DEPARTMENT OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, MELBOURNE. AUSTRALIA: _The_ Dairy Country Dairy Farmers are specially invited and assisted to come to Australia because it is considered that in a progressive young Country with so much Territory adapted for Dairying such Settlers will advance the interest of the Country and of themselves. PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE MINISTER OF STATE FOR EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA . . . . 1915. By Authority: McCARRON, BIRD & CO. , Printers. 479 Collins Street, Melbourne. [Illustration: Note the Shedding is of very light description. ] CONTENTS. PAGE Bacon-Curing 48 Bee Farming 21 Breeds of Cattle in Use 33 Butter Exported 11 Cheese-making 47 Clearing Land 45 Condensed Milk 36 Conditions of Selection 45 Co-op. Factories, Facilities given 36 Cost of Starting a Farm 27, 34 Dairy Herds 47 Experiences of Farmers 35 Facilities Offered to Dairymen 31, 38, 42 Gov'mnt. Assistance to the Farmer 31 Grasses 35 Growth of the Industry 10 Labour Conditions 5 Land for Dairy Farming 26, 31, 32, 43 Land, Price of 26, 33, 43 Monetary Aid to Settlers 25 New South Wales 26-27 Pig Raising 14 Poultry Farming 20 Profit per Cow 33, 40 Queensland 31-36 Seasons 7 South Australia 37-40 Share System of Dairying 22 Size of Average Herd 34 State Supervision 12 Stock, Price of 33 Tasmania 44-48 Victoria 27-31 Western Australia 40-44 Winter Feed 35 Information Concerning AUSTRALIA may be obtained on application to-- IN AMERICA: AUSTRALIAN PAVILION, PANAMA PACIFIC EXHIBITION. NIEL NIELSEN, Esq. , Trade and Immigration Commissioner for New South Wales, 419 Market Street, San Francisco. F. T. A. FRICKE, Esq. , Land and Immigration Agent for Victoria, 687 Market Street, San Francisco. IN LONDON: The High Commissioner for THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, 72 Victoria Street, Westminster, London, S. W. IN AUSTRALIA: THE SECRETARY, DEPARTMENT OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS, Collins and Spring Streets, Melbourne. The suitability of Australia as a country for the dairyman is referredto in the report of the Scottish Agricultural Commission, [A] who touredthe States of the Commonwealth in 1910-11, in the following terms:-- [Illustration: An up-to-date Milking Yard. ] "The practice of dairying, in a limited domestic sense, as applied to the milking of a few cows and the making of a little butter and cheese for family use, is as old as the history of mankind, and in that restricted meaning dairying has been carried on in Australia since the arrival of the first settlers. But the industry as existing there to-day is a vastly different matter, being already of great importance, and promising rapid and extensive development. It is a young industry, so recently out of its infancy that if this report had been written fifteen years ago the section on dairying might have been almost as brief as the famous chapter on snakes in Ireland. [Illustration: Cream Carts at the Factory. ] "The live stock brought to Sydney by Captain Phillip in 1788, and sent to propagate their kind at Farm Cove, consisted of one bull, four cows, one calf, and seven pigs. Their descendants in 1908 included about ten and a-half millions of cattle, of which nearly two millions were dairy cows. This is about one cow for every two persons in the Commonwealth, which seems a large proportion, but as it means only one cow for every two square miles in Australia, there is ample room for expansion. In Great Britain we have about twenty-six cows for every square mile, and only one cow for every fifteen people. These figures indicate that in proportion to its population Australia is much more of a dairying country than Great Britain, but that in proportion to its area, it has developed the industry much less extensively, and is still capable of making enormous growth. Until within comparatively recent years there was little dairying anywhere in the Commonwealth, and what little there was appears to have been carried on by somewhat primitive methods. Modern developments, the spread of scientific knowledge, the fostering care of Government, and, above everything, the advent of the separator, of the milking machine, and of the freezer have changed all that. To-day the industry is prospering and full of promise. .. . "There is no denying the fact that every State in the Commonwealth has extensive districts where dairying could be carried on very profitably. Indeed there must be very few parts of the world where Nature does so much to help and so little to hinder the provident and industrious producer of milk. "The most important advantage of all is undoubtedly the climate, and that, like many another thing of value, is a good servant, but a bad master. It would not be easy to overstate the benefit a dairyman receives from being relieved of the need for housing, hand-feeding, and tending his cows during a long winter. His cows are healthier, their feeding costs less, there is no cleaning of byres, no washing of floors, no preparing of food, no never-ending carting of turnips, no filling of sheds with hay or straw. His anxiety, his work, and his expense are reduced by half, through the simple agency of a friendly climate. And yet this same climate is also his most dangerous enemy. "There are certainly also adverse influences which must not be forgotten, but a careful examination of the whole position will probably lead to the conclusion that Australia is, on the whole, a good dairyman's country. "The advantages include:--(1) Cheap land, (2) cheap cows, (3) inexpensive buildings, (4) a climate permitting cows to be in the open all the year round, (5) a convenient market and a fair price at the factories, (6) helpful Government supervision. "The disadvantages are:--(1) Dear and scarce labour, (2) an inferior stock of milk cows, (3) occasional dry seasons, and (4) the farmer's inexperience and ignorance of scientific dairying. " These several points are touched on in this pamphlet in the chaptersdealing with the individual States, but some general remarks are offeredhere in regard to the four points mentioned as operatingdisadvantageously. (1) _Dear and Scarce Labour. _--Every young country at times experiencesthe difficulty of procuring sufficient skilled assistance to keep pacewith the rapid expansion of its industries. Australia is no exception. Dairy farmers there have not always been able to obtain experiencedmilkers. The farmer with children old enough to assist him is at a greatadvantage, and some of the most successful dairy farms in theCommonwealth are worked mainly by the owners and their families. Butwhere the herd is too large, or the family too small, the milkingmachine, which is really a valuable aid to the dairyman, has beenpressed into use, with satisfactory results. [Illustration: A fine herd of Holsteins. ] There is no doubt that rapid as has been the expansion of this industryin Australia, its development has been distinctly retarded by the wantof reliable milkers. But what is the farmer's bane is the farm labourer's boon. The scarcityof labour has checked the farmer's operations, but it gives the manseeking employment a wider field. Competent milkers readily find employment at $4. 80 to $6. 00 per week andkeep. In every important district good dairy hands also have facilitiesextended to them for entering into arrangements for dairying on shares, with profit to themselves (see pp. 16-18). (2) _An Inferior Stock of Milk Cows. _--The fact that while in manydistricts there are to be found dairy herds averaging barely 300 gallonsper cow per annum, with a butter fat percentage of little over 3. 5, carried on the same class of land as herds which average over 500gallons per cow, with over 4 per cent. Butter fat, will enable any dairyfarmer to realise how much room there is for improvement in thisthriving young industry, and what scope there is for the man accustomedto get the best results from his land and his herd. But the Governmentsof the respective States afford special facilities by way of importingand placing at the disposal of farmers stud cattle of the higheststandards. Private persons are also doing a great deal in importing andbreeding high-class animals. Herd-testing associations are becoming morenumerous. Farmers are learning that it is profitable to keep milkrecords and to cull out of their herds the cows that do not give payableyields, and pronounced advancement is being made in this direction. (3) _Occasional Dry Seasons. _--The effects of dry spells, whichsometimes occur even in the best-watered dairying districts, can begreatly minimised by the conservation of fodder, by cheap and easymethods of silage. So rich is the country in succulent natural grasses, and so congenial is the climate, that farmers exhibit a tendency to relytoo much on the bounty of the seasons. This is what the ScottishCommission meant when they referred to the friendly climate as being thedairyman's most dangerous enemy. It is true that in normal years milchcows may depasture the whole year long on the natural pastures, and onthis food alone yield milk of magnificent flavour, producing butter andcheese of the highest quality. But there should be put by to supplementthe natural fodder during dry times a supply of food either as hay orsilage. The experts of the various agricultural departments stronglyadvocate the use of the silo, but the advice has not yet been generallyadopted. As the loss in the silo is insignificant, it can be realised how cheaplyample stores of the best class of stand-by fodder can be conserved. Silos to hold 100 tons cost about $480. 00 to construct, and a cutter andelevator about $144. 00. To this would have to be added the cost of ahorse-works or engine, but until a settler is in a position to indulgein the most up-to-date outfit, he can follow the usual practice ofserving his greenstuff in the form of stack silage, which entails a verymoderate outlay. [Illustration: Silos, Victoria. ] Many crops excellent for silage are easily grown, and the cultivationareas need never be idle for a day at any time of the year. As one cropbecomes fit to use, the land can be replanted irrespective of weatherconditions. For instance, in spring (September) maize or sorghum can besown, either over the whole area at once or at intervals of a week or amonth up to January. In three to three and a-half months, during whichtime the pastures are at their best, and there is no need forsupplementary fodder, the first of the areas will be ready for use asgreen fodder, or for conversion into silage to serve as a cheap andjuicy winter fodder. In many districts as soon as the earliest-sownmaize crop is harvested a second maize or sorghum crop is planted, andby the time that is ready to cut, barley and vetches or field peas canbe planted to come in to supplement the stores of winter fodder. [Illustration: A fine growth of Sorghum--Victoria. --An excellent foddercrop. ] Maize is harvested for silage when the cobs are well filled, and thegrain is beginning to glaze; at this stage a normal crop will yieldabout 20 tons greenstuff per acre. Sorghum will produce about 15 tons, and barley and vetches or peas about 10 tons per acre. Wheat and oatsare often grown in order to be cut for hay, and make an excellentfodder. Another most valuable crop to the dairyman is lucerne, which will keepin a well-built stack for an indefinite time. (4) _The Farmer's inexperience and ignorance of ScientificDairying. _--To this last point the Scottish Commissioners furnish areply in their report. [Illustration: A typical Australian Dairy Farm. ] "A great many, " the report states, "of those engaged in producing milkhave had no training in the business. If a man can milk a cow, or iswilling to learn, he thinks himself quite able to run a dairy farm. Intime, if he is intelligent and observant, he becomes as expert at histrade as if he had never done anything else; but his experience hascertainly cost him a good deal. The men who are neither intelligent norobservant learn little from experience, and their dairy methods leavemuch to be desired. It is they who breed their cows anyhow, who keep nokind of milk records, who think it economy to bring in their cows to thecalving as hard as wood, who depend entirely on pasture for food, whomake no provision for drought, who have nothing to learn from anybody, and who are keeping the reputation of the Australian cow at a level muchbelow respectability. By-and-by, no doubt, this type of man will becomescarcer. The State Governments are doing what is possible to spreadabroad scientific knowledge in dairying matters, and a youngergeneration is growing up that has been made familiar both with thepractice and the theory of milk production. When their time comes it iscertain they will make dairying highly profitable. The fact that, withan average milk yield of 'something under 250 gallons per annum, ' theindustry as a whole is in a prosperous condition affords the mostremarkable testimony possible to the excellence of Australia as adairyman's country. What will happen when the average doubles itself, and attains, as it surely will, the moderate figure of 500 gallons perannum?" A Phenomenal Growth. Starting out with splendid natural advantages--a wide range of soils ofgreat fertility, indigenous grasses of high food value, and a congenialclimate--the dairying industry in Australia has made phenomenal strides. The establishment throughout the chief districts of co-operativefactories, owned and managed by the farmers themselves, and theintroduction of cold storage greatly stimulated its growth. During thelast decade its advancement has been remarkable. The Australian dairyindustry is based on the world's markets. Every year the demand invarious countries for Australian and other dairy and farmyard productsincreases, and the large home market is also expanding. The facilities for supervision, handling, and transportation areimproving, and Australian dairymen to-day obtain high prices in bothlocal and outside markets for their produce. It is stated that in SouthAustralia dairymen who delivered good cream were able to secure from thefactories an average of $0. 22 per lb. From the butter made therefrom. The following table shows at once the advance of the dairying industry(including poultry farming and bee culture):-- TEN YEARS. +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ | | 1902. | 1912. |Increase. | +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ |Dairy Cows No | 1, 113, 911 | 2, 086, 885 | 87. 34 % | |Pigs No | 777, 289 | 845, 255 | 8. 88 % | |Hives No | 80, 111 | 167, 441 |109. 01 % | |Production (quantity)-- | | | | | Butter |79, 572, 327 lbs. |187, 194, 161 lbs. |135. 25 % | | Cheese |10, 005, 787 lbs. | 16, 160, 491 lbs. | 61. 50 % | | Bacon and Ham |30, 608, 345 lbs. | 54, 192, 175 lbs. | 77. 05 % | | Honey | 2, 873, 763 lbs. | 8, 007, 492 lbs. |178. 63 % | | Beeswax | 68, 243 lbs. | 130, 959 lbs. | 91. 90 % | +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ FIVE YEARS. +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ | | 1907. | 1912. |Increase. | +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ |Production (total value) |$74, 803, 200. 00 |$97, 344, 000. 00 | 30. 13 % | +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ TEN YEARS. +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ | | 1902. | 1912. |Increase. | +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ |Exports (Value)-- | | | | | Butter | 1, 820, 371. 20 | 16, 044, 681. 60 | | | Cheese | 20, 592. 00 | 27, 648. 00 | | | Condensed Milk | 55, 689. 60 | 92, 308. 80 | | | Bacon and Hams | 37, 060. 80 | 328, 814. 40 | | | Lard | 6, 100. 80 | 177, 902. 40 | | | Frozen Pork | 70, 339. 20 | 79, 972. 80 | | | Honey | 7, 891. 20 | 9, 235. 20 | | | Other items | 269, 246. 40 | 78, 859. 20 | | |-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ | Total |$2, 287, 291. 20 |$16, 839, 422. 40 |636. 21 % | +-------------------------+----------------+----------------+---------+ [Illustration: In the Butter Factory. ] The United Kingdom purchases the great bulk of Australian butter--about88 per cent. --but considerable quantities also go to Canada, Ceylon, China, the Dutch East Indies, Egypt, Hongkong, the Islands of thePacific, Japan, Philippine Islands, the Straits Settlements and SouthAfrica. Besides the co-operative factories there are many proprietary concerns, and the farmer is benefited by the keen competition between them. Theestablishments in the Commonwealth where the manufacture of butter, cheese, and condensed milk is carried on number several hundreds. Theyare distributed throughout all the States, but they are larger and morenumerous in New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland. [Illustration: In the Cheese Factory. ] Cream separation and butter-making are often carried on together underthe co-operative system. The creation of large central butter factories, supplied by numerous separating establishments or "creameries, " hasresulted in a considerable reduction in the cost of manufacture, sinceimproved appliances, such as refrigerators, may be profitably worked atthe larger establishments. The product is also of a more uniformquality. The number of farmers who adhere to hand processes is rapidlydiminishing. Formerly the average quantity of milk used per lb. Ofhand-made butter was about 3 gallons, but separator butter requires onlyabout 2. 6 gallons. State Supervision. Each of the State Agricultural Departments exercises considerablesupervision in regard to the industry. Dairy experts are employed togive instruction in approved methods of production, to examine animals, to inspect the buildings used for milking, separating and butter-making, and to examine the marketable produce. A high standard of dairy hygiene, cleanliness of _personnel_ and _materiel_ and purity of produce havealso been insisted upon under State laws. Financial assistance has beengiven to facilitate the economic handling of dairy products, and muchbenefit has resulted, the advances having generally been promptlyrepaid. For the maintenance of the purity and quality of Australian butter andother dairy produce, the Commerce Act passed by the CommonwealthGovernment requires that each of these articles shall conform to certainstandards. Butter intended for shipment oversea must be covered with atrue trade description, and that the following information should appearon each box:--The word "Australia, " the name of the State in which itwas produced, net weight, manufacturer's or exporter's name orregistered brand, and the words "pure creamery butter, " "pastry butter, ""milled butter" (that is, butter which is a mixture or blend of two ormore butters ordinarily packed alone and under separate names orbrands), or "repacked butter, " as the case may require. Other mattersmay be added, but must be true, and not liable to mislead. Margarinemust be so stamped or marked. All butter and other dairy productsintended for export must be sent for inspection to appointed places. Theinspecting officer issues a certificate on the authorised form that itis up to the standard. The regulations now in force contain important provisions in regard tothe standard for export dairy products. By means of these provisionspurity and quality are guaranteed. Trade is also facilitated, sincequantities of butter are purchased solely on the certificate issued, without inspection. The standard for butter, the most important dairyarticle, is as follows:--Butter which contains only--No fat other thanbutter fat, not more than 16 per cent. Of water, 3 per cent. Of casein, 0. 5 per cent. Of boric acid, 4 per cent. Of salt, or less than 82 percent. Of butter fat; or any colouring matter deemed by the Minister forTrade and Customs to be harmless. [Illustration: Lucerne Hay. ] Subsidiary Industries. _Pig-Raising. _--Not least among the rural industries awaiting a farwider development in Australia is that of pig raising. For very manyyears the number of these animals raised in the different States showedno appreciable increase, though of more recent years improvements inthis direction have been noticeable. Yet the rate of progress is quiteunequal to the requirements of local demand and of the export business. Pig raising for years has been a kind of subsidiary industry todairying, and as such has seldom received the attention warranted by thereturns yielded. To some extent it has been the ease with which theseprofits have been obtained that has brought about the condition ofaffairs existent to within a few years ago. Pig raising now, instead ofbeing regarded merely as an adjunct to dairying, is being looked uponmuch in the same light as is a main line whether connected with dairyingor general farming. This is indicated by the fact that where previouslyany description of boar or sow was good enough to produce a litter, nowboth farmers and dairymen are using chiefly the pedigree stock, and aregiving attention to the different crosses most likely to give thelargest litters suitable for bacon production, which can be brought intocondition for market in the quickest time. The introduction of thesebusinesslike methods has naturally resulted in greater gains, and hasfurther given a stimulus to the pig-raising industry. The policy of closer settlement which is entering freely into the ruraldevelopment of the various States is furthermore causing farmers andsettlers to give more careful attention to any side industry which canbe made to return a good margin of profit on the labour expended. Inother words, the modern farmer is becoming more alive to the businesspossibilities of what may be termed specialised production. It is inthis fact that the future development of the pig-raising industrydepends. A dairyman, general farmer, irrigationist, and even thefruitgrower finds the pig of inestimable value in using up the wasteproduce, and turning it into a commodity which will return high interestin a remarkably short space of time. This turn of events is making itself felt in other directions. Bacon-curing establishments and co-operative factories are coming intoexistence where formerly supplies would never have justified theirpresence, and the result is that those who have suitable classes of pigsto dispose of find no difficulty in turning them over at lucrativeprices. This, however, can only be regarded as a commencement in the turn ofaffairs, for with the increased demand and added facilities ofmarketing, the sound establishment of the industry is each year becomingmore assured. [Illustration: 1. A Modern Piggery. ] [Illustration: 2. Feeding pigs with corn grown on the farm. ] As an instance of the value of this side line to the settler, theexperience of a Victorian irrigated block owner, as related in thecolumns of the Melbourne "Argus, " is worth recording. Writing fromRochester, Vic. , the local correspondent reported as follows:--"The pigindustry is becoming of great and growing importance on our irrigationholdings, and that settlers are recognising its great value as anadjunct to dairying is proved by the fact that there are now on thesettlements four times as many pigs as there were a year ago. A leadingauctioneer estimates that, with improved facilities, the sales inRochester would in the near future amount to 1000 a month. The methodsadopted on the irrigation farm of Messrs. Jacob and Kennedy, atNannulla, show that pig raising is a leading factor in their success. Mr. Jacob demonstrated that $192 per acre a year can be realised frompigs reared almost wholly on lucerne, for half an acre suffices for thesustenance of a brood sow and her progeny of about 20 per annum tillthey are fit for market. Well-bred animals pay best, especially in thecase of the sire, for which a Yorkshire is recommended. Mr. Jacob isprepared to submit his books and returns to those interested, as he didto the writer. .. . It has to be observed that pig raising does notrequire either the capital or experience demanded in the case of sheep. " These facts relate in a general way to the industry as it is possible tobe carried on in all parts of the Commonwealth. A dairy man or mixedfarmer finds that the carrying on of his work at a maximum of profitinvolves the growth of a number of different crops with which tosupplement the rations of his dairy herd. Peas, barley, wheat, maize, pumpkins, carrots, mangolds, lucerne, rape, and other crops are more orless used for a succession. Each one of these is of special value fromthe pig-raiser's standpoint. Both peas and barley have a high value forfattening purposes, and some of the successful breeders maintain thatthe addition of wheat contributes largely towards rapid development. Similarly the root crops play an important part in the general rations, whereas lucerne and rape make an admirable pasture for the running ofstores and breeding sows. General experience has shown that when pigswhich are being fattened for market have the run of a good pasture ofthese crops they do better and fatten on much less food. Consequentlywith some one or another or several of these crops to supplement theskim milk provided by the dairying operations, no more favourableconditions could well exist for the development of this adjunct to thedairying industry. With suitable root and pasture crops there is no reason why pig raisingshould remain merely as an offshoot of dairying and farming operations. It is sufficiently remunerative even when all food has to be purchasedon the open market to justify attention being devoted to raising alone. But such circumstances do not enter into the operation of the industryas managed in Australia. The close proximity of separating factorieswould in many districts make it possible for a breeder to entirelyignore the dairying side of the question. From these sources suchsupplies of skim milk as were considered an advisable supplement to theordinary rations might easily be obtained. With only very limitedsupplies of skim milk pig raising and fattening affords wide scope forthe investments of men with limited capital. F. C. Grace, ofWarrnambool, Victoria, who recently went into the matter of the cost ofproducing pork, indicates the possibilities of the bacon industry in areport furnished to the State Department of Agriculture. In this accounthe states:--"Over 6 tons of live pork have been produced, and theaverage cost per pound for all rations with pigs of all ages has been 4cents. The actual selling price has been 10 cents per pound, but anumber of the pigs were sold as studs, somewhat above market price. Taking the average of all pigs sold in the open yards for baconpurposes, about 4-1/2 tons, the selling price was 10 cents per pound--amargin of over 6 cents per pound over and above the cost of feed. " This statement is of interest as showing the position of the industrywhen everything has been paid for at well above market rates for theproduce, and in a degree serves to emphasise the much-improved positionof the breeder who, with root crops and pasture land, is able todispense with the costs incurred in purchasing foods for fatteningpurposes on the open market. [Illustration: A Happy Family. ] Throughout the Commonwealth there is a difference of opinion regardingthe relative value of the manner in which the predominating breeds, theBerkshire and Yorkshire, are crossed in raising pigs for market. This nodoubt will always exist, owing to predilection of breeders towardsparticular types, and to the relative merits resulting from the variouscrosses. The main point is that both breeds are wonderfully well suitedto Australian conditions, and that they are prolific. Brood sows will, if kept in an ordinarily thrifty condition, farrow two litters of pigsin the year, which will number from eight to twelve pigs to the litter. If anything, the predominating cross favours the use of the Yorkshireboar with the Berkshire sow. The cross has this advantage that thelitters will consist of all white pigs. The boar used should be pure andthe sow of good type, preferably three-quarter bred. The average litterfrom such a cross is eight. These, if kept until about five months, willweigh out at about 140 lbs. , and at 12 cents per lb. , the ruling price, will return approximately $16. 80 apiece, or $268. 80 per year from eachsow. In some instances as many as five litters may be obtained during aperiod of two years, but when this is done too much is taken out of themother. Another aspect worth considering in the choice of crossing these twobreeds is that the Yorkshire sow is a better mother than the Berkshire, and the litters produced are larger. In this case there is a lack ofuniformity in the colour of the litters, a fact which no doubt mustoften cause slight depreciation when the marketing of large numbers ofpigs is taken into consideration. From experience in the Commonwealththe middle Yorkshire of a pure strain is more favoured for breedingpurposes. He is a quicker grower, of hardy constitution, and as a rule abetter shaped pig for market requirements. [Illustration: Typical Dairy Country. ] But while there are differences of opinion in the matter of breeds forcrossing purposes, it is clear that this subject has never beenexhaustively determined. For example, while there are advocates for themaintenance of pure strains, and the crossing of the Tamworth with boththe black and white pigs, the large white Yorkshire is practically anunknown quantity. Both in Great Britain and in Denmark this breed hasdone more to establish the bacon industry than any other breed. Itsvalue is indorsed by experience at Dookie College, where the only purestrain of the breed in Victoria is located. The Berkshire sow used withthe large white boar produces a shapely offspring, which takes on theshort snout of the sow with the pure white colouring of the boar. Thecross is a longer pig than the Berkshire, cleaner in the shoulder, butwith much the same conformation elsewhere. A common plan is to use allthe longest and deepest sows of the first cross for breeding baconers. The pure large Yorkshire is not as economical as the Berkshire ifgrowing pigs for the pork trade, as it takes longer to mature. The sows, however, average about ten to the litter, and some have fifteen orsixteen. Only the fine-haired ones seem to scald, otherwise they standthe sun as well as the Berks. They are good doers under a wide range ofconditions, prolific, vigorous, and more likely to do well under therough circumstances to which they are accustomed on most farms than themore delicate Berkshires. When sold at the same time as other breeds andcrosses, they always top the market; and a half-truck realised over$20. 00 per head when sold in Melbourne under six months old. So far as Australian experience has gone there is everything to indicatethat pig raising, while an extremely profitable occupation, has not yetattained the results which may be expected to follow as more attentionis given to the choice of breeds, the selection of the hogs, andfecundity on the part of the sow. These are all matters which from theordinary farming standpoint have never been gone into thoroughly. Thatpig raising will pay and does yield handsome returns is admitted, yetwhen so many avenues of improvement are open, it cannot be said that theindustry is receiving the attention it deserves. Up to the presentfarmers and dairymen have been chiefly concerned with raising the pigs, disposing of them perhaps at two months, or, as more often is the case, of keeping them on till four months, when they are topped off and sentto market to bring what can be realised. Many send away their pigs toofat, and few engaged in the general branches of agriculture really givethe animals full attention over the growing period. [Illustration: Dam, Western Australia. ] With the advent of the factories which are springing up in all theStates, this condition of things will no doubt give place to bettermethods. In the first place breeders will be assured of markets for allthe pigs produced, and, secondly, the differences in values of primebaconers will direct more attention to the greater profits for thisclass of produce. [Illustration: A well-established Dairy Farm, New South Wales Coast. ] That there is opportunity for a great increase in pig raising is shownby the fact that Great Britain pays annually to foreign countries$91, 200, 000. 00 for pig products. Statistics show that two great sourcesof supply to the British market (United States and Canada) are graduallybut surely declining, and before long must cease altogether on accountof the rapid increase in population, and the consequent increased foodrequirements in those countries. In Denmark we cannot expect to see anygreat increase in production, as the limit also has been nearly reached. Holland and Sweden are the only other European countries from which wemay anticipate competition. The rapid growth of the population inCentral Europe increases the food requirements of those countries, wherethere is already a short supply of animal foods generally. The presentcondition of the industry shows that there is a possibility of theCommonwealth building up a large export trade, even though local demandsare increasing, at prices which are higher than they were ten or twelveyears ago, when the number of pigs in the Commonwealth was scarcely athousand head more than at the present time. At the Franco-BritishExhibition the grand champion prize against the world was secured byAustralia for pig products in the form of frozen pork, as well as inhams and bacon. _Poultry-farming. _--The fact that Australian hens and ducks have brokenall records in laying competitions serves to indicate the suitability ofthe country for poultry-raising. On general farms, where the birds liveon food that may otherwise be wasted, poultry are a source ofconsiderable profit. The opinion of the Scottish Commission was that"Australia possesses natural conditions of almost unequalled value forthe profitable keeping of poultry. In climate, soil, shelter, and innatural food she has the essential attributes to success. "Poultry-farming is carried on together with wheat or dairying or pigfarming, but in many places the raising of poultry is carried on as asingle line. Poultry for consumption is extensively reared, and theegg-producing qualities of the birds have also been greatly improved bycareful breeding. Egg collecting circles have been formed in somecountry districts, to develop (under Government supervision and withGovernment aid until the organisation is self-supporting) the industryon co-operative lines. A member of the circle is elected to act assecretary, and he receives all the eggs from the members, tests, packs, and forwards them to the metropolitan depot for shipment. Only clean andfresh eggs are to be delivered to the secretary under penalty of fineand expulsion from the circle. Another method of collecting andmarketing the eggs is through the local butter factories, where eggs aredelivered by the suppliers of milk and cream a number of times eachweek. [Illustration: Government Farm. --Pens at Burnley, Victoria, forEgg-laying Competition. ] _Bee-farming. _--Bee-farming has ordinarily been an adjunct to theagricultural or dairying industries, and can hardly yet be said to havebeen organised as a distinct industry. There are many prosperous beefarms in the Commonwealth. The indigenous flora is rich in nectar, andthe quantities of honey stored in single hives are astonishingly large, sometimes reaching 400 lbs. [Illustration: White Leghorns. ] With the farmyard and dairy products of the Commonwealth standing now atover $96, 000, 000. 00 per annum, the industry may be said to be well inits infancy. Under the large irrigation projects being carried out in several of theStates there are splendid opportunities opening up for the carrying onof all these industries, either separately or in conjunction. Share Farming. The system of farming on shares is common in several branches ofAustralian farming, including dairying. To the intelligent andindustrious man with a limited amount of capital, the system offers manyopportunities for success. Practical dairymen, and especially those withchildren over fourteen years of age, may obtain a farm on shares. Thearrangements made between landlords and their tenants on shares are notuniform. They differ considerably in individual cases, but the followingbroad outlines of the arrangements made between the parties may be setdown as having a more or less universal application. As a general rule the landlord provides-- (a) The land cleared and fenced into convenient paddocks. (b) The dairy herd. (c) Cowbails and piggeries. (d) All necessary utensils and implements. (e) Dwelling. On the other hand, the tenant supplies-- (a) All the labour--milks the cows, separates the cream and carts it to the nearest butter factory. (b) His own horse and cart. (c) Cultivates sufficient land to grow green fodder for the winter. In some instances the share farmer buys his own dairy utensils, but inthe greater number of cases the landowner provides them and keeps themin repair. The sharing of the profits depends largely upon the characterof the farm. As a general rule the tenant receives from one-third toone-half of the proceeds of all cream or butter sold. He also receivesfrom one-third to one-half the value of the pigs raised, and from $1. 20to $1. 80 per head for each calf reared to the age of six months. A manis generally given as many cows to milk as he can conveniently manageand care for. [Illustration: In the Cheese Factory. ] There are cases which can be pointed to where a tenant farmer after evenpaying for assistance, makes a profit of from $67. 20 to $96. 00 everymonth. It is not possible to state definitely the size of herd that anyindividual can manage, but it is by no means uncommon to see a herd offorty head, with from twenty-five to thirty cows in milk at a time, managed comfortably by a man and his wife and one sturdy boy or girl offifteen or sixteen years of age. The average returns from a fairly goodherd, in the majority of districts, may be stated at $4. 80 per head permonth, and as each cow will be milking for seven to eight months atleast, and there will be the calves and ample separated milk for a goodmany pigs, it will be seen that there is at least a fair living to bemade, especially when it is remembered that the share dairy farmer, under the ordinary arrangements, is living rent free and underconditions which enable him to keep household expenses at a minimum. The conditions regarding cropping and keeping the farm implements inrepair and caring for the dairy herd are not onerous, and are such as nogood tenant could object to. [Illustration: An Extensive Milking Shed. ] Men who contemplate undertaking this class of farming should submit thefullest possible details of their experience and qualification to enablethe officers of the Government Information Bureau to make arrangementswhich will permit of settlement immediately on arrival. It is needlessto remind experienced dairymen that any owner of dairy cows naturallyfeels it necessary to know a good deal about anyone to whom he is toentrust the sole management of a good herd. [Illustration: Young Dairy Stock. ] Monetary Aid to Settlers. Besides aiding the settler in the various ways already mentioned, viz. , by providing the expert personal instruction and advice of officers ofthe Agricultural Departments, in regard to feeding, breeding, management, and other matters, by the importation of high-class studcattle, and making them available at cheap rates for herd improvement, and in the granting of facilities for the transportation and marketingof his produce, the Governments of the Australian States assist thedairyman with loans of cheap money. The Advances to Settlers' Board orAgricultural Bank in each of the States, lend money to settlers for thepurpose of repaying existing debts, for building homes, for purchasingstock, or for improving and developing their holdings. The sums whichmay be advanced and the terms and conditions of the loans vary indifferent States. Broadly speaking, however, a settler may obtain on thesecurity of his land or of his improvements sums ranging from $120. 00 to$9600. 00 at rates of interest varying from 4 per cent. To 6 per cent. Oneasy terms of repayment extending over a long period of years up to, asin the States of New South Wales and South Australia, thirty-one years. NEW SOUTH WALES. In the coastal districts of New South Wales and throughout a vast extentof the northern and central tableland districts dairy farming is aprofitable and constantly-expanding industry. In the older settled district of Illawarra, comprising the greaterportion of the south coast district, dairying has been the main industryfor many years, and there is not much first-class land unoccupied. Thereis, however, in this district ample scope for tenant farmers and fordairying on shares on several large estates where the experienced man ofsmall means with children old enough to help in the work can make a goodliving, and save with the object of later on obtaining a farm of hisown. In the north coast district the strides being made in dairying arephenomenal. There is a fair amount of first-class unimproved bushcountry available for settlement on the upper reaches of the Tweed andRichmond Rivers, and large estates have been subdivided by privateowners, and offered for sale on very easy terms at from $19. 20 to $28. 80per acre. Many farmers who find that better returns can be obtained bycarrying a decreased number of specially good cows on a small areaintensively worked are ready to dispose of areas, so that a new-comerwith capital necessary to acquire land in this highly-favoured districtcan soon be suited. Owing to the big returns from dairying in the bestparts of the settled portions of the north coast, land values are high, ranging to over $96. 00 per acre. Suitable areas of Crown lands are brought forward from time to time indistricts adapted for dairying at prices, as a rule, lower than thelands in private subdivisions. In the central and north coast district there are several large privatesubdivisions of excellent dairy land. In the tableland districts, wherethe rainfall averages 30 in. Per annum, dairy farming has taken firmhold. Private owners are also cutting up tracts of splendidpartially-improved land, and offering it at from $19. 20 to $28. 80 peracre, on liberal terms. The natural grasses of New South Wales, especially in the well-watereddistricts along the coast, grow in great luxuriance, and are rich inmilk-producing qualities. In many districts imported grasses, such asRhodes, Paspalum dilatatum, and Philaris, rye grass and red clover havebeen introduced, and soon become well established. In the mostfavourable portions of the State farmers are able to depend almostsolely on the grazing qualities of their farms, although the experts ofthe Department strongly assert the wisdom of growing winter feed. New South Wales has many fine herds of all the approved breeds. TheJersey is perhaps the most popular, but there are also many good herdsof Ayrshires, Guernseys, Holsteins, and other approved breeds. The co-operative system flourishes in New South Wales. Every importantcentre has its own co-operative butter, cheese or bacon factory. TheByron Bay Co-operative Company, situated in the heart of the rich northcoast district, has an enormous turnover in the neighbourhood of$4, 800, 000. 00 sterling each year, and is at least one of the largestconcerns of its kind in the world. [Illustration: Calm II. --Champion Jersey Cow. ] To stock a dairy farm of 100 acres, the detailed cost of stock and plantnecessary to make a good start, exclusive of a bull, is given bypractical farmers as follows:-- $ 30 Cows at $31. 20 936. 00 10 Heifers, springing, at $24. 00 240. 00 2 Plough Horses at $86. 40 172. 80 Harness for plough horses 31. 20 Pigs--2 sows at $10. 08; one hog at $15. 60 35. 28 Separator, cans, buckets, etc. 240. 00 Cart and harness 86. 40 Plough, $21. 60; harrow, $14. 40; cultivator, $12. 00 48. 00 Sundry tools, etc. 24. 00 -------- $1813. 68 Including the bull the cost might roughly be put down at $1920. 00 VICTORIA. For the past twenty years dairy farming in Victoria has been steadilyadvancing. The industry has proved very successful, so that thousands offarmers are not only making a comfortable living from it, but in manycases it has raised hard-working families into positions of comparativewealth. The principal markets supplied are those of Great Britain, South Africa, India, and the East. At present the industry is only inits infancy. It is capable of almost unlimited expansion. So far, farmers have confined their attention almost exclusively to butter, butthe first steps have also been successfully taken to manufacture cheeseand condensed milk, and to open up a regular market for fresh pork, hams, and bacon. [Illustration: How the Dairy Fodder Question is Settled in Australia. ] A large portion of Victoria is suitable for dairy farming on account ofthe suitability of soil for the production of pasture and fodder crops, and the mild climatic conditions. For the most part the cows are fedsolely on the natural pastures, little provision either in the way offood or shelter being thought necessary. Progressive farmers, however, find that it pays them to grow fodder for their herd and to shelter theanimals in the winter, and anyone beginning in Victoria is advised tomake up his mind to cultivate a certain area of his land from the first, instead of trusting to grazing alone. [Illustration: Shorthorn Cattle. ] The southern half of Victoria is divided, roughly speaking, into theWestern District and Gippsland. Two-thirds of the dairy cows are kept inthese portions of the State. The Western District is famed for its richsoil of volcanic origin. Every town and hamlet has its butter factory. Gippsland is a district of rolling hills and downs, and of acomparatively heavy rainfall. Many parts were once covered with denseforests, but these are rapidly passing away before the pioneer. Practically every railway station has become a centre of the dairyingindustry, and cans of cream are always in evidence on the platforms. Owing to its suitable climate Gippsland has become the centre of maizegrowing in the State, and much of this crop reaches the market in theform of butter and pork. In the north the summers are warmer and drier, but the soil is perhapseven more prolific than in the southern parts of Victoria. Large areasare suitable for dairy farming under ordinary conditions, and extensivewater storage works have been provided for the irrigation of largetracts of country which is being made available in suitable areas fordairying under very liberal conditions. The manufacturing and marketing of the butter is carried on, to a verylarge extent, on a co-operative basis, the factories being owned andmanaged by the farmers who supply the cream. Two hundred factories arescattered throughout the State, the largest of them producing upwards of40 tons of butter per week in the height of the season. Where the farmis close to the factory the milk is taken to the creamery, where it isseparated, and the corresponding quantity of skim milk is returned tothe farmer. In other cases the farmer owns his separator, the milk ispassed through the machine as soon as the cows are milked, and the creamis sent to the factory by road or rail every day or two, according tothe size of the farm. [Illustration: Dairy Factory--Refrigerating Butter Train. ] Government Assistance to the Farmer. Every branch of the producing interests is steadily fostered by theGovernment of Victoria in a way that may sound strange to the Britishfarmer. Besides the facilities for acquiring farms and homes, theGovernment employs dairy supervisors, who assist the farmer withinformation and advice on matters relating to the farm and herd. Theproduce is conveyed by the railways (which belong to the Government) atspecial low rates. It is received into the Government cool stores, whereit is graded and frozen ready for export. The State has contracts withthe principal lines of steam-ships, securing regular despatch, a minimumtemperature, and a very low rate of freight for the British markets. Itcosts less to send butter from a farm in Victoria to London than it doesto send it from a farm in Ireland. [Illustration: "Miss Prim, " Champion Ayrshire Cow. ] QUEENSLAND. Queensland as a Dairying Country. Queensland, especially in its southern portions and along its coastalareas, is particularly well adapted for dairying. Large areas ofmagnificent soil exist, such as the Darling Downs, Lockyer, Stanley, Rosewood, Fassifern, Logan, Albert, Wide Bay, Burnett, and otherdistricts, which, in addition to being well watered by rivers andcreeks, enjoy a perfect winter climate. It is in these localities thatdairying principally flourishes. While in Southern Queensland and on some of the northern tablelands itis desirable to rug milch cows during the winter months, up north, alongthe eastern coastland, it is not necessary. Along the eastern seaboard, which is well watered by running rivers andcreeks, the Blackall Range is becoming an important dairy centre. Thisdistrict lies to the north of Brisbane, and is a mountainous regioncontaining exceedingly fertile soil. Further north again, on the coast, there are large areas in the Burnett, Gladstone, Rockhampton, and Bowen districts suitable for dairying, andin these localities it is rapidly extending. Despite this, there stillremain immense tracts as yet untouched by the dairy farmer, which arecapable of being successfully brought under the Butter Industry. Considerable portions of the northern tablelands, and parts of CentralQueensland, are also suitable for dairying, and a beginning has alreadybeen made in these localities. Large numbers of dairy cattle are beingimported into the Atherton district in the North. As yet, only a fractional part of the country able to support a largedairying population has been touched. Dairy Land and Stock. The class of land chiefly used for dairying is open forest country, plain scrub land, and rich alluvial flats. The scrub lands have first tobe cleared by felling the scrub and burning it off when dry. Whencleared, scrub soils are more prolific than any other. Cost of clearingis about $7. 20 to $9. 60 per acre, and in some cases more. [Illustration: Ayrshire Dairy Cows Grazing. ] The price varies according to locality. Remoteness or proximity tomarket have to be considered. It is essential for the dairy farmer to benear a railway. The intending settler can either select Crown lands fromthe Government, at prices varying from $0. 60 to $4. 80 and upwards, or ifhe has some capital he can purchase a freehold farm. Good dairy freeholdland can be bought from $14. 40 to $24. 00 per acre, but close to therailway in the older farming districts it reaches up to $96. 00 per acre. [Illustration: "Ladylike, " Ayrshire Dairy Cow. ] In ordinary times $24. 00 to $38. 40 is paid for a good average cow;heifers up to $21. 60. Similar prices rule, generally speaking, in regardto all the States. An ordinary cow would earn from $2. 40 to $4. 20; and agood cow from $4. 80 to $6. 00 a month, whilst in profit, on an eightmonths' average milking. Dairy Breeds in Use. The milking breeds most in use in Queensland are the Ayrshire, Jersey, and Milking Shorthorns. Herds of Holsteins, Guernseys, and other breedshave also been established. Some fine specimens of these dairy cattleare to be seen throughout the State, and at the large annual shows ofpure-bred stock, held at Brisbane, Toowoomba, and other centres. The Queensland Agricultural College, a State institution, breedshigh-class dairy bulls for sale to farmers, and herds are being alsoraised on the State Farms. Cows should bring in not less than $3. 00 per month, or be turned out asuseless. The average is about $3. 72. Up-to-date men will not keep a cowwho does not average this for her milking. Cost of Starting on 160 Acres. This, of course, varies with the circumstances of the case, and dependslargely on whether a man has the capital to push forward his operations, or is content to gradually get his land into working order. A man with$720. 00 to $1032. 00 could make a good start. If the land was taken up at$2. 40 per acre from the Crown, his first year's deposit would be $18. 24, and he would have sufficient to fence the land, buy some cows, and putup some sort of a house. Necessarily a settler does not spend much onhis house at first until he has made some money. On the other hand, manyof the most prosperous farmers in Queensland have started with only afew pounds, sufficient to pay their first year's rent. By fencing hisland himself, the settler can save a good deal of expense. And byworking for neighbouring farmers, he can gradually acquire money to buystock from time to time. On the other hand, if he wishes to begin straight away, and has a littlemoney, he can get assistance from the Agricultural Bank, a Governmentinstitution, which advances $0. 60 in the $ towards improvements, and$0. 50 in the $ for stock, machinery, and implements, charging 5 percent. Simple interest. COST OF STARTING A DAIRY FARM ON 160 ACRES. $ Rent--1st year's deposit and survey fee 18. 24 Fencing--2 miles at 96. 00 per mile (posts 12 feet apart and 3 barbs) 192. 00 12 Cows at $28. 80 per cow 345. 60 2 Horses at $72. 00 144. 00 Plough 28. 80 Harness 24. 00 Swingle bars and chains 6. 00 House--24 × 12 feet, slabbed and floored, at $4. 80 per foot 115. 20 Milking-shed 24. 00 Yard 48. 00 30-gallon Separator 60. 00 Cart (second-hand) 24. 00 Some small items, such as rations, milk-room, tinware, &c. , have notbeen included in the estimate. If the fencing were erected personally, the cost would be materially reduced. If the settler built his ownhouse, it would cost him little more than his own labour and the ironfor the roof. Many beginners put up cheap sapling yards for a start, and at a nominalcost. This would materially reduce this estimate. The Average Herd. The average herd is about thirty head, but many farmers milk from 80 to150 cows daily. The number of cows that could be kept on an average farmof, say, 160 acres depends entirely on the land, and the amount ofcultivation or area under artificial grasses. From thirty to eighty headwould be about a fair estimate that good land would carry. One dairy farmer in the West Moreton, who landed in Queenslandtwenty-five years ago with $0. 36 in his pocket, now has 160 acres offreehold, of which he cultivates 50 acres for feed for his cows andpigs. He began by working for his neighbours for the first few years, and thus gained both cash and experience. He now milks thirty to fiftycows the whole year round, and he makes from $720. 00 to $864. 00 a yearfrom his pigs. His income from all sources is from $1920. 00 to $2400. 00per annum. Six or seven years ago he paid $5280. 00 for the place, butto-day he would not take $14, 400. 00 for it, and there is not a penny ofdebt on the property. [Illustration: An up-to-date Milking Shed. ] Grasses. The natural grasses of Queensland are sufficient in ordinary seasonsduring the summer months for the dairy stock, but no farmer cansuccessfully carry on dairy operations in dry times, or in winter, bymeans of the grass alone. He requires to supplement the grass by growingfodder for the winter months. Splendid results have been obtained by sowing artificial grasses, suchas Paspalum dilatatum, Rhodes, Prairie, Guinea, and Giant Couch grasses. Winter Feed. Barley, lucerne, wheat, rye, sorghum, &c. , can be grown for winter feed. On land which will grow lucerne, a certain supply of fodder can beconserved. Lucerne (or alfalfa, as it is called in America), onceplanted, will last from five to ten years. The butter factories were first started by proprietary companies, andtheir cream depots were scattered all over the farming districts. Competition was exceedingly keen, and in some of the townships therewere four or five rival cream depots, all endeavouring to get thebiggest shares of the cream. [Illustration: Jersey Cows. ] Of late, a number of co-operative factories run by the farmers havestarted, and proved very successful, enabling their shareholders to geta higher price for their cream than hitherto. They are admirablymanaged, are essentially popular institutions, and have done splendidwork. The farmers establish, manage, and work them, and the profits, insteadof going into the pockets of the middlemen, are distributed among theshareholders. State Aid to Co-operative Factories. Under a vote by Parliament the State makes advances to farmers toestablish co-operative dairy factories. The loans extend over a periodof fourteen years, and 4 per cent. Interest is charged. Condensed Milk. The Preserved and Condensed Milk Industry promises to become importantin the near future. Six factories are now in operation. Messrs. Nestle and Co. , the world-renowned firm, have invested$480, 000. 00 in their Preserved Milk Industry in Queensland. It speakswell for a country when an old-world firm such as this is prepared toinvest so largely. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. A large area of South Australia is eminently adapted to successfuldairying, and while the summer is dry, rendering it necessary to makeprovision for succulent feed for several months, the temperate nature ofthe climate enables the dairyman to keep his cows in the open rightthrough the year, the natural shelter in timber country beingsufficient, except on a limited number of days of extreme wet and cold. Stall feeding for weeks at a time is unknown; the necessary sheltersheds can be cheaply provided, while the labour of feeding is, underthese conditions, reduced to a minimum. In the northern districtsconditions are not so favourable as in the south, but even here dairyingcan be profitably carried on; the fact that land is much cheapercompensates for the shorter period during which the natural herbagesupplies practically all the feed required. In some of the driest of ourfarming areas dairying has largely replaced wheat-growing, and, althoughthe yield per cow is naturally not so high as under more favourableconditions, still low rents and large areas of natural pasture enablethe farmer to make a fair profit. [Illustration: The Cream Cart, North Coast, N. S. W. ] The Dairy Industry, though of considerable magnitude, has not made asmuch progress as was anticipated. This is probably due to the fact thatwheat-growing and sheep-breeding combined offer greater attractions tothe farmer. These industries require a great deal less labour thandairying, besides which the work is not so continuous. So long as highlyprofitable returns can be obtained from the production of cereals andthe breeding of lambs, the Dairying Industry is hardly likely to makethe progress that would otherwise be possible, though there has of lateyears been steady and continued development in the industry, especiallyin the northern districts. In the south and south-east, where conditionsare more suitable, there has, on the other hand, been very littleextension. Large quantities of butter are exported to Broken Hill and WestAustralia throughout the year, while during the spring months shipmentsare made to Great Britain. Butter is exported in increasing quantities to Great Britain each year. In normal years from 1400 to 1600 tons are shipped. Cheese is not made on such an extensive scale proportionately to butter;indeed, in some seasons sufficient for local consumption is notproduced. Practically all the cheese is manufactured on the Cheddarsystem, and an article of very high quality is produced in the bestfactories. Special facilities are afforded by the railways for the conveyance ofperishable goods, and cream is forwarded by the dairyman to the cityfactories from districts 300 miles distant. Payment is usually made onthe butter-fat percentages; and in order to afford suppliers anopportunity of checking the returns received from private factories theGovernment established a butter factory in connection with the exportfreezing works at Port Adelaide. At this factory every can of cream issampled, and the quantity of butter it will produce is ascertained bythe usual methods, and the supplier is paid accordingly. A considerable number of butter factories have been erected in SouthAustralia, and the butter produced is generally of high quality. Thebutter made from the milk of cows grazing on the natural herbage of thecountry is of splendid quality and colour. Hand separators are ingeneral use, the cream being sent to the factories for treatment. Thepercentage of butter-fat in the milk of cows grazing on the naturalpastures is unusually high. Practically the whole of the midland, central, and south-east districts, excepting that portion east of the Murray, are suitable for dairyingpractice when carried out on systematic lines. The prices for such landfor dairying would range from $24. 00 to $240. 00 per acre according tolocation, soil, and rainfall. No special terms are offered by theGovernment for the occupation of dairy lands. Most of the repurchasedestates are in districts suitable for dairying, and these are allottedunder covenant to purchase. The purchase money is paid off in seventyhalf-yearly instalments (the first ten bearing interest only at the rateof 4 per cent. On purchase money). Purchase money may be completed atany time after nine years. Reliable particulars of successful dairyingare difficult to obtain. It is safe to say that there are many hundredsof dairymen making comfortable livings throughout the State. [Illustration: Fodder Crops--Lucerne, Mangels, Rape. ] Capital may be safely expended for dairy practice, especially by carefuland intelligent men who have families, and they may depend upon making agood living, especially when they combine dairy practice withpig-raising. There are many instances where gross returns are obtainedof from $38. 40 to $72. 00 per cow per annum, and this in districts wherethe milk is sold to the local co-operative or private factories, butwhere they are situated within forty miles of Adelaide, and are able totake advantage of a good train service, they can deliver their milk tothe capital and obtain gross returns equal to about $76. 80 to $96. 00 percow per annum. [Illustration: Interior of a Cheese Factory. ] WESTERN AUSTRALIA. The Dairying Industry has not developed as rapidly as other branches offarming in the State during recent years. The cause of this isattributable to various reasons, one of the number of which has been thedifficulty of obtaining suitable farm labourers. The majority of youngmen who have embarked in farming in the Western State during the lastdecade have favoured the lightly-timbered belts more suitable for wheatand sheep raising in preference to the heavily-timbered land suitablefor dairying situated in the coastal districts of the south-west. Thatthere is in the State an enormous area of land which is eminentlyadaptable to the growing of fodders necessary for successful dairyinghas been amply demonstrated. Since 1905 indefatigable efforts to advancethe Dairying Industry have been made. An estate at Brunswick, in thevicinity of Bunbury, about 100 miles south of Perth, was purchased bythe Government, and 800 acres of it was vested in the Department ofAgriculture for the purpose of a State Dairy Farm, on lines that couldbe copied by a practical dairy farmer; also-- (1) For supplying stud stock of the best strains procurable at reasonable prices to dairy farmers. (2) To demonstrate that with the assistance of irrigation a small acreage of land can be made to carry a large number of stock. (3) Where a variety of fodder crops can be introduced, and experimented with so as to ascertain their value for feeding-off, both in a green state for curing into hay or for preserving into big silos in a succulent form. Capacious cow and calf stables, suitable sheds, and piggeries weredesigned and constructed as an example to be followed in starting anup-to-date dairy farm. A herd of dairy cows, of some of the bestAyrshire strains in Australia, was collected, as well as a fine numberof Berkshire pigs, purchased from the most successful breeders andimporters. Three large tub silos, capable of holding 250 tons of fodder, were erected in which to store winter-grown crops as well as the summercrops under irrigation. [Illustration: "Crown Prince, " Guernsey Bull. ] An irrigation scheme was carried out, and the results have been mostsuccessful. The following dairy fodder crops have yieldedprolifically:--Oats, rye, maize, sorghum, pearl millet, vetches, fieldpeas, cow peas, lucerne, mustard, Jersey kale, field cabbage, turnips, swedes, mangel wurzel, silver beet, buckwheat, potatoes, linseed, pigmelon, paspalum, Italian canary grass. The irrigation plant is capableof dealing with 80 acres of land in the summer months. Some of the landthus treated is the rich dark alluvial on the river bank, while aportion is on the higher clay plateau, and consists of land typical ofmany thousands of acres in the same locality. The land in its virginstate was timbered with red gum and flooded gum, and cost about $38. 40an acre to grub and clear, and on such land with irrigation in thesummer two heavy crops a year can be depended on. [Illustration: Milking Shed. ] Shortly after the State Farm was established the Government purchasedover 500 dairy cows in the eastern States, and these were sold toWestern Australian farmers in lots of ten at cost price on two-yearterms, with 5 per cent. Interest added. The Government engaged a highly-qualified dairy expert in the person ofMr. Kinsella, of New Zealand, to visit the districts most likely to giveattention to the dairying industry in the immediate future, and by meansof personal interviews, addresses, leaflets, and concisely-writtenpamphlets, Mr. Kinsella did valuable work in distributing informationand directing the beginner on the right road to successful dairying. Mr. Kinsella subsequently severed his connection with the department, and hehas been recently succeeded by Mr. Abernethy, who has obtained the veryhighest diplomas in England in connection with dairying. Mr. Abernethyrecently arrived from Great Britain, and has now entered upon hisduties, and it is confidently believed that his efforts will result in anumber of farmers being induced to embark in the industry on sound andpractical lines. The new selector will also have the benefit and theadvice of the Director of Agriculture, Mr. McNulty, on all mattersconcerning his soil, his stock, and the marketing of his produce. Lands for Dairy Farming. With a view to settling practical farmers with limited means on the richand heavily-timbered lands in the southern portion of the State theGovernment have a large number of surveyors at work surveying the landinto suitable sized blocks, ranging from 200 to 700 acres each. Mainroads have been cleared to serve these areas, and a proposal to clear 10acres on each block for the plough is now under consideration. Railwayswill be pushed through this country as rapidly as possible. The annualaverage rainfall over this country averages from 35 in. To 40 in. , andthe land contains some of the richest soil in the State. Price of Land. The price of land ranges from about $4. 80 to $19. 20 an acre, and eachnew selector over sixteen years of age will have the right topractically a free grant of 160 acres, additional land being availableat approximately the prices quoted, the payments for which will bespread over twenty years without interest. The selector will also havethe privilege of borrowing from the State Agricultural Bank forringbarking, clearing, water conservation, and subsequently for stockand implements, the loan being repaid over a term of thirty years, forthe first five years of which interest only at the rate of 5 per cent. Per annum will be payable. Prior to the blocks being thrown open theprices will be advertised and the amount of loan the bank is prepared toadvance to suitable applicants on each block will be fixed. [Illustration: Devon Cattle in Australia. ] [Illustration: Prime Herd of Jerseys. ] Butter Factories. At the present time there are three butter factories operating in theState, and no doubt when the Dairying Industry has developedsufficiently a number of co-operative factories will be started. The men who decide to devote their energies to the Dairying Industrywill have the advantage of a magnificent local market to start on, as atthe present time Western Australia is sending something like $4800. 00 aday to the eastern States for dairy produce. TASMANIA. The conditions of Tasmania are eminently favourable for dairy farming. Up till recent years the industry did not receive much attention, butnow that a start has been made butter production is advancing rapidly. The Land Required. The foundation of the Dairying Industry is grass, and to get grass, goodland and plenty of moisture is required. Therefore anyone proposing togo into this business should endeavour to secure the very best landobtainable. There is a large quantity available, especially in thenorth-western and north-eastern parts of the island. There is a greatdeal also in the southern districts. Information can always be obtainedfrom the Lands Department and the district surveyors, and no difficultyshould be experienced by the intending dairy farmer in finding landsuitable for his purpose. The more open parts of the State, such as themidlands and the east coast, where there is natural grass, have largelypassed into private hands, and later selectors have had to take up, clear, and lay down in pasture the more heavily-timbered portions. This, however, is not altogether the handicap it appears at first sight, asthe returns from the very rich scrub lands are by far the highest. It iseasy to judge of the quality of land by the indigenous timber upon it. Rich land, suitable for laying down in grass, is covered with a densegrowth of sassafras, tree-fern, musk, and pear tree, with large blue orswamp gums, and an underbush of what are known as cathead ferns. Stringy-bark trees mean a poorer soil, and any land bearing them shouldbe avoided if possible. Any person of eighteen years of age and upwards may select an area notexceeding 200 acres of first-class land, provided he does not hold landon credit under any previous Act. He is required to pay a cash depositof $0. 04 an acre at the time of sale, an instalment of $0. 06 an acre foreach of the two following years, $0. 24 an acre annually for the nextfour years, $0. 36 an acre for the next four years, and $0. 48 per acrefor the next eight years. The survey fee is paid, one-fifth in cash andthe balance by four equal annual payments, with interest added, unlessthe selector elects to pay it off at once, when interest is remitted. Every encouragement short of giving the fee simple of the land away fornothing is afforded the intending settler, and he can acquire a freeholdon easier terms in Tasmania than anywhere else. [Illustration: Ayrshire Herd, New South Wales. ] Clearing the Land. Clearing a selection for dairy farming is a very different operationfrom the clearing required for fruit-growing. Where the land is to belaid down in pasture, no ploughing has to be done, consequently thecost is very much less. In clearing land for grass it is the best planto first of all "ring" all the eucalyptus trees. This consists incutting a ring round the tree with axes through the bark and sapwood, oralburnum, into the brown wood beneath. The crude sap, bearing insolution the various organic matters which the roots have extracted fromthe soil, ascends by the outer layer of wood immediately beneath thebark to the leaves, where it is elaborated into plant food. When thislayer is cut through, the food supply is immediately stopped, and thetree dies. The operation of ringing is best done during the winter, whenthe sap is down, and if properly performed at the right time the treealways dies very soon. If possible, the ringing should be done a year ortwo before the general clearing is commenced, as all the dead leaves, small branches, and dead bark have time to fall, and are then burned offwith the rest of the scrub. The next operation is to cut down all thebrushwood and smaller growths with bill-hooks, and then the rest of thescrub is felled with axes, and allowed to lie until quite dry, when itis burned off. A good burn should leave very little to be cleared up, but sometimes, where there is such vegetation as sassafras or fallentree-ferns, a good deal of "picking-up" has to be done. This means thatall the unburnt timber on the ground has to be rolled together andburnt. Tree-ferns should not be felled, as they do not burn well. Thebest way of killing them is to cut off the fronds just below where theyspring from the stem. Some knack is required to cut in just the rightplace, but it is easily acquired. There are certain precautions to beobserved in burning-off, which the settler should make himselfacquainted with. Information on this point and in regard to any mattersof practical interest to the beginner will be furnished gladly andwithout charge by experienced officers of the Department of Agriculture. [Illustration: Clearing the Land. ] As soon as the land is burnt off the grass may be sown upon it. Nocultivation is usually given, the grass-seed being sown upon the ashesremaining from the burnt scrub, which forms very effective manure. Cocksfoot is the grass par excellence for this work, as it is very hardyand nutritious, and not attacked by insect pests to the same extent asothers. Sometimes a mixture of cocksfoot, English rye-grass, and whiteclover is used, or the two grasses alone are planted. Local informationis the best guide obtainable as to what it is best to plant. Dairyingthus becomes practicable in a year or two, and returns are received muchsooner than from any other branch of agriculture. It will, of course, benecessary to clear a certain amount of the selection for cultivation, sothat crops may be grown, and it is often better and cheaper in the endto devote the poorer and less heavily timbered parts of the holding tothis purpose, and buy manure. Some selectors clean up a part of theground of roots and logs, leaving all the big ringed timber standing, and plough it up. It requires some skill to steer a plough under theseconditions, but very good crops can be grown in this way. Butter Factories. Properly equipped butter factories are situated at Launceston (2), Deloraine, Burnie, Emu Bay, Wynyard, Stanley, Smithton, Wilmot, Ringarooma, Derby, and Pyengana. In the south there are only two of anymagnitude, one in Hobart, and the other at Bream Creek. A well-equippedfactory has been established on King Island, in Bass Straits, a localitythat has been found very suitable for dairying. Dairy Herds. The dairy herds of the State until a few years ago were of a somewhatnondescript type, very few farmers having realised the necessity ofimproving the butter-yielding capacity of their stock. Recently, however, great improvements have taken place, as the dairying industryhas advanced, until now many Tasmanian dairymen own herds of the higheststandard. The work of improving the milking strains of cattle is in thehands of the farmers themselves, but advice and assistance are alwaysobtainable from the Government Dairy Expert. Cheese-making. This is a highly profitable branch of dairy farming, and the product isso small in bulk compared with its value that it is eminently portable. Cheese-making can therefore be carried on under conditions where otherforms of production would be difficult. Some skill and knowledge arerequired, but the Dairy Expert regularly gives lectures anddemonstrations on the subject in all the principal agricultural centres, so that any intelligent person can easily obtain all the information herequires. The principal cheese factories in the State are situated at St. Mary's, Pyengana, Emu Bay, Devonport, and Circular Head. The cheese produced is very good in quality, and a considerable exporttrade will soon be developed in it. Bacon-curing. The production of hams and bacon is one of the collateral industriesconnected with dairying, as the skim-milk and waste products form a veryvaluable food for fattening pigs. Excellent bacon is produced inTasmania, and a good deal is exported, but not nearly what might beproduced. [Illustration: Group of Prize Bulls. ] Dairy Factories. It is the introduction of the dairy factory system that has solved theproblem of success or failure for the dairy farmer. These institutionsare becoming fairly numerous throughout the State, and are all equippedwith the most modern machinery and managed by expert men. The farmernearly always, nowadays, has his cream separator, and all he has to taketo the factory is the cream, which does not occupy much space, while theskimmed milk remains on the farm for feeding pigs or calves. Some of thedairy factories in the State are proprietary, but others are on theco-operative system, under which the farmers are the owners, and sharein the general profits, as well as being paid for their cream. McCARRON, BIRD & CO. , Printers, 479 Collins Street, Melbourne. [Footnote A: The personnel of the Commission was as follows:--Sir T. Carlaw Martin, Edinburgh (Chairman); Sir John R. G. Sinclair, Bart. , Barrock House, Wick (Vice Chairman); Dr. J. H. Wilson, F. R. S. E. , St. Andrew's University; Dr. Shirra Gibb Boon, Lauder; William Barber, M. A. , Tererran, Moniaive; J. McHutchen Dobbie, Campend, Dalkeith; JamesDunlop, Kilmarnock; R. B. Greig, F. R. S. E. , Cults; William Henderson, Lawton, Coupar-Angus; James Keith, Pitmeddan, Udny; E. E. Morrison, M. A. , Bonnington, Siravithie; and Alex. M. Prain, Errol (Secretary). ]