown rays. They are now almost invariably called by thename of their distinguished discoverer. Let us briefly investigate how it is possible both to see and tophotograph the invisible. Shortly after Röntgen's discovery, Edison, with that wonderful power of finding practical applications for nearlyall discoveries, had invented the fluoroscope, --a screen covered with apeculiar chemical substance that becomes luminous when exposed to theRöntgen rays. Suppose, now, between the rays and such a screen beinterposed a substance opaque to ordinary light, as, for example, thehuman hand. The tissues of the hand, such as the flesh and the blood, permit the rays to readily pass through them, but the bones are opaqueto the rays, and, therefore, oppose their passage; consequently, thescreen; instead of being uniformly illumined, will show shadows of thebones, so that, to an eye examining the screen, it will seem as thoughit were looking through the flesh and blood directly at the bones. In asimilar manner, if a photographic plate be employed instead of thescreen, a distinct photographic picture will be obtained. Both the fluoroscope and the photographic camera have proved aninvaluable aid to the surgeon, who can now look directly through thehuman body and examine its internal organs, and so be able to locatesuch foreign bodies as bullets and needles in its various parts, or makecorrect diagnoses of fractures or dislocations of the bones, or evenexamine the action of such organs as the liver and heart. About 1886, Hertz discovered that if a small Leyden jar is dischargedthrough a short and simple circuit, provided with a spark-gap ofsuitable length, a series of electro-magnetic waves are set up, which, moving through space in all directions, are capable of exciting in asimilar circuit effects that can be readily recognized, although the twocircuits are at fairly considerable distances apart. Here we have asimple basic experiment in wireless telegraphy, which, brieflyconsidered, consists of means whereby oscillations or waves, set up infree space by means of disruptive discharges, are caused to traversespace and produce various effects in suitably constructed receptivedevices that are operated by the waves as they impinge on them. At first a doubt was expressed by eminent scientific men as to thepracticability of successfully transmitting wireless messages throughlong distances, since these waves, travelling in all directions, wouldsoon become too attenuated to produce intelligible signals; but when itwas shown, from theoretical considerations, that these waves whentraversing great distances are practically confined to the space betweenthe earth's surface and the upper rarified strata of the atmosphere, thepossibility of long-distance wireless telegraphic transmission wasrecognized. To increase the distance, it was only necessary either toincrease the energy of the waves at the transmitting station, or toincrease the delicacy of the receiving instruments, or both. It has been but a short time since both the scientific and the financialworlds were astounded by the actual transmission of intelligiblewireless signals across the Atlantic, and the name of Marconi will godown to posterity as the one who first accomplished this great feat. The principal limit to the distance of transmission lies in the delicacyof the receiving instruments. The most sensitive are those in which atelephone receiver forms a part of the receiving apparatus. The almostincredibly small amount of electric energy required to produceintelligible speech in an ordinary Bell telephone receiver nearly passesbelief. The work done in lifting such an instrument from its hook to theear of the listener, would, if converted into electric energy, besufficient to maintain an audible sound in a telephone for 240, 000years! Even extremely attenuated waves may therefore produce audiblesignals in such a receiver. The electric motor was another gift of Faraday to commercial science, although in this case there are others who can, perhaps, justly claim toshare the honor with him. Faraday's early electric motor consistedessentially in a device whereby a movable conductor, suspended so as tobe capable of rotation around a magnet pole, was caused to rotate by themutual interaction of the magnetic fields of the active conductor andthe magnet. The magnet, which consisted of a bar of hardened steel, wasfixed in a cork stopper, which completely closed the end of an uprightglass tube. A small quantity of mercury was placed in the lower end ofthe tube, so as to form a liquid contact for the lower end of a movablewire, suspended so as to be capable of rotating at its lower extremityabout the axis of the tube. On the passage of an electric currentthrough the wire, a continuous rotary motion was produced in it, thedirection of which depends both on the direction of the current, and onthe polarity of the end of the magnet around which the rotation occurs. The great value of the electric motor to the world is too evident toneed any proof. The number of purposes for which electric motors are nowemployed is so great that the actual number of motors in daily use isalmost incredible, and every year sees this number rapidly increasing. The above are the more important machines or devices that have beendirectly derived from Faraday's great investigation as to the productionof electricity from magnetism. Let us now inquire briefly as to whatuseful processes or industries have been rendered possible by theexistence of these machines. Apparently one of the most marked requirements of our twentieth-centurycivilization is that man shall be readily able to extend the day farinto the night. He can no longer go to sleep when the sun sets, and keepabreast with his competitors. Of all artificial illuminants yetemployed, the arc and the incandescent electric lights areunquestionably the best, whether from a sanitary, aesthetic, or truesteconomical standpoint. Now, while it is a well-known matter of recordthat both arc and incandescent lights were invented long beforeFaraday's time, yet it was not until a source of electricity wasinvented, superior both in economy and convenience to the voltaicbattery, that either of these lights became commercial possibilities. Such an electric source was given to the world by Faraday through hisinvention of the dynamo-electric machine, and it was not until thismachine was sufficiently developed and improved that commercial electriclighting became possible. The energy of burning coal, through thesteam-engine, working the dynamo, is far cheaper and more efficient forproducing electricity than the consumption of metals through thevoltaic pile. It is characteristic of the modesty of Faraday that when, inafter-life, he heard inventors speaking of their electric lights, herefrained from claiming the electric light as his own, although, withoutthe machine he taught the world how to construct, commercial lightingwould have been an impossibility. The marvellous activity in the electric arts and sciences, whichfollowed as a natural result of Faraday giving to the world in thedynamo-electric machine a cheap electric source, naturally leads to theinquiry as to whether at a somewhat later day a yet greater revolutionmay not follow the production of a still cheaper electric source. Inpoint of fact such a discovery is by no means an impossibility. When adynamo-electric machine is caused to produce an electric current by theintervention of a steam-engine, the transformation of energy which takesplace from the energy of the coal to electric energy is an extremelywasteful one. Could some practical method be discovered by means ofwhich the burning of coal liberates electric energy, instead of heatenergy, an electric source would be discovered that would far exceed ineconomy the best dynamo in existence. With such a discovery what theresults would be no one can say; this much is certain, that it would, among other things, relegate the steam-engine to the scrap-heap, andsolve the problem of aerial navigation. What is justly regarded as one of the greatest achievements of moderntimes is the electrical transmission of power over comparatively greatdistances. At some cheap source of energy, say, at a waterfall, awater-wheel is employed to drive a dynamo or generator, thus convertingmechanical energy into electrical energy. This electricity is passedover a conducting line to a distant station, where it is either directlyutilized for the purpose of lighting, heating, chemical decomposition, etc. , or indirectly utilized for the purpose of obtaining mechanicalpower for driving machinery, by passing it through an electric motor. The electric transmission of power has been successfully made inCalifornia over a distance of some 220 miles, at a pressure ontransmission lines of 50, 000 volts. The high pressures required for the economical use of transmission linesnecessitates the employment of transformers at each end of the line;namely, step-up transformers at the transmitting end, to raise thevoltage delivered by the generators, and step-down transformers, at thereceiving end, to lower it for use in the various translating devices. These transformers are employed in connection with alternating-currentdynamos. Faraday not only gave to the world the first electricgenerator, but also the first transformer, and one of the first electricmotors, and without these gifts the electric transmission of power overlong distances, which has justly been regarded as one of the mostmarvellous achievements of our age, would have been an impossibility. In high-tension circuits over which such pressures as 50, 000 volts istransmitted, no little difficulty is experienced from leakage andconsequent loss of energy. This leakage occurs both between the lineconductors and at the insulators placed on the pole lines forming theline circuit. The insulators are made either of glass or porcelain, andare of a peculiar form known as triple petticoat pattern. The loss onsuch lines, due to leakage between wires, is greater than that whichtakes place at the pole insulators, and is diminished by keeping thecircuit wires as far apart as possible. In the early history of the art, electric transmission of power waseffected by means of direct-current generators and motors, --generatorsand motors through which the current always passed in the samedirection. Such generators and motors, however, possessed inconveniencesthat prevented extensive commercial transmission of power, since, as wehave seen, high pressure was necessary for efficiency in suchtransmission, and the collecting-brushes and commutators employed in alldirect-current generators and motors to carry the current from themachine or to the motor, were a constant source of trouble and danger. When the alternating-current motor first same into general use, it wasemployed, in connection with the alternating-current generator, inelectric transmission systems; but such motors also possess theinconvenience of not readily starting from a state of rest, with theirfull turning power, or torque, and of therefore being unsuitable wherethe motor requires to be frequently stopped or started. Had thesedifficulties remained unsolved, long-distance electric transmission ofpower, so successful in operation to-day, and which bids fair to bestill more successful in the near future, would have been impossible. Fortunately, these difficulties were overcome by the genius of NikolaTesla, in the invention of the multiphase alternating-current motor, orthe induction motor, as it is now generally called. Although Baily, Deprez, and Ferraris had accomplished much before Tesla's time, yet itwas practically to the investigations and discoveries made by Tesla, between 1887 and 1891, that the induction motor of to-day is due. Another requirement of our twentieth-century civilization is rapidtransit, either urban or inter-urban, and this is afforded by varioussystems of electric street railways or electric traction generally, including electric locomotives and electric automobiles. The wonderfulgrowth in this direction which has been witnessed in the last fewdecades would have been impossible without the electric generator andmotor, both gifts of Faraday to the world. Their application in thisdirection must, therefore, go to swell the debt our civilization owes tothe labors of this great investigator. In the system of electric street-car propulsion very generally employedto-day, a single trolley wheel is employed for taking the drivingcurrent from an overhead conductor, suspended above the street. Thetrolley wheel is supported by a trolley pole, and is maintained in goodelectric contact with the trolley wire, or overhead conductor. By thismeans the current passes from the wire down the conductor connected withthe trolley pole, thence through the motors placed below the body of thecar, and from them, through the track or ground-return, back to thepower station. A small portion of the current is employed for lightingthe electric lamps in the car. In some systems an underground trolleyis employed. An important device, called the series-parallel controller, is employedin all systems of electric street-car propulsion. It consists of meansby which the starting and stopping of the car, and changes, both in itsspeed and direction, are placed under the control of the motorman. Aseparate controller is placed on both platforms of the car. Theseries-parallel controller consists essentially of a switch by means ofwhich the several motors, that are employed in all street cars, canbe variously connected with each other, or with different electricresistances, or can be successively cut out or introduced into thecircuit, so that the speed of the car can be regulated at will, as thehandle of the controller is moved by the motorman to the various notcheson the top of the controller box. As generally arranged, the speedincreases from the first notch or starting position to the last notch, movements in the opposite direction changing connections in the oppositeorder of succession, and, therefore, slowing the car. There is, however, no definite speed corresponding to each notch, for this will vary withthe load on each car, and with the gradient upon which it maybe running. But there is another valuable gift received by the world as a result ofthis great discovery of Faraday; namely, that most marvellous instrumentof modern times, the speaking telephone. This instrument was invented in1861, by Philip Ries, and subsequently independently reinvented in 1876, by Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell. As is well known, it is electric currents and not sound-waves that aretransmitted over a telephone circuit. The magneto-electric telephone inits simplest form consists of a pair of instruments called respectivelythe transmitter and the receiver. We talk into the transmitter andlisten at the receiver. Both transmitter and receiver consist of apermanent magnet of hardened steel around one end of which is placed acoil of insulated wire. In front of this coil a diaphragm, or thinplate, of soft iron, is so supported as to be capable of freelyvibrating towards and from the magnet pole. The operation of the transmitting instrument is readily understood inthe light of Faraday's discovery. It is simply a dynamo-electric machinedriven by the voice of the speaker. As the sound-waves from thespeaker's voice strike against the diaphragm, which has become magneticfrom its nearness to the magnet pole, electric currents are generated inthe coil of wire surrounding such pole, since the to-and-fro motionscause the lines of electro-magnetic force to pass through the wire onthe moving coil. The operation of the receiving instrument is alsoreadily understood. It acts as an electric motor driven by theto-and-fro currents generated by the transmitter. As these currents aretransmitted over the wire, they pass through the coil of wire on thereceiving instrument, and reproduce therein the exact movements of thetransmitting diaphragm, since, as they strengthen or weaken themagnetism of the pole, they cause similar motions in the diaphragmplaced before it. Consequently, one listening at the receiving diaphragmwill hear all that is uttered into the transmitting diaphragm. It wasthus, by the combination of the dynamo and motor, both of which weregiven by Faraday to the world, that we have received this pricelessinstrument, which has been so potent in its effects on the civilizationof the Twentieth century. The electric telegraph had its beginnings long before Faraday's time. Asearly as 1847, Watson had erected a line some two miles in length, extending over the housetops in London, and operated it by means ofdischarges from an ordinary frictional electric machine. In 1774, Lesagehad erected in Geneva an electric telegraph consisting of a number ofmetallic wires, one for each letter of the alphabet. These wires werecarefully insulated from each other. When a message was to be sent overthis early telegraphic line an electric discharge was passed through theparticular wire representing the letter of the alphabet to be sent; thisdischarge, reaching the other end, caused a pithball to be repelled andthus laboriously, letter by letter, the message was transmitted. Howludicrously cumbersome was such an instrument when contrasted with theMorse electro-magnetic telegraph of to-day, which requires but a singlewire; or with the harmonic telegraph of Gray, which permits thesimultaneous transmission of eight or more separate messages over asingle wire; or with the wonderful quadruplex telegraphic system ofEdison which permits the simultaneous transmission of four separate anddistinct messages over a single wire, two in one direction, and two inthe opposite direction at the same time; or with the still morewonderful multiplex telegraph of Delaney, which is able tosimultaneously transmit as many as seventy-two separate messages over asingle wire, thirty-six in one direction and thirty-six in the oppositedirection. These achievements have been possible only through theresearches and discoveries of Oersted, Faraday, and hosts of othereminent workers; for, it was the electro-magnet, rendered possible byOersted, together with the magnificent discoveries of Faraday, andothers since his time, that these marvellous advances inelectro-telegraphic transmission of intelligence have becomepossibilities. Before completing this brief sketch of some of the effects thatFaraday's work has had on the practical arts and sciences, let usbriefly examine the generating plants that are either in operation orconstruction at Niagara Falls. Some idea of the size of the Niagara Falls generating plant on theAmerican side may be gained from the fact that there have already beeninstalled eleven of the separate 5, 000 horse-power generators. Theremaining capacity of the tunnel will permit of the installation of50, 000 additional horse-power, or 105, 000 horse-power in all. On the Canadian side of the Falls another great plant is about to beerected with an ultimate capacity of several hundred thousandhorse-power. Here, however, the size of the generating unit will bedouble that on the American side, or 10, 000 horse-power. Thesegenerators will be wound to produce an electric pressure of 12, 000volts, raised by means of step-up transformers to 22, 000, 40, 000, and60, 000 volts, according to the distance of transmission. Each of therevolving parts of these machines will weigh 141, 000 pounds. To whatgigantic proportions has the little infant dynamo of Faraday grown inthis short time since its birth! The low rates at which electric power can be sold in the immediateneighborhood of the Niagara generating plant have naturally resulted inan enormous growth of the electro-chemical industries, for theseindustries could never otherwise develop into extended commercialapplications. Of the total output of, say, 55, 000 horse-power at theNiagara Falls generating plant, no less than 23, 200 horse-power is usedin various electrolytic and electro-thermal processes in the immediateneighborhood. Some of the more important consumers of the electricpower, named in the order of consumption, are for the manufacture of thefollowing products: calcium carbide, aluminium, caustic soda andbleaching salt, carborundum, and graphite. Calcium carbide, employed in the production of acetylene gas, either forthe purposes of artificial illumination, or for the manufacture of ethylalcohol, is produced by subjecting a mixture of carbon and lime to theprolonged action of heat in an electric furnace. Aluminium, the now well-known valuable metal, present in clay, bauxite, and a variety of other mineral substances, is electrolytically depositedfrom a bath of alumina obtained by dissolving bauxite either inpotassium fluoride or in cryolite. Aluminium is now coming into extendeduse in the construction of long-distance electric powertransmission lines. Caustic soda and bleaching salt are produced by the electrolyticdecomposition of brine (chloride of sodium). The chlorine liberated atthe anode is employed in the manufacture of bleaching-salt, and thesodium is liberated at a mercury cathode, with which it at once entersinto combination as an alloy. On throwing this alloy into water thesodium is liberated as caustic soda. Carborundum, a silicide of carbon, is a valuable substance produced bythe action of the heat of an electric furnace on an intimate mixture ofcarbon and sand. It has an extensive use as an abrasive for grinding andpolishing. Artificial graphite is another product produced by the long-continuedaction of the heat of the electric furnace on carbon under certainconditions. According to reports from the United States Geological Survey, thegraphite works at Niagara Falls produced in 1901, 2, 500, 000 lbs. Ofartificial graphite, valued at $119, 000. This was an increase from860, 270 lbs. , valued at $69, 860 for 1900, and from 162, 382 lbs. , valuedat $10, 140, in 1897, the first year of its commercial production. In1901, more than half of the output was in the form of graphitizedelectrodes employed in the production of caustic soda and bleachingsalt, and in other electrolytic processes. The Niagara Falls power transmission system stands to-day as amagnificent testimonial to the genius of Faraday, and as a livingmonument of the varied and valuable gifts his researches have bestowedupon mankind. For here we have not only the dynamo, motors, andtransformers that he gave freely to the world, not only thealternating-current transformer, and the system of transmission ofpower, but we even find that the principal consumers of the enormouselectric power produced are employing it in carrying on some of the manyprocesses in electro-chemistry, a science that he had done so muchto advance. Among some of the surprises electro-chemistry may have in store for theworld in the comparatively near future, may be a nearer approach to amastery of the laws which govern the combination of elementarysubstances when under the influence of plant-life. If these laws everbecome so well known that man is able to form hi his laboratory thevarious food products that are now formed naturally in plant organisms, such a revolution would be wrought that the work of the agriculturistwould be largely transferred to the electro-chemist. Some little hasalready been done in the direct formation of some vegetable substances, such as camphor, the peculiar flavoring substance present in the vanillabean, and in many other substances. Should such discoveries ever reachto the direct formation of some food staple, the wide-reachingimportance and significance of the discovery would be almost beyondcomprehension. But, while the direct electro-synthetic formation of food products isyet to be accomplished on a practical scale, the problem appears to benearing actual solution in an indirect manner. It has been known sincethe time of Cavendish, in 1785, that small quantities of nitric acidcould be formed directly from the nitrogen and oxygen of the atmosphereby the passage of electric sparks; but heretofore, the quantity so foundhas been too small to be of any commercial value. Quite recently, however, one of the electro-chemical companies at Niagara Falls hassucceeded in commercially solving the important problem of the fixationof the nitrogen of the atmosphere; it being claimed that the cost ofthus producing one ton of commercial nitric acid, of a market value ofover eighty dollars, does not greatly exceed twenty dollars. Sincesodium nitrate can readily be produced by the process, and its value asa fertilizer of wheat-fields is too well known to need comment, therewould thus, to a limited extent, be indirectly solved theelectro-chemical production of food staples. Faraday's high rank as an investigator in the domain of natural sciencewas fully recognized by the learned societies of his time, by admissioninto their fellowships. As early as 1824, he was honored by the RoyalSociety of London by election as one of its Fellows, and in 1825 he hadbecome a member of the Royal Institution. It is recorded of the greatphilosopher that the membership in the Royal Institution was the onlyone which he personally sought; all others came unsought, but they cameso rapidly from all portions of the globe that in 1844 he was a memberof no less than seventy of the leading learned societies of the world. Ries, the German electrician, so well known in connection with hisinvention of the speaking telephone, addressed Faraday as "ProfessorMichael Faraday, Member of all the Academies. " Besides his membership inthe learned societies, Faraday received numerous degrees from thecolleges and universities of his time. Among some of these are thefollowing: The University of Prague, the degree of Ph. D. ; Oxford, thedegree of D. C. L. ; and Cambridge, the degree of LL. D. He also receivednumerous medals of honor, and was offered the Presidency of the RoyalSociety, which, however, he declined, as he did also a knighthoodproffered by the government of England. Faraday died on the 25th ofAugust, 1867, after a long, well-spent, useful life. We have thus briefly traced some of the more important discoveries ofMichael Faraday. Many have necessarily been passed by, but what we havegiven are more than sufficient to stamp him as a great philosopher andinvestigator. Speaking of Faraday in this connection, Professor Tyndallsays: "Take him for all in all, I think it will be conceded that MichaelFaraday is the greatest experimental philosopher the world has everseen; and I will add the opinion that the progress of future researchwill tend not to diminish or decrease, but to enhance and glorify, thelabors of this mighty investigator. " AUTHORITIES. Experimental Researches in Electricity. By Michael Faraday. From thePhilosophical Transactions. Abstracts of the Philosophical Transactions from 1800 to 1837. Faraday's Experimental Researches in Electricity and Magnetism. 3 vols. Life and Letters of Faraday. By Dr. Bence Jones. Michael Faraday. By J. H. Gladstone. Students' Text-Book of Electricity. By Henry M. Noad. Revised by W. H. Preece. Michael Faraday. By John Tyndall. Pioneers of Electricity. By J. Munro. Dynamo-Electric Machinery. By Silvanus P. Thompson. A Dictionary of Electrical Words, Terms, and Phrases. By Edwin J. Houston. Electricity and Magnetism. By Edwin J. Houston. Electricity One Hundred Years Ago and To-Day. By Edwin J. Houston. Magnetism; Electro-Technical Series. By Edwin J. Houston and Arthur E. Kennelly. Electro-Dynamic Machinery. By Edwin J. Houston and A. E. Kennelly. RUDOLF VIRCHOW. 1821-1902. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. BY FRANK P. FOSTER, M. D. Stagnation was the state of medicine when the Nineteenth Century opened. It was only three years before that Jenner had announced anddemonstrated the protective efficacy of vaccination against small-pox. His teaching, in spite of the vehement cavillings of the "antis" of hisday, gained credence readily, and vaccination speedily became recognizedand was constantly resorted to, but hardly any attempt at perfecting thepractice was made until after more than fifty years had elapsed. Hisdiscovery--or, rather, his proof of the truth of a rustictradition--fell like a pebble into the doldrums; the ripple soonsubsided, and nobody was encouraged to start another. At the presenttime such an announcement would be promptly followed by investigationsleading up to such doctrines as that of the attenuation of viruses andthat of antitoxines. But the times were not ripe for anything of thatsort; medicine reposed on tradition, or at best gave itself only to suchplausibilities in the way of innovation as were cleverly advocated. Physicians strove not to advance the healing art; as individuals, theywere content to rely on their manners, their tact, and their assumptionof wisdom. In short, the body medical was in a state of suspendedanimation, possessed of a mere vegetative existence. The Humoral pathology, or that doctrine of the nature of disease whichascribed all ailments to excess, deficiency, or ill "concoction" of someone of the four humors (yellow and black bile, blood, and phlegm), hadnot yet lost its hold on men's convictions, or at least not further thanto make them look upon exposure to cold and errors of diet as amplyexplanatory of all diseases not plainly infectious. The medical writerswho were most revered were those who busied themselves with nosology;that is to say, the naming and classifying of diseases. Wonderful werethe onomatological feats performed by some of these men, and mostdiverse and grotesque were the data on which they founded theirclassifications. To label a disease was high art; to cure it wassomething that Providence might or might not allow. In the treatment of"sthenic" acute diseases (meaning those accompanied by excitement andhigh fever), blood-letting, mercury given to the point of salivation, antimony, and opium, together with starvation (all included under theeuphemism of "lowering measures"), were the means universally resortedto and reputed "sheet anchors. " Some advance had been made from thetimes when disease had been looked upon as an entity to be exorcised, but it was still so far regarded as a material thing that it was to bestarved out. But the century was not out of its second decade when signs of anawakening from this lethargy began to show themselves. The first steps, naturally, were along preparatory lines, and for those we are largelyindebted to the physicists, the chemists, and the botanists. Grossanatomy became better known, owing for the most part to more enlightenedlegislation on the subject of the dissection of the human body; minuteanatomy (histology) sprang into existence as the result of improvementsof the compound microscope. Physiology took on something of theexperimental; and medication was rendered far less gross and repulsiveby the isolation of the active principles of medicinal plants. But itwas long after all this that the telling strides were taken. Up towithin the memory of many men who are now living, "peritonitis" torturedits victims to death, said "peritonitis" being often interpreted as amanifestation of rheumatism, for example, and no well-directedinterposition was attempted against it, whereas we now know perfectlywell that the vast majority of cases of peritonitis are due to localseptic poisoning and for the most part quite readily remediable by theremoval (with a minimum of danger) of the organ from which suchpoisoning arises--almost always the vermiform appendix. "Appendicitis, "of which we hear so much nowadays, is no new disease; it is simply the"peritonitis" that killed so many people in former times. But while nowell-informed person would now maintain that this disease was a new one, there are many, and those, too, among the best instructed, who find itdifficult to avoid the conclusion that, if not new, it must at least beof far more frequent occurrence than formerly. It must be borne in mind, however, that in the great majority of instances in past years it endedspontaneously in recovery and was forgotten. Two features of the progress in medicine in the Nineteenth Century, negative as they may seem to have been, were undoubtedly potent in thepromotion of advance. They were the recognition of the fact that manydangerous diseases are self-limited, and the experiment of the so-called"expectant treatment. " The result of the first of them was to teach mento desist from futile attempts to _cure_ the self-limited diseases, inthe sense of cutting them short in their course, and the "expectanttreatment" followed as a natural consequence. It was a method ofmanaging disease rather than attempting to cure it. There was nointerference save to promote the patient's comfort, to nourish him asthoroughly as might be without unduly taxing his powers, and to meetcomplications as they arose. It was stooping to conquer, perhaps, but itwas a policy that conduced greatly to the well-being of the sick, improved their chances of recovery, and enabled physicians to studydisease more accurately by reason of its course not being renderedirregular by meddlesome medication. It has never been dropped, and itnever will be, save as such directly curative agents as the antitoxinesare made available. In the early part of the century, except for gross anatomy and operativesurgery, medicine was taught almost wholly, so far as the schools wereconcerned, by means of didactic lectures. The "drawing" capacity of aprofessor was proportionate rather to his rhetorical powers and to thepersuasiveness with which he inculcated the views peculiar to himselfthan to the amount of real information that he conveyed to the students. Although the apprentice system--for that was what the practice ofstudents' attaching themselves to individual practitioners, whom theycalled their preceptors, virtually amounted to--in many instances madeup more or less completely for the lack of systematic clinical teaching, yet in the great majority of cases it amounted to little more than thepreceptor's allowing the student the use of his library and occasionallyexamining into the latter's diligence and intelligence, in return forwhich he, the preceptor, required an annual fee and exacted from thestudent such minor services as his proficiency enabled him to render. Itis true the students "walked" the hospitals, drinking in some greatman's utterances, but they did it in droves, not a moiety of them beingable to get a good look at a patient, unless it was such a passingglance as might tell them that the patient was jaundiced. By clinicalteaching we understand teaching, not in glittering generalities, but inthe concrete, either at the bedside, as the word _clinical_ originallyimplied, or at least with the patient actually present to illustrate inhis person the professor's descriptions and the success or failure ofthe treatment employed. The clinic is now firmly established, and hasbeen for years, but it was long before this grand result was attained. Experimental methods of study gradually came into vogue, particularly inthe domain of physiology. In this sphere Dr. William Beaumont, of theUnited States Army, was a pioneer. His historic experiments on AlexisSt. Martin, a soldier who had been wounded in the stomach and recoveredwith a permanent opening into that organ, will ever rank among the mostimportant of the early experimental studies of digestion. It was notlong before Claude Bernard extended similar inquiries to the otherfunctions of the body, notably those of the nervous system; and sincehis time there has been a long array of brilliant investigators ofphysiology and of other branches of science tributary to medicine. Experiments on living animals were almost the only means of carrying onthese researches. In the early days the animals employed were doubtlessput to a great deal of pain--perhaps in many instances to unnecessarysuffering--and an altogether laudable feeling of humanity has led goodpeople to band themselves together for the purpose of putting a stop tovivisection, or at least of greatly restricting the practice and offreeing it from all avoidable infliction of pain. These praiseworthyefforts have in some instances been carried so far, unfortunately, as toseriously hamper scientific investigation--investigation which has forits object the alleviation of human suffering and the saving of humanlife. We may earnestly deprecate and strive to prevent wantonreiteration of painful experiments for purposes of demonstrating anewthat which is unquestioned, and we may resort to all possible means torender necessary experiments free from actual pain (from the anguish oftrepidation we can seldom relieve the poor animals), but let us notblock the wheels of scientific progress. At the dawn of the Nineteenth Century, to examine a sick person'spulse, to inspect his tongue, to observe his breathing, to interrogatehis skin by our sense of touch, and to try to make his statements andthose of his friends fit in with some tenable theory of the nature ofhis ailment, were about all we could do. Possibly it was because herealized to an uncommon degree the tremendous impediment of this narrowlimitation that Samuel Hahnemann, the founder of Homoeopathy, cut theGordian knot in sheer rebelliousness, and proclaimed, as he virtuallydid, that a diagnosis was not necessary to the successful treatment ofdisease, but that one only needed to know empirically how to subduesymptoms, meaning mainly, if not solely, what we term "subjective"symptoms--those of which the patient complains, as opposed to those thatwe ourselves discover. But the physical examination of the sick, beforeextremely meagre in its sphere and restricted in its possibilities, wasdestined to expand before many years into the minute and positivephysical diagnosis of the present day. In the year 1816 a French physician, Réné Théophile Hyacinthe Laennec, achieved undying fame by publishing to the world an account of hislabors in the application of mediate auscultation and of percussion tothe diagnosis of the diseases of the chest. It is true that no less apersonage than the "Father of Medicine, " Hippocrates, is reputed to havepractised succussion as a means of diagnosis; that is, the shaking of apatient, as one would shake a cask, to ascertain by the occurrence ornon-occurrence of a splashing sound if the person's pleural cavity wasdistended partly with water and partly with air. It is probable thatHippocrates and many others after him carried the physical examinationof the chest still further, for it is difficult to imagine, for example, that so simple a device as that of thumping a partition to make out thesituation of a joist by the sound evoked should not early have beenapplied to the human chest. But, be this as it may, to Laennec belongsthe great credit of having laid a substantial foundation for thephysical diagnosis of the present time, and, more than for laying afoundation, for constructing a fairly complete edifice. He who shouldnow undertake to practise general medicine without having first madehimself proficient in the detection and interpretation of the soundselicited by auscultation and percussion in diseases of the heart andlungs would foredoom himself to failure. It was not until many years later, early in the second half of thecentury, that the clinical thermometer came into general use, but itsoon showed most strikingly the superiority of the "instrument ofprecision" to the unaided senses of man. Who would think now of tryingto estimate the height of a fever by laying his hand on the patient'sskin, or who, even among the laity, would be satisfied with such aprocedure? "Doubtless, " said the present writer in a former publication("New York Medical Journal, " Dec. 29, 1900), "the use of the thermometerhas occasionally given rise to needless alarm, but almost invariably itmay be interpreted with great certainty. Often it dispels unnecessaryanxiety as in a twinkling by its negative indication, and surely it isto be credited with being distinctly diagnostic in those diseases ofwhich it has itself established the 'curve. '" By the thermometric"curve" of a disease is understood the general visual impression made bythe graphic chart of a temperature record--the course of a zigzag lineconnecting the points indicated by the various individual observations. Numerous other instruments of precision are now in constant use, amongthe most wonderful of which perhaps is the ophthalmoscope, whereby weare enabled to subject the retina and the intervening media of the eyeto minute visual examination. There is not an organ of the body that isnot now interrogated daily in the way of physical diagnosis, and we evenexamine separately the secretion of each of the two kidneys. Inaddition, there are multitudinous specific signs of which we were notlong ago in complete ignorance. To cite only one of these, there isWidal's agglutination test, by which the bacteriologist can usually makea diagnosis of typhoid fever far in advance of the time at which itcould otherwise be distinguished. The use of the Röntgen rays indiagnosis was one of the crowning achievements of the century, and nowwe seem about to enter upon a course of their successful employment inthe treatment of disease--even some forms of cancer--as well as in itsdetection. Beyond the vermin that infest the skin and the hair, tapeworm, and a fewother intestinal worms, little if anything was known of morbificparasites before the Nineteenth Century; but the labors of Van Beneden, Küchenmeister, Cobbold, Manson, Laveran, and others have now establishedthe causal relationship between great numbers of animal parasites--grossand microscopic--and certain definite morbid states. This has led to agreat increase in our knowledge of the connection between the parasitesof the lower animals and grave disease in human beings, and on thisknowledge rest many of the precautions that we are now able to takeagainst the spread of such disease. From the consideration of animalparasites as the direct causes of disease, we naturally come to thecontemplation of the subject of insects as the carriers of disease. Thelater years of the century have witnessed the demonstration of the fly'sagency in the transmission of malignant pustule and typhoid fever, andthat of certain mosquitoes in the conveyance of yellow fever andmalarial disease. We now know that bad air (the original meaning of theword _malaria_) has nothing to do with fever and ague, and that swampsare not unwholesome if they are free from infected mosquitoes. Themosquito does not originate the malarial infection; it simply serves asthe temporary host of the micro-organism (_Plasmodium malarioe_) whichis the cause of the disease, having obtained its transient "guest" fromsome human being. Consequently, marshy districts that are full ofmosquitoes are not malarious unless the mosquitoes are of the kindscapable of lodging the plasmodium, and unless there is or has recentlybeen present in the neighborhood some person affected with malarialdisease. Moreover, the most virulently malarious region is a safe placeof residence for human beings, provided they protect themselvesabsolutely against the bite of the mosquito. This has been strikinglydemonstrated in the case of the Roman Campagna. From the disease-producing animal parasites we come now to those thatare believed to be of vegetable nature. Under the general name of_bacteria_, there are multitudes of micro-organisms having pathogenicpowers, each giving rise to some definite specific disease, and certainassociations of different bacteria causing particular morbid conditions. Generations ago physicians had a glimmering of what we now term the germtheory of disease, as was shown by their use of such expressions as_materies morbi_ and morbid poisons. Even the definite relationship ofspecial microscopic organisms to individual diseases was foreshadowed bySalisbury nearly fifty years ago. But it was not until years after thoseconceptions, and in no wise descended from or led up to by them, that anintelligible and satisfactory germ theory of disease was formulated. It is to Pasteur, the immortal chemist, that we owe this theory, as wellas that of the attenuation of viruses--both of more than theoreticalimport, since they have given us aseptic surgery, the power offrequently preventing hydrophobia, the antitoxine treatment ofdiphtheria, and the ability to stay the hand of Death in the form ofmany a stalking pestilence. Every infectious disease is now held to bedue to its own particular micro-organism, and many diseases that werenot until recently thought to be infectious are now classed as suchbecause they have been proved to be caused by living germs. Conspicuousamong these diseases is pulmonary consumption. In the case of almostevery one of these diseases we have discovered the specific germ and areable to demonstrate its presence, either by its microscopicalappearance, by its behavior on contact with certain stains, or by theforms that cultures of it assume. The micro-organism of small-pox andthat of cancer (the existence of which is assumed) have not yet beenisolated. Some of these germs, like that of tetanus (lockjaw), gainentrance to the system only through a wound; others, like those oftyphoid fever and cholera, are swallowed; others, like that ofpneumonia, are inhaled; still others, like that of tuberculous disease, are either swallowed or inhaled. Some are believed to be transmissibleto the unborn child; and a few are ordinarily harmless parasites, becoming pathogenic only when they accidentally gain access to otherparts of the system than those which constitute their natural habitat. These microscopic organisms do not by their mere presence set updisease, unless indeed they are in such overwhelming numbers as to blockthe capillary blood vessels mechanically. Some of them are carriedbroadcast in the blood current, while others remain at the point ofentrance; in either case they elaborate certain products, termedtoxines, which act, either locally or through the circulation, to causethe disease. These toxines eventually kill the micro-organisms thatproduced them, quite as an animal may be smothered in its ownexhalations; or at least they would do so if the "host" survived longenough for the completion of the process. Meantime, they have eitherkilled the "host" or been defeated by certain very interesting naturalprocesses. But before either of these occurrences has had time to takeplace, fortunately, in the great majority of instances, save those ofexposure to the most deadly of infections, the vital power of theinvaded individual has coped successfully with the invaders at the verypoint of attack--has repulsed the attacking party without appreciableimpairment of its own force--and no illness results. For example, practically all of us inhale the germ of consumption repeatedly, butmost of us suffer no harm from it simply because the fluids which bathethe surface on which the germ effects a lodgment are endowed withproperties which either kill the germ or rob it of its power for harm;but these properties suffice only when the general health is unimpaired. In case the attack is not successfully repelled at the outset, whathappens? There begins a struggle between the invaders and what may becalled the reserves of the organism, consisting of the white bloodcorpuscles, which undergo a great augmentation in number. Thesecorpuscles are endowed with the faculty of amoeboid movement; that is tosay, they may shoot out projections from their substance, and evenconvert themselves for the time being into traps, seizing upon thepathogenic bacteria, incarcerating them within their own mass, andcarrying them away to be thrust out of the system by organs whosefunction it is to eliminate extraneous matter. These corpuscles are, indeed, said figuratively to _eat_ the malign micro-organisms, whencethey have been termed phagocytes (from [Greek: phagein], to eat, and[Greek: kutos], a cell); also because they carry away refuse andnoxious material, they have been called "the scavengers of the system. "By means of their amoeboid movement they are enabled to worm themselvesthrough inconceivably minute apertures in the blood vessels, and attackand devour peccant matter wherever it may have effected a lodgment. These white corpuscles are also known as leucocytes, and their increasein number when they are called upon to resist bacterial invasion isspoken of as hyperleucocytosis. The discovery of their protectivefunction is to be credited to Metchnikoff, a Russian physician nowteaching in Paris. When they migrate from the blood vessels in greatnumbers they finally, after having fulfilled their office as phagocytes, degenerate into the corpuscular elements of pus, which is the creamyliquid contained in an abscess. Their migratory power was discoveredby Cohnheim. But as a general thing the phagocytes do not succeed in making away withall the pathogenic germs, or even with enough of them to prevent theillness which they tend to produce. The further combat is between thepoisonous products, termed toxines, engendered by the bacteria andcertain antidotal substances, called antitoxines, newly created in thewatery portion of the blood by some wonderful provision of Nature thatis not yet well understood. Each infective disease has its specialtoxine, and for the destruction of each the blood prepares itsparticular antitoxine; possibly, however, some of the antitoxines may beefficacious against more than one kind of toxine, for there arephysicians who are convinced that vaccination is a temporary preventiveof whooping-cough. But the elaboration of an antitoxine takes time, andthe result in any given case, whether in recovery or in death, seems tobe settled by the ability or inability of the vital powers of theindividual to hold out until they are relieved by the evolution of thenecessary amount of antitoxine. In the long run, provided the sick person survives, more antitoxine isgenerated than is required to save life. The excess remains in thesystem for a greater or lesser length of time, and this fact explainsthe individual's subsequent immunity to the disease from which he hasrecovered; any fresh invading force of the microbes of that diseasefinds that defensive preparations have been made in advance. In the caseof some diseases this acquired immunity is usually lifelong, as in thatof small-pox; in others, of which influenza is a notable example, it isas a rule very transitory; and there are all gradations between the two. It is thought that this acquired immunity to some diseases may betransmitted to the offspring, for it is quite certain that there aremany people who are from birth insusceptible to scarlet fever, no matterwhat may be the extent of their exposure to that disease. The recognition of Nature's elaboration of protective antitoxines hasled to their artificial cultivation in the lower animals, and, thusproduced, they have been used with brilliant results in the preventionand cure of at least one formidable disease, diphtheria. The immensereduction of the mortality from this disease that has followed theintroduction of the treatment with the artificial antitoxine we owe toBehring, of Germany, and Roux, of France. Omitting unnecessary details, we may describe the process of obtaining diphtheria antitoxine asfollows: A certain amount of diphtheritic poison (of the bacteriologicalsort, prepared by cultivating the diphtheria microbe) is injected intothe circulation of a horse--sufficient to make the horse sick, but notenough to endanger his life. The horse's system straightway begins toelaborate the protective antitoxine, and there results from this oneinjection a sufficient amount of it to save the horse, although far toolittle to make the serum of his blood potent enough for medicinal use. Hence, after the lapse of a suitable interval, he is again injected withdiphtheritic poison, and for the second time his blood begins togenerate the antitoxine. And the process is repeated again and again, the virulence of the poison being increased each time, until the horse'sblood is fairly reeking with antitoxine. Then blood is drawn freely fromthe horse, and it is allowed to separate into clot and serum, thelatter alone being the part destined for use. This serum is tested on asmall animal that has been inoculated with a deadly dose of thediphtheritic poison; if it saves the little creature from death, it isassumed to be potent enough for use on human beings, and, handled withall possible precautions against putrefaction or any contamination withpathogenic bacteria, it is furnished to physicians, its degree ofpotency being designated in "units. " If in this brief article, which does not purport to be more than asketch of the tremendous strides made by medicine in the NineteenthCentury, so much space has been given to the germ theory of disease, itis because the demonstration of the truth of that theory has beenabsolute, and has constituted the very marrow of almost all the medicalprogress of the century that has been the outcome of continuous thoughtand study as opposed to chance discovery. Such results as the germ theory has now led to in the treatment ofdiphtheria it had already accomplished in the field of surgery as aconsequence of that strict asepticism which, originating with JosephLister (now Lord Lister), and rapidly carried by him to a conditionverging on technical completeness, was soon taken up by surgeons allover the world and brought wellnigh to perfection, so that the mortalityof wounds of all sorts has been tremendously reduced, and many surgicaloperations are now practised frequently--indeed, whenever the occasionfor them arises--that before the days of Listerism would have beenlooked upon as almost tantamount to the patient's death-warrant. Moreparticularly is this the case as to operations which involve openinginto the abdomen, the chest, or the cranium. So little risk now attachesto such operations, properly performed, that the opening of theabdominal cavity for the mere purpose of ascertaining the condition ofits contents--"exploratory laparotomy, " as it is called--is a matter ofconstant occurrence. Curiously enough, in some way not yetsatisfactorily explained, that procedure in itself, without anythingfurther being done, has in many instances resulted in decidedamelioration of a morbid condition, if not in its cure. A strikingexample of this is seen in the benefit that often results in cases ofone form of "consumption of the bowels, " namely, tuberculous disease ofthe membrane that lines the abdominal wall and invests the abdominalorgans. This is not the only operation that does good mysteriously; thatof cutting out a bit of the iris in a form of deep-seated eye disease, glaucoma, that tends toward complete blindness, is hardly moreexplicable; neither is an incision of the capsule of the kidney forcertain forms of Bright's disease, each of which stays the progress ofthe trouble in a goodly proportion of instances. Another of the great divisions of the healing art, that of midwifery, has been enhanced quite as much as general surgery by the employment ofListerism. The process of childbirth, although a perfectly natural one, almost necessarily carries with it a certain amount of laceration, and, through the wound surfaces thus produced, absorption of poisonousmaterial was formerly so frequent that puerperal fever figuredprominently in mortality reports. It was Oliver Wendell Holmes--agraduate in medicine and a professor in the Harvard Medical School, though we are accustomed to think of him only as a delightfulwriter--who first declared that puerperal fever was the product ofinfection from without the body, and Semmelweis demonstrated the truthof the proposition. Holmes was a teacher of physiology, and his study ofthat branch of medical science was in itself enough to convince him ofthe doctrine which he inculcated. Listerism must be credited, not only with having added immensely to thesafety of the major operations of surgery, but also with having led togreat improvement of their technics by reason of the greatly increasedfrequency with which it has come to be thought justifiable to practisethem; what we do again and again we are apt in the end to do well, whereas that which we turn to only in despair and as rarely as possible, we do clumsily and imperfectly. Listerism has been unjustly alleged bya few to be unworthy of the appreciation in which it is held by thegreat majority of medical men of all countries; simple cleanliness, ithas been urged, is quite as efficient as the full Listerian precautions. This is begging the question, for simple cleanliness, "chemicalcleanliness, " is all that Listerism purports to accomplish. The use ofantiseptics has been decried in the interest of asepticism, as if thewhole purpose of antisepticism were not to secure asepsis. Lord Listeris entitled to the full credit of establishing the aseptic surgery ofthe present day, in spite of the facts that his doctrine followed ratherthan preceded his early improvements, that aseptic procedures have beenbrought nearer perfection elsewhere than in his own country, and thatthe whole system rests on foundations laid by Pasteur. While it is quite true that to the Listerian theory and practice arealmost wholly to be ascribed the favorable results of the major surgeryof the present day, we must not forget the immeasurable benefits to thediseased, the injured, and the crippled that have arisen from patientefforts and occasional brilliant intuition that have had no connectionwith the germ theory of infection. Take the case of a broken leg, forexample, an injury that formerly condemned the victim to weeks and weeksof confinement to bed, together with the suffering and danger almostinseparable from the old methods of the long straight splint and tightbandaging. At the present time he who has met with such a misfortune iscommonly able to be about on crutches within a few days, and his brokenbone mends while he is cultivating his appetite and indulging inpleasant intercourse with his fellow-men. This great change has beenmade possible by one device after another, invented by different men. Josiah Crosby introduced the use of sticking-plaster for extension, instead of the chafing bands previously employed; Gurdon Bucksubstituted elastic extension by means of a weight and pulley for therude and arbitrary traction in vogue before; James L. Little devised theplaster-of-Paris splint, whereby broken bones were immobilized withhardly appreciable discomfort; and Henry B. Sands established the safetyand practicability of applying the plaster-of-Paris splint almostimmediately after the reduction ("setting") of the fracture. In themeantime Nathan R. Smith and John T. Hodgen had demonstrated theadvantages of suspending a fractured limb from above. All these men wereAmericans; surely our country has contributed powerfully to thewell-being of the subjects of fracture. Other Americans, notably LewisA. Sayre, have enabled sufferers with joint disease, including thedreaded hip disease, to run about and gain health and strength, insteadof languishing in bed. Sayre, too, by his suspension treatment and theplaster-of-Paris jacket, set the hunchback on his feet at a stage in hisdisease in which before he had been forced to prolonged and painfulrecumbency. Although men professing special skill in certain operations, anddoubtless possessing it, flourished in old times, and left more or lessof their impress on the surgery of the present day, for that matter, itwas not until the second half of the Nineteenth Century that regionalsurgery (which is what specialism virtually amounts to) wassystematically cultivated. Now there is hardly a portion of the body towhich practitioners who make its ailments a specialty do not directtheir searching methods of examination or on which they do not practisetheir ingenious devices in the way of treatment. Specialism has alwaysbeen decried by a large section of the medical profession. On the otherhand, it has been and is still overrated by the laity. The true estimatelies between the two. The specialists have advanced surgery immensely, but, with many honorable exceptions, they have laid too much stress ontheir several specialties, making too wide a range of ailments fallwithin them. As for the community at large, their shortcoming lies inthe fact that most of them would seek for a specialist in mumps in casethat painful but transitory infliction were to come upon them, and intheir underrating of the family physician. To change for a moment to a topic akin to the germ theory of disease, the reader may be reminded that the antitoxine treatment of infectiousdisease involves in almost every instance the use of some productcontained in the serum (that is to say, the watery part of the blood). This leads to the subject of the use of natural and artificial serum inthe treatment of disease. To quote again from the article entitled, "TheNineteenth Century in Medicine" ("New York Medical Journal, " Dec. 29, 1900): "It has been observed that the normal serum of certain animalsthat are insusceptible to particular infectious diseases, if injectedinto the human blood current or even into the subcutaneous tissue, confers more or less of immunity against those diseases. .. . Artificialserum seems to have been first employed by Edmund R. Peaslee as a benignapplication to the peritonaeum in the operation of ovariotomy. Hisconception of its mode of action is not very clear, but he was a verysuccessful ovariotomist, and we can only conjecture that he buildedbetter than he knew, like many another man. A few years ago much wasexpected from transfusion of blood, but gradually the conviction hasforced itself upon us that it is wellnigh useless, and indeed that, onthe whole, it is worse than useless. It has virtually been abandoned. .. . But experiments in transfusion have not been fruitless; they haveculminated in demonstrating the inestimable value of infusions of'normal, ' or 'physiological, ' solutions of sodium chloride, and not onlyof infusions, but also of peritoneal irrigation with such solutions. Many a life has been saved by resorting to this measure, even inapparently desperate cases. " Within about a decade of the close of the century, Robert Koch, whosediscoveries and ingenious studies in bacteriology had brought himworld-wide renown, announced that he had produced a derivative of thetubercle bacillus, which he termed tuberculin, that he thought mightprove curative of tuberculous disease. It was to be injected beneath theskin. If the subject was really tuberculous, he would "react" bymanifesting a certain degree of fever, and repeated injections wouldbring about elimination of the tuberculous deposits and thus effect acure. The world was carried away with such an announcement coming fromsuch a man, and it was thoroughly believed that at last "the great whiteplague, " consumption, was to be conquered. Tuberculin did, indeed, curecertain minor forms of tuberculous disease, such as the skin affectionknown as lupus, but it soon became evident that it was almost impotentin the treatment of pulmonary consumption. It has, however, served toenable the veterinarian to make out the existence of tuberculous diseasein cattle at an early stage of its course, and it is probable that bythe slaughter of cattle thus found to be tuberculous much infection ofhuman beings has been prevented. Tuberculin failed of its prime purpose, but it does seem to have markedthe initiative of a campaign against consumption which has alreadyproved of incalculable benefit, and bids fair to put that omnipresentdisease toward the foot of the list of causes of death. We have madesubstantial advances in our knowledge of the disease, and we no longerregard it as incurable. We have learned that it is communicable from oneperson to another, but also that its communication can easily beprevented, so that there is no reason to shrink from association withtuberculous persons. We have learned, too, that consumption in one'sprogenitors, immediate or remote, hardly makes it even probable that hehimself is doomed to suffer with it; the only tuberculous heredity thatwe now recognize is that of defective ability to withstand theinfection, and even this we regard as in most instances readilysurmountable. We have learned, furthermore, that pulmonary tuberculousdisease is by no means so fatal as it was formerly esteemed, for menwhose business it is to make great numbers of post-mortem examinations, such as coroners' physicians and hospital pathologists, assure us thatin a very large percentage of cases of death from other causes they findindubitable signs of past tuberculous disease of the lungs which hadceased its activity--been, in fact, cured, either spontaneously or bymedical intervention. Such intervention, it has been abundantly proved, is altogether likely to be successful if it is of the right sort andemployed early. There is, to be sure, no cure-all. Powerful as theclimatic treatment is, it must be supplemented by measures accuratelyadapted to the individual case, and failure to comprehend this factstill leads many a phthisical person to his grave. But information israpidly being diffused, sanatoria for such of the tuberculous as cantake advantage of them are multiplying, and those who are shut off fromtheir aid are growing more and more cognizant of how they should live inorder to give themselves the best chance of recovery and save theirassociates from infection. The era of consumption-cures--meaningdrugs--is past; but the disease is cured in an ever-increasingproportion of instances, and that, too, by medical though notmedicinal measures. At almost every turn medicine has been powerfully assisted by thesciences which should rather be termed correlative than subsidiary. Notable among them is chemistry. The isolation of the active principlesof medicinal plants--such as morphine, quinine, strychnine, andcocaine--has been a remarkable service rendered by chemistry tomedicine. How should we be handicapped if we still had to fightmalarial disease with the crude Peruvian bark instead of its chiefalkaloid, quinine! And how impracticable if not impossible would it beto render the eye insensitive to pain with any extract of coca leaves, no matter how concentrated--a purpose that we accomplish almostinstantly with cocaine! Of minor importance, perhaps, but not to bedespised, is the resulting liberation from the old slavery to bulky andnauseous drugs. The isolation of active principles long antedated thesynthetical preparations, but the latter came at last--the marvellousarray of hypnotics, anodynes, and fever-quellers that are now at ourcommand, largely coal-tar products. But it is not to pure chemistryalone that we are indebted for the elegant dosing of the present day;progressive pharmacy, with its tablets, its coated pills, and itscapsules, has put to shame the old-time purveyor of galenicals. Rightjauntily do we now take our "soda mint" in case of slight derangement ofthe stomach, happily oblivious of its vile prototype, the old rhubarband soda mixture. Even castor oil has been stripped of its repulsivenessby the combinations which the soda water fountain affords. It was but a step, we can now realize, from the employment of isolatedvegetable principles to that of preparations of certain glandular organsof the animal economy, but the doctrine of "internal secretions" had tointervene, and its evolution took time; not till toward the close of thecentury did the venerable Brown-Séquard lead up to it. We have not yetcome to "eye of newt and toe of frog, " but what we have incorporatedinto modern therapeutics in the way of animal products lends at leastsome theoretical justification to the ancient use of the dried organs ofvarious animals. It is but a few years since the "ductless glands"--suchorgans, as, for example, the thyreoid gland (an organ situated in thefront of the neck, a small affair in its normal state, but prominent andeven pendulous when by its permanent enlargement it comes to constitutea goître)--were looked upon as puzzles, as structures destitute of anyknown function. Some observers even affirmed that they had no function, though the constancy of goître in cretins ought to have shown thefallacy of this allegation in the case of the thyreoid. We do not nowneed to be told that the thyreoid gland plays a very important part inthe economy, for we know that its surgical removal gives rise to aspecial disease known as myxoedema, which, in addition to its physicalmanifestations, is characterized by impairment of the mental powers. Consequently, this ductless gland--a gland, that is to say, which has noobvious canal by which it throws off any product of its activity--mustelaborate some material that is necessary to the health of the organismand is imparted to the blood. That material, whatever it may be, istermed an "internal secretion. " Some of the internal secretions haveturned out to be of singular value medicinally. It is apparently not theductless glands alone that furnish internal secretions; the glands thatare provided with ducts and yield a definite and observable productsecrete also a substance (perhaps more than one) which they give up tothe blood. Prominent among the therapeutic advances of the century is the directreduction of the high temperature of sunstroke and certain fevers by theuse of cold. Although foreshadowed by Currie early in the century by hisuse of cold affusion in the treatment of scarlet fever, it did not comeinto general use until the closing decades. It is employed principallyin typhoid fever, on the theory that a condition of high fever is initself a source of danger quite distinct from the other injuriouseffects of a febrile disease. On the other hand, the employment of highdegrees of heat has of late been shown to be a potent agency in thetreatment of certain forms of disease, notably in various affectionsclassed as rheumatic. Applications of very hot air, provided it isthoroughly dry, are borne without serious discomfort, and theiremployment promises to be of greater service in the conditions in whichit is resorted to than that of any other agent. A revelation in the treatment of heart disease has been effected by theBad Nauheim system of effervescent baths and resisted exercises. It isnot only functional disorders of the heart that are relieved, but graveorganic diseases also. Somewhat elaborate explanations of the way inwhich the treatment proves beneficial have been given, but they are notaltogether satisfactory. Thus far we have dealt chiefly with those developments of medicine thatseem to have been the outgrowth of much thought and experiment, butthere was one that can hardly be viewed as other than a happy discovery, yet it was one that was fraught with unspeakable mitigation of humansuffering, and that wrought a boundless extension of the field ofsurgery. It was that of anaesthesia. The first to discover an efficientsurgical anaesthetic was Crawford W. Long, of Georgia. It has beenestablished that he performed several minor operations with the patientanaesthetized with sulphuric ether, but he did not proclaim hisdiscovery, and so it was reserved for William T. G. Morton, of Boston(then a dentist, but subsequently a physician), to make the first publicdemonstration of the efficiency of ether as an anaesthetic, which he didin the operating theatre of the Massachusetts General Hospital, inBoston, in the year 1846. The news of Morton's achievement spreadbroadcast, and it was at once realized that it was destined torevolutionize surgery. It certainly has done that, and in no lessdegree than was afterward accomplished by Listerism. Ether did not longremain the only anaesthetic known; Simpson, of Edinburgh, soondiscovered that chloroform was possessed of even more decidedanaesthetic properties. The inhalation of ether is disagreeable, and itis slow in producing the desired effect, whereas that of chloroform isnot unpleasant, and it acts more rapidly. Consequently chloroform sooncame to be generally preferred; but abundant experience has finallyshown that ether is much the safer agent of the two, and improvedmethods of administration have almost entirely done away with theobjections to its use, so that now it is looked upon as the preferablegeneral anaesthetic. But general anaesthesia--meaning the suspension ofsensibility in the whole organism, including unconsciousness--is notalways necessary, and sometimes it is undesirable. We have nowtrustworthy local anaesthetics, the chief of which is cocaine, wherewithwe are able to anaesthetize the part to be operated on without renderingthe patient unconscious, and the co-operation that a conscious patientmay be able to render is sometimes valuable. It was not alone in thedirect saving of human suffering that anaesthetics proved a boon to theworld; they have made possible an amount of experimental work on animalsin the way of vivisection that humane investigators would otherwise haveshrunk from, necessary as it has been and still is for the advancementof the healing art. The operation of ovariotomy, first performed by Ephraim McDowell, ofKentucky, can hardly be classed with the happy accidents; but so littlehad been said about it or thought concerning it that when the news of itreached Europe "from the wilds of America" the editor of a ponderousEnglish quarterly journal of medicine recorded his incredulity in thewords "_Credat Judoeus, non ego_" An ovarian tumor inevitably provesfatal in the long run if it is not removed. In a certain percentage ofcases it is malignant and will kill whether it is removed or not, butthe general result of ovariotomy has been the saving of thousands ofwomen from untimely death. Bell, of Edinburgh, had imagined theoperation and had mentioned it in his lectures, but none the less toMcDowell is due the credit of demonstrating its feasibility. Medicine bore quite its full share in the mitigation of the horrors andhardships of war that marked the Nineteenth Century. Its work was shownin the great reduction of pestilential disease incident to camp life, inprompt aid to the wounded, in the establishment of salubrious field andgeneral hospitals, and in improved methods of transportation of the sickand wounded. Certainly the soldier on the sick list never before hadsuch a fair prospect of rejoining his comrades safe and sound as hehas now. In the care of the insane, too--care not only in the sense of humanetreatment, but in the systematic employment of measures for theirrestoration to mental soundness--the century has been marked by notableprogress. This has been chiefly in the direction of preventing insanity, and although mental disease is said to be on the increase, it mayundoubtedly be said with entire truth that its growing prevalence is notin proportion to the heightened frequency of "the strenuous life. " Wemay confidently expect that a more pronounced mastery over diseases ofthe mind will come when physicians in general are taught psychiatryclinically, so that the beginnings of mental alienation may beintelligently met by the family practitioner. The supreme achievement of the medicine of the Nineteenth Centuryundoubtedly has been the development of its preventive feature. When werecall the fact that but a few years ago an attack of infectious diseasewas interpreted as a visitation of Providence, by a perversity that eventhe triumphs of vaccination did not serve to do away with; when wecontemplate the well-ordered and well-understood measures that are nowresorted to in an ever-increasing number of communities (and resorted tonot solely on the outbreak of an epidemic, but at all times), to purifythe air we breathe, the food we eat, and the water we drink; and when wereflect upon the greatly reduced morbidity as well as mortality of mostinfectious diseases--we must realize the immense service that has beenrendered by preventive medicine. No doubt we must all die some time, andthe day is yet far remote when the only causes of death will be old ageand injury; but a decided prolongation of the average lifetime, such asthe life-insurance companies recognize, is an unquestionable gain to thehuman race. A great blessing that has been brought about in great measure by medicalmen has been the establishment of the profession of nursing. The work ofcaring for the sick between the physician's visits is no longer, atleast in large communities and in cases of severe illness, left toover-sympathetic and uninstructed relatives or to outsiders who tradedon mystery. An intelligent and intelligible record is now kept of allimportant happenings in the sick room, remedies are administered as theywere ordered, needless alarm at something deemed by the patient to be ofill omen is quelled, and in case of real emergency, overlooked as itmight otherwise have been, the physician is summoned to meet it. Theadvent of the trained nurse marked an era in medicine. The literature of medicine has fully kept pace in volume with theprogress of the art itself, and its quality has steadily improved. Tothis the great tomes of that gigantic work, the "Index-Catalogue of theLibrary of the Surgeon-General's Office, United States Army, " bearsolid testimony. It is a consolidated catalogue, by subjects and byauthors' names, of practically every medical book published throughoutthe world and of every article in the periodical literature of medicine. For its existence the world is indebted to Dr. John S. Billings, formerly a surgeon of high rank in the army and now the director of theNew York Public Library, and for its continued existence to the UnitedStates Government, and it is to be hoped that Congress will never ceaseto provide adequately for its continued publication. Its completenessand its accuracy long ago led to its being prized everywhere. There are some problems of which medicine has hardly yet entered uponthe solution. Prominent among them is that of cancer. Little as we nowknow of the real nature of that disease, we know quite as much of it aswe knew but a few years ago concerning other diseases equallydestructive and far more prevalent, which, however, we have nowpractically mastered. Who can say that we shall not triumph over cancerwhile the Twentieth Century is still young? Our final triumph isindubitable. The strongest individuality in the medicine of the Nineteenth Centurywas without doubt that of Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (commonly writtenby him simply Rudolf Virchow). Although he took no direct part in anyof the striking advances in practice that appeal to the laity, yet hewas recognized the world over, among all classes of educated andwell-informed persons, as the one beacon light of Nineteenth-Centurymedicine whose glow had been the steadiest and the most enduring. Thisis because of the wide range of his learning in matters not pertainingclosely to his profession. His professional brethren hold the same view, and this is because he so well controlled himself--checked himself atevery turn by the severest application of system--that he continued formore than half a century an anchor to hold medical thought strictly downto fact. This was from no natural lack of volatility, for he was an_Acht-und-vierziger_ (Forty-eighter). In 1846, as a prosector in theUniversity of Berlin, Virchow entered with Reinhardt upon a series ofpathological investigations which at once received wide attention. Inconjunction with Reinhardt, he founded the _Archiv für pathologischeAnatomie und Physiologie und für klinische Medicin_[6] (a periodicalfamiliarly called "Virchow's _Archiv_"), the publication of which wasbegun in the year 1847. Reinhardt died in 1852, leaving the editorshipin the hands of Virchow alone, and he was still its editor up to thetime of his death, on September 5, 1902. [Footnote 6: Archives of Pathological Anatomy and Physiology and ofClinical Medicine. ] In consequence of his having openly proclaimed himself a Democrat in1848, Virchow was forced to retire from the University of Berlin in thefollowing year. He was at once made a professor in the University ofWürzburg, whence seven years later, in 1856, as the result of thestrenuous interposition of various medical organizations, he wasrecalled to Berlin, where he was made a professor and director of thePathological Institute. He was appointed medical privy councillor in1874, having several years before that entered upon an active politicalcareer and been one of the founders of the Progressive party, which heably represented in the Landtag and the Reichstag. In 1869 he took partin founding the German and the Berlin Anthropological Societies, of eachof which he was several times president. Virchow investigated the most diverse subjects, as his profound studiesof Schliemann's discoveries, as well as his other archaeologicalresearches, show, and he was a rather prolific writer. The mostimportant of his early works was _Die Cellularpathologie_, the firstedition of which was published in 1858. Chance's English translationappeared in 1860, and Picard's French version came out in 1861. It issafe to say that no book of the century exerted a profounder influenceon medical thought than Virchow's exposition of the cellular pathology. His next notable publication was a collection of thirty lectures onTumors (_Die krankhaften Geschwülste_, [7] Berlin, 1863-67). That he wasnot too absorbed in these lectures to bring his great powers to bearupon topics of the day is shown by the fact that before theirpublication was completed he brought out his work on Trichinae(_Darstellung der Lehre von den Trichinen_, 1864). Old age found himwith industry and versatility unabated, for it was in 1892 that his_Crania ethnica americana_ appeared, and after that time he wrote avigorous protest against the new-fangled spelling of the German languagewhich he accused the schoolmasters of trying to foist on the people. This was published in his _Archiv_. It may well be that his argumentshave not been unavailing, since it is observable that several Germanpublications that had adopted the new spelling have now dropped it. [Footnote 7: Morbid Tumors. ] It must not be supposed that it was by his literary work alone, foundedthough it was manifestly on his profound study, that Virchow impressedhis personality upon medicine; it was in his lectures and in hislaboratory teaching, too, that he made himself felt. In all civilizedcountries there are many devoted workers in medical science who caughttheir first real inspiration from Virchow. The writer once saw Virchow--only once, but it was a sight never to beforgotten. It was at a banquet given as one of the festivities incidentto the annual meeting of the British Medical Association in London in1873. The company was not a large one, but it included such celebritiesas Professor J. Burdon Sanderson, Sir William Jenner, ProfessorChauveau, and Professor Marey. Virchow was conspicuously the man towardwhom the eyes of all others were oftenest directed. Virchow met with thelove as well as the admiration of his contemporaries, and bothsentiments will descend to their successors, for his impress on therecords of medicine is indelible, both as an instructor and as a friendof all real truth-seekers. AUTHORITIES. There is no full and connected account of the progress of medicineduring the Nineteenth Century, but the reader may consult with profitthe various medical biographies, also the following works: Silliman's "ACentury of Medicine and Chemistry;" Jenner's "The Practical Medicine ofTo-day;" Buck's "Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences;"Eulenburg's "Real-Encyclopädie der gesammten Heilkunde;" the "AnnusMedicus, " published in the _Lancet_ at the close of each year; andTinker's "America's Contributions to Surgery" (Bulletin of the JohnsHopkins Hospital, Aug. -Sept. , 1902).