_ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_ _OF ALL AGES_ ARCHITECTURE CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH, F. R. I. B. A. AND JOHN SLATER, B. A. , F. R. I. B. A. [Illustration: THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES, _circa_ B. C. 438. ] _ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY_ ARCHITECTURE CLASSIC AND EARLY CHRISTIAN BY T. ROGER SMITH, F. R. I. B. A. _Professor of Architecture, University Coll. London_ AND JOHN SLATER, B. A. , F. R. I. B. A. [Illustration: ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION. ] LONDON SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET 1882. [_All rights reserved. _] LONDON. PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. PREFACE. This handbook is intended to give such an outline of the Architectureof the Ancient World, and of that of Christendom down to the period ofthe Crusades, as, without attempting to supply the minute informationrequired by the professional student, may give a general idea of theworks of the great building nations of Antiquity and the EarlyChristian times. Its chief object has been to place information on thesubject within the reach of those persons of literary or artisticeducation who desire to become in some degree acquainted withArchitecture. All technicalities which could be dispensed with havebeen accordingly excluded; and when it has been unavoidable that atechnical word or phrase should occur, an explanation has been addedeither in the text or in the glossary; but as this volume and thecompanion one on Gothic and Renaissance Architecture are, in effect, two divisions of the same work, it has not been thought necessary torepeat in the glossary given with this part the words explained inthat prefixed to the other. In treating so very wide a field, it has been felt that the chiefprominence should be given to that great sequence of architecturalstyles which form the links of a chain connecting the architecture ofmodern Europe with the earliest specimens of the art. Egypt, Assyria, and Persia combined to furnish the foundation upon which the splendidarchitecture of the Greeks was based. Roman architecture was foundedon Greek models with the addition of Etruscan construction, and wasfor a time universally prevalent. The break-up of the Roman Empire wasfollowed by the appearance of the Basilican, the Byzantine, and theRomanesque phases of Christian art; and, later on, by the Saracenic. These are the styles on which all mediæval and modern Europeanarchitecture has been based, and these accordingly have furnished thesubjects to which the reader's attention is chiefly directed. Suchstyles as those of India, China and Japan, which lie quite outsidethis series, are noticed much more briefly; and some matters--such, for example, as prehistoric architecture--which in a larger treatiseit would have been desirable to include, have been entirely left outfor want of room. In treating each style the object has not been to mention every phaseof its development, still less every building, but rather to describethe more prominent buildings with some approach to completeness. It istrue that much is left unnoticed, for which the student who wishes topursue the subject further will have to refer to the writingsspecially devoted to the period or country. But it has been possibleto describe a considerable number of typical examples, and to do so insuch a manner as, it is hoped, may make some impression on thereader's mind. Had notices of a much greater number of buildings beencompressed into the same space, each must have been so condensed thatthe volume, though useful as a catalogue for reference, would have, inall probability, become uninteresting, and consequently unserviceableto the class of readers for whom it is intended. As far as possible mere matters of opinion have been excluded fromthis handbook. A few of the topics which it has been necessary toapproach are subjects on which high authorities still more or lessdisagree, and it has been impossible to avoid these in every instance;but, as far as practicable, controverted points have been leftuntouched. Controversy is unsuited to the province of such a manual asthis, in which it is quite sufficient for the authors to deal with theascertained facts of the history which they have to unfold. It is not proposed here to refer to the authorities for the variousstatements made in these pages, but to this rule it is impossible toavoid making one exception. The writers feel bound to acknowledge howmuch they, in common with all students of the art, are indebted to thepatient research, the profound learning, and the admirable skill inmarshalling facts displayed by Mr. Fergusson in his various writings. Had it been possible to devote a larger space to Eastern architecture, Pagan and Mohammedan, the indebtedness to him, in a field where hestands all but alone, must of necessity have been still greater. The earlier chapters of this volume were chiefly written by Mr. Slater, who very kindly consented to assist in the preparation of it;but I am of course, as editor, jointly responsible with him for thecontents. The Introduction, Chapters V. To VII. , and from Chapter X. To the end, have been written by myself: and if our work shall in anydegree assist the reader to understand, and stimulate him to admire, the architecture of the far-off past; above all, if it enables him toappreciate our vast indebtedness to Greek art, and in a lesser degreeto the art of other nations who have occupied the stage of the world, the aim which the writers have kept in view will not have been missed. T. ROGER SMITH. _University College, London. _ _May, 1882. _ [Illustration: FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF. ] CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE INTRODUCTION. 1 CHAPTER II. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Pyramids. Tombs. Temples. Analysis of Buildings. 14 CHAPTER III. WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. Babylonian. Assyrian. Persian. Analysis of Buildings. 43 CHAPTER IV. ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE. Hindu. Chinese and Japanese. 64 CHAPTER V. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. Buildings of the Doric Order. 80 CHAPTER VI. Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. 102 CHAPTER VII. Analysis of Greek Architecture. The Plan. The Walls. The Roof. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments. Architectural Character. 117 CHAPTER VIII. ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Historical and General Sketch. 138 CHAPTER IX. The Buildings of the Romans. Basilicas. Theatres and Amphitheatres. Baths (Thermæ). Bridges and Aqueducts. Commemorative Monuments. Domestic Architecture. 147 CHAPTER X. Analysis of Roman Architecture. The Plan. The Walls. The Roofs. The Openings. The Columns. The Ornaments. Architectural Character. 182 CHAPTER XI. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Basilicas in Rome and Italy. 198 CHAPTER XII. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 210 CHAPTER XIII. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. 222 CHAPTER XIV. CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE. Analysis of Basilican, Byzantine, and Romanesque. 240 CHAPTER XV. MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. Egypt, Syria and Palestine, Sicily and Spain, Persia and India. 252 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS, AS IT WAS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES, _circa_ B. C. 438. _Frontispiece_ ATRIUM OF A ROMAN MANSION. (_on title-page_) FRIEZE FROM CHURCH AT DENKENDORF. X ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE. Xviii THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. Xxiv 1. OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE GOLDSMITHS, ROME. 3 2. OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN TRIUMPHAL ARCH AT POLA. 4 3. OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR OF ST. FRONT, PÉRIGUEUX, FRANCE. 5 4. TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING TO ADLER. 8 5. PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME. 10 6. TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND. 12 7. AN EGYPTIAN CORNICE. 14 8. SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS OR SUPHIS). 17 9. ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. 19 10. THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF CEPHREN AT GIZEH. 19 11. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. 19 12. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS. 21 13. IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS. 21 14. PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. 23 15. ROCK-CUT FAÇADE OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. 24 16. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT KARNAK. 26 17. THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE CLERESTORY. 27 18. ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE PYLONS. 27 19. PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU. 30 20. EXAMPLE OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU. 30 21. GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. 31 22. SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. 31 23. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL. 33 24. EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL. 33 25. PALM CAPITAL. 34 26. SCULPTURED CAPITAL. 34 27. ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH. 35 28. FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT THEBES. 35 29. CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD. 36 30. PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES. 42 31. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH. 43 32. PALACE AT KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON ABOUT 710 B. C. 48 33. PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK. 51 34. PROTO-IONIC COLUMN FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 53 34a. PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 53 34b. PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. 53 35. TOMB OF CYRUS. 54 35a. GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT PERSEPOLIS. 56 35b. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--EAST AND WEST PORTICOES. 58 36. COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS--NORTH PORTICO. 58 37. THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS. 60 38. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD. 64 39. DAGOBA FROM CEYLON. 66 40. CHAITYA NEAR POONA. 68 41. THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT. 69 42. PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. 70 43. VIMANA FROM MANASARA. 71 44. BRACKET CAPITAL. 73 45. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA. 73 46. COLUMN FROM ELLORA. 73 47. COLUMN FROM AJUNTA. 73 48. A SMALL PAGODA. 76 49. GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT. 80 50. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS. 82 50a. PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE. 83 51. ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM SAMOTHRACE. 86 52. PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ. 86 52a. SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ. 86 53. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS. 87 53a. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM. 87 53b. GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE. 87 54. THE RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS. 89 55. PLAN OF THE PARTHENON. 90 56. THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING THE MARBLE TILES. 91 56a. SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT PÆSTUM. AS RESTORED BY BÖTTICHER. 92 57. THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM. 93 58. PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN. 94 59. THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL. 94 60. CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM ÆGINA, WITH COLOURED DECORATION. 95 61. SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK DORIC ORDER. 96 62. PLAN, LOOKING UP, OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC PERISTYLE. 96 63. DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH. 97 64. DETAILS OF THE MUTULES. 97 65. ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A GREEK ANTA, WITH COLOURED DECORATION. 99 66. PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE. 102 67. SHAFT OF AN IONIC COLUMN, SHOWING THE FLUTES. 103 68. IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION. 103 69. IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION. 103 70. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR. 105 71. THE IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS. 106 72. NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE TIME OF PERICLES. 107 73. PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM. 108 74. IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS VICTORY (NIKÈ APTEROS). 108 75. IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE. 108 76. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS. 111 77. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. 112 78. MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES, AS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES. 113 79. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW. 114 80. RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF SEGESTA. 115 81. CAPITAL OF AN ANTA FROM MILETUS. 117 82. GREEK DOORWAY, SHOWING CORNICE. 123 83. GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM. ) 123 84. THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK. 128 85. THE ACANTHUS LEAF. 129 86. METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN A CENTAUR AND ONE OF THE LAPITHÆ. 130 87. MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA. 131 88. SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM. 132 89. PLAN OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, LOOKING UP. 132 90. CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM. 133 91-96. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF. 134 97-104. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF. 135 105-110. GREEK ORNAMENTS IN COLOUR. 136 111-113. EXAMPLES OF HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT. 137 114. COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE. 137 116-120. EXAMPLES OF THE FRET. 137 121. ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED FROM DESCRIPTIONS ONLY). 138 122. SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO. 140 123. THE CLOACA MAXIMA. 142 124. "INCANTADA" IN SALONICA. 147 125. THE IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS, ROME. 148 126. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NÎMES (MAISON CARRÉE). PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN. 150 127. GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. 151 128. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. 152 129. THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN, LOOKING UP, AND SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE. 153 130. GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME. 155 131. PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME. 157 132. THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION. 158 133. PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF CARACALLA, ROME. 163 134. INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI, ROME. 165 135. THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN. 166 136. THE PANTHEON. EXTERIOR. 167 137. THE PANTHEON. INTERIOR. 168 138. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON. 169 139. THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME. 172 140. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII. 176 141. GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET, POMPEII. 177 142. THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE. 178 143. WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII. 180 144. CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. 182 145. ROMAN-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE. FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. 188 145a. A ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL. 188 146. PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME. SHOWING THE COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS. 190 147. FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. SHOWING THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY. 191 148. FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING A FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART OF A VAULT. 192 149. FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO. SHOWING AN ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN. 192 150. MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN BUILDINGS. 193 151. ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF. 194 152. THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT--ROMAN. 194 153. WALL-DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE CHARACTER FROM POMPEII. 195 154. DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE VAULT OF A TOMB IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME. 197 155. BASILICA CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE. 198 156. INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII. RESTORED, FROM DESCRIPTIONS BY VARIOUS AUTHORS. 200 156a. BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH, OF SANT' AGNESE AT ROME. 202 157. SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE ARCADE AND APSE. 205 158. APSE OF THE BASILICA OF SAN PAOLO FUORI LE MURA, ROME. 207 158a. FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA. 210 159. CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. LONGITUDINAL SECTION. 212 160. PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. 216 161. SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL SECTION. 216 162. PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE. 217 163. SCULPTURED ORNAMENT FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM. 219 164. CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA. 220 165. TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH. 221 166. TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH. 223 167. CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA. 225 168. VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS IN THE MUSÉE DE CLUNY, PARIS. 227 169. CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. 228 170. NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. 229 171. ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. 230 172. NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH, NORTHAMPTON. 234 173. NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. 236 174. DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL. 237 175. HEDINGHAM CASTLE. 238 176. INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE. 239 177. ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN. 240 178. PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT COLOGNE. 241 179. SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL. 242 180. CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF FAÇADE. 244 181. CUBIC CAPITAL. 246 182. DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY. 247 183. MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH AT KOESFELD. 248 184. BYZANTINE BASKET WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN MICHELE IN AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA. 251 185. ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA. 252 186. HORSE-SHOE ARCH. 254 187. EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. SHOWING THE MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE. 255 188. ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES. 257 189. MOSQUE "EL MOYED" AT CAIRO. 259 190. ARABIAN WALL DECORATION. 260 191. PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM. 261 192. SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM. 262 193. DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA. 264 194. GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN. 267 195. ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR. 269 [Illustration: ROCK-CUT TOMB AT MYRA, IN LYCIA. _Imitation of Timber Construction in Stone. _] GLOSSARY. ABACUS, a square tablet which crowns the capital of the column. ACANTHUS, a plant, the foliage of which was imitated in the ornament of the Corinthian capital. AGORA, the place of general assembly in a Greek city. ALÆ (_Lat. _ wings), recesses opening out of the atrium of a Roman house. ALHAMBRA, the palatial fortress of Granada (from _al hamra_--the red). AMBO, a fitting of early Christian churches, very similar to a pulpit. AMPHITHEATRE, a Roman place of public entertainment in which combats of gladiators, &c. , were exhibited. ANTÆ, narrow piers used in connection with columns in Greek architecture, for the same purpose as pilasters in Roman. ARABESQUE, a style of very light ornamental decoration. ARCHAIC, primitive, so ancient as to be rude, or at least extremely simple. ARCHIVOLT, the series of mouldings which is carried round an arch. ARENA, the space in the centre of an amphitheatre where the combats, &c. , took place. ARRIS, a sharp edge. ASTRAGAL, a small round moulding. ATRIUM, the main quadrangle in a Roman dwelling-house; also the enclosed court in front of an early Christian basilican church. BAPTISTERY, a building, or addition to a building, erected for the purposes of celebrating the rite of Christian baptism. BASEMENT, the lowest story of a building, applied also to the lowest part of an architectural design. BAS-RELIEF, a piece of sculpture in low relief. BIRD'S-BEAK, a moulding in Greek architecture, used in the capitals of Antæ. BYZANTINE, the style of Christian architecture which had its origin at Byzantium (Constantinople). CARCERES, in the ancient racecourses, goals and starting-points. CARTOUCHE, in Egyptian buildings, a hieroglyphic signifying the name of a king or other important person. CARYATIDÆ, human figures made to carry an entablature, in lieu of columns in some Classic buildings. CAVÆDIAM, another name for the atrium of a Roman house. CAVEA, the part of an ancient theatre occupied by the audience. CAVETTO, in Classic architecture, a hollow moulding. CELLA, the principal, often the only, apartment of a Greek or Roman temple. CHAITYA, an Indian temple, or hall of assembly. CIRCUS, a Roman racecourse. CLOACA, a sewer or drain. COLUMBARIUM, literally a pigeon-house--a Roman sepulchre built in many compartments. COLUMNAR, made with columns. COMPLUVIUM, the open space or the middle of the roof of a Roman atrium. CORONA, in the cornices of Greek and Roman architecture, the plain unmoulded feature which is supported by the lower part of the cornice, and on which the crowning mouldings rest. CORNICE, the horizontal series of mouldings crowning the top of a building or the walls of a room. CUNEIFORM, of letters in Assyrian inscriptions, wedge-shaped. CYCLOPEAN, applied to masonry constructed of vast stones, usually not hewn or squared. CYMA (recta, or reversa), a moulding, in Classic architecture, of an outline partly convex and partly concave. DAGOBA, an Indian tomb of conical shape. DENTIL BAND, in Classic architecture, a series of small blocks resembling square-shaped teeth. DOMUS (_Lat. _), a house, applied usually to a detached residence. DWARF-WALL, a very low wall. ECHINUS, in Greek Doric architecture, the principal moulding of the capital placed immediately under the abacus. ENTABLATURE, the superstructure--comprising architrave, frieze and cornice--above the columns in Classic architecture. ENTASIS, in the shaft of a column, a curved outline. EPHEBEUM, the large hall in Roman baths in which youths practised gymnastic exercises. FACIA, in Classic architecture, a narrow flat band or face. FAUCES, the passage from the atrium to the peristyle in a Roman house. FLUTES, the small channels which run from top to bottom of the shaft of most columns in Classic architecture. FORUM, the place of general assembly in a Roman city, as the Agora was in a Greek. FRESCO, painting executed upon a plastered wall while the plaster is still wet. FRET, an ornament made up of squares and L-shaped lines, in use in Greek architecture. GARTH, the central space round which a cloister is carried. GIRDER, a beam. GROUTED, said of masonry or brickwork, treated with liquid mortar to fill up all crevices and interstices. GUTTÆ, small pendent features in Greek and Roman Doric cornices, resembling rows of wooden pegs. HEXASTYLE, of six columns. HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT, a decoration constantly introduced into Assyrian and Greek architecture, founded upon the flower of the honeysuckle. HORSE-SHOE ARCH, an arch more than a semicircle, and so wider above than at its springing. HYPOSTYLE, literally "under columns, " but used to mean filled by columns. IMPLUVIUM, the space into which the rain fell in the centre of the atrium of a Roman house. INSULA, a block of building surrounded on all sides by streets, literally an island. INTERCOLUMNIATION, the space between two columns. KEYED, secured closely by interlocking. KIBLA, the most sacred part of a Mohammedan mosque. LÂTS, in Indian architecture, Buddhist inscribed pillars. MAMMISI, small Egyptian temples. MASTABA, the most usual form of Egyptian tomb. MAUSOLEUM, a magnificent sepulchral monument or tomb. From the tomb erected to Mausolus, by his wife Artemisia, at Halicarnassus, 379 B. C. METOPES, literally faces, the square spaces between triglyphs in Doric architecture; occasionally applied to the sculptures fitted into these spaces. MINARET, a slender lofty tower, a usual appendage of a Mohammedan mosque. MONOLITH, of one stone. MORTISE, a hollow in a stone or timber to receive a corresponding projection. MOSQUE, a Mohammedan place of worship. MUTULE, a feature in a Classic Doric cornice, somewhat resembling the end of a timber beam. NARTHEX, in an early Christian church, the space next the entrance. OBELISK, a tapering stone pillar, a feature of Egyptian architecture. OPUS ALEXANDRINUM, the mosaic work used for floors in Byzantine and Romanesque churches. OVOLO, a moulding, the profile of which resembles the outline of an egg, used in Classic architecture. PENDENTIVE, a feature in Byzantine and other domed buildings, employed to enable a circular dome to stand over a square space. PERISTYLAR, or PERIPTERAL, with columns all round. PERISTYLIUM, or PERISTYLE, in a Roman house, the inner courtyard; also any space or enclosure with columns all round it. PISCINA, a small basin usually executed in stone and placed within a sculptured niche, fixed at the side of an altar in a church, with a channel to convey away the water poured into it. POLYCHROMY, the use of decorative colours. PRECINCTS, the space round a church or religious house, usually enclosed with a wall. PRESBYTERY, the eastern part of a church, the chancel. PROFILE (of a moulding), the outline which it would present if cut across at right angles to its length. PRONAOS, the front portion or vestibule to a temple. PROPYLÆA, in Greek architecture, a grand portal or state entrance. PROTHYRUM, in a Roman house, the porch or entrance. PSEUDO-PERIPTERAL, resembling, but not really being peristylar. PYLON, or PRO-PYLON, the portal or front of an Egyptian temple. QUADRIGA, a four-horse chariot. ROMANESQUE, the style of Christian architecture which was founded on Roman work. ROTUNDA, a building circular in plan. SACRISTY, the part of a church where the treasures belonging to the church are preserved. SHINTO TEMPLES, temples (in Japan) devoted to the Shinto religion. SPAN, the space over which an arch or a roof extends. SPINA, the central wall of a Roman racecourse. STILTED, raised, usually applied to an arch when its centre is above the top of the jambs from which it springs. STRUTS, props. STUPA, in Indian architecture, a mound or tope. STYLOBATE, a series of steps, usually those leading up to a Classic temple. TAAS, a pagoda. TABLINUM, in a Roman house, the room between the atrium and the peristyle. TALAR, in Assyrian architecture, an open upper story. TENONED, fastened with a projection or tenon. TESSELATED, made of small squares of material, applied to coarse mosaic work. TETRASTYLE, with four columns. THERMÆ, the great bathing establishments of the Romans. TOPES, in Indian architecture, artificial mounds. TRABEATED, constructed with a beam or beams, a term usually employed in contrast to arches. TRICLINIUM, in a Roman house, the dining-room. TRIGLYPH, the channelled feature in the frieze of the Doric order. TUMULI, mounds, usually sepulchral. TYPHONIA, small Egyptian temples. VELARIUM, a great awning. VESTIBULE, the outer hall or ante-room. VOLUTES, in Classic architecture, the curled ornaments of the Ionic capital. VOUSSOIRS, the wedge-shaped stones of which arches are made. N. B. For the explanation of other technical words found in thisvolume, consult the Glossary given with the companion volume on Gothicand Renaissance Architecture. [Illustration: THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. ] [Illustration] ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Architecture may be described as building at its best, and when wetalk of the architecture of any city or country we mean its best, noblest, or most beautiful buildings; and we imply by the use of theword that these buildings possess merits which entitle them to rank asworks of art. The architecture of the civilised world can be best understood byconsidering the great buildings of each important nation separately. The features, ornaments, and even forms of ancient buildings differedjust as the speech, or at any rate the literature, differed. Eachnation wrote in a different language, though the books may have beendevoted to the same aims; and precisely in the same way each nationbuilt in a style of its own, even if the buildings may have beensimilar in the purposes they had to serve. The division of the subjectinto the architecture of Egypt, Greece, Rome, &c. , is therefore themost natural one to follow. But certain broad groups, rising out of peculiarities of a physicalnature, either in the buildings themselves or in the conditions underwhich they were erected, can hardly fail to be suggested by a generalview of the subject. Such, for example, is the fourfold division towhich the reader's attention will now be directed. All buildings, it will be found, can be classed under one or other offour great divisions, each distinguished by a distinct mode ofbuilding, and each also occupying a distinct place in history. Thefirst series embraces the buildings of the Egyptians, the Persians, and the Greeks, and was brought to a pitch of the highest perfectionin Greece during the age of Pericles. All the buildings erected inthese countries during the many centuries which elapsed from theearliest Egyptian to the latest Greek works, however they may havediffered in other respects, agree in this--that the openings, be theydoors, or be they spaces between columns, were spanned by beams ofwood or lintels of stone (Fig. 1). Hence this architecture is calledarchitecture of the beam, or, in more formal language, trabeatedarchitecture. This mode of covering spaces required that in buildingsof solid masonry, where stone or marble lintels were employed, thesupports should not be very far apart, and this circumstance led tothe frequent use of rows of columns. The architecture of this periodis accordingly sometimes called columnar, but it has no exclusiveclaim to the epithet; the column survived long after the exclusiveuse of the beam had been superseded, and the term columnar mustaccordingly be shared with buildings forming part of the succeedingseries. [Illustration: FIG. 1. --OPENING SPANNED BY A LINTEL. ARCH OF THE GOLDSMITHS, ROME. ] The second great group of buildings is that in which the semicirculararch is introduced into construction, and used either together withthe beam, or, as mostly happened, instead of the beam, to span theopenings (Fig. 2). This use of the arch began with the Assyrians, andit reappeared in the works of the early Etruscans. The round-archedseries of styles embraces the buildings of the Romans from theirearliest beginnings to their decay; it also includes the two greatschools of Christian architecture which were founded by the Westernand the Eastern Church respectively, --namely, the Romanesque, which, originating in Rome, extended itself through Western Europe, andlasted till the time of the Crusades, and the Byzantine, which spreadfrom Constantinople over all the countries in which the Eastern (orGreek) Church flourished, and which continues to our own day. [Illustration: FIG. 2. --OPENING SPANNED BY A SEMICIRCULAR ARCH. ROMAN TRIUMPHAL ARCH AT POLA. ] [Illustration: FIG. 3. --OPENINGS SPANNED BY POINTED ARCHES. INTERIOR OF ST. FRONT, PÉRIGUEUX, FRANCE. ] The third group of buildings is that in which the pointed arch isemployed instead of the semicircular arch to span the openings (Fig. 3). It began with the rise of Mohammedan architecture in the East, andembraces all the buildings of Western Europe, from the time of theFirst Crusade to the revival of art in the fifteenth century. Thisgreat series of buildings constitutes what is known as Pointed, or, more commonly, as Gothic architecture. The fourth group consists of the buildings erected during or since theRenaissance (_i. E. _ revival) period, and is marked by a return to thestyles of past ages or distant countries for the architecturalfeatures and ornaments of buildings; and by that luxury, complexity, and ostentation which, with other qualities, are well comprehendedunder the epithet Modern. This group of buildings forms what is knownas Renaissance architecture, and extends from the epoch of the revivalof letters in the fifteenth century, to the present day. The first two of these styles--namely, the architecture of the beam, and that of the round arch--are treated of in this little volume. Theyoccupy those remote times of pagan civilisation which may beconveniently included under the broad term Ancient; and the betterknown work of the Greeks and Romans--the classic nations--and theyextend over the time of the establishment of Christianity down to theclose of that dreary period not incorrectly termed the Dark ages. Ancient, Classic, and early Christian architecture is accordingly anappropriate title for the main subjects of this volume, though, forthe sake of convenience, some notices of Oriental architecture havebeen added. Gothic and Renaissance architecture form the subjects ofthe companion volume. It may excite surprise that what appears to be so small a differenceas that which exists between a beam, a round arch, or a pointed arch, should be employed in order to distinguish three of the four greatdivisions. But in reality this is no pedantic or arbitrary grouping. The mode in which spaces or openings are covered lies at the root ofmost of the essential differences between styles of architecture, andthe distinction thus drawn is one of a real, not of a fanciful nature. Every building when reduced to its elements, as will be done in boththese volumes, may be considered as made up of its (1) floor or plan, (2) walls, (3) roof, (4) openings, (5) columns, and (6) ornaments, andas marked by its distinctive (7) character, and the student must beprepared to find that the openings are by no means the least importantof these elements. In fact, the moment the method of covering openingswas changed, it would be easy to show, did space permit, that all theother elements, except the ornaments, were directly affected by thechange, and the ornaments indirectly; and we thus find such acorrespondence between this index feature and the entire structure asrenders this primary division a scientific though a very broad one. The contrast between the trabeated style and the arched style may bewell understood by comparing the illustration of the Parthenon whichforms our frontispiece, or that of the great temple of Zeus at Olympia(Fig. 4), with the exterior of the Colosseum at Rome (Fig. 5), introduced here for the purposes of this comparison. [Illustration: FIG. 4. --TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLYMPIA. RESTORED ACCORDING TO ADLER. ] A division of buildings into such great series as these cannot, however, supersede the more obvious historical and geographicaldivisions. The architecture of every ancient country was partly thegrowth of the soil, _i. E. _ adapted to the climate of the country, andthe materials found there, and partly the outcome of the nationalcharacter of its inhabitants, and of such influences as race, colonisation, commerce, or conquest brought to bear upon them. Theseinfluences produced strong distinctions between the work of differentpeoples, especially before the era of the Roman Empire. Since thatperiod of universal dominion all buildings and styles have beeninfluenced more or less by Roman art. We accordingly find thebuildings of the most ancient nations separated from each other bystrongly marked lines of demarcation, but those since the era of theEmpire showing a considerable resemblance to one another. Thecircumstance that the remains of those buildings only which receivedthe greatest possible attention from their builders have come down tous from any remote antiquity, has perhaps served to accentuate thedifferences between different styles, for these foremost buildingswere not intended to serve the same purpose in all countries. Nothingbut tombs and temples have survived in Egypt. Palaces only have beenrescued from the decay of Assyrian and Persian cities; and temples, theatres, and places of public assembly are the chief, almost the onlyremains of architecture in Greece. A strong contrast between the buildings of different ancient nationsrises also from the differing point of view for which they weredesigned. Thus, in the tombs and, to a large extent, the temples ofthe Egyptians, we find structures chiefly planned for internal effect;that is to say, intended to be seen by those admitted to the sacredprecincts, but only to a limited extent appealing to the admiration ofthose outside. The buildings of the Greeks, on the other hand, werechiefly designed to please those who examined them from without, andthough no doubt some of them, the theatres especially, were from theirvery nature planned for interior effect, by far the greatest workswhich Greek art produced were the exteriors of the temples. [Illustration: FIG. 5. --PART OF THE EXTERIOR OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME. (NOW IN RUINS. )] The works of the Romans, and, following them, those of almost allWestern Christian nations, were designed to unite external andinternal effect; but in many cases external was evidently most soughtafter, and, in the North of Europe, many expedients--such, forexample, as towers, high-pitched roofs, and steeples--were introducedinto architecture with the express intention of increasing externaleffect. On the other hand, the Eastern styles, both Mohammedan andChristian, especially when practised in sunny climates, show in manycases a comparative disregard of external effect, and that theirarchitects lavished most of their resources on the interiors of theirbuildings. Passing allusions have been made to the influence of climate onarchitecture; and the student whose attention has been once called tothis subject will find many interesting traces of this influence inthe designs of buildings erected in various countries. Where the powerof the sun is great, flat terraced roofs, which help to keep buildingscool, and thick walls are desirable. Sufficient light is admitted bysmall windows far apart. Overhanging eaves, or horizontal cornices, are in such a climate the most effective mode of obtainingarchitectural effect, and accordingly in the styles of all Southernpeoples these peculiarities appear. The architecture of Egypt, forexample, exhibited them markedly. Where the sun is still powerful, butnot so extreme, the terraced roof is generally replaced by a slopingroof, steep enough to throw off water, and larger openings are madefor light and air; but the horizontal cornice still remains the mostappropriate means of gaining effects of light and shade. Thisdescription will apply to the architecture of Italy and Greece. When, however, we pass to Northern countries, where snow has to beencountered, where light is precious, and where the sun is low in theheavens for the greater part of the day, a complete change takesplace. Roofs become much steeper, so as to throw off snow. Thehorizontal cornice is to a large extent disused, but the buttress, theturret, and other vertical features, from which a level sun will castshadows, begin to appear; and windows are made numerous and spacious. This description applies to Gothic architecture generally--in otherwords, to the styles which rose in Northern Europe. [Illustration: FIG. 6. --TIMBER ARCHITECTURE. CHURCH AT BORGUND. ] The influence of materials on architecture is also worth notice. Wheregranite, which is worked with difficulty, is the material obtainable, architecture has invariably been severe and simple; where soft stoneis obtainable, exuberance of ornament makes its appearance, inconsequence of the material lending itself readily to the carver'schisel. Where, on the other hand, marble is abundant and good, refinement is to be met with, for no other building material exists inwhich very delicate mouldings or very slight or slender projectionsmay be employed with the certainty that they will be effective. Wherestone is scarce, brick buildings, with many arches, roughlyconstructed cornices and pilasters, and other peculiarities both ofstructure and ornamentation, make their appearance, as, for example, in Lombardy and North Germany. Where materials of many colours abound, as is the case, for example, in the volcanic districts of France, polychromy is sought as a means of ornamentation. Lastly, where timberis available, and stone and brick are both scarce, the result is anarchitecture of which both the forms and the ornamentation areentirely dissimilar to those proper to buildings of stone, marble, orbrick, as may be seen by a glance at our illustration of an earlyScandinavian church built of timber (Fig. 6), which presents formsappropriate to a timber building as being easily constructed of wood, but which would hardly be suitable to any other material whatever. [Illustration: FIG. 7. --EGYPTIAN CORNICE. ] CHAPTER II. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. The origin of Egyptian architecture, like that of Egyptian history, islost in the mists of antiquity. The remains of all, or almost all, other styles of architecture enable us to trace their rude beginnings, their development, their gradual progress up to a culminating point, and thence their slow but certain decline; but the earliest remains ofthe constructions of the Egyptians show their skill as builders at theheight of its perfection, their architecture highly developed, andtheir sculpture at its very best, if not indeed at the commencement ofits decadence; for some of the statuary of the age of the Pyramids wasnever surpassed in artistic effect by the work of a later era. It isimpossible for us to conceive of such scientific skill as is evidencedin the construction of the great pyramids, or such artistic power asis displayed on the walls of tombs of the same date, or in the statuesfound in them, as other than the outcome of a vast accumulation ofexperience, the attainment of which must imply the lapse of very longperiods of time since the nation which produced such works emergedfrom barbarism. It is natural, where so remote an antiquity is inquestion, that we should feel a great difficulty, if not animpossibility, in fixing exact dates, but the whole tendency of modernexploration and research is rather to push back than to advance thedates of Egyptian chronology, and it is by no means impossible thatthe dynasties of Manetho, after being derided as apocryphal forcenturies, may in the end be accepted as substantially correct. Manetho was an Egyptian priest living in the third century B. C. , whowrote a history of his country, which he compiled from the archives ofthe temples. His work itself is lost, but Josephus quotes extractsfrom it, and Eusebius and Julius Africanus reproduced his lists, inwhich the monarchs of Egypt are grouped into thirty-four dynasties. These, however, do not agree with one another, and in many cases it isdifficult to reconcile them with the records displayed in themonuments themselves. The remains with which we are acquainted indicate four distinctperiods of great architectural activity in Egyptian history, viz. : (1)the period of the fourth dynasty, when the Great Pyramids were erected(probably 3500 to 3000 B. C. ); (2) the period of the twelfth dynasty, to which belong the remains at Beni-Hassan; (3) the period of theeighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, when Thebes was in its glory, which is attested by the ruins of Luxor and Karnak; and (4) thePtolemaic period, of which there are the remains at Denderah, Edfou, and Philæ. The monuments that remain are almost exclusively tombs andtemples. The tombs are, generally speaking, all met with on the eastor right bank of the Nile: among them must be classed those grandestand oldest monuments of Egyptian skill, the Pyramids, which appear tohave been all designed as royal burying-places. A large number ofpyramids have been discovered, but those of Gizeh, near Cairo, are thelargest and the best known, and also probably the oldest which can beauthenticated. [1] The three largest pyramids are those of Cheops, Cephren, and Mycerinus at Gizeh (or, as the names are more correctlywritten, Suphis, Sensuphis, and Moscheris or Mencheris). Thesemonarchs all belonged to the fourth dynasty, and the most probabledate to be assigned to them is about 3000 B. C. The pyramid of Suphisis the largest, and is the one familiarly known as the Great Pyramid;it has a square base, the side of which is 760 feet long, [2] a heightof 484 feet, and an area of 577, 600 square feet. In this pyramid theangle of inclination of the sloping sides to the base is 51° 51', butin no two pyramids is this angle the same. There can be no doubt thatthese huge monuments were erected each as the tomb of an individualking, whose efforts were directed towards making it everlasting, andthe greatest pains were taken to render the access to the burialchamber extremely hard to discover. This accounts for the vastdisproportion between the lavish amount of material used for thepyramid and the smallness of the cavity enclosed in it (Fig. 8). The material employed was limestone cased with syenite (granite fromSyene), and the internal passages were lined with granite. The graniteof the casing has entirely disappeared, but that employed as liningsis still in its place, and so skilfully worked that it would not bepossible to introduce even a sheet of paper between the joints. [Illustration: FIG. 8. --SECTION ACROSS THE GREAT PYRAMID (OF CHEOPS OR SUPHIS). ] The entrance D to this pyramid of Suphis was at a height of 47 ft. 6 in. Above the base, and, as was almost invariably the case, on thenorth face; from the entrance a passage slopes downward at an angle of26° 27' to a chamber cut in the rock at a depth of about 90 feet belowthe base of the pyramid. This chamber seems to have been intended as ablind, as it was not the place for the deposition of the corpse. Fromthe point in the above described passage--marked A on our illustrationof this pyramid--another gallery starts upwards, till it reaches thepoint C, from which a horizontal passage leads to another smallchamber. This is called the Queen's Chamber, but no reason has beendiscovered for the name. From this point C the gallery continuesupwards till, in the heart of the pyramid, the Royal Chamber, B, isreached. The walls of these chambers and passages are lined withmasonry executed in the hardest stone (granite), and with an accuracyof fitting and a truth of surface that can hardly be surpassed. Extreme care seems to have been taken to prevent the great weightoverhead from crushing in the galleries and the chamber. The galleryfrom C upwards is of the form shown in Fig. 9, where each layer ofstones projects slightly beyond the one underneath it. Fig. 11 is asection of the chamber itself, and the succession of small chambersshown one above the other was evidently formed for the purpose ofdistributing the weight of the superincumbent mass. From the point C anarrow well leads almost perpendicularly downwards to a point nearlyat the bottom of the first-mentioned gallery; and the purpose to beserved by this well was long a subject of debate. The probability isthat, after the corpse had been placed in its chamber, the workmencompletely blocked up the passage from A to C by allowing large blocksof granite to slide down it, these blocks having been previouslyprepared and deposited in the larger gallery; the men then letthemselves down the well, and by means of the lower gallery made theirexit from the pyramid. The entrances to the chamber and to the pyramiditself were formed by huge blocks of stone which exactly fitted intogrooves prepared for them with the most beautiful mathematicalaccuracy. The chief interest attaching to the pyramids lies in theirextreme antiquity, and the scientific method of their construction;for their effect upon the spectator is by no means proportionate totheir immense mass and the labour bestowed upon them. [Illustration: FIG. 9. --ASCENDING GALLERY IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. ] [Illustration: FIG. 10. --THE SEPULCHRAL CHAMBER IN THE PYRAMID OF CEPHREN AT GIZEH. ] [Illustration: FIG. 11. --THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE KING'S CHAMBER IN THE GREAT PYRAMID. ] In the neighbourhood of the pyramids are found a large number of tombswhich are supposed to be those of private persons. Their form isgenerally that of a _mastaba_ or truncated pyramid with sloping walls, and their construction is evidently copied from a fashion of woodenarchitecture previously existing. The same idea of making aneverlasting habitation for the body prevailed as in the case of thepyramids, and stone was therefore the material employed; but thebuilders seem to have desired to indulge in a decorative style, and asthey were totally unable to originate a legitimate stone architecture, we find carved in stone, rounded beams as lintels, grooved posts, and--most curious of all--roofs that are an almost exact copy of theearly timber huts when unsquared baulks of timber were laid acrossside by side to form a covering. Figs. 12 and 13 show this kind ofstone-work, which is peculiar to the old dynasties, and seems to havehad little influence upon succeeding styles. A remarkable feature of these early private tombs consists in thepaintings with which the walls are decorated, and which vividlyportray the ordinary every-day occupations carried on during hislifetime by the person who was destined to be the inmate of the tomb. These paintings are of immense value in enabling us to form anaccurate idea of the life of the people at this early age. [Illustration: FIG. 12. --IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS. ] [Illustration: FIG. 13. --IMITATION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION IN STONE, FROM A TOMB AT MEMPHIS. ] It may possibly be open to doubt whether the dignified appellation ofarchitecture should be applied to buildings of the kind we have justbeen describing; but when we come to the series of remains of thetwelfth dynasty at Beni-Hassan, in middle Egypt, we meet with theearliest known examples of that most interesting feature of allsubsequent styles--the column. Whether the idea of columnararchitecture originated with the necessities of quarrying--squarepiers being left at intervals to support the superincumbent mass ofrock as the quarry was gradually driven in--or whether the earlieststone piers were imitations of brickwork or of timber posts, we shallprobably never be able to determine accurately, though the formersupposition seems the more likely. We have here monuments of a date1400 years anterior to the earliest known Greek examples, withsplendid columns, both exterior and interior, which no reasonableperson can doubt are the prototypes of the Greek Doric order. Fig. 14is a plan with a section, and Fig. 15 an exterior view, of one ofthese tombs, which, it will be seen, consisted of a portico, a chamberwith its roof supported by columns, and a small space at the fartherend in which is formed the opening of a sloping passage or well, atthe bottom of which the vault for the reception of the body wasconstructed. The walls of the large chamber are lavishly decoratedwith scenes of every-day life, and it has even been suggested thatthese places were not erected originally as tombs, but asdwelling-places, which after death were appropriated as sepulchres. [Illustration: FIG. 14. --PLAN AND SECTION OF THE TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. SECTION. ] The columns are surmounted by a small square slab, technically calledan abacus, and heavy square beams or architraves span the spacesbetween the columns, while the roof between the architraves has aslightly segmental form. The tombs of the later period, viz. Of theeighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, are very different from those ofthe twelfth dynasty, and present few features of architecturalinterest, though they are remarkable for their vast extent and thevariety of form of their various chambers and galleries. They consistof a series of chambers excavated in the rock, and it appears certainthat the tomb was commenced on the accession of each monarch, and wasdriven farther and farther into the rock during the continuance of hisreign till his death, when all work abruptly ceased. All the chambersare profusely decorated with paintings, but of a kind very differentfrom those of the earlier dynasties. Instead of depicting scenes ofordinary life, all the paintings refer to the supposed life afterdeath, and are thus of very great value as a means of determining thereligious opinions of the Egyptians at this time. One of the mostremarkable of these tombs is that of Manephthah or Sethi I. , atBab-el-Molouk, and known as Belzoni's tomb, as it was discovered byhim; from it was taken the alabaster sarcophagus now in the SoaneMuseum in Lincoln's Inn Fields. To this relic a new interest is givenby the announcement, while these pages are passing through the press, of the discovery of the mummy of this very Manephthah, withthirty-eight other royal mummies, in the neighbourhood of Thebes. [Illustration: FIG. 15. --ROCK-CUT FAÇADE OF TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN. ] Of the Ptolemaic period no tombs, except perhaps a few at Alexandria, are known to exist. TEMPLES. It is very doubtful whether any remains of temples of the time of thefourth dynasty--_i. E. _ contemporaneous with the pyramids--exist. One, constructed on a most extraordinary plan, was supposed to have beendiscovered about a quarter of a century ago, and it was described byProfessor Donaldson at the Royal Institute of British Architects in1861, but later Egyptologists rather incline to the belief that thiswas a tomb and not a temple, as in one of the chambers of the interiora number of compartments were discovered one above the other whichwere apparently intended for the reception of bodies. This singularbuilding is close to the Great Sphinx; its plan is cruciform, andthere are in the interior a number of rectangular piers of granitesupporting very simple architraves, but there are no means ofdetermining what kind of roof covered it in. The walls seem to havebeen faced on the interior with polished slabs of granite oralabaster, but no sculpture or hieroglyphic inscriptions were found onthem to explain the purpose of the building. Leaving thisbuilding--which is of a type quite unique--out of the question, Egyptian temples can be generally classed under two heads: (1) thelarge principal temples, and (2) the small subsidiary ones calledTyphonia or Mammisi. Both kinds of temple vary little, if at all, inplan from the time of the twelfth dynasty down to the Roman dominion. [Illustration: FIG. 16. --GROUND-PLAN OF THE PALACE AT KARNAK. ] The large temples consist almost invariably of an entrance gateflanked on either side by a large mass of masonry, called a pylon, inthe shape of a truncated pyramid (Fig. 18). The axis of theground-plan of these pylons is frequently obliquely inclined to theaxis of the plan of the temple itself; and indeed one of the moststriking features of Egyptian temples is the lack of regularity andsymmetry in their construction. The entrance gives access to a largecourtyard, generally ornamented with columns: beyond this, andoccasionally approached by steps, is another court, smaller than thefirst, but much more splendidly adorned with columns and colossi;beyond this again, in the finest examples, occurs what is called theHypostyle Hall, _i. E. _ a hall with two rows of lofty columns down thecentre, and at the sides other rows, more or less in number, of lowercolumns; the object of this arrangement being that the central portionmight be lighted by a kind of clerestory above the roof of the sideportions. Fig. 17 shows this arrangement. This hypostyle hall stoodwith its greatest length transverse to the general axis of the temple, so that it was entered from the side. Beyond it were other chambers, all of small size, the innermost being generally the sanctuary, whilethe others were probably used as residences by the priests. Homer'shundred-gated Thebes, which was for so long the capital of Egypt, offers at Karnak and Luxor the finest remains of temples; what is leftof the former evidently showing that it must have been one of the mostmagnificent buildings ever erected in any country. Fig. 16 is a planof the temple of Karnak, which was about 1200 feet long and 348 feetwide. A is the entrance between the two enormous pylons giving accessto a large courtyard, in which is a small detached temple, and anotherlarger one breaking into the courtyard obliquely. A gateway between asecond pair of pylons admits to B, the grand Hypostyle Hall, 334 feetby 167 feet. Beyond this are additional gateways with pylons, separated by a sort of gallery, C, in which were two giganticobelisks; D, another grand hall, is called the Hall of the Caryatides, and beyond is the Hall of the eighteen columns, through which accessis gained to a number of smaller halls grouped round the centralchamber E. Beyond this is a large courtyard, in the centre of whichstood the original sanctuary, which has disappeared down to itsfoundations, nothing but some broken shafts of columns remaining. Atthe extreme east is another hall supported partly by columns andpartly by square piers, and a second series of pillared courts andchambers. The pylons and buildings generally decrease in height as weproceed from the entrance eastwards. This is due to the fact that, thebuilding grew by successive additions, each one more magnificent thanthe last, all being added on the side from which the temple wasentered, leaving the original sanctuary unchanged and undisturbed. [Illustration: FIG. 17. --THE HYPOSTYLE HALL AT KARNAK, SHOWING THE CLERESTORY. ] [Illustration: FIG. 18. --ENTRANCE TO AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE, SHOWING THE PYLONS. ] Besides the buildings shown on the plan there were many other templesto the north, south, and east, entered by pylons and some of themconnected together by avenues of sphinxes, obelisks, and colossi, which altogether made up the most wonderful agglomeration of buildingsthat can be conceived. It must not be imagined that this temple ofKarnak, together with the series of connected temples is the result, of one clearly conceived plan; on the contrary, just as has beenfrequently the case with our own cathedrals and baronial halls, alterations were made here and additions there by successive kings oneafter the other without much regard to connection or congruity, theonly feeling that probably influenced them being that of emulation toexcel in size and grandeur the erections of their predecessors, as thelargest buildings are almost always of latest date. The originalsanctuary, or nucleus of the temple, was built by Usertesen I. , thesecond or third king of the twelfth dynasty. Omenophis, the first kingof the Shepherd dynasties, built a temple round the sanctuary, whichhas disappeared. Thothmes I. Built the Hall of the Caryatides andcommenced the next Hall of the eighteen columns, which was finished byThothmes II. Thothmes III. Built that portion surrounding thesanctuary, and he also built the courts on the extreme east. The pylonat C was built by Omenophis III. , and formed the façade of the templebefore the erection of the grand hall. Sethi I. Built the HypostyleHall, which had probably been originated by Rhamses I. , who commencedthe pylon west of it. Sethi II. Built the small detached temple, andRhamses III. The intersecting temple. The Bubastites constructed thelarge front court by building walls round it, and the Ptolemiescommenced the huge western pylon. The colonnade in the centre of thecourt was erected by Tahraka. Extensive remains of temples exist at Luxor, Edfou (Fig. 19), andPhilæ, but it will not be necessary to give a detailed description ofthem, as, if smaller in size, they are very similar in arrangement tothose already described. It should be noticed that all these largetemples have the mastaba form, _i. E. _ the outer walls are notperpendicular on the outside, but slope inwards as they rise, thusgiving the buildings an air of great solidity. [Illustration: FIG. 19. --PLAN OF THE TEMPLE AT EDFOU. ] [Illustration: FIG. 20. --PLAN OF ONE OF THE MAMMISI AT EDFOU. ] The Mammisi exhibit quite a different form of temple from thosepreviously described, and are generally found in close proximity tothe large temples. They are generally erected on a raised terrace, rectangular on plan and nearly twice as long as it was wide, approached by a flight of steps opposite the entrance; they consist ofoblong buildings, usually divided by a wall into two chambers, andsurrounded on all sides by a colonnade composed of circular columns orsquare piers placed at intervals, and the whole is roofed in. A dwarfwall is frequently found between the piers and columns, about half theheight of the shaft. These temples differ from the larger ones inhaving their outer walls perpendicular. Fig. 20 is a plan of one ofthese small temples, and no one can fail to remark the strikinglikeness to some of the Greek temples; there can indeed be littledoubt that this nation borrowed the peristylar form of its templesfrom the Ancient Egyptians. [Illustration: FIG. 21. --GROUND-PLAN OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. ] [Illustration: FIG. 22. --SECTION OF THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLE AT IPSAMBOUL. ] Although no rock-cut temples have been discovered in Egypt proper, Nubia is very rich in such remains. The arrangement of these templeshewn out of the rock is closely analogous to that of the detachedones. Figs. 21 and 22 show a plan and section of the largest of therock-cut temples at Ipsamboul, which consists of two extensive courts, with smaller chambers beyond, all connected by galleries. The roof ofthe large court is supported by eight huge piers, the faces of whichare sculptured into the form of standing colossi, and the entrance isadorned by four splendid seated colossi, 68 ft. 6 in. High. As was thecase with the detached temples, it will be noticed that the height ofthe various chambers decreases towards the extremity of theexcavation. [Illustration: FIG. 23. --EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS BUD CAPITAL. PLAN. ] [Illustration: FIG. 24. --EGYPTIAN COLUMN WITH LOTUS FLOWER CAPITAL. ] The constructional system pursued by the Egyptians, which consisted inroofing over spaces with large horizontal blocks of stone, led ofnecessity to a columnar arrangement in the interiors, as it wasimpossible to cover large areas without frequent upright supports. Hence the column became the chief means of obtaining effect, and thevarieties of form which it exhibits are very numerous. The earliestform is that at Beni-Hassan, which has already been noticed as theprototype of the Doric order. Figs. 23 and 24 are views of two columnsof a type more commonly employed. In these the sculptors appear tohave imitated as closely as possible the forms of the plant-worldaround them, as is shown in Fig. 23, which represents a bundle ofreeds or lotus stalks, and is the earliest type known of the lotuscolumn, which was afterwards developed into a number of forms, one ofwhich will be observed on turning to our section of the Hypostyle Hallat Karnak (Fig. 17), as employed for the lateral columns. The stalksare bound round with several belts, and the capital is formed by theslightly bulging unopened bud of the flower, above which is a smallabacus with the architrave resting upon it: the base is nothing but alow circular plinth. The square piers also have frequently a lotus budcarved on them. At the bottom of the shaft is frequently found adecoration imitated from the sheath of leaves from which the plantsprings. As a further development of this capital we have the openedlotus flower of a very graceful bell-like shape, ornamented with asimilar sheath-like decoration to that at the base of the shaft (Fig. 24). This decoration was originally painted only, not sculptured, butat a later period we find these sheaths and buds worked in stone. Evenmore graceful is the palm capital, which also had its leading lines ofdecoration painted on it at first (Fig. 25), and afterwards sculptured(Fig. 26). At a later period of the style we find the plant formsabandoned, and capitals were formed of a fantastic combination of thehead of Isis with a pylon resting upon it (Fig. 27). Considerableingenuity was exercised in adapting the capitals of the columns to thepositions in which they were placed: thus in the hypostyle halls, thelofty central row of columns generally had capitals of the form shownin Fig. 24, as the light here was sufficient to illuminate thoroughlythe underside of the overhanging bell; but those columns which werefarther removed from the light had their capitals of the unopened budform, which was narrower at the top than at bottom. In one part of thetemple at Karnak is found a very curious capital resembling the openlotus flower inverted. The proportion which the height of Egyptiancolumns bears to their diameter differs so much in various cases thatthere was evidently no regular standard adhered to, but as a generalrule they have a heavy and massive character. The wall-paintings ofthe Egyptian buildings show many curious forms of columns (Fig. 28), but we have no reason for thinking that these fantastic shapes werereally executed in stone. [Illustration: FIG. 25. --PALM CAPITAL. ] [Illustration: FIG. 26. --SCULPTURED CAPITAL. ] [Illustration: FIG. 27. --ISIS CAPITAL FROM DENDERAH. ] [Illustration: FIG. 28. --FANCIFUL COLUMN FROM PAINTED DECORATION AT THEBES. ] Almost the only sculptured ornaments worked on the exteriors ofbuildings were the curious astragal or bead at all the angles, and thecornice, which consisted of a very large cavetto, or hollow moulding, surmounted by a fillet. These features are almost invariable from theearliest to the latest period of the style. This cavetto was generallyenriched, over the doorways, with an ornament representing a circularboss with a wing at each side of it (Fig. 29). One other feature of Egyptian architecture which was peculiar to itmust be mentioned; namely, the obelisk. Obelisks were nearly alwayserected in pairs in front of the pylons of the temples, and added tothe dignity of the entrance. They were invariably monoliths, slightlytapering in outline, carved with the most perfect accuracy; they musthave existed originally in very large numbers. Not a few of these havebeen transported to Europe, and at least twelve are standing in Rome, one is in Paris, and one in London. [Illustration: FIG. 29. --CROWNING CORNICE AND BEAD. ] The most striking features, and the most artistic, in the decorationof Egyptian buildings, are the mural paintings and sculpturedpictures, which are found in the most lavish profusion, and whichexhibit the highest skill in conventionalising the human figure andother objects. [3] Tombs and temples, columns and obelisks arecompletely covered with graphic representations of peaceful homepursuits, warlike expeditions and battle scenes, and--though not tilla late period--descriptions of ritual and mythological delineations ofthe supposed spirit-world which the soul has entered after death. These pictures, together with the hieroglyphic inscriptions--whichare in themselves a series of pictures--not only relieve the bare wallsurface, but, what is far more important, enable us to realise thekind of existence which was led by this ancient people; and as innearly every case the cartouche (or symbol representing the name) ofthe monarch under whose reign the building was erected was added, weshould be able to fix the dates of the buildings with exactness, werethe chronology of the kings made out beyond doubt. The following description of the manner in which the Egyptianpaintings and sculptures were executed--from the pen of OwenJones--will be read with interest:--"The wall was first chiselled assmooth as possible, the imperfections of the stone were filled up withcement or plaster, and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered with acoloured wash; lines were then ruled perpendicularly and horizontallywith red colour, forming squares all over the wall corresponding withthe proportions of the figure to be drawn upon it. The subjects of thepainting and of the hieroglyphics were then drawn on the wall with ared line, most probably by the priest or chief scribe, or by someinferior artist, from a document divided into similar squares; thencame the chief artist, who went over every figure and hieroglyphicwith a black line, and a firm and steady hand, giving expression toeach curve, deviating here and confirming there the red line. The linethus traced was then followed by the sculptor. The next process was topaint the figure in the prescribed colours. " Although Egyptian architecture was essentially a trabeatedstyle, --that is to say, a style in which beams or lintels were usuallyemployed to cover openings, --there is strong ground for the beliefthat the builders of that time were acquainted with the nature of thearch. Dr. Birch mentions a rudimentary arch of the time of the fifthdynasty: at Abydos there are also remains of vaulted tombs of thesixth dynasty; and in a tomb in the neighbourhood of the Pyramidsthere is an elementary arch of three stones surmounted by a true archconstructed in four courses. The probability is that true brick archeswere built at a very early period, but in the construction of theirtombs, where heavy masses of superincumbent masonry or rock had to besupported, the Egyptians seem to have been afraid to risk even theremote possibility of their arches decaying; and hence, even when theypreserved the form of the arch in masonry, they constructed it withhorizontal courses of stones projecting one over the other, and thencut away the lower angles. One dominating idea seems to haveinfluenced them in the whole of their work--_esto perpetua_ was theirmotto; and though they have been excelled by later peoples in graceand beauty, it is a question whether they have ever been surpassed inthe skill with which they adapted their means to the end which theyalways kept in view. ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS. _Plan. _ _Floor_ (technically _Plan_). --The early rock-cut tombs were, ofcourse, only capable of producing internal effects; their floorpresents a series of halls and galleries, varying in size and shape, leading one out of the other, and intended by their contrast orcombination to produce architectural effect. To this was added in thelater rock-cut tombs a façade to be seen directly in front. Much thesame account can be given of the disposition of the built temples. They possess one front, which the spectator approaches, and they aredisposed so as to produce varied and impressive interiors, but not togive rise to external display. The supports, such as walls, columns, piers, are all very massive and very close together, so that the onlywide open spaces are courtyards. The circle, or octagon, or other polygonal forms do not appear in theplans of Egyptian buildings; but though all the lines are straight, there is a good deal of irregularity in spacing, walls which face oneanother are not always parallel, and angles which appear to be rightangles very often are not so. The later buildings extend over much space. The adjuncts to thesebuildings, especially the avenues of sphinxes, are planned so as toproduce an air of stately grandeur, and in them some degree ofexternal effect is aimed at. _Walls. _ The walls are uniformly thick, and often of granite or of stone, though brick is also met with; _e. G. _ some of the smaller pyramids arebuilt entirely of brick. In all probability the walls of domesticbuildings were to a great extent of brick, and less thick than thoseof the temples; hence they have all disappeared. The surface of walls, even when of granite, was usually plastered witha thin fine plaster, which was covered by the profuse decoration incolour already alluded to. The walls of the propylons tapered from the base towards the top, andthe same thing sometimes occurred in other walls. In almost all casesthe stone walls are built of very large blocks, and they show anunrivalled skill in masonry. _Roofs. _ The roofing which remains is executed entirely in stone, but notarched or vaulted. The rock-cut tombs, however, as has been stated, contain ceilings of an arched shape, and in some cases forms whichseem to be an imitation of timber roofing. The roofing of theHypostyle Hall at Karnak provides an arrangement for admitting lightvery similar to the clerestory of Gothic cathedrals. _Openings. _ The openings were all covered by a stone lintel, and consequently wereuniformly square-headed. The interspaces between columns weresimilarly covered, and hence Egyptian architecture has been, andcorrectly, classed as the first among the styles of trabeatedarchitecture. Window-openings seldom occur. _Columns. _ The columns have been already described to some extent. They arealmost always circular in plan, but the shaft is sometimes channelled. They are for the most part of sturdy proportions, but great grace andelegance are shown in the profile given to shafts and capitals. Thedesign of the capitals especially is full of variety, and admirablyadapts forms obtained from the vegetable kingdom. The general effectof the Egyptian column, wherever it is used, is that it appears tohave, as it really has, a great deal more strength than is required. The fact that the abacus (the square block of stone introduced betweenthe moulded part of the capital and what it carries) is often smallerin width than the diameter of the column aids very much to producethis effect. _Ornaments. _ Mouldings are very rarely employed; in fact, the large bead running upthe angles of the pylons, &c. , and a heavy hollow moulding doing dutyas a cornice, are all that are usually met with. Sculpture and carvingoccur occasionally, and are freely introduced in later works, where wesometimes find statues incorporated into the design of the fronts oftemples. Decoration in colour, in the shape of hieroglyphicinscriptions and paintings of all sorts, was profusely employed (Figs. 27-30), and is executed with a truth of drawing and a beauty ofcolouring that have never been surpassed. As has been pointed out, almost every object drawn is partly conventionalised, in the mostskilful manner, so as to make it fit its place as a piece of adecorative system. _Architectural Character. _ This is gloomy, and to a certain extent forbidding, owing to the heavywalls and piers and columns, and the great masses supported by them;but when in its freshness and quite uninjured by decay or violence, the exquisite colouring of the walls and ceilings and columns musthave added a great deal of beauty: this must have very much diminishedthe oppressive effect inseparable from such massive construction andfrom the gloomy darkness of many portions of the buildings. It is alsonoteworthy that the expenditure of materials and labour is greater inproportion to the effect attained than in any other style. Thepyramids are the most conspicuous example of this prodigality. Beforecondemning this as a defect in the style, it must be remembered that astability which should defy enemies, earthquakes, and the tooth oftime, was far more aimed at than architectural character; and that, had any mode of construction less lavish of material, and less perfectin workmanship, been adopted, the buildings of Egypt might have alldisappeared ere this. [Illustration: FIG. 30. --PAINTED DECORATION FROM THEBES. ] FOOTNOTES: [1] Some Egyptologists incline to the opinion that the pyramid ofSaqqára is the most ancient, while others think it much more recentthan those of Gizeh. [2] Strictly speaking, the base is not an exact square, the four sidesmeasuring, according to the Royal Engineers, north, 760 ft. 7·5 in. ;south, 761 ft. 8·5 in. ; east, 760 ft. 9·5 in. ; and west, 764 ft. 1 in. [3] Conventionalising may be described as representing a part only ofthe visible qualities or features of an object, omitting the remainderor very slightly indicating them. A black silhouette portrait is anextreme instance of convention, as it displays absolutely nothing butthe outline of a profile. For decorative purposes it is almost alwaysnecessary to conventionalise to a greater or less extent whatever isrepresented. [Illustration: FIG. 31. --SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT NINEVEH. ] CHAPTER III. WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE. The architectural styles of the ancient nations which ruled over thecountries of Western Asia watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates, from a period about 2200 B. C. Down to 330 B. C. , are so intimatelyconnected one with another, and so dependent one upon the other, thatit is almost impossible to attempt an accurate discrimination betweenthe Babylonian, or ancient Chaldæan, the Assyrian and the Persian. Amore intelligible idea of the architecture of this long period will begained by regarding the three styles as modifications and developmentsof one original style, than by endeavouring to separate them. [4] Theirsequence can, however, be accurately determined. First comes the oldChaldæan period, next the Assyrian, during which the great city ofNineveh was built, and finally the Persian, after Cyrus had subduedthe older monarchies; and remains exist of all these periods. As tothe origin of the Chaldæan Kingdom, however, all is obscure; and theearliest date which can be fixed with the slightest approach toprobability is 2234 B. C. , when Nimrod is supposed to have founded theold Chaldæan dynasty. This seems to have lasted about 700 years, andwas then overthrown by a conquering nation of which no record or eventradition remains, the next two and a half centuries being a completeblank till the rise of the great Assyrian Monarchy about 1290 B. C. , which lasted till its destruction by Cyrus about 538 B. C. The PersianMonarchy then endured till the death of Alexander the Great, in 333B. C. , after which great confusion arose, the empire being broken upamong his generals and rapidly falling to pieces. It is only within a comparatively recent period that we have had anyknowledge of the architecture of these countries; but the explorationsof M. Botta, commenced in 1843 and continued by M. Place, and those ofMr. (now Sir A. H. ) Layard in 1845, combined with the successfulattempts of Prof. Grotefend, Prof. Lassen, and Col. Rawlinson atdeciphering the cuneiform inscriptions, have disclosed a new world tothe architectural student, without which some of the developments ofGreek architecture must have remained obscure. The authentic remainsof buildings of the early Chaldæan period are too few and in tooruinous a condition to allow of a reproduction of their architecturalfeatures with any certainty. The buildings, whether palaces ortemples, appear to have been constructed on terraces, and to have beenseveral storeys in height; and in one instance, at Mugheyr, the wallssloped inwards in a similar manner to those of Egyptian buildings, apeculiarity which is not met with in other examples of West Asiaticarchitecture. The materials employed were bricks, both sun-dried andkiln-burnt, which seem to have been coated with a vitreous enamel forpurposes of interior decoration. Fragments of carved limestone werediscovered by Sir A. H. Layard, but the fact that the fragments foundhave been so few ought not to lead us too hastily to the conclusionthat stone was not used as facing for architectural purposes, as afterthe buildings became ruined the stone would eagerly be sought for andcarried away before the brickwork was touched. Bitumen seems to havebeen employed as a cement. Although original buildings of this eracannot be found, it has been shown that in all probability we have, ina building of a later date--the Birs-i-Nimrud--a type of the oldBabylonian temple. This in its general disposition must have resembledthat of the Tomb of Cyrus, described and figured later on, though on avastly larger scale. The lowest storey appears to have been an exactsquare of 272 ft. ; each of the higher storeys was 42 ft. Lesshorizontally than the one below it, and was placed 30 ft. Back fromthe front of the storey below it, but equidistant from the two sides, where the platforms were 21 ft. Wide. The three upper storeys were45 ft. In height altogether, the two below these were 26 ft. Each, andthe height of the lowest is uncertain. The topmost storey probably hada tower on it which enclosed the shrine of the temple. This edificewas for a long time a bone of contention among savants, but ColonelRawlinson's investigations have brought to light the fact that it wasa temple dedicated to the seven heavenly spheres, viz. Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon, in the ordergiven, starting from the bottom. Access to the various platforms wasobtained by stairs, and the whole building was surrounded by a walledenclosure. From remains found at Wurkha we may gather that the wallsof the buildings of this period were covered with elaborate plasterornaments, and that a lavish use was made of colour in theirdecoration. Of the later Assyrian period several ruins of buildings believed to bepalaces have been excavated, of which the large palace at Khorsabad, the old name of which was Hisir-Sargon, now a small village between 10and 11 miles north-east of Nineveh, has been the most completelyexplored, and this consequently is the best adapted to explain thegeneral plan of an Assyrian edifice. M. Botta, when French Consul atMosul, and M. Victor Place conducted these explorations, and thefollowing details are taken from their works. Like all other Assyrianpalaces, this was reared on a huge artificial mound, the labour offorming which must have been enormous. The reason for the constructionof these mounds is not far to seek. Just as the chiefs of amountainous country choose the loftiest peaks for their castles, so inAssyria, which was a very flat country, the extra defensive strengthof elevated buildings was clearly appreciated; and as these absolutemonarchs ruled over a teeming population and had a very large numberof slaves, and only had to direct their taskmasters to impress labourwhenever they wanted it, no difficulty existed in forming elevatedplatforms for their palaces. These were frequently close to a river, and it is by no means improbable that this was turned into theexcavation from which the earth for the mound was taken, and thusformed a lake or moat as an additional defence. A further reason forthese terraces may be found in the fact that in a hot climatebuildings erected some 20 or 30 ft. Above the level of the plaincatch the breezes much more quickly than lower edifices. In the caseof Khorsabad the terrace was made of sun-dried bricks, about 15·7 in. Square and 2 in. Thick. These bricks were made of the most carefullyprepared clay. The terrace was faced by a retaining wall of coursedmasonry, nearly 10 ft. In thickness. On this terrace the palace wasbuilt, and it consisted of a series of open courts arrangedunsymmetrically, surrounded by state or private apartments, storehouses, stables, &c. Great care seems to have been exercised inthe accurate orientation of the building, but in rather a peculiarmanner. Instead of any one façade of the building facing due north, the corners face exactly towards the four points of the compass. Thecourts were all entered by magnificent portals flanked by giganticfigures, and were approached by flights of steps. Fig. 32 is a plan ofthe palace of Khorsabad, which was placed close to the boundary of thecity; in fact it was partly outside the city wall proper, thoughsurrounded by a wall of its own. The grand south-east portals orpropylæa were adorned with huge human-headed bulls and giganticfigures, and gave access to a large court, 315 ft. By 280 ft. , on theeast side of which are the stables and out-houses, and on the westside the metal stores. On the north of this court, though notapproached directly from it, was the Seraglio (not to be confoundedwith the Harem), the grand entrance to which was from a second largecourt, access to which was obtained from a roadway sloping up from thecity. The portals to this portion of the palace were also adorned withhuman-headed bulls. From the second court a vaulted passage gaveaccess to the state apartments, which appear to have had a direct viewacross the open country, and were quite outside the city walls. TheHarem has been excavated; it stood just outside the palace proper, behind the metal stores. The remains of an observatory exist, and theoutlines of what is supposed to have been a temple have also beenunearthed, so that we have here a complete plan of the palace. Altogether 31 courts and 198 chambers have been discovered. [Illustration: FIG. 32. --PALACE OF KHORSABAD. BUILT BY KING SARGON ABOUT 710 B. C. A, Steps. B, Chief portal. C, Chief entrance-court. D-H, Women's apartments (Harem). J, Centre court of building. K, Chief court of royal residence. L, Portal with carved bulls as guards. M, Centre court of royal residence. N, Temple (?). O, Pyramid of steps. S, Entrance to chief court. T, Plan of terraces with wall and towers. ] It will be noticed that great disproportion exists between the lengthof the various apartments and their breadth, none being more than40 ft. Wide; and it is probable that this was owing to structuralnecessities, the Assyrian builders finding it impossible, with thematerials at their disposal, to cover wider spaces than this. The wallsof this palace vary from 5 to 15 ft. In thickness, and are composed ofsun-dried bricks, faced in the principal courts and state apartmentswith slabs of alabaster or Mosul gypsum to a height of from 9 to 12 ft. , above which kiln-burnt bricks were used. The alabaster slabs wereheld together by iron, copper, or wooden cramps or plugs, and werecovered with sculptured pictures representing scenes of peace and war, from which, as was the case with the Egyptian remains, we are able toreconstruct for ourselves the daily life of the monarchs of those earlytimes. Above the alabaster slabs plastered decorations were used; insome cases painted frescoes have been found, or mosaics formed withenamelled bricks of various colours. In the out-buildings and the moreretired rooms of the palace, the alabaster slabs were omitted, andplaster decorations used, from the ground upwards. The researches ofMM. Botta and Place have shown that colour was used with a lavishnessquite foreign to our notions, as the alabaster statues as well as theplaster enrichments were coloured. M. Place says that in no case werethe plain bricks allowed to face the walls of an apartment, the jointbeing always concealed either by colour or plaster: in fact, he remarksthat after a time, if he found walls standing showing the brickworkjoints, he invariably searched with success among the débris of thechamber for remains of the sculptured decorations which had been usedto face the walls. Not the least interesting of these discoveries was that of the drainsunder the palace, portions of which were in very good preservation;and all were vaulted, so that there can be no doubt whatever that theAssyrians were acquainted with the use of the arch. This was furtherproved by the discovery by M. Place of the great arched gates of thecity itself, with an archivolt of coloured enamelled bricks formingvarious patterns, with a semicircular arch springing from plain jambs. Extreme care was taken by the Assyrian builders in laying thepavements to ensure their being perfectly level: first a layer ofkiln-burnt bricks was laid on the ordinary sun-dried bricks formingthe terrace; then came a layer of fine sand, upon which the bricks orslabs of the pavement proper were laid, forming in many cases anelegant pattern (see Fig. 33). [Illustration: FIG. 33. --PAVEMENT FROM KHOYUNJIK. ] Great difference of opinion exists as to the manner in which thevarious apartments of the palace were lighted. M. Place suggests thatthe rooms were all vaulted on the inside, and the spandrels filled inwith earth afterwards to form perfectly flat roofs, and he gives arestoration of the building on such an arrangement; but if he iscorrect, it is impossible to see how any light at all can havepenetrated into the interior of many of the apartments, and as theseapartments are decorated with a profusion of paintings it is verydifficult to believe that artificial light alone was used in them. M. Place thinks, however, that in some cylindrical terra-cotta vesselswhich he found he has hit upon a species of skylight which passedcompletely through the vault over the rooms, and thus admitted thelight from above. This, however, can hardly be considered as settledyet. Mr. Fergusson, on the other hand, suggests that the thick mainwalls were carried to a height of about 18 or 19 ft. , and that abovethis were two rows of dwarf columns, one on the inner and the other onthe outer edge of the wall, these columns supporting a flat terraceroof, and the walls thus forming galleries all round the apartments. Then to cover the space occupied by the apartments themselves it isnecessary to assume the existence of rows of columns, the capitals ofwhich were at the same level as those of the dwarf columns on thewalls. Where one apartment is surrounded on all sides by others, theroof over it may have been carried up to a higher level, forming asort of clerestory. This theory no doubt accounts for many thingswhich are very hard to explain otherwise, and derives very strongsupport from the analogy of Persepolis, where slender stone columnsexist. Such columns of cedar wood would add enormously to themagnificence and grandeur of the building; and if, as seems likely, most of these Assyrian palaces were destroyed by fire, the absence ofthe remains of columns offers no difficulty. On the other hand, inmany parts of the palace of Khorsabad no trace of fire remains, andyet here no suggestion of detached columns can be found, and, moreover, it is extremely difficult to arrange columns symmetricallyin the various apartments so that doorways are not interfered with. There is also another difficulty, viz. That if the building called theHarem at Khorsabad was built in this way, the apartments would havebeen open to the view of any one ascending the lofty building calledthe observatory. It is quite possible that further explorations maytend to elucidate this difficult question of roofing, but at presentall that can be said is that none of the theories that have been putforward is wholly satisfactory. As no columns at all exist, we cannot say what capitals were employed, but it is probable that those of Persepolis, which will be shortlydescribed, were copied from an earlier wooden form, which may havebeen that used by the Assyrian builders. There is, however, cappingthe terrace on which the temple was erected at Khorsabad, a goodexample of an Assyrian cornice, which is very similar indeed to theforms found in Egypt, and some of the sculptured bas-reliefs whichhave been discovered depict rude copies of Assyrian buildings drawn bythe people themselves; and it is most interesting to notice that justas we found in the Egyptian style the proto-Doric column, so in theAssyrian we find the proto-Ionic (Figs. 34, 34a), and possibly alsothe proto-Corinthian (Fig. 34b). [Illustration: FIG. 34. --PROTO-IONIC COLUMN. ] [Illustration: FIG. 34a. --PROTO-IONIC CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. ] [Illustration: FIG. 34b. --PROTO-CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM ASSYRIAN SCULPTURE. ] The third branch of West Asiatic architecture is the Persian, whichwas developed after Cyrus had conquered the older monarchies, andwhich attained its greatest magnificence under Darius and Xerxes. ThePersians were originally a brave and hardy race inhabiting themountainous region south of Media, which slopes down to the PersianGulf. Until the time of Cyrus, who was the founder of the greatkingdom of Persia, they inhabited small towns, had no architecture, and were simple barbarians. But after Cyrus had vanquished the wealthyand luxurious Assyrian monarchs, and his warriors had seen andwondered at the opulence and splendour of the Assyrian palaces, it wasnatural that his successors should strive to emulate for themselvesthe display of their vassals. Therefore, having no indigenous style tofall back upon, the artisans who were summoned to build the tomb ofthe founder of the monarchy and the palaces of his successors, simplycopied the forms with which they were acquainted. Fortunately, thesites for the new palaces were in a locality where building stone wasgood and abundant, and the presence of this material had a modifyingeffect upon the architecture. [Illustration: FIG. 35. --TOMB OF CYRUS. ] The best known of the remains which date as far back as the earlierPersian dynasties is the so-called tomb of Cyrus at Pasargadæ, nearMurghab (Fig. 35). This may be looked upon as a model in white marbleof an old Chaldæan temple, such as the Birs-i-Nimrud. There are thesame platforms diminishing in area as the top is approached, and onthe topmost platform is a small cella or temple with a gabled stoneroof, which probably originally contained the sarcophagus. It is, however, at Persepolis, the real capital of the later Persian kings, whose grandeur and wealth were such that Alexander is said to havefound there treasure to the amount of thirty millions of poundssterling, that we find the most magnificent series of ruins. Thesewere carefully measured and drawn by Baron Texier in 1835, and hiswork and that of MM. Flandrin and Coste are those from which the bestinformation on this subject can be obtained. [Illustration: FIG. 35a. --GENERAL PLAN OF THE BUILDINGS AT PERSEPOLIS. ] Persepolis is about 35 miles north-east of Shiraz, close to the mainhighway to Ispahan, at the foot of the mountain range which bounds theextensive plain of Nurdusht. The modern inhabitants of the districtcall the ruins Takht-i-Jamshid (or the building of Jamshid), but theinscriptions that have been deciphered prove that Darius and Xerxeswere the chief builders. Just as was the case with the Assyrian ruins, these stand on an immense platform which rises perpendicularly fromthe plain and abuts in the rear against the mountain range. Instead, however, of this platform being raised artificially, it was cut out ofthe rock, and levelled into a series of terraces, on which thebuildings were erected. The platform, whose length from north to southis about 1582 ft. , and breadth from east to west about 938 ft. , isapproached from the plain by a magnificent double staircase of blackmarble, of very easy rise, not more than 4 in. Each step. Its generalheight above the level of the plain was originally 34 ft. 9 in. Theretaining wall of the platform is not straight, but has in it 40breaks or set-offs of unequal dimensions. At the top of the staircaseare the remains of a building with four columns in the centre and withlarge portals both back and front, each of which is adorned withgigantic bulls, strikingly resembling those found at Khorsabad. Thosein the front have no wings, but those in the rear have wings and humanheads. It has been suggested that these are the ruins of one of thoselarge covered gates frequently mentioned in the Bible, under theshelter of which business was transacted, and which probably formedthe entrance to the whole range of courts and buildings. After passingthrough this gateway and turning southwards, at a distance of 177 feetfrom it, another terrace is reached, 9 ft. 2 in. Higher than the firstone. This terrace also is approached by four flights of stepsprofusely decorated with sculptured bas-reliefs, and on it are theremains of the Chehil Minar, the grand hexastyle Hall of Xerxes, which must have been one of the most magnificent buildings of ancienttimes. This building is marked A on the general plan. It consisted ofa central court, containing thirty-six columns, the distance fromcentre to centre of the outside columns being 142 ft. 8 in. This courtwas surrounded by walls, of which nothing now remains but the jambs ofthree of the doorways. On three sides of this court, to the north, east and west, were porticoes of twelve columns each, precisely in aline with those of the central court, the distance from centre tocentre of the columns being 28 ft. 6 in. These columns, both in theirproportions and shape, suggest an imitation of timber construction. Onthe south the court was probably terminated by a wall, and Mr. Fergusson suggests that the corners between the porticoes were filledup with small chambers. The most striking feature of this hall orpalace must have been its loftiness, the height of the columns varyingfrom 63 ft. 8 in. To 64 feet from bottom of base to top of capital. The shafts were slightly tapering and had 48 flutings, and were 4 ft. 6 in. In diameter in the upper part. The bases of the columns showhardly any variations, and consist of a series of mouldings such as isshown in Fig. 36; the lowest part of this moulded base is enrichedwith leaves, and rests on a low circular plinth at the bottom: thetotal height of the base averages 5 feet. The capitals showconsiderable variations. Those of the east and west porticoesrepresent the heads and fore part of the bodies of two bulls[5] placeddirectly on the shaft back to back, with their forelegs doubled underthem, the feet resting on the shaft and the knees projecting; thetotal height of these capitals is 7 ft. 4 in. Between the necks of thebulls rested the wooden girder which supported the cross-bearers ofthe roof. In the north portico and, so far as can be ascertained, inthe central court, the shaft of the column was much shorter, andsupported a fantastic elongated capital, consisting of a sort ofinverted cup, supporting an elegant shape much resembling the Egyptianpalm-leaf capital, above which, on all the four sides, are doublespirals resembling the ornaments of the Greek Ionic capital known asvolutes, but placed perpendicularly, and not, as in the Ionic capital, horizontally. These volutes again may have supported double bulls, which would make the total height of the columns the same as those ofthe east and west porticoes. The doorways have cornices enriched withleaves, similar to those found at Khorsabad, which have already beennoticed as bearing a decided resemblance to the Egyptian doorways. [Illustration: FIG. 35b. --COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, EAST AND WEST PORTICOES. ] [Illustration: FIG. 36. --COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS, NORTH PORTICO. ] On other terraces, slightly raised above the main platform, exist theremains, in a more or less ruined condition, of numerous other courtsand halls, one of which has no less than one hundred columns tosupport its roof, but the height of this building was much inferior tothat of the Chehil Minar. The existence of these columns leaves nodoubt that these buildings were covered with flat roofs; and that overpart of them was a raised talar or prayer-platform is renderedprobable from the introduction of such a feature into the sculpturedrepresentation of a palace façade which forms the entrance to therock-tomb of Darius, which was cut out of the mountain at the back ofthe terrace of Persepolis. The position of this tomb on the generalplan is marked B, and Fig. 37 is a view of the entrance, which wasprobably intended as a copy of one of the halls. All the walls of thepalaces were profusely decorated with sculptured pictures, and variousindications occur which induce the belief that painting was used todecorate those portions of the walls that were not faced withsculptured slabs. [Illustration: FIG. 37. --THE ROCK-CUT TOMB OF DARIUS. ] The superior lightness and elegance of the Persepolitan ruins to thoseof an earlier epoch will not fail to be noticed, but there is still acertain amount of barbaric clumsiness discernible, and it is not tillwe come to Greek architecture that we see how an innate genius for artand beauty, such as was possessed by that people, could cull fromprevious styles everything capable of being used with effect, anddiscard or prune off all the unnecessary exuberances of those styleswhich offend a critically artistic taste. ANALYSIS OF BUILDINGS. _Plan. _ The floor-space of a great Assyrian or Medo-Persian building was laidout on a plan quite distinct from that of an Egyptian temple; for therooms are almost always grouped round quadrangles. The buildings arealso placed on terraces, and no doubt would secure external as well asinternal effects, to which the imposing flights of stairs providedwould largely contribute. We find in Assyrian palaces, hallscomparatively narrow in proportion to their great length, but still sowide that the roofing of them must have been a serious business, andwe find them arranged side by side, often three deep. In the Persianbuildings, halls nearly square on plan, and filled by a multitude ofcolumns, occur frequently. In the plan of detached buildings like theBirs-i-Nimrud, we are reminded of the pyramids of Egypt, which nodoubt suggested the idea of pyramidal monuments to all subsequentbuilding peoples. _Walls. _ The magnificently worked granite and stones of Egypt give place tobrick for the material of the walls, with the result that a far largerspace could be covered with buildings by a given number of men in agiven time, but of course the structures were far more liable todecay. Accordingly, sturdy as their walls are, we find them at thepresent day reduced to mere shapeless mounds, but of prodigiousextent. _Roofs. _ We can only judge of the roofs by inference, and it has already beenstated that a difference of opinion exists respecting them. It appearsmost probable that a large proportion of the buildings must have beenroofed by throwing timber beams from wall to wall and forming a thickplatform of earth on them, and must have been lighted by some sort ofclerestory. At any rate the stone roofs of the Egyptians seem to havebeen discarded, and with them the necessity for enormous columns andpiers placed very close together. In some bas-reliefs, buildings withroofs of a domical shape are represented. _Openings. _ Doorways are the openings chiefly met with, and it is not often thatthe superstructure, whether arch or lintel, remains, but it is clearthat in some instances, at least, openings were arched. Greatattention was paid to important doorways, and a large amount ofmagnificent sculpture was employed to enrich them. _Columns. _ The columns most probably were of wood in Assyrian palaces. In some ofthe Persian ones they were of marble, but of a proportion andtreatment which point to an imitation of forms suitable for wood. Thebases and capitals of these slender shafts are beautiful inthemselves, and very interesting as suggesting the source from whichsome of the forms in Greek architecture were derived, and on thebas-reliefs other architectural forms are represented which wereafterwards used by the Greeks. _Ornaments. _ Sculptured slabs, painted wall decorations, and terra-cottaornamentation were used as enrichments of the walls. These slabs, which have become familiarly known through the attention roused by thediscoveries of Sir A. H. Layard and the specimens sent by him to theBritish Museum, are objects of the deepest interest; so are the carvedbulls from gateways. In the smaller and more purely ornamentaldecorations the honeysuckle, and other forms familiar to us from theirsubsequent adoption by Greek artists, are met with constantly, executed with great taste. _Architectural Character. _ A character of lavish and ornate magnificence is the quality moststrongly displayed by the architectural remains of Western Asia, andcould we have beheld any one of the monuments before it was reduced toruin, we should probably have seen this predominant to an extent ofwhich it is almost impossible now to form an adequate idea. FOOTNOTES: [4] In any such endeavour we should be met by the further difficulty, that the writers of antiquity differ widely in the precise limitswhich they give to the Assyrian Kingdom. Some make it include Babylon, other writers say that it was bounded on the south by Babylon, andaltogether the greatest confusion exists in the accounts that havecome down to us. [5] As a matter of fact there is a marked distinction between theheads of the animals of the east and west porticoes: those of the westare undoubtedly bulls, but those of the east are grotesquemythological creatures somewhat resembling the fabled unicorn. [Illustration: FIG. 38. --SCULPTURED ORNAMENT AT ALLAHABAD. ] CHAPTER IV. ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE. _Hindu Architecture. _ Hindu architecture is not only unfamiliar but uncongenial to Westerntastes; and as it has exercised no direct influence upon the laterstyles of Europe, it will be noticed in far less detail than themagnitude and importance of many Indian buildings which have beenexamined and measured during the last few years would otherwise claim, although the exuberant wealth of ornament exhibited in these buildingsdenotes an artistic genius of very high order, if somewhat unculturedand barbaric. As by far the largest number of Hindu buildings are of adate much later than the commencement of our era, a strict adherenceto chronological sequence would scarcely allow the introduction ofthis style so early in the present volume; but we know that severalcenturies before Christ powerful kingdoms and wealthy cities existedin India; and as it seems clear also that in architecture and art, aswell as in manners and customs, hardly any change[6] has occurredfrom remote antiquity, it appeared allowable, as well as convenient, that the short description we have to offer should precede rather thanfollow that of the classical styles properly so called. Here, asalways when we attempt to penetrate farther back than a certain date, all is obscure and mythical. We find lists of kings and dynastiesgoing back thousands of years before our era, but nothing at all toenable us to judge how much of this may be taken as solid fact. Mr. Fergusson believes he has discovered in one date, viz. 3101 B. C. , thefirst Aryan settlement; but be this as it may, it is useless to lookfor any architectural remains until after the death of Gotama Buddhain 543 B. C. ; in fact, it is very doubtful whether remains can beauthenticated until the reign of King Asoka (B. C. 272 to B. C. 236), when Buddhism had spread over almost the whole of the country, whereit remained the predominant cult until Brahmanism again asserted itssupremacy in the 14th century A. D. The earliest, or among the earliest, architectural remains are theinscribed pillars called Lâts, which are found in numerous localities, but have been almost always overthrown. Many of these were erected bythe above-named Asoka: they were ornamented with bands and mouldingsseparating the inscriptions, and crowned by a sort of capital, whichwas generally in the form of an animal. One very curious feature inthese pillars is the constant occurrence of a precise imitation ofthe well-known honeysuckle ornament of the Greeks; this was probablyderived from the same source whence the Greeks obtained it, namelyAssyria. It is most probable that these pillars served to ornament theapproaches to some kind of sacred enclosure or temple, of which, however, no remains have been found. [Illustration: FIG. 39. --DAGOBA FROM CEYLON. ] Extremely early in date are some of the tumuli or topes which exist inlarge numbers in various parts of India. These are of two kinds, --thetopes or stupas proper, which were erected to commemorate somestriking event or to mark a sacred spot; and the dagobas, which werebuilt to cover the relics of Buddha himself or some Buddhist saint. These topes consist of a slightly stilted hemispherical domesurmounting a substructure, circular in plan, which forms a sort ofterrace, access to which is obtained by steps. The domical shape was, however, external only, as on the inside the masonry was almostsolid, a few small cavities only being left for the protection ofvarious jewels, &c. The dome was probably surmounted by a pinnacle, asshown in Fig. 39. In the neighbourhood of Bhilsa, in Central India, there are a large number of these topes, of which the largest, that ofSanchi, measures 121 ft. In diameter and 55 ft. In height; it waserected by King Asoka. Two kinds of edifices which are not tombs remain, the chaityas(temples or halls of assembly) and viharas or monasteries, which weregenerally attached to the chaityas. These erections were eitherdetached or cut in the rock, and it is only the rock-cut ones of whichremains exist of an earlier date than the commencement of theChristian era. The earliest specimen of a rock-cut chaitya is in theNigope cave, near Behar, constructed about 200 B. C. This consists oftwo compartments, an outer rectangular one 32 ft. 9 in. By 19 ft. 1 in. , and an inner circular one 19 ft. In diameter. The Lomas Rishicave is of a slightly later date: both of these rock-cut templesexhibit in every detail a reproduction of wooden forms. In the doorwaythe stone piers slope inwards, just like raking wooden struts, and theupper part represents the ends of longitudinal rafters supporting aroof. Later on the builders emancipated themselves to a certain extentfrom this servile adhesion to older forms, and Fig. 40 gives a planand section of a later chaitya at Karli, near Poona. This bears astriking resemblance to a Christian basilica:[7] there is first theforecourt; then a rectangular space divided by columns into nave andaisles, and terminated by a semicircular apse. The nave is 25 ft. 7 in. Wide, and the aisles 10 ft. Each, the total length is 126 ft. Fifteen columns separate the nave from the aisles, and these havebases, octagonal shafts, and rich capitals. Round the apse the columnsare replaced by piers. The side aisles have flat roofs, and thecentral nave a stilted semicircular one, practically a vault, which atthe apse becomes a semicircular dome, under which is the dagoba, thesymbol of Buddhism. The screen separating the forecourt from thetemple itself is richly ornamented with sculpture. [Illustration: FIG. 40. --CHAITYA NEAR POONA. ] The older viharas or monasteries were also cut in the rock (Figs. 41, 42), and were divided into cells or chambers; they were severalstoreys in height, and it is probable that the cells were used bydevout Buddhists as habitations for the purposes of meditation. [Illustration: FIG. 41. --THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT. ] [Illustration: FIG. 42. --PLAN OF THE KYLAS AT ELLORA. A ROCK-CUT MONUMENT. ] Among the most remarkable, and in fact almost unique features ofHindu Architecture are the so-called rails which form enclosuressometimes round the topes and sometimes round sacred trees. Occasionally they are found standing alone, though when this is thecase it is probably on account of the object which was the cause oftheir erection having perished. They are built of stone, carved so asto represent a succession of perpendicular and horizontal bands orrails, separated by a sort of pierced panels. The carving is of themost elaborate description, both human and animal forms beingdepicted with great fidelity, and representations occur of variousforms of tree worship which have been of the greatest use inelucidating the history of this phase of religious belief. Occasionally the junctions of the rails are carved into a series ofdiscs, separated by elaborate scroll-work. These rails arefrequently of very large dimensions, that at Bharhut--which is one ofthe most recently discovered--measuring 275 ft. In circumference, with a height of 22 ft. 6 in. The date of these erections isfrequently very difficult to determine, but the chief authoritiesgenerally concur in the opinion that none are found dating earlierthan about 250 B. C. , nor later than 500 A. D. , so that it is prettycertain they must have been appropriated to some form of Buddhistworship. [Illustration: FIG. 43. --VIMANA FROM MANASARA. ] All the buildings that we have mentioned were devoted to the worshipof Buddha, but the Jain schism, Brahmanism, and other cults had theirrepresentative temples and buildings, a full description of whichwould require a volume many times larger than the present one. Many ofthe late detached buildings display rich ornamentation and elaborateworkmanship. They are generally of a pyramidal shape, several storeysin height, covered with intricately cut mouldings and other fantasticembellishments. Columns are of all shapes and sizes, brackets frequently take theplace of capitals, and where capitals exist almost every variety offantastic form is found. It has been stated that no fixed laws governthe plan or details of Indian buildings, but there exists an essay onIndian Architecture by Ram Raz--himself a Hindoo--which tends to showthat such a statement is erroneous, as he quotes original works ofconsiderable antiquity which lay down stringent rules as to theplanning of buildings, their height, and the details of the columns. It is probable that a more extended acquaintance with Hindu literaturewill throw further light on these rules. Of the various invasions which have occurred some have left traces inthe architecture of India. None of these are more interesting thancertain semi-Greek forms which are met with in the Northern Provinces, and which without doubt are referable to the influence of the invasionunder Alexander the Great. A far more conspicuous and widespreadseries of changes followed in the wake of the Mohammedan invasions. Weshall have an opportunity later on of recurring to this subject, [8]but it is one to which attention should be called at this early stage, lest it should be thought that a large and splendid part of Indianarchitecture had been overlooked. [Illustration: FIG. 44. --BRACKET CAPITAL. ] [Illustration: FIG. 45. --COLUMN FROM AJUNTA. ] [Illustration: FIG. 46. --COLUMN FROM ELLORA. ] [Illustration: FIG. 47. --COLUMN FROM AJUNTA. ] _Chinese and Japanese Architecture. _ Although the Chinese have existed as a nation, continuously forbetween two and three thousand years, if not longer, and at a veryearly period had arrived at a high state of artistic and scientificcultivation, yet none of their buildings with which we are acquaintedhas any claim on our attention because of its antiquity. Severalreasons may be assigned for this, the principal being that the Chineseseem to be as a race singularly unsusceptible to all emotions. Although they reverence their dead ancestors, yet this reverence neverled them, as did that of the Egyptians, Etruscans, and other nations, to a lavish expenditure of labour or materials, to render their tombsalmost as enduring as the everlasting hills. Though waves of religiouszeal must have flowed over the country when Confucius inculcated hissimple and practical morality and gained an influential following, andagain when Buddhism was introduced and speedily became the religion ofthe greater portion of the people, their religious emotion never ledthem, as it did the Greeks and the Mediæval builders, to erect grandand lasting monuments of sacred art. When most of the Western nationswere still barbarians, the Chinese had attained a settled system ofgovernment, and were acquainted with numerous scientific truths whichwe have prided ourselves on rediscovering within the last twocenturies; but no thought ever seems to have occurred to them, as itdid to the Romans, of commemorating any event connected with theirlife as a nation, or of handing down to posterity a record of theirgreat achievements. Peaceful and prosperous, they have pursued theeven tenor of their way at a high level of civilisation certainly, butat a most monotonous one. The Buddhist temples of China have a strong affinity to those ofIndia. The largest is that at Honan, the southern suburb of Canton. This is 306 ft. Long by 174 ft. Wide, and consists of a series ofcourts surrounded by colonnades and cells for the _bonzes_ or priests. In the centre of the courtyard is a series of pavilions or templesconnected by passages, and devoted to the worship of the idolscontained in them. On each side of the main court, against the outerwall, is another court, with buildings round it, consisting of kitchenand refectories on the one side, and hospital wards on the other. Itis almost certain that this is a reproduction of the earlier forms ofchaityas and viharas which existed in India, and have been alreadyreferred to. The temple of Honan is two storeys in height, thebuilding itself being of stone, but the colonnade surrounding it is ofwood on marble bases. On the second storey the columns are placed ontwo sides only, and not all round. The columns have no capitals, buthave projecting brackets. The roof of each storey projects over thecolumns, and has a curved section, which is, in fact, peculiar toChinese roofs, and it is enriched at the corners with carved beastsand foliage. This is a very common form of temple throughout China. The Taas or Pagodas are the buildings of China best known toEuropeans. These are nearly always octagonal in plan, and consistgenerally of nine storeys, diminishing both in height and breadth asthey approach the top. Each storey has a cornice composed of a filletand large hollow moulding, supporting a roof which is turned up atevery corner and ornamented with leaves and bells. On the top of allis a long pole, forming a sort of spire, surrounded by iron hoops, andsupported by eight chains attached to the summit and to each angle ofthe roof of the topmost storey. The best known pagoda is that ofNankin, which is 40 ft. In diameter at its base, and is faced insideand outside with white glazed porcelain slabs keyed into the brickcore. The roof tiles are also of porcelain, in bands of green andyellow, and at each angle is a moulding of larger tiles, red and greenalternately. The effect of the whole is wonderfully brilliant anddazzling. Apart from the coloured porcelain, nearly every portion of aChinese temple or pagoda is painted, colour forming the chief means ofproducing effect; but as nearly everything is constructed of wood, there was and is no durability in these edifices. [Illustration: FIG. 48. --A SMALL PAGODA. ] In public works of utility, such as roads, canals--one of which isnearly 700 miles in length--and boldly designed bridges, the Chineseseem to have shown a more enlightened mind; and the Great Wall, whichwas built to protect the northern boundary of the kingdom, about 200B. C. , is a wonderful example of engineering skill. This wall, whichvaries from 15 to 30 ft. In height, is about 25 ft. Thick at the base, and slopes off to 20 ft. At the top. It is defended by bastions placedat stated intervals, which are 40 ft. Square at the base, and aboutthe same in height; the wall is carried altogether through a course ofabout 1400 miles, following all the sinuosities of the ground overwhich it passes. It is a most remarkable fact that a nation shouldhave existed 2000 years ago capable of originating and completing sogreat a work; but it is still more remarkable that such a nation, possessing moreover, as it does, a great faculty in decorative artapplied to small articles of use and fancy, should be still leading apopulous and prosperous existence, and yet should have so little toshow in the way of architecture, properly so termed, at the presenttime. Japan, like China, possesses an architecture, but one exclusively ofwood; for although the use of stone for bridges, walls, &c. , had beengeneral, all houses and temples were invariably built of wood untilthe recent employment of foreigners led to the erection of brick andstone buildings. The consequence has been that nearly all the oldtemples have been burnt down and rebuilt several times; and though itis probable that the older forms were adhered to when the buildingswere re-erected, it is only by inference that we can form an idea ofthe ancient architecture of the country. The heavy curved roofs whichare so characteristic of Chinese buildings are found also in Japan, but only in the Buddhist temples, and this makes it probable that thisform of roof is not of native origin, but was introduced with theBuddhist cult. The earlier Shinto temples have a different form ofroof, which is without the upward curve, but which has nearly as muchprojection at the eaves as the curved roofs. Where the buildings aremore than one storey in height the upper one is always set somewhatback, as we saw was the case in the Chinese pagodas, and considerableand pleasing variety is obtained by treating the two storeysdifferently. Very great skill in carving is shown, all the posts, brackets, beams, and projecting rafters being formed into elaboraterepresentations of animals and plants, or quaintly conceivedgrotesques; and the flat surfaces have frequently a shallow incisedarabesque pattern intertwined with foliage. The roofs are alwayscovered with tiles, and a curious effect is produced by enriching thehips and ridges with several courses of tiles in cement, thus makingthem rise considerably above the other portions of the roof. Apeculiar feature of Japanese houses is that the walls, whetherexternal or internal, are not filled in with plaster, but areconstructed of movable screens which slide in grooves formed in theframing of the partitions. Thus all the rooms can easily be throwntogether or laid open to the outer air in hot weather. All travellersin Japan remark upon the impossibility of obtaining privacy in thehotels in consequence of this. The Shinto temples are approached through what might be termed anarchway, only that the arch does not enter into its composition. Thiserection is called a Torii, and is thus described by ProfessorConder:[9]--"It is composed of two upright posts of great thickness, each consisting of the whole trunk of a tree rounded, about 15 ft. High, and placed 12 ft. Apart. Across the top of these is placed awooden lintel, projecting considerably and curving upwards at theends. Some few feet below this another horizontal piece is tenonedinto the uprights, having a little post in the centre helping tosupport the upper lintel. " These erections occasionally occur in frontof a Buddhist temple, when they are built of stone, exactly imitating, however, the wooden originals. This is interesting, as offeringanother proof, were one needed, that the curious forms of masonryexhibited in much of the work of the early nations, some of which hasbeen described, is the result of an imitation of earlier wooden forms. The chief effect in the buildings of the Japanese is intended to beproduced by colour, which is profusely used; and they have attained toa height of perfection in the preparation of varnishes and lacquersthat has never been equalled. Their lacquer is used all over theirbuildings, besides forming their chief means of decorating smallobjects. It is, however, beginning to be questioned whether the oldart of lacquering is not becoming lost by the Japanese themselves, asthe modern work appears by no means equal to the old. One curious formof decoration, of which the Japanese are much enamoured, consists informing miniature representations of country scenes and landscapes;waterfalls, bridges, &c. , being reproduced on the most diminutivescale. It is much to be feared that our small stock of knowledge ofancient Japanese art will never be greatly increased, as the wholecountry and the people are becoming modernised and Europeanised tosuch an extent that it appears probable there will soon be littleindigenous art left in the country. * * * * * It has not been thought necessary to append to this chapter analysesof the Eastern styles similar to those which are given in the case ofthe great divisions of Western Architecture. The notice of thesestyles must unavoidably be condensed into very small space. FOOTNOTES: [6] It is not intended to imply that Hindustan has been without changein her ruling dynasties. These have been continually changing; but theremarkable fact is that, numerous as have been the nations that havepoured across the Indus attracted by "the wealth of Ind, " there hasbeen no reflux, as it were: the various peoples, with their arts, religions, and manners, have been swallowed up and assimilated, leaving but here and there slight traces of their origin. [7] See Chap. X. For an illustration of a Christian Basilica. [8] See chapter on Saracenic Architecture. [9] Paper communicated to the Royal Institute of Architects. [Illustration: FIG. 49. --GREEK HONEYSUCKLE ORNAMENT. ] CHAPTER V. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. _Buildings of the Doric Order. _ The architecture of Greece has a value far higher than that attachingto any of the styles which preceded it, on account of the beauty ofthe buildings and the astonishing refinement which the best of themdisplay. This architecture has a further claim on our attention, asbeing virtually the parent of that of all the nations of WesternEurope. We cannot put a finger upon any features of Egyptian, Assyrian, or Persian architecture, the influence of which has survivedto the present day, except such as were adopted by the Greeks. On theother hand, there is no feature, no ornament, nor even any principleof design which the Greek architects employed, that can be said tohave now become obsolete. Not only do we find direct reproductions ofGreek architecture forming part of the practice of every Europeancountry, but we are able to trace to Greek art the parentage of manyof the forms and features of Roman, Byzantine, and Gothicarchitecture, especially those connected with the column and whichgrew out of its artistic use. Greek architecture did not include thearch and all the forms allied to it, such as the vault and the dome;and, so far as we know, the Greeks abstained from the use of thetower. Examples of both these features were, it is almost certain, asfully within the knowledge of the Greeks as were those features ofEgyptian, Assyrian, and Persian buildings which they employed;consequently it is to deliberate selection that we must attribute thisexclusion. Within the limits by which they confined themselves, theGreeks worked with such power, learning, taste, and skill that we mayfairly claim for their highest achievement--the Parthenon--that itadvanced as near to absolute perfection as any work of art ever hasbeen or ever can be carried. Greek architecture seems to have begun to emerge from the stage ofarchaic simplicity about the beginning of the sixth century before theChristian era (600 B. C. Is the reputed date of the old Doric Temple atCorinth). All the finest examples were erected between that date andthe death of Alexander the Great (333 B. C. ), after which period itdeclined and ultimately gave place to Roman. The domestic and palatial buildings of the Greeks have decayed or beendestroyed, leaving but few vestiges. We know their architectureexclusively from ruins of public buildings, and to a limited extent ofsepulchral monuments remaining in Greece and in Greek colonies. By farthe most numerous and excellent among these buildings are temples. TheGreek idea of a temple was different from that entertained by theEgyptians. The building was to a much greater extent designed forexternal effect than internal. A comparatively small sacred cell wasprovided for the reception of the image of the divinity, usually withone other cell behind it, which seems to have served as treasury orsacristy; but there were no surrounding chambers, gloomy halls, orenclosed courtyards, like those of the Egyptian temples, visible onlyto persons admitted within a jealously guarded outer wall. The temple, it is true, often stood within some sort of precinct, but it wasaccessible to all. It stood open to the sun and air; it invited theadmiration of the passer-by; its most telling features and bestsculpture were on the exterior. Whether this may have been, to someextent, the case with Persian buildings, we have few means of knowing, but certainly the attention paid by the Greeks to the outside of theirtemples offers a striking contrast to the practice of the Egyptians, and to what we know of that of the Assyrians. [Illustration: FIG. 50. --PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE IN ANTIS. ] The temple, however grand, was always of simple form, with a gable ateach end, and in this respect differed entirely from the series ofhalls, courts, and chambers of which a great Egyptian templeconsisted. In the very smallest temple at least one of the gables wasmade into a portico by the help of columns and two pilasters (Fig. 50). More important temples had a larger number of columns, andoften a portico at each end (Figs. 50a and 55). The most importanthad columns on the flanks as well as at the front and rear, thesacred cell being, in fact, surrounded by them. It will be apparentfrom this that the column, together with the superstructure whichrested upon it, must have played a very important part in Greektemple-architecture, and an inspection of any representations ofGreek buildings will at once confirm the impression. [Illustration: FIG. 50a. --PLAN OF A SMALL GREEK TEMPLE. ] We find in Greece three distinct manners, distinguished largely by themode in which the column is dealt with. These it would be quiteconsistent to call "styles, " were it not that another name has been sothoroughly appropriated to them, that they would hardly now berecognised were they to be spoken of as anything else than "orders. "The Greek orders are named the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each ofthem presents a different series of proportions, mouldings, features, and ornaments, though the main forms of the buildings are the same inall. The column and its entablature (the technical name for thefrieze, architrave, and cornice, forming the usual superstructure)being the most prominent features in every such building, have cometo be regarded as the index or characteristic from an inspection ofwhich the order and the degree of its development can be recognised, just as a botanist recognises plants by their flowers. By reproducingthe column and entablature, almost all the characteristics of eitherof the orders can be copied; and hence a technical and somewhatunfortunate use of the word "order" to signify these features only hascrept in, and has overshadowed and to a large extent displaced itswider meaning. It is difficult in a book on architecture to avoidemploying the word "order" when we have to speak of a column and itsentablature, because it has so often been made use of in this sense. The student must, however, always bear in mind that this is arestricted and artificial sense of the word, and that the columnbelonging to any order is always accompanied by the use throughout thebuilding of the appropriate proportions, ornaments, and mouldingsbelonging to that order. The origin of Greek architecture is a very interesting subject forinquiry, but, owing to the disappearance of almost all very earlyexamples of the styles, it is necessarily obscure. Such information, however, as we possess, taken together with the internal evidenceafforded by the features of the matured style, points to the influenceof Egypt, to that of Assyria and Persia, and to an early manner oftimber construction--the forms proper to which were retained in spiteof the abandonment of timber for marble--as all contributing to theformation of Greek architecture. In Asia Minor a series of monuments, many of them rock-cut, has beendiscovered, which throw a curious light upon the early growth ofarchitecture. We refer to tombs found in Lycia, and attributed toabout the seventh century B. C. In these we obviously have the firstwork in stone of a nation of ship builders. A Lycian tomb--such as theone now to be seen, accurately restored, in the BritishMuseum--represents a structure of beams of wood framed together, surmounted by a roof which closely resembles a boat turned upsidedown. The planks, the beams to which they were secured, and even aridge similar to the keel of a vessel, all reappear here, showing thatthe material in use for building was so universally timber, that whenthe tomb was to be "graven in the rock for ever" the forms of a timberstructure were those that presented themselves to the imagination ofthe sculptor. In other instances the resemblance to shipwrights' workdisappears, and that of a carpenter is followed by that of the mason. Thus we find imitations of timber beams framed together and ofoverhanging low-pitched roofs, in some cases carried on unsquaredrafters lying side by side, in several of these tombs. What happened on the Asiatic shore of the Egean must have occurred onthe Greek shores, and though none of the very earliest specimens ofreproduction in stone of timber structures has come down to us, thereare abundant traces, as we shall presently see, of timber originals inbuildings of the Doric order. Timber originals were not, however, theonly sources from which the early inhabitants of Greece drew theirinspiration. Constructions of extreme antiquity, and free from any appearance ofimitating structures of timber, mark the sites of the oldest cities ofGreece, Mycenæ and Orchomenos for example, the most ancient beingPelasgic city walls of unwrought stone (Fig. 51). The so-calledTreasury of Atreus at Mycenæ, a circular underground chamber 48 ft. 6 in. In diameter, and with a pointed vault, is a well-known specimenof more regular yet archaic building. Its vault is constructed of stonescorbelling over one another, and is not a true arch (Figs. 52, 52a). The treatment of an ornamental column found here, and of the remainsof sculptured ornaments over a neighbouring gateway called the Gate ofthe Lions, is of very Asiatic character, and seems to show thatwhatever influences had been brought to bear on their design wereOriental. [Illustration: FIG. 51. --ANCIENT GREEK WALL OF UNWROUGHT STONE FROM SAMOTHRACE. ] [Illustration: FIG. 52. --PLAN OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ. ] [Illustration: FIG. 52a. --SECTION OF THE TREASURY OF ATREUS AT MYCENÆ. ] [Illustration: FIG. 53. --GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SELINUS. ] [Illustration: FIG. 53a. --GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM THE THESEUM. ] [Illustration: FIG. 53b. --GREEK DORIC CAPITAL FROM SAMOTHRACE. ] A wide interval of time and a great contrast in taste separate theearly works of Pelasgic masonry and even the chamber at Mycenæ fromeven the rudest and most archaic of the remaining Hellenic works ofGreece. The Doric temple at Corinth is attributed, as has been stated, to the seventh century B. C. This was a massive masonry structure withextremely short, stumpy columns, and strong mouldings, but presentingthe main features of the Doric style, as we know it, in its earliestand rudest form. Successive examples (Figs. 53 to 53b) showincreasing slenderness of proportions and refinement of treatment, andare accompanied by sculpture which approaches nearer and nearer toperfection; but in the later and best buildings, as in the earliestand rudest, certain forms are retained for which it seems impossibleto account, except on the supposition that they are reproductions instone or marble of a timber construction. These occur in theentablature, while the column is of a type which it is hard to believeis not copied from originals in use in Egypt many centuries earlier, and already described (chap. II. ). We will now proceed to examine a fully-developed Greek Doric temple ofthe best period, and in doing so we shall be able to recognise theforms referred to in the preceding paragraph as we come to them. Themost complete Greek Doric temple was the Parthenon, the work of thearchitect Ictinus, the temple of the Virgin Goddess Athene (Minerva)at Athens, and on many accounts this building will be the best toselect for our purpose. [10] [Illustration: FIG. 54. --RUINS OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS. ] The Parthenon at Athens stood on the summit of a lofty rock, andwithin an irregularly shaped enclosure, something like a cathedralclose; entered through a noble gateway. [11] The temple itself was ofperfectly regular plan, and stood quite free from dependencies of anysort. It consisted of a cella, or sacred cell, in which stood thestatue of the goddess, with one chamber (the treasury) behind. In thecella, and also in the chamber behind, there were columns. A series ofcolumns surrounded this building, and at either end was a portico, eight columns wide, and two deep. There were two pediments, or gables, of flat pitch, one at each end. The whole stood on a basement ofsteps; the building, exclusive of the steps, being 228 ft. Long by101 ft. Wide, and 64 ft. High. The columns were each 34 ft. 3 in. High, and more than 6 ft. In diameter at the base; a portion of the shaftand of the capital of one is in the British Museum, and a magnificentreproduction, full size, of the column and its entablature may be seenat the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. The ornaments consisted almostexclusively of sculpture of the very finest quality, executed by orunder the superintendence of Pheidias. Of this sculpture manyspecimens are now in the British Museum. [Illustration: FIG. 55. --PLAN OF THE PARTHENON AT ATHENS. ] [Illustration: FIG. 56. --THE ROOF OF A GREEK DORIC TEMPLE, SHOWING THE MARBLE TILES. ] The construction of this temple was of the most solid and durablekind, marble being the material used; and the workmanship was mostcareful in every part of which remains have come down to us. The roofwas, no doubt, made of timber and covered with marble tiles (Fig. 56), carried on a timber framework, all traces of which have entirelyperished; and the mode in which it was constructed is a subject uponwhich authorities differ, especially as to what provision was madefor the admission of light. The internal columns, found in othertemples as well as in the Parthenon, were no doubt employed to supportthis roof, as is shown in Bötticher's restoration of the Temple atPæstum which we reproduce (Fig. 56a), though without pledgingourselves to its accuracy; for, indeed, it seems probable thatsomething more or less like the clerestory of a Gothic church musthave been employed to admit light to these buildings, as we know wasthe case in the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But this structure, if itexisted, has entirely disappeared. [12] [Illustration: FIG. 56a. --SECTION OF THE GREEK DORIC TEMPLE AT PÆSTUM. AS RESTORED BY BÖTTICHER. ] [Illustration: FIG. 57. --THE GREEK DORIC ORDER FROM THE THESEUM. ] The order of the Parthenon was Doric, and the leading proportions wereas follows:--The column was 5·56 diameters high; the whole height, including the stylobate or steps, might be divided into nine parts, ofwhich two go to the stylobate, six to the column, and one to theentablature. [Illustration: FIG. 58. --PLAN OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN. ] [Illustration: FIG. 59. --THE FILLETS UNDER A GREEK DORIC CAPITAL. ] The Greek Doric order is without a base; the shaft of the columnsprings from the top step and tapers towards the top, the outlinebeing not, however, straight, but of a subtle curve, known technicallyas the entasis of the column. This shaft is channelled with twentyshallow channels, [13] the ridges separating one from another beingvery fine lines. A little below the moulding of the capital, finesinkings, forming lines round the shaft, exist, and above these thechannels of the flutes are stopped by or near the commencement of theprojecting moulding of the capital. This moulding, which is of asection calculated to convey the idea of powerful support, is calledthe echinus, and its lower portion is encircled by a series of fillets(Fig. 59), which are cut into it. Above the echinus, which iscircular, like the shaft, comes the highest member--the abacus, asquare stout slab of marble, which completes the capital of thecolumn. The whole is most skilfully designed to convey the idea ofsturdy support, and yet to clothe the support with grace. The strongproportions of the shaft, the slight curve of its outline, the linestraced upon its surface by the channels, and even the vigorousuncompromising planting of it on the square step from which itsprings, all contribute to make the column look strong. The checkgiven to the vigorous upward lines of the channels on the shaft by thefirst sinkings, and their arrest at the point where the capitalspreads out, intensified as it is by the series of horizontal linesdrawn round the echinus by the fillets cut into it, all seem to conveythe idea of spreading the supporting energy of the column outwards;and the abacus appears naturally fitted, itself inert, to receive aburden placed upon it and to transmit its pressure to the capital andshaft below. [Illustration: FIG. 60. --CAPITAL OF A GREEK DORIC COLUMN FROM ÆGINA, WITH COLOURED DECORATION. ] [Illustration: FIG. 61. --SECTION OF THE ENTABLATURE OF THE GREEK DORIC ORDER. ] [Illustration: FIG. 62. --PLAN LOOKING UP OF PART OF A GREEK DORIC PERISTYLE. ] The entablature which formed the superstructure consisted first of asquare marble beam--the architrave, which, it may be assumed, represents a square timber beam that occupied the same position inthe primitive structures. On this rests a second member called thefrieze, the prominent feature of which is a series of slightlyprojecting features, known as triglyphs (three channels) (Fig. 63), from the channels running down their face. These closely resemble, andno doubt actually represent, the ends of massive timber beams, whichmust have connected the colonnade to the wall of the cell in earlierbuildings. At the bottom of each is a row of small pendants, known asguttæ, which closely resemble wooden pins, such as would be used tokeep a timber beam in place. The panels between the triglyphs areusually as wide as they are high. They are termed metopes andsculpture commonly occupies them. The third division of theentablature, the cornice represents the overhanging eaves of the roof. [Illustration: FIG. 63. --DETAILS OF THE TRIGLYPH. ] [Illustration: FIG. 64. --DETAILS OF THE MUTULES. ] The cornices employed in classic architecture may be almost invariablysubdivided into three parts: the supporting part, which is thelowest, --the projecting part, which is the middle, --and the crowningpart, which is the highest division of the cornice. The supportingpart in a Greek Doric cornice is extremely small. There are nomouldings, such as we shall find in almost every other cornice, calculated to convey the idea of contributing to sustain theprojection of the cornice, but there are slabs of marble, calledmutules (Fig. 64), dropping towards the outer end, of which one isplaced over each triglyph and one between every two. These seem torecall, by their shape, their position, and their slope alike, theends of the rafters of a timber roof; and their surface is coveredwith small projections which resemble the heads of wooden pins, similar to those already alluded to. The projecting part, in this asin almost all cornices, is a plain upright face of some height, called"the corona, " and recalling probably a "facia" or flat narrow boardsuch as a carpenter of the present day would use in a similarposition, secured in the original structure to the ends of the raftersand supporting the eaves. Lastly, the crowning part is, in the GreekDoric, a single convex moulding, not very dissimilar in profile to theovolo of the capital, and forming what we commonly call aneaves-gutter. At the ends of the building the two upper divisions of thecornice--namely, the projecting corona and the crowning ovolo--aremade to follow the sloping line of the gable, a second corona beingalso carried across horizontally in a manner which can be bestunderstood by inspecting a diagram of the corner of a Greek Doricbuilding (Fig. 57); and the triangular space thus formed was termed apediment, and was the position in which the finest of the sculpturewith which the building was enriched was placed. In the Parthenon a continuous band of sculpture ran round the exteriorof the cell, near the top of the wall. One other feature was employed in Greek temple-architecture. The_anta_ was a square pillar or pier of masonry attached to the wall, and corresponded very closely to our pilaster; but its capital alwaysdiffered from that of the columns in the neighbourhood of which it wasemployed. The antæ of the Greek Doric order, as employed in theParthenon, have a moulded base, which it will be remembered is not thecase with the column, and their capital has for its principal featurean under-cut moulding, known as the bird's beak, quite dissimilar fromthe ovolo of the capital of the column (Fig. 65). Sometimes theportico of a temple consisted of the side walls prolonged, and endingin two antæ, with two or more columns standing between them. Such aportico is said to be in antis. [Illustration: FIG. 65. --ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CAPITAL OF A GREEK ANTA, WITH COLOURED DECORATION. ] The Parthenon presents examples of the most extraordinary refinementsin order to correct optical illusions. The delicacy and subtlety ofthese are extreme, but there can be no manner of doubt that theyexisted. The best known correction is the diminution in diameter ortaper, and the _entasis_ or convex curve of the tapered outline of theshaft of the column. Without the taper, which is perceptible enough inthe order of this building, and much more marked in the order ofearlier buildings, the columns would look top-heavy; but the entasisis an additional optical correction to prevent their outline fromappearing hollowed, which it would have done had there been no curve. The columns of the Parthenon have shafts that are over 34 ft. High, and diminish from a diameter of 6·15 ft. At the bottom to 4·81 ft. Atthe top. The outline between these points is convex, but so slightlyso that the curve departs at the point of greatest curvature not morethan ¾ in. From the straight line joining the top and bottom. Thisis, however, just sufficient to correct the tendency to look hollow inthe middle. A second correction is intended to overcome the apparent tendency of abuilding to spread outwards towards the top. This is met by incliningthe columns slightly inwards. So slight, however, is the inclination, that were the axes of two columns on opposite sides of the Parthenoncontinued upwards till they met, the meeting-point would be 1952yards, or, in other words, more than one mile from the ground. Another optical correction is applied to the horizontal lines. Inorder to overcome a tendency which exists in all long lines to seem asthough they droop in the middle, the lines of the architrave, of thetop step, and of other horizontal features of the building, are allslightly curved. The difference between the outline of the top step ofthe Parthenon and a straight line joining its two ends is at thegreatest only just over 2 inches. The last correction which it is necessary to name here was applied tothe vertical proportions of the building. The principles upon whichthis correction rests have been demonstrated by Mr. JohnPennethorne;[14] and it would hardly come within the scope of thisvolume to attempt to state them here: suffice it to say, that smalladditions, amounting in the entire height of the order to less than 5inches, were made to the heights of the various members of the order, with a view to secure that from one definite point of view the effectof foreshortening should be exactly compensated, and so the buildingshould appear to the spectator to be perfectly proportioned. The Parthenon, like many, if not all Greek buildings, was profuselydecorated with coloured ornaments, of which nearly every trace has nowdisappeared, but which must have contributed largely to the splendidbeauty of the building as a whole, and must have emphasised and setoff its parts. The ornaments known as Doric frets were largelyemployed. They consist of patterns made entirely of straight linesinterlacing, and, while preserving the severity which ischaracteristic of the style, they permit of the introduction ofconsiderable richness. The principal remaining examples or fragments of Greek Doric may beenumerated as follows:-- IN GREECE. Temple of (?) Athena, at Corinth, ab. 650 B. C. Temple of (?) Zeus, in the island of Ægina, ab. 550 B. C. Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B. C. Temple of Athena (Parthenon), on the Acropolis at Athens, fin. 438 B. C. The Propylæa, on the Acropolis at Athens, 436-431 B. C. Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Bassæ, [15] in Arcadia (designed by Ictinus). Temple of Apollo Epicurius, at Phigaleia, in Arcadia (built by Ictinus). Temple of Athena, on the rock of Sunium, in Attica. Temple of Nemesis, at Rhamnus, in Attica. Temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Eleusis, in Attica. IN SICILY AND SOUTH ITALY. Temple of (?) Zeus, at Agrigentum, in Sicily (begun B. C. 480). Temple at Ægesta (or Segesta), in Sicily. Temple of (?) Zeus, at Selinus, in Sicily (? ab. 410 B. C. ). Temple of (?) Athena, at Syracuse, in Sicily. Temple of Poseidon, at Pæstum, in South of Italy (? ab. 550 B. C. ). FOOTNOTES: [10] See Frontispiece and Figs. 54 and 55. [11] The Propylæa. [12] Mr. Fergusson's investigations, soon, it is understood, to bepublished in a complete form, clearly show that the clerestory androof can be restored with the greatest probability. [13] In a few instances a smaller number is found. [14] 'Geometry and Optics of Ancient Architecture. ' [15] ? Exterior Doric--Interior Ionic. [Illustration: FIG. 66. --PALMETTE AND HONEYSUCKLE. ] CHAPTER VI. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. _Buildings of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders. _ The Doric was the order in which the full strength and the completerefinement of the artistic character of the Greeks were mostcompletely shown. There was a great deal of the spirit of severedignity proper to Egyptian art in its aspect; but other nationalitiescontributed to the formation of the many-sided Greek nature, and wemust look to some other country than Egypt for the spirit whichinspired the Ionic order. This seems to have been brought into Greeceby a distinct race, and shows marks of an Asiatic origin. The featurewhich is most distinctive is the one most distinctly Eastern--thecapital of the column, ornamented always by volutes, _i. E. _ scrolls, which bear a close resemblance to features similarly employed in thecolumns found at Persepolis. The same resemblance can be also detectedin the moulded bases, and even the shafts of the columns, and in manyof the ornaments employed throughout the buildings. [Illustration: FIG. 67. --SHAFT OF IONIC COLUMN SHOWING THE FLUTES. ] [Illustration: FIG. 68. --IONIC CAPITAL. FRONT ELEVATION. ] [Illustration: FIG. 69. --IONIC CAPITAL. SIDE ELEVATION. ] In form and disposition an ordinary Ionic temple was similar to one ofthe Doric order, but the general proportions are more slender, and themouldings of the order are more numerous and more profusely enriched. The column in the Ionic order had a base, often elaborately andsometimes singularly moulded (Figs. 74, 75). The shaft (Figs. 67, 70)is of more slender proportions than the Doric shaft. It was fluted, but its channels are more numerous, and are separated from one anotherby broader fillets than in the Doric. The distinctive feature, as inall the orders, is the capital (Figs. 68, 69), which is recognised ata glance by the two remarkable ornaments already alluded to as likescrolls, and known as volutes. These generally formed the faces of apair of cushion-shaped features, which could be seen in a side view ofthe capital; but sometimes volutes stand in a diagonal position, andin almost every building they differ slightly. The abacus is less deepthan in the Greek Doric, and it is always moulded at the edge, whichwas never the case with the Doric abacus. The entablature (Fig. 70)is, generally speaking, richer than that of the Doric order. Thearchitrave, for example, has three facias instead of being plain. Onthe other hand, the frieze has no triglyphs, and but rarely sculpture. There are more members in the cornice, several mouldings beingcombined to fortify the supporting portion. These have sometimes beentermed "the bed mouldings, " and among them occurs one which is almosttypical of the order, and is termed a dentil band. This mouldingpresents the appearance of a plain square band of stone, in which aseries of cuts had been made dividing it into blocks somewhatresembling teeth, whence the name. Such an ornament is more naturallyconstructed in wood than in stone or marble, but if the realderivation of the Ionic order, as of the Doric, be in fact from timberstructures, the dentil band is apparently the only feature in whichthat origin can now be traced. The crowning member of the cornice is apartly hollow moulding, technically called a "cyma recta, " lessvigorous than the convex ovolo, of the Doric: this moulding, and someof the bed mouldings, were commonly enriched with carving. Altogethermore slenderness and less vigour, more carved enrichment and lesspainted decoration, more reliance on architectural ornament andless on the work of the sculptor, appear to distinguish those examplesof Greek Ionic which have come down to us, as compared with Doricbuildings. [Illustration: FIG. 70. --THE IONIC ORDER. FROM PRIENE, ASIA MINOR. ] [Illustration: FIG. 71. --IONIC ORDER. FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM, ATHENS. ] [Illustration: FIG. 72. --NORTH-WEST VIEW OF THE ERECHTHEIUM, IN THE TIME OF PERICLES. ] The most numerous examples of the Ionic order of which remains existare found in Asia Minor, but the most refined and complete is theErechtheium at Athens (Figs. 72, 73), a composite structure containingthree temples built in juxtaposition, but differing from one anotherin scale, levels, dimensions, and treatment. The principal order fromthe Erechtheium (Fig. 71) shows a large amount of enrichmentintroduced with the most refined and severe taste. Speciallyremarkable are the ornaments (borrowed from the Assyrian honeysuckle)which encircle the upper part of the shaft at the point where itpasses into the capital, and the splendid spirals of the volutes(Figs. 68, 69). The bases of the columns in the Erechtheium exampleare models of elegance and beauty. Those of some of the examples fromAsia Minor are overloaded with a vast number of mouldings, by nomeans always producing a pleasing effect (Figs. 74, 75). Some of thembear a close resemblance to the bases of the columns at Persepolis. [Illustration: FIG. 73. --PLAN OF THE ERECHTHEIUM. ] [Illustration: FIG. 74. --IONIC BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF THE WINGLESS VICTORY (NIKÈ APTEROS). ] [Illustration: FIG. 75. --IONIC BASE MOULDINGS FROM PRIENE. ] The most famous Greek building which was erected in the Ionic stylewas the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. This temple has been all buttotally destroyed, and the very site of it had been for centuries lostand unknown till the energy and sagacity of an English architect (Mr. Wood) enabled him to discover and dig out the vestiges of thebuilding. Fortunately sufficient traces of the foundation haveremained to render it possible to recover the plan of the templecompletely; and the discovery of fragments of the order, together withrepresentations on ancient coins and a description by Pliny, haverendered it possible to make a restoration on paper, of the generalappearance of this famous temple, which must be very nearly, if notabsolutely, correct. The walls of this temple enclosed, as usual, a cella (in which was thestatue of the goddess), with apparently a treasury behind it: theywere entirely surrounded by a double series of columns, with apediment at each end. The exterior of the building, including thesecolumns, was about twice the width of the cella. The whole structure, which was of marble, was planted on a spacious platform with steps. The account of Pliny refers to thirty-six columns, which he describesas "_columnæ celatæ_" (sculptured columns), adding that one was byScopas, a very celebrated artist. The fortunate discovery by Mr. Woodof a few fragments of these columns shows that the lower part of theshaft immediately above the base was enriched by a group offigures--about life-size--carved in the boldest relief and encirclingthe column. One of these groups has been brought to the BritishMuseum, and its beauty and vigour enable the imagination partly torestore this splendid feature, which certainly was one of the mostsumptuous modes of decorating a building by the aid of sculpture whichhas ever been attempted; and the effect must have been rich beyonddescription. It is worth remark that the Erechtheium, which has been alreadyreferred to, contains an example of a different, and perhaps a notless remarkable, mode of combining sculpture with architecture. In oneof its three porticoes (Fig. 72) the columns are replaced by standingfemale figures, known as caryatidæ, and the entablature rests on theirheads. This device has frequently been repeated in ancient and inmodern architecture, but, except in some comparatively obscureexamples, the sculptured columns of Ephesus do not appear to have beenimitated. Another famous Greek work of art, the remains of which have been, likethe Temple of Diana, disinterred by the energy and skill of a learnedEnglishman, belonged to the Ionic order. To Mr. Newton we owe therecovery of the site, and considerable fragments of the architecturalfeatures, of the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the ancientwonders of the world. The general outline of this monument must haveresembled other Greek tombs which have been preserved, such, forexample, as the Lion Tomb at Cnidus; that is to say, the plan wassquare: there was a basement, above this an order, and above that asteep pyramidal roof rising in steps, not carried to a point, butstopping short to form a platform, on which was placed a quadriga (orfour-horsed chariot). This building is known to have been richlysculptured, and many fragments of great beauty have been recovered. Indeed it was probably its elaboration, as well as its very unusualheight (for the Greek buildings were seldom lofty), which led to itsbeing so celebrated. [Illustration: FIG. 76. --THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS. ] [Illustration: FIG. 77. --CORINTHIAN CAPITAL FROM THE MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS. ] The Corinthian order, the last to make its appearance, was almost asmuch Roman as Greek, and is hardly found in any of the great templesof the best period of which remains exist in Greece, though we hear ofits use. For example, Pausanias states that the Corinthian order wasemployed in the interior of the Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea, builtby Scopas, to which a date shortly after the year 394 B. C. Isassigned. The examples which we possess are comparatively small works, and in them the order resembles the Ionic, but with the importantexceptions that the capital of the column is quite different, that theproportions are altogether a little slenderer, and that theenrichments are somewhat more florid. [Illustration: FIG. 78. --MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES AT ATHENS, AS IN THE TIME OF PERICLES. ] The capital of the Greek Corinthian order, as seen in the ChoragicMonument of Lysicrates at Athens (Fig. 78)--a comparatively miniatureexample, but the most perfect we have--is a work of art of marvellousbeauty (Fig. 77). It retains a feature resembling the Ionic volute, but reduced to a very small size, set obliquely and appearing tospring from the sides of a kind of long bell-shaped termination to thecolumn. This bell is clothed with foliage, symmetrically arranged andmuch of it studied, but in a conventional manner, from the gracefulfoliage of the acanthus; between the two small volutes appears anAssyrian honeysuckle, and tendrils of honeysuckle, conventionallytreated, occupy part of the upper portion of the capital. The abacusis moulded, and is curved on plan, and the base of the capital ismarked by a very unusual turning-down of the flutes of the columns. The entire structure to which this belonged is a model of elegance, and the large sculptured mass of leaves and tendrils with which it iscrowned is especially noteworthy. [Illustration: FIG. 79. --CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM MILETUS. SIDE VIEW. ] A somewhat simpler Corinthian capital, and another of very richdesign, are found in the Temple of Apollo Didymæus at Miletus, wherealso a very elegant capital for the antæ--or pilasters--is employed(Figs. 79, 81). A more ornamental design for a capital could hardly beadopted than that of the Lysicrates example, but there was room formore elaboration in the entablature, and accordingly largerichly-sculptured brackets seem to have been introduced, and aprofusion of ornament was employed. The examples of this treatmentwhich remain are, however, of Roman origin rather than Greek. [Illustration: FIG. 80. --RESTORATION OF THE GREEK THEATRE OF SEGESTA. ] The Greek cities must have included structures of great beauty andadapted to many purposes, of which in most cases few traces, if any, have been preserved. We have no remains of a Greek palace, or of Greekdwelling-houses, although those at Pompeii were probably erected anddecorated by Greek artificers, for Roman occupation. The agora of aGreek city, which was a place of public assembly something like theRoman Forum, is known to us only by descriptions in ancient writers, but we possess some remains of Greek theatres; and from these, aidedby Roman examples and written descriptions, can understand what thesebuildings were. The auditory was curved in plan, occupying rather morethan a semicircle; the seats rose in tiers one behind another; acircular space was reserved for the chorus in the centre of the seats, and behind it was a raised stage, bounded by a wall forming its backand sides: a rough notion of the arrangement can be obtained from thelecture theatre of many modern colleges, and our illustration (Fig. 80) gives a general idea of what must have been the appearance of oneof these structures. Much of the detail of these buildings is, however, a matter of pure speculation, and consequently does not enterinto the scheme of this manual. [Illustration: FIG. 81. --CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM MILETUS. ] CHAPTER VII. GREEK ARCHITECTURE. _Analysis. _ The _Plan_ or floor-disposition of a Greek building was always simplehowever great its extent, was well judged for effect, and capable ofbeing understood at once. The grandest results were obtained by simplemeans, and all confusion, uncertainty, or complication werescrupulously avoided. Refined precision, order, symmetry, andexactness mark the plan as well as every part of the work. The plan of a Greek temple may be said to present many of the sameelements as that of an Egyptian temple, but, so to speak, turnedinside out. Columns are relied on by the Greek artist, as they were bythe Egyptian artist, as a means of giving effect; but they are placedby him outside the building instead of within its courts and halls. The Greek, starting with a comparatively small nucleus formed by thecell and the treasury, encircles them by a magnificent girdle ofpillars, and so makes a grand structure, the first hint or suggestionbeing in all probability to be found in certain small Egyptianbuildings to which reference has already been made. The disposition ofthese columns and of the great range of steps, or stylobate, is themost marked feature in Greek temple plans. Columns also existed, it istrue, in the interior of the building, but these were of smaller size, and seem to have been introduced to aid in carrying the roof and theclerestory, if there was one. They have in several instancesdisappeared, and there is certainly no ground for supposing that inany Greek interior the grand but oppressive effect of a hypostyle hallwas attempted to be reproduced. That was abandoned, together with thecomplication, seclusion, and gloom of the long series of chambers, cells, &c. , placed one behind another, just as the contrasts andsurprises of the series of courts and halls following in successionwere abandoned for the one simple but grand mass built to be seen fromwithout rather than from within. In the greater number of Greekbuildings a degree of precision is exhibited, to which the Egyptiansdid not attain. All right angles are absolutely true; the setting-out(or spacing) of the different columns, piers, openings, &c. , isperfectly exact; and, in the Parthenon, the patient investigations ofMr. Penrose and other skilled observers have disclosed a degree ofaccuracy as well as refinement which resembles the precision withwhich astronomical instruments are adjusted in Europe at the presentday, rather than the rough-and-ready measurements of a modern mason orbricklayer. What the plans of Greek palaces might have exhibited, did any remainsexist, is merely matter for inference and conjecture, and it is notproposed in this volume to pass far beyond ascertained and observedfacts. There can be, however, little doubt that the palaces of theWest Asiatic style must have at least contributed suggestions as tointernal disposition of the later and more magnificent Greek mansions. The ordinary dwelling-houses of citizens, as described by ancientwriters, resembled those now visible in the disinterred cities ofPompeii and Herculaneum, which will be referred to under RomanArchitecture. [16] The chief characteristic of the plan of these isthat they retain the disposition which in the temples was discarded;that is to say, all the doors and windows looked into an inner court, and the house was as far as possible secluded within an encirclingwall. The contrast between the openness of the public life led by themen in Greek cities, and the seclusion of the women and the familieswhen at home, is remarkably illustrated by this difference between thepublic and private buildings. The plan of the triple building called the Erechtheium (Fig. 72)deserves special mention, as an example of an exceptional arrangementwhich appears to set the ordinary laws of symmetry at defiance, andwhich is calculated to produce a result into which the picturesqueenters at least as much as the beautiful. Though the central temple issymmetrical, the two attached porticoes are not so, and do not, inposition, dimensions, or treatment, balance one another. The result isa charming group, and we cannot doubt that other examples of freedomof planning would have been found, had more remains of thearchitecture of the great cities of Greece come down to our own day. In public buildings other than temples--such as the theatre, theagora, and the basilica--the Greek architects seem to have had greatscope for their genius; the planning of the theatres shows skilful andthoroughly complete provisions to meet the requirements of the case. Acircular disposition was here introduced--not, it is true, for thefirst time, since it is rendered probable by the representations onsculptured slabs that some circular buildings existed in Assyria, andcircular buildings remain in the archaic works at Mycenæ; but it wasnow elaborated with remarkable completeness, beauty, and mastery overall the difficulties involved. Could we see the great theatre ofAthens as it was when perfect, we should probably find that as aninterior it was almost unrivalled, alike for convenience and forbeauty; and for these excellences it was mainly indebted to theelegance of its planning. The actual floor of many of the Greektemples appears to have been of marble of different colours. _The Walls. _ The construction of the walls of the Greek temples rivalled that ofthe Egyptians in accuracy and beauty of workmanship, and resembledthem in the use of solid materials. The Greeks had within reachquarries of marble, the most beautiful material which nature hasprovided for the use of the builder; and great fineness of surface andhigh finish were attained. Some interesting examples of hollow wallingoccur in the construction of the Parthenon. The wall was not anelement of the building on which the Greek architect seemed to dwellwith pleasure; much of it is almost invariably overshadowed by thelines of columns which form the main features of the building. The pediment (or gable) of a temple is a grand development of thewalls, and perhaps the most striking of the additions which the Greeksmade to the resources of the architect. It offers a fine field forsculpture, and adds real and apparent height beyond anything that theEgyptians ever attempted since the days of the Pyramid-builders; andit has remained in constant use to the present hour. We do not hear of towers being attached to buildings, and, althoughsuch monumental structures as the Mausoleum of Halicarnassusapproached the proportions of a tower, height does not seem to havecommended itself to the mind of the Greek architect as necessary tothe buildings which he designed. It was reserved for Roman andChristian art to introduce this element of architectural effect in allits power. On the other hand, the Greek, like the Persian architect, emphasised the base of his building in a remarkable manner, not onlyby base mouldings, but by planting the whole structure on a greatrange of steps which formed an essential part of the composition. _The Roof. _ The construction of the roofs of Greek temples has been the subject ofmuch debate. It is almost certain that they were in some way so madeas to admit light. They were framed of timber and covered by tiles, often, if not always, of marble. Although all traces of the timberframing have disappeared, we can at least know that the pitch was notsteep, by the slope of the outline of the pediments, which formed, ashas already been said, perhaps the chief glory of a Greek temple. Theflat stone roofs sometimes used by the Egyptians, and necessitatingthe placing of columns or other supports close together, seem to havebecome disused, with the exception that where a temple was surroundedby a range of columns the space between the main wall and the columnswas so covered. The vaulted stone roofs of the archaic buildings, of which thetreasury of Atreus (Figs. 52, 52a) was the type, do not seem to haveprevailed in a later period, or, so far as we know, to have beensucceeded by any similar covering or vault of a more scientificconstruction. It is hardly necessary to add that the Greek theatres were not roofed. The Romans shaded the spectators in their theatres and amphitheatresby means of a velarium or awning, but it is extremely doubtful whethereven this expedient was in use in Greek theatres. _The Openings. _ The most important characteristic of the openings in Greek buildingsis that they were flat-topped, --covered by a lintel of stone ormarble, --and never arched. We have already[17] shown that thiscircumstance is really of the first importance as determining thearchitectural character of buildings. Doors and window openings wereoften a little narrower at the top than the bottom, and were marked bya band of mouldings, known as the architrave, on the face of the wall, and, so to speak, framing in the opening. There was often also a smallcornice over each (Figs. 82, 83). Openings were seldom advanced intoprominence or employed as features in the exterior of a building; infact, the same effects which windows produce in other styles were inGreek buildings created by the interspaces between the columns. _The Columns. _ These features, together with the superstructure or entablature, whichthey customarily carried, were the prominent parts of Greekarchitecture, occupying as they did the entire height of the building. The development of the orders (which we have explained to be reallydecorative systems, each of which involved the use of one sort ofcolumn, though the term is constantly understood as meaning merely thecolumn and entablature) is a very interesting subject, and illustratesthe acuteness with which the Greeks selected from those models whichwere accessible to them, exactly what was suited to their purpose, andthe skill with which they altered and refined, and almost redesigned, everything which they so selected. [Illustration: FIG. 82. --GREEK DOORWAY SHOWING CORNICE. ] [Illustration: FIG. 83. --GREEK DOORWAY. FRONT VIEW. (FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM. )] During the whole period when Greek art was being developed, theancient and polished civilisation of Egypt constituted a mostpowerful and most stable influence, always present, --always, comparatively speaking, within reach, --and always the same. Of all theforms of column and capital existing in Egypt, the Greeks, however, only selected that straight-sided fluted type of which the Beni-Hassanexample is the best known, but by no means the only instance. We firstmeet with these fluted columns at Corinth, of very sturdy proportions, and having a wide, swelling, clumsy moulding under the abacus by wayof a capital. By degrees the proportions of the shaft grew moreslender, and the profile of the capital more elegant and less bold, till the perfected perfections of the Greek Doric column wereattained. This column is the original to which all columns withmoulded capitals that have been used in architecture, from the age ofPericles to our own, may be directly or indirectly referred; while theEgyptian types which the Greeks did not select--such, for example, asthe lotus-columns at Karnak--have never been perpetuated. A different temper or taste, and partly a different history, led tothe selection of the West Asiatic types of column by a section of theGreek people; but great alterations in proportion, in the treatment ofthe capital, and in the management of the moulded base from which thecolumns sprang, were made, even in the orders which occur in the Ionicbuildings of Asia Minor. This was carried further when the Ionic orderwas made use of in Athens herself, and as a result the Attic base andthe perfected Ionic capital are to be found at their best in theErechtheium example. The Ionic order and the Corinthian, which soonfollowed it, are the parents, --not, it is true, of all, but of thegreater part of the columns with foliated capitals that have been usedin all styles and periods of architecture since. It will not beforgotten that rude types of both orders are found represented onAssyrian bas-reliefs, but still the Corinthian capital and order mustbe considered as the natural and, so to speak, inevitable developmentof the Ionic. From the Corinthian capital an unbroken series offoliated capitals can be traced down to our own day; almost the onlynew ornamented type ever devised since being that which takes itsorigin in the Romanesque block capital, known to us in England as theearly Norman cushion capital: this was certainly the parent of adistinct series, though even these owe not a little to Greekoriginals. We have alluded to the Ionic base. It was derived from a very tall onein use at Persepolis, and we meet with it first in the rich but clumsyforms of the bases in the Asia Minor examples. In them we find theheight of the feature as used in Persia compressed, while great, andto our eyes eccentric, elaboration marked the mouldings: these therefinement of Attic taste afterwards simplified, till the profile ofthe well-known Attic base was produced--a base which has had as wideand lasting an influence as either of the original forms of capital. The Corinthian order, as has been above remarked, is the naturalsequel of the Ionic. Had Greek architecture continued till it fellinto decadence, this order would have been the badge of it. As it was, the decadence of Greek art was Roman art, and the Corinthian order wasthe favourite order of the Romans; in fact all the important examplesof it which remain are Roman work. If we remember how invariably use was made of one or other of the twogreat types of the Greek order in all the buildings of the best Greektime, with the addition towards its close of the Corinthian order, andthat these orders, a little more subdivided and a good deal modified, have formed the substratum of Roman architecture and of that in useduring the last three centuries; and if we also bear in mind thatnearly all the columnar architecture of Early Christian, Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic times, owes its forms to the same great source, we may well admit that the invention and perfecting of the orders ofGreek architecture has been--with one exception--the most importantevent in the architectural history of the world. That exception is, ofcourse, the introduction of the Arch. _The Ornaments. _ Greek Ornaments have exerted the same wide influence over the wholecourse of Western art as Greek columns; and in their origin they areequally interesting as specimens of Greek skill in adapting existingtypes, and of Greek invention where no existing types would serve. Few of the mouldings of Greek architecture are to be traced toanterior styles. There is nothing like them in Egyptian work, andlittle or nothing in Assyrian; and though a suggestion of some of themmay no doubt be found in Persian examples, we must take them as havingbeen substantially originated by Greek genius, which felt that theywere wanted, designed them, and brought them far towards absoluteperfection. They were of the most refined form, and when enriched werecarved with consummate skill. They were executed, it must beremembered, in white marble, --a material having the finest surface, and capable of responding to the most delicate variations in contourby corresponding changes in shade or light in a manner and to a degreewhich no other material can equal. In the Doric, mouldings were few, and almost always convex; they became much more numerous in the laterstyles, and then included many of concave profile. The chief are theOVOLO, which formed the curved part of the Doric capital, and thecrowning moulding of the Doric cornice; the CYMA; the BIRD'S BEAK, employed in the capitals of the antæ; the FILLETS under the Doriccapital; the hollows and TORUS mouldings of the Ionic and Corinthianbases. The profiles of these mouldings were very rarely segments of circles, but lines of varying curvature, capable of producing the most delicatechanges of light and shade, and contours of the most subtle grace. Many of them correspond to conic sections, but it seems probable thatthe outlines were drawn by hand, and not obtained by any mechanical ormathematical method. The mouldings were some of them enriched, to use the technical word, by having such ornaments cut into them or carved on them as, thoughsimple in form, lent themselves well to repetition. [18] Where moreroom for ornament existed, and especially in the capitals of the Ionicand Corinthian orders, ornaments were freely and most gracefullycarved, and very symmetrically arranged. Though these were veryvarious, yet most of them can be classed under three heads. (1. ) FRETS(Figs. 116 to 120). These were patterns made up of squares or L-shapedlines interlaced and made to seem intricate, though originally simple. Frequently these patterns are called Doric frets, from their havingbeen most used in buildings of the Doric order. (2. ) HONEYSUCKLE(Figs. 94 and 111 to 114). This ornament, admirably conventionalised, had been used freely by the Assyrians, and the Greeks only adoptedwhat they found ready to their hand when they began to use it; butthey refined it, at the same time losing no whit of its vigour oreffectiveness, and the honeysuckle has come to be known as a typicalGreek decorative _motif_. (3. ) ACANTHUS (Figs. 84 and 85). This is abroad-leaved plant, the foliage and stems of which, treated in aconventional manner, though with but little departure from nature, were found admirably adapted for floral decorative work, andaccordingly were made use of in the foliage of the Corinthian capital, and in such ornaments as, for example, the great finial which formsthe summit of the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. [Illustration: FIG. 84. --THE ACANTHUS LEAF AND STALK. ] The beauty of the carving was, however, eclipsed by that highest ofall ornaments--sculpture. In the Doric temples, as, for example, inthe Parthenon, the architect contented himself with providing suitablespaces for the sculptor to occupy; and thus the great pediments, themetopes (Fig. 86) or square panels, and the frieze of the Parthenonwere occupied by sculpture, in which there was no necessity for moreconventionalism than the amount of artificial arrangement needed inorder fitly to occupy spaces that were respectively triangular, square, or continuous. In the later and more voluptuous style of theIonic temples we find sculpture made into an architectural feature, asin the famous statues, known as the Caryatides, which support thesmallest portico of the Erechtheium, and in the enriched columns ofthe Temple of Diana at Ephesus. Sculpture had already been so employedin Egypt, and was often so used in later times; but the bestopportunity for the display of the finest qualities of the sculptor'sart is such an one as the pediments, &c. , of the great Doric templesafforded. [Illustration: FIG. 85. --THE ACANTHUS LEAF. ] There is little room for doubting that all the Greek temples wererichly decorated in colours, but traces and indications are all thatremain: these, however, are sufficient to prove that a very largeamount of colour was employed, and that probably ornaments (Figs. 105to 120) were painted upon many of those surfaces which were left plainby the mason, especially on the cornices, and that mosaics (Fig. 87)and coloured marbles, and even gilding, were freely used. There isalso ground for believing that as the use of carved enrichmentsincreased with the increasing adoption of the Ionic and Corinthianstyles, less use was made of painted decorations. _Architectural Character. _ Observations which have been made during the course of this and theprevious chapters will have gone far to point out the characteristicsof Greek art. An archaic and almost forbidding severity, with heavyproportions and more strength than grace, marks the earliest Greekbuildings of which we have any fragments remaining. Dignity, sobriety, refinement, and beauty are the qualities of the works of the bestperiod. The latest buildings were more rich, more ornate, and moreslender in their proportions and to a certain extent less severe. [Illustration: FIG. 86. --METOPE FROM THE PARTHENON. CONFLICT BETWEEN A CENTAUR AND ONE OF THE LAPITHÆ. ] [Illustration: FIG. 87. --MOSAIC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS, OLYMPIA. ] Most carefully studied proportions prevailed, and were wrought out toa pitch of completeness and refinement which is truly astounding. Symmetry was the all but invariable law of composition. Yet in certainrespects--as, for example, the spacing and position of the columns--adegree of freedom was enjoyed which Roman architecture did notpossess. Repetition ruled to the almost entire suppression of variety. Disclosure of the arrangement and construction of the building wasalmost complete, and hardly a trace of concealment can be detected. Simplicity reigns in the earliest examples; the elaboration of eventhe most ornamental is very chaste and graceful; and the whole effectof Greek architecture is one of harmony, unity, and refined power. [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN THE NORTHERN PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM--SHOWING THE ORNAMENTATION OF THE CEILING. FIG. 88. --SECTION OF THE PORTICO OF THE ERECHTHEIUM. FIG. 89. --PLAN OF THE PORTICO--LOOKING UP. ] A general principle seldom pointed out which governs the applicationof enrichments to mouldings in Greek architecture may be cited as agood instance of the subtle yet admirable concord which existedbetween the different features: it is as follows. _The outline of eachenrichment in relief was ordinarily described by the same line as theprofile of the moulding to which it was applied. _ The egg enrichment(Fig. 91) on the ovolo, the water-leaf on the cyma reversa (Figs. 92and 97), the honeysuckle on the cyma recta (Fig. 94), and theguilloche (Fig. 100) on the torus, are examples of the application ofthis rule, --one which obviously tends to produce harmony. [Illustration: FIG. 90. --CAPITAL OF ANTÆ FROM THE ERECHTHEIUM. ] [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN RELIEF. FIG. 91. --EGG AND DART. FIG. 92. --LEAF AND DART. FIG. 93. --HONEYSUCKLE. FIG. 94. --HONEYSUCKLE. FIG. 95. --ACANTHUS. FIG. 96. --ACANTHUS. FIG. 97. --LEAF AND TONGUE. FIG. 98. --LEAF AND TONGUE. FIG. 99. --GARLAND. FIG. 100. --GUILLOCHE. FIG. 101. --BEAD AND FILLET. FIG. 102. --BEAD AND FILLET. FIG. 103. --TORUS MOULDING. FIG. 104. --TORUS MOULDING. ] [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF GREEK ORNAMENT IN COLOUR. FIG. 105. --HONEYSUCKLE. FIGS. 106, 108. --FACIAS WITH BANDS OF FOLIAGE. FIG. 106. FIG. 107. --HONEYSUCKLE. FIG. 108. FIG. 109. --LEAF AND DART. FIG. 110. --EGG AND DART. FIGS. 111 TO 113. --EXAMPLES OF THE HONEYSUCKLE. FIG. 111. FIG. 112. FIG. 113. FIG. 114. --COMBINATION OF THE FRET, THE EGG AND DART, THE BEAD AND FILLET, AND THE HONEYSUCKLE. FIG. 114. FIG. 115. --GUILLOCHE. FIGS. 116 TO 120. --EXAMPLES OF THE FRET. FIG. 116. FIG. 117. FIG. 118. FIG. 119. FIG. 120. ] FOOTNOTES: [16] See Chap. IX. [17] Chap. I. [18] For a statement of the general rule governing such enrichments, see page 133. [Illustration: FIG. 121. --ELEVATION OF AN ETRUSCAN TEMPLE (RESTORED FROM DESCRIPTIONS ONLY). ] CHAPTER VIII. ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. _Historical and General Sketch. _ The few grains of truth that we are able to sift from the mass oflegend which has accumulated round the early history of Rome seem toindicate that at a very early period--which the generally receiveddate of 753 B. C. May be taken to fix as nearly as is now possible--asmall band of outcasts and marauders settled themselves on thePalatine Hill and commenced to carry on depredations against thevarious cities of the tribes whose territories were in the immediateneighbourhood, such as the Umbrians, Sabines, Samnites, Latins, andEtruscans. A walled city was built, which from its admirable situationsucceeded in attracting inhabitants in considerable numbers, andspeedily began to exercise supremacy over its neighbours. The mostimportant of the neighbouring nations were the Etruscans, who calledthemselves Rasena, and who must have settled on the west coast ofItaly, between the rivers Arno and Tiber, at a very early period. Their origin is, however, very obscure, some authorities believing, upon apparently good grounds, that they came from Asia Minor, whileothers assert that they descended from the north over the RhætianAlps. But whatever that origin may have been, they had at the time ofthe founding of Rome as a city attained a high degree of civilisation, and showed a considerable amount of architectural skill; and theirarts exercised a very great influence upon Roman art. Considerable remains of the city walls of several Etruscan towns stillexist. These show that the masonry was of what has been termed aCyclopean character, --that is to say, the separate stones were of anenormous size; in the majority of examples these stones were of apolygonal shape, though in a few instances they were rectangular, while in all cases they were fitted together with the most consummateaccuracy of workmanship, which, together with their great massiveness, has enabled much of this masonry to endure to the present day. Cortona, Volterra, Fiesole, and other towns exhibit instances of thiswalling. The temples, palaces, or dwelling-houses which went to makeup the cities so fortified have all disappeared, and the only existingstructural remains of Etruscan buildings are tombs. These are found inlarge numbers, and consist--as in the earlier instances which havealready been described--both of rock-cut and detached erections. Ofthe former, the best known group is at Castel d'Asso, where we findnot only chambers cut into the rock, each resembling an ordinary roomwith an entrance in the face of the rock, but also monuments cutcompletely out and standing clear all round; and we cannot fail todetect in the forms into which the rock has been cut, especially thoseof the roof, imitations of wooden buildings, heavy square piers beingleft at intervals supporting longitudinal beams which hold up theroof. Fig. 122 is an illustration of the interior of a chamber in therock. Occasionally there were a cornice and pediment over theentrance. [Illustration: FIG. 122. --SEPULCHRE AT CORNETO. ] The other class of tombs are circular tumuli, similar to the Pelasgictombs of Asia Minor; of these large numbers exist, but notsufficiently uninjured to enable us to restore them completely. Theygenerally consisted of a substructure of stone, upon which was raiseda conical elevation. In the case of the Regulini Galeassi tomb therewere an inner and an outer tumulus, the latter of which coveredseveral small tombs, while the inner enclosed one only, which hadfortunately never been opened till it was lately discovered. This tombwas vaulted on the horizontal system--that is to say, its vault wasnot a true arch, but was formed of courses of masonry, eachoverhanging the one below, as in the Treasury of Atreus, and it had acurious recess in the roof, in which were found numerous interestingexamples of Etruscan pottery. It is, however, clear from the citygates, sewers, aqueducts, &c. , that the Etruscans were acquainted withand extensively used the true radiating arch composed of wedge-shapedstones (voussoirs), and that they constructed it with great care andscientific skill. The gate at Perugia, and the Cloacæ or Sewers atRome, constructed during the reign of the Tarquins, [19] at thebeginning of the sixth century B. C. , are examples of the true arch, and this makes it certain that it was from the Etruscans that theRomans learned the arched construction which, when combined with thetrabeated or lintel mode of construction which they copied from theGreeks, formed the chief characteristic of Roman architecture. TheCloaca Maxima (Fig. 123), which is roofed over with three concentricsemicircular rings of large stones, still exists in many places withnot a stone displaced, as a proof of the skill of these earlybuilders. There are remains of an aqueduct at Tusculum which areinteresting from the fact of the horizontal being combined with thetrue arch in its construction. [Illustration: FIG. 123. --CLOACA MAXIMA. ] No Etruscan temples remain now, but we know from Vitruvius that theyconsisted of three cells with one or more rows of columns in front, the intercolumniation or interval between the columns being excessive. The largest Etruscan temple of which any record remains was that ofJupiter Capitolinus at Rome, which, under the Empire, became one ofthe most splendid temples of antiquity. It was commenced by TarquiniusSuperbus, and is said to have derived its name from the fact of thebuilders, when excavating the foundations, coming upon a freshlybleeding head (_caput_), indicating that the place would eventuallybecome the chief city of the world. Another form of Etruscan temple isdescribed by Vitruvius, consisting of one circular cell only, with aporch. This form was probably the origin of the series of circularRoman buildings which includes such forms of temples as that atTivoli, and many of the famous mausolea, _e. G. _ that of Hadrian, andthe culmination of which style is seen in the Pantheon. It isinteresting to notice that the Romans never entirely gave up thecircular form, one instance of its use in Britain at a late period ofthe Roman occupation having been discovered in the ruins of Silchesternear Basingstoke; and we shall find that it was perpetuated inChristian baptisteries, tombs, and occasionally churches. We know from the traces of such buildings which exist, that theEtruscans must have constructed theatres and amphitheatres, and it isrecorded that the first Tarquin laid out the Circus Maximus andinstituted the great games held there. At Sutri there are ruins of anamphitheatre which is nearly a perfect circle, measuring 265 ft. Inits greatest breadth and 295 ft. In length. There are no remains of other buildings which would enable us to forman opinion as to the civic architecture of the Etruscans: they must, however, have attained to a considerable skill in sculpture, as insome of the tombs figures are represented in high relief which show nosmall power of expression. They, too, like the Egyptians, embellishedtheir tombs with mural paintings. These are generally in outline, andrepresent human figures and animals in scenes of every-day life, withconventionalised foliage, or mythological scenes such as the passageof the soul after death to the judgment-seat where its actions in lifeare to be adjudicated upon. In the plastic arts the Etruscans madegreat progress, many of their vases showing a delicacy and grace whichhave never been surpassed, and exhibiting in their decorations tracesof both Greek and Egyptian influence. * * * * * We now reach the last of the classical styles of antiquity, theRoman, --a style which, however, is rather an adaptation oramalgamation of other styles than an original and independent creationor development. The contrast is very great between the "livelyGrecian, " imaginative and idealistic in the highest degree--who seemedto have an innate genius for art and beauty, and who was always eagerto perpetuate in marble his ideal conception of the "hero from whoseloins he sprung, " or to immortalise with some splendid work of art thename of his mother-city--and the stern, practical Roman, realistic inhis every pore, eager for conquest, and whose one dominant idea was tobring under his sway all the nations who were brought into contactwith him, and to make his city--as had been foretold--the capital ofthe whole world. With this idea always before him, it is no wonderthat such a typical Roman as M. Porcius Cato should look with disdainupon the fine arts in all their forms, and should regard a love forthe beautiful, whether in literature or art, as synonymous witheffeminacy. Mummius, also, who destroyed Corinth, is said to have beenso little aware of the value of the artistic treasures which hecarried away, as to stipulate with the carriers who undertook totransport them to Rome, that if any of the works of art were lost theyshould be replaced by others of equal value. When the most prominent statesmen displayed such indifference, it isnot surprising that for nearly 500 years no single trace of anyarchitectural building of any merit at all in Rome can now bediscovered, and that history is silent as to the existence of anymonuments worthy of being mentioned. Works of public utility of avery extensive nature were indeed carried out during this period;such, for example, as the Appian Way from Rome to Capua, which was thefirst paved road in Rome, and was constructed by the Censor AppiusClaudius in B. C. 309. This was 14 ft. Wide and 3 ft. Thick, in threelayers: 1st, of rough stones grouted together; 2nd, of gravel; and3rd, of squared stones of various dimensions. The same Censor alsobrought water from Præneste to Rome by a subterranean channel 11 mileslong. Several bridges were also erected, and Cato the Censor is saidto have built a basilica. Until about 150 B. C. All the buildings of Rome were constructed eitherof brick or the local stone; and though we hear nothing ofarchitecture as a fine art, we cannot hesitate to admit that duringthis period the Romans carried the art of construction, and especiallythat of employing materials of small dimensions and readilyobtainable, in buildings of great size, to a remarkable pitch ofperfection. It was not till after the fall of Carthage and thedestruction of Corinth, when Greece became a Roman province under thename of Achaia--both which events occurred in the year 146 B. C. --thatRome became desirous of emulating, to a certain extent, the oldercivilisation which she had destroyed; and about this time she becameso enormously wealthy that vast sums of money were expended, bothpublicly and privately, in the erection of monuments, many of whichremain to the present day, more or less altered. The first marbletemple in Rome was built by the Consul Q. Metellus Macedonicus, whodied B. C. 115. Roman architecture from this period began to show awonderful diversity in the objects to which it was directed, --acircumstance perhaps as interesting as its great scientific andstructural advance upon all preceding styles. In the earlier stylestemples, tombs, and palaces were the only buildings deemed worthy ofarchitectural treatment; but under the Romans baths, theatres, amphitheatres, basilicas, aqueducts, triumphal arches, &c. , werecarried out just as elaborately as the temples of the gods. It was under the Emperors that the full magnificence of Romanarchitectural display was reached. The famous boast of Augustus, thathe found Rome of brick and left her of marble, gives expression in afew words to what was the great feature of his reign. Succeedingemperors lavished vast sums on buildings and public works of allkinds; and thus it comes to pass that though the most destructive ofall agencies, hostile invasions, conflagrations, and long periods ofneglect, have each in turn done their utmost to destroy the vestigesof Imperial Rome, there still remain fragments, and in one or twoinstances whole monuments, enough to make Rome, after Athens, therichest store of classic architectural antiquities in the world. But it was not in Rome only that great buildings were erected. Thewhole known civilised world was under Roman dominion, and wherever acentre of government or even a flourishing town existed there sprangup the residences of the dominant race, and their places of business, public worship, and public amusement. Consequently, we find in our owncountry, and in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, North Africa, andEgypt--in short, in all the countries where Roman rule wasestablished--examples of temples, amphitheatres, theatres, triumphalarches, and dwelling-houses, some of them of great interest andoccasionally in admirable preservation. FOOTNOTE: [19] The story of the Tarquins probably points to a period when thechief supremacy at Rome was in the hands of an Etruscan family, and isinteresting for this reason. [Illustration: FIG. 124. --"INCANTADA" IN SALONICA. ] CHAPTER IX. THE BUILDINGS OF THE ROMANS. The temples in Rome were not, as in Greece and Egypt, the structuresupon which the architect lavished all the resources of his art and hisscience. The general form of them was copied from that made use of bythe Greeks, but the spirit in which the original idea was carried outwas entirely different. In a word, the temples of Rome were by nomeans worthy of her size and position as the metropolis of the world, and very few remains of them exist. [Illustration: FIG. 125. --IONIC ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF FORTUNA VIRILIS, ROME. ] Ten columns are still standing of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina(now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda): it occupied the site of aprevious temple and was dedicated by Antoninus Pius to his wifeFaustina. The Temple (supposed) of Fortuna Virilis, in the Ionic style(Fig. 125), still exists as the church of Santa Maria Egiziaca: thiswas tetrastyle, with half-columns all round it, and this was of thekind called by Vitruvius "pseudo-peripteral. " A few fragmentaryremains of other temples exist in Rome, but in some of the Romanprovinces far finer specimens of temples remain, of which perhaps thebest is the Maison Carrée at Nîmes (Fig. 126). Here we find the Romanplan of a single cell and a deep portico in front, while the sides andrear have the columns attached. The intercolumniations and the detailsof the capitals and entablature are, however, almost pure Greek. Thedate of this temple is uncertain, but it is most probable that it waserected during the reign of Hadrian. The same emperor is said to havecompleted the magnificent Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, whichwas 354 ft. Long by 171 ft. Wide. It consisted of a cell flanked oneach side by a double row of detached columns; in front was one row ofcolumns in antis, and three other rows in front of these, while therewere also three rows in the rear: as the columns were of theCorinthian order, and nearly 60 ft. In height, it may be imagined thatit was a splendid edifice. [Illustration: FIG. 126. --ROMAN-CORINTHIAN TEMPLE AT NÎMES (MAISON-CARRÉE). PROBABLY OF THE TIME OF HADRIAN. ] The ruins of another magnificent provincial Roman temple exist atBaalbek--the ancient Heliopolis--in Syria, not far from Damascus. Thisbuilding was erected during the time of the Antonines, probably byAntoninus Pius himself, and originally it must have been of veryextensive dimensions, the portico alone being 180 ft. Long and about37 ft. Deep. This gives access to a small hexagonal court, on thewestern side of which a triple gateway opens into the Great Court, which is a vast quadrangle about 450 ft. Long by 400 ft. Broad, withranges of small chambers or niches on three sides, some of whichevidently had at one time beautifully groined roofs. At the westernend of this court, on an artificial elevation, stand the remains ofwhat is called the Great Temple. This was originally 290 ft. Long by160 ft. Wide, and had 54 columns supporting its roof, six only ofwhich now remain erect. The height of these columns, including baseand capital, is 75 ft. , and their diameter is 7 ft. At base and about6 ft. 6 in. At top; they are of the Corinthian order, and above themrises an elaborately moulded entablature, 14 ft. In height. Each ofthe columns is composed of three stones only, secured by strong ironcramps; and indeed one of the most striking features of this group ofbuildings is the colossal size of the stones used in theirconstruction. The quarries from which these stones were hewn are closeat hand, and in them is one stone surpassing all the others inmagnitude, its dimensions being 68 ft. By 14 ft. 2 in. By 13 ft. 11 in. It is difficult to imagine what means can have existed fortransporting so huge a mass, the weight of which has been calculatedat 1100 tons. [Illustration: FIG. 127. --GROUND-PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. ] [Illustration: FIG. 128. --CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. ] Other smaller temples exist in the vicinity, all of which are lavishlydecorated, but on the whole the ornamentation shows an exuberance ofdetail which somewhat offends a critical artistic taste. [Illustration: FIG. 129. --THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. PLAN (LOOKING UP) AND SECTION OF PART OF THE PERISTYLE. ] Circular temples were an elegant variety, which seems to have beenoriginated by the Romans, and of which two well-known examplesremain--the Temples of Vesta at Rome and at Tivoli. The columns of thetemple at Tivoli (Fig. 128) form a well-known and pleasing variety ofthe Corinthian order, and the circular form of the building as shownon the plan (Fig. 127) gives excellent opportunities for gooddecorative treatment, as may be judged of by the enlarged diagram ofpart of the peristyle (Fig. 129). _Basilicas. _ Among the most remarkable of the public buildings of Roman times, bothin the mother-city and in the provinces, were the Basilicas or Hallsof Justice, which were also used as commercial exchanges. It is alsobelieved that Basilicas existed in some Greek cities, but no clue totheir structural arrangements exists, and whence originated the ideaof the plan of these buildings we are unable to state; their strikingsimilarity to some of the rock-cut halls or temples of India has beenalready pointed out. They were generally (though not always) coveredhalls, oblong in shape, divided into three or five aisles by two ormore rows of columns, the centre aisle being much wider than those atthe sides: over the latter, galleries were frequently erected. At oneend was a semicircular recess or apse, the floor of which was raisedconsiderably above the level of the rest of the building, and here thepresiding magistrate sat to hear causes tried. Four[20] of thesebuildings are mentioned by ancient writers as having existed inrepublican times, viz. The Basilica Portia, erected in B. C. 184, byCato the Censor; the Basilica Emilia et Fulvia, erected in B. C. 179 bythe censors M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. Æmilius Lepidus, and afterwardsenlarged and called the Basilica Paulli; the Basilica Sempronia, erected in B. C. 169 by Tib. Sempronius Gracchus; and the BasilicaJulia, erected by Julius Cæsar, B. C. 46. All these buildings hadwooden roofs, and were of no great architectural merit, and theyperished at a remote date. Under the Empire, basilicas of much greatersize and magnificence were erected; and remains of that of Trajan, otherwise called the Basilica Ulpia, have been excavated in the Forumof Trajan. This was about 360 ft. Long by 180 ft. Wide, had four rowsof columns inside, and it supposed to have been covered by asemicircular wooden roof. Apollodorus of Damascus was the architect ofthis building. Another basilica of which remains exist is that ofMaxentius, which after his overthrow by Constantine in A. D. 312, wasknown as the Basilica Constantiniana. This structure was of stone, andhad a vaulted roof; it was 195 ft. Between the walls, and was dividedinto three aisles by piers with enormous columns standing in front ofthem. [Illustration: FIG. 130. --GROUND-PLAN OF THE BASILICA ULPIA, ROME. ] One provincial basilica, that at Trèves, still stands; and although itmust have been considerably altered, it is by far the best existingexample of this kind of building. The internal columns do not existhere, and it is simply a rectangular hall about 175 ft. By 85 ft. , with the usual semicircular apse. The chief interest attaching to these basilicas lies in the fact thatthey formed the first places of Christian assembly, and that theyserved as the model upon which the first Christian churches werebuilt. _Theatres and Amphitheatres. _ Although dramas and other plays were performed in Rome as early as 240B. C. , there seems to have been a strong prejudice against permanentbuildings for their representation, as it is recorded that a decreewas passed in B. C. 154 forbidding the construction of such buildings. Mummius, the conqueror of Corinth, obtained permission to erect awooden theatre for the performance of dramas as one of the shows ofhis triumph, and after this many buildings of the kind were erected, but all of a temporary nature; and it was not till B. C. 61 that thefirst permanent theatre was built by Pompey. This, and the theatres ofBalbus and Marcellus, appear to have been the only permanent theatresthat were erected in Imperial Rome; and there are no remains of anybut the last of these, and this is much altered. So that, were it notfor the remains of theatres found at Pompeii, it would be almostimpossible to tell how they were arranged; but from these we can seethat the stage was raised and separated from the part appropriated tothe spectators by a semicircular area, much like that which in Greektheatres was allotted to the chorus: in the Roman ones this wasassigned for the use of the senators. The portion devoted to thespectators--called the Cavea--was also semicircular on plan, andconsisted of tiers of steps rising one above the other, and divided atintervals by wide passages and converging staircases communicatingwith the porticoes, which ran round the whole theatre at every story. [Illustration: FIG. 131. --PLAN OF THE COLOSSEUM, ROME. ] At Orange, in the South of France, are the remains of a very finetheatre, similar in plan to that described. The great wall whichformed the back of the scene in this building is still standing, andis one of the most magnificent pieces of masonry existing. [Illustration: FIG. 132. --THE COLOSSEUM. SECTION AND ELEVATION. ] Although the Romans were not particularly addicted to dramaticrepresentations, yet they were passionately fond of shows and games ofall kinds: hence, not only in Rome itself, but in almost every Romansettlement, from Silchester to Verona, are found traces of theiramphitheatres, and the mother-city can claim the possession of themost stupendous fabric of the kind that was ever erected--theColosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre, which was commenced by Vespasianand finished by his son Titus. An amphitheatre is really a doubletheatre without a stage, and with the space in the centre unoccupiedby seats. This space, which was sunk several feet below the first rowof seats, was called the arena, and was appropriated to the variousexhibitions which took place in the building. The plan was ellipticalor oval, and this shape seems to have been universal. The Colosseum, whose ruins still remain to attest its pristinemagnificence-- "Arches on arches, as it were that Rome, Collecting the chief trophies of her line, Would build up all her triumphs in one dome"[21]-- was 620 ft. Long and 513 wide, and the height was about 162 ft. It wassituated in the hollow between the Esquiline and Cælian hills. Theranges of seats were admirably planned so as to enable all theaudience to have a view of what was going on in the arena, and greatskill was shown both in the arrangement of the approaches to thedifferent tiers and in the structural means for supporting the seats, and double corridors ran completely round the building on each floor, affording ready means of exit. Various estimates have been made of thenumber of spectators that could be accommodated, and these range from50, 000 to 100, 000, but probably 80, 000 was the maximum. Recentexcavations have brought to light the communications which existedbetween the arena and the dens where the wild animals and human slavesand prisoners were confined, and some of the water channels used whenmimic sea-fights were exhibited. The external façade is composed offour stories, separated by entablatures that run completely round thebuilding without a break. The three lower stories consist of a seriesof semicircular arched openings, eighty in number, separated by pierswith attached columns in front of them, the Doric order being used inthe lowest story, the Ionic in the second, and the Corinthian in thethird; the piers and columns are elevated on stylobates; theentablatures have a comparatively slight projection, and there are noprojecting keystones in the arches. In the lowest range these openingsare 13 ft. 4 in. Wide, except the four which are at the ends of thetwo axes of the ellipse, and these are 14 ft. 6 in. Wide. The diameterof the columns is 2 ft. 8¾ in. The topmost story, which isconsiderably more lofty than either of the lower ones, was a nearlysolid wall enriched by Corinthian pilasters. In this story occur twotiers of small square openings in the alternate spaces between thepilasters. These openings are placed accurately over the centres ofthe arches of the lower stories. Immediately above the higher range ofsquare openings are a series of corbels--three between each pair ofpilasters--which probably received the ends of the poles carrying thehuge awning which protected the spectators from the sun's rays. Thewhole is surmounted by a heavy cornice, in which, at intervalsimmediately over each corbel, are worked square mortise holes, formingsockets through which the poles of the awning passed. The stone ofwhich the façade of the Colosseum is built is a local stone, calledtravertine, the blocks of which are secured by iron cramps withoutcement. Nearly all the internal portion of the building is of brick, and the floors of the corridors, &c. , are paved with flat brickscovered with hard stucco. These amphitheatres were occasionally thescene of imitations of marine conflicts, when the arena was floodedwith water and mimic vessels of war engaged each other. Very completearrangements were made, by means of small aqueducts, for leading thewater into the arena and for carrying it off. Apart from theatrical representations and gladiatorial combats, theRomans had an inordinate passion for chariot races. For those thecirci were constructed, of which class of buildings the Circus Maximuswas the largest. This, originally laid out by Tarquinius Priscus, wasreconstructed on a larger scale by Julius Cæsar. It was circular atone end and rectangular at the other, at which was the entrance. Onboth sides of the entrance were a number of small arched chambers, called _carceres_, from which the chariots started. The course wasdivided down the centre by a low wall, called the _spina_, which wasadorned with various sculptures. The seats rose in a series of coveredporticoes all round the course, except at the entrance. As the lengthof the Circus Maximus was nearly 700 yards, and the breadth about 135yards, it is possible that Dionysius may not have formed anexaggerated notion of its capacity when he says it would accommodate150, 000 spectators. In the Roman provinces amphitheatres were often erected; and at Polain Istria, Verona in Italy, and Nîmes and Arles in France, fineexamples remain. A rude Roman amphitheatre, with seats cut in the turfof a hill-side, exists to this day at the old town of Dorchester inDorset, which was anciently a Roman settlement. _Baths (Thermæ). _ Nothing can give us a more impressive idea of the grandeur and lavishdisplay of Imperial Rome than the remains of the huge Thermæ, orbathing establishments, which still exist. Between the years 10 A. D. , when Agrippa built the first public baths, and 324 A. D. , when thoseof Constantine were erected, no less than twelve of these vastestablishments were erected by various emperors, and bequeathed to thepeople. Of the whole number, the baths of Caracalla and of Diocletianare the only ones which remain in any state of preservation, and thesewere probably the most extensive and magnificent of all. All thesesplendid buildings were really nothing more than bribes to secure thefavour of the populace; for it seems quite clear that the public hadpractically free entrance to them, the only charge mentioned bywriters of the time being a quadrans, about a farthing of our money. Gibbon says, "The meanest Roman could purchase with a small coppercoin the daily enjoyment of a scene of pomp and luxury which mightexcite the envy of the kings of Asia. " And this language is notexaggerated. Not only were there private bath-rooms, swimming-baths, hot baths, vapour-baths, and, in fact, all the appurtenances of themost approved Turkish baths of modern times, but there were alsogymnasia, halls for various games, lecture-halls, libraries, andtheatres in connection with the baths, all lavishly ornamented withthe finest paintings and sculpture that could be obtained. Stone seemsto have been but sparingly used in the construction of thesebuildings, which were almost entirely of brick faced with stucco: thisserved as the ground for an elaborate series of fresco paintings. [Illustration: FIG. 133. --PLAN OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDING, BATHS OF CARACALLA, ROME. ] The baths of Caracalla, at the foot of the Aventine hill, erected A. D. 217, comprised a quadrangular block of buildings of about 1150 ft. (about the fifth of a mile) each way. The side facing the streetconsisted of a portico the whole length of the façade, behind whichwere numerous ranges of private bath-rooms. The side and rear blockscontained numerous halls and porticoes, the precise object of whichit is now very difficult to ascertain. As Byron says: "Temples, baths, or halls? Pronounce who can. " This belt of buildings surrounded an open courtyard or garden, inwhich was placed the principal bathing establishment (Fig. 133), abuilding 730 ft. By 380 ft. , which contained the large piscina, orswimming-bath, various hot baths, dressing-rooms, gymnasia, and otherhalls for athletic exercises. In the centre of one of the longer sideswas a large semicircular projection, roofed with a dome, which waslined with brass: this rotunda was called the solar cell. From theruins of these baths were taken some of the most splendid specimens ofantique sculpture, such as the Farnese Hercules and the Flora in theMuseum of Naples. The baths of Diocletian, erected just at the commencement of thefourth century A. D. , were hardly inferior to those of Caracalla, butmodern and ancient buildings are now intermingled to such an extentthat the general plan of the buildings cannot now be traced withaccuracy. There are said to have been over 3000 marble seats in thesebaths; the walls were covered with mosaics, and the columns were ofEgyptian granite and green Numidian marble. The Ephebeum, or grandhall, still exists as the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, havingbeen restored by Michelangelo. It is nearly 300 ft. Long by 90 ft. Wide, and is roofed by three magnificent cross vaults, supported oneight granite columns 45 ft. In height. (Fig. 134. ) There is one ancient building in Rome more impressive than any other, not only because it is in a better state of preservation, but becauseof the dignity with which it has been designed, the perfection withwhich it has been constructed, and the effectiveness of the mode inwhich its interior is lighted. We allude to the Pantheon. Opinionsdiffer as to whether this was a Hall attached to the thermæ ofAgrippa, or whether it was a temple. Without attempting to determinethis point, we may at any rate claim that the interior of thisbuilding admirably illustrates the boldness and telling power withwhich the large halls forming part of the thermæ were designed; and, whether it belonged to such a building or not, it is wonderfully wellfitted to illustrate this subject. [Illustration: FIG. 134. --INTERIOR OF SANTA MARIA DEGLI ANGELI, ROME. ] [Illustration: FIG. 135. --THE PANTHEON, ROME. GROUND-PLAN. ] [Illustration: FIG. 136. --THE PANTHEON, ROME. EXTERIOR. ] The Pantheon is the finest example of a domed hall which we haveleft. The building, which forms the church of Santa Maria ad Martyres, has been considerably altered at various times since its erection, andnow consists of a rotunda with a rectangular portico in front of it. The rotunda was most probably erected by Agrippa, the son-in-law ofAugustus, in B. C. 27, and is a most remarkable instance of cleverconstruction at so early a date. The diameter of the interior is145 ft. 6 in. , and the height to the top of the dome is 147 ft. Inaddition to the entrance, the walls are broken up by seven largeniches, three of which are semicircular on plan, and the others, alternating with them, rectangular. The walls are divided into twostories by an entablature supported by columns and pilasters; butalthough this is now cut through by the arches of the niches, it is atleast probable that originally this was not the case, and that theentablature ran continuously round the walls, as shown in Fig. 137, which is a restoration of the Pantheon by Adler. Above the attic storyrises the huge hemispherical dome, which is pierced at its summit by acircular opening 27 ft. In diameter, through which a flood of lightpours down and illuminates the whole of the interior. The dome isenriched by boldly recessed panels, and these were formerly coveredwith bronze ornaments, which have been removed for the sake of themetal. The marble enrichments of the attic have also disappeared, andtheir place has been taken by common and tawdry decorations moreadapted to the stage of a theatre. But notwithstanding everything thathas been done to detract from the imposing effect of the building bythe alteration of its details, there is still, taking it as a whole, asimple grandeur in the design, a magnificence in the materialemployed, and a quiet harmony in the illumination, that impart to theinterior a character of sublimity which nothing can impair. Therectangular portico was added at some subsequent period, and consistsof sixteen splendid Corinthian columns (Fig. 138), eight in frontsupporting the pediment, and the other eight dividing the portico intothree bays, in precisely the same way as if it formed the pronaos tothe three cells of an Etruscan temple. [Illustration: FIG. 137. --THE PANTHEON, ROME. INTERIOR. ] [Illustration: FIG. 138. --THE CORINTHIAN ORDER FROM THE PANTHEON, ROME. ] _Bridges and Aqueducts. _ The earliest Roman bridges were of wood, and the Pons Sublicius, though often rebuilt, continued to be of this material until the timeof Pliny, but it was impossible for a people who made such use of thearch to avoid seeing the great advantage this form gave them in theconstruction of bridges, and several of these formed of stone spannedthe Tiber even before the time of the Empire. The finest Romanbridges, however, were built in the provinces. Trajan constructed oneover the Danube which was 150 ft. High and 60 ft. Wide, and the archesof which were of no less than 170 ft. Span. This splendid structurewas destroyed by his successor, Hadrian, who was probably jealous ofit. The bridge over the Tagus at Alcantara, which was constructed byHadrian, is another very fine example. There were six arches here, ofwhich the two centre ones had a span of 100 ft. The Roman aqueducts afford striking evidence of the buildingenterprise and architectural skill of the people. Pliny says of theseworks: "If any one will carefully consider the quantity of water usedin the open air, in private baths, swimming-baths, houses, gardens, &c. , and thinks of the arches that have been built, the hills thathave been tunnelled, and the valleys that have been levelled for thepurpose of conducting the water to its destination, he must confessthat nothing has existed in the world more calculated to exciteadmiration. " The same sentiment strikes an observer of to-day whenlooking at the ruins of these aqueducts. At the end of the firstcentury A. D. We read of nine aqueducts in Rome, and in the time ofProcopius (A. D. 550) there were fourteen in use. Of these, the AquaClaudia and the Anio Novus were the grandest and most costly. Thosewere constructed about the year 48 A. D. , and entered the city upon thesame arches, though at different levels, the Aqua Claudia being thelower. The arches carrying the streams were over nine miles long, andin some cases 109 ft. High. They were purely works of utility, and hadno architectural decorations; but they were most admirably adapted fortheir purpose, and were so solidly constructed, that portions of themare still in use. Some of the provincial aqueducts, such as those ofTarragona and Segovia in Spain, were more ornamental, and had a doubletier of arches. The Pont du Gard, not far from Nîmes, in France, is awell-known and very picturesque structure of this character. _Commemorative Monuments. _ These comprise triumphal arches, columns, and tombs. The formerconsisted of a rectangular mass of masonry having sculpturedrepresentations of the historical event to be commemorated, enrichedwith attached columns on pedestals, supporting an entablature crownedwith a high attic, on which there was generally an inscription. In thecentre was the wide and lofty arched opening. The Arch of Titus, recording the capture of Jerusalem, is one of the finest examples. Later on triumphal arches were on a more extended scale, and compriseda small arch on each side of the large one; examples of which may beseen in the arches of Septimius Severus and of Constantine (Fig. 139). The large arched gateways which are met with in various parts ofEurope--such as the Porte d'Arroux at Autun, and the Porta Nigra atTrèves--are monuments very similar to triumphal arches. There remainalso smaller monuments of the same character, such as the so-calledArch of the Goldsmiths in Rome (Fig. 1). [Illustration: FIG. 139. --THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE, ROME. ] Columns were erected in great numbers during the time of the Emperorsas memorials of victory. Of these the Column of Trajan and that ofMarcus Aurelius are the finest. The former was erected in the centreof Trajan's Forum, in commemoration of the Emperor's victory over theDacians. It is of the Doric order, 132 ft. 10 in. High, including thestatue. The shaft is constructed of thirty-four pieces of marblejoined with bronze cramps. The figures on the pedestal are very finelycarved, and the entire shaft is encircled by a series of elaboratebas-reliefs winding round it in a spiral from its base to its capital. The beauty of the work on this shaft may be best appreciated by avisit to the cast of it set up--in two heights, unfortunately--at theSouth Kensington Museum. The Column of Marcus Aurelius, generallyknown as the Antonine Column, is similarly enriched, but is not equalto the Trajan Column. The survival of Etruscan habits is clearly seen in the construction ofRoman tombs, which existed in enormous numbers outside the gates ofthe city. Merivale says: "The sepulchres of twenty generations linedthe sides of the high-roads for several miles beyond the gates, andmany had considerable architectural pretensions. " That of CeciliaMetella is a typical example. Here we find a square basementsurmounted by a circular tower-like structure, with a frieze andcornice. This was erected about B. C. 60, by Crassus. The mausoleum ofAugustus was on a much more extensive scale, and consisted of fourcylindrical stories, one above the other, decreasing in diameter asthey ascended, and the topmost of all was crowned with a colossalstatue of the Emperor. The tomb of Hadrian, on the banks of theTiber--now known as the Castle of Sant' Angelo--was even moremagnificent. This comprised a square base, 75 ft. High, the side ofwhich measured about 340 ft. ; above this was a cylindrical buildingsurmounted by a circular peristyle of thirty-four Corinthian columns. On the top was a quadriga with a statue of the Emperor. These mausoleawere occasionally octagonal or polygonal in plan, surmounted by adome, and cannot fail to remind us of the Etruscan tumuli. Another kind of tomb, of less magnificence, was the columbarium, whichwas nothing more than a subterranean chamber, the walls of which had anumber of small apertures in them for receiving the cinerary urnscontaining the ashes of the bodies which had been cremated. In theeastern portion of the Empire, in rocky districts, the tombs were cutin the rock, and the façade was elaborately decorated with columns andother architectural features. _Domestic Architecture. _ Of all the palaces which the Roman emperors built for themselves, andwhich we know from historical records to have been of the mostmagnificent description, nothing now remains in Rome itself that isnot too completely ruined to enable any one to restore its plan withaccuracy, though considerable remains exist of the Palace of theCæsars on the Palatine Hill. In fact, the palace of Diocletian atSpalatro, in Dalmatia, is the only remaining example in the whole ofthe Roman empire of the dwelling-house of an emperor, and even thiswas not built till after Diocletian had resigned the imperialdignity, so that its date is the early part of the fourth century A. D. This palace is a rectangle, measuring about 700 ft. One way and 590 ft. The other, and covers an area of nearly 10 acres. It is surroundedby high walls, broken at intervals by square and octagonal towers, andcontains temples, baths, and extensive galleries, besides the privateapartments of the Emperor and dwellings for the principal officers ofthe household. The architect of this building broke away fromclassical traditions to a great extent; for example, the columns standon corbels instead of pedestals, the entablatures being much broken, and the arches spring directly from the capitals of the columns (Fig. 149). The private houses in Borne were of two kinds: the _insula_ and the_domus_. The insula was a block of buildings several stories high, frequently let out to different families in flats. The ground-floorwas generally given up to shops, which had no connection with theupper parts of the building; and one roof covered the whole. This kindof house was generally tenanted by the poorer class of tradesmen andartificers. The other kind of house, the domus, was a detachedmansion. The excavations at Pompeii have done much to elucidate anumber of points in connection with Roman dwellings which had been thesubject of much discussion by scholars, but we must not too hastilyassume that the Pompeian houses are the exact counterpart of those ofancient Rome, as Pompeii was what may be called a Romano-Greek city. [Illustration: FIG. 140. --GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII. ] [Illustration: FIG. 141. --GROUND-PLAN OF THE HOUSE OF THE TRAGIC POET, POMPEII. ] The general arrangements of a Roman house were as follows: next thestreet an open space was frequently left, with porticoes on each sideof it provided with seats: this constituted the vestibule, and wasentirely outside the house;[22] the entrance-door opened into anarrow passage, called the _prothyrum_, which led to the _atrium_, [23]which in the houses of Republican Rome was the principal apartment, though afterwards it served as a sort of waiting-room for the clientsand retainers of the house; it was an open court, roofed in on allthe four sides, but open to the sky in the centre. The simplest formwas called the Tuscan atrium, where the roof was simply a lean-tosloping towards the centre, the rafters being supported on beams, twoof which rested on the walls of the atrium, and had two othercross-beams trimmed into them. The centre opening was called the_impluvium_, and immediately under it a tank, called the _compluvium_, was formed in the pavement to collect the rain-water (Fig. 142). Whenthe atrium became larger, and the roof had to be supported bycolumns, it was called a _cavædium_. [24] At the end of this apartmentwere three others, open in front, the largest, in the centre, called_tablinum_, and the two side ones _alæ_;[25] these weremuniment-rooms, where all the family archives were kept, and theirposition is midway between the semi-public part of the house, whichlay towards the front, and the strictly domestic and private part, which lay in the rear. At the sides of the atrium in the larger houseswere placed small rooms, which served as sleeping chambers. [Illustration: FIG. 142. --THE ATRIUM OF A POMPEIAN HOUSE. ] From the end of the atrium a passage, or sometimes two passages, called the _fauces_, running by the side of the tablinum, led to the_peristylium_, [26] which was the grand private reception-room; thisalso was a court open to the sky in the centre, and among the wealthyRomans its roof was supported by columns of the rarest marbles. Roundthe peristyle were grouped the various private rooms, which variedaccording to the size of the house and the taste of the owner. Therewas always one dining-room (_triclinium_), and frequently two or more, which were arranged with different aspects, for use in differentseasons of the year. If several dining-rooms existed, they were ofvarious sizes and decorated with various degrees of magnificence; anda story is told of one of the most luxurious Romans of Cicero's time, that he had simply to tell his slaves which room he would dine in forthem to know what kind of banquet he wished to be prepared. In thelargest houses there were saloons (_æci_), parlours (_exedræ_), picture galleries (_pinacothecæ_), chapels (_lararia_), and variousother apartments. The kitchen, with scullery and bakehouse attached, was generally placed in one angle of the peristyle, round whichvarious sleeping-chambers, according to the size of the house, werearranged. Most of the rooms appear to have been on the ground-floor, and probably depended for their light upon the doorway only; thoughin some instances at Pompeii small windows exist high up in the walls. [Illustration: FIG. 143. --WALL DECORATION FROM POMPEII. ] In the extreme rear of the larger houses there was generally a garden;and in those which were without this, the dead walls in the rear werefrequently painted so as to imitate a garden. The houses of thewealthy Romans were decorated with the utmost magnificence: marblecolumns, mosaic pavements, and charming pieces of sculpture adornedtheir apartments, and the walls were in all cases richly painted (Fig. 143), being divided into panels, in the centre of which wererepresented sometimes human figures, sometimes landscapes, andsometimes pictures of historical events. All the decoration of Romanhouses was internal only: the largest and most sumptuous mansion hadlittle to distinguish it, next the street, from a comparatively humbleabode; and, with the exception of the space required for the vestibuleand entrance doorway, nearly the whole of the side of the house nextthe street was most frequently appropriated to shops. All that we areable to learn of the architecture of Roman private houses, whetherfrom contemporary descriptions or from the uncovered remains ofPompeii and Herculaneum, [27] points to the fact that it, even in agreater measure than the public architecture, was in no sense ofindigenous growth, but was simply a copy of Greek arrangement andGreek decoration. FOOTNOTES: [20] The passage in Varro, which is the sole authority for theBasilica Opimia, is generally considered to be corrupt. [21] Byron. [22] This does not occur in the Pompeian houses. [23] Marked _a_, _a_, on the plans. [24] Vitruvius, however, seems to use the terms _atrium_ and_cavædium_ as quite synonymous. [25] Marked respectively _c_, and _f_, _f_, on the plan of the Houseof Pansa. [26] Marked _b_, _b_, on the plans. [27] At the Crystal Palace can be seen an interesting reproduction ofa Pompeian house, which was designed by the late Sir Digby Wyatt. Itgives a very faithful reproduction of the arrangement and the size ofan average Pompeian house; and though every part is rather more fullycovered with decoration than was usual in the originals, thedecorations of each room faithfully reproduce the treatment of someoriginal in Pompeii or Herculaneum. [Illustration: FIG. 144. --CARVING FROM THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. ] CHAPTER X. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. _Analysis. _ _The Plan_ (_or floor-disposition_). --The plans of Roman buildings arestriking from their variety and the vast extent which in some casesthey display, as well as from a certain freedom, mastery, and facilityof handling which are not seen in earlier work. Their variety ispartly due to the very various purposes which the buildings of theRomans were designed to serve: these comprised all to which Greekbuildings had been appropriated, and many others, the product of thecomplex and luxurious civilisation of the Empire. But independent ofthis circumstance, the employment of such various forms in the plansof buildings as the ellipse, the circle, and the octagon, and theirfacile use, seem to denote a people who could build rapidly, and wholooked carefully to the general masses and outlines of what theybuilt, however carelessly they handled the minute details. The freedomwith which these new forms were employed arises partly also from thefact that the Romans were in possession of a system of constructionwhich rendered them practically independent of most of therestrictions which had fettered the genius of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Greeks. Their vaulted roofs could be supported by acomparatively small number of piers of great solidity, placed farapart; and accordingly in the great halls of the Thermæ and elsewherewe find planning in which, a few stable points of support beingsecured, the outline of the spaces between them is varied at thepleasure of the architect in the most picturesque and pleasing manner. The actual floor received a good deal of attention from the Romans. Itwas generally covered with tesselated pavement, often with mosaic, andits treatment entered into the scheme of the design for mostinteriors. _The Walls. _ The construction of these was essentially different from that adoptedby most earlier nations. The Romans rather avoided than cultivated theuse of large blocks of stone; they invented methods by which verysmall materials could be aggregated together into massive and solidwalls. They used mortar of great cementing power, so much so that manyspecimens of Roman walling exist in this country as well as in Italyor France, where the mortar is as hard as the stones which it unites. They also employed a system of binding together the small materials soemployed by introducing, at short distances apart, courses of flatstones or bricks, called "bond courses, " and they further fortifiedsuch walls by bands of flat materials placed edgeways after the mannerpopularly known as herring-bone work. The result of these methods ofconstruction was that the Roman architect could build anywhere, nomatter how unpromising the materials which the locality afforded; thathe could put the walls of his building together without its beingrequisite to employ exclusively the skilled labour of the mason, andthat both time and expense were thus saved. This economy and speedwere not pushed so far as to render the work anything but durable;they had, however, a bad effect in another direction, for these roughrubble walls were habitually encased in some more sightly material, inorder to make them look as though they were something finer than theyreally were; and accordingly, the exterior was often faced with a thinskin of masonry, and not infrequently plastered. The interior was alsoalmost invariably plastered, but to this little exception can betaken. This casing of the exteriors was, however, the beginning of asystem of what may be called false architecture, and one which led tomuch that was degrading to the art. The walls were in many cases, it has been already observed, gatheredinto strong masses, such as it is customary to term piers, in order tosupport the vaulted roofs at the proper points. They were oftencarried to a much greater height than in Greek buildings, and theyplayed altogether a far more important part in the design of Romanbuildings than they had done in that of the Greeks. _The Roofs. _ As has been already stated, the Romans, in their possession of a newsystem of construction, enjoyed a degree of freedom which was unknownbefore. This system was based upon the use of the arch, and archedroofs and domes, and it enabled the Romans to produce interiorsunapproached before for size and splendour, and such as have hardlybeen surpassed since, except by the vaulted churches of the MiddleAges, --buildings which are themselves descended from Roman originals. The art of vaulting was, in short, the key to the whole system ofRoman architecture, just as the Orders were to that of the Greeks. The well-known arch over the Cloaca Maxima at Rome (Fig. 123, p. 142)may be taken as an illustration of the most ancient and most simplekind of vault, the one which goes by the significant name of "barrelor waggon-head vault. " This is simply a continuous arched vaultspringing from the top of two parallel walls; in fact, like the archof a railway tunnel. Such a vault may be constructed of very greatspan, and affords a means of putting a permanent roof over a floor theoutline of which is a parallelogram; but it is heavy and uninterestingin appearance. It was soon found to be possible to introduce a crossvault running at right angles to the original one; and where such anintersecting vault occurs the side walls of the original vault may bedispensed with, for so much of their length as the newly-added vaultspans. The next step was to introduce a succession of such cross vaults closeto one another, so that large portions of the original main wall mightbe dispensed with. What remained of the side walls was now only aseries of oblong masses or piers, suitably fortified so as to carrythe great weight resting upon them, but leaving the architect free tooccupy the space between them as his fancy might dictate, or to leaveit quite open. In this way were constructed the great halls of theThermæ; and the finest halls of modern classic architecture--such, forexample, as the Madeleine at Paris, or St. George's Hall atLiverpool--are only a reproduction of the splendid structures whichsuch a system of vaulting rendered possible. When the floor of the space to be vaulted was circular, the result ofcovering it with an arched roof was the dome--a familiar feature ofRoman architecture, and the noblest of all forms of roof. We possessin the dome of the Pantheon a specimen, in fairly good preservation, of this kind of roof on the grandest scale. We shall find that in later ages the dome and the vault were adoptedby the Eastern and the Western schools of Christian architecturerespectively. In Rome we have the origin of both. _The Openings. _ These were both square-headed and arched; but the arched ones occurfar more frequently than the others, and, when occasion required, could be far bolder. The openings became of much greater importancethan in earlier styles, and soon disputed with the columns the dignityof being the feature of the building: this eventually led, as will berelated under the next head, to various devices for the fusion of thetwo. The adoption of the arch by the Romans led to a great modification inclassic architecture; for its influence was to be traced in every partof the structure where an opening of any sort had to be spanned. Formerly the width of such openings was very limited, owing to thedifficulty of obtaining lintels of great length. Now their width andheight were pure matters of choice, and doorways, windows, and arcadesnaturally became very prominent, and were often very spacious. _The Columns. _ These necessarily took an altered place as soon as buildings werecarried to such a height that one order could not, as in Greektemples, occupy the whole space from pavement to roof. The Greekorders were modified by the Romans in order to fit these alteredcircumstances, but columnar construction was by no means disused whenthe arch came to play so important a part in building. The Roman Doricorder, and a very simple variety of it called Tuscan, were but rarelyused. The chief alteration from the Greek Doric, in addition to ageneral degradation of all the mouldings and proportions, was theaddition of a base, which sometimes consists of a square plinth andlarge torus, sometimes is a slightly modified Attic base; the capitalhas a small moulding round the top of the abacus, and under the ovoloare two or three small fillets with a necking below; the shaft wasfrom 6 to 7 diameters in height, and was not fluted; the frieze wasornamented with triglyphs, and the metopes between these werefrequently enriched with sculptured heads of bulls: the metopes wereexact squares, and the triglyphs at the angles of buildings wereplaced precisely over the centre of the column. The Ionic order was but slightly modified by the Romans, the chiefalteration being made in the capital. Instead of forming the angularvolutes so that they exhibited a flat surface on the two oppositesides of the capital, the Romans appear to have desired to make thelatter uniform on all the four sides; they therefore made the sides ofthe abacus concave on plan, and arranged the volutes so that theyseemed to spring out of the mouldings under the abacus and facedanglewise. The capital altogether seems compressed and crowded up, and by no means elegant; in fact, both this and the Doric order weredecidedly deteriorations from the fine forms of Greek architecture. [Illustration: FIG. 145. --ROMAN CORINTHIAN CAPITAL AND BASE FROM THE TEMPLE OF VESTA AT TIVOLI. ] [Illustration: FIG. 145a. --THE ROMAN COMPOSITE CAPITAL. ] The Corinthian order was much more in accordance with the later Romantaste for magnificence and display, and hence we find its use verygeneral both in Rome and in other cities of the Empire. Itsproportions did not greatly differ from those of the Greek Corinthian, but the mouldings in general were more elaborate. Numerous variationsof the capital exist (Figs. 145, 145a), but the principal one was anamalgamation of the large Ionic volutes in the upper with the acanthusleaves of the lower portion of the capital: this is known as theComposite order, and the capital thus treated has a strength andvigour which was wanting to the Greek order (see Fig. 145a). Theshafts of the columns were more often fluted than not, thoughsometimes the lower portion was left plain and the upper only fluted. The Attic base was generally used, but an example has been found of anadaptation of the graceful Persepolitan base to the Corinthian column. This was the happiest innovation that the Romans made; it seems, however, to have been but an individual attempt, and, as it wasintroduced very shortly before the fall of the Empire, the idea wasnot worked out. The orders thus changed were employed for the most part as meredecorative additions to the walls. In many cases they did not evencarry the eaves of the roof, as they always did in a Greek temple; andit was not uncommon for two, three, or more orders to be used oneabove another, marking the different stories of a lofty building. The columns, or pilasters which took their place, being reduced to thehumble function of ornaments added to the wall of a building, itbecame very usual to combine them with arched openings, and to put anarch in the interspace between two columns, or, in other words, to adda column to the pier between two arches (Fig. 146). These archedopenings being often wide, a good deal of disproportion between theheight of the columns and their distance apart was liable to occur;and, partly to correct this, the column was often mounted upon apedestal, to which the name of "stylobate" has been given. It was also sometimes customary to place above the order, or thehighest order where more than one was employed, what was termed anattic--a low story ornamented with piers or pilasters. The exterior ofthe Colosseum (Fig. 5), the triumphal arches of Constantine (Fig. 139)and Titus, and the fragments of the upper part of the Forum of Nerva(Fig. 147) may be consulted as illustrations of the combination of anorder and an arched opening, and of the use of pedestals and attics. [Illustration: FIG. 146. --PART OF THE THEATRE OF MARCELLUS, ROME. SHOWING THE COMBINATION OF COLUMNS AND ARCHED OPENINGS. ] [Illustration: FIG. 147. --FROM THE RUINS OF THE FORUM OF NERVA, ROME. SHOWING THE USE OF AN ATTIC STORY. WITH PLAN. ] Another peculiarity, of which we give an illustration from the bathsof Diocletian (Fig. 148), was the surmounting a column or pilasterwith a square pillar of stone, moulded in the same way as anentablature, _i. E. _ with the regular division into architrave, frieze, and cornice. This was a decided perversion of the use of the order;it occurs in examples of late date. So also do various otherarrangements for making an arch spring from the capital of a column;one of these, from the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, we are ableto illustrate (Fig. 149). [Illustration: FIG. 148. --FROM THE BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, ROME. SHOWING A FRAGMENTARY ENTABLATURE AT THE STARTING OF PART OF A VAULT. ] [Illustration: FIG. 149. --FROM THE PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN, SPALATRO. SHOWING AN ARCH SPRINGING FROM A COLUMN. ] In conclusion, it may be worth while to say that the Roman writers andarchitects recognised five orders: the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite, the first and last in this list being, however, really only variations; and that when they placed theorders above one another, they invariably used those of them whichthey selected in the succession in which they have been named; that isto say, the Tuscan or Doric lowest, and so on in succession. [Illustration: FIG. 150. --MOULDINGS AND ORNAMENTS FROM VARIOUS ROMAN BUILDINGS. ] _The Ornaments. _ [Illustration: FIG. 151. --ROMAN CARVING. AN ACANTHUS LEAF. ] [Illustration: FIG. 152. --THE EGG AND DART ENRICHMENT. ROMAN. ] The mouldings with which Roman buildings are ornamented are allderived from Greek originals, but are often extremely rough andcoarse. It is true that in some old Roman work, especially in those ofthe tombs which are executed in marble, mouldings of considerabledelicacy and refinement of outline occur, but these are exceptional. The profiles of the mouldings are, as a rule, segments of circles, instead of being more subtle curves, and the result is that violentcontrasts of light and shade are obtained, telling enough at adistance, but devoid of interest if the spectator come near. [Illustration: FIG. 153. --WALL DECORATION OF (SO-CALLED) ARABESQUE CHARACTER FROM POMPEII. ] Carving is executed exactly on the same principles as those whichgovern the mouldings--that is to say, with much more coarseness thanin Greek work; not lacking in vigour, or in a sort of ostentatiousopulence of ornament, but often sadly deficient in refinement andgrace. Statues, many of them copies of Greek originals, generally executedwith a heavy hand, but sometimes clearly of Greek work, were employed, as well as bronzes, inlaid marbles, mosaics, and various devices toornament the interiors of Greco-Roman buildings; and free use was madeof ornamental plaster-work, both on walls and vaults. Coloured decoration was much in vogue, and, to judge from what hascome down to us, must have been executed with great taste and muchspirit. The walls of a Roman dwelling-house of importance seem to havebeen all painted, partly with that light kind of decoration to whichthe somewhat inappropriate name of arabesque has been given, andpartly with groups or single figures, relieved by dark or blackbackgrounds. The remains of the Palace of the Cæsars in Rome, much ofit not now accessible, and the decorations visible at Pompeii, give ahigh idea of the skill with which this mural ornamentation wasexecuted; our illustration (Fig. 154) may be taken as affording a goodexample of the combined decorations in relief and colour often appliedto vaulted ceilings. It is, however, characteristic of the lower level at which Roman artstood as compared with Greek that, though statues abounded, we find notraces of groups of sculpture designed to occupy the pediments oftemples, or of bas-reliefs fitted to special localities in thebuildings, such as were all but universal in the best Greek works. _Architectural Character. _ The nature of this will have been to a large extent gathered from theobservations already made. Daring, energy, readiness, structuralskill, and a not too fastidious taste were characteristic of the Romanarchitect and his works. We find traces of vast spaces covered, boldconstruction successfully and solidly carried out, conveniencestudied, and a great deal of magnificence attained in those buildingsthe remains of which have come down to us; but we do not discoverrefinement or elegance, a fine feeling for proportion, or a closeattention to details, to a degree at all approaching the extent towhich these qualities are to be met with in Greek buildings. We arethus sometimes tempted to regret that it was not possible to combine ahigher degree of refinement with the great excellence in constructionand contrivance exhibited by Roman architecture. [Illustration: FIG. 154. --DECORATION IN RELIEF AND COLOUR OF THE VAULT OF A TOMB IN THE VIA LATINA, NEAR ROME. ] [Illustration: FIG. 155. --BASILICA-CHURCH OF SAN MINIATO, FLORENCE. ] CHAPTER XI. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. _Basilicas in Rome and Italy. _ During the first three centuries the Christian religion wasdiscredited and persecuted; and though many interesting memorials ofthis time (some of them having an indirect bearing upon architecturalquestions) remain in the Catacombs, it is chiefly for their paintingsthat the touching records of the past which have been preserved to usin these secluded excavations should be studied. Early in the fourthcentury Constantine the Great became Emperor, and in the course of hisreign (from A. D. 312 to 337) he recognised Christianity, and made itthe religion of the State. It then, of course, became requisite toprovide places of public worship. Probably the Christians would havebeen, in many cases, reluctant to make use of heathen temples, and fewtemples, if any, were adapted to the assembling of a largecongregation. But the large halls of the baths and the basilicas werefree from associations of an objectionable character, and well fittedfor large assemblages of worshippers. These and other such places wereaccordingly, in the first instance, employed as Christian churches. The basilica, however, became the model which, at least in Italy, wasfollowed, to the exclusion of all others, when new buildings wereerected for the purpose of Christian worship; and during the fourthcentury, and several succeeding ones, the churches of the West wereall of the basilica type. What occurred at Constantinople, the seat ofthe Eastern Empire and the centre of the Eastern Church, will beconsidered presently. There is probably no basilica actually standing which was built duringthe reign of Constantine, or near his time; but there are severalbasilica churches in Rome, such as that of San Clemente, which werefounded near his time, and which, though they have been partially orwholly rebuilt, exhibit what is believed to be the ancient dispositionwithout modification. [Illustration: FIG. 156. --INTERIOR OF A BASILICA AT POMPEII. _Restored, from descriptions by various authors. _] Access is obtained to San Clemente through a forecourt to which thename of the atrium is given. This is very much like the atrium of aRoman house, being covered with a shed roof round all four sides andopen in the centre, and so resembling a cloister. The side next thechurch was called the narthex or porch; and when an atrium did notexist, a narthex at least was usually provided. The basilica hasalways a central avenue, or nave, and sides or aisles, and wasgenerally entered from the narthex by three doors, one to eachdivision. The nave of San Clemente is lofty, and covered by a simplewooden roof; it is separated from the side aisles by arcades, thearches of which spring from the capitals of columns; and high up inits side walls we find windows. The side aisles, like the nave, havewooden roofs. The nave terminates in a semicircular recess called "theapse, " the floor of which is higher than that of the generalstructure, and is approached by steps. A large arch divides this apsefrom the nave. A portion of the nave floor is occupied by an enclosedspace for the choir, surrounded by marble screens, and having a pulpiton either side of it. These pulpits are termed "ambos. " Below theChurch of San Clemente is a vaulted structure or crypt extending underthe greater part, but not the whole, of the floor of the mainbuilding. The description given above would apply, with very slight variations, to any one of the many ancient basilica churches in Rome, Milan, Ravenna, and the other older cities of Italy; the principal variationsbeing that in many instances, including the very ancient basilica ofSt. Peter, now destroyed, the avenues all stopped short of the endwall of the basilica, and a wide and clear transverse space ortransept ran athwart them in front of the apse. San Clemente indeedshows some faint traces of such a feature. In one or two very largechurches five avenues occur, --that is to say, a nave and doubleaisles; and in Santa Agnese (Fig. 156a) and at least one other, wefind a gallery over the side aisles opening into the nave, or, as Mr. Fergusson puts it, "the side aisles in two stories. " In many instanceswe should find no atrium, but in all cases we meet with the nave andaisles, and the apse at the end of the nave, with its arch and itselevated floor; and the entrances are always at the end of thebuilding farthest from the apse, with some sort of porch or portal. [Illustration: FIG. 156a. --BASILICA, OR EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH OF SANTA AGNESE AT ROME. ] The interest of these buildings lies not so much in their venerableantiquity as in the fact that the arrangements of all Christianchurches in Western Europe down to the Reformation, and of very manysince, are directly derived from these originals. If the reader willrefer to the description of a Gothic cathedral in the companion volumeof this series, [28] it will not be difficult for him to trace thecorrespondence between its plan and its general structure and those ofthe primitive basilica. The atrium no longer forms the access to acathedral, but it still survives in the cloister, though in a changedposition. The narthex or porch is still more or less traceable in thegreat western portals, and in a kind of separation which often, butnot always, exists between the westernmost bay of a cathedral and therest of the structure. The division into nave and aisles remains, andin very large churches and cathedrals there are double aisles, asthere were in the largest basilicas. The nave roof is still higherthan the aisles--the arcade, in two stories, survives in the usualarcade and triforium; the windows placed high in the nave are thepresent clerestory. The apsidal termination of the central avenue isstill retained in almost all Continental architecture, though in GreatBritain, from an early date, it was abandoned for a square east end;but square-ended or apsidal, a recess with a raised floor and aconspicuous arch, marking it off from the nave, always occupies thisend of the church; and the under church, or crypt, is commonly, thoughnot always, met with. The enclosure for the choir has, generallyspeaking, been moved farther east than it was in the basilicachurches; though in Westminster Abbey, and in most Spanish cathedrals, we have examples of its occupying a position closely analogous to thatof the corresponding enclosure at the basilica of San Clemente. Thecross passage to which we have referred as having existed in the oldbasilica of St. Peter, and many others, is the original of thetransept which in later churches has been made more conspicuous thanit was in the basilica by being lengthened so as to project beyond theside walls of the church, and by being moved more westward. Lastly, the two ambos, or pulpits, survive in two senses. They are representedby the reading desk and the pulpit, and their situation and purposeare continued in the epistle and gospel sides of the choir. The one point in which an essential difference occurs is the positionof the altar, or communion table, and that of the Bishop's chair, orthrone. In the classic basilica the apse was the tribunal, and araised seat with a tesselated pavement occupied the central positionin it, and was the justice-seat of the presiding judge; and in thesweep of the apse, seats right and left, at a lower elevation, wereprovided for assessors or assistant-judges. In front of the presidentwas placed a small altar. The whole of these arrangements were copiedin the basilica churches. The seat of the president became thebishop's throne, the seats for assessors were appropriated to theclergy, and the altar retained substantially its old position in frontof the apse, generally with a canopy erected over it. This dispositioncontinues in basilica churches to the present day. At St. Peter's inRome, for example, the Pope occupies a throne in the middle of theapse, and says mass with his face turned towards the congregation atthe high altar, which stands in front of his throne under a vastbaldacchino or canopy; but in Western Christendom generally a changehas been made, --the altar has been placed in the apse where thebishop's throne formerly stood, and the throne of the bishop andstalls of his clergy have been displaced, and are to be found at thesides of the choir or presbytery. [Illustration: FIG. 157. --SANT' APOLLINARE, RAVENNA. PART OF THE ARCADE AND APSE. ] Many basilica churches were erected out of fragments taken from olderbuildings, and present a curious mixture of columns, capitals, &c. ;others, especially those at Ravenna, exhibit more care, and are noblespecimens of ancient and severe architectural work. The illustrationwhich we give of part of the nave, arcade, and apse of one of these, Sant' Apollinare in Classe, shows the dignified yet ornate aspect ofone of the most carefully executed of these buildings (Fig. 157). In some of these churches the decorations are chiefly in mosaic, andare extremely striking. Our illustration of the apse of the greatbasilica of St. Paul without the walls (Fig. 158) may be taken as afair specimen of the general arrangement and treatment of the crowd ofsacred figures and subjects which it is customary to represent inthese situations; but it can of course convey no idea of the brillianteffect produced by powerful colouring executed in mosaic, the mostluminous of all methods of enrichment. The floor of most of them wasformed in the style of mosaic known as "opus Alexandrinum, " and thelarge sweeping, curved bands of coloured material with which the mainoutlines of the patterns are defined, and the general harmony ofcolour among the porphyries and other hard stones with which thesepavements were executed, combine to satisfy the eye. A splendidspecimen of opus Alexandrinum, the finest north of the Alps, exists inthe presbytery of Westminster Abbey. [Illustration: FIG. 158. --APSE OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL WITHOUT THE WALLS, ROME. ] Another description of building is customarily met with in connectionwith early Christian churches, --the baptistery. This is commonly adetached building, and almost always circular or polygonal. In someinstances the baptistery adjoins the atrium or forecourt; but it soonbecame customary to erect detached baptisteries of considerable size. These generally have a high central portion carried by a ring ofcolumns, and a low aisle running round, the receptacle for water beingin the centre. The origin of these buildings is not so clear as thatof the basilica churches; they bear some resemblance to the Romancircular temples; but it is more probable that the form was suggestedby buildings similar in general arrangement, and forming part of aRoman bath. The octagonal building known as the baptistery ofConstantine, and the circular building now used as a church anddedicated to Santa Costanza in Rome, and the celebrated baptistery ofRavenna, are early examples of this class of structure. Somewhat morerecent, and very well known, are the great baptisteries of Florenceand Pisa. A few ancient circular or polygonal churches remain which do notappear to have been built as baptisteries. One of these is at Rome, the church of San Stefano Rotondo; but another, more remarkable inevery way, is at Ravenna, the church of San Vitale. This is anoctagonal building, with a large vestibule and a small apsidal choir. The central portion, carried by eight arches springing from as manylofty and solid piers, and surmounted by a hemispherical dome, riseshigh above the aisle which surrounds it. Much elegance is produced bythe arrangement of smaller columns so as to form a kind of apsidalrecess in each of the interspaces between the eight main piers. Another feature which has become thoroughly identified with churcharchitecture is the bell-tower, or campanile. This appendage, therecan be no doubt, originated with the basilicas of Italy. The use ofbells as a call to prayer is said to have been introduced not later, at any rate, than the sixth century, and to this era is attributed acircular campanile belonging to Sant' Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna, a basilica already alluded to. The circular plan was, however, exceptional; the ancient campaniles remaining in Rome are all square;they are usually built of brick, many stories in height, and with agroup of arched openings in each story, and are generally surmountedby a low conical roof. The type of church which we have described influenced churcharchitecture in Italy down to the eleventh century, and such buildingsas the beautiful church (Fig. 155) of San Miniato, near Florence (A. D. 1013), and the renowned group of Cathedral, Baptistery, Campanile, andCampo Santo (a kind of cloistered cemetery) at Pisa, bear a verystrong resemblance in many respects to these originals; though theybelong rather to the Romanesque than to the Basilican division ofearly Christian architecture. FOOTNOTE: [28] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture, ' chap. Ii. P. 6. [Illustration: FIG. 158a. --FRIEZE FROM THE MONASTERY AT FULDA. ] CHAPTER XII. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. Constantine the Great, who by establishing the Christian religion hadencouraged the erection of basilicas for Christian worship in Rome andItaly, effected a great political change, and one destined to exert amarked influence upon Christian architecture, when he removed the seatof empire from Rome to Byzantium, and called the new capitalConstantinople, [29] after his own name. Byzantium had been an ancientplace, but was almost in ruins when Constantine, probably attracted bythe unrivalled advantages of its site, [30] rebuilt it, or at leastre-established it as a city. The solemn inauguration of Constantinopleas the new capital took place A. D. 330; and when, under Theodosius, the empire was divided, this city became the capital of the East. With a new point of departure among a people largely of Greek race, we might expect that a new development of the church from some othertype than the basilica might be likely to show itself. This, in fact, is what occurred; for while the most ancient churches of Rome allpresent, as we have seen, an almost slavish copy of an existing typeof building, and do not attempt the use of vaulted roofs, in Byzantiumbuildings of most original design sprang up, founded, it is true, onRoman originals, but by no means exact copies of them. In the erectionof these churches the most difficult problems of construction weresuccessfully encountered and solved. What may have been the coursewhich architecture ran during the two centuries between the refoundingof Byzantium and the building of Santa Sophia under Justinian, we can, however, only infer from its outcome. It is doubtful if any churcholder than the sixth century now remains in Constantinople; but it iscertain that, to attain the power of designing and erecting so great awork as Santa Sophia, the architects of Constantinople must havecontinued and largely modified the Roman practice of building vaultsand domes. There is every probability that if some of the earlychurches in Byzantium were domed structures others may have beenvaulted basilicas; the more so as the very ancient churches in Syria, which owed their origin to Byzantium rather than to Rome, are most ofthem of the basilica type. [Illustration: FIG. 159. --CHURCH OF SANTA SOPHIA AT CONSTANTINOPLE. LONG SECTION. BUILT UNDER JUSTINIAN BY ANTHEMIOS AND ISIDOROS. COMPLETED A. D. 537. ] A church which had been erected by Constantine, dedicated to SantaSophia (holy wisdom), was burnt early in the reign of Justinian (A. D. 527 to 565); and in rebuilding it his architects, Anthemios ofThralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, succeeded in erecting one of themost famous buildings of the world, and one which is the typical andcentral embodiment of a distinct and very strongly markedwell-defined style. The basis of this style may be said to be theadoption of the dome, in preference to the vault or the timber roof, as the covering of the space enclosed within the walls; with theresult that the general disposition of the plan is circular or square, rather than oblong, and that the structure recalls the Pantheon morethan the great Hall of the Thermæ of Diocletian, or the Basilica ofSt. Paul. In Santa Sophia one vast flattish dome dominates the centralspace. This dome is circular in plan, and the space over which it isplaced is a square, the sides of which are occupied by four massivesemicircular arches of 100 ft. Span each, springing from four vastpiers, one at each of the four corners. The four triangular spacesbetween the corners of the square so enclosed and the circle or ringresting upon it are filled by what are termed "pendentives"--featureswhich may, perhaps, be best described as portions of a dome, each justsufficient to fit into one corner of the square, and the four unitingat their upper margin to form a ring. From this ring springs the maindome. It rises to a height of 46 ft. , and is 107 ft. In cleardiameter. East and west of the main dome are two half-domes, eachspringing from a wall apsidal (_i. E. _ semicircular) in plan. Smallerapses again, domed over at a lower level, are introduced, and vaultedaisles two stories in height occupy the sides of the space within theouter walls till the outline of the building is brought to very nearlyan exact square. Externally this church is uninteresting, [31] but itsinterior is of surpassing beauty, and can be better described in theeloquent language of Gilbert Scott[32] than in any other: "Simple asis the primary ideal, the actual effect is one of great intricacy, andof continuous gradation of parts, from the small arcades up to thestupendous dome, which hangs with little apparent support like a vastbubble over the centre, or as Procopius, who witnessed its erection, described it, 'as if suspended by a chain from heaven. ' "The dome is lighted by forty small windows, which pierce itimmediately above the cornice which crowns its pendentives, and which, by subdividing its lower part into narrow piers, increases the feelingof its being supported by its own buoyancy. "The interior thus generated, covered almost wholly by domes, orportions of them, each rising in succession higher and higher towardsthe floating hemisphere in the centre, and so arranged that one shallopen out the view to others, and that nearly the entire system ofvaulting may be viewed at a single glance, appears to me to be in somerespects the noblest which has ever been designed, as it was certainlythe most daring which, up to that time at least, if not absolutely, had ever been constructed. " After pointing out how the smaller arcadesand apsidal projections, and the vistas obtained through the variousarched openings, introduced intricate effects of perspective andconstant changes of aspect, Scott continues: "This union of the morepalpable with the more mysterious, of the vast unbroken expanse withthe intricately broken perspective, must, as it appears to me, and asI judge from representations, produce an impression more astoundingthan that of almost any other building: but when we consider the wholeas clothed with the richest beauties of surface, --its piers encrustedwith inlaid marbles of every hue, its arcades of marble gorgeouslycarved, its domes and vaultings resplendent with gold mosaicinterspersed with solemn figures, and its wide-spreading floors richwith marble tesselation, over which the buoyant dome floatsself-supported, and seems to sail over you as you move, --I cannotconceive of anything more astonishing, more solemn, and moremagnificent. " The type of church of which this magnificent cathedral was the greatexample has continued in Eastern Christendom to the present day, andhas undergone surprisingly little variation. A certain distinctivecharacter in the foliage (Fig. 163) employed in capitals and otherdecorative carving, and mosaics of splendid colour but somewhat gauntand archaic design, though often solemn and dignified, were typical ofthe work of Justinian's day, and could long afterwards be recognisedin Eastern Christian churches. Between Rome and Constantinople, and well situated for receivinginfluence from both those cities, stood Ravenna, and here a series ofbuildings, all more or less Byzantine, were erected. The mostinteresting of these is the church of San Vitale (Figs. 160, 161). This building is octagonal in plan, and thus belongs to the series ofround and polygonal churches and baptisteries for which the circularbuildings of the Romans furnished a model; but in its high centraldome, lighted by windows placed high up, its many subsidiary arcadesand apses, the latter roofed by half-domes, and its vaulted aisles intwo stories, it recalls Santa Sophia; and its sculpture, carving, andmosaic decorations are hardly less famous and no less characteristic. [Illustration: FIG. 160. --PLAN OF SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. ] [Illustration: FIG. 161. --SAN VITALE AT RAVENNA. LONGITUDINAL SECTION. ] One magnificent specimen of Byzantine architecture, more within thereach of ordinary travellers, and consequently better known than SanVitale or Santa Sophia, must not be omitted, and can be studied easilyby means of numberless photographic illustrations--St. Mark's atVenice. This cathedral was built between the years 977-1071, and, itis said, according to a design obtained from Constantinople. It hassince been altered in external appearance by the erection of bulbousdomical roofs over its domes, and by additions of florid Gothiccharacter; but, disregarding these, we have alike in plan, structure, and ornament, a Byzantine church of the first class. [Illustration: FIG. 162. --PLAN OF ST. MARK'S AT VENICE. ] The ground-plan of St. Mark's (Fig. 162) presents a Greek cross, _i. E. _ one in which all the arms are equal, and it is roofed by fiveprincipal domes, one at the crossing and one over each of the fourlimbs of the cross. Aisles at a low level, and covered by a series ofsmall flat domes, in lieu of vaulting, fill up the angles between thearms of the cross, so as to make the outline of the plan nearlysquare. The rich colouring of St. Mark's, due to a profuse employment ofmosaics and of the most costly marbles, and the splendid effectsproduced by the mode of introducing light, which is admitted much asat Santa Sophia, are perhaps its greatest charm; but there is beautyin every aspect of its interior which has furnished a fit theme forthe pen of the most eloquent writer on art and architecture of thepresent or perhaps of any day. From Venice the influence of Byzantine art spread to a small extent inNorth Italy; in that city herself as well as in neighbouring towns, such as Padua, buildings and fragments of buildings exhibiting thecharacteristics of the style can be found. Remarkable traces of theinfluence of Byzantium as a centre, believed to be due to intercoursewith Venice, can also be found in France. Direct communication withConstantinople by way of the Mediterranean has also introducedByzantine taste into Sicily. One famous French church, St. Front inPérigueux, is identical (or nearly so) with St. Mark's in its plan;but all its constructive arches being pointed (Fig. 3, page 5), itsgeneral appearance differs a good deal from that of Easternchurches--a difference which is accentuated by the absence of themosaics and other coloured ornaments which enrich the walls of St. Mark's. Many very old domed churches and much sculpture of theByzantine type are moreover to be found in Central and SouthernFrance--Anjou, Aquitaine, and Auvergne. These are, however, isolatedexamples of the style having taken root in spite of adversecircumstances; it is in those parts of Europe where the Greek Churchprevails, or did prevail, that Byzantine architecture chieflyflourishes. In Greece and Asia Minor many ancient churches ofByzantine structure remain, while in Russia churches are built to thepresent day corresponding to the general type of those which have justbeen described. [Illustration: FIG. 163. --FROM THE GOLDEN DOOR OF JERUSALEM. TIME OF JUSTINIAN. A. D. 560. ] [Illustration: FIG. 164. --CHURCH AT TURMANIN IN SYRIA. 4TH AND 5TH CENTURY. ] In ancient buildings of Syria the influence of both the Roman and theByzantine models can be traced. No more characteristic specimens ofByzantine foliage can be desired than some to be found in Palestine, as for example the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, which we illustrate(Fig. 163); but in the deserted cities of Central Syria a group ofexceptional and most interesting buildings, both secular and sacred, exists, which, as described by De Vogüé, [33] seem to display a freeand very original treatment based upon Roman more than Byzantineideas. We illustrate the exterior of one of these, the church atTurmanin (Fig. 164). This is a building divided into a nave and aislesand with a vestibule. Two low towers flank the central gable, and itwill be noticed that openings of depressed proportion, mostlysemicircular headed, and with the arches usually springing from squarepiers, mark the building; while the use made of columns stronglyresembles the manner in which in later times they were introduced bythe Gothic architects. [Illustration: FIG. 165. --TOWER OF A RUSSIAN CHURCH. ] FOOTNOTES: [29] _I. E. _ the City of Constantine. [30] "The edge of the world: the knot which links together East andWest; the centre in which all extremes combine, " was the notovercharged description given of Constantinople by one of her ownbishops. [31] For an illustration see Fig. 187. [32] 'Lectures on Mediæval Architecture. ' [33] 'Syrie Centrale. ' CHAPTER XIII. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE. The term Romanesque is here used to indicate a style of Christianarchitecture, founded on Roman art, which prevailed throughout WesternEurope from the close of the period of basilican architecture to therise of Gothic; except in those isolated districts where the influenceof Byzantium is visible. By some writers the significance of the wordis restricted within narrower limits; but excellent authorities can beadduced for the employment of it in the wide sense here indicated. Indeed some difficulty exists in deciding what shall and what shallnot be termed Romanesque, if any more restricted definition of itsmeaning is adopted; while under this general term, if applied broadly, many closely allied local varieties--as, for example, Lombard, Rhenish, Romance, Saxon, and Norman--can be conveniently included. The spectacle which Europe presented after the removal of the seat ofempire to Byzantium and the incursions of the Northern tribes wasmelancholy in the extreme. Nothing but the church retained anysemblance of organised existence; and when at last some kind of orderbegan to emerge from a chaos of universal ruin, and churches andmonastic buildings began to be built in Western Europe, all of themlooked to Rome, and not to Constantinople, as their commonecclesiastical centre. It is not surprising that, as soon asdifferences between the ritual of the Eastern and the Western Churchsprang up, a contrast between Eastern and Western architecture shouldestablish itself, and that the early structures of the many countrieswhere the Roman Church flourished never wandered far from the Romantype, with the exception of localities where circumstances favoureddirect intercourse with the East. The architecture of the EasternChurch, on the other hand, adhered quite as closely to the models ofByzantium. [Illustration: FIG. 166. --TOWER OF EARL'S BARTON CHURCH. ] The style, so far as is known, was for a long time almost, if notabsolutely, the same over a very large part of Western Christendom, and it has received from Mr. Freeman the appropriate designation ofPrimitive Romanesque. It was not till the tenth century, or later, that distinctive varieties began to make their appearance; and thoughthat which was built earlier than that date has, through rebuildingsand enlargements as well as natural decay, been in many cases sweptaway, still enough may be met with to show us what the buildings ofthat remote time were like. The churches are usually small, and have an apsidal east end. Theopenings are rude, with round-headed arches and small single ortwo-light windows, and the outer walls are generally marked by flatpilasters of very slight projection. Towers are common, and theopenings in them are often divided into two or more lights by rudecolumns. The plan of these churches was founded on the basilica type, but they do not exhibit the same internal arrangement; and it is verynoteworthy that many of them show marks of having been vaulted, or atleast partly vaulted; and not covered, as the basilicas usually were, by timber roofs. Even a country so remote as Great Britain possessedin the 10th century many buildings of Primitive Romanesque character;and in such Saxon churches as those of Worth, Brixworth, Dover, orBradford, and such towers as those of Earl's Barton (Fig. 166), Trinity Church Colchester, Barnack, or Sompting, we have specimens ofthe style remaining to the present day. By degrees, as buildings of greater extent and more ornament wereerected, the local varieties to which reference has been made began todevelop themselves. In Lombardy and North Italy, for example, aLombard Romanesque style can be recognised distinctly; here a seriesof churches were built, many of them vaulted, but not many of thelargest size. Most of them were on substantially the same plan as thebasilicas, though a considerable number of circular or polygonalchurches were also built. Sant' Ambrogio at Milan, and some of thechurches at Brescia, Pavia, and Lucca, may be cited as well-knownexamples of early date, and a little later the cathedrals of Parma, Modena, and Piacenza (Fig. 167), and San Zenone at Verona. Thesechurches are all distinguished by the free use of small ornamentalarches and narrow pilaster-strips externally, and the employment ofpiers with half-shafts attached to them, rather than columns, in thearcades; they have fine bell-towers; circular windows often occupythe gables, and very frequently the walls have been built of, orornamented with, coloured materials. The sculpture--grotesque, vigorous, and full of rich variety--which distinguishes many of thesebuildings, and which is to be found specially enriching the doorways, is of great interest, and began early to develop a character that isquite distinctive. [Illustration: FIG. 167. --CATHEDRAL AT PIACENZA. ] Turning to Germany, we find that a very strong resemblance existedbetween the Romanesque churches of that country and those of NorthItaly. At Aix-la-Chapelle a polygonal church exists, built byCharlemagne, and which tradition asserts was designed on the model ofSan Vitale at Ravenna. The resemblance is undoubted, but the Germanchurch is by no means an exact copy of Justinian's building. Earlyexamples of German Romanesque exist in the cathedrals of Mayence, Worms, and Spires, and a steady advance was made till a point wasreached (in the twelfth century) at which the style may be said tohave attained the highest development which Romanesque architecturereceived in any country of Europe. The arcaded ornament (the arches being very frequently open so as toform a real arcade) which was noticed as occurring in Lombardchurches, belongs also to German ones, though the secondary internalarcade (triforium) is absent from some of the early examples. Piersare used more frequently than columns in the interiors, and are oftenvery plain. From an early date the use of a western as well as aneastern apse seems to have been common in Germany, and high westernfaçades extending between two towers were features specially met within that country. For a notice and some illustrations of the latest andbest phase of German Romanesque, which may with propriety be termed"round-arched Gothic, " the reader is referred to the companion volumeof this series. [34] France exhibits more than one variety of Romanesque; for not only, asremarked in the chapter on Byzantine Art, is the influence of Greek orVenetian artists traceable in the buildings of certain districts, especially Périgueux, but it is clear that in others the existence offine examples of Roman architecture (Fig. 168) affected the design ofbuildings down to and during the eleventh century. This influence may, for example, be detected in the use, in the churches at Autun, Valence, and Avignon, of capitals, pilasters, and other featuresclosely resembling classic originals, and in the employment through agreat part of Central and Northern France of vaulted roofs. [Illustration: FIG. 168. --VAULTS OF THE EXCAVATED ROMAN BATHS, IN THE MUSÉE DE CLUNY, PARIS. ] A specially French feature is the chevet, a group of apsidal chapelswhich were built round the apse itself, and which combined with it tomake of the east end of a great cathedral a singularly rich and ornatecomposition. This feature, originating in Romanesque churches, wasretained in France through the whole of the Gothic period, and a goodexample of it may be seen in the large Romanesque church of St. Serninat Toulouse, which we illustrate (Fig. 169). The transepts wereusually well marked. The nave arcades generally sprang from piers(Fig. 170), more rarely from columns. Arches are constantly met withrecessed, _i. E. _ in receding planes, [35] the first stage of progresstowards a Gothic treatment, and are occasionally slightly moulded(Fig. 171). Western doorways are often highly enriched with sculpture;and the carving and sculpture generally, though often rude, are fullof vitality. Towers occur, usually square, more rarely octagonal. Window-lights are frequently grouped two or more under one arch. Capitals of a basket-shape, and with a square abacus, often richlysculptured, are employed. [Illustration: FIG. 169. --CHURCH OF ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. ] [Illustration: FIG. 170. --NAVE ARCADE AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. ] [Illustration: FIG. 171. --ARCHES IN RECEDING PLANES AT ST. SERNIN, TOULOUSE. ] In Normandy, and generally in the North of France, round-archedarchitecture was excellently carried out, and churches remarkable bothfor their extent and their great dignity and solidity were erected. Generally speaking, however, Norman architecture, especially as metwith in Normandy itself, is less ornate than the Romanesque ofSouthern France; in fact some of the best examples seem to suffer froma deficiency of ornament. The large and well-known churches at Caen, St. Etienne, otherwise the Abbaye aux Hommes--interesting toEnglishmen as having been founded by William the Conquerorimmediately after the Conquest--and the Trinité, or Abbaye aux Dames, are excellent examples of early Norman architecture, but the studentmust not forget that additions have been made to them, which, if theyadd to their beauty, at the same time alter their character. Forexample, in St. Etienne, the upper part of the western towers and thefine spires with which they are crowned were built subsequent to theoriginal structure, as was also, in all probability, the chevet, oreastern limb. It seems probable also that the vaulting may not be whatwas contemplated in the original plan. St. Etienne is 364 ft. Long, and is lofty in its proportions. It has anave and aisles, arcades resting on piers, and strongly-markedtransepts, and has two western towers with the gable of the navebetween them. The west front is well designed in three stories, havingstrongly-marked vertical divisions in the buttresses of the towers, and equally distinct horizontal divisions in the three doorways below, and two ranges of windows, each of five lights, above. There is nocircular west window. The nave and aisles are vaulted. Besides other cathedral churches, such for example as those of Bayeuxand Evreux, in which considerable parts of the original structuresremain, there exist throughout Normandy and Brittany many parochialchurches and monastic buildings, exhibiting, at least in some portionsof their structure, the same characteristics as those of St. Etienne;and it is clear that an immense number of buildings, the beauty andeven refinement of which are conspicuous, must have been erected inNorthern France during the eleventh and the early years of the twelfthcenturies, the period to which Norman architecture in France may besaid to belong. In Great Britain, as has been already pointed out, enough traces ofSaxon--that is to say, Primitive Romanesque--architecture remain toshow that many simple, though comparatively rude, buildings must havebeen erected previous to the Norman Conquest. Traces exist also of aninfluence which the rapid advance that had been made by the art ofbuilding as practised in Normandy was exerting in our island. Thebuildings at Westminster Abbey raised by Edward the Confessor, thoughthey have been almost all rebuilt, have left just sufficient tracesbehind to enable us to recognise that they were of bold design. Theplan of the Confessor's church was laid out upon a scale almost aslarge as that of the present structure. The monastic buildings wereextensive. The details of the work were, some of them, refined anddelicate, and resembled closely those employed in Norman buildings atthat time. Thus it appears that, even had the Conquest not takenplace, no small influence would have been exerted upon buildings inEngland by the advance then being made in France; but instead of agradual improvement being so produced, a sudden and rapid revolutionwas effected by the complete conquest of the country and itsoccupation by nobles and ecclesiastics from Normandy, who, enriched bythe plunder of the conquered country, were eager to establishthemselves in permanent buildings. Shortly after the Conquest distinctive features began to showthemselves. Norman architecture in England soon became essentiallydifferent from what it was in Normandy, and we possess in this countrya large series of fine works showing the growth of this importedstyle, from the early simplicity of the chapel in the Tower of Londonto such elaboration as that of the later parts of Durham Cathedral. The number of churches founded or rebuilt soon after the NormanConquest must have been enormous, for in examining churches of everydate and in every part of England it is common to find some fragmentof Norman work remaining from a former church: this is very frequentlya doorway left standing or built into walls of later date: and, inaddition to these fragments, no small number of churches, and morethan one cathedral, together with numerous castles, remain in whole orin part as they were erected by the original builders. Norman architecture is considered to have prevailed in England formore than a century; that is to say, from the Conquest (1066) to theaccession of Richard I. (1189). For some details of the marks by whichNorman work can be recognised the reader is referred to the companionvolume;[36] we propose here to give an account of the broadercharacteristics of the buildings erected during the prevalence of thestyle. * * * * * The oldest remaining parts of Canterbury Cathedral are specimens ofNorman architecture executed in England immediately after theConquest. This great church was rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc (whoseepiscopate lasted from 1070 to 1089), and in extent as laid out by himwas very nearly identical with the existing structure; almost everyportion has, however, been rebuilt, so that of his work only thetowers forming transepts to the choir, and some other fragments, nowremain. More complete and equally ancient is the chapel in the Towerof London, which consists of a small apsidal church with nave andaisles, vaulted throughout, and in excellent preservation. Thisbuilding, though very charming, is almost destitute of ornament. Alittle more ornate, and still a good example of early Norman, is St. Peter's Church, Northampton (Fig. 172), the interior of which weillustrate. To these examples of early Norman we may add a large partof Rochester Cathedral, and the transepts of Winchester. The transeptsof Exeter present a specimen of rather more advanced Norman work; andin the cathedrals of Peterborough and Durham the style can be seen atits best. [Illustration: FIG. 172. --NORMAN ARCHES IN ST. PETER'S CHURCH, NORTHAMPTON. ] In most Norman buildings we find very excellent masonry and massiveconstruction. The exteriors of west fronts, transepts, and towersshow great skill and care in their composition, the openings beingalways well grouped, and contrasted with plain wall-spaces; and a keensense of proportion is perceptible. The Norman architects had atcommand a rich, if perhaps a rather rude, ornamentation, which theygenerally confined to individual features, especially doorways; onthese they lavished mouldings and sculpture, the elaboration of whichwas set off by the plainness of the general structure. In the interiorof the churches we usually meet with piers of massive proportion, sometimes round, sometimes octagonal, sometimes rectangular, and ashaft is sometimes carried up the face of the piers; as, for example, in Peterborough Cathedral (Fig. 173). The capitals of the columns andpiers have a square abacus, and, generally speaking, are of thecushion-shaped sort, commonly known as basket-capitals, and areprofusely carved. The larger churches have the nave roofed with atimber roof, and at Peterborough there is a wooden ceiling; in thesecases the aisles only are vaulted, but in some small churches thewhole building has been so covered. Buttresses are seldom required, owing to the great mass of the walls; when employed they have a veryslight projection, but the same strips or pilasters which are used inGerman Romanesque occur here also. Low towers were common, and havebeen not unfrequently preserved in cases where the rest of thebuilding has been removed. As the style advanced, the proportions ofarcades became more lofty, and shafts became more slender, decorativearcades (Fig. 174) became more common, and in these and many otherchanges the approaching transition to Gothic may be easily detected. We have already alluded to the many Norman doorways remaining inparish churches of which all other parts have been rebuilt. Thesedoorways are generally very rich; they possess a series of mouldingssometimes springing from shafts, sometimes running not only round thearched head, but also up the jambs of the opening; and each mouldingis richly carved, very often with a repetition of the same ornament oneach voussoir of the arch. Occasionally, but not frequently, largeportions of wall-surface are covered by a diaper; that is to say, anornament constantly repeated so as to produce a general sense ofenrichment. [Illustration: FIG. 173. --NAVE ARCADE, PETERBOROUGH CATHEDRAL. ] [Illustration: FIG. 174. --DECORATIVE ARCADE FROM CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL. ] Norman castles, as well as churches, were built in great numbersshortly after the Conquest, and not a few remain. The strongholdwhich a follower of the Conqueror built in order to establish himselfon the lands granted him was always a very sturdy massive squaretower, low in proportion to its width, built very strongly, and withevery provision for sustaining an attack or even a siege. Such a toweris called "a keep;" and in many famous castles, as for example theTower of London, the keep forms the nucleus round which buildings andcourtyards of later date have clustered. In some few instances, however, as for example at Colchester, the keep is the only part nowstanding, and it is probable that when originally built these Normancastles were not much encumbered with out-buildings. Rochester Castleis a fine example of a Norman keep, though it has suffered much fromdecay and injury. The very large Norman keep of the Tower of London, known as the White Tower, and containing the chapel already described, has been much modernised and altered, but retains the fine mass of itsoriginal construction. Perhaps the best (and best-preserved) exampleis Hedingham Castle in Essex, which we illustrate (Figs. 175 and 176). From the remains of this building some idea of the interior of thehall--the chief room within a Norman keep--may be obtained, as well asof the general external appearance of such a structure. [Illustration: FIG. 175. --HEDINGHAM CASTLE. ] [Illustration: FIG. 176. --INTERIOR OF HEDINGHAM CASTLE. ] FOOTNOTES: [34] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture, ' chap. Vii. [35] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture, ' chap. V. P. 62. [36] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture, ' chap. Ii. P. 23. [Illustration: FIG. 177. --ROUNDED ARCH OF CHURCH AT GELNHAUSEN. ] CHAPTER XIV. CHRISTIAN ROUND-ARCHED ARCHITECTURE. _Analysis. _ Notwithstanding very wide differences which undoubtedly exist, thereis a sufficient bond of union between the Basilican, the Byzantine, and the Romanesque styles, to render it possible for us to include thecharacteristics of the three in an analysis of Christian round-archedarchitecture. _The Plan or floor-disposition_ of the basilican churches, as has beenpointed out, was distinctive. The atrium, or forecourt, the porch, thedivision into nave and aisles; the transept, the great arch, and theapse beyond it with the episcopal seat at the back behind the altar;the ambos; and the enclosure for the choir, were typical features. Detached towers sometimes occurred. The plan of Romanesque churcheswas based upon that of the basilica; the atrium was often omitted, sowas the transept sometimes; but, when retained, the transept wasgenerally made more prominent than in the basilica. The position ofthe altar and of the enclosure for the choir were changed, but inother respects the basilica plan was continued. In Germany, however, apsidal transepts (Fig. 178) were built. Towers were common, occasionally detached, but more frequently joined to the mainbuilding. [Illustration: FIG. 178. --PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES AT COLOGNE. ] Circular and polygonal buildings for use as baptisteries, andsometimes as churches, existed both in the basilican and theRomanesque time. Byzantine church plans are all distinguished by their great centralsquare space, covered by the central dome, flanked usually by fourarms, comparatively short, and all of equal length; and the plan ofthe buildings is generally square, or nearly so, in outline. Circularand polygonal buildings sometimes occur. [Illustration: FIG. 179. --SPIRE OF SPIRES CATHEDRAL. ] Few traces of the arrangement of military, secular, or domesticbuildings earlier than the twelfth century remain, but some examplesof a cloister at the side of the nave (generally the south side) of achurch, giving or intended to give access to monastic buildings, stillexist. _The Walls_ of such buildings as have come down to us are, it may bewell understood, strong, since the most recent of this round-archedseries of buildings must be about seven hundred years old. Finemasonry was not much employed till the time of the Normans, but theRoman plan of building with bricks or rubble and casing the face ofthe walls with marble or mosaic, or at least plaster, was generallyfollowed. The walls are carried up as gables and towers to aconsiderable extent (Fig. 179), especially in Western countries. _The Roof. _--In a basilica this was of timber, in a Byzantine churchit consisted of a series of domes; in a Romanesque church it wassometimes of timber as in the basilica, but not unfrequently vaulted. As a general rule the vault prevailed in the West and the dome in theEast; and such examples of either sort of roof as occur in thoseprovinces where the other was usual, like the domed churches in partsof France, must be looked upon as exceptional. _The Openings_ are almost invariably arched, and seldom, if ever, covered by a lintel. It is hardly necessary to add that the arches arealways round. Almost always they are semicircular, but instances ofthe employment of a segmental arch, or of one the outline of which isa little more than half a circle, may be occasionally met with. Door openings are often made important both by size and decoration. Window openings are usually small; and the grouping of two or morelights under one head, which was so conspicuous a feature in Gothicarchitecture, first appears in Byzantine buildings, and is met withalso in Romanesque ones. The mode of introducing light is to a certainextent characteristic. The basilican churches always possess aclerestory, and usually side windows in the aisles; and thisarrangement is generally followed in Romanesque buildings, thoughsometimes, in Germany, the clerestory is omitted. The gable ends ofthe nave and transepts are not usually pierced by many or large lights(Fig. 180); and when there is a central feature, as a tower, or even adome, little or no light is introduced through it. On the other hand, the Byzantine churches depend largely for light upon the ring ofwindows which commonly encircles the base of the central dome, andsometimes that of the subsidiary domes; and the gables are piercedso as to supply any additional light required, so that windows areinfrequent in the lower walls. Broadly speaking, therefore, theWestern churches have side-lighting and the Eastern top-lighting. [Illustration: FIG. 180. --CHURCH AT ROSHEIM. UPPER PORTION OF FAÇADE. ] The great arches which carry the main domes form a notable feature inEastern churches, and are of very bold construction. In the basilicanchurches one great arch, called "the arch of triumph, " occurs, andonly one; this gives access to the apse: and a similar arch, which wenow denominate "the chancel arch, " usually occupies a correspondingposition in all Romanesque churches. The arches of the arcadeseparating the nave from the aisles in all Western churches areusually of moderate span. In some ancient basilicas these arches arereplaced by a horizontal beam. _The Columns. _--In basilicas these were of antique type; very oftenthey had actually been obtained by the demolition of older buildings, and when made purposely they were as a rule of the same generalcharacter. The same might be said of those introduced into Byzantinebuildings, though a divergence from the classic type soon manifesteditself, and small columns began to appear as decorative features. InRomanesque buildings the columns are very varied indeed, and shaftsare frequently introduced into the decoration of other features. Theyoccur in the jambs of doorways with mouldings or sub-arches springingfrom them; long shafts and short ones, frequently supportingornamental arcades, are employed both internally and externally; andaltogether that use of the column as a means of decoration, of whichGothic architecture presents so many examples, first began in theRomanesque style. The capitals employed in Romanesque buildings generally departconsiderably from the classic type, being based on the primitive cubecapital (Fig. 181), but, as a rule, in Eastern as well as in basilicanchurches, they bear a tolerably close resemblance to classic ones. [Illustration: FIG. 181. --CUBIC CAPITAL. ] _The Ornaments_ throughout the whole of the Christian round-archedperiod are a very interesting subject of study, and will repay closeattention. In the basilican style mouldings occur but seldom: wheremet with, they are all of the profiles common in Roman architecture, but often rudely and clumsily worked. Carving partakes also of classiccharacter, though it is not difficult to detect the commencement ofthat metamorphosis which was effected in Byzantium, and which canhardly be better described than in the following paragraph from thepen of Sir Digby Wyatt:--"The foliage is founded on ancient Greekrather than on Roman traditions, and is characterised by a peculiarlysharp outline. All ornamental sculpture is in comparatively lowrelief, and the absence of human and other figures is very marked. Enrichments were almost invariably so carved, by sinking portions onlyof the surfaces and leaving the arrises and principal placesuntouched, as to preserve the original constructive forms given by themason (Fig. 184). The employment of the drill instead of the chisel, so common in debased Roman work, was retained as a very generalpractice by the Greek carvers, and very often with excellent effect. The foliage of the acanthus, although imitated from the antique, quite changed its character, becoming more geometrical andconventional in its form. That which particularly distinguishesLombard from Byzantine art is its sculpture abounding with grotesqueimagery, with illustrations of every-day life, of a fanciful mythologynot yet quite extinct, and allusions, no longer symbolic but direct, to the Christian creed; the latter quality a striking evidence of thetriumph of the Roman Church over all iconoclastic adversaries inGreece. " What is here asserted of Lombard carving is true of that inthe Romanesque buildings in Germany, Scandinavia (Fig. 182), France, and to a certain extent in Great Britain, though in our own country alarge proportion of the ornamental carving consists simply ofdecorative patterns, such as the chevron, billet, and zig-zag; andsculpture containing figures and animals is less common. [Illustration: FIG. 182. --DOORWAY AT TIND, NORWAY. (END OF 12TH CENTURY. )] The mouldings of Romanesque buildings are simple, and at first werefew in number, but by degrees they become more conspicuous, and beforethe transition to Gothic they assumed considerable importance (Fig. 183) and added not a little to the architectural character of thebuildings. [Illustration: FIG. 183. --MOULDINGS OF PORTAL OF ST. JAMES'S CHURCH AT KOESFELD. ] Coloured decoration, especially in mosaic, was a conspicuous featurein basilican churches, and still more so in those of the Byzantinestyle; such decoration in Romanesque churches was not infrequent, butit was more commonly painted in fresco or tempera. The glassmosaic-work to be found on the walls of Early Christian churches, bothbasilican and Byzantine, but less frequently Romanesque, is mostinteresting and beautiful: "it was, " says the high authority alreadyquoted, "employed only to represent and reproduce the forms ofexisting objects, such as figures, architectural forms andconventional foliage, which were generally relieved with some slightindication of shading upon a gold ground--the whole being bedded inthe cement covering the walls and vaults of the basilicas andchurches. " "The design of both figures and ornaments was, generally speaking, very rude, though not without an occasional rising in some of thefigures to a certain sublimity, derivable principally from the greatsimplicity of the forms and draperies and the earnest grandioseexpression depicted on their countenances. The pieces of glassemployed in the formation of this work are very irregular in shapesand sizes, of all colours and tones of colour, and the ground tintalmost invariably prevailing is gold. The manner of execution isalways large and coarse, and rarely approaches in neatness of jointand regularity of bedding to the (ancient Roman) 'opus majusvermiculatus;' yet, notwithstanding these blemishes, the effect ofgorgeous, luxurious, and at the same time solemn decoration producedis unattainable by any other means as yet employed as structuralembellishment. How noble and truly ecclesiastical in character are thegold-clad interiors of Monreale Cathedral, of the Capella Palatina atPalermo, of St. Mark at Venice, San Miniato at Florence, or SantiApollinare and Vitale at Ravenna, the concurrent testimony of alltravellers attests. " A finer kind of glass mosaic arranged in geometrical patterns wasmade use of to enrich the ambos, screens, episcopal chairs, sepulchralornaments, and other similar fittings of churches, and was often ofgreat beauty. A third sort of mosaic--the Alexandrine work (opusAlexandrinum)--used for pavements, has been already alluded to; thiswas extremely effective, but its use appears to have been less generalthan that of the glass mosaics for the walls. _The Architectural Character_ of the basilican churches may be brieflycharacterised as venerable and dignified, but yet cheerful and brightrather than forbidding; they are, as interiors, impressive but notoppressive, solemn but not gloomy. Comparatively little attention waspaid to external effect, and there is not often much in them to strikethe passer-by. The character of Byzantine interiors is far more rich, and even splendid; but it is more gloomy, and often is solemn andgrand to the last degree. In many cases these churches possess fineexteriors; and for the level sky-line produced by the long straightroofs of the basilica, a more or less pyramidal composition, showingcurved outlines rather than straight ones, is substituted. Thearchitectural character of the Romanesque buildings varies extremelywith the districts in which they are erected; but, generally speaking, it may be described as picturesque, and even sometimes romantic; theappearance of towers, prominent transepts, and many smaller decorativefeatures serves to render the exteriors telling and varied, thoughoften somewhat rude and primitive. A solid and somewhat heavycharacter distinguishes the interiors of some varieties of Romanesquebuildings--such, for example, as our own Early Norman; but in ourfully-developed and late Norman, and still more in the latest GermanRomanesque churches, this disappears almost entirely, and much beautyand even lightness of effect is obtained, without any loss of thatrichness which is characteristic of more ancient examples. [Illustration: FIG. 184. --BYZANTINE BASKET-WORK CAPITAL FROM SAN MICHELE IN AFFRICISCO AT RAVENNA. ] [Illustration: FIG. 185. --ARABIAN CAPITAL. FROM THE ALHAMBRA. ] CHAPTER XV. MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. Few revolutions more sudden, more signal, and more widespread arerecorded in history than that which covered not only the East but partof the West with the Mohammedan religion and dominion. Mohammed wasborn either in the year 569 or 570 of the Christian era, and died A. D. 652. The year of the Hegira, the era from which Mohammedans computetheir chronology, is A. D. 622, and within little more than a centuryfrom this era the Prophet was acknowledged, and the suzerainty of theCaliph recognised eastwards, in Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, andPersia, and in India as far as to the Ganges; and westwards along thenorth coast of Africa, in Sicily, and in Spain. It was only to beexpected that such a wonderful tide of conquest and such a widespreadchange of religion should before long leave its impress on thearchitecture of the continents thus revolutionised; and accordingly aMohammedan style soon rose. This style did not displace or overridethe indigenous art of the various countries where it prevailed, asRoman architecture did in the age of universal dominion under theEmpire; it assimilated the peculiarities of each country, and sotransmuted them, that although wherever the religion of Mohammedprevails the architecture will at a glance confess the fact, still thelocal or national peculiarities of each country remain prominent. The Arabs, a nomadic race who lived in tents, do not seem to have beengreat builders even in their cities. We have no authentic accounts orexisting remains of very early buildings even in Mecca or Medina, asthe oldest mosques in those cities have been completely rebuilt. It isto Egypt and Syria that we must turn for the most ancient remainingexamples of Saracenic architecture. These consist of mosques andtombs. _Egypt. _ A mosque--or Mohammedan place of worship--has two forms. The earliermosques are all of them of a type the arrangement of which issimplicity itself. A large open courtyard, resembling the garth of acloister, with a fountain in it, is surrounded cloister-wise byarcades supporting timber roofs. On the side nearest Mecca the arcadesare increased to several rows in depth, so as to cover a considerablespace. This is the part in which the congregation chiefly assembles;here a niche or recess (termed Kibla), more or less enriched, isformed in which the Koran is to be kept, and hard by a pulpit iserected. For many centuries past, though not, it is believed, from thevery earliest times, a minaret or high tower, from the top of whichthe call to prayer is given, has also been an indispensable adjunct toa mosque. The second sort of mosque is a domed, and sometimes vaulted buildingof a form chiefly suggested by the Byzantine domed churches, with acentral space and four short arms. This sort of mosque became almostuniversal in Turkey and Egypt after the capture of Constantinople bythe Turks, and the appropriation to Moslem worship of Santa Sophiaitself. The tombs are ornate and monumental buildings, or sanctuaries, of the same general character as the domed mosques, and often attachedto them. [Illustration: FIG. 186. --HORSE-SHOE ARCH. ] From very early times the arches, in the arcades which have beendescribed as virtually constituting the whole structure of the simplersort of mosque, were pointed. Lubke claims as the earliest known anddated example of the pointed arch in a Saracenic building, theNilometer, a small structure on an island near Cairo, which containspointed arches that must have been built either at the date of itsoriginal construction in A. D. 719, or at latest, when it was restoredA. D. 821. The Mosque of Amrou, however, which was founded very soonafter the conquest of Egypt in A. D. 643, and is largely made up ofmaterials obtained from older buildings, exhibits pointed arches, notonly in the arcades, which probably have been rebuilt since they wereoriginally formed, but in the outer walls, which are likely, in partat least, to be original. [Illustration: FIG. 187. --EXTERIOR OF SANTA SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE. SHOWING THE MINARETS ADDED AFTER ITS CONVERSION INTO A MOSQUE. ] Whatever uncertainty may rest upon these very remote specimens ofpointed architecture, there is little if any about the Mosque of IbnTulun, also at Cairo, and built A. D. 885, or, according to anotherauthority, A. D. 879. Here arcades of bold pointed arches spring frompiers, and the effect of the whole structure is noble and full ofcharacter. From that time the pointed arch was constantly used inSaracenic buildings along with the semicircular and the horse-shoearch (Fig. 186). From the ninth century, then, the pointed arch was in constant use. Itprevailed in Palestine as well as in the adjacent countries for twocenturies before it reached the West, and there can be no doubt thatit was there seen by the Western Crusaders, and a knowledge of its useand an appreciation of its beauty and convenience were brought back toWestern Europe by the returning ecclesiastics and others at the end ofthe First Crusade. [37] In the eleventh century the splendid Tombs of the Caliphs at Cairowere erected, --buildings crowned with domes of a graceful pointedform, and remarkable for the external decoration which usually coversthe whole surface of those domes. By this time also, if not earlier, the minaret had become universal. This is a lofty tower of slenderproportions, passing from a square base below to a circular form above(Fig. 187). A minaret is often divided into several stages. Each stageis then marked by a balcony, and is, generally speaking, a polygonof a greater number of sides than the stage below it. [Illustration: FIG. 188. --ALHAMBRA. HALL OF THE ABENCERRAGES. ] In the interiors of Saracenic buildings what is generally known ashoneycomb corbelling is constantly employed to fill up corners andeffect a change of plan from a square below to a circle or octagonabove. This ornament is formed by the use of a series of smallbrackets, each course of them overhanging those below, and produces aneffect some idea of which may be gathered from our illustration (Fig. 188) of the Hall of the Abencerrages in the Alhambra. The interiorswhen not domed are often covered by wooden or plaster ceilings, moreor less richly decorated, such as are shown in the view of one of thearcades of the Mosque "El Moyed, " Cairo (Fig. 189), where thehorse-shoe and pointed arches can both be seen. This illustration alsoshows timber ties, at the feet of the arches, such as were commonlyused by the earlier Saracenic builders. The surfaces of the interiors of most Mohammedan buildings in allcountries are covered with the most exquisite decorations in colour. Imitations of natural objects being forbidden by the Koran (aprohibition occasionally, but very rarely, infringed), the Saracenicartists, whose instincts as decorators seem to have been unrivalled, fell back upon geometrical and flowing patterns and inscriptions, andupon the use of tiles (Fig. 190), mosaics, inlays, patterns impressedon plaster, and every possible device for harmoniously enriching thesurfaces with which they had to deal. Several of our illustrationsgive indications of the presence of these unrivalled decorations inthe buildings which they represent (Fig. 195). Windows are commonlyfilled by tracery executed in stone or in plaster, and glazed withstained glass, and many of the open spaces in buildings are occupiedby grilles, executed in wood, and most effective and rich in design. [Illustration: FIG. 189. --MOSQUE 'EL MOYED' AT CAIRO. ] [Illustration: FIG. 190. --ARABIAN WALL DECORATION. ] [Illustration: FIG. 191. --PLAN OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM. ] _Syria and Palestine. _ Syria was one of the countries earliest overrun by the Arabpropaganda, and Jerusalem was taken by the Caliph Omar as early asA. D. 637. He there built a small mosque, though not the one whichcommonly goes by his name. Two mosques of great antiquity andimportance, but the origin of which is a matter of dispute amongauthorities, stand in the Haram enclosure at Jerusalem. One of theseis the octagonal building called the Sakhra (Figs. 191-2), known inthe Moslem world as the Dome of the Rock, popularly called the Mosqueof Omar, and occupying, as is all but universally admitted, part ofthe site of the Temple itself. Whether this is a "nearly unalteredChristian building of the fourth century, " or a construction ofAbd-el-Malek, the second Caliph, erected in the year 688, has beendebated keenly; but what is beyond debate is that this structure isvery Byzantine, or, to speak with more exactness, very like some ofthe buildings of Justinian in plan and section, and that from earlytimes it was in the possession of the Saracens, and was regarded bythem as the next most venerable and sacred spot in the world afterMecca. Much the same difference of opinion prevails as to the originof the neighbouring mosque, El Aksah, which bears an undoubted generalresemblance to an ancient basilica, though having no fewer thanseven parallel avenues. This building has with equal confidence beenattributed to the fourth and the seventh century. It is fortunatelyquite unnecessary here to do more than point out that these mosques, whatever their origin, were in use at least as early as the eighthcentury, and that the beautiful Dome of the Rock must have exercised agreat influence on Mohammedan art, and, notwithstanding somedifferences of plan, may be fairly regarded as the prototype of manyof the domed mosques and tombs to which allusion has been made. Thedecorations shown in our illustration of the Sakhra are, it is rightto observe, most of them of a date centuries later than the time ofthe original construction of the building. [Illustration: FIG. 192. --SECTION OF THE SAKHRA MOSQUE AT JERUSALEM. ] _Sicily and Spain. _ The spread of Mohammedan architecture westward next claims our notice;but want of space will only permit us to mention a small thoughinteresting group of Saracenic buildings which still remains inSicily; the numerous specimens of the style which exist on the northcoast of Africa; and the works erected by the Saracens during theirlong rule in Spain. The most celebrated Spanish example is thefortress and palace of the Alhambra, begun in 1248, and finished in1314. This building (Fig. 188) has been measured, drawn, and fullyillustrated in an elaborate monograph by our countryman Owen Jones, and has become popularly known by the beautiful reproduction ofportions of it which he executed at the Crystal Palace, and of whichhe wrote an admirable description in his 'Guide-book to the AlhambraCourt. ' The Mohammedan architecture of Spain is here to be seen atits best; most of its features are those of Arab art, but with adistinguishing character (Fig. 193). [Illustration: FIG. 193. --DOORWAY IN THE ALHAMBRA. ] Two other well-known examples are, the Giralda[38] at Seville, andthe Mosque at Cordova. The Giralda is a square tower, in fact aminaret on a magnificent scale, divided into panels and richlydecorated, and shows a masculine though beautiful treatment whollydifferent from that of the minarets in Cairo. The well-known Mosque atCordova is of the simplest sort of plan, but of very great extent, andcontains no less than nineteen parallel avenues separated from oneanother by arcades at two heights springing from 850 columns. TheKibla in this mosque is a picturesque domed structure higher than therest of the building. The columns employed throughout are antique onesfrom other buildings, but the whole effect of the structure, whichabounds with curiously cusped arches and coloured decoration, isdescribed as most picturesque and fantastic. _Persia and India. _ Turning eastwards, we find in Turkey, as has been said, a closeadherence to the forms of Byzantine architecture. In Persia, where thepeople are now fire-worshippers, the Mohammedan buildings are mostlyruined, and probably many have disappeared, but enough remains to showthat mosques and palaces of great grandeur were built. Lofty doorwaysare a somewhat distinctive feature of Persian buildings of this style;and the use of coloured tiles of singular beauty for linings to thewalls, in the heads of these great portals, and in other situations towhich such decoration is appropriate, is very common: thesedecorations afford opportunity for the Persian instinct for colour, probably the truest in the whole world, to make itself seen. In India the wealth of material is such that an almost unlimitedseries of fine buildings could be brought forward, were space andillustrations available. A large part of that vast country becameMohammedan, and in the buildings erected for mosques and tombs acomplete blending of the decorative forms in use among Hindu and Jainasculptors with the main lines of Mohammedan art is generally to befound. The great open quadrangle, the pointed arch, the dome, theminaret, all appear, but they are all made out of Indian materials. Perhaps not the least noteworthy feature of mosques and tombs in Indiais the introduction of perforated slabs of marble in the place of thebar-tracery which filled the heads of openings in Cairo or Damascus. These are works of the greatest and most refined beauty: sometimespanels of thin marble, each pierced with a different pattern, arefitted into a framework prepared for their reception; at others wemeet with window-heads where upon a background of twining stems andleaves there grow up palms or banian-trees, their lithe branches andleaves wreathed into lines of admirable grace, and every part standingout, owing to the fine piercings of the marble, as distinctly as atree of Jesse on a painted window in a Gothic cathedral. The dome at Bijapur, a tomb larger than the Pantheon at Rome, and theKutub at Delhi, a tower not unfit to be compared with Giotto'scampanile at Florence, are conspicuous among this series of monuments, and at Delhi one of the grandest mosques in India (Fig. 194) is alsoto be found. The series of mosques and tombs at Ahmedabad, however, form the most beautiful group of buildings in India, and are the onlyones of which a complete series of illustrations has been published. These mosques are remarkable for the great skill with which they areroofed and lighted. This is done by means of a series of domes raisedon columns sufficiently above the general level of the stone ceilings, which cover the intervening spaces, to admit light under the line oftheir springing. The beauty of the marble tracery and surfacedecoration is very great. Pointed arches occur here almost invariably, and in most cases the outline of the opening is very slightly turnedupwards at the apex so as to give a slight increase of emphasis to thesummit of the arch. The buildings are not as a rule lofty; and thoughplain walls and piers occur and contrast well with the archedfeatures, pains have been taken to avoid anything like massive orheavy construction. Great extent, skilful distribution, extremelightness, and admirably combined groupings of the features andmasses, are among the fine qualities which lend to Mohammedanarchitecture in Ahmedabad a rare charm. [Illustration: FIG. 194. --GRAND MOSQUE AT DELHI, BUILT BY SHAH JEHAN. ] The religion and the art of Islam seem destined to live and dietogether. Nothing (with the one exception of the suggestion of thepointed arch to Western Europe at the very moment when Romanesque artwas ripe for a change) has developed itself or appears likely to growout of Mohammedan architecture in any part of the wide field to whichthe attention of the reader has been directed; and in this respect theart of the Mohammedan is as exclusive, as intolerant, and as infertileas his religion. The interest which it must possess in the eyes of aWestern student will rise less from its own charms than from the factthat it first employed the pointed arch--that feature from whichsprang the glorious series of Western Christian styles to which wegive the name of Gothic. This arch, indeed, appears to have beendiscovered by the very beginners of Mohammedan architecture, at a timewhen the style was still plastic and in course of growth, and thebeauty of Saracenic art is due to no small extent to the use of it;but in the employment of this feature the Western architect advancedmuch further than the Saracen even at his best could go. The pointedarchitecture of the Middle Ages, with its daring construction, itscomprehensive design, its elaborate mouldings, and its magnificentsculptures, is far more highly developed and more beautiful than thatof the countries which we have been describing, though in itstreatment of the walls it cannot surpass, and indeed did not oftenequal, the unrivalled decoration of plane surfaces which forms thechief glory of Mohammedan art. [Illustration: FIG. 195. --ENTRANCE TO A MOORISH BAZAAR. ] FOOTNOTES: [37] The First Crusade lasted from A. D. 1095 to A. D. 1099. [38] 'Gothic and Renaissance Architecture, ' p. 141. INDEX. Abbaye aux Dames, Caen, 231 " Hommes, Caen, 230 Abbey, Westminster, 204 Agora, 114 Alhambra, 258, 263 Amphitheatre at Arles, 161 " Nîmes, 161 " Pola, 161 " Rome (Coloss. ), 158 " Sutri, 148 " Verona, 161 Anthemios of Thralles, _Architect_, 211 Appian Way, 145 Apollodorus of Damascus, _Architect_, 155 Aqueduct at Nîmes (Pont du Gard), 171 " from Præneste to Rome, 145 " at Rome (Aqua Claudia), 171 " " (Anio Novus), 171 " at Segovia, 171 " at Tarragona, 171 Arch at Autun (Porte d'Arroux), 172 " Jerusalem (Golden Gate), 220 " Rome (of Constantine), 172 " " (of the Goldsmiths), 173 " " (of Sept. Severus), 172 " " (of Titus), 172 " Trèves (Porta Nigra), 172 Asoka, 65 Baalbek, ruins at, 149 Basilica at Rome (Constantiniana), 155 " " (Emilia), 154 " " (Julia), 155 " " (Portia), 154 " " (Sempronia), 155 " " (Ulpia), 155 " Trèves, 155 Basilica-church at Florence (S. Miniato), 209 " " Ravenna (S. Apollinare in Classe), 206, 209 " " Rome (S. Agnese), 201 " " Rome (S. Clemente), 199 " " Rome (S. Paul without the walls), 205 " " Rome (S. Pietro), 201 Baths of Agrippa, 162 " Caracalla, 162 " Diocletian, 164, 191 Bharhut, 71 Birs-i-Nimrud, 45 Bridge over the Danube (Trajan's), 170 " Tagus (Hadrian's), 170 " Tiber (Pons Sublicius), 170 Campo Santo, Pisa, 209 Castle of S. Angelo, 174 Cathedral at Canterbury, 233 " Durham, 234 " Exeter, 234 " Monreale, 249 " Peterborough, 234, 235 " Piacenza, 224 " Pisa, 209 " Rochester, 234 " Rome (S. Peter's), 205 " Venice (S. Mark's), 217 " Winchester, 234 Chaitya, 67 Chapel in Tower of London, 232, 233 Chehil Minar, 56 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 112 Church at Aix-la-Chapelle, 225 " Caen (Abb. Aux Hommes), 230 " " (Abb. Aux Dames), 231 " Constantinople (S. Sophia), 211 " Earl's Barton, 224 " Milan (S. Ambrogio), 224 " Northampton (S. Peter's), 234 " Paris (Madeleine), 185 " Périgueux (S. Front), 218 " Ravenna (S. Vitale), 208, 215 " Rome (S. Maria degli Angeli), 164 " " (S. Maria ad Martyres), 166 " Rome (S. Stefano Rot. ), 208 " Toulouse (S. Sernin), 227 " Turmanin, Syria, 221 " Verona (S. Zenone), 224 Circus Maximus, Rome, 143, 161 Cloaca Maxima, Rome, 141 Cnidus, Lion tomb at, 110 Colosseum, 158 Column of Marcus Aurelius, 173 " Trajan, 173 Decoration of Egyptian buildings, 37 Erechtheium, 107 Forum of Nerva, 191 Gate, Golden, at Jerusalem, 220 Gate at Perugia, 141 Giralda, 265 Hall, S. George's, Liverpool, 185 Ictinus, _Architect_, 88 Isidoros of Miletus, _Architect_, 211 Keep at Colchester, 237 " Hedingham Castle, 239 " Rochester Castle, 238 " Tower of London, 237, 239 Kutub, 266 Lâts, 65 Lotus Column, 32 Lysicrates, Choragic Monument of, 112 Maison Carrée, Nîmes, 149 Mammisi, 25 Manephthah, 24 Manetho, 15 Mastaba, 20 Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, 110 Mosque at Ahmedabad, 266 " Cairo (of Amrou), 254 " " ("El Moyed"), 258 " " (of Ibn Tulun), 256 " Cordova, 265 " Delhi, 266 " Jerusalem (El Aksah), 261 " " (Sakhra), 261 " (the Nilometer), 254 Mugheyr, buildings at, 44 Mycenæ, Treasury of Atreus, 85 " Gate of the Lions, 86 Obelisks, 36 Pagoda at Nankin, 76 Palace at Khorsabad, 46 " Rome (of the Cæsars), 174 " Spalatro (of Diocletian), 174, 192 Pantheon, 164 Parthenon, 88-91, 99-101 Persepolis, buildings at, 55 Persian columns, 57 Pheidias, _Sculptor_, 91 Pont du Gard, Nîmes, 171 Porta Nigra, Trèves, 172 Pylon, 25 Pyramid of Cephren, 16 " Cheops, 16 " Mycerinus, 16 Ram Raz, 72 Rome, Cloacæ at, 141 Scopas, _Sculptor and Architect_, 109, 112 Silchester, ruins at, 143 Sutri, ruins of an amphitheatre, 143 Temple at Athens (Erechtheium), 107 " " (Parthenon), 88-91, 99-101 " " (of Jupiter Olym. ), 149 " Baalbek, 149 " Corinth, 81, 87 " Ephesus (of Diana), 109 " Honan, 75 " Ipsamboul, 31 " Karli (Chaitya), 67 " Karnak, 26 " Lomas Rishi cave, 67 " Nigope cave (Chaitya), 67 " Nîmes (Maison Carrée), 149 " Orange (ruins), 157 " Pæstum, 92 " Rome (of Jupiter Capitolinus), 142 " " (of Q. Metellus Macedonicus), 145 " " (of Antoninus and Faustina), 147 " " (of Fortuna Vir. ), 147 " " (of Vesta), 153 " " (Pantheon), 164 " Sanchi (Tope), 67 " Tegea (of Athena Alea), 112 " Tivoli (of Vesta), 153 Temples, Egyptian, 25 " Shinto, 77 Theatre of Balbus, 156 " " Marcellus, 156 " " Mummius, 156 " at Orange, 157 " of Pompey, 156 Thermæ, _see_ Baths Tomb at Ahmedabad, 266 " " Bab-el-Molouk (Belzoni's), 24 " " Bijapur, 266 " " Castel d'Asso, 139 " of Cecilia Metella, 173 " " Cyrus, 54 " " Darius, 59 " " Hadrian, 174 " " Regulini Galeassi, 141 Tombs, Egyptian, 20 " Lycian, 85 " Cnidus (Lion), 110 Tope at Sanchi, 67 Tower at Delhi (Kutub), 266 " Seville (Giralda), 265 Treasury of Atreus, 85 Typhonia, 25 Usertesen I. , 29 Wall of China, Great, 76 Way, Appian, 145 Westminster Abbey, 204 Wurkha, ruins at, 46 LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. ILLUSTRATED HANDBOOKS OF ART HISTORY OF ALL AGES Each Volume contains numerous Illustrations, and is strongly bound forthe use of Students. Price 5_s. _ _NOW READY. _ BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND JOHN SLATER, B. A. ARCHITECTURE: CLASSIC and EARLY CHRISTIAN. Comprising the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and Early Christian. Illustrated with upwards of 200 Engravings, including the Parthenon, the Erechtheium, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, the Colosseum, the Baths of Diocletian, &c. BY PROFESSOR T. ROGER SMITH AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R. A. ARCHITECTURE: GOTHIC and RENAISSANCE. Showing the progress of Gothic Architecture in England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain, and of Renaissance Architecture in the same Countries. Illustrated with more than 100 Engravings, including many of the principal Cathedrals, Churches, Palaces, and Domestic Buildings in England, and on the Continent. BY GEORGE REDFORD, F. R. C. S. SCULPTURE: EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, GREEK and ROMAN. With 160 Illustrations, including Examples of the Works of the most celebrated Greek Sculptors, a Map of Ancient Greece, and a Chronological List of Ancient Sculptors and their Works. BY EDWARD J. POYNTER, R. A. , AND PERCY R. HEAD, B. A. PAINTING: CLASSIC and ITALIAN. Including Painting in Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Pompeii; the Renaissance in Italy; Schools of Florence, Siena, Rome, Padua, Venice, Perugia, Ferrara, Parma, Naples and Bologna. Illustrated with 80 Engravings of many of the finest Pictures of Italy. BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M. A. , AND EDWARD J. POYNTER, R. A. PAINTING: GERMAN, FLEMISH and DUTCH. Including an Account of the Works of Albrecht Dürer, Cranach, and Holbein; Van Eyck, Van der Weyden, and Memling; Rubens, Snyders, and Van Dyck; Rembrandt, Hals, and Jan Steen; Wynants, Ruisdael, and Hobbema; Cuyp, Potter, and Berchem; Bakhuisen, Van de Velde, Van Huysum, and many other celebrated painters. BY H. J. WILMOT-BUXTON, M. A. PAINTING: ENGLISH and AMERICAN. Including an account of the Earliest Paintings known in England; the works of Holbein, Antonio Moro, Lucas de Heere, Zuccaro, and Marc Garrard; the Hilliards and Olivers; Van Dyck, Lely, and Kneller; Hogarth, Reynolds, and Gainsborough; West, Romney, and Lawrence; Constable, Turner, and Wilkie; Maclise, Mulready, and Landseer, and many other celebrated painters. _Nearly ready. _ BY GERARD SMITH, EXETER COLL. OXFORD. PAINTING: SPANISH and FRENCH. Including the Works of Ribera, Zurbaran, Velazquez, and Murillo; Poussin, Claude Lorrain, Le Sueur, Watteau, Chardin, Greuze, David, and Prud'hon; Ingres, Vernet, Delaroche, and Delacroix; Corot, Diaz, and Millet; Courbet, Regnault, Troyon, and many other celebrated artists. _In preparation. _ Transcriber's Note Archaic spelling has been preserved as printed, for example, Egeaninstead of Ægean. Minor punctuation errors have been repaired. The following amendments have been made: Page 67, footnote--X. Amended to XI. --"See Chap. XI. For an illustration of a Christian Basilica. " Page 101--Theseium amended to Theseum--"Temple of Theseus (Theseum), at Athens, 465 B. C. " Page 211--Isodoros amended to Isidoros--"... Anthemius of Thralles, and Isidoros of Miletus, ... " Page 270--114 amended to 116--"Agora, 116" Page 270--148 amended to 143--"Amphitheatre at Sutri, 143" Page 270--205 amended to 206--"Basilica-church at Rome (S. Paul without the walls), 206" Discrepancies between items in the List of Illustrations and actualcaptions have been preserved as printed. Figure 115--Guilloche is missing from the List of Illustrations in theoriginal text. This omission has been preserved in this e-text. Figures 116 and 117 were out of sequence on page 136 (with Figures105-110). They have been moved to their proper place in the sequenceof Figures. Other illustrations have been moved where necessary sothat they are not in the middle of a paragraph. The advertising material has been moved to the end of the book.