Transcriber's Note

A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have beenmaintained in this version of this book. They have been marked with a[TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at theend of the text. 

The following less-common characters are used in this version of thebook. If they do not display properly, please try changing your font. 

ă a with breveɔ open oħ h with strokeš s with caronṭ t with dot under† Dagger‡ Double dagger

The following codes are used for characters that are not able to berepresented in the text format used for this version of the book. 

[ɔ. ] open o with dot under[p. ] p with dot under[^q] q with circumflex[ts. ] ts with dot under

 PAPERS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY

 VOL. IV. --No. 3. 

 ANIMAL FIGURES IN THE MAYA CODICES

 BY

 ALFRED M. TOZZER, PH. D. AND GLOVER M. ALLEN, PH. D. 

 CAMBRIDGE, MASS. PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM FEBRUARY, 1910

Salem Press:THE SALEM PRESS CO. , SALEM MASS. 1910. 

NOTE

It has been thought desirable, for the advancement of the study of Mayahieroglyphs, that the interpretation of the conventionalized animalfigures, which so frequently occur in the Maya codices, should beundertaken. The Peabody Museum Committee on Central American Researchtherefore requested Dr. A. M. Tozzer to prepare a paper on the subject, and to secure the valuable cooperation of Dr. Glover M. Allen, azoologist familiar with the animals of Mexico and Central America, toaid in the identification of the various species of animals which undervarying forms are used in connection with the glyphs. 

While it is possible that some of the determinations given in this papermay require further confirmation, it is evident that the combinedstudies of Dr. Tozzer and Dr. Allen cannot fail to be useful to studentsof the Maya hieroglyphic writing. 

F. W. PUTNAM. HARVARD UNIVERSITY, August, 1909. 

KEY TO THE PRONUNCIATION OF MAYA WORDS

The vowels and consonants have their continental sounds with thefollowing exceptions:--

 =ă= like _u_ in hut =ai= like _i_ in island =k= (Beltran's _c_) ordinary palatal _k_ =q= (Beltran's _k_) velar _k_ =[ɔ. ]= (Beltran's _ɔ_) _ts_ explosive or fortis =ɔ= (Beltran's _tz_) _ts_ non-explosive =š= (Beltran's _x_) like _sh_ in hush =tš= (Beltran's _ch_) like _ch_ in church =[ts. ]= (Beltran's _cħ_) _ch_ explosive =[p. ]= (Beltran's _pp_) _p_ explosive =t= (Beltran's _tħ_) _t_ explosive

LIST OF PLATES

 Plate. 1. Mollusca: _Fasciolaria gigantea, Oliva_. 2. Insecta: Honey bee (_Melipona_). 3. Insecta and Myriapoda. 4. Arachnoidea, Arachnida, Crustacea. 5. Myriapoda, Pisces. 6. Pisces. 7. Amphibia. 8. Amphibia, Reptilia. 9. Reptilia: Rattlesnake (_Crotalus_). 10. Reptilia: Serpents. 11. Reptilia: Serpents. 12. Reptilia: Iguana, Lizards. 13. Reptilia: Crocodile 14. Reptilia: Turtles. 15. Aves: Herons, Frigate-bird. 16. Aves: Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis ocellata_). 17. Aves: King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). 18. Aves: King Vulture (_S. Papa_), Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_). 19. Aves: Vultures. 20. Aves: Harpy Eagle (_Thrasaetos harpyia_). 21. Aves: Yucatan Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_). 22. Aves: Yucatan Horned Ow[TN-1] (_B. V. Mayensis_). 23. Aves: Yucatan Screech Owl (_Otus choliba thompsoni_). 24. Aves: Quetzal (_Pharomacrus mocinno_). 25. Aves: Blue Macaw (_Ara militaris_). 26. Aves: Parrots, Turkeys. 27. Aves: Miscellaneous. 28. Various animals. 29. Mammalia: Armadillo and miscellaneous. 30. Mammalia: Deer, Hare. 31. Mammalia: Yucatan Deer (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_). 32. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_), Yucatan Deer (_O. Yucatanensis_). 33. Mammalia: Yucatan Peccary (_T. A. Yucatanense_). 34. Mammalia: Jaguar, Puma. 35. Mammalia: Jaguar, Coyote, Bear. 36, 37. Mammalia: Dog (_Canis_). 38. Mammalia: Leaf-nosed Bat (_Vampyrus_ or _Phyllostomus_). 39. Mammalia: Monkey (_Cebus_) and miscellaneous. 

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT

 FIG. 1. Top of Altar T, Copan (Mandslay, [TN-2] I. Pl. 95) 320

 2. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras, representing a vulture. Peabody Museum Memoirs. I. No. 4, fig. 15 332

 3. } 4. } Glyphs of Maya month _Moan_ showing moan-bird 5. } characteristics 339 6. }

 7. Quetzal from the bas-relief of the Temple of the Cross, Palenque 341

 8. } 9. } Glyphs for Maya month _Kankin_ (Ribs of dogs) 364 10. }

 11. } 12. } 13. } Glyphs for Maya month _Zotz_ (Bats) 365 14. }

 15. Pottery whistle from Uloa Valley, Honduras (Peabody Museum Memoirs, I, No. 4, fig. 14), representing an ape 366

 16. } 17. } 18. } Glyphs for Maya day _Chuen_ 367 19. }

 20. } 21. } 22. } Glyphs of God C. (Schellhas, Peabody Museum Papers, IV, 368 23. } No. 1) 24. }

INTRODUCTION. 

The various peoples inhabiting Mexico and Central America in earlypre-Columbian times were accustomed to record various events, especiallyin regard to their calendar and the religious ceremonials in relation toit, on long strips of skin or bark. These were usually painted on bothsides and folded together like a screen. Several of these codices arestill in existence from the Nahua and Zapotec areas in Mexico, but onlythree have come down to us from the Maya region which is included in thepeninsula of Yucatan, the states of Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico, andportions of Guatemala and Honduras. These three manuscripts are theDresden Codex in the Royal Public Library at Dresden, theTro-Cortesianus (formerly considered to have been two, the Troano andthe Cortesianus) in the National Archaeological Museum at Madrid, andthe Peresianus in the National Library at Paris. These pre-Columbianmanuscripts have all been published in facsimile. (See bibliography. )

These remains of a once extensive literature show evidence not only ofconsiderable intellectual attainments on the part of their authors butalso of a high degree of artistic skill in the drawings andhieroglyphics. The frequent occurrence in these manuscripts ofrepresentations of animals showing various degrees of elaboration andconventionalization has led us to undertake the task of identifyingthese figures as far as possible and studying the uses and significanceof the several species, a field practically untouched. [284-*]Förstemann in his various commentaries on the Maya codices (1902, 1903, 1906), Brinton (1895), and deRosny[TN-3] (1876) have only commented brieflyupon this side of the study of the manuscripts. Seler (1904a) and someothers have written short papers on special animals. During thepreparation of this paper there has appeared a brief account by Stempell(1908) of the animals in the Maya codices. The author has, however, omitted a number of species and, as we believe, misidentified others. Inmaking our identifications we have given the reasons for ourdeterminations in some detail and have stated the characteristicsemployed to denote the several species. 

We have not limited ourselves entirely to the Maya manuscripts as wehave drawn upon the vast amount of material available in the stonecarvings, the stucco figures, and the frescoes found throughout the Mayaarea. This material has by no means been exhausted in the present paper. In addition to the figures from the Maya codices and a comparatively fewfrom other sources in the Maya region, we have introduced for comparisonin a number of cases figures from a few of the ancient manuscripts ofthe Nahuas and the Zapotecs to the north. The calendar of these twopeoples is fundamentally the same as that of the Mayas. The year is madeup in the same way being composed of eighteen months of twenty days eachwith five days additional at the end of the year. There is therefore amore or less close connection as regards subject matter in all thepre-Columbian codices of Mexico and Central America but the manner ofpresentation differs among the different peoples of this region. 

FOOTNOTES:

[284-*] The first two parts of Dr. Seler's Treatise, "Die Tierbilder dermexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften" published in the _Zeitschriftfür Ethnologie_, Vol. 41, have appeared during the time when this paperwas passing through the press. The most excellent and exhaustivetreatment by Dr. Seler would seem to render the present paperunnecessary. It has seemed best, however, to continue with itspublication inasmuch as its field is narrower and more space is devotedto the Maya side of the question to the exclusion of the Mexican. Dr. Seler, on the other hand, while by no means neglecting the Maya, hasspent more time in explaining the Mexican figures. 

I

SYNOPTIC CONSIDERATION OF THE MEANING AND OCCURRENCE OF ANIMAL FORMS

Before taking up the different animals in the codices it may be well toconsider some of the more common ways in which the figures occur andtheir connection with the surrounding figures. 

MANNER OF REPRESENTATION. The entire body of the animal may berepresented realistically or the head alone may be shown. The animalhead is frequently attached to a human body. The animal may appearconventionalized to a greater or less extent and the head in turn maychange in the same way until only a single characteristic of the animalremains by which to identify it as, for example, the spots of the jaguaror the feathering around the eye of the macaw. In the case of theglyphs, a term employed to designate the regular and usually squarecharacters appearing in lines or columns throughout the codices andinscriptions, we find both the realistic drawing and that whereconventionalism has come in. 

THE TONALAMATL. The Maya codices are made up, for the most part, of therecords of the sacred period of two hundred and sixty days, a periodcalled in Nahuatl, _tonalamatl_, and other numerical calculations. The_tonalamatl_ was used for purposes of divination in order to find outwhether good or bad fortune was in store for an individual. It is notnecessary at this place to go into the different means taken to recordthis period of time or its methods of use. It may be well, however, toexplain the usual distribution of the pictures in the codices, includingthose of animals, in connection with the representation of the_tonalamatl_. A normal period is shown in Dresden 6c-7c. A column offive day signs occurs in the middle of 6c with a single red dot over it. To the right of this column stretches a horizontal line of numbersconsisting of alternate groups of black and red lines and dots. Undereach pair of red and black numbers there is usually a human form andover each pair a group of four glyphs belonging to the figure below. Schellhas (1904) has classified the various figures of gods appearing inthese vignettes of the _tonalamatl_ and lettered them. Referencesthroughout the paper will be made to the gods by letters and the readeris referred to Schellhas' paper. Animal figures often take the place ofthese gods as in the second picture in Dresden 7c where the screech owlis shown with human body. The greater number of animal figures in thecodices occur in some connection with these _tonalamatls_. 

MYTHOLOGICAL ANIMALS. Where figures are shown with human body and animalhead standing alone in the place usually occupied by one of the variousdeities in the _tonalamatl_, there can be little doubt that they have amythological meaning and are to be taken, either as gods themselves, oras representing certain of the gods. All of the animals are by no meansshown in this position. The screech owl, or Moan bird (as in Dresden10a) appears most frequently in this way. The king vulture (Dresden 8a), the dog (Dresden 7a), and the parrot (Dresden 40b) come next indescending importance. The animals represented as copulating (as inDresden 13c) might also be considered as mythological animals as well asthe full drawings of the jaguar (Dresden 8a) and the other animals whenthey occur alone in the regular vignette of the _tonalamatl_. The fourpriests in Dresden 25a-28a should also be regarded as representing, inall probability, the dog as a mythological animal. The idea ofworshipping animals as gods in themselves is strengthened by noting theease with which the Maya people worshipped the horse which was leftbehind by Cortes in his march from Mexico across to Honduras(Villagutierre, 1701, pp. 100-101). 

ASTRONOMICAL IDEAS. Animals frequently have a part to play in relationto the constellations. Throughout the codices and, to a less degree, inthe stone carvings, we find what have usually been considered to beglyphs for several of the constellations. Numerous calculations in thecodices make it clear that the Mayas had a good knowledge of astronomy. These glyphs are usually oblong in shape and three or more are arrangedtogether end to end. We have called these the constellation bands. Various attempts have been made to identify these signs of the variousconstellations. Animals frequently are pictured below these bands. Thedog with fire brands in his paws and often attached to his tail is shownin several places coming head downward from one of these bands (as inDresden 36a). The peccary is also shown in the same position althoughthe fire brands do not appear (Dresden 68a). A figure with macaw headoccurs once standing beneath one of these bands with fire brands in hishands (Dresden 40b). The serpent (as in Dresden 36a), thelizard-crocodile-like animal in Dresden 74, the turtle (Tro-Cortesianus71a), the vulture (Dresden 38b), the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b), andthe deer (Tro-Cortesianus 47a) all appear in connection with theseconstellation bands. It is impossible at this time to decide upon thepart these various animals play in relation to distinct constellations. In addition to the animals named, several of the gods, especially god B, are found below these bands. One of these signs, the one identified byFörstemann as standing for Saturn, is composed of the head of thecrocodile more or less conventionalized. 

Förstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summer solsticeand the snail as the animal associated with the winter solstice. Theredoes not seem to be any one animal used in connection with any one ofthe cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c the dog seems to beassociated with the north as shown by the glyph which is ordinarilyregarded as connected with that direction, the ape with the west, and anunidentifiable bird sitting on a _Cimi_ (death) sign with the south. Theeast is connected in this place with a human figure. It should bestated, however, that it is not absolutely certain that the usualassignment of the cardinal points, each to its special direction, iscorrect. The signs for the east and west as well as those for the northand south may be reversed. With the exception of the assignment of theoffering-glyphs to the various cardinal points which will be discussedlater (p. 290) this is almost the only case where a clear relation canbe made out between the various animals and the signs for the fourdirections. There is no definite relation as is seen, for example, inthe Vaticanus 3773, 17, 18 where the quetzal is noted perched on thetree of the east, the eagle on that of the north, the humming bird onthat of the west, and the jaguar on the tree of the south. 

COPULATION. The conception, the period of pregnancy, the infant baptism, and possibly, the naming of children are shown in both theTro-Cortesianus (91-95) and the Dresden (13-23). Animals are frequentlyshown copulating with various gods or with one another. In Dresden 13c, the deer and god M and the vulture and the dog; in 19c, the vulture anda woman; in Tro-Cortesianus 91d, a god and a woman; and in 92d, anarmadillo and a deer both with female figures. These animals probablyrepresent in some way the totems of the man or woman in question and areshown in place of the human figure. The Lacandones, a Maya people, showat the present time the remains of a totemic system (Tozzer, 1907, pp. 40-42). The deer (_Ke_) gens is found at the present time. In thegreater number of cases where copulation is shown a god and a femalefigure are pictured. The presentation of the new-born children by womenwith bird head-dresses, also occurring in this same section of bothmanuscripts, is discussed later (p. 291). 

ANIMAL SACRIFICES. Various ceremonials occurring at intervals throughoutthe Maya year which included sacrifices to the gods, evidently took up alarge part of the time of the people. Animals composed by far the majorpart of the gifts made to the gods. This was especially true in regardto the ceremonies occurring at the beginning of each year. According tothe Maya calendar there were four days only which could come at thebeginning of the year and these came in succession. Landa (1864, pp. 210-233), the first Bishop of Yucatan, gives a minute description of therites of the four years which were named according to the initial day. He also relates the manner in which the various animals are employed asofferings in these rites and also in others taking place at thebeginning of the various months. [289-*]

The rites which took place at the beginning and the end of the year areshown in Dresden 25-28 and in Tro-Cortesianus 34-37. The dog, the deer, and the turkey are the most important of the animals shown as beingoffered to the gods in this connection. It will not be necessary toconsider these animals in detail at this place as they are each taken uplater. 

OFFERINGS SHOWN BY GLYPHS. It is, however, in another connection thanthat just considered that the animals are shown as offerings far morefrequently throughout the Maya manuscripts. In the ceremonies of thefour years, the animals and birds are, for the most part, representedentire and purely as pictures. Offerings are also shown in the form ofglyphs. These may occur in connection with the figures of the gods or inthe lines of hieroglyphs above the pictures. When they are used in theformer relation they are usually shown as resting in a bowl or dish(Dresden 35a). It frequently happens that when a god is making anoffering represented by the entire animal or a glyph of the animal inthe main picture, there is a corresponding glyph of the offering abovein the line of hieroglyphics (Dresden 23b). 

The fish, iguana, turkey, deer and possibly the lizard are the usualanimals shown as glyphs in this connection. The frigate bird occurs oncein the Dresden (35a) and once in the Tro-Cortesianus (34a) as anoffering. The dog, curiously enough, does not seem to be represented byan offering-glyph although he has a glyph of his own when appearing inother connections. The iguana and fish are shown entire although drawnvery small; the head is the only part usually shown of the turkey andthe haunch of venison of the deer. The head and feet of the lizard, ashas been noted, may also be shown by a glyph. The turkey and iguanaglyphs are very often found with a _Kan_ sign indicating an offering ofmaize and bread as well as that of the animal. In connection with glyphsshowing various offerings of food, there is one which occurs especiallyin the Tro-Cortesianus (as in 106a). This shows a row of pointsthemselves running to a point over a _Kan_ sign. This, as will bepointed out later (p. 318) may also represent an iguana. The jarcontaining a representation of the honey comb (as in Tro-Cortesianus107b) might come in here in the consideration of the offering-glyphs. 

In many instances the common offerings shown by glyphs are foundassociated with the signs for the four cardinal points but there doesnot seem to be any strict uniformity as to the special offeringassociated with each direction. In Dresden 29b, the lizard glyph isfound in the same group with the sign commonly assigned to the east, theturkey with the south, the iguana with the west, and the fish with thenorth while in Dresden 29c, the deer is associated with the east, thefish with the south, the iguana with the west, and the turkey with thenorth. The iguana is usually found with the sign for the west and thefish with that of the south. The others vary greatly in the assignmentof the various directions. 

Schellhas (1904, p. 17) considers that the fish, the lizard, "thesprouting kernel of maize or (according to Förstemann, parts of amammal, game)" and a vulture's head are symbols of the four elements. The head which Schellhas interprets as that of the vulture is certainlythe head of a turkey. He remarks that these signs of the four elementsappear with god B in the Dresden manuscript. Other gods, as he alsonotes, are found with these four offering-glyphs. There seems to be afifth glyph, however, (as in Dresden 29b) which we have interpreted asthat of a lizard. 

ANIMALS AS RAIN BEARERS. Various animals are associated with the rainand water. The serpent is most frequently represented in thisconnection. Snails, fish, the turtle, and the frog, as well as thelizard-crocodile figure in Dresden 74 are naturally found associatedwith water. The vulture-headed figure in Dresden 38b and the vulture asa bird in Tro-Cortesianus 10a both appear in the rain. The peccary(Dresden 68a), and the turkey (Tro-Cortesianus 10b) appear associatedwith the rain as well as with the constellation bands. The scorpion(Tro-Cortesianus 7a) encloses the rain within its legs. 

The connection of an old female figure occurring in many places in thecodices with the rain will be discussed later (p. 316) when consideringthe serpent. It remains at this place to comment upon the woman inTro-Cortesianus 30b from whose breasts water is flowing. She isrepresented as having animal figures seated on her two outstretchedhands and on her right foot together with another animal at her side. God B sits on her left foot. This picture immediately recallsrepresentations in the Mexican codices where the various parts of thebody of a god are associated with various day signs, ten of which haveanimal names. In the Maya picture, a jaguar is shown on the right hand, a peccary on the left, a dog on the right foot, and a rabbit beside thebody at her right. The peccary is not represented among the Nahua daysigns but the other three are found, namely the _oceolotl_ (jaguar), _itzcuintli_ (dog), and _tochtli_ (rabbit). 

ANIMAL HEAD-DRESSES. Animal figures appear perhaps most frequently ashead-dresses of the various gods in the codices. Here, as elsewhere, from all that can be made out, the religious character is uppermost asin addition to being a decoration, they undoubtedly have some religioussignification. Birds occur by far most commonly in this connection. Bothmale and female figures seems to have these head-dresses. The same birdis often found as the head-dress of several different gods as, forexample, the turkey which appears with gods A, B, C, E, and N. Thevulture, on the other hand, when used as a head-dress for male figures, appears exclusively with god F. The whole bird is seldom represented onthe head-dress of the male figures. It is usually only the head and apart of the body of the bird which forms but a portion of the wholehead-covering. Landa (1864, p. 148)[292-*] notes the dress of the leaderin the rites. He wears a jacket of red feathers worked with otherfeathers and from it hang long plumes. He also wears a featherhead-dress. 

Entire birds appear as the sole head-covering only in connection withfemale figures and then only in one section of the Dresden (16-18) and aparallel passage in the Tro-Cortesianus (94-95). In both these placesthe conception and the bearing of children are shown together with theirbaptism. The bird above the head of each female figure seems to be abadge of office, possibly the totems which are held by the women andgiven to the children. The parrot, quetzal, vulture, screech owl and thehorned owl appear in this connection. It is to be noted that the birdsassociated with these women are not really represented as head-dressesat all. They are quite different from the head decoration composed of abird's head and feathers seen in other parts of the manuscripts. In theDresden especially, these birds above the women's heads are shown inalmost every case standing with the claws clasping the necklace at theback of the neck. Landa (1864, pp. 144-154) gives an interesting accountof the method of baptising children. He also states (p. 304)[292-†]that in the month _Yaxkin_ an old woman brought the little girls to thegeneral feast. This old woman was dressed in a garment of feathers. Itwas understood that this devoted old woman was not permitted to becomeintoxicated[293-*] lest she should lose in the road the plume of heroffice. 

The serpent appears as a head-dress exclusively with female figures andthen usually when the woman is in the act of offering something or isassociated with water or rain. The centipede occurs only with god D. Quadrupeds are employed as head-dresses only very seldom. The head of adeer is, in three places, used as a part of the head decoration of god Mand the head of a jaguar appears in two places only. 

SECULAR OCCUPATIONS. Animals appear frequently in scenes showing variousoccupations. These, although appearing at first sight as secular, haveto do with the religion of the people and they show in every case actsundertaken in behalf of the deities. It is almost exclusively in theTro-Cortesianus that these religious-secular occupations are shown. 

Hunting scenes occur in one section of this codex (38-49). The whole aimof the hunt in these pages is to obtain animals for sacrifice. In almostevery case the various animals are shown as being captured alive, eitherin a pitfall or a trap of the "jerk-up" type. This was undoubtedly inorder that the animal might be killed the moment it was offered to thegods by having its heart cut out. Deer are most commonly represented inthis hunting section although peccaries and armadillos also appear. Fishing is shown in one place at least (Dresden 33a). 

The practice of agriculture is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 24-28. Thesprouting grain is represented as being eaten by a vulture and a jaguar. Certain gods in this section which relates to the planting of maize areshown as being attacked by vultures and blow-flies. Another occupationof the natives depicted in the Tro-Cortesianus (103-112) is apiculture. This, again, has clearly some religious significance. Pottery-making isshown in the same manuscript (95-101). It is, however, a purelyreligious ceremony. The renewal of the incense-burners is shown. Animals occur very infrequently in this section. The quetzal and twovultures are noted seated on top of an oven-like covering under which isthe head of god C, probably representing the idol. There are severalother occupations shown in this codex such as weaving (79c) and thegathering of the sap of the rubber tree (102b), but as animals do notoccur in any connection with these operations, it is not necessary todwell upon them. 

ANIMAL GLYPHS. It remains finally to speak of the various animals whichare represented in glyph form as well as drawn in full in the picturesproper. The creatures pictured in the codices are often accompanied bytheir glyphs which appear in the lines of signs directly above. In manycases, the animal pictured below is not represented by its glyph aboveand, vice versa, the animal glyph may appear without its picture below. The same is seen also in connection with the representation of the godsand their glyphs. Both the picture and the glyph usually appear buteither may appear alone. Many times when the glyph, either of a god oran animal, is shown with no accompanying picture, the reason seems to bethat there is no room for the latter on account of the numericalcalculations which take up all the space. 

There are some animals in the codices which are represented by glyphsvery frequently. Among these are the screech owl (the Moan, the bird ofdeath), which has several different glyphs by which it is recognized, the dog which, in addition to its own glyph, may be represented by theday sign _Oc_, the king vulture, the turtle, the bee (if we consider theday sign _Cauac_ stands for this insect), and the centipede. Among theanimals whose glyphs only seldom appear may be mentioned the macaw, thepeccary, the tree-toad (god P), the quetzal, and the jaguar. The glyphfor the black vulture (Tro-Cortesianus 26c), the ape (Tro-Cortesianus88c), the deer (Peresianus 10), the eagle (Tro-Cortesianus 107c), andthe serpent (Tro-Cortesianus 106c) seem to appear but once. It mightalso be well to mention in this place the glyphs for various molluscswhich are used not to represent the shell but to give the value of zeroto the numerical calculations. 

In the inscriptions glyphs frequently occur which represent animalseither showing the whole body or simply the head. In the eastern façadeof the Monjas at Chichen Itza there are glyphs for both the king and theblack vulture and the peccary. The macaw and the turtle seem also to berepresented by glyphs in the inscriptions. The _Tun_ period glyph showsvulture-like characteristics and the _Uinal_ period glyph certainlyresembles the lizard. The glyphs representing the various animalofferings have already been discussed under a special heading (p. 289). 

FOOTNOTES:

[289-*] p. 162. "Las mugeres no usavan destos derrammamientos, aunqueeran harto santeras; mas de todas las cosas que aver podian que son avesdel cielo, animales de la tierra, o pescados de la agua, siempre lesembadurnavan los rostros al demonio con la sangre dellos. "

p. 164. "Y otras cosas que tenian ofrecian; a algunos animales lessacavan el corazon y lo ofrecian, a otros enteros, unos vivos, otrosmuertos, unos crudos, otros guisados. . . . Que sin las fiestas en lasquales, para la solemnidad de ellas, se secrificavan animales, tambienpor alguna tribulacion o necessidad. "

p. 254. "Tenian buscados todos animales y savandijas del campo quepodian aver y en la tierra avia, y con ellos se juntavan en el patio deltemplo en el qual se ponian los _Chaques_. . . . Sacavan con liberalidadlos coraçones a las aves y animales, y echavanlos a quemar en el fuego;y sino podian aver los animales grandes como tigres, leones o largartos, hazian los coraçones de su encienso, y si los matavan trayanles loscoraçones para aquel fuego. "

[292-*] "Vestido salia con un jaco de pluma colorado y labrado de otrasplumas de colores, y que le cuelgan de los estremos otras plumas largasy una como coroza en la cabeça de las mesmas plumas. "

[292-†] "Y a las niñas se les dava una vieja, vestida de un habito deplumas, que las traia alli y por esto la llamavan _Ixmol_, laallegadera. . . . Aquella devota vieja allegaria con que se emborachava encasa por no perder la pluma del officio en el camino. "

[293-*] "Intoxication was obligatory with the men in many of thereligious rites. This is reported by the early Spanish historians and isthe case at the present time among the Lacandones. " (See Tozzer, 1907, p. 136. )

II

ZOOLOGICAL IDENTIFICATION AND ETHNOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF ANIMAL FORMS. 

In the descriptions of the animals which follow the general plan will beto consider first the identification purely from a zoological point ofview, and, secondly, the connection and, wherever possible, the meaningof the use of the various animal figures wherever they occur. 

MOLLUSCA

FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA. Representations of this marine shell are found inseveral places in the codices. It is the only large _Fusus_-like specieson the western coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and, indeed, is the largestknown American shell. It is therefore not strange that it should haveattracted the attention of the Mayas and found a place in theirwritings. Several figures are shown that represent _Fasciolaria_ (Pl. 1, figs. 1-9). One in the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 1, fig. 3) in commonwith those shown in Pl. 1, figs. 2, 6, 9, has the spire represented bysegments of successively smaller size. The species of _Fasciolaria_occurring on the Yucatan and adjacent coasts is characterized bynumerous prominent bosses or projections on its later whorls, and these, too, appear in conventionalized form in most of the representations. InPl. 1, fig. 2, the second whorl, and in figs. 6, 9, the third whorl isshown with three stout tubercles in side view, corresponding to thosefound in this region of the shell. Figs. 7, 8 (Pl. 1) are glyphsrepresenting the same species, but as in fig. 4, the spire is omitted, though the knobs are present. Round spots of color are evidentlyintended by the markings on the shells shown in figs. 3, 5, 6 (Pl. 1). Fig. 5, shows a further modification of the spire, which here is madelike the head of a serpent. 

The _Mollusca_ in the codices are not always associated with the wateralthough this is usually the case. God N (Pl. 1, fig. 1) sitting withthe shell around his body is represented as in the rain and the shellsin Pl. 1, figs. 4, 6, appear under water. The snail (Maya, _šot_) isconsidered by the Nahuas as the symbol of birth and death. The firstidea is well brought out in Pl. 1, fig. 2, where the human figure isemerging from a shell. The same idea among the Mayas is seen in Pl. 1, fig. 1, where god N is coming from a shell. As god N is usuallyassociated with the end of the year, we may have here the complementaryidea of death associated with the shell. The same meaning is brought outin the Bologna Codex (Pl. 1, fig. 3) where the shell is decorated withflint points, the symbol of death. As the tortoise is often identifiedwith the summer solstice, as previously pointed out, so the snail isassociated with the winter solstice. 

Förstemann's identification of the head-dress of god D (Dresden 5c), godA (Dresden 9c, 13a), and god E (Dresden 11c) as representing snails isnot clear. Stempell (1908, p. 739) also follows the same course thinkingthat the knob-like prominences represent the stalked eyes of snails. This seems quite unlikely as such representations are usually short andoccur in too widely dissimilar connections. Moreover, there aresometimes three of these instead of but a single pair (Dresden 14a). Asimilar attempt has been made by Brinton to identify the head-dress ofthe death god (god A) as the snail. The head-dress in Dresden 13a and13b associated with god A looks far more like the head and upper jaw ofsome mammal. 

OLIVA. A univalve shell frequently represented is of an oval shape, pointed at each end, with a longitudinal lip and a short spire at oneextremity. This is doubtless a species of _Oliva_, a marine shell. Mr. Charles W. Johnson informs us that _O. Reticulata_ is the speciesoccurring on the Yucatan shores, while _O. Splendidula_ is found inother parts of the Gulf of Mexico. Representations of this shell areshown in Pl. 1, figs. 10-12. In figs. 10, 11, the lip and spire areapparent but in fig. 12 the lip only is seen as a white fissure againstthe general dark background. An earthenware vessel representing a tapir(Pl. 28, fig. 1) shows a string of _Oliva_ shells about the animal'sneck and similar strings very often decorate the belts worn by thepersonages represented on the stelae of Copan. 

The shell in the codices is found in most cases to represent zero in theMaya numerical calculations. Just as a bar has the meaning five, and adot one, so the shell often has the signification of zero. This is seenespecially in the numeration by position in the codices (Pl. 1, figs. 7, 8, 10-14). 

OTHER MOLLUSCA. In addition to the species just described at least twoor three others occur in the Nuttall Codex, but so conventionalized thatit is out of the question to hazard a guess at their identity. One (Pl. 1, figs. 16, 17) is a bivalve with long pointed shell, another (Pl. 1, figs. 18-20) is rounder with conventionalized scroll-like markings. Figs. 21, 22 (Pl. 1) may be a side view of the closed bivalve shown infigs. 16, 17, or possibly a species of cowry. In like manner, fig. 13 isprobably a side view of the mollusc shown in fig. 14, for it is seenthat in each case the figure showing the two opened valves has abipartite extended foot, whereas that of the single valve is simple. This doubling of the single median foot of the bivalve may be anartistic necessity for the sake of balance, or perhaps represents bothfoot and siphon at the same end. Figs. 23, 24 (Pl. 1) seem to representmolluscs still further reduced and conventionalized. These molluscs fromthe Nuttall Codex (Pl. 1, figs. 15-24) are almost all found representedin the blue water, whereas those which stand for zero in the Mayacodices have no immediate association with either water or rain. 

INSECTA

THE HONEY BEE (_Melipona_). A portion of the Tro-Cortesianus appears totreat of apiculture, as previously noted, or, at all events, containsnumerous figures of bees, some of which are shown in Pl. 2. As stated byStempell (1908, p. 735) this is doubtless a species of _Melipona_, probably _M. Fulvipes_ or _domestica_. It is well known that this beewas kept by the ancient Mexicans, and what appear to be improvised hivesare shown in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, where the combs are noted dependingfrom the ceiling or walls. These combs are seen to be composed of cellsroughly four-sided for the most part, though in fig. 11 severalhexagonal cells are present in the mass of comb held by the black god, M. Darwin, in his _Origin of Species_, has called attention to the formof the comb built by this bee, and considers its irregular cells of fromthree to six sides intermediate in their degree of perfection betweenthose of the bumble bee (_Bombus_) and the honey bee of Europe (_Apismellifica_). The _Caban_ form in connnection[TN-4] with the hive in fig. 10 may have some phonetic signifiance[TN-5] as _kab_ is honey in Maya. This sign occurs very frequently in the pages devoted to apiculture. 

The figures of the bees in the codex show a number of interestingvariations. In figs. 1-3, 5, 11, the insect is less conventionalizedthan in figs. 4, 6 (Pl. 2). The hairy feet are well indicated as well asthe segmented body and a single pair of wings. All the figures show ananterodorsal view so that, on account of the size of the first pair oflegs, only the tops of the second pair appear in Pl. 2, figs. 1, 3, 5. In fig. 2, however, two pairs are seen, and in figs. 4, 6, theanthropomorphic tendency is further shown by providing the insect withtwo pairs of limbs each with four or five digits, and a conventionalizedface, eyes and mouth. In Pl. 2, fig. 1, the bee is represented withoutmouthparts but antennae only. This may indicate a drone or a queen beethat takes no active part in the work of gathering honey or making comb. Fig. 2 is perhaps the least reduced of any of the figures and shows theworker bee with antennae and mouthparts. 

The so-called "cloud balls" of the day sign _Cauac_ (Pl. 2, fig. 8) mayrepresent the honey comb. _Cauac_ is usually supposed to have someconnection with lightening[TN-6] and thunder although Valentini agrees withthe authors in associating _Cauac_ with the bees and honey. The_Cauac_-like forms in Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10, have been described above ashives. The representation of legs in the full drawing of a bee as fourlarge limbs, an anterior and a posterior pair, coupled with the methodof drawing the insect as seen from above and in front, may have led toits final expression by an X-shaped mark shown in connection with thehives (Pl. 2, figs. 7, 10). The X is also seen in the day sign _Cauac_. 

Apiculture was common among the various peoples of Central America andMexico. Las Casas speaks of hives of bees and Gomara states that thebees were small and the honey rather bitter. Clavigero (Vol. 1, p. 68)[300-*] mentions six varieties of bees which were found inMexico;--the first is the same as the common bee of Europe, the seconddiffers from the first only in having no sting and is the bee of Yucatanand Chiapas which makes the fine clear honey of aromatic flavor. Thethird species resembles in its form the winged ants but is smaller thanthe common bee and without a sting. The fourth is a yellow bee, smallerthan the common one but, like it, furnished with a sting. The fifth is asmall bee without a sting which constructs hives of an orbicular form insubterranean cavities and the honey is sour and somewhat bitter. The_Tlalpipiolli_, which is the sixth species, is black and yellow, of thesize of the common bee, but has no sting. 

The natives of the country at the present time often cultivate hives ofbees in logs which they hollow out for this purpose and keep in aspecially constructed shelter. It is, however, rather the ceremonialside of apiculture that is the interesting feature and this is clearlyemphasized in the Tro-Cortesianus. The section in this manuscript (80b, 103-112), as has been noted, is taken up almost exclusively with theculture of the bee and in all probability represents a definitereligious ceremony or series of rites which are connected intimatelywith bees and honey. Landa (1864, p. 292)[300-†] states that in themonth _Tzoz_ the natives prepare for a ceremony in behalf of the beeswhich takes place in the following month, _Tzec_. In the month _Mol_another fiesta is undertaken in behalf of these insects so that thegods may provide an abundance of flowers for the bees (Landa, 1864, p. 306). [301-*]

It seems clear therefore that we have represented in the pages of theTro-Cortesianus referred to, the rites carried out in this connection. The more or less realistic drawings of the bees (Pl. 2, figs. 1-6, 9)represent the god of the bees and to him offerings of food and incenseare being made. Pl. 2, fig. 11, shows the war god (M) with his eaglehead-dress offering a mass of honey in the comb to the god of the bees. 

Curiously enough the bee does not seem to be represented in the DresdenCodex. Förstemann's identification of the head-dress of the goddess inDresden 9a as a bee does not seem to us to be correct. 

In addition to the bees, there occurs in the Nuttall Codex 4 (Pl. 3, fig. 4) a curious representation of an insect with a pointed beak-likestructure and a spine at the posterior extremity of its human-like body. It is engaged in apparent conflict with a man and may represent ahornet. 

BLOW-FLY (_Sarcophaga_). Two figures in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 3, figs. 1, 2) are of special interest since they appear to have beenfrequently regarded as picturing snakes attacking men. These arethick-bodied sinuous creatures distinguished by the curious conformationof the mouth and by a lateral row of dots that may represent themetameric spiracles or, as commonly, a demarcation between dorsal andventral surfaces. That these are maggots of a blow-fly (_Sarcophaga_)there can be little doubt, not only on account of their mouth partswhich are similar to those of the agave maggot (see later) but alsobecause of their relation to God F whom they are devouring. The latterin fig. 1 is doubtless dead as shown by the closed eye and it is thehabit of the blow-fly to deposit its eggs in the nasal cavity of deadanimals as well as elsewhere on the body. The fact that in each case amaggot is attacking the god's nose may indicate that this habit wasknown to the artist who, consequently, shows the larvae in thisposition. In Pl. 3, fig. 2, the god's eye is not closed but his passiveattitude while the maggot devours his hand and nose does not indicatethat he is in full possession of his strength. In addition to theblow-fly, a screw-fly (_Chrysomyia_) lays its eggs on the bodies ofanimals, often on persons sleeping, and these may hatch almost at onceinto small maggots that penetrate the skin. It may be, therefore, thatthe larvae here considered belong to this genus. 

In addition to god F, in Tro-Cortesianus 24d, there is anotherrepresentation of the same god being attacked by a vulture. This bird isevidently eating his nose. In this case the god is shown with the closedeye as in 27d. In Tro-Cortesianus 25d the fly seems to be attacking themouth of god F. From the fact that no other god is ever found in thisconnection it may be suggested that there may be some relation betweengod F as a god of human sacrifice and the fact that his dead body isbeing eaten by blow-flies and vultures. A portion of the body of theperson sacrificed was usually eaten by those taking part in theceremony. 

LEPIDOPTEROUS INSECTS. In Tro-Cortesianus 28c (Pl. 3, fig. 3) is shown asecond insect larva with curiously formed mouth parts. It is representedas attacking agave which is springing from the ground as shown by the_Caban_ signs in the codex. Hough (1908, p. 591) has shown this to bethe larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_ Felder, "called by the Mexicans_guson_, and in Nahuatl _mescuillin_. " This grub, he says, is white, about an inch long, and tunnels the fleshy leaves of the agave. It isgreatly prized as an article of food for "_gusones_ to this day arecollected in April, boiled, wrapped in the epidermis of the agave, soldon the streets of Mexico, and are eaten with avidity. To all appearancesthey are nourishing and palatable, and it is said that connoisseursprefer them to oysters or swallows' nests. " Hough believes "that thediscovery of the sap-yielding quality of the agave was through searchfor these larvae. "

In the Nuttall Codex occur numerous representations of insects, some ofwhich appear to represent butterflies or moths (Pl. 3, figs. 5-8) butthese are quite unidentifiable. That shown in fig. 6 is colored blue inthe original, while the others are of various colors. Possibly the roundmarkings on the wings in figs. 5, 8, represent the ocelli on the wingsof certain species of moths. In this connection, too, it is interestingto compare the conventionalized butterfly with its single eye andpointed antennae from the Aubin manuscript (Pl. 3, fig. 9) with onedrawn on the same plan from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 3, fig. 8). 

MYRIAPODA

Representations of a centipede (probably a species of _Scolopendra_)occur in the Dresden Codex and in several others examined. That shown inPl. 5, fig. 1, from the Vaticanus 3773, is perhaps the leastconventionalized. [303-*] This figure appears partly to encircle atemple, behind which the major portion of its length is hidden and henceis not here shown. The bipartite structure coming from the animal's headdoubtless represents the mouthparts, and at its base on either sidearise antennae. The first pair only of legs is shown with a pinchingclaw, possibly intended as a conventionalized hand, while the rest aresimple. The plumes decorating the posterior extremity are of courseextraneous and represent the tail of the quetzal or trogon. 

In the Dresden Codex, god D constantly appears in connection with ahead-dress from which depends a centipede, greatly reduced andconventionalized. Two forms of this centipede are shown in Pl. 3, figs. 15, 18. The body appears to consist of four or five segments each withits pair of ambulatory appendages (though there may not always be thesame number of each) terminated by a circular segment with aconventionalized three-knobbed structure, apparently corresponding tothe portion that bears the quetzal plume in Pl. 5, fig. 1. The outlineof the head in Pl. 3, fig. 15, is shown in dotted line but by solid linein fig. 18. One of the antennae appears to be omitted from the formerfigure, also, but both are present in the latter. The insect-like headis made on much the same plan as that of the bee (Pl. 2, fig. 11), thefacial portion divided by a median line into a right and a left halfwith a small triangle below for a mouth. The eyes, however, instead ofbeing circular like those of the bee are made as narrow elongatedprojections extending inward from the dorsal margin of the facial disc. 

The glyphs for god D in Dresden 7b (Pl. 3, fig. 11), Dresden 7c, andDresden 14b (Pl. 3, fig. 12) undoubtedly show three forms of the signfor god D, only one of which (fig. 12) is given by Schellhas (1904, p. 22) among the signs of this god. In each of these cases the centipedehead surrounded by dots is shown in connection with the main part of theglyph. In Dresden 44b (Pl. 3, fig. 13) there is a glyph which seems toshow the same centipede head although it has no connection with god D inthe place where it is found. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 3, fig. 14), moreover, still another variant of the glyph for god D seems to occur. This showsa prefix clearly representing the centipede and the "moon sign" is themain part of the glyph. Directly beside this in the codex is found the_Ahau_-like sign for god D and god D himself is represented in themiddle section of the page. 

The association of god D with the centipede may be explained by the factthat as this god is regarded as the Moon or Night god, so the centipedeis an animal which frequents dark places. Another point in thisconnection may be made if we consider the head of the centipede in thehead-dress and in the glyphs as representing the day sign _Akbal_ (Pl. 3, fig. 10) as _Akbal_ in Maya means night. It must be admitted, however, that the head might represent the day sign _Chuen_ almost aswell as _Akbal_. The centipede is connected with death and destructionin the same way as the owl. Both are shown in Vaticanus 3773, 13, associated with the "house of drought. "

CRUSTACEA

With one possible exception no crustaceans were found depicted in theMaya codices, but we have introduced figures of two from the NuttallCodex. The first of these (Pl. 4, fig. 5) is probably a crayfish, perhaps _Cambarus montezumae_. It seems unlikely that the so-calledSpanish lobster (_Palinurus_) can be intended or the powerful spinedantennae would have been shown. It is interesting to note that thestalked eyes are clearly pictured. The second example seems to be a crab(Pl. 4, fig. 6). Two large chelae of nearly equal size are simply drawnand four rounded projections at the top of the figure appear torepresent the walking legs. Its rotund form and subequal chelae suggestthe land crab, _Geocarcinus_, but exact determination is of courseimpossible. What is certainly a large crab, perhaps of the same species, is shown in Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) in connection with adog whose feet it seems about to pinch with its two large chelae. Theshell is ornamented in a conventionalized way as if with scales. 

ARACHNIDA

In Codex Borbonicus 9 (Pl. 4, fig. 4) there is represented astout-bodied form of spider with two sharply pointed cheliceraeprojecting from the conventionalized mouth. These characteristicstogether with the absence of any web, suggest a large predaciousspecies, probably the tarantula (_Tarantula_ sp. ) which is common inMexico. The acute powers of observation shown by the artist are evincedin this figure since he draws the spider correctly with eight legsinstead of the six or ten sometimes seen in drawings by our ownillustrators. 

ARACHNOIDEA

The scorpion (Maya, _sinaan_) figures prominently in theTro-Cortesianus, two drawings from which are shown (Pl. 4, figs. 1, 2). As here conventionalized, the jointed appendages are represented ascomposed of an indefinite number of round segments. The large chelatepedipalps are also prominently figured but the smaller walking legs arecommonly omitted. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, however, there is a pair ofposterior chelate appendages which are probably added to give a moreanthropoid cast to the figure. The slight projections along the sides ofthe body in Pl. 4, fig. 2, probably do not represent the legs. Inanother drawing (Tro-Cortesianus 44b) these are also present but furtherreduced so as not to exceed the heavy fringe of spines surrounding thebody. In Pl. 4, fig. 1, the fringe alone appears. The formidable natureof the scorpion is of course due to the poisonous sting at the tip ofthe attenuated abdomen or "tail. " In the Maya pictures this portion isusually shown as a grasping organ. Thus in fig. 1 it is similar to thechela and holds a cord by which a deer has been caught. In fig. 2 the"tail" is terminated by a hand. The same thing is seen inTro-Cortesianus 44b where the hand seizes a cord by which a deer issnared. The scorpion is represented in the drawings with aconventionalized face that is very characteristic. The facial disc isdivided into three parts by a median area of straight or irregularlateral boundaries ending anteriorly in two in-turned scrolls suggestingthe alae of the nose. A circular eye is present in each of the lateraldivisions of the face while from the oral region projects a forkedtongue. 

It is of course hazardous to attempt a specific identification of thesefigures but, as pointed out by Stempell (1908, p. 739), there are twolarge scorpions in Yucatan (_Centruroides margaritatus_ and _C. Gracilis_) which are probably the species pictured in the codices. 

The representations of the scorpion in the Tro-Cortesianus are almostalways associated with scenes of the hunt. As the deer is caught in atrap so Förstemann considers that Pl. 4, fig. 1, shows a trap with fiveappliances, the "tail" one alone being effective. Brinton (1895, p. 75)notes that the Mayas applied the term _sinaan ek_, "scorpion stars" to acertain constellation and suggests that it was derived from theSpaniards. There is certainly some association between the scorpion andwater as, in Tro-Cortesianus 7a, the fore and hind legs of the animalenclose a body of water. The scorpion "tail" alone appears inTro-Cortesianus 31a and 82a as the tail of a god. Its significance isdifficult to make out. Destruction is indicated by the scorpion in theAubin manuscript as suggested by Seler (1900-1901, p. 71). 

In the Nuttall Codex there is a remarkably beautiful conventionalizationof a scorpion (Pl. 4, fig. 3) in which the tripartite nature of the headis still preserved though it is so reduced as to resemble the calyx of aflower. The "tail", as elsewhere, and the legs are present. 

PISCES

Figures of fish (Maya _kai_) occur commonly in the Maya codices invarious connections as well as in the stone carvings, but none of theseseems certainly identifiable. Among the representations, however, thereare clearly several species. One (Pl. 5, figs. 2, 6, 7-9; Pl. 6, fig. 9)has a single dorsal fin, powerful teeth, and a generally ferociousaspect and may represent some large predacious variety, perhaps a tunny. The distinct operculum in most of the figures would preclude theirrepresenting a shark. Other figures picture similar fish without theprominent teeth (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 5; Pl. 6, figs. 2, 6, 10, 13). In twocases the scales are diagramatically shown by straight or crescentriclines (Pl. 5, fig. 4, 8). A third species of fish is shown provided withtwo dorsal fins (Pl. 6, figs. 3, 11; Pl. 7, fig. 6, the last anexcellent stone carving). Others (Pl. 6, figs. 7, 14-17) representfishes without dorsal fins, one of which (fig. 7) from its length may bean eel, possibly _Muraena_. 

In the Nuttall Codex occurs a remarkable fish with an unmistakable wingarising just behind the head nearly at the dorsal line. While this mayrepresent a flying fish (_Exocetus_), the head is so bird-like that thewhole may be merely a combination figure. 

Of frequent occurrence in the Dresden is a glyph, two modifications ofwhich are here shown (Pl. 6, figs. 4, 5). Stempell suggests that thevertical lines on the posterior portion of such figures may be gillslits and that hence they may represent sharks in which these orificesare without an operculum. 

As with the molluscs, so with the fish, we naturally find them usuallyassociated with the water. This may be seen especially well in theNuttall Codex. In Dresden 33a (Pl. 6, fig. 13) the fish is clearlyassociated with the operation of fishing as two figures are seated onthe edge of a body of water in the act of casting a net. An eel is shownin the water under god B in Dresden 65b (Pl. 6, fig. 7) and fish areshown just below the claws of a crocodile in text figure 1. In Dresden44a god B holds a fish in his hands. As will be pointed out later (p. 314) this god is frequently associated with water. In Dresden 44c a fishappears between god B and an unidentifiable deity. In the Maya codicesthe greater number of representations of fish are in connection withsacrifice. In Dresden 27 (Pl. 6, fig. 6) the fish is pictured resting ontwo _Kan_ signs, the symbol of maize or bread, and these in turn on aflat bowl. In Dresden 29b (Pl. 5, fig. 9) the fish is representedbetween the red and black numbers of the _tonalamatl_. Here again thefish is shown as an offering. 

In two cases only do we find the fish used as a part of the head-dressand in each case the fish is graphically shown as held in the mouth of aheron. One of these is in the Dresden Codex 36b (Pl. 5, fig. 3) and onein the stone carving of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque (Pl. 15, fig. 5). Fish are often represented on the stone carvings as feedingupon a water plant. This is seen in the border at the bottom of theLower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 5, figs. 2, 4; Pl. 6, fig. 2). In several instances at Copan fish are shown asforming the sides of the Great Cycle glyph at the beginning of anInitial Series (Pl. 6, figs. 14-17). It has often been suggested that asthe word fish in Maya is _kai_ (usually written _cay_), there may besome phonetic significance here, combining the fish, _kai_, with theusually drum-like sign for stone, _tun_, making _kai tun_ or _katun_. This is the term usually given not to the Great Cycle but to the periodcomposed of twenty _tuns_ and is probably derived from _kal_ meaningtwenty and _tun_, a stone. 

AMPHIBIA

FROGS. Figures undoubtedly representing frogs (Maya _mutš_ or _uo_)or toads are found in several places in the codices and in the stonecarvings, but it is quite impossible to refer them definitely to any ofthe numerous species occurring in Central America, if, indeed, theartists had any one species in mind. In the Tro-Cortesianus frogs arenot uncommon. In 31a there are four (Pl. 7, fig. 1) with water comingfrom their mouths. They are characterized by their stout taillessbodies, flattened heads and toothless mouths. In 101d (Pl. 7, figs. 2, 3) there are two, the first painted blue with spots of darker blue andthe second white and represented as broken in two in the middle. Thesigns of death above the latter clearly show that a dead animal isindicated. Pl. 7, fig. 6, shows the end of Altar O from Copan on which afrog and a fish are pictured, the former in dorsal view, the latter inlateral aspect. The peculiar pointed snout of this frog is similar tothat of the frog shown in Pl. 7, fig. 7, also in dorsal view. A somewhatsimilar creature (Pl. 29, fig. 6) we have included and though it mayrepresent an opossum it has little to distinguish it from the figures offrogs. [309-*]

God B in Tro-Cortesianus 12b should be associated with the frog. Hislegs are those of a frog and he appears as if swimming in the water. Frog in Maya is _Uo_ which is also the name of the second month of theMaya year. The first day of this month, according to Landa, correspondsto August 5 of our year and this is the height of the rainy season inthe Maya region. The sign for _Uo_ does not, however, resemble a frog inany way. The frog above one of the figures in the Lower Chamber of theTemple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza (Pl. 7, fig. 7) has clearly somerelation to the name or totem of the warrior. The Nahua custom is seenhere. 

Toads are probably intended in Pl. 7, figs. 4, 5. In these the greatbreadth of the head and mouth together with the short inflated bodycombine to produce a very toad-like appearance. It is not unlikely thatthey represent the huge marine toad, _Bufo marinus_, common fromsouthern Mexico to Brazil and in the West Indies. There seems to be nodistinction in the treatment of frogs and toads in the codices. 

TREE-TOAD (_Hyla eximia_). Of great interest are the figures inTro-Cortesianus 26a and b (Pl. 8, figs. 1, 3), showing a god withexpanded finger tips and characterized further by the presence of twoparallel black stripes from the hinder and lower margins of the eyerespectively. The knob-like finger tips at once suggest one of thetree-toads, and the presence of the two lines seems to indicate _Hylaeximia_ as the species represented. In this tree-toad there is a longblack lateral line running posteriorly from the tympanum and above it ashorter line just as in the drawings. It appears to be a common speciesin the valley of Mexico though but little seems to have been written ofits habits. At the beginning of the rainy season it repairs to pools ofwater to breed and is then very noticeable from its loud voice. No doubtits importance in the Maya economy was from its conspicuousness at thebeginning of the rainy period. This fact is brought out more stronglywhen we consider that these gods representing the tree-toad areassociated with agriculture and the sowing of grain at the beginning ofthe rainy season. Förstemann (1902, p. 35) identifies these figures asgod F. They are quite unlike the usual representation of this god andare clearly god P as Schellhas (1904, p. 39) indicates. It isinteresting to note that the two black lines behind the eye are alsoseen in the other gods shown in Tro-Cortesianus 26a and b although theknob-like finger tips are lacking. The glyph for this tree-toad god isrecognized in the fifth place at the top of the same page (Pl. 8, fig. 2) by the same two black lines under and behind the eye. 

REPTILIA

SERPENT. It would be impossible in the present paper to enter into anylengthy discussion of the use of the serpent (Maya _kan_) in Mexico andCentral America. It seems to be one of the main elements in the religionand consequently in the art of the Mayas and Mexican peoples. It isrepresented again and again in many forms and varied combinations. Itunderlies the whole general trend of Maya art. The serpent is oftenassociated with feathers. The culture hero of the Nahuas, _Quetzalcoatl_ (feathered serpent) corresponds to a similar god amongthe Mayas, _Kukulcan_ (also meaning feathered serpent). The feathers ofthe quetzal are the ones commonly used in connection with the serpent. 

Any attempt at identification of the species represented is beset bygrave difficulties for so conventionalized have the figures often becomethat, except in the case of the rattlesnake with its rattles, there areno characteristic marks by which the species may be known. It is naturalto suppose that the species used for artistic purposes would be thosethat are most noteworthy because of their size, coloring, or venomousqualities. No doubt a number of harmless species were also used in thereligious ceremonies. [311-*] Such may be those used as hair ornaments inmany of the figures (Pl. 8, figs. 7-13, 15) and in which no indicationof a rattle is to be seen. The fierce eye of these reptiles is shown bymeans of an exaggerated overhanging brow occasionally embellished byrecurved crests (Pl. 8, figs. 10, 11, 13, 15). These crests aresometimes shown as two or three stalked knobs (Pl. 10, fig. 7) thatStempell was misled into identifying as the eyes of snails. Variousheads of snakes usually with fangs exposed and tongue protruding arepictured in Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, figs. 2, 4-6: one snake with aspiny back is shown in Pl. 8, fig. 5, but obviously it represents merelythe artist's endeavor to present as terrifying a creature as possible. 

Various types of rattlesnakes are shown in Pl. 9. The presence of therattle is of course the characteristic, and this portion alone islikewise used, in one case, at least, as a glyph (Pl. 9, fig. 7). Itcannot be denied, however, that some or most of the snakes in which norattles appear, are nevertheless intended for rattlers. It may have beenthat the figures were so well understood that the addition of rattles inthe drawings was quite unnecessary. This, however, is quite conjectural. The species of rattlesnake is probably _Crotalus basiliscus_ or _C. Terrificus_ of southern Mexico and adjacent regions, not _C. Horridus_or _adamanteus_ as supposed by Stempell since these two species areconfined to the United States. Among the figures shown on Pl. 9, it isnoteworthy that five of the rattlesnakes show no fangs. Some arespotted, but in a wholly arbitrary manner. Three are unmarked. One isshown coiled about the base of a tree (Pl. 9, fig. 5), another coiledready to strike though the rattle is pictured trailing on the groundinstead of being held erect in the center of the coil as usually is done(Pl. 9, fig. 9). A rattlesnake is shown held in the hand of a man in Pl. 9, fig. 8. 

In Pl. 10, fig. 1, is shown a rattle-less snake with prominent fang, coiled about the top of an altar which may represent a tree or bush. From the latter fact, it might be concluded that it was a tree orbush-inhabiting species, possibly the deadly "bush-master" (_Lachesislanceolatus_). Other figures (Pl. 10, figs. 3, 7; Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2)are introduced here as examples of the curious head ornamentationfrequently found in the drawings. The two first are merely serpents withthe jaws extended to the utmost, and with a characteristic headdecoration. The last is provided with an elaborate crest. The size andmarkings of the two serpents shown in Pl. 11, as well as their want ofrattles suggest that they may represent some species of large _Boidae_as _Loxocemus bicolor_ or _Boa_ (sp?). 

After having commented upon the various serpents occurring in thecodices and in several other places, we will now take up the manner andconnection in which the various figures occur. We shall pass overcompletely the use of the "serpent column" at Chichen Itza, theimportance of the serpent motive in the development of the masked panelas worked out by Spinden, and the countless representations of theplumed serpent in the whole field of Maya design and decoration. In thesingle Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, the feathered serpentoccurs in the round as a column decoration supporting the portico, ascarved on the wooden lintel at the entrance to the Painted Chamber, again and again on the frescoes of this room, [313-*] in the LowerChamber as dividing the bas-relief into zones or panels, and, finally, as the center of the whole composition of this bas-relief. It will beseen, therefore, that it will be necessary in a short paper, to limitourselves to the representations of the serpent in the Maya codices. 

The serpent is most frequently associated with god B. Schellhas (1904, p. 17), Fewkes (1894), Förstemann (1906), and Thomas (1882), seem toagree that god B is to be identified as _Kukulcan_, the most importantof the deities of the Mayas and, as pointed out before, appearing in theNahua mythology, as _Quetzalcoatl_, and in the Quiche myths as_Gucumatz_. It was also noted that the name means both in Maya and inNahuatl, the "feathered serpent" or the "bird serpent. " Otherauthorities consider god B as _Itzamna_, another of the main gods of theMayas. Seler interprets god B as the counterpart of the Nahua rain god, _Tlaloc_. It is certain that when god B and the serpent are associatedtogether water and rain are usually indicated. God H, "the _Chicchan_god, " also has some relation to the serpent. As pointed out by Schellhas(1904, pp. 28-30), this god often appears characterized by a skin-spotor a scale of the serpent on his temple of the same shape as thehieroglyph of the day _Chicchan_ (serpent). The glyph belonging to thisdeity also shows the _Chicchan_ sign as its distinguishing mark. Similarsigns appear on the body of the serpent in many places, as inTro-Cortesianus 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1). 

We have already noted that the serpent, god B, and water are frequentlyshown together, so the serpent also appears associated with water andrain, when no figure of god B is present. From this connection, it canbe argued that there is some relation between the serpent and the comingof the rains. These facts would give strength to the theory that god Bis to be identified as a rain god. In Dresden 33a, 35a, god B is seatedon the open jaws of a serpent, while the body of the reptile encloses ablue field evidently signifying water. The number nineteen appears onthis blue color. It will be noted that there are nineteen spots on theserpents in Pl. 11, figs. 1, 2. In Tro-Cortesianus 3a-6a, correspondingscenes seem to be shown. The body of the serpent encloses water, andhere the number eighteen appears in each case. God B occurs always infront of the serpent and his head appears as the head of the reptile inthe first instance. In Dresden 35a, 36a, the head of god B is picturedas the head of the serpent in the midst of the water. In Dresden 37b(Pl. 10, fig. 8), B is holding a snake in the water. 

Water appears in connection with the serpent and god B in many places inthe Tro-Cortesianus. In 9, god B is pictured pouring water from a jar, acommon method of showing the idea of rain in the codices. In 12b, Bagain is shown perhaps representing a frog, and behind him a serpent. The reptiles in 13b-18b, are all associated with the idea of rain, theturtle and frog also appearing in this section. In 30a (Pl. 11, fig. 1), god B and a female figure are both pouring water from a jar, as theystand on the body of a serpent. In 32a, the black god (L) is seen in therain, and a serpent is near, while in 32b and 33b (Pl. 9, fig. 1), theserpent forms the belt of god L, and a female figure and water are seenin both cases. The blue color of the snake and of god B in 31b (Pl. 11, fig. 2) may also suggest water. 

God B also occurs in connection with the serpent in Dresden 42a (Pl. 8, fig. 14), where the god is seated on the reptile, in Tro-Cortesianus, 10b, where the head of the same god is the head of the snake, and inTro-Cortesianus 19a, where god B again and god A are each seated on theopen jaws of a serpent. 

The astronomical role of the serpent is noted in Dresden 56b, 57b (Pl. 10, fig. 3), Tro-Cortesianus 5b, 12b, 15b, and 67b, where the snake isshown in connection with a line of constellation signs, the _kin_ or sunsign prominent in most of the drawings. In the "battle of theconstellations" in Dresden 60, the serpent appears forming a sort ofaltar, the seat of a figure which is supported by another figure. Aserpent head also appears at the foot of the latter figure. 

That the serpent appears associated with the idea of time seems clearfrom the fact of the long number series in Dresden 61, 62 (Pl. 10, fig. 7), and 69, which are shown in the spaces made by the winding of theserpents' bodies. In Tro-Cortesianus 13a-16a, four large reptiles appearin connection with the lines of day signs. 

The study of the serpent used as a head-dress is interesting. As notedpreviously, quite a different kind of snake seems to be represented whenused in this connection. Two other points come out in thisinvestigation, namely, that it is only with female figures that theserpent is employed as a head-dress, and in far the greater number ofcases the women are shown, either in the act of offering something, orof pouring water from a jar. The usual type of serpent head-dress isseen in Dresden 9c (Pl. 8, fig. 11), 15b (Pl. 8, fig. 12), 18a (Pl. 8, fig. 13), 22b (Pl. 8, fig. 10), and 23b (Pl. 8, fig. 8). In the firstcase, the offering is a jicara or gourd of some sacred drink(_baltše_?), in the second and third examples, the dish is clearlyshown, but the offering is unidentifiable, in the fourth case, maize (a_Kan_ sign), and in the last, a fish resting on a dish. In Dresden 20a(Pl. 8, fig. 15), a woman with serpent head-dress is seen associatedwith the Moan-headed figure, possibly in the act of offering it as asacrifice. 

In Dresden 39b (Pl. 8, fig. 7), 43b (Pl. 8, fig. 9), and 70, a similarserpent head-dress is shown on a female figure in the act of pouringwater from a jar. In Tro-Cortesianus, the serpent head-dresses differ intype only, and in two out of the four cases where they appear, water isshown flowing from the breasts (30b) of the female figure or from themouth (32b). The woman thus represented in connection with the water isgod I, the water goddess of Schellhas. She is, as he notes (1904, p. 31)usually the figure of an old woman. "Evidently, we have here thepersonification of water in its quality of destroyer, a goddess offloods and cloud-bursts. " We are not at all sure that we have here adistinct god as similar female figures with serpent head-dresses occurfrequently in the Dresden Codex with no suggestion of water. The failureto find any distinct glyph for this goddess seems to strengthen the viewof not considering her as a separate deity. Finally, in ourconsideration of head-dresses, the serpent is to be seen inTro-Cortesianus 79c on the head of the first woman who is weaving. Possibly, a conventionalized serpent forms the head covering of thesecond figure who is represented as dead. 

The serpent in Dresden 26c-28c (Pl. 10, fig. 1) coiled around the altarwhich rises from a _Tun_ sign is not easily explained. In 25c, the altaris replaced by god B and in the former cases, the reptiles may stand forthis god with whom they are often associated. [316-*] The serpent seemsclosely connected with the idea of offerings as the body of a snake isshown in several instances as the support of the jar containing thevarious gifts in Tro-Cortesianus 34a, 34b, 35a, 35b, 36a, 36b, andpossibly 52c (Pl. 9, fig. 3). 

Finally the serpent is to be noted in a number of miscellaneousconnections:--in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), as being attacked by ablack vulture, [317-*] in Tro-Cortesianus 40b (Pl. 9, fig. 4) arattlesnake is biting the foot of one of the hunters, and inTro-Cortesianus 66b, where the serpent has a human head and arm comingfrom its open jaws. This is a very frequent method of representing theserpent in the Maya stone carvings. In Tro-Cortesianus 60c, 100d (Pl. 9, fig. 8), twice, 106a, and 111b, the rattlesnake is shown as a sprinklerfor the holy water in the hand (in the first, second and fourthexamples) of god D. Landa (1864, p. 150)[317-†] describes in theceremony of the baptism of children, that the leader of the rite wore onhis head a kind of mitre embroidered with plumage in some manner and inhis hand a small holy-water sprinkler of wood, carved skillfully, ofwhich the filaments were the tails of serpents, similar to serpents withrattles. 

In spite of the importance of the serpent in the manuscripts and stonecarvings, it never seems to appear as a separate deity. With oneexception, no glyph is to be found representing this reptile as is thecase with many of the animals. Tro-Cortesianus 106c (Pl. 9, fig. 7) isthis exception showing the rattles of a snake which are found in theline of glyphs above two of the bees. No serpent appears in the picture. 

The Nahuatl day, _Couatl_, has the signification serpent, as suggestedbefore, in discussing the meaning of the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or_Quetzalcouatl_. This day sign occurs throughout the Mexicanmanuscripts as the head of a serpent (Pl. 8, figs. 4, 6; Pl. 9, fig. 2;Pl. 10, figs. 2, 4-6). 

IGUANA. Of the lizards represented, the iguana (Maya _hu_) is the moststriking, and is readily identified on account of the prominent spinesalong the back. As noted by Stempell, there are two or three species oflarge lizards in Central America commonly called iguana, and it isprobable that the one here considered is the _Ctenosaura acanthura_ ofYucatan or _Iguana tuberculata_ of South and Central America. 

In the manuscripts the iguana is almost exclusively represented as anoffering (Pl. 12, figs. 1-6). It is usually found on top of the _Kan_sign, meaning maize or bread, [318-*] and this, in turn, resting in abowl (Pl. 12, figs. 3, 4, 6). Landa (1864, p. 230)[318-†] gives apleasing confirmation of this offering of an iguana with bread. It ispossible that the object shown in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 12, fig. 13)may be the conventionalized representation of this lizard. It must beadmitted that this interpretation is very doubtful. The triangularpoints suggest the lizard, but the pointed character of the sign as awhole in no way resembles the back of this reptile. It is foundassociated with three _Kan_ signs. In Cakchiquel, a dialect of the Mayastock, _K'an_, according to Guzman and Brinton (1893, p. 24) is the nameapplied to the female of the iguana or the lizard, and this is believedto be the original sense of the Maya term. It may also be noted that theNahua day sign _Cuetzpalin_, meaning lizard, is the one whichcorresponds with the Maya day _Kan_. Pl. 12, figs. 10, 12, 14, showrepresentations of the day corresponding to _Cuetzpalin_ in the Aubinand Nuttall codices. These show a stout spineless species with a shortthick tail and may be the Gila monster (_Heloderma horridum_), a largeand somewhat poisonous species having much these proportions. 

Further offerings are shown in Pl. 12, figs. 7, 8. These seem to be theheads and forefeet of lizards, but, from the shape of the head, perhapsnot of iguanas. 

In Stela D of Copan, the _Uinal_ period glyph seems to be represented bya spineless lizard covered with scales (Pl. 12, fig. 9). Frog-likecharacteristics also appear. This stone monument is remarkable from thefact that the glyphs are all more or less realistic representations ofhuman and animal forms. It should be noted that there certainly seems tobe some connection between the _Uinal_ period glyph and the lizard. Pl. 13, fig. 9, represents a _Uinal_ glyph from the Temple of the FoliatedCross at Palenque and the lizard form is clearly seen in the eyebrow andthe upper jaw. Compare also Pl. 13, fig. 11, and Pl. 28, fig. 3. Acollection of glyphs of this period shows clearly the lizard-likecharacter of the face. 

That some connection existed between the lizard and the idea of rainseems clear from a reference in the _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_(1900, p. 51). [319-*] Finally the lizard is shown in Dresden 3a (Pl. 12, fig. 11) directly in front of god H beside the scene of human sacrifice. 

CROCODILE. The text figure (1) shows a dorsal view of a crocodile (Maya, _ayin_) carved on the top of Altar T at Copan. The general form isconsiderably conventionalized with limbs elongated and provided withhuman hands and long toes. The protuberances of the back are roughlyshown by oval markings, which are here continued on the legs. The largescales of the ventral surfaces also appear at the sides of the body, andalong the posterior edges of the limbs. The tail is shortened andbifurcate. The most interesting portion, however, is the head. The snoutis distinctly pinched in at the base, though broadened again distally. In the alligator the snout is broad and tapers but little. As in otherrepresentations of the crocodile, the lower jaw does not appear, andeven in this dorsal view the artist seems to have deemed it necessary toshow the row of teeth as if in side view, or as though they projectedlaterally from the mouth. What may represent ears or ear plugs are shownone on each side behind the eyes. There are few other examples of fulldrawings of the crocodile in the Maya writings. Dresden 74 shows ananimal which has been considered to represent a crocodile or alligatorbut it seems to have more of the characteristics of a lizard. 

[Illustration: FIG. 1. TOP OF ALTAR. T. COPAN. ]

Figures of a crocodile (_Crocodilus americanus_) are frequent in theNuttall Codex, where there is one large figure of the entire animal (Pl. 13, fig. 8), making its way along under water. It is shown with numerousdorsal spines, a long tail, and powerful claws. Curiously, however, ithas no lower jaw and the same is true of the numerous glyphsrepresenting the head of the animal. This is so pronounced acharacteristic, that it may be doubted if the open-mouthed head and thesingle limb shown in Pl. 13, fig. 2, really picture the same animal, though otherwise apparently referable to the crocodile. In the variousglyphs showing the head of this species, the prominent, elongate eyebrowand the absence of the lower jaw are noteworthy points, while the teethmay vary in number from three to six. 

The glyphs (Pl. 13, figs. 1, 3-7) represent the Nahua day sign_Cipactli_ corresponding to the Maya day _Imix_. In the band ofconstellation signs in Dresden 52b (Pl. 13, fig. 10), there occurs asingle figure with a long curled eyebrow and lacking the lower jaw. Inthe upper jaw three teeth are indicated. A comparison of this figurewith the glyphs in the Nuttall Codex seems to leave little doubt that itrepresents a crocodile. This is the sign which Förstemann (1906, p. 206)interprets as standing for Saturn. Pl. 13, fig. 12, is certainly thesame sign as it stands in relatively the same position in theconstellation band on Dresden 53a. It represents the highlyconventionalized head of a crocodile. On Stela 10 from Piedras Negras(Maler, 1901-1903, Pl. 19) the same glyph is seen. 

The range of the alligator in North America does not extend to Yucatan, hence the crocodile, which does occur there, is taken as the original ofall these figures. There is nothing in the latter that would distinguishit from the alligator. 

TURTLES. Representations of the turtle (Maya, _ak_) are not uncommonamong the Mayas. At Uxmal there is a ruined building called _Casa de lasTortugas_ on which at intervals around the cornice there are carvings ofturtles. Turtles of at least two species occur in the Tro-Cortesianus. With one exception, they seem to be limited to this codex. That shown onPl. 14, figs. 1-3, 5, is a large species with the dorsal scutesrepresented by large diamond-shaped pieces. There is little that mightbe considered distinctive about these turtles, although one (Pl. 14, fig. 5) has the anterior paddles much larger than the posterior, indicating a sea turtle. What is doubtless the same turtle is picturedin several places in the Nuttall Codex. In one of the figures in thelatter manuscript, the shell is shown apparently in use as a shield (Pl. 14, fig. 4). This would indicate one of the large sea turtles, and thereis not much doubt that either the Loggerhead turtle (_Thalassochelyscephalo_) or the Hawksbill (_Chelone imbricata_) is here intended. 

Quite another species is that shown in Pl. 14, fig. 6. That this is afreshwater turtle is plainly indicated by the parasitic leeches that arenoted fastened by their round sucking-discs to the sides of its body. The long neck, pointed snout, and apparent limitation of the dorsalspinous scutes to the central area of the back may indicate the snappingturtle (_Chelydra serpentina_) or possibly a species of the genus_Cinosternum_ (probably _C. Leucostomum_). It is hardly likely that itis one of the true soft-shelled turtles (_Trionyx_), as the range ofthat genus is not known to include Mexico. The turtle from Nuttall 43(Pl. 14, fig. 11) may belong to the same species as its scutes seemrather few, or it may be that the view shown here is of the ventral sideand that the scales indicate the small plastron of one of the seaturtles. 

The turtle appears alone as one of the figures in the _tonalamatl_ inseveral cases in the Tro-Cortesianus, 13a, 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3), 72b(Pl. 14, fig. 6). It is found associated with the toad appearing in therain in Tro-Cortesianus 17b (Pl. 14, fig. 2) and alone in the rain in13a. In Tro-Cortesianus 81c (Pl. 14, fig. 5), it appears in front of anunidentifiable god. 

Schellhas has called the turtle an animal symbolical of the lightningbasing his opinion, as Brinton (1895, p. 74) tells us, on Dresden 40bwhere a human figure with animal head is holding two torches in hishands. This figure does not seem to us to represent a turtle, as iscommonly supposed, but a parrot, as will be pointed out later (p. 343). Förstemann (1902, p. 27) identifies the turtle with the summersolstice, as has been noted before, explaining that the animal is slowof motion, and is taken to represent the time when the sun seems tostand still. He bases his theory (1904, p. 423) in part on the fact thatthe sign for the Maya month _Kayab_, which is the month in which thesummer solstice occurs, shows the face of the turtle (Pl. 14, fig. 10). This undoubtedly is correct, but he seems to us wrong in classing asturtles the figure in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) with its accompanyingglyph (Pl. 25, fig. 6). 

The turtle is found in connection with two sun (_kin_) signs beneath aconstellation band in Tro-Cortesianus 71a. Resting upon his body arethree _Cauac_ signs. The single representation of the turtle in theDresden Codex is on page 49 (Pl. 14, fig. 12) where a god is picturedwith a turtle's head. The heavy sharp beak indicates that he representsone of the sea turtles previously mentioned. He is shown transfixed by aspear and corresponds to the other figures in the lower parts of pp. 46-50. These all have some connection with the Venus period which isconsidered in these pages. [323-*]

A number of glyphs representing the turtle are found throughout thecodices (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10). They are all characterized by the heavybeak. It may be noted that these glyphs are virtually the same as thesign for the first _a_ in Landa's alphabet. As the turtle is called _ak_or _aak_ in Maya, the reason is clear for the selection of this sign foran _a_ sound. These turtle glyphs often occur alone; one, however, (Pl. 14, fig. 7) is found in connection with the swimming turtle inTro-Cortesianus 17a (Pl. 14, fig. 3). Figs. 7-9 agree in having thesmall scrolls at the posterior end of the eye. The head shown in Pl. 14, fig. 10, has quite a different eye, though otherwise similar. Itsresemblance to the glyph on Pl. 25, fig. 9, is marked and suggests theparrot. Schellhas (1904, p. 44) gives in his fig. 64, a glyph for theturtle which seems clearly to be a glyph for the parrot (Pl. 25, fig. 7). 

AVES

HERONS (_Ardea herodias_; _Hydranassa tricolor ruficollis_). Only a fewwater birds are shown in the Maya works. Several are found, however, that seem to picture herons (Pl. 15, figs. 1-7). The best of these (fig. 5), a carving from the west side panel of the Temple of the Cross atPalenque shows a crested heron standing on one foot and holding in itsbill a fish. A second figure (Pl. 15, fig. 1) is from the stuccoornament from the Palace, House B, at Palenque. It is less carefullyexecuted, but seems to be a long-necked bird with a crest and outspreadwings curiously conventionalized. In the Nuttall Codex there is anotherunmistakable heron (Pl. 15, fig. 4) with the same generalcharacteristics, though the crest is less prominent, here represented asa series of erectile feathers separated at their tips. This elongationof the crest seems to be carried still farther in what seems to be thehead and neck of a heron from Dresden 37b (Pl. 15, fig. 3) with erectilefeathers at intervals along its length. 

The heron is seldom employed as a head-dress. In the Lower Chamber ofthe Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza, one of the warriors wears abird head-dress (Pl. 15, fig. 2), which from the length of the bill isprobably made from a heron's head, though the crest seems greatlyexaggerated. The bas-relief on which this is found is strongly Nahua infeeling and execution. This head covering may indicate, according to theNahua fashion, the tribe to which the warrior belongs. Again in Dresden36a (Pl. 15, fig. 7), a man is shown wearing as a head-dress the headand neck of a heron that holds in its bill a fish. This head resemblesvery closely that of the heron in fig. 1. What appears to be a similarhead is shown in Pl. 15, fig. 6. It is interesting to note that theheron with a fish (Pl. 15, fig. 5) from Palenque also forms a part of acomplicated head-dress. 

It is, of course, uncertain to which of the several herons occurring inCentral America these representations refer. Possibly the Great Blueheron (_Ardea herodias_) or the Louisiana heron (_Hydranassa tricolorruficollis_) is intended. It seems not unlikely also, that one of thewhite egrets may be shown as their crests are fairly conspicuous. 

FRIGATE-BIRD (_Fregata aquila_). We have included here two figures (Pl. 15, figs. 8, 9) that undoubtedly represent a single species of bird. Itis characterized by a deeply forked tail and long beak, which has partway on its length, a circular object surrounded by a circle of dots. Itseems still problematical what this object may be. In one figure (fig. 9), the beak is strongly hooked, in the other (fig. 8) it is straight, but as the latter is plainly a much more carelessly made drawing, we mayinfer that the hooked bill is more nearly correct. This would excludethe Terns (_Sterna_), to which Stempell has referred the figures. Itseems probable that the frigate-bird (_Fregata aquila_) is the speciesintended, as this is not only a large conspicuous form on these coasts, but it has a long and strongly hooked beak and forked tail. The lengthof the beak would probably exclude from consideration, theswallow-tailed kite that also occurs in the region. 

Both these birds are pictured, evidently as an offering or sacrifice. Itis very seldom that the whole bird is represented in this connection, and still more infrequent to find anything but the turkey, which is theusual bird of sacrifice. The figure from the Dresden Codex (Pl. 15, fig. 9) rests upon the usual bowl or jar, that from the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 15, fig. 8) is pictured upon a grotesque animal head, three _Kan_ signsand these upon the jar. 

In the Tro-Cortesianus 20c, 21c, there occur several representations ofman-like forms with very peculiar heads. The latter are each providedwith a beak-like projection, on which appears the circle surrounded bydots noted above in connection with the frigate-bird. Brinton concludesthat this mystic symbol is a representation of the curious knob on thebill of the male white pelican, and therefore identifies these curiousfigures as pelicans. Stempell follows Brinton in this, but considersthat they are the brown pelican (_P. Fuscus_), since the white pelicanis rare or casual, as far south as Yucatan. Unfortunately, however, forthis supposition, the brown pelican lacks the curious knob that Brintonbelieved to be represented by the circle of dots. Moreover, this samesign occurs on the drawings of the bills of the frigate-bird and theocellated turkey, and is evidently not of specific significance. To ourminds it is doubtful if the figures under discussion are birds at all, and we are unable to assign them a name with any degree of confidence. Apeculiar glyph occurs in connection with them which may be an aid totheir ultimate identification. Brinton calls the glyph the "fish andoyster sign. "

OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_). This turkey (Maya _ku[ɔ. ]_)is an important species in the Maya economy, and is seen frequently inthe manuscripts. This is a smaller bird than the more northern trueturkey (_Meleagris_) and is characterized by the presence of curiouserect knobs on the top of the naked head. These are shown inconventionalized form in the various figures (Pl. 16), and afford aready means of identification. On the bill of the bird shown inTro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) occurs again the curious symbol, acircle surrounded by dots, previously noted under the frigate-bird andpelican. It probably has some special significance. Other figures ofocellated turkeys show but little in addition to the points justdiscussed. One shown in Pl. 16, fig. 7, from Codex Vaticanus 3773, however, has a circular ring about the eye and the wattles are indicatedas projections merely. In fig. 13, they are apparently shown as stalkedknobs found elsewhere in connection with serpent head ornaments. It isonly the head in this latter figure, which is considered in thisinterpretation. 

In the Nuttall Codex, there frequently occur representations of a birdthat was evidently used for sacrificial purposes. It is shown witherectile head feathers and a ring of circular marks about the eye (Pl. 26, figs. 12, 14; Pl. 27, figs. 2-3) or with concentric circles (Pl. 27, fig. 1). These figures are not surely identifiable, but probablyrepresent this turkey. Possibly they are the chachalaca (_Ortalis vetulapallidiventris_), a gallinaceous bird, commonly kept insemi-domestication in Mexico, whose bare eye ring and slightly erectilehead feathers may be represented by the drawings. It is probable thatthis turkey is the bird represented frequently in the Maya codices as abird of sacrifice. The head alone usually appears in this connection, among other places, in Dresden 34a (Pl. 16, fig. 10), 41c (fig. 14), 29c(fig. 16), 28c (fig. 17), and in Tro-Cortesianus 12b (Pl. 16, fig. 11), 105b (fig. 12), 107b (fig. 15). In several of these places the head isrepresented as resting on one or more _Kan_ signs, again meaning bread, as well as on the vessel or jar. In Dresden 26c (Pl. 16, fig. 9), thewhole turkey is pictured as an offering, as in the preceding case notedin Dresden 35a (Pl. 15, fig. 9). The whole bird as an offering may alsoappear in Tro-Cortesianus 4a (Pl. 16, fig. 4) corresponding to theoffering of venison and iguana on the following pages. Thisrepresentation of the entire bird is very rare although the fish, whenused as an offering, is always represented as a whole and the iguana isin most cases when used in the same connection. Landa (1864, p. 222)[327-*] confirms the offering of the heads of birds with bread. 

It is, however, the sacrifice of a bird, probably a turkey, bydecapitating, that is especially interesting, as the operation as shownin the Dresden Codex 25c (Pl. 26, fig. 2), 26c, 27c, 28c, in the ritesof the four years, is described in full by Landa. In the codex, a priestis represented as holding in his hand before an altar, a headless bird. Landa (1864, pp. 212, 218, 224, 228)[327-†] tells us that in the_Kan_, the _Muluc_, the _Ix_, and the _Cauac_ years, the priests burntincense to the idol, decapitated a "_gallina_" (undoubtedly a turkey), and presented it to the god. 

The turkey is also used as a head-dress. Only in one case, however, Tro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 16, fig. 5), is the whole bird represented inthis connection. This is clearly of totemic significance here, as itoccurs in that part of the codex where birth and infant baptism areshown. In many other places there are curious partial representations ofbird heads in the front of head-dresses which may or may not beidentified as heads of turkeys. Among these are the head-dress of god Hin Dresden 7c, of god E in Dresden 11e, of god C in Dresden 13b, of godA in Dresden 23c, and a female divinity in Dresden 20a (Pl. 16, fig. 13). Schellhas (1904, p. 43) identifies these birds as vultures. 

That the turkey is connected with the rain seems clear. This isespecially the case among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript the raingod, _Tlaloc_, often appears in the disguise of the turkey-cock(_uexolotl_), and in the Vaticanus 3773, 14, the turkey (Pl. 16, fig. 7)is represented in the "House of Rain, " in contrast to the owl shown inthe "House of Drought" (Seler, 1902-1903, p. 75). It might be noted alsothat Fewkes (1892, p. 228) shows that the turkey is emblematic of therain among the pueblo peoples. The same idea seems to be present amongthe Mayas, as we note in the Tro-Cortesianus 10b (Pl. 16, fig. 2) theturkey is pictured in the rain and surrounded on three sides by bands ofconstellation signs. 

Two methods of capturing the turkey are shown in the Tro-Cortesianus 93aand 91a (Pl. 16, figs. 1, 3). By the first, the bird is captured alivein a sort of wicker basket, which drops over it at the proper moment. The second method is by the "twich-up" or snare, which consists of anoose tied to a bent sapling and properly baited. In connection with Pl. 16, fig. 1, it may be suggested that possibly this represents a cagerather than a trap, in which the bird is confined. The Lacandones at thepresent time often keep their totem animals in captivity (Tozzer, 1907, p. 40). 

KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_). Numerous figures of vultures appearin the codices and elsewhere. Indeed, they are among the most common ofthe birds depicted. Two species only seem to occur in the writings, theking vulture and the black vulture. The former is a large black andwhite bird with the head and the upper part of the neck unfeathered, except for numerous short, almost bristle-like plumules. These nakedportions are often colored red and there is a large more or lesssquarish fleshy knob at the base of the upper ramus of the beak. Thisconspicuous protuberance has been seized upon as a characteristic in theconventionalized figures, and serves to identify the king from the blackvulture. In addition, a series of concentric circles about the eye seemsto be a rather constant mark of the king vulture, though they are alsosometimes found in connection with figures which, from the absence ofthe rostral knob, must represent black vultures (Pl. 18, figs. 18, 27;Pl. 19, figs. 7, 10, 11). In the case of the bird shown in Pl. 19, fig. 1, the knob is hardly apparent, and the same is true of Pl. 19, fig. 13. Both these may represent king vultures. A remarkable figure is thatshown in Pl. 17, fig. 4, in which an ocellated turkey and a king vultureconfront each other with necks intertwined. The short hair-like blackfeathers of the head are represented in this as well as in Pl. 17, fig. 11, and in the glyph carved in stone (Pl. 17, fig. 10), which from thepresence of the knob is probably a king vulture. The characteristic knobis shown in a variety of ways. Thus, in Pl. 17, fig. 1, it is greatlydeveloped and resembles a large horn with a falcate tip. In Pl. 17, fig. 4, it is sharply angular and nearly square. Frequently, it is a circlewith a centered ring surmounted by one or two additional rings orterminated by a mitre-shaped structure (Pl. 17, figs. 2, 5-7, 8-12). Avery simple form was found in the carving shown in Pl. 17, fig. 13, where a long projecting knob is seen at the base of the culmen. 

The king vulture seems to have a part to play as a mythological being, as it is pictured as a god with human body and bird head in the act ofcohabiting with a woman in Dresden 19a, and with a dog in Dresden 13c(Pl. 17, fig. 3). Moreover, the same vulture god is represented on ablue background and under a band of constellation signs in Dresden 38b, and is also to be noted in Dresden 8a. Förstemann (1906, p. 66) showsthat the thirteenth day of the Maya month is reached in the _tonalamatl_reckoning at this place. This day is _Cib_, which corresponds to theNahua day _Cozcaquauhtli_, which has the meaning vulture, and here, aspreviously noted, the vulture god is represented. In Tro-Cortesianus 22c(Pl. 17, fig. 2) and 10a, [330-*] the king vulture appears alone, in thefirst instance with a blue background, and in the second with abackground representing rain. Rain is also shown in connection with thevulture god in Dresden 38b, and the black vulture in Tro-Cortesianus 18b(Pl. 19, fig. 13). 

The king vulture is found employed as a head-dress twice out of thethree times it appears in any connection with female figures, Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 17, fig. 12) with male figure, and 94c (Pl. 17, fig. 11) and 95c with female figures. The last two clearly have to dowith the baptism and naming of infants, as previously explained. 

The study of the glyph used to indicate the vulture is interesting, forwe find it recurring again and again throughout the Maya codices andoften when there is no other drawing of the animal, as in Dresden 39c(Pl. 17, fig. 5; Pl. 18, fig. 19). The first example (glyph 6) isclearly the head of the king vulture, whereas the second (glyph 3) isprobably the head of the black vulture. The glyph in Dresden 38b (Pl. 17, fig. 7) appears in connection with the vulture god directly belowit. In Dresden 11b (Pl. 18, fig. 1), it occurs alone and no figureappears in the usual place below. The _Tun_ period glyph (Pl. 17, fig. 10) frequently shows vulture characteristics especially in the nostrilof the face. The teeth, however, often appearing in the _Tun_ glyphwould be against this theory. The blending of bird and mammalcharacteristics is not uncommon in the Maya drawings, however. 

The Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, as previously noted, has themeaning vulture, and we naturally find this bird frequently representedin the Mexican codices. In the Nuttall Codex, the head of the kingvulture occurs repeatedly as a glyph for this day. In its less modifiedforms (Pl. 18, figs. 2-4), the beak is merely a pair of flattened rami, surmounted proximally by the conspicuous quadrangular knob. The minutehair-like feathers on the otherwise naked head are shown as a fringe atthe throat and crown, while a conventionalized ear is representedposteriorly. A series of interesting figures (Pl. 18, figs. 5-10)illustrates steps in the further reduction of this head to a small glyphin which only the beak with its large squarish knob remains (Pl. 18, fig. 10). 

BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_). It is difficult to assign any singlecharacteristic to the figures representing the black vulture (Maya, _t[vs. ]om_) other than the long raptorial beak. A number of drawingsprobably depict black vultures, though this cannot be certainlyaffirmed. Such are those shown in Pl. 18, figs. 11, 12, 14, 17; Pl. 19, figs. 2-4, 13, 14. Stempell considers the vulture shown in Pl. 18, fig. 13, to be a king vulture, but it has no knob on the beak, and thus isquite likely the black vulture. The fact that its head is shaped muchlike that of the god with the king vulture head (Pl. 17, fig. 3) wouldindicate merely the individuality of the artist. The coloring of thespecies under discussion is uniformly black in the Dresden andTro-Cortesianus, except in certain cases where the birds are shown inoutline only, as in Pl. 19, fig. 12. It is not certain, however, thatthese two last are black vultures, though they suggest the species. Thetwo birds shown in Pl. 19, figs. 5, 6, are almost surely black vultures, and, as represented in the manuscript, are descending upon a man. Stempell thinks they may be ravens, but this is very doubtful, for theraven probably was unknown to the Mayas, since its range is to thenorthward. What appears to be a crest is seen on the head of the bird inPl. 19, fig. 4. The black coloring and the shape of the bill otherwisesuggest the black vulture, though perhaps the crest would indicate theharpy eagle. Similarly, Pl. 19, fig. 14, is provided with a sort of tuftor crest, but its general appearance is suggestive of the vulture. Apottery whistle (text fig. 2) from the Uloa Valley evidently representsa black vulture. The head of the bird shows the characteristic wrinkledappearance seen in the drawings, with the heavy beak. The absence of therostral knob would preclude its being a king vulture. 

[Illustration: FIG. 2. POTTERY WHISTLE, VULTURE. ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS. ]

It is natural that this bird should find an important place in the Mayawriting, as it is an abundant species in the region considered, and ofgreat importance as a scavenger. The black vulture seems to lack themythological character associated with the king vulture. It appearsusually in connection with death and in the role of a bird of prey. Thisis especially true in the Tro-Cortesianus where in 24d, 26d (Pl. 19, figs. 5, 6) and 28c, it is attacking a human being, in the first andlast cases represented as dead. In 86a and 87a, the bird is shownplucking out the eye of a man. In Dresden 3a (Pl. 19, fig. 7), itappears at the top of the tree above the human sacrifice and seems to bein the act of consuming the victim. In Tro-Cortesianus 91c, it alsoappears in a tree. In Tro-Cortesianus 40a (Pl. 17, fig. 9), and 42a (Pl. 19, fig. 1), it is shown as eating the entrails of a deer. In the firstcase, the bird looks like a king vulture, although this is the onlyinstance where this species is shown as a bird of prey. InTro-Cortesianus 28b and 36b (Pl. 18, fig. 17), the black vulture appearseating the Kan sign. In the first example, the _Kan_ represents thenewly sowed corn, in the second, the _Kan_ is held by god F. Landa(1864, p. 230)[333-*] records that in the _Cauac_ year there was aceremony to prevent the ants and the birds devouring the corn. InDresden 34b and 35b, the vulture is shown on top of the head-dress ofgod F, evidently the enemy of the harvest and, again, on 35b (Pl. 19, fig. 4) on top of the _Cauac_ sign. Its role as a bird of prey isfurther shown in Dresden 36b (Pl. 19, fig. 11), where it is shownattacking a serpent. 

This vulture is associated with god B in Dresden 69b, with god M inTro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 18, fig. 12), and with god D in Tro-Cortesianus67a (Pl. 17, fig. 1). The last may be the king rather than the blackvulture, as suggested above. The black vulture occurs only once as theusual head-dress, in Dresden 17b (Pl. 18, fig. 13), and here inconnection with a female figure and the idea of birth. Two birds, probably vultures, appear over the enclosure around the head of god C inTro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 19, fig. 12). In the Lower Chamber of theTemple of the Tigers occurs a black vulture in bas-relief with anecklace represented (Pl. 19, fig. 14). 

The glyph of the king vulture has already been discussed. There areother glyphs which seem to show the black vulture, although it is quitepossible that no sharp distinction was made between the two in regardto the glyphs at least. In one case (Pl. 18, fig. 18), the wrinkled skinof the head and neck is indicated much as in the case of the kingvulture. A few other glyphs are shown (Pl. 18, figs. 16, 19, 22, 27), aswell as a variety from the Nuttall Codex in which the minute hair-likefeathers of the head are variously represented, usually much exaggeratedas a sort of crest or comb. Pl. 18, fig. 22, is interesting as being theonly case in the Maya codices where the whole figure is shown in theglyph. As noted in the case of the glyphs of the king vulture, thegreater number of these occur quite alone. They seem to indicate that afull drawing of the bird is meant to be understood as occurring below. 

Several of the carved glyphs (Pl. 19, figs. 8-10) show the black vultureheads in some detail with the conspicuously open nostril and hookedbeak. A carving of the entire bird may be shown on Stela D from Copan(Pl. 28, fig. 5), where the naked head and neck are marked off by linesindicating wrinkled skin. The same lines on the neck of the birddepicted on Pl. 28, fig. 2, will probably identify it as a vulture, and, if the square ornament above the beak certainly is part of the figure, it is unquestionably the king vulture. The knob is not, however, clearlyon the bird's beak. There are two interesting glyphs which occur on theeastern façade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. The glyphs in thisinscription are unlike the usual Maya hieroglyphs, although several ofthe so-called constellation signs can be made out. The two glyphs inquestion represent the entire body possibly of a vulture, that on Pl. 17, fig. 13, probably the king vulture, and that on Pl. 18, fig. 14, theblack vulture. 

HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_). In the Nuttall Codex, what isundoubtedly the harpy eagle is of frequent occurrence. This great birdis not uncommon in the forests of southern Mexico and Central America, and must have attracted the notice of the people from its size. Theelongated feathers at the back of the head form a conspicuous crest, afeature that characterizes this species in most of the representations. A stone carving from Chichen Itza (Pl. 20, fig. 10) pictures a harpyeagle eating an egg-shaped object, and another similarly engaged iscopied from the Codex Vaticanus 3773 (Pl. 20, fig. 14). The former isconsidered to be a vulture by Maudslay, but the presence of featherscovering the head excludes this interpretation. In two stone glyphs (Pl. 20, fig. 1, 3), occurs a large bird apparently devouring something heldin its talons, as in Pl. 20, fig. 10. From this general resemblance, itseems probable that both represent the harpy, although no crests areshown on the glyphs. In the Dresden and the Tro-Cortesianus occur a fewfigures of crested birds that probably are the same species. The crestfeathers are reduced to two, however, or, in some cases, what may be athird projecting forward from the base of the bill (Pl. 20, figs. 5, 7, 12, 13). The last two figures are not certainly identifiable, though itis probable that they represent the harpy. 

The eagle seems to be the bird associated with warriors in the codices. Seler (1900-1901, p. 89) notes that the eagle and the jaguar are boththe mark of brave warriors among the Nahuas. In the Aubin manuscript, the warrior god, _Yaotl_, is always associated with the eagle(_quauhtli_). In the Maya pantheon, god M is usually considered the wargod, as he is almost always armed with a spear. He is seen in Dresden 74(Pl. 20, fig. 13), and in Tro-Cortesianus 109c with an eagle as ahead-dress. There are other gods, however, who wear a similar headcovering. God L appears in Dresden 14b (Pl. 20, fig. 7) and again in 14c(Pl. 20, fig. 5) with an eagle head-dress. God D in Dresden 23c (Pl. 20, fig. 11) has an eagle coming from a _Tun_ sign on top of his head. Theeagle is probably represented at the prow of a boat in Dresden 43c (Pl. 20, fig. 12) in which god B is rowing. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 20, fig. 4), a bird which may represent the eagle appears sitting on a_Cimi_ (death) sign. Above in the glyphs the character for the south isshown. Here, clearly, there is some connection between the signs of thecardinal points in the line of glyphs and the various creatures picturedbelow. 

There seems to be only one glyph which can in any way be taken for thatof the eagle in the Maya manuscripts and this appears only once, inTro-Cortesianus 107c (Pl. 20, fig. 9). This identification may bequestioned, as there is no drawing of an eagle associated with theglyph. Attention has already been called to the two stone glyphs in Pl. 20, figs. 1, 3. There are various drawings of the glyph for the eagle inthe Nahua and Zapotecan codices (Pl. 20, fig. 8), as the Nahua day, _Quauhtli_, has the meaning eagle. It is interesting to note in theglyph from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 20, fig. 8) the tips of the feathersare crowned with stone points, a frequent way of representing birds ofprey among the Mexican peoples. 

YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_). Stempell makes aserious mistake by confusing the eared owl shown in full face with thatshown in profile in the drawings, for he considers both to represent thegreat horned owl. The figures are, however, quite different in everyway. The owl in full face view is unquestionably the great horned owl(Maya, _ikim_), the Yucatan form of which is recognized by thesubspecific title _mayensis_. This is the bird opposed to the"Moan-bird" which, as will be shown later, is associated with death. InPl. 21 are some truly remarkable figures which seem to represent thishorned owl, the first modelled in stucco from Palenque, the secondcarved in stone from Yaxchilan, and the third carved in wood from Tikal. Figs. 1 and 3 show the bird in flight with extended wings. The twoerectile tufts of feathers or "horns" are conspicuously represented infig. 3, at either side of the bird's head and between them the flat topof the crown is secondarily divided in like manner into three parts, representing the "horns" and the top of the head. The beetling brows, heavy hooked beak, and spread talons combine to give a fierce andspirited mien to the great bird. Pl. 21, fig. 2, may be a greatlyconventionalized owl in which the essential characteristics of the birdare reproduced in a rectangular design. The large bill is conspicuous inthe center, and in each upper corner terminates one of the ears. Theeyes are represented by rectangular areas at the base of the bill, eachwith three vertical bars across it. Below the beak, or at either side ofthe tip, are the feet, each with the claw cross-hatched. What seem to bethe reduced and highly conventionalized wings fill the lower corner ofeach side of the figure. 

The shield in the center of the Tablet of the Sun at Palenque (Pl. 22, fig. 6) shows a face in which the motif seems to be the full-face viewof the horned owl. The hooked bill curves over the mouth at each side ofwhich is the curious scroll seen in the same connection in the figuresof Pl. 21. The ears are somewhat shorter in proportion than usual andbelow each, at the sides of the face, is a large ear-plug, similar tothat elsewhere found. The eyes are still further conventionalized with adecorative scroll surrounding each. Another example of theconventionalized owl's head is on Stela 1 from Cankuan (Maler, 1908, Pl. 13). We are not yet ready to advance an explanation of the reason whythe owl should occupy such a prominent position in the art of the Mayas. 

In only one case is the horned owl found in the Maya manuscripts. InTro-Cortesianus 95c (Pl. 22, fig. 2), this owl appears as the head-dressof a woman in that portion of the codex where baptism and naming areshown. An owl's head seems to be shown on the end of a warrior's staffin the bas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers atChichen Itza (Pl. 22, fig. 4). Pl. 22, figs. 5, 7, show two owls fromthe Aubin manuscript; the first is considered to be the screech owl(_chiqualli_) and the second the horned owl (_tecolotl_, in Nahuatl). Pl. 22, figs. 1, 3, show two drawings of owls from Nahua manuscripts. 

YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or MOAN BIRD (_Otus choliba thompsoni_). A secondspecies of owl is represented by the figures on Pl. 23. This haslikewise two feathered tufts or "ears" on its head and is always shownwith the head, at least, in profile, but the tufts one in front, theother at the back of the head. The facial disc is not very prominent thebeak rather long, the tail short, and the plumage somewhat mottled. Adark ring usually surrounds the eye. It is, with little doubt, thescreech owl, the only other form of eared owl commonly met with in theCentral American region, and in Yucatan is represented by the race aboveindicated. This owl, under the name of the Moan bird, [338-*] is alwaysassociated with the idea of death among the Mayas. The familiarity ofthis species and its mournful quavering cry uttered at night have nodoubt led to its association with death and mystery as with owls inother parts of the world. 

This Moan bird has an important place in the Maya pantheon, as it is therepresentative in many places of god A, the Death god. It appears with ahuman body in Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, fig. 1), 10a (Pl. 23, fig. 8), and 11a(Pl. 23, fig. 3) and in Tro-Cortesianus 66a (Pl. 23, fig. 2). In each ofthese places, it occupies the space in which one of the regular gods isusually found. In Dresden 10a, the day reached in the _tonalamatl_reckoning is _Cimi_, meaning death, and here, as has been noted, isfound the Moan bird, the symbol of death, with another sign of death inthe circle just above the head of the bird (Pl. 23, fig. 8). 

This owl is used as a head-dress itself, but always for women, Dresden16a (Pl. 23, fig. 19), 18b (Pl. 23, fig. 5), Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 23, fig. 4), and 95c (Pl. 23, fig. 20). It occurs in both manuscripts inthe pages mentioned several times before, where birth, baptism, and thenaming of children are shown. The curious figure, with a head similar toPl. 23, fig. 21, carried on the back of some of the women, is the Moansign, referring to the idea of death, possibly to still-birth, ascopulation and birth are shown in this section of the codex (Dresden18c, 19c). The Moan is found associated with man only once in themanuscripts. In Tro-Cortesianus 73b (Pl. 23, fig. 18), he is foundperching on a curious frame-like structure in which god B is sitting. 

There are several glyphs representing the Moan bird or screech owl; thefirst type is easily identifiable, as the head of the bird is clearlypictured (Pl. 23, figs. 11-14, 16). This head is frequently associatedwith the number thirteen (Dresden 8b). It may occur in the line ofglyphs (Dresden 16c), and refer to the Moan pictured below, or it mayoccur in the line of glyphs with no picture corresponding to it below(Dresden 53b). Pl. 23, fig. 15, from Dresden 38c has been placed withthese drawings, although the identification is not certain. It mayrefer, however, to the large Moan head below, on which god B is sitting(Pl. 23, fig. 11). The second type of glyph does not resemble in any waythe Moan, but they are clearly signs for it, as they are often found inconnection with the picture of the Moan, Dresden 7c (Pl. 23, figs. 6, 7, 21) and 10a. In both places fig. 7 is associated with the numberthirteen. Schellhas also places Pl. 23, fig. 17, among the Moan signs. 

[Illustration: FIGS. 3, 4, 5, 6. GLYPHS OF MONTH MUAN SHOWING MOAN-BIRD CHARACTERISTICS. ]

One of the eighteen Maya months is named Muan, and some of the glyphsappearing for this month in the codices certainly represent the Moan orscreech owl. This is especially so with text figs. 3-6. Förstemann(1904a) considers that the month Muan and, consequently, the sign aswell, refer to the Pleiades. 

In connection with the screech owl referring to death, it is interestingto note that among the Nahuas the owl is considered of unlucky auguryand is usually found in the "House of Death" and "of Drought", ascontrasted with the turkey, considered as a bird of good fortune, andfound in the "House of Rain. "

COPPERY-TAILED TROGAN or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_). The quetzal iscommon locally in certain parts of southern Mexico. Its brilliantmetallic green plumage and the greatly elongated tail feathers make it avery notable bird. The feathers of the head are erect and stand out as alight crest, those of the anterior portion being slightly recurved. Thedelicate erect feathers of the head are well indicated in Vaticanus3773, 17 (Pl. 24, fig. 9) and the tail, also, in this figure, is onlyslightly conventionalized with an upward instead of the natural downwardsweep. In most of the representations, the crest feathers areindicatd[TN-7] by large plumes, the most anterior of which projectforward. They may be even further modified into three knobs shown inDresden 7c (Pl. 24, fig. 1). The two characteristics of the quetzal, namely its erect head feathers and its extraordinarily long tailfeathers, are often used separately. Thus the tail, which is commonlydrawn with the outer feather of each side strongly curled forward, appears by itself in Pl. 24, fig. 8, or it may be seen as a plume in thehead-dress of a priest or warrior and in other connections as anornament. A greatly conventionalized drawing of the bird is also shownin Pl. 24, fig. 11, in which the head bears a curious knob and thedorsal feather of the tail is upcurled in the manner of the otherdrawings. It is not at once apparent why the long drooping tail feathersshould be shown thus recurved. Possibly these feathers, when used by theMayas for plumes, curled over by their own weight, if held erect, sothat the representations are a compromise between the natural appearanceand that when used as ornament in the head decoration. 

[Illustration: FIG. 7. QUETZAL, TEMPLE OF THE CROSS, PALENQUE. ]

The color of the bird and the very long tail feathers have already beenmentioned, and these explain the reason of the importance of this birdamong the Mayas. It is claimed by several old authorities that thequetzal was reserved for the rulers, and that it was death for anycommon person to kill this bird for his own use. It seems from astatement in Landa (1864, p. 190)[341-*] that birds were domesticatedfor the feathers. This bird occurs again and again in variousmodifications throughout the Maya art. The feathers of the quetzal arethe ones usually associated with the serpent, making the rebus, _Quetzalcoatl_, the feathered serpent, the culture hero of the Nahuas, or _Kukulcan_, which has the same signification among the Mayas. It isimpossible to mention here all the various connections in which thequetzal appears. The feathers play an important part in the compositionof the head-dresses of the priests and warriors, especially those in thestone carvings. A quotation has already been given from Landa, showingthe use made of feathers in the dress of the people. Text fig. 7 showsperhaps the most elaborate representation of this bird. It is found onthe sculptured tablet of the Temple of the Cross at Palenque. Thequetzal is shown seated on top of a branching tree which was long takento represent a cross. A similar representation is seen on the tablet ofthe Temple of the Foliated Cross from the same ruined city. In the CodexFejervary-Mayer, there are four trees in each of which there is a bird. A quetzal is perched in the one corresponding to the east, which isregarded as the region of opulence and moisture. Seler (1901, p. 17)suggests that the quetzal in the tree on the two bas-reliefs at Palenquemay represent a similar idea and that temples which would show the otherthree trees and their respective birds had not been built in thatcenter. 

The representation of the quetzal as an entire bird is, after all, comparatively rare. The most realistic drawing is seen on a jar fromCopan in the collections of the Peabody Museum. The whole body of thebird is shown as a head-dress in a few places in the codices where birthand the naming of children are pictured. In Dresden 16c (Pl. 24, fig. 3)and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 24, fig. 6), the quetzal is the head-dressof women. In Dresden 13b (Pl. 24, fig. 2), a partial drawing of the birdis shown as a part of the head-dress of god E, in Dresden 7c (Pl. 24, fig. 1) of god H, and in Tro-Cortesianus 110c of god F. The feathersalone appear as a female head decoration in Dresden 20c (Pl. 24, fig. 8). It occurs as a sacrifice among the rites of the four years inTro-Cortesianus 36b (Pl. 24, fig. 12). In Tro-Cortesianus 70a (Pl. 24, fig. 5), it is found in the act of eating fruit growing over the "younggod. " In Tro-Cortesianus 100b (Pl. 24, fig. 4), the bird is perched overthe encased head of god C. 

There seems to be a glyph used for the quetzal. In those drawn in Pl. 24, figs. 10, 17, it is noticeable that the anterior part only of thehead is shown. The first is a glyph from the tablet of the Temple of theSun at Palenque, and at least suggests the quetzal by the feathers onthe top of the head, as also Pl. 24, fig. 13, a glyph from Copan, Stela10, where the entire head appears in a much conventionalized form. Otherglyphs are shown in Pl. 24, figs. 14-16, in which there is a singleprominent recurved feather shown over the eye, succeeded by a fewconventionalized feathers, then one or more directed posteriorly. It isto be noted that whereas in many previous examples of glyphs the fulldrawing of the animal or bird has been found in connection with them, here with the quetzal glyphs there is no instance where a drawing of thebird occurs with them. A curious human figure (Pl. 24, fig. 19), with ahead decoration similar to the frontal curve and markings on the quetzalglyphs (fig. 14-16), may possibly represent this bird in some relation. 

BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_). A large macaw (Maya, _mox_ or _ṭuṭ_) isundoubtedly pictured in the figures in Pl. 25. The leastconventionalized drawing found is that shown in Dresden 16c (Pl. 25, fig. 2), a bird characterized by long narrow tail feathers, a heavybill, and a series of scale-like markings on the face and about the eye. Further conventionalized drawings are found in Pl. 25, figs. 3, 10, 13, and Pl. 26, fig. 1. In all these the tail is less characteristic, thoughcomposed of long, narrow feathers, and the facial markings are reducedto a ring of circular marks about the eye. These last undoubtedlyrepresent, as supposed by Stempell, the bare space about the eye foundin certain of these large parrots. In addition, the space between theeye and the base of the bill is partially bare with small patches offeathers scattered at somewhat regular intervals in rows. It is probablethat this appearance is represented by the additional round marks aboutthe base of the bill in Pl. 25, figs. 1, 2, 5, 8, the last two of whichshow the head only. There has hitherto been some question as to theidentity of certain stone carvings, similar to that on Stela B fromCopan, of which a portion is shown in Pl. 25, fig. 8. This has even beeninterpreted as the trunk of an elephant or a mastodon, but isunquestionably a macaw's beak. In addition to the ornamentalcrosshatching on the beak, which is also seen on the glyph from the samestela (Pl. 25, fig. 5), there is an ornamental scroll beneath the eyewhich likewise is crosshatched and surrounded by a ring of subcircularmarks that continue to the base of the beak. The nostril is the largeoval marking directly in front of the eye. 

The animal in Dresden 40b (Pl. 25, fig. 1) has always been consideredto be a tortoise (Schellhas, 1904, p. 44, and Förstemann, 1904). Thisanimal, together with the dog, is found beneath the constellation signscarrying firebrands; both are regarded as lightning beasts. By comparingthe head of the figure shown in Pl. 25, fig. 1, with figs. 2, 4, 5, ofthe same plate, the reasonableness of the identification of this head asthat of a macaw and not that of a tortoise appears clear. The samefigure occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 12a (Pl. 25, fig. 3) carrying a torch. 

In order to make this point clearer, we will take up the considerationof the glyphs at this place, rather than at the end of the section asusual. As the macaw in Pl. 25, fig. 1, has been hitherto identified as aturtle, so the glyph found in connection with it (Pl. 25, fig. 6) hasbeen considered to stand for the turtle. Pl. 25, fig. 7, is anotherdrawing of the same glyph. By comparing the markings on the face of fig. 1, it is seen that a similar ring surrounds the eye shown on the glyph. The second glyph (Pl. 25, fig. 7) is better drawn and shows, in additionto the eye ring, the slightly erectile feathers at the back of the head. Comparison with the glyphs representing turtles (Pl. 14, figs. 7-10)hitherto confused with these macaw glyphs shows differences, the mostimportant of which are of course the eye ring and the feathers at theback of the head. 

Various other glyphs occur which undoubtedly represent the heads eitherof macaws or smaller parrots. They are, for the most part, glyphs fromthe stone inscriptions. A crest, resembling that depicted on the head ofthe quetzal, is found on a glyph on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 25, fig. 10). The eye ring, however, seems to indicate the macaw which also hasslightly erectile feathers on the head. Much doubt is attached to theidentification of the glyph of the month _Kayae_[TN-8] from Stela A, Quirigua (Pl. 25, fig. 9). It resembles closely the glyphs of the turtle(Pl. 14, figs. 7-9) and especially that on Pl. 14, fig. 10. The Quiriguaglyph has a prominent fleshy tongue, however, like the parrot. From thefact that the glyph is certainly that for the month _Kayab_ and the_Kayab_ glyphs in the codices (Pl. 14, fig. 10) resemble the sign for_a_, in the Landa alphabet which seems to stand for _ak_ (turtle), weare led to identify this as a turtle rather than a parrot. 

The use of the macaw as a lightning beast has already been commentedupon. The parrot is also used in the codices as a head-dress. As withseveral other birds the only places in the manuscripts where the wholebird is shown is in connection with the bearing of children and thebaptism. Here the parrot head-dress is seen on women, Dresden 16c (Pl. 25, fig. 2) and Tro-Cortesianus 94c (Pl. 25, fig. 13). There seems to bean exception to the whole bird appearing as a head-dress exclusivelywith women in Tro-Cortesianus 26c (Pl. 26, fig. 1), where god F appearswith a head-dress composed of the whole bird. The bird is also seen as ahead-dress on Altar Q from Copan (Pl. 26, fig. 3). The head of the macawappears as part of the head-dress of god H in Dresden 11a (Pl. 26, fig. 13), god E in Dresden 11b (Pl. 26, fig. 11), god F in Dresden 14b, god Din Tro-Cortesianus 89a (Pl. 26, fig. 5) and of women in Dresden 12b (Pl. 26, fig. 6) and 19a (Pl. 26, fig. 9). In the rites of the four years inTro-Cortesianus 37b, there are two birds which are quite different fromthose we have been considering, but which may represent macaws (Pl. 25, fig. 12; Pl. 26, fig. 10). 

In the Nuttall Codex, occur several figures of heavy-billed birds thatmay be macaws or other smaller parrots of the genera _Amazona_ or_Pachyrhynchus_. They are not, however, certainly identifiable (Pl. 26, figs. 4, 7). 

IMPERIAL WOODPECKER (_Campephilus imperialis_). We have here introducedtwo drawings from the Nuttall Codex (Pl. 27, figs. 5, 6) which seem torepresent the Imperial ivory-billed woodpecker, a large species thatoccurs in the forests of certain parts of Mexico. The figures show along-billed bird with acutely pointed tail feathers, a red crest, andotherwise black and white plumage. The red crest of the woodpecker is ofcourse highly conventionalized in the drawings where it is shown as of anumber of erect feathers instead of the prominent occipital tuft ofthis bird. The crest and particularly the pointed tail feathers and longbeak combined with the characteristic coloring seem to leave littledoubt as to the identity of the species figured. This bird does not seemto appear in the Maya drawings. 

RAVEN (_Corvus corax sinuatus_) (?). There occurs in the Nuttall Codex afigure of a large black bird (Pl. 27, fig. 7), which may be a blackvulture, but which, from the presence of what appear as prominentbristles over the nostril, may also be a raven. These bristles arerather prominent in ravens and quite lacking in the vulture, so that weare led to identify the drawing as representing the former bird. We havefound no other figures that suggest ravens. 

MISCELLANEOUS BIRDS. Four drawings of birds from the Aubin manuscript areshown here (Pl. 27, figs. 8-11), in order that the conventionalization ofthe bird form may be seen. The first two are supposed to represent theparrot (_cocho_) and the last two the turkey cock (_uexolotl_). There islittle in the drawings by which they can be differentiated. In the codex, the heads of the parrots are colored red. There is no doubt, however, about the identification, as they occur in the same relative position onevery page of the manuscript and are two of the thirteen birds associatedwith the thirteen gods, the "Lords of the House of Day" (Seler, 1900-1901, pp. 31-35). From the foregoing, it may be seen that wherethere is no question about the identification, the drawing of the birdform is rather carelessly done and no great attempt is made to indicatethe special characteristics of the different birds. 

As has been shown previously, it is not always possible to identifywithout question many of the forms appearing in the manuscripts. This isespecially true with birds. In Tro-Cortesianus 20c, an unidentifiablebird, painted blue, appears on the top of the staff carried by god F. The head-dress of this same god in Tro-Cortesianus 27c is a bird formand in Tro-Cortesianus 55b, the _tonalamatl_ figure is a bird whoseidentity cannot be made out with certainty. 

MAMMALIA

OPOSSUM (_Didelphis yucatanensis_, _D. Mesamericana_). Figuresrepresenting opossums are not with certainty identifiable in the Mayawritings. We have provisionally identified as a frog the animal shown inPl. 29, fig. 6, although at first sight the two median round markingsmight be taken to represent a marsupial pouch. Stempell considers theanimals found in the upper division of Dresden 25-28 as opossums of oneof the above species, and this seems very possible. They are shown withlong tails, slightly curved at the tips, and with long head andprominent vibrissae. A rather similar figure is found in the NuttallCodex (Pl. 34, fig. 7). There is nothing, however, that seems topreclude their being dogs and, in our opinion, they represent thisanimal. 

NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO (_Tatu novemcinctum_). This is the common speciesof armadillo (Maya, _wetš_) found throughout the warmer portion ofMexico and Central America, where it is frequently used as an article offood, and its shell-like covering is utilized in various ways. Severalrepresentations of it occur in the Tro-Cortesianus (Pl. 29, figs. 1-4), where it is characterized by its scaly covering, long ears and tail, andthe moveable bands about the body. 

This animal is associated with the bee culture, as it is representedtwice in Tro-Cortesianus 103a (Pl. 29, figs. 1, 3) seated below a beeunder an overhanging roof. The hunting scenes in the Tro-Cortesianusalso show the armadillo; in 48a (Pl. 29, fig. 4) and in 91a it is shownin a pit-fall. In the last case the _Cauac_ signs are clearly seen ontop of the trap, whereas in the former case the same signs seem to beindicated by the crosses. Finally, this same animal occurs seated inTro-Cortesianus 92d (Pl. 29, fig. 2) facing a female figure. There seemsto be no glyph used in connection with this animal. 

YUCATAN BROCKET (_Mazama pandora_). Among the numerous representationsof deer in the Maya writings, there is but one that appears to show thebrocket. This occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 92a (Pl. 30, fig. 2), where ahoofed animal with a single spike-like horn is shown, seemingly impaledon a stake set in the bottom of a pit-fall. As stated by Stempell, thisanimal from the character of its horns is probably to be identified as abrocket, though there is nothing to preclude its being a young spikebuck of some species of _Odocoileus. _

YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_; _O. Thomasi_). Several speciesof small deer (Maya, _ke_) occur in Mexico and Central America whoserelationships are not yet thoroughly understood (Pls. 30-32). Thespecies of Yucatan and southern Mexico have small lyrate antlers withfew, short tines, rather different from the broader type of the morenorthern species with well developed secondary tines. The former type ofantlers seems to be indicated by the conventionalized structure shown inPl. 32, figs. 8-12. These probably represent the Yucatan deer or itsally Thomas's deer of southern Mexico. Two of the figures, both from theNuttall Codex, show the lower incisor teeth (Pl. 32, figs. 8, 11), though in other cases these are omitted. The larger part of the figuresof deer represent the does which have no antlers. For this reason it isimpossible to distinguish females of the brocket from those of the otherspecies of deer, if indeed, the Mayas themselves made such adistinction. The characteristics of deer drawings are the long head andears, the prominently elevated tail with the hair bristling from itsposterior side (the characteristic position of the tail when the deer isrunning), the hoofs, and less often the presence of incisors in thelower jaw only and of a curious oblong mark at each end of the eye, possibly representing the large tear gland. 

The deer plays a large part in the Maya ceremonials. It is an important, perhaps the most important animal offering as a sacrifice to the gods. Several pages of the Tro-Cortesianus (38-49) are given over to the huntand the animal usually represented is the deer, the hunters are shown, the methods of trapping, the return from the chase, and the rites inconnection with the animals slain. Tro-Cortesianus 48b (Pl. 30, fig. 1)shows the usual method of trapping where the deer is caught by a cordaround one of the fore legs. Tro-Cortesianus 91a pictures the samemethod and 92a (Pl. 30, figs. 2) shows where the deer is caught on aspike in another type of trap. In Tro-Cortesianus 86a (Pl. 31, fig. 5)the deer appears with a rope around his body held by a god who is noteasily identified. 

Interesting descriptions of the hunt are given in several of the earlyaccounts. [349-*] It will be noted that the hunt was usually connectedwith the religious rites and the offering of deer meat and various partsof the body of the deer had a ceremonial importance. Attention is calledto similar practices among the Lacandones, the inhabitants of theregion of the Usumacinta at the present time (Tozzer, 1907), where thegreater part of the food of the people must, first of all, be offered tothe gods before it may be eaten by the natives. 

The figures of the deer in the codices are clearly associated with godM, and the latter may be considered a god of the hunt as well as a godof war. It is very unusual to find a quadruped used as a head-dress inany way, and yet in several cases we find god M has the head of a deeras a sort of head covering, Tro-Cortesianus 50b (Pl. 31, fig. 6), 51c(Pl. 31, fig. 7) and 68b. In the first two cases, the god seems to besupplied with a bow and arrow. In a passage in Landa (1864, p. 290)[350-*] there is a description of this very scene. 

In the month _Zip_, the hunters each took an arrow and a deer's headwhich was painted blue; thus adorned they danced. God M is found in onecase in the Dresden in connection with the deer. In Dresden 13c theanimal is represented as female and is shown in intercourse with god M. 

An offering of venison is frequently pictured in the manuscripts. Landa(1864, p. 220)[350-†] also furnishes a parallel for this. The haunchesof venison arranged as offerings in dishes are realistically seen in anumber of representations of religious rites, as in Dresden 28c (Pl. 31, fig. 14) in the last of the rites of the dominical days, 35a (Pl. 31, fig. 12) and in Tro-Cortesianus 5a above the serpent enclosing the bodyof water, 65a in front of god B or D and 105b (Pl. 31, fig. 13) and 108a(Pl. 31, fig. 15), both of which are in connection with the beeceremonies. 

The head of the deer, rather than the legs, is also shown as anoffering, in Tro-Cortesianus 69b with god B and Tro-Cortesianus 78 (Pl. 31, fig. 10) in the line of glyphs. The whole deer may be represented asan offering in Tro-Cortesianus 2b (Pl. 31, fig. 8). [351-*]

There are some examples in the manuscripts where the deer is picturedquite apart from any idea of the hunt or an offering. In Tro-Cortesianus14b, it is shown on top of the body of one of the large snakes and inTro-Cortesianus 29c (Pl. 31, fig. 3), it appears seated on the end of asnake-like curve. The deer occurs in Tro-Cortesianus 30b (Pl. 30, fig. 6) in connection with the goddess from whose breasts water is flowing. God B appears in Dresden 41c (Pl. 31, fig. 1) seated on a red deer. Thesame animal is also to be noted in Dresden 60a (Pl. 30, fig. 5) inconnection with the combat of the planets. [351-†] A deer is seen inTro-Cortesianus 92d seated on a mat opposite a female figure in the samemanner as the armadillo on the same page and a dog on the precedingpage. These, as previously noted, probably refer to cohabitation. On Pl. 32, fig. 9, is a deer from the Peresianus and Pl. 32, fig. 12, showsanother from Stela N, east, from Copan. 

The Nahua day _Maçatl_ signifies deer and we naturally find a largenumber of glyphs representing this animal among the day signs in theMexican manuscripts (Pl. 31, fig. 9; Pl. 32, figs. 8, 10, 11). 

YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_; _T. Ringens_). Peccaries (Maya, _qeqem_) of the _T. Angulatum_ group are common inMexico and Yucatan, and a number of local forms have been named. Thewhite-lipped peccaries also occur, but in the figures it is impossibleto distinguish the species. These animals are characterized by theirprominent snout, curly tail, bristling dorsal crest, and ratherformidable tusks, as well as by the possession of hoofs. By these marksmost of the figures are readily identifiable (Pl. 32, fig. 1; Pl. 33, figs. 1, 2, 4-6, 9). The tail is, however, often omitted as well as theerect line of bristles down the back. The presence of hoofs and thepossession of a truncated pig-like snout are sufficientlycharacteristic. In the Dresden Codex occur several figures of undoubtedpeccaries. Two of these are pictured in Pl. 32, figs. 2, 4. In each thehoofs and curly tail appear, and in the latter figure the bristling backis conventionally drawn by a series of serrations. These marks aresufficient to identify the animals. Their heads are furtherconventionalized, however, by a great exaggeration of the snout beyondthat slightly indicated in Pl. 32, fig. 1, and Pl. 33, figs. 6, 9. Otherrepresentations of the peccary, are shown in Pl. 32, fig. 5, a man witha peccary's head, and fig. 7 in which the animal's hoofs are replaced byhuman hands and feet. In both cases the form of the head remainscharacteristic. A curious combination is shown in Pl. 32, fig. 3, ananimal whose head and fore feet are those of a peccary, while the hindfeet have five toes, and there is a long tail. The addition of what looklike scales is found in a figure from the Dresden (Pl. 32, fig. 6). 

The peccary is found in several different connections in themanuscripts. As deer are found associated with the hunt, so, but to amuch more limited extent, the peccary. It is represented pictured asbeing captured in snares of the familiar "jerk-up" type. Similardrawings show this animal caught by the foreleg and held partiallysuspended, Tro-Cortesianus 49a (Pl. 33, fig. 9), [352-*] 49c (Pl. 33, fig. 1), and 93a (Pl. 33, fig. 4). Tro-Cortesianus 41b also shows thepeccary associated with hunting scenes. Another realistic drawing ofthis animal in Dresden 62 (Pl. 33, fig. 6)[352-†] represents him asseated on the open jaws of a serpent connected with a long numberseries. We are unable to explain the signification of the appearance ofthe animal in this connection. The peccary is pictured inTro-Cortesianus 27b (Pl. 33, fig. 5) seated on the left hand of thegoddess from whose breasts water is flowing. 

The peccary seems to be associated with the sky, as it is seen in aconventionalized form in four instances (Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. 4)[TN-9] coming from a band of constellation signs and in Dresden 68a (Pl. 32, fig. 2) coming from a similar band with god E sittingunderneath. [353-*] Above each of these conventionalized figures occurthe corresponding glyph forms (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8), which show merelythe head with the exaggerated upturned snout. There is a strikingresemblance between these snouts and those of the stone mask-likefigures so frequently represented as a façade decoration in northernYucatan. The presence in the mouths of the faces there represented of arecurved tusk in addition to other teeth is a further resemblance to thedrawings of peccaries. Stempell (1908, p. 718) has reproduced aphotograph of these extraordinary carvings and considers them the headsof mastodons, apparently solely on account of the shape of the upturnedsnout, whose tip in many of the carvings turns forward. They certainlydo not represent the heads of mastodons, but we are not ready to saythat the peccary is the prototype of these carvings, although thesimilarity between the glyphs (Pl. 33, figs. 7, 8) and the masks isworthy of note. One point which does not favor this explanation is thefact that on the eastern façade of the Monjas at Chichen Itza where themask-like panel is seen at its best, we find a realistic drawing of apeccary (Pl. 33, fig. 2) on the band of glyphs over the doorway, and itin no way suggests the head on the panel and is quite different from thehead already noted as the glyph of the peccary in the codices. 

BAIRD'S TAPIR (_Tapirella bairdi_). No undoubted representations oftapirs occur in the manuscripts here considered. Possibly tapirs didnot live in the country occupied by the Maya peoples. At the presenttime they are found only to the south of Yucatan. In Central AmericaBaird's and Dow's tapirs are native, the latter, however, more on thePacific coast. We have included a drawing of an earthenware vessel (Pl. 28, fig. 1) that represents a tapir, about whose neck is a string ofOliva shells. The short prehensile trunk of the tapir is well made andthe hoofs are likewise shown. A greatly elongated nose is found in manyof the drawings of the deities, but it does not seem clear that theserepresent trunks of tapirs, or, as suggested by Stempell, mastodons! Twosuch heads are shown in Pl. 39, figs. 7, 9. These offer a considerablesuperficial resemblance to that of a tapir, but as no other drawingsthat might be considered to represent this animal are found, it seemsvery questionable if the long noses are other than parts of grotesquemasks. The superficial resemblance of the curious nose pieces of themasks on the panel of the Maya façades to elephants' trunks does notseem to us especially significant, as otherwise the carvings are quiteunlike elephants. They have no great tusks as an elephant should, but, instead, short recurved teeth similar to those representing peccarytusks, as already pointed out. 

RABBIT (_Sylvilagus_ or _Lepus_). Rabbits and hares from theirfamiliarity, their long ears, and their peculiar method of locomotion, seem always to attract the notice of primitive peoples. Several speciesoccur in Mexico, including the Marsh rabbit (_Sylvilagus truei_; _S. Insonus_), various races of the Cottontail rabbit (_S. Floridanusconnectens_; _S. F. Chiapensis_, _S. F. Yucatanicus_; _S. Aztecus_; _S. Orizabae_, etc. ) and several Jack rabbits (_Lepus alleni pallitans_; _L. Callotis flavigularis_, _L. Asellus_). It is, of course, quiteimpossible to determine to which of these species belong the fewrepresentations found. Several drawings, shown in Pl. 30, figs. 3, 4, 7, 8, are at once identifiable as rabbits from their long ears, roundheads, and the presence of the prominent gnawing teeth. [354-*] In twoof the figures (Pl. 30, figs. 7, 8), the entire animal is shown, sittingerect on its haunches, the first with one ear in advance of the other, atrait more characteristic of the jack rabbit than of the short-earedrabbits. For convenience of comparison, we have placed beside these twofigures one of a deer in much the same position. It is at oncedistinguished, however, by its long head, longer bushy tail, and by themarks at each end of the eye. What at first sight appear to be twognawing teeth of the rabbit seem to be the incisors of the lower jaw. This is the animal identified by Stempell as a dog. 

The animal shown to be a rabbit in Dresden 61 (Pl. 30, fig. 8) ispictured seated on the open jaws of a serpent in the same way as thepeccary on the following page. These two animals, together with tworepresentations of god B and the black god (Dresden 61), are eachclearly connected with the serpents on which they are sitting. 

The Nahua day _Tochtli_ signifies rabbit and naturally the animal occursthroughout the Mexican manuscripts as representing this day (Pl. 30, figs. 3, 4). 

OTHER RODENTS. We have included in Pl. 29, figs. 5, 7, 8, threeundetermined mammals. The second of these is characterized by the twoprominent gnawing teeth of a rodent and by its long tail. It mayrepresent a pack rat (_Neotoma_) of which many species are describedfrom Mexico. In its rounded ears and long tail, fig. 5 somewhatresembles fig. 7, but it lacks the gnawing incisors. Still lesssatisfactory is fig. 8 from Tro-Cortesianus 24d, at whose identity itseems unsafe to hazard a guess. It is shown as eating the corn beingsowed by god D. 

JAGUAR (_Felis hernandezi_; _F. H. Goldmani_). Throughout its range, thejaguar (Maya, _balam_ or _tšakmul_) is the most dreaded of thecarnivorous mammals. It is, therefore, natural that the Mayas held it ingreat awe and used it as a symbol of strength and courage. A fewcharacteristic figures are shown in Pl. 34, figs. 1-3; Pl. 35, figs. 5-14. The species represented is probably _Felis hernandezi_, theMexican race of jaguar, or one or the other of the more or less nominalvarieties named from Central America. The distinguishing mark of thejaguar, in addition to the general form with the long tail, short earsand claws, is the presence of the rosette-like spots. These arevariously conventionalized as solid black markings, as small circles, oras a central spot ringed by a circle of dots (Pl. 35, fig. 12). Frequently the solid black spots are used, either in a line down theback and tail or scattered over the body. The tip of the tail ischaracteristically black, and the teeth are often prominent. Such afigure as this (Pl. 35, fig. 10) Stempell considers to be a wateropossum (_Chironectes_), for the reason that it is held by the goddessfrom whose breast water is flowing. This can hardly be, however, for notonly are the markings unlike those of the water opossum, but the largecanine tooth indicates a large carnivore. Moreover, the water opossum isa small animal, hardly as big as a rat, of shy and retiring habits, andso is unlikely to figure in the drawings of the Mayas. 

As for the significance of the jaguar in the life of the Mayas, it maybe said that this animal seems to have played a most prominent part. AtChichen Itza, the building on top of the southern end of the easternwall of the Ball Court, usually called the Temple of the Tigers, has aline of jaguars carved in stone as frieze around the outside of thebuilding, and in the Lower Chamber of the same structure, the figure ofa jaguar (Maudslay, III, Pl. 43) serves as an altar. The front legs andthe head of a jaguar often are seen as the support of a seat or altar onwhich a god is represented as at Palenque in the Palace, House E(Maudslay, IV, Pl. 44) and in the Temple of the Beau Relief (Holmes, 1895-1897, Pl. 20). Altar F at Copan (Pl. 35, fig. 7) shows the sameidea. The head of a puma or jaguar (Pl. 34, fig. 6) appears in thebas-relief of the Lower Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers, evidentlyrepresenting a part of an altar. A realistic carving of a jaguar wasfound on a stone near the Temple of the Cones at Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 52, fig. A), and another occurs near the present hacienda ofChichen Itza carved in relief on a ledge of rock. 

In the Maya manuscripts the jaguar appears in a number of connections. Its mythological character is shown in Dresden 8a (Pl. 35, fig. 5), where it is pictured as the _tonalamatl_ figure. The day reached here inthe reckoning is _Ix_, and this corresponds to the Nahua _Oceolotl_, which means jaguar. In Dresden 26, in the pages showing the ceremoniesof the years, the jaguar is carried on the back of the priest, evidentlyrepresenting one of the year bearers (_Ti cuch haab_). Balam, the nameof the jaguar, is the title given to the four _Bacabs_ or _Chacs_, thegods of the four cardinal points. In Tro-Cortesianus 64a, two jaguarheads are noted as the end of curious bands of _Caban_ signs over aflaming pot. The second one is shown as dead. A jaguar head is employedin two places in the Tro-Cortesianus, 34a and 36a, as a head-dress for agod who is in the act of sowing corn. This animal appears veryinfrequently in the pages of the Tro-Cortesianus given over to thehunting scenes, 41c, 40c, 43b, and, even here, it never appears in thesame way as the deer and peccary, as an animal for sacrifice. 

The jaguar as a predacious beast is noted in Tro-Cortesianus 28b (Pl. 35, fig. 8), where it is attacking god F in a similar way as thevultures in the preceding picture. The jaguar appears in Tro-Cortesianus30b (Pl. 35, fig. 10) seated on the right hand of the goddess from whosebreasts water is flowing. The figure in Tro-Cortesianus 12b between thevarious offerings may be a jaguar or a dog, more probably from itsconnection with an offering, the dog. A curious modification of thejaguar may be shown in Tro-Cortesianus 20a (Pl. 34, fig. 2), where a godis seated on the gaping jaws of some animal whose identity is uncertain. It may be a serpent, although the black-tipped tail from which the headappears to come certainly suggests the jaguar. 

There are several carved glyphs in stone that probably representjaguars. Two of these (Pl. 28, fig. 4; Pl. 35, fig. 9) have thecharacteristic round spots, but others are unmarked, and suggest thejaguar by their general character only (Pl. 35, fig. 6). This lattermay, of course, represent the puma quite as well. A realistic jaguarhead appears as a glyph in Tro-Cortesianus 2a (Pl. 35, fig. 13). Themore usual glyph for the jaguar is more highly conventionalized, although the spots and the short rounded ear are still characteristic(Pl. 35, fig. 11). A slight modification of this glyph appears inDresden 8a in connection with the full drawing of the animal below. 

The Nahua day _Oceolotl_, as already noted, means jaguar, and the jaguarglyph is found among the day signs (Pl. 34, fig. 3). Seler (1904, p. 379) associates the jaguar in the Vaticanus and the Bologna with_Tezcatlipoca_. He notes that the second age of the world, in which thegiants lived and in which _Tezcatlipoca_ shone as the sun, is called the"jaguar sun. " _Tezcatlipoca_ is supposed to have changed himself into ajaguar. 

PUMA (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_). As shown by Stempell, there can belittle doubt that some one of the mainly nominal species of CentralAmerican puma is represented in Dresden 47 (Pl. 34, fig. 7). This animalis colored reddish in the original, as is the puma, is without spots, although the tip of the tail, as in the pictures of the jaguar, isblack. The animal is represented as being transfixed with aspear. [358-*] Another animal colored red in Dresden 41c seems torepresent a puma. God B is shown seated upon him. A crude figure fromthe Painted Chamber of the Temple of the Tigers (Pl. 34, fig. 5) isprobably the same species of puma. The cleverly executed head, shown inprofile in Pl. 34, fig. 6, is also perhaps the same animal, although itmay possibly represent the jaguar. One or the other of these two cats isalso intended, in Pl. 34, fig. 4, a drawing of a piece of pottery. 

COYOTE (_Canis_). Two figures from the Nuttall Codex have been includedas possibly representing coyotes (Pl. 35, figs. 1, 2). They are chieflycharacterized by their prominent ears and bristling hair, and seem to beengaged in active combat. Coyotes of several species occur in Mexico andthough not generally regarded as aggressive animals are of a predaciousnature. No drawings of the coyote have been noted in the Maya codices. 

DOG (_Canis_). The dog (Maya, _peq_) evidently played an important partin the life of the Mayas as it does with other races of men generally. On Pls. 36, 37, we have included certain figures of dogs from severalmanuscripts. These may represent two breeds, for it is well known thatboth a hairy and a hairless variety were found by the early discoverersin Mexico. [359-*] Hairiness is more or less clearly indicated in thefollowing figures:--Pl. 36, figs. 1-7, 12; Pl. 37, figs. 4, 5. Thefigures of dogs usually agree in having a black mark about the eyes thatfrequently is produced as a downward curved tongue from the posteriorcanthus. Sometimes, as in Pl. 37, figs. 1-3, 10, this tongue is notblackened. Commonly also black patches are elsewhere distributed on thebody, generally on the back. These markings are probably the patches ofcolor separated by white areas that occur frequently in dogs or otheranimals after long domestication. [359-†] We have included among thefigures of dogs two in which the eye is differently represented andwhich are unspotted (Pl. 37, figs. 4, 6). These modifications may havesome special significance, but otherwise the animals appear most closelyto represent dogs. 

We have already suggested that the animal attired in man's clothing, andwalking erect in Dresden 25a-28a is likewise a dog, though Stempellbelieves it to represent the opossum in support of which he callsattention to its prominent vibrissae and slightly curled tail. 

The dog played a large part in the religion both of the Mayas and theMexican peoples. It was connected especially with the idea of death anddestruction. The Lacandones of the present time make a small figure of adog to place on the grave (Tozzer, 1907, p. 47). This is but one of themany survivals of the ancient pre-Columbian religion found among thispeople. The dog was regarded as the messenger to prepare the way to theother world. Seler (1900-1901, pp. 82-83) gives an interesting parallelof the Nahua idea of the dog and his connection with death. Heparaphrases Sahagun as follows: "The native Mexican dogs barked, waggedtheir tails, in a word, behaved in all respects like our own dogs, werekept by the Mexicans not only as house companions, but above all, forthe shambles, and also in Yucatan and on the coast land for sacrifice. The importance that the dog had acquired in the funeral rites mayperhaps have originated in the fact that, as the departed of both sexeswere accompanied by their effects, the prince by the women and slaves inhis service, so the dog was assigned to the grave as his master'sassociate, friend, and guard, and that the persistence of this custom incourse of time created the belief that the dog stood in some specialrelation to the kingdom of the dead. It may also be that, simply becauseit was the practice to burn the dead, the dog was looked on as the FireGod's animal and the emblem of fire, the natives got accustomed to speakof him as the messenger to prepare the way in the kingdom of the dead, and thus eventually to regard him as such. At the time when theSpaniards made their acquaintance, it was the constant practice of theMexicans to commit to the grave with the dead a dog who had to be of ared-yellow color, and had a string of unspun cotton round his neck, andwas first killed by the thrust of a dart in his throat. The Mexicansbelieved that four years after death, when the soul had already passedthrough many dangers on its way to the underworld, it came at last tothe bank of a great river, the Chicunauhapan, which encircled theunderworld proper. The souls could get across this river only when theywere awaited by their little dog, who, recognizing his master on theopposite side, rushed into the water to bring him over. " (Sahagun, 3Appendix, Chap. 1. )

As might be expected from the foregoing, there are abundant evidences inthe manuscripts of the presence of the dog in the various religiousrites and especially those which have to do with the other world, theKingdom of the Dead. In Tro-Cortesianus 35b, 36b, 37a, 37b, the pagesshowing the rites of the four years, the dog appears in variousattitudes. In 35b and 36b, it bears on his back the _Imix_ and _Kan_signs, in 37a (Pl. 37, fig. 8) it is shown as beating a drum andsinging, in 37b (Pl. 36, fig. 2) it is beside a bowl containing _Kan_signs. In all of these places, the dogs seem to be represented among thevarious birds and animals which are to be sacrificed for the new years. Landa (1864, p. 216)[361-*] states that in the _Kan_ year a dog wassacrificed. In the _Muluc_ year, Landa (1864, p. 222)[361-†] recordsthat they offered dogs made of clay with bread upon their backs and a_perrito_ which had black shoulders and was a virgin. It has alreadybeen noted that two of the dogs represented in Tro-Cortesianus 35b and36b have a _Kan_ and _Imix_ sign fastened to the back. Moreover, we havealso pointed out that the _Kan_ sign frequently seems to have themeaning of maize or bread. It will be noted that in Tro-Cortesianus 36btwo human feet are shown on each of which is a dog-likeanimal. [361-‡] These may indicate the dance in which dogs werecarried as noted by Landa. Cogolludo (1688, p. 184)[361-§] also mentionsa similar dance. Still another reference in Landa (1864, p. 260)[362-*]mentions that in the months _Muan_ and _Pax_ dogs were sacrificed to thedeities. 

Reference has already been made to the identification of the fourpriests at the top of Dresden 25-28 as having the heads of dogs ratherthan of opossums. It may be suggested that in the rôle of the conductorto the other world the dog is represented as carrying on his back ineach case the year which has just been completed and therefore is dead. This, of course, would necessitate the identification of god B, thejaguar, god E, and god A as representing in turn the four years. 

The dog, according to Sahagun's account (p. 360) was looked upon as the"Fire God's animal, " and as an emblem of fire. This idea is seenfrequently in the Maya manuscripts where the dog with firebrands in hispaws or attached to his tail is coming head downward from a line ofconstellation signs, as in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3), 40b (Pl. 37, fig. 1) or is standing beneath similar signs as in Dresden 39a (Pl. 37, fig. 2) and probably in Tro-Cortesianus 13a. His tail alone has thefirebrand in Tro-Cortesianus 36b. Firebrands are carried by figureswhich have been identified by us as dogs in Tro-Cortesianus 24c (Pl. 37, fig. 6), 25c, and 90a. Here the animal is represented as in the airholding his firebrands over a blazing altar beside which god F isseated. In two out of the four cases, F is shown as dead. The dog inthese latter examples has his eye composed of the _Akbal_ sign. Thissame glyph can also be made out with difficulty on the forehead of thedog shown in Dresden 36a (Pl. 37, fig. 3). As has been noted, _Akbal_means night and possibly death as well. It is certain that destructionis indicated in the preceding examples as well as in Tro-Cortesianus 87aand 88a (Pl. 37, fig. 4) where the dog is holding four human figures bythe hair. 

Beyer (1908, pp. 419-422) has identified the dog as the Pleiades andvarious other suggestions have been made that the dog represents someconstellation. The more common form of spotted dog is shown as a single_tonalamatl_ figure in Tro-Cortesianus 25d and 27d (Pl. 36, fig. 14) andan unspotted variety in Dresden 7a (Pl. 37, fig. 10). The dog isfrequently shown as copulating with another animal or with a femalefigure. In Dresden 13c (Pl. 37, fig. 7) the second figure is a vulture, in Dresden 21b (Pl. 37, fig. 5) it is a woman and also inTro-Cortesianus 91c (Pl. 36, fig. 12). 

The same animal appears also in a number of scenes not included in thepreceding. In Tro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 36, fig. 1) a dog is seated on acrab and seems to be connected with the idea of the north as this signis noted above the figure; in Tro-Cortesianus 66b (Pl. 36, fig. 3) a dogand another animal (Pl. 32, fig. 3) are seated back to back under ashelter; in Tro-Cortesianus 30b a dog is seated on the right foot of thewoman from whose breasts water is streaming; in Dresden 29a (Pl. 37, fig. 12) god B is shown seated on a dog; and, finally, in Dresden 30a(Pl. 37, fig. 9) god B holds the bound dog by the tail over an altar. 

The dog appears from numerous references to be used in connection with aprayer for rain. Comargo (1843) in his history of Tlaxcallan states thatwhen rain failed, a procession was held in which a number of hairlessdogs were carried on decorated litters to a place devoted to their use. There they were sacrificed to the god of water and the bodies wereeaten. 

The glyphs associated with the dog are interesting as we have, as in thecase with the deer, one showing a realistic drawing of a dog's head inTro-Cortesianus 91d (Pl. 37, fig. 13) and several others far moredifficult of interpretation. Pl. 37, fig. 11, seems to stand for the dogas it is found in several places where the dog appears below, Dresden21b, 40b. It is thought by some to represent the ribs of a dog whichappear in somewhat similar fashion in Pl. 37, fig. 8. Some of theglyphs in the codices for the month _Kankin_ show the same element (textfigs. 8-10). 

[Illustration: Figs. 8, 9, 10. GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH KANKIN (RIBS OF DOG). ]

The Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_ signifies dog and corresponds to theMaya Oc (Pl. 36, figs. 9-11). This in turn is considered by many tostand for the dog as the animal of death and signifies the end. Thesore, cropped ears of the domesticated dog are supposed to berepresented in this sign, Oc. Nahua and other day signs for _Itzcuintli_(dog) are shown in Pl. 36, figs. 4, 6, 13. 

BEAR (_Ursus machetes_; _U. Horriaeus_). In northern Mexico, inChihuahua and Sonora, occur a black bear (_Ursus machetes_) and theSonoran grizzly (_U. Horriaeus_). It is unlikely that the Mayas had muchacquaintance with these animals since they range more to the northwardthan the area of Maya occupation. Stempell has identified as a bear, afigure in Dresden 37a (Pl. 35, fig. 3). This represents a creature withthe body of a man walking erect but with the head apparently of somecarnivorous mammal, as shown by the prominent canine tooth. This appearsas a _tonalamatl_ figure. The resemblance to a bear is not very clear. Less doubt attaches to the figure shown in Pl. 35, fig. 4, which seemsalmost certainly to depict a bear. The stout body, absence of a tail, the plantigrade hind feet, and stout claws, all seem to proclaim it abear of one of the two species above mentioned. This picture is found inconnection with one of the warriors shown in the bas-relief of the LowerChamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza. It seems clearly todesignate the figure in much the same way as figures are named in theMexican writings, _i. E. _, by having a glyph showing this nearby. Attention has already been called to the fact that here at Chichen Itza, and, especially on this bas-relief, there is much which shows a stronginfluence from the north. The two figures in Tro-Cortesianus 43a areprobably bears. Förstemann (1902, p. 68) considers that they are menmasked as _Chacs_ or _Bacabs_. 

LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_; _Artibeus jamaicensis_; or_Phyllostomus hastatus panamensis_). Several remarkably diabolicalrepresentations of bats (Maya, _soɔ_, usually written _zotz_) occuramong the Maya remains. These all show the prominent nose leafdistinguishing the family _Phyllostomatidae_ and, as the Mayas probablyused the largest and most conspicuous of the native species for artisticrepresentation, it is likely that some one of the three species abovementioned is the one here shown. 

[Illustration: FIGS. 11, 12, 13, 14. GLYPHS FOR MAYA MONTH ZOTZ (BATS). ]

The bat had a place in the Maya pantheon. One of the months of the Mayayear (_Zotz_) was named after this animal and the glyph for this monthshows the characteristic nasal appendage. This is to be seen moreclearly in the glyphs selected from the stone inscriptions (Pl. 38, figs. 1, 2, 4-6) than in those from the codices (text figs. 11-14)although the nose leaf is still visible in the latter. The day sign_Akbal_ (night) occurs as the eye in the figures from the manuscripts. Acarving showing the whole body of the bat is used as a glyph in Stela Dfrom Copan (Pl. 38, fig. 3). This may also represent the Bat god who isassociated with the underworld, "the god of the caverns. " This god ispictured on the "Vase of Chama" (Pl. 38, fig. 7) figured by Dieseldorff(1904, pp. 665-666) and by Gordon (1898, Pl. III). Seler (1904a) hasdiscussed the presence of this god among the Mayas, the Zapotecs, andthe Nahuas. The bat does not seem to occur in the Maya manuscripts as agod, although there are glyphs which seem to refer to this god (Dresden17b), as pointed out by Seler, when there is no other representation ofthis deity. 

No doubt in the times of the Maya civilization, these bats haunted thetemples by day as they do now, and thus became readily endowed with areligious significance. 

[Illustration: FIG. 15. POTTERY WHISTLE, APE. FROM ULOA VALLEY, HONDURAS. ]

CAPUCHIN MONKEY (_Cebus capucinus, --C. Hypoleucus_ Auct. )[TN-10] With thepossible exception of one or two figures, monkeys (Maya, _maaš_ or_baaɔ_) are not represented in the Maya codices examined. InTro-Cortesianus 88c (Pl. 39, fig. 4) occurs a curious nondescript animalwith what seem to be hoofs on the forefeet, a somewhat bushy tail ofmoderate length, and a head that appears to be distinctly bonneted, somewhat as in the representations of the capuchin. Stempell regardsthis as a monkey, though recognizing that the short bushy tail is unlikethat of any Central American species. The figure seems quite as likely apeccary or possibly a combination of a deer with some other animal. Aglyph (Pl. 39, fig. 5) found directly above the figure just referredto, suggests a monkey, though it cannot be surely identified. A potterywhistle from the Uloa Valley (text fig. 15) shows two monkeys standingside by side with a posterior extension for the mouth piece. Their headsare shaped as in other representations of this monkey with a distinctcap or bonnet and facial discs. A pottery stamp from the same localityshows a monkey with a long tail (Gordon, 1898, Pl. 11, fig. F). Itrecalls the drawings of monkeys given by Strebel (1899, Pls. 1-4). 

In the Nuttall Codex are numerous heads and a few other figures of amonkey, which from the erect hair of the crown, curling tail, anddistinctly indicated facial area must be the common bonneted or capuchinmonkey of Central America. This species does not occur in Yucatan. Whatis undoubtedly the same animal is shown as a head glyph in Pl. 39, fig. 8, from the Aubin manuscript. The identifications of the head-formingglyphs in the Nuttall and the Aubin manuscripts are certainly correct asthe Nahua day sign (_Oçomatli_) means ape. 

[Illustration: FIGS. 16, 17, 18, 19. GLYPHS FOR MAYA DAY CHUEN. ]

Text figs. 16-19, show some of the signs for the day _Chuen_ from theMaya codices. This is the day corresponding to the day Oçomatli of theNahuas. There is little resembling an ape in the Maya signs although ithas been remarked that the sign may show the open jaws and teeth of thisanimal. 

Förstemann (1897) as noted by Schellhas (1904, p. 21) alludes to thefact that the figure of god C, which occurs also in the sign for thenorth, in the _tonalamatl_ in Dresden 4a-10a occurs in the day _Chuen_of the Maya calendar, and this corresponds to the day _Oçomatli_, theape, in the Nahua calendar. This would suggest a connection between godC and the ape and this may be seen in the glyphs for god C (text figs. 20-24). Förstemann sees "an ape whose lateral nasal cavity (peculiar tothe American ape or monkey) is occasionally represented plainly in thehieroglyph picture. " He also associates god C with the constellation ofUrsa Minor. 

[Illustration: FIGS. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. GLYPHS OF GOD C. ]

It will be seen from the detailed examination of the fauna shown in thecodices that after all a comparatively small part of the animal life ofthe country occupied by the Maya speaking peoples is represented. Thedrawings in some cases are fairly accurate, so that there is littledifficulty in determining the species intended by the artist. At othertimes, it is hazardous to state the exact species to which the animalbelongs. It is only in a comparatively small number of cases, however, that there is any great doubt attached to the identification. It will benoted that the drawings of the Dresden manuscript are much morecarefully and accurately done than those of the Tro-Cortesianus. Agreater delicacy and a more minute regard for detail characterize theDresden drawings in general. 

In the animals selected for reproduction by the Mayas, only those weretaken which were used either in a purely religious significance fortheir mythological character (and here naturally there is to be noted ananthropomorphic tendency) or animals were chosen which were employed asofferings to the many different gods of the Maya pantheon. The religiouscharacter of the whole portrayal of animal life in the codices isclearly manifest, and it is this side of the subject which will come outmore clearly as the manuscripts are better known. 

FOOTNOTES:

[300-*] Quoted in Thomas, 1882, pp. 115, 116. 

[300-†] "En el mes de _Tzoz_ se aparejavan los señores de lascolmenares para celebrar su fiesta en _Tzec_. "

[301-*] "En este mes (_Mol_) tornavan los colmenares a hazer otra fiestacomo la que hizieron en _Tzec_, para que los dioses proveessen de floresa las avejas. "

[303-*] Strebel (1899, Pl. 11) gives several realistic reproductions ofthe centipede from pottery fragments. 

[309-*] Attention is also called to two whistles representing frogs inthe _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, I, _No. _ 4 (Gordon, 1898), Pl. 9, figs, i, j. 

[311-*] We have added here a Spanish description from the _Relacion dela Ciudad de Mérida_ (1900, pp. 66, 67) of the varieties of serpentfound in the country. "Ay una suerte de culebra que llaman los naturalestaxinchan, de una tercia de largo, que para andar hinca la cabeza en elsuelo y da un salto, y de aquella suerte dando saltos anda, la espalda yla cabeza tiene dorada y la punta dela cola este se cria en los montes, y quando pica a alguna persona le haze reventar sangre por todos losporos del cuerpo que pareze que suda sangre y si no es le haze algunrremedio muere dentro de un dia natural y para la mordedura destaculebra tienen por rremedio los naturales dar a bever ala tal personachile y hoja de piciete molido junto y desleido en agua, y con estoguarecen e sanan--ay biboras muy grandes y ponzoñosas de una vara e masde largo, y tan gruesa como un brazo, que tienen cascabeles en la puntade la cola, y si muerden matan sino se rremedio con brebedad, y tienenlos naturales por rremedio beber chile e piciete como para la mordeduradel taxinchan--ay otras suertes de culebras que se llaman cocob, de tresy cuatro varas de largo y tan gruesas como una lanza gineta, que tanbienson muy ponzoñosas, y al que pican haze salir sangre por todo el cuerpoy por los ojos, como el taxinchan, . . . Procuraban guarecerse destaponzoña con juros y encantamentos, que avia grandes en cantadores ytenian sus libros para conjurarlas y encantarlas, y estos encantadores, con pocas palabras que dezian, encantaban y amansaban las culebrasponzoñosas, las cojian y tomaban con las manos sin que les hiziese malninguno--tanbien ay culebras bobas sin ponzoñas, de dos varas y mas delargo y tan gruesas como el brazo, y suelen ponerse sobre arboles juntosalos caminos, y quando pasa alguna persona se deja caer encima y se leenrosça y rebuelve al cuerpo y a la garganta, y apretando le procuraahogarle y matarle, a sucedido matar algunos yndios caçadores yendodescuidados--tanbien tienen estas culebras distinto natural para comer ysustentarse. "

[313-*] Pl. 9, figs. 5, 9, show drawings of the rattlesnake which occuron the fresco. 

[316-*] The reader is also referred to the bas-relief of the LowerChamber of the Temple of the Tigers at Chichen Itza where a serpent isshown behind a low altar. 

[317-*] Förstemann (1906, p. 15) agrees with Schellhas that this may bea rebus for the name _Quetzalcoatl_ or _Kukulcan_. As the bird is avulture rather than a quetzal this could hardly be the case. 

[317-†] "Y con isopo en el mano de un palo corto muy labrado, y porbarbas o pelos del isopo ciertas colas de unas culebras que son comocaxcavales. "

[318-*] Brinton (1893, p. 25) notes that the equivalent of _Kan_ in theNahuatl of Miztitlan is _xilotl_ which means ear of corn. This seems toshow the correctness of the usual identification of the _Kan_ sign asmeaning maize or bread (_pan_). 

[318-†] "Y les ofrecían dos pellas de una leche o resina de un arbolque llaman _kik_, para quemar y ciertas iguanas y pan y una mitra y unmanojo de flores y una piedra preciosa de las suyas. "

[319-*] "Y pintaban un largarto que significaba el Diluvio--y la tierrae sobre este largarto hazian un gran monton de leña y ponianle fuego. "

[323-*] See in this connection Seler, 1904. 

[327-*] "Y ofrecerle cabeças de pavos y pan y bevidas de maiz. "

[327-†] (Kan year) "Sahumavan la imagen, degollavan una gallina y sela presentavan o offrecian . . . Y assi le hazian muchas offrendas decomidas y bevidas de carne y pescado, y estas offrendas repartian a losestrangeros que alli se hallavan. "

(Muluc year) "Y despues degollavanle la gallina como al passado. "

(Ix year) "Y degollavan la gallina . . . A la estatua de _Kac-u-Uayeyab_ofrescian una cabeça de un pavo, y empanados de codornices y otrascoasa[TN-11] y su bevida. "

(Cauac year) "Coma solian y degollavanle la gallina . . . Un hombre muertoy en cima un paxaro cenicero llamad _kuch_, en señal de mortandadgrande, ca por muy mal año tenian este. "

[330-*] Förstemann identifies this bird as a black eagle. 

[333-*] "Este año en que la letra era _Cauac_ y reynava el_Bacab-Hozanek_ tenian, allende de la pronosticada mortandad, por ruyn, por que dezian les avian los muchos soles de matar los maizales, y comerlas muchas hormigas lo que sembrassen y los paxaros, y porque esto noseria en todas partes avria en algunos comida, la qual avrian con grantrabajo. "

[338-*] Brinton (1895, p. 74), according to our interpretation, makes amistake when he considers the crested falcon as the Moan, "in Maya_muan_ or _muyan_. " He adds, "Some writers have thought the moan birdwas a mythical animal but Dr. C. H. Berendt found the name still appliedto the falcon. In the form _muyan_, it is akin in sound to _muyal_, cloud, _muan_, cloudy, which may account for its adoption as a symbol ofthe rains, etc. "

[341-*] "Crian paxaros para su recreacion y para las plumas para hazersus ropas galanas. "

[349-*] _Relacion hecha por el Licenciado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II_(1866, p. 31). "Lo que hacian en los sacrificios de la pesca y caza, eraque tomaban un venado vivo y llevábanlo al patio del cu é iglesia quetenian fuera del pueblo y allí lo ahogaban y lo desollaban y le salabantoda la sangre en una olla, y el hígado y bofes y buches los hacianpedazos muy pequeños y apartaban el corazon, cabeza y pies, y mandabancocer el venado por si, la sangre for[TN-12] sí, y mientras esto secocia, hacian su baile. Tomaban el Papa y sábio la cabeza del venado porlas orejas, y los cuatro sacerdotes los cuatro pies, y el mayordomollevaba un brasero, do se quemaba el corazon con ulí y copa, é incensabanal ídolo que tenian puesto y señalado para la caza y pesca. Acabado elmitote, ofrecian la cabeza y piés al ídolo y chamuscábanla, y despues dechamuscada, la llevaban á casa del Papa y se la comia y el venado y susangre comian los demás sacerdotes delante del ídolo; á los pescados lessacaban las tripas y los quemaban ante el dicho ídolo. Lo propio era conlos demás animales. "

_Relacion de Cotuta y Tibolon_ (1898, p. 105). "Un dios que dezian queeran benados en matando un yndio un benado benia luego a su dios y conel coraçon le untaba la cara de sangre y sino mataba algo aquel diaybase a su casa aquel yndio le quebraba y dabale de cozes diziendo queno era buen dios. "

Cogolludo (1688, Book I, Chap. VII, p. 43) "Correan tan poco losvenados, y tan sin espantarse de la gente, que los soldados de á cavallodel exercito los alcancavan, y alançeavan, muy á su placer, y de estasuerte mataron muchos de ellos, con que comieron algunos dias despues. . . Que en que consistia aquella novedad, de aver tanta maquina devenados, y estar tan mansos? Les dieron por respuesta; Que en aquellosPueblos los tenian por sus Dioses á los venador; porque su Idolo Mayorse les avia aparecido en aquella figura. "

[350-*] "Y con su devocion invocavan los caçadores a los dioses de lacaça, . . . Sacava cada uno una flecha y una calabera de venado, lasquales los _chaces_ untavan con el betun azul; y untados, vailavan conellas en las manos unos. "

[350-†] In the _Muluc_ years, he states "davan al sacredote una piernade venado" and also in the same month, "Ofrecian a la imagen pan hechocomo yemas de uevos y otros como coraçones de venados, y otro hecho consu pimienta desleida. "

[351-*] Förstemann (1902, p. 20) identifies this animal as a rabbit!

[351-†] Förstemann identifies this animal as a dog. 

[352-*] This animal has been identified by Stempell as an agoutinotwithstanding the hoofs and tusks. 

[352-†] Förstemann (1906, p. 228) suggests that this animal is a bear. 

[353-*] Attention is called to the curious half-human, half-animalfigure in Tro-Cortesianus 2a which may suggest the figures in Dresden44a, 45a and which are here identified as peccaries. Both are descendingfrom the band of constellation signs and the heads of each are notgreatly dissimilar. 

[354-*] Förstemann (1906, p. 229) suggests that fig. 8 is a walrus!

[358-*] Seler (1904) gives an interesting explanation of the reason whythe puma and the other corresponding figures are shown hit with a spear. 

[359-*] _Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida_ (1898, p. 63): "Ay perrosnaturales dela tierra que no tienen pelo ninguno, y no ladran, quetienen los dientes ralos e agudos, las orejas pequeñas, tiesas ylevantadas--a estos engordan los yndios para comer y los tienen por granrregalo--estos se juntan con los perros de españa y enjendran y losmestizos que dellos proceden ladran y tienen pelo y tambien los comenlos yndios cano alos demas, y tambien los yndios tienen otra suerte deperros que tienen pelo pero tan poco ladran y son del mesmo tamaño quelos demas. "

[359-†] Brinton (1895, p. 72) regards these spots as representingstars. 

[361-*] "Y que le sacrificassen un perro o un hombre . . . Porque hazianen el patio del templo un gran monton de piedras y ponian al hombre operro que avian de sacrificiar en alguna cosa mas alta que el. "

[361-†] "Avian de ofrescerle perros hechos de barro con pan en lasespaldas, y avian de vailar con ellos en las manos las viejas ysacrificarle un perrito que tuviesse las espaldas negras y fuessevirgen. "

[361-‡] These might quite as well be rabbits as dogs. 

[361-§] "De los Indios de Cozumèl dize, que aun en su tiempo erangrandes Idolatras, y usaban un bayle de su gentilidad, en el qualflechaban un perro [^q] auian de sacrificar. "

[362-*] "Donde sacrificavan un perro, manchado por la color del cacao. . . Y ofrecianles yguanas de las azules y ciertas plumas de un paxaro. "

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Aubin Manuscript, See Seler 1900-1901. 

Beyer, Herman. 1908, The symbolic meaning of the dog in ancient Mexico; in _American Anthropologist_ (N. S. ), Vol. X, pp. 419-422, Washington. 

Bologna Codex, See Cospiano Codex. 

Borbonicus Codex, See Hamy, 1899. 

Borgia Codex, See Seler, 1904-1906. 

Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles Etienne. 1869-1870, Manuscrit Troano. Etudes sur le système graphique et la langue des Mayas; 2 vols. , 4^o Paris. 

Brinton, Daniel Garrison. 1893, The native calendar of Central America and Mexico; in _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_; Vol. XXXI, pp. 258-314, Philadelphia. 

1895, A primer of Mayan hieroglyphics; in _Publications of theUniversity of Pennsylvania, Series in Philosophy, Literature, andArchaeology_, Vol. III, No. 2, pp. 152, Boston. 

Camargo, Domingo Muñoz. 1843, Histoire de la République de Tlaxcallan; in _Nouvelles Annales des Voyages et des Sciences Géographique_; IV Série, Tome 3, Paris. (Spanish edition published by Chavero, Mexico, 1892. )

Cogolludo, Diego Lopez. 1688, Historia de Yucatan; 4^o, pp. 791, Madrid. 

Cortesianus Codex, See Rada y Delgado, 1893. 

Cospiano Codex (formerly Bologna). 1899, Published in facsimile, Paris. (Loubat edition. )

Dieseldorff, Erwin P. 1904, A clay vessel with a picture of a vampire-headed deity; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin 28_, pp. 665-666, Washington. (Translation of German edition published in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1894, pp. 576-577. )

Dresden Codex, See Förstemann, 1880 and 1892. 

Fejérváry-Mayer Codex, See Seler, 1901. 

Fewkes, J. Walter. 1892, The Mam-zraú-ti; a Tusayan ceremony; in _American Anthropologist_, Vol. V, pp. 217-246. 

 1894, A study of certain figures in a Maya codex; in _American Anthropologist_, Vol. VII, pp. 260-274. 

Förstemann, Ernst. 1880, Die Maya-Handschrift der königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Dresden; 4^o, Preface pp. Xvii, 74 colored plates, Leipzig. 

 1892, Second edition of 1880, Dresden. 

 1902, Commentar zur Madrider Mayahandschrift (Codex Tro-Cortesianus); 8^o, pp. 160, Danzig. 

 1903, Commentar zur Pariser Mayahandschrift (Codex Peresianus); 8^o, pp. 32, Danzig. 

 1904, Tortoise and shell in Maya literature; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 423-430, Washington. (Translation of German edition of 1892. Dresden. )

 1904a, The Pleiades among the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 523-524, Washington. (Translation of German edition published in _Globus_, Vol. XVI, No. 15, p. 246, 1894. )

 1904b, The Day Gods of the Mayas; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 557-572, Washington. (Translation of German edition published in _Globus_, Vol. LXIII, Nos. 9, 10, 1898. )

 1906, Commentary of the Maya manuscript in the Royal Public Library of Dresden; in _Papers of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 48-266. Cambridge. (Translation, revised by the author, of the German edition of 1901. )

Gann, Thomas. 1897-1898, Mounds in Northern Honduras; in _Bureau of Ethnology_, 19th annual report, part 2, pp. 661-691, Washington. 

Gordon, George Byron. 1898, Researches in the Uloa Valley, Honduras; in _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 44, Cambridge. 

Hamy, Ernest T. 1899, Codex Borbonicus. Manuscrit Mexicain de la Bibliothèque der Palais Bourbon; Text and plates, Paris. 

Holmes, William Henry. 1895-1897, Archaeological studies among the ancient cities of Mexico; _Field Museum of Natural History, Publications_ 8 and 16, _Anthropological Series_, Vol. I, No. I, Chicago. 

Hough, Walter. 1908, The pulque of Mexico; in _Proceedings of the United States National Museum_, Vol. XXXIII, pp. 577-592, Washington. 

Landa, Diego de. 1864, Relación de las cosas de Yucatan; Spanish text with French translation published by Brasseur de Bourbourg; 8^o, pp. 516, Paris. (The references in the text are to this edition). Spanish edition published by Juan de Dios de la Rada y Delgado, Madrid, 1884, as an appendix to his translation of Leon de Rosny's article, Essai sur le déchiffrement de l'écriture hiératique de l'Amérique Centrale. Second Spanish edition in Colección de Documentos inéditos (2d Series); Madrid, 1900, Vol. XIII, pp. 265-411. 

 1900, See second Spanish edition under 1864. (This contains much that is not given in the 1864 edition. )

Maler, Teoberto. 1901-1903, Researches in the Usumatsintla Valley; in _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. II, Cambridge. 

 1908, Explorations of the Upper Usumatsintla and adjacent region; in _Memoirs of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, Cambridge. 

Maudslay, Alfred P. 1889-1902, Biologia Centrali-Americana, or Contributions to the knowledge of the flora and fauna of Mexico and Central America. Archaeology; Text and 4 vols. Plates, London. 

Nuttall Codex. 1902, Reproduced in facsimile by the Peabody Museum, Cambridge. 

Palacio. 1686, Relacion hecha por el Licentiado Palacio al Rey. D. Felipe II en la que describe la Provincia de Guatemala, las costumbres de los Indios y otras casas notables; in _Colección de Documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones Españales[TN-13] de América y Oceania_; Tomo VI, pp. 7-40, Madrid. 

Peresianus Codex, See Rosny, 1887. 

Perez, Juan Pio. 1866-1877, Diccionario de la lengua Maya; sm. 4^o, pp. 437, Merida. 

Rada y Delgado, Juan de Dios de la. 1893, Codice Maya denominado Cortesianus que se conserva en el Museo Arqueologio Nacional; 42 colored plates, Madrid. 

Relacion de la Ciudad de Merida. 1900, in _Colección de Documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquista y organizacion de las antiguas posesiones Españolas de Ultra mar_ (_Segunda serie_), Tomo XI, pp. 37-75, Madrid. 

Relación de Cotuta y Tibolon. 1900, in _Colección de Documentos inéditos etc. _, (_Segunda serie_), Tomo XI, pp. 93-103, Madrid. 

Rosny, Leon de. 1876, Essai sur le dechiffrement de l'écriture hiératique de l'Amérique Centrale, Paris. 

 1887, Codex Peresianus, Manuscrit hiératique des anciens Indiens de l'Améirque[TN-14] Centrale conservé à la Bibliothéque[TN-15] National de Paris, Paris. 

Schellhas, Paul. 1904, Representations of deities of the Maya manuscripts; in _Papers of the Peabody Museum_, Vol. IV, No. 1, pp. 1-47, Cambridge. (Revised translation of second German edition of 1904. )

Seler, Eduard. 1900-1901, The Tonalamatl of the Aubin Collection, (English edition), pp. 147, plates 19, Berlin and London. (Loubat edition. )

 1901, Codex Fejérváry-Mayer. Manuscrit Mexicain précolombien du Free Public Museum de Liverpool (M 12014). Text and plates, Paris. (Loubat edition. )

 1902-1903, Codex Vaticanus 3773, Text and plates, Berlin. (Loubat ed. )

 1904, Venus period in the picture writings of the Borgia Codex group; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 355-391, Washington. (Translation of German edition of 1898. )

 1904a, The Bat god of the Maya race; in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 231-242, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of 1894. )

 1904b, Antiquities from Guatemala: in _Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin_ 28, pp. 75-121, Washington. (Translation of the German edition of 1895. Republished[TN-16] in his collected works, Vol. III, pp. 578-640. )

 1904-1906, Codex Borgia. Eine altmexikanische Bilderschrift der Bibliothek der Congregatio de Propaganda Fide; 4^o, 2 vols. Plates, Berlin (Loubat edition. )

 1909, Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und Maya-Handschriften:[TN-17] in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 1909, pp. 209-257, 381-457 (not completed). 

Stempell, W. 1908, Die Tierbilder der Mayahandschriften; in _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, 40 Jahrgang, Vol. V, pp. 704-743. 

Strebel, Hermann. 1899, Uber Tierornamente auf Thongefässen aus Alt-Mexico; in _Veröffentlichen aus dem Konig. Mus. Für Völkerkunde_, Vol. VI, part 1, pp. 1-33, Berlin. 

Thomas, Cyrus. 1882, A study of the Manuscript Troana; in _Contributions to North American Ethnology_, Vol. V, pp. 234, Washington. 

 1884-1885, Aids to the study of the Maya codices; in _Bureau of Ethnology_, 6th annual report, pp. 253-371, Washington. 

Tozzer, Alfred M. 1907, A comparative study of the Mayas and the Lacandones. Report of the Fellow in American Archaeology, 1902-1905; Archaeological Institute of America, 8^o, pp. 195, plates 29, New York. 

Troano Codex, See Brasseur de Bourbourg, 1867-1870. 

Villagutierre Soto Mayor, Juan. 1701, Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza; 4^o, pp. 660, Madrid. 

Vaticanus 3773, See Seler, 1902. 

PLATE 1

MOLLUSCA

FASCIOLARIA GIGANTEA

 1. Man emerging from shell, Dresden 41b. 2. Same, Borgia 4. 3. Bologna 4. 4. Dresden 37b. 5. Vaticanus 3773, 66. 6. Nuttall 16. 7. Sign for zero, Dresden 64. 8. Glyph, Dresden 41b. 9. Nuttall 16. 

OLIVA

 10, 11. Sign for zero, Dresden 63. 12. Same, Dresden 55b. 

OTHER MOLLUSCA

 13. Sign for zero, Dresden 54b. 14. Same. Bivalve, Dresden 63. 15. Bivalve, Nuttall 25. 16. Nuttall 49. 17. Nuttall 23. 18. Nuttall 16. 19. Nuttall 36. 20. Nuttall 75. 21. Bivalve closed, seen in profile, Nuttall 75. 22. Same, Nuttall 25. 23. Probably bivalve, Nuttall 16. 24. Same. Nuttall 36. 

[Illustration: PLATE 1]

PLATE 2

INSECTA

HONEY BEE (_Melipona_)

 1. Possibly a drone, Tro-Cortesianus 108a. 2, 3. Tro-Cortesianus 108a. 4, 6[TN-18] Bees more conventionalized, Tro-Cortesianus 80b. 5. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c. 7. Honey combs, apparently in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 11c. 8. Maya day sign, _Cauac_, possibly representing a honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 106b. 9. Tro-Cortesianus 103c. 10. Honey combs in a hive, Tro-Cortesianus 104a. 11. Bee and honey comb, Tro-Cortesianus 109c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 2]

PLATE 3

INSECTA AND MYRIAPODA

 1. Maggots, probably of Blowfly (_Sarcophaga_), Tro-Cortesianus 27d. 2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 24d. 3. Larva of _Acentrocneme kollari_, Tro-Cortesianus 28c. 4. Conventionalized insect, possibly a hornet, Nuttall 3. 5. Conventionalized insect, unidentified, Nuttall 19. 6. Same, Nuttall 55. 7. Same, Nuttall 51. 8. Butterfly or moth, Nuttall 19. 9. Butterfly, Aubin. 10. Maya day sign, _Akbal_, possibly representing the head of a centipede. 11. Glyph belonging to god D, apparently composed of signs for centipede, Dresden 7b. 12. Glyph for god D, Dresden 14b. 13. Glyph, Dresden 44b. 14. Same, Dresden 27a. 15. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 15c. 16. Glyph, Dresden 9b. 17. Same, Dresden 15c. 18. Centipede in connection with head-dress of god D, Dresden 7c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 3]

PLATE 4

ARACHNOIDEA, ARACHNIDA, CRUSTACEA

 1. Scorpion and deer, Tro-Cortesianus 48c. 2. Scorpion with sting conventionalized as a hand, Tro-Cortesianus 44c. 3. Scorpion highly conventionalized, Nuttall 22. 4. Spider, possibly a tarantula, Borbonicus 9. 5. Crayfish, Nuttall 16. 6. Crab, Nuttall 37. 

[Illustration: PLATE 4]

PLATE 5

MYRIAPODA, PISCES

 1. Parts of a conventionalized centipede with quetzal tail, Vaticanus 3773, 13. 2. Fish with teeth, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 48). 3. Fish captured by heron, Dresden 36b. (Compare Pl. 15, fig. 5. ) 4. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 45). 5. Fish. 6. Pottery fish, Chajcar (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 93). 7. Same. 8. Fish as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 3a. 9. Same, Dresden 29b. 

[Illustration: PLATE 5]

PLATE 6

PISCES

 1. Possibly a flying-fish (_Exocetus_), Nuttall 75. 2. Palenque, Temple of the Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 68). 3. Nuttall 36. 4, 5. Glyphs, possibly of a shark, Dresden 40a. 6. Fish as offering, Dresden 27c. 7. Fish without dorsal fins, possibly an eel (_Muraena_), Dresden 65b. 8. Fish as offering, Dresden 23b. 9. Pottery animal from Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34). 10. Dresden 44c. 11. Nuttall 16. 12. Palenque, Palace (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 11). 13. Fish as offering, Dresden 33a. 14. Fish as part of the Great Cycle glyph, Copan, Stela C, north (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41). 15. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41. ) 16. Same, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48). 17. Same, Copan, Stela C, south (Maudslay, I, Pl. 41). 

[Illustration: PLATE 6]

PLATE 7

AMPHIBIA

 1. Frog (_Rana_), Tro-Cortesianus 31a. 2, 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 101d. 4. Probably a toad (_Bufo_), Copan, Oblong altar (Maudslay, I, Pl. 114). 5. Frog or toad, Tro-Cortesianus 17b. 6. Frog and fish, Copan, Altar O (Maudslay, I, Pl. 85). 7. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 46). 

[Illustration: PLATE 7]

PLATE 8

AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA

 1. God F representing a tree-toad (_Hyla eximia_), Tro-Cortesianus 26b. 2. Glyph evidently belonging to fig. 3, Tro-Cortesianus 26a. 3. Same as fig. 1, Tro-Cortesianus 26a. 4. Snake, Nuttall 6. 5. Same, Nuttall 45. 6. Same, Nuttall 37. 7. Snake used as head-dress of a woman, Dresden 39b. 8. Same, Dresden 23b. 9. Same, Dresden 43b. 10. Same, Dresden 22b. 11. Same, Dresden 9c. 12. Same, Dresden 15b. 13. Same, Dresden 18a. 14. Dresden 42a. 15. Same as figs. 7-13, Dresden 20a. 

[Illustration: PLATE [8][TN-19]]

PLATE 9

REPTILIA

RATTLESNAKE (_Crotalus_)

 1. Tro-Cortesianus 33b. 2. Nahua day sign, _Couatl_, Aubin 10. 3. Tro-Cortesianus 52c. 4. Tro-Cortesianus 40b. 5. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40). 6. Nuttall 29. 7. Glyph representing rattles, Tro-Cortesianus 106c. 8. Tro-Cortesianus 100d. 9. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40). 10. Nuttall 54. 

[Illustration: PLATE 9]

PLATE 10

REPTILIA

SERPENTS

 1. Tree snake (possibly _Lachesis_), Dresden 27c. 2. Nuttall 37. 3. Dresden 57b. 4. Nuttall 5. 5. Nuttall 37. 6. Nuttall. 7. Serpent in connection with long number series, Dresden 62. 8. Dresden 37b. 9. Dresden 40c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 10. ]

PLATE 11

REPTILIA

SERPENTS

 1. Large snake with conventionalized spots, Tro-Cortesianus 30a. 2. Tro-Cortesianus 31b. 

[Illustration: PLATE 11]

PLATE 12

REPTILIA

IGUANA, LIZARDS

 1. Iguana as offering, Tro-Cortesianus 105c. 2. Iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 3b. 3. Iguana, as offering with _Kan_, Dresden 43c. 4. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b. 5. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 6a. 6. Same, Dresden 29b. 7. Offering, possibly representing a lizard, Dresden 27b. 8. Same, Dresden 34a. 9. Lizard used for _Uinal_ glyph, Copan, Stela D, gl. 4. (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48). 10. Nahua day sign, _Cuetzpalin_ (lizard), Aubin 10. 11. Lizard, Dresden 3a. 12. Nuttall 10. 13. Offering, the portion with serrated margin possibly representing an iguana, Tro-Cortesianus 12b. 14. Lizard, Nuttall 2. 

[Illustration: PLATE 12]

PLATE 13

REPTILIA

CROCODILE (_Crocodilus_)

 1. Glyph of the Nahua day sign, _Cipactli_, Nuttall 1. 2. Crocodile represented by head and limb, Nuttall 36. 3. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1. 4. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 4. 5. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 9. 6. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 47. 7. Same as fig. 1, Nuttall 1. 8. Nuttall 75. 9. Head of lizard or possibly crocodile used as a _Uinal_ glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, gl. 6). 10. Head of crocodile, Dresden 52b. 11. Head, possibly of a crocodile, Palenque, Temple of the Foliated Cross (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 82, gl. 0, [TN-20] 4). 12. Conventionalized head of a crocodile, Dresden 53b. 

[Illustration: PLATE 13. ]

PLATE 14

REPTILIA

TURTLES

 1. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 19b. 2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 17b. 3. Swimming turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 17a. 4. Possibly representing a turtle, Nuttall 33. 5. Turtle, Tro-Cortesianus 81c. 6. Freshwater turtle (_Chelydra_) with leeches attached, Tro-Cortesianus 72b. 7. Glyph for fig. 3. 8. Glyph. 9. Glyph. 10. Glyph. 11. Turtle, Nuttall 43. 12. Turtle god, _Aac_, Dresden 49. 

[Illustration: PLATE 14]

PLATE 15

AVES

HERONS[TN-21] FRIGATE BIRD

 1. Heron, stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House B (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 18). 2. Heron head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 45). 3. Head and neck of a heron, Dresden 37b. 4. Heron, Nuttall 74. 5. Heron with fish, Palenque, Temple of the Cross, West side panel (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 71). 6. Heron[TN-22] 7. Heron with a fish as a head-dress, Dresden 36a. 8. Fork-tailed bird, probably a Frigate bird (_Fregata aquila_), Tro-Cortesianus 34a. 9. Same, arranged for offering, Dresden 35a. 

[Illustration: PLATE 15]

PLATE 16

AVES

OCELLATED TURKEY (_Agriocharis ocellata_)

 1. Turkey in trap, Tro-Cortesianus 93a. 2. Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 10b. 3. Turkey snared, Tro-Cortesianus 91a. 4. Tro-Cortesianus 4a. 5. Tro-Cortesianus 95c. 6. Tro-Cortesianus 37b. 7. Vaticanus 3773, 14. 8. Tro-Cortesianus 36a. 9. Whole turkey as offering, Dresden 26c. 10. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 34a. 11. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 12b. 12. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b. 13. Dresden 20a. 14. Head of turkey as offering, Dresden 41c. 15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107b. 16. Same, Dresden 29c. 17. Same, Dresden 28c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 16]

PLATE 17

AVES

KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_)

 1. Tro-Cortesianus 67a. 2. Tro-Cortesianus 22c. 3. God with head of King Vulture, Dresden 19a. 4. King Vulture and Ocellated Turkey, Tro-Cortesianus 85a. 5. Glyph, showing head, Dresden 39c. 6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 107c. 7. Same, Dresden 38b. 8. Same. 9. King Vulture, tearing out entrails of deer, Tro-Cortesianus 40a. 10. _Tun_ period glyph (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89). 11. Tro-Cortesianus 94c. 12. Tro-Cortesianus 26c. 13. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13). 

[Illustration: PLATE 17]

PLATE 18

AVES. 

KING VULTURE (_Sarcorhamphus papa_), BLACK VULTURE (_Catharista urubu_)

 1. Glyph of head of King Vulture, Dresden 11b. 2. Glyph for Nahua day sign, _Cozcaquauhtli_, Nuttall 5. 3. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 41. 4. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 5. 5. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 4. 6. Same as fig. 2, showing considerable conventionalization. Nuttall 2. 7. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3. 8. Same as fig[TN-23] 2, further reduced, Nuttall 18. 9. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 3. 10. Same as fig. 2, Nuttall 20. 11. Probably a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 95c. 12. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 70a. 13. Same, Dresden 17b. 14. Possibly a Black Vulture, Chichen Itza, Monjas, east (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13). 15. Head of Black Vulture, Nuttall 32. 16. Glyph of head of same, Dresden 54b. 17. Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 36b. 18. Head of same, Tro-Cortesianus 26c. 19. Same, Dresden 39c. 20. Same, Nuttall 19. 21. Same, Nuttall 34. 22. Same, Dresden 37c. 23. Same, Nuttall 27. 24. Same, Nuttall 1. 25. Same, Nuttall 34. 26. Same, Nuttall 9. 27. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 19b. 

[Illustration: PLATE 18]

PLATE 19

AVES. 

VULTURES

 1. Vulture (probably a King Vulture) tearing at entrails of an animal, Tro-Cortesianus 42a. 2. Nuttall 69. 3. Nuttall 74. 4. Possibly a Black Vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 35b. 5. Tro-Cortesianus 26d. 6. Tro-Cortesianus 26d. 7. Dresden 3a. 8. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16). 9. Glyph, Copan, Altar K (Maudslay, I, gl. 73). 10. Glyph, Tikal, House 9 (Maudslay, III, Pl. 79). 11. Black Vulture and snake, Dresden 36b. 12. Probably vultures, Tro-Cortesianus 100b. 13. Probably a vulture, Tro-Cortesianus 18b. 14. Same, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 46). 

[Illustration: PLATE 19]

PLATE 20

AVES

HARPY EAGLE (_Thrasaetos harpyia_)

 1. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 3). 2. Nuttall 53. 3. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 16, gl. 13). 4. Tro-Cortesianus 88c. 5. Part of a head-dress, Dresden 14c. 6. Peresianus 2. 7. Dresden 14b. 8. Eagle with crest feathers tipped by flints, Nuttall[TN-24] 9. Glyph, Tro-Cortesianus 107c. 10. Stone carving, Chichen Itza (Maudslay, III, Pl. 52). 11. Dresden 23c. 12. Possibly an eagle's head, Dresden 43c. 13. Possibly an eagle, Dresden 74. 14. Bologna 7. 

[Illustration: PLATE 20]

PLATE 21

AVES

YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)

 1. Owl in flight, Stucco ornament, Palenque, Palace, House E (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 43). 2. Stone carving of owl, Yaxchilan, Stela 4 (Peabody Museum Memoirs, II, Pl. 70). 3. Owl in flight, carved in wood, Tikal, House C, lintel (Maudslay, III, Pl. 78). 

[Illustration: PLATE 21]

PLATE 22

AVES

YUCATAN HORNED OWL (_Bubo virginianus mayensis_)

 1. Bologna 7. 2. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c. 3. Borgia 7. 4. On end of staff carried by warrior, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 49). 5. Aubin 13. 6. Head highly conventionalized, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 88). 7. Screech-owl (_chiquàtli_), Aubin. 

[Illustration: [PLATE] 22[TN-25]]

PLATE 23

AVES

YUCATAN SCREECH OWL or _Moan-bird_ (_Otus choliba thompsoni_)

 1. Dresden 7c. 2. Tro-Cortesianus 66a. 3. Dresden 11a. 4. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c. 5. As a head-dress, Dresden 18b. 6. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c. 7. Same, Dresden 7c. 8. Dresden 10a. 9. Peresianus 10. 10. Peresianus 5. 11. Glyph representing head, Dresden 38c. 12. Same, Dresden 8b. 13. Same, Dresden 53b. 14. Same, Dresden 16c. 15. Glyph possibly representing Moan-bird, Dresden 38c. 16. Glyph of head, Dresden 53b. 17. Glyph associated with Moan-bird. 18. Tro-Cortesianus 73b. 19. As a head-dress, Dresden 16c. 20. As a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 95c. 21. Glyph associated with Moan-bird, Dresden 7c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 2[3][TN-26]]

PLATE 24

AVES

COPPERY-TAILED TROGON or QUETZAL (_Pharomacrus mocinno_)

 1. Head-dress with crest feathers shown as knobs, Dresden 7c. 2. Head-dress, Dresden 13b. 3. Same, Dresden 16c. 4. Tro-Cortesianus 100b. 5. Tro-Cortesianus 70a. 6. Head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 94c. 7. Nuttall 33. 8. Conventionalized tail as a head ornament, Dresden 20c. 9. Vaticanus 3773, 17. 10. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Sun (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 89, gl. O, 9). 11. Trogon descending on a sacrifice, Bologna 8. 12. Tro-Cortesianus 36b. 13. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 111, gl. 54). 14. Glyph apparently representing a trogon's head, Dresden 20c. 15. Same, Dresden 9b. 16. Same, Dresden 3a. 17. Head, Nuttall 43. 18. Tro-Cortesianus 26c. 19. Figure with head ornament resembling a trogon glyph, Dresden 20c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 24]

PLATE 25

AVES

BLUE MACAW (_Ara militaris_)

 1. Figure with macaw head and holding firebrands, Dresden 40b. 2. Head-dress, Dresden 16c. 3. Tro-Cortesianus 12a. 4. Glyph, Copan, Stela 11 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 112, gl. 12). 5. Same, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, Pl. 38). 6. Glyph used in connection with fig. 1. 7. Glyph. 8. Stone carving of upper mandible and head, Copan, Stela B (Maudslay, I, Pl. 37). 9. Head, probably of a turtle, month sign _Kayab_, Quirigua, Stela A (Maudslay, II, Pl. 7, gl. 14). 10. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 93). 11. Tro-Cortesianus 37b. 12. Head, probably of a macaw, Copan, Stela A (Maudslay, I, Pl. 30, gl. 19). 13. Tro-Cortesianus 94c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 25]

PLATE 26

AVES

PARROTS, TURKEYS

 1. Macaw as a head-dress, Tro-Cortesianus 26c. 2. Bird of sacrifice, doubtless an Ocellated Turkey (_Agriocharis_) Dresden 25c. (Compare also Dresden 26c[TN-27] 27c, 28c. ) 3. Head-dress, probably a macaw, Copan, Altar Q (Maudslay, I, Pl. 92). 4. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 4. 5. Head-dress, head of a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 89a. 6. Head-dress, possibly representing a parrot, Dresden 12b. 7. Possibly a parrot (_Amazona_), Nuttall 71. 8. Glyph representing a macaw's head, Tikal, Temple C (Maudslay, III, Pl. 78). 9. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 19a. 10. Possibly a macaw, Tro-Cortesianus 37b. 11. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11b. 12. Bird of sacrifice, probably an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 22. 13. Parrot-like head-dress, Dresden 11a. 14. Head of Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 5. 

[Illustration: PLATE 26]

PLATE 27

AVES

MISCELLANEOUS

 1. Bird of sacrifice, an Ocellated Turkey or a Chachalaca, Nuttall 2. 2. Same, Nuttall 16. 3. Same, Nuttall 19. 4. Same, Nuttall 1. 5. Woodpecker possibly _Campephilus imperialis_, Nuttall 74. 6. Same, Nuttall 71. 7. Possibly a Raven (_Corvus corax sinuatus_), Nuttall 48. 8. Parrot (_cocho_), Aubin 11. 9. Same, Aubin 13. 10. Turkey-cock (_uexolot_), [TN-28] Aubin 11. 11. Same, Aubin 13. 

[Illustration: PLATE 27]

PLATE 28

VARIOUS ANIMALS

 1. Earthenware vessel representing a tapir (_Tapirella_) with a necklace of Oliva shells (Seler, 1904b, p. 106, fig. 23). 2. Stone carving, possibly of a King Vulture (_Sarcorhamphus papa_), Copan, Altar T (Maudslay, I, Pl. 96). 3. Stone carving, possibly a lizard, Copan, Stela 6 (Maudslay I, Pl. 107). 4. Stone carving, probably a jaguar (_Felis onca hernandezi_), Copan, Stela 2 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 102). 5. Stone carving of a Black Vulture (_Catharista urubu_), Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48). 6. Lizard (?) attacked by two birds (?) perhaps vultures, Quirigua, Altar B (Maudslay, II, Pl. 15). 

[Illustration: PLATE 28]

PLATE 29

MAMMALIA

ARMADILLO AND MISCELLANEOUS

 1. Nine-banded Armadillo (_Tatu novemcinctum_), Tro-Cortesianus 103a. 2. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 92d. 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 103a. 4. Armadillo captured in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 48a. 5. Undetermined animal, Dresden 14c. 6. Undetermined animal, possibly a frog or a marsupial, Tro-Cortesianus 33a. 7. Rodent, Nuttall 11. 8. Undetermined animal, Tro-Cortesianus 24d. 

[Illustration: PLATE 29]

PLATE 30

MAMMALIA

DEER, HARE

 1. Yucatan deer, caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 48b. 2. Yucatan brocket (_Mazama pandora_) caught in a pitfall, Tro-Cortesianus 92a. 3. Glyph for hare or rabbit, Nuttall 16. 4. Same, Nuttall 5. 5. Yucatan deer, Dresden 60a. 6. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 30b. 7. Hare or rabbit, Nuttall 22. 8. Same, Dresden 61[TN-29]

[Illustration: PLATE 30]

PLATE 31

MAMMALIA

YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)

 1. Doe, Dresden 45c. 2. Same, Fégerváry-Mayer 26. 3. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 29c. 4. Same, Nuttall 50. 5. Same captured in snare, Tro-Cortesianus 86a. 6. Head-dress of god M, Tro-Cortesianus 50b. 7. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 51c. 8. Doe, Tro-Cortesianus 2b. 9. Head of same, Nuttall 43. 10. Head of doe as sacrifice, Tro-Cortesianus 77. 11. Same, Peresianus 10. 12. Haunch of venison as a sacrifice, Dresden 35a. 13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 105b. 14. Same, Dresden 28c. 15. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 108a. 

[Illustration: PLATE 31]

PLATE 32

MAMMALIA

YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)YUCATAN DEER (_Odocoileus yucatanensis_)

 1. Peccary, Nuttall 79. 2. Same, Dresden 68a. 3. Combination, a peccary's head and forefoot, with long tail and hindfoot without hoofs, Tro-Cortesianus 66a[TN-30] 4. Peccary, Dresden 45b. 5. Man with peccary head, Copan, Sela[TN-31] D, cast (Maudslay, I, Pl. 46). 6. Combination animal, with hoofs and dorsal crest of a peccary and scales of a reptile, Dresden 75. 7. Peccary, Nuttall 9. 8. Yucatan deer, with conventionalized antler, glyph for Nahua day sign, _Maçatl_, Nuttall 26. 9. Same, Peresianus 5. 10. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Maçatl_, Aubin 10. 11. Same, Nuttall 5. 12. Deer, Copan, Stela N, East (Maudslay, I, Pl. 79). 

[Illustration: PLATE 32]

PLATE 33

MAMMALIA

YUCATAN PECCARY (_Tayassu angulatum yucatanense_)

 1. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49c. 2. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Monjas, East (Maudslay, III, Pl. 13). 3. Head as a head-dress, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III). 4. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 93a. 5. Tro-Cortesianus 30b. 6. Dresden 62. 7. Glyph representing a peccary's head, Dresden 45b. 8. Same, Dresden 43b. 9. Peccary caught in a snare, Tro-Cortesianus 49a. 

[Illustration: PLATE 33]

PLATE 34

MAMMALIA

JAGUAR, PUMA

 1. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Nuttall 24. 2. Man seated in the open mouth of an animal, possibly a jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 20a. 3. Nahua day sign, _Oceolotl_, Aubin 9. 4. Pot representing a jaguar or puma (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 34). 5. Probably a puma (_Felis bangsi costaricensis_), Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Painted Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 40). 6. Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers, Lower Chamber (Maudslay, III, Pl. 50). 7. Probably a puma, Dresden 47. 

[Illustration: PLATE 34, [TN-32]]

PLATE 35

MAMMALIA

COYOTE, BEAR, JAGUAR

 1. Probably a coyote (_Canis_), Nuttall 6. 2. Same, Nuttall 26. 3. Possibly a bear (_Ursus_), Dresden 37a. 4. Same, Chichen Itza, Temple of the Tigers (Maudslay, III, 38). 5. Jaguar (_Felis hernandezi_), Dresden 8a. 6. Glyph, probably of a jaguar head, Copan, Stela 4 (Maudslay, I, Pl. 104). 7. Copan, Altar F (Maudslay, I, Pl. 114). 8. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 28c. 9. Stone carving of jaguar head, Palenque, Palace, House C (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 24). 10. Jaguar, Tro-Cortesianus 30b. 11. Glyph, probably of a jaguar. 12. Head of jaguar in fresco, Santa Rita (Gann, 1897-1898, Pl. 31). 13. Same, Tro-Cortesianus 2a. 14. Same, Nuttall 27. 

[Illustration: PLATE 35]

PLATE 36

MAMMALIA

DOG (_Canis_)

 1. Dog and crab, Tro-Cortesianus 88c. 2. Tro-Cortesianus 37b. 3. Tro-Cortesianus 66b. 4. Head, Nuttall 34. 5. Nuttall 72. 6. Head, Nuttall 20. 7. Probably a dog, Nuttall 3. 8. Aubin 9. 9. Glyph for day sign _Oc_. 10. Same. 11. Same. 12. Tro-Cortesianus 91d. 13. Glyph for Nahua day sign _Itzcuintli_, Aubin 9. 14. Tro-Cortesianus 27d. 

[Illustration: PLATE 36]

PLATE 37

MAMMALIA

DOG (_Canis_)

 1. Dog bearing firebrands, Dresden 40b. 2. Same, Dresden 39a. 3. Same, Dresden 36a. 4. Tro-Cortesianus 88a. 5. Dresden 21b. 6. Tro-Cortesianus 24c. 7. Dresden 13c. 8. Tro-Cortesianus 37a. 9. Dresden 30a. 10. Dresden 7a. 11. Glyph supposed to represent a dog's ribs, Dresden 13c. 12. Dresden 29a. 13. Head, Tro-Cortesianus 91d. 

[Illustration: PLATE 37]

PLATE 38

MAMMALIA

LEAF-NOSED BAT (_Vampyrus spectrum_ or _Phyllostomus hastatuspanamensis_)

 1. Glyph, Chichen Itza, Akat 'Cib (Maudslay, III, Pl. 19. )[TN-33] 2. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8). 3. Bat god, drawn as glyph, Copan, Stela D (Maudslay, I, Pl. 48). 4. Glyph, Copan (Maudslay, I, Pl. 8). 5. Glyph, Palenque, Temple of the Inscriptions (Maudslay, IV, Pl. 60, gl. Q 1). 6. Glyph, Tikal (Maudslay III, Pl. 74, gl. 41). 7. Bat gad used as decoration on pottery, Chama (Dieseldorff, 1904). 

[Illustration: PLATE 38]

PLATE 39

MAMMALIA

MONKEY AND MISCELLANEOUS

 1. Capuchin monkey (_Cebus capucinus_), Nuttall 1. 2. Same, Nuttall 5. 3. Head of same, Nuttall 38. 4. Nondescript animal, possibly a combination of monkey and peccary, Tro-Cortesianus 88c. 5. Glyph, possibly representing a monkey, found in connection with fig. 4. 6. Glyph of head of monkey, Nuttall 1. 7. Head of long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30a. 8. Head of monkey, glyph for Nahua day sign, _Oçomatli_, Aubin 9. 9. Long-nosed god, Tro-Cortesianus 30b. 10. God with head-dress, Dresden 5c. 

[Illustration: PLATE 39]

Transcriber's Note:

The following typographical errors were noted in the original text:

 TN-1 279 "Yucatan Horned Ow" should read "Yucatan Horned Owl" TN-2 281 "Mandslay" should read "Maudslay" TN-3 284 "deRosny" should read "de Rosny" TN-4 299 "connnection" should read "connection" TN-5 299 "signifiance" should read "significance" TN-6 299 "lightening" should read "lightning" TN-7 340 "indicatd" should read "indicated" TN-8 344 "Kayae" should read "Kayab" TN-9 353 "(Dresden 44b, 45b, (Pl. 32, fig. 4)" Has an extra ( before Pl. TN-10 366 "C. Hypoleucus Auct. )" should read "Auct. ). " TN-11 Footnote 327-† "coasa" should read "cosas" TN-12 Footnote 349-* "for" should read "por" TN-13 371 "Españales" should read "Españoles" TN-14 371 "l'Améirque" should read "l'Amérique" TN-15 371 "Bibliothéque" should read "Bibliothèque" TN-16 372 "1895. Republished" should read "1895. Republished" TN-17 372 "und Maya-Handschriften:" colon should be a semi-colon TN-18 Plate 2 caption "4, 6" should have a . Following TN-19 Plate 8 Plate number was not printed on the page TN-20 Plate 13 caption "Pl. 82, gl. 0, 4" should read "O, 4" TN-21 Plate 15 caption "HERONS FRIGATE" should read "HERONS, FRIGATE" TN-22 Plate 15 caption "6. Heron" should have a . At the end TN-23 Plate 18 caption "8. Same as fig" should read "fig. " TN-24 Plate 20 caption "flints, Nuttall" should end with a . TN-25 Plate 22 The word "Plate" was incompletely printed TN-26 Plate 23 "23" was missing the second digit TN-27 Plate 26 caption "Dresden 26c 27c, " should have a, after 26c TN-28 Plate 28 caption "uexolot" should read "uexolotl" TN-29 Plate 29 caption "Dresden 61" was missing the . At the end TN-30 Plate 32 caption "Tro-Cortesianus 66a" was missing the . At the end TN-31 Plate 32 caption "Sela" should read "Stela" TN-32 Plate 34 "PLATE 34, " should not end with a comma TN-33 Plate 38 "Pl. 19. )" should read "Pl. 19). "

The following words had inconsistent hyphenation:

 Blow-fly / Blowfly cross-hatched / crosshatched pit-fall / pitfall

The following words had inconsistent spelling:

 dechiffrement / déchiffrement Fégerváry-Mayer / Fejérváry-Mayer / Fejervary-Mayer Rélacion / Relacion rôle / role