ANECDOTES OF PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS Sculptors and Architects, AND CURIOSITIES OF ART. BY S. SPOONER, M. D. , AUTHOR OF "A BIOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE FINE ARTS. " IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. III. NEW YORK: R. WORTHINGTON, PUBLISHER, 770 Broadway. COPYRIGHT, S. SPOONER, 1853. Reëntered, G. B. , 1880. CONTENTS. Egyptian Art, 1 Ancient Thebes, 2 The Temple of Carnac, 5 Temple of Luxor, 5 The Statues of Memnon, 6 Heliopolis, 7 Memphis, 8 Lake Moeris, 9 The Colossal Sphinx, 10 The Labyrinth of Egypt, 11 The Catacombs of Egypt, 12 The Pyramids of Egypt, 19 Perilous Ascent of the Pyramid of Cephren, 27 Egyptian Obelisks, 30 Removal of an Obelisk by Fontana, 33 Removal of an Obelisk from Thebes to Paris, 40 Carburi's Base for the Equestrian Statue of Peter the Great, 42 Comparative Skill of the Ancients and Moderns in Mechanics, 45 The Britannia Tubular Railway Bridge, 46 The Tubes, 47 Construction of the Tubes, 49 Floating the Tubes, 50 Raising the Tubes, 52 Glory of Ancient Rome, 57 The Capitol, 59 Modern Rome, 60 The Foundation of Venice, 72 Theodoric the Great, and his Love of the Fine Arts, 73 Archimedes, 77 The Trials of Genius--Filippo Brunelleschi, 80 Brunelleschi's Enthusiasm, 122 Brunelleschi and Donatello, 123 Donatello, 125 Donatello and the Merchant, 126 Donatello and his Kinsmen, 127 Death of Donatello, 128 Donatello and Michael Angelo Compared, 128 Sofonisba Anguisciola's Early Distinction, 129 Sofonisba's Visit to Rome, 130 Sofonisba's Marriages, 131 Sofonisba's Residence at Genoa, and her Intercourse with Vandyck, 132 Carriera Rosalba, 133 Rosalba's Modesty, 133 Rosalba's Knowledge of Tempers, 133 Elizabeth Sirani, 134 Death of Elizabeth Sirani, 135 Rachel Ruysch, 135 Sir Anthony Vandyck, 136 Vandyck's Visit to Italy, 138 Vandyck's Return to Antwerp, 139 Vandyck's Visit to England, 141 William van de Velde the Elder, 143 Van de Velde and Charles II. , 144 William van de Velde the Younger, 145 The Younger van de Velde's Works, 146 Nicholas Poussin, 148 Poussin's first Celebrity, 149 Poussin's first Visit to Rome, 150 Poussin's Distress at Rome, 151 Poussin's Success at Rome, 152 Poussin's Invitation to Paris, 153 Poussin's Return to Rome, 154 Sir Joshua Reynolds' Critique on Poussin, 156 Poussin's Views of his Art, 157 Poussin's Works, 158 Marino and Poussin, 159 Poussin Romanized, 160 Poussin's Habits of Study, 161 Poussin's Old Age, 162 Poussin's Last Work and Death, 163 Poussin's Ideas of Painting, 164 Poussin and the Nobleman, 165 Poussin and Mengs, 165 Poussin and Domenichino, 166 Poussin and Salvator Rosa, 166 Poussin, Angelo, and Raffaelle Compared, 168 Rembrandt, 170 Rembrandt's Works, 173 Rembrandt as an Engraver, 174 Anecdote of Schwarts, 175 Jacques Callot, 176 Callot's Patriotism, 177 Ingenuity of Artists, 178 A Hint to Jewelers, 179 Curious Paintings, 180 The Oldest Oil Painting Extant, 181 Curious Representations of the Harpies, 181 Adrian Brower, 182 Brower, the Duke d'Aremberg, and Rubens, 183 Death of Brower, 184 Brower's Works, 185 Rosa da Tivoli, 185 Rosa da Tivoli's Works, 186 Rosa da Tivoli's Facility of Execution, 186 Rosa da Tivoli's Habits, 187 Luca Cambiaso's Facility in Painting, 187 Cambiaso's Works in Spain, 188 Cambiaso's Artistic Merits, 190 Rarity of Female Portraits in Spain, 191 Murillo's Pictures in Spanish America, 192 Murillo's "Virgin of the Napkin, " 193 Anecdote of an Altar-Piece by Murillo, 194 Murillo and his slave Gomez, 195 An Artist's Love of Romance, 195 Estéban March's Strange Method of Study, 198 March's Adventure of the Fish, fried in Linseed Oil, 199 A Painter's Rebuke, 200 A Painter's Retort Courteous, 201 Ardemans and Bocanegra--A Trial of Skill, 201 A Painter's Artifice to "Keep up Appearances, " 202 A Good Natured Criticism, 203 Alonso Cano and the Intendant of the Bishop of Malaga, 203 Cano's Love of Sculpture, 204 Castillo's Sarcasm on Alfaro, 204 Torres' Imitations of Caravaggio, 205 Pantoja and the Eagle, 205 The Painter Methodius and the King of Bulgaria, 206 John C. Vermeyen and Charles V. , 206 Blas de Prado and the Emperor of Morocco, 207 Don Juan Carreño, 208 Carreño's Copy of Titian's St. Margaret, 208 Carreño's Abstraction of Mind, 209 Anecdote of Cespedes' Last Supper, 209 Zuccaro's Compliment to Cespedes, 210 Dona Barbara Maria de Hueva, 210 The Miraculous Picture of the Virgin, 211 The Chair of St. Peter, 213 The Sagro Catino, or Emerald Dish, 215 The "Painter of Florence, " 217 Legend of the Painter-Friar, the Devil, and the Virgin, 220 Gerard Douw, 222 Douw's Style, 224 Douw's Method of Painting, 225 Douw's Works, 226 Albert Durer, 228 Durer's Works as a Painter, 229 Durer's Works as an Engraver, 231 Durer's Fame and Death, 233 Durer's Habits and Literary Works, 234 Ludolph Backhuysen, 235 John Baptist Weenix the Elder, 236 Weenix's Facility of Hand, 236 John Baptist Weenix the Younger, 237 Jan Steen, 238 Jan Steen's Works, 238 Kugler's Critique on the Works of Jan Steen, 240 Frolics of Mieris and Jan Steen, 241 Sir Anthony More, 242 Sir Anthony More and Philip II. , 243 More's Success and Works, 243 Perilous Adventure of a Painter, 245 Anecdote of John de Mabuse, 246 Capugnano and Lionello Spada, 247 Michael Angelo Caravaggio--His Quarrelsome Disposition, 248 Jacopo Amiconi, 249 Painting the Dead, 250 Taddeo Zuccaro, 250 Zuccaro's Resentment, 251 Royal Criticism, 252 Pietro da Cortona, 253 "Know Thyself, " 254 Benvenuto Cellini, 255 Fracanzani and Salvator Rosa, 256 Pope Urban VIII. And Bernini, 256 Emulation and Rivalry in the Fine Arts, 257 The Nótte of Correggio, 259 The Dresden Gallery, 262 Painting among the Egyptians, 263 Painting among the Greeks, 265 Numismatics, 269 Restoring Ancient Edifices, 274 Napoleon's Love of Art, 274 Napoleon's Works at Paris, 276 The Napoleon Medals, 281 The Elephant Fountain, 286 Interesting Drawing, 287 Sévre China, 288 Dismantling of the Louvre, 289 Removal of the Venetian Horses from Paris, 296 Removal of the Statue of Napoleon from the Place Vendôme, 301 The Musée Français and the Musée Royal, 302 Boydell's Shakspeare Gallery, 305 Brief Sketch of a Plan for an American National Gallery of Art, 307 ANECDOTES OF PAINTERS, ENGRAVERS, SCULPTORS, AND ARCHITECTS. EGYPTIAN ART. Champollion, the famous explorer of Egyptian antiquities, holds thefollowing language at the end of his fifteenth letter, dated at Thebes. "It is evident to me, as it must be to all who have thoroughly examinedEgypt or have an accurate knowledge of the Egyptian monuments existingin Europe, that the arts commenced in Greece by a servile imitation ofthe arts in Egypt, much more advanced than is vulgarly believed, at theperiod when the Egyptian colonies came in contact with the savageinhabitants of Attica or the Peloponnesus. Without Egypt, Greece wouldprobably never have become the classical land of the fine arts. Such ismy entire belief on this great problem. I write these lines almost inthe presence of bas-reliefs which the Egyptians executed, with the mostelegant delicacy of workmanship, seventeen hundred years before theChristian era. What were the Greeks then doing?" The sculptures of the monument of El Asaffif are ascertained to be morethan three thousand five hundred years old. ANCIENT THEBES. Thebes, an ancient city and capital of Egypt, and the oldest city in theworld, was situated in Upper Egypt, on both sides of the Nile, about twohundred and sixty miles south of Cairo. Thebes is "the city of a hundredgates, " the theme and admiration of ancient poets and historians, andthe wonder of travelers--"that venerable city, " in the language of Dr. Pocoke, "the date of whose destruction is older than the foundation ofother cities, and the extent of whose ruins, and the immensity of whosecolossal fragments still offer so many astonishing objects, that one isriveted to the spot, unable to decide whither to direct the step, or fixthe attention. " These ruins extend about eight miles along the Nile, from each bank to the sides of the enclosing mountains, and describe acircuit of twenty-seven miles. The most remarkable objects on theeastern side are the temples of Carnac and Luxor; and on the westernside are the Memnonium or palace of Memnon, two colossal statues, thesepulchres of the kings, and the temple of Medinet Abu. The glory ofThebes belongs to a period prior to the commencement of authentichistory. It is recorded only in the dim lights of poetry and tradition, which might be suspected of fable, did not such mighty witnesses remainto attest their truth. Strabo and Diodorus Siculus described Thebesunder the name of _Diospolis_ (the city of God), and gave suchmagnificent descriptions of its monuments as caused the fidelity ofthose writers to be called in question, till the observations of moderntravelers proved their accounts to have fallen short of the reality. Atthe time of the Persian invasion under Cambyses, Memphis had supplantedThebes; and the Ptolemys afterwards removed the seat of empire toAlexandria. At present, its site presents only a few scattered villages, consisting of miserable cottages built in the courts of the temples. Theancient structures, however, remain in a state of wonderfulpreservation. Almost the whole extent of eight miles along the river iscovered with magnificent portals, obelisks decorated with most beautifulsculptures, forests of columns, and long avenues of sphynxes andcolossal statues. The most remarkable monuments, the ruins of whichremain, are the temples of Carnac, Luxor, the Memnonium or temple ofMemnon, and the temple of Medinet Abu. The tomb of Osymandyas, thetemple of Iris, the Labyrinth, and the Catacombs lie on the westernside of the Nile. In the interior of the mountains which rise behindthese monuments, are found objects less imposing and magnificent indeed, but not less interesting--the tombs of the kings of Thebes. Several ofthese were opened by Belzoni, and were found in great preservation, withmummies in the sarcophagi, as well as dispersed through the chambers. Such was ancient Thebes--a city so populous that, according to ancientwriters, in times of war 10, 000 soldiers issued from each of her hundredgates, forming an army of 1, 000, 000 men. That these magnificent ruinsare the remains of "the city of an hundred gates, "--"the earliestcapital in the world, " cannot be doubted. According to the measurementsmade by the French, their distance from the sea on the north, is 680, 000metres (850 miles), and from Elephantine on the south, 180, 000 metres(225 miles)--corresponding exactly with the 6, 800 and 1, 800 stadia ofHerodotus. The circumference of the ruins is about 15, 000 metres (17½miles), agreeing with the 140 stadia given by Diodorus as thecircumference of Thebes. The origin of the name of this celebrated city, as well as the date of its foundation, is unknown. According toChampollion, who deciphered many of the inscriptions on these ruins, theEgyptian name was _Thbaki-antepi-Amoun_ (City of the Most High), ofwhich the _No-Ammon_ of the Hebrews and _Diospolis_ of the Greeks aremere translations; _Thebæ_, of the Greeks is also perhaps derived fromthe Egyptian _Thbaki_ (the city). THE TEMPLE OF CARNAC. The largest of the temples of Thebes, and of any in Egypt, is that ofCarnac, on the site of the ancient Diospolis. Diodorus describes it asthirteen stadia, or about a mile and a half in circumference, whichnearly agrees with the admeasurements of Denon. It has twelve principalentrances; and the body of the temple, which is preceded by a largecourt, consists of a prodigious hall or portico, the roof of which issupported by one hundred and thirty-four columns, some twenty-six, andothers thirty feet in circumference; four beautiful obelisks then markthe entrance to the shrine, which consists of three apartments, builtentirely of granite. TEMPLE OF LUXOR. The temple of Luxor is about one and a fourth mile above that of Carnac, and though it is of smaller dimensions it is in a superior style ofarchitecture, and in more complete preservation. The entrance is thoughtto surpass everything else that Egypt presents. In front are the twofinest obelisks in the world, formed of rose-colored granite, andrising, as Denon supposes, after allowing for the portion buried in theground, to the height of one hundred feet. But the objects which mostattract attention, are the sculptures which cover the east wing of thenorthern front. They represent on a grand scale, a victory gained by oneof the ancient kings of Egypt over their Asiatic enemies, consisting ofmultitudes of figures, horses, and chariots, executed in the best styleof Egyptian art; the number of human figures introduced exceeds fifteenhundred, five hundred of which are on foot, and the rest in chariots. THE STATUES OF MEMNON. There were many colossal statues of Memnon in Egypt, but the mostremarkable were the two in the Memnonium or palace of Memnon, at Thebes. The largest is of rose-colored granite, and stood in the centre of theprincipal court; its height was sixty-four feet, and its remains arescattered forty feet around it. Rigaud, one of the French savans, says, "the excavations are still visible where the wedges were placed whichdivided the monument when it was thrown down by Cambyses. " The trunk isbroke off at the waist, and the upper part lies prostrate on the back;it measures six feet ten inches over the front of the head, andsixty-two feet round the shoulders. At the entrance of the gate whichleads from the second court to the palace, is the famous colossalsounding statue, which, according to Herodotus, Strabo, and Pausanias, uttered a joyful sound when the sun rose, and a mournful one when itset. It is also related that it shed tears, and gave out oracularresponses in seven verses, and that these sounds were heard till thefourth century after Christ. These phenomena, attested by many ancientand modern writers, are variously accounted for by the learned, aspriestcraft, peculiar construction, escape of rarified air, &c. Thisstatue is in excellent preservation. The head is of rose-coloredgranite, and the rest of a kind of black stone. Two other colossalstatues, about fifty feet high, are seated on the plain. HELIOPOLIS. The name of Heliopolis, or City of the Sun, was given by the Greeks tothe Egyptian _City of On_. It was situated a little to the north ofMemphis, was one of the largest cities of Egypt during the reign of thePharaohs, and so adorned with statues as to be esteemed one of the firstsacred cities in the kingdom. The temple dedicated to Re, was amagnificent building, having in front an avenue of sphynxes, celebratedin history, and adorned with several obelisks, raised by SethosisRameses, B. C. 1900. By means of lakes and canals, the town, though builton an artificial eminence, communicated with the Nile, and during theflourishing ages of the Egyptian monarchy, the priests and scholarsacquired and taught the elements of learning within the precincts of itstemples. At the time of Strabo who visited this town about A. D. 45, the apartments were still shown in which, four centuries before, Eudoxusand Plato had labored to learn the philosophy of Egypt. Here Joseph andMary are said to have rested with our Saviour. A miserable village, called _Metarea_, now stands on the site of this once magnificent city. Near the village is the _Pillar of On_, a famous obelisk, supposed to bethe oldest monument of the kind existing. Its height is 67½ feet, andits breadth at the base 6 feet. It is one single shaft of reddishgranite (Sienite), and hieroglyphical characters are rudely sculpturedupon it. MEMPHIS. The very situation of this famous ancient city of Egypt had long been asubject of learned dispute, till it was accurately ascertained by theFrench expedition to Egypt. Numerous heaps of rubbish, of blocks ofgranite covered with hieroglyphics and sculptures, of colossalfragments, scattered over a space three or four leagues incircumference, marks its site, a few miles south of Metarea orHeliopolis, at a village called Moniet-Rahinet. According to Herodotus, the foundation of Memphis was ascribed to Menes, the first king ofEgypt. It was a large, rich, and splendid city, and the second capitalof Egypt. Among its buildings were several magnificent temples, as thoseof Phtha, Osiris, Serapis, etc. ; its palaces were also remarkable. InStrabo's time, it was next to Alexandria in size and population. Edrisi, who visited Memphis in the 12th century, thus describes itsremains then existing: "Notwithstanding the vast extent of this city, the remote period at which it was built, the attempts made by variousnations to destroy it and to obliterate every trace of it, by removingthe materials of which it was constructed, combined with the decay of4, 000 years, there are yet in it works so wonderful as to confound thereflecting, and such as the most eloquent could not adequatelydescribe. " Among the works specified by him, are a monolithic temple ofgranite, thirteen and a half feet high, twelve long, and seven broad, entirely covered, within and without, with inscriptions; and colossalstatues of great beauty, one of which was forty-five feet high, carvedout of a single block of red granite. These ruins then extended aboutnine miles in every direction. LAKE MOERIS. This famous lake, according to Herodotus, with whose account DiodorusSiculus and Mela agree, was entirely an artificial excavation, made byking Moeris, to carry off the overflowing waters of the Nile, andreserve them for the purposes of irrigation. It was, in the time ofHerodotus, 3, 600 stadia or 450 miles in circumference, and 300 feetdeep, with innumerable canals and reservoirs. Denon, Belzoni, and othermodern travelers, describe it at the present time as a natural basin, thirty or forty miles long, and six broad. The works, therefore, whichHerodotus attributes to King Moeris, must have been the mounds, dams, canals, and sluices which rendered it subservient to the purposes ofirrigation. These, also, would give it the appearance of being entirelythe product of human industry. THE COLOSSAL SPHINX. The Egyptian Sphinx is represented by a human head on the body of alion; it is always in a recumbent position with the fore paws stretchedforward, and a head dress resembling an old-fashioned wig. The featuresare like those of the ancient Egyptians, as represented on theirmonuments. The colossal Sphinx, near the group of pyramids at Jizeh, which lay half buried in the sand, was uncovered and measured byCaviglia. It is about 150 feet long, and 63 feet high. The body is madeout of a single stone; but the paws, which are thrown out about fiftyfeet in front, are constructed of masonry. The Sphinx of Sais, formed ofa block of red granite, twenty-two feet long, is now in the EgyptianMuseum in the Louvre. There has been much speculation among the learned, concerning the signification of these figures. Winckelmann observes thatthey have the head of a female, and the body of a male, which has led tothe conjecture that they are intended as emblems of the generativepowers of nature, which the old mythologies are accustomed to indicateby the mystical union of the two sexes in one individual; they weredoubtless of a sacred character, as they guarded the entrance oftemples, and often formed long avenues leading up to them. THE LABYRINTH OF EGYPT A labyrinth, with the ancients, was a building containing a great numberof chambers and galleries, running into one another in such a manner asto make it very difficult to find the way through the edifice. The mostfamous was the Egyptian labyrinth, situated in Central Egypt, above LakeMoeris, not far from Crocodilopolis, in the country now called _Fejoom_. Herodotus, who visited and examined this edifice with great attention, affirms that it far surpassed everything he had conceived of it. It isvery uncertain when, by whom, and for what purpose it was built, thoughin all probability it was for a royal sepulchre. The building, halfabove and half below the ground, was one of the finest in the world, andis said to have contained 3, 000 apartments. The arrangements of the workand the distribution of the parts were remarkable. It was divided intosixteen principal regions, each containing a number of spaciousbuildings, which taken together, might be defined an assemblage ofpalaces. There were also as many temples as there were gods in Egypt, the number of which was prodigious, besides various other sacrededifices, and four lofty pyramids at the angles of the walls. Theentrance was by vast halls, followed by saloons, which conducted togrand porticos, the ascent to which was by a flight of ninety steps. Theinterior was decorated with columns of porphyry and colossal statues ofEgyptian gods. The whole was surrounded by a wall, but the passages wereso intricate that no stranger could find the way without a guide. Thesubstructions of this famous labyrinth still exist, and Milizia says, "as they were not arched, it is wonderful that they should have been solong preserved, with so many stupendous edifices above them. " The Cretanlabyrinth was built by Dædalus on the model of the Egyptian, but it wasonly a hundredth part the size; yet, according to Diodorus Siculus, itwas a spacious and magnificent edifice, divided into a great number ofapartments, and surrounded entirely by a wall. What would the ancientssay, could they see our modern imitations of their labyrinths? THE CATACOMBS OF EGYPT. There are numerous catacombs in Egypt, the principal of which are atAlexandria; at Sakkara, near Cairo; at Siut, near the ancient Lycopolisor City of the Wolf; at Gebel Silsilis, on the banks of the Nile betweenEtfu and Ombos, the site of one of the principal quarries of ancientEgypt; and at Thebes. Many of these are of vast extent, and weredoubtless formed by quarrying the rocks and mountains for buildingmaterials. They consist of grottos, galleries, and chambers, penetratingoften to a considerable distance, the superincumbent mass beingsupported by huge pillars of rock; or the galleries running parallel, with masses of solid rock intervening for supports. Many of thesechambers and grottos contained multitudes of mummies, probably thebodies of the less wealthy; many were evidently private family tombs ofwealthy individuals, some of which are of great magnificence, adornedwith sculptures, paintings, and hieroglyphics. The Arabs for centurieshave been plundering these abodes of the dead, and great numbers of themummies have been destroyed for fuel, and for the linen, rosin, andasphaltum they contain, which is sold to advantage at Cairo. An immensenumber of them have been found in the plain of Sakkara, near Memphis, consisting not only of human bodies, but of various sacred animals, asbulls, crocodiles, apes, ibises, fish, &c. ; hence it is called _ThePlain of the Mummies_. Numerous caves or grottos, with contents of thesame kind, are found in the two mountainous ridges which run nearlyparallel with the Nile, from Cairo to Syene. Many of these tombs andmummies are two or three thousand years old, and some of them perhapsolder. Among all the wonderful subterranean monuments of Egypt, the Catacombsof Thebes are the most extraordinary and magnificent. These consist ofthe Necropolis, or city of the dead, on the west bank of the Nile (whichwas the common burial-place of the people), and the Tombs of the Kings. The latter lie to the northwest of the city, at some distance in theDesert. Having passed the Necropolis, the traveler enters a narrow andrugged valley, flanked with perpendicular rocks, and ascending a narrow, steep passage about ten feet high, which seems to have been broken downthrough the rock, the ancient passage being from the Memnonium under thehills, he comes to a kind of amphitheatre about 100 yards wide, which iscalled Bab-il-Meluke--that is, the gate or court of the kings--being thesepulchres of the kings of Thebes. In this court there are signs ofabout eighteen excavations; but only nine can be entered. The hills oneach side are high, steep rocks, and the whole plain is covered withrough stones that seem to have rolled down from them. The grottos present externally no other ornaments than a door in asimple square frame, with an oval in the centre of the upper part, onwhich are inscribed the hieroglyphical figures of a beetle, a man with ahawk's head, and beyond the circle two figures on their knees, in theact of adoration. Having passed the first gate, long arched galleriesare discovered, about twelve feet wide and twenty feet high, cased withstucco, sculptured and painted; the vaults, of an elegant ellipticalfigure, are covered with innumerable hieroglyphics, disposed with somuch taste, that notwithstanding the singular grotesqueness of theforms, and the total absence of demi-tint or aërial perspective, theceilings make an agreeable whole, a rich and harmonious association ofcolors. Four of five of these galleries, one within the other, generallylead to a spacious room, containing the sarcophagus of the king, composed of a single block of granite, about twelve feet long by eightin breadth, ornamented with hieroglyphics, both within and without; theyare square at one end, and rounded at the other, like the splendidsarcophagus deposited in the British Museum, and supposed by Dr. Clarketo have contained the body of Alexander. They are covered with a lid ofthe same material, and of enormous thickness, shutting with a groove;but neither this precaution, nor these vast blocks of stone, broughtfrom such a distance with immense labor, have been able to preserve therelics of the sovereigns from the attempts of avarice; all these tombshave been violated. The figure of the king appears to have beensculptured and painted at full length on the lid of each sarcophagus. The paintings found in these sepulchres are among the most curious andinteresting remains of Egyptian art; and they are in wonderfulpreservation, the colors being as fresh as when first executed. Some ofthese figures were copied by Bruce; and Denon, a member of the FrenchCommission sent by Napoleon to examine the antiquities of Egypt, haspublished a most valuable collection which have all the appearance ofspirited and characteristic resemblances. "I discovered, " says he, "somelittle chambers, on the walls of which were represented all kinds ofarms, such as panoplies, coats of mail, tigers' skins, bows, arrows, quivers, pikes, javelins, sabres, helmets, and whips: in another was acollection of household utensils, such as caskets, chests of drawers, chairs, sofas, and beds, all of exquisite forms, and such as might wellgrace the apartments of modern luxury. As these were probably accuraterepresentations of the objects themselves, it is almost a proof that theancient Egyptians employed for their furniture Indian wood, carved andgilt, which they covered with embroidery. Besides these, wererepresented various smaller articles, as vases, coffee-pots, ewers withtheir basins, a tea-pot and basket. Another chamber was consecrated toagriculture, in which were represented all its various instruments--asledge similar to those in use at present, a man sowing grain by theside of a canal, from the borders of which the inundation is beginningto retire, a field of corn reaped with a sickle, and fields of rice withmen watching them. In a fourth chamber was a figure clothed in white, playing on a richly ornamented harp, with eleven strings. " Denon observed everything with the eye of an artist. Speaking of theNecropolis, which consists of numerous double galleries of grottos, excavated in the solid rock for nearly a mile and a half square, heobserves, "I was convinced by the magnificence both of the paintings andsculptures, that I was among the tombs of great men and heros. Thesculpture in all is incomparably more labored and higher finished thanany I had seen in the temples; and I stood in astonishment at the highperfection of the art, and its singular destiny to be devoted to placesof such silence and obscurity. In working these galleries, beds of avery fine calcareous clay have occasionally been crossed, and here thelines of the hieroglyphics have been cut with a firmness of touch and aprecision, of which marble offers but few examples. The figures haveelegance and correctness of contour, of which I never thought Egyptiansculpture susceptible. Here, too, I could judge of the style of thispeople in subjects which had neither hieroglyphic, nor historical, norscientific; for there were representations of small scenes taken fromnature, in which the stiff profile outlines, so common with Egyptianartists, were exchanged for supple and natural attitudes; groups ofpersons were given in perspective, and cut in deeper relief than Ishould have supposed anything but metal could have been worked. " The Sepulchres of the Kings of Thebes are mentioned by Diodorus Siculusas wonderful works, and such as could never be exceeded by anythingafterwards executed in this kind. He says that forty-seven of them werementioned in their history; that only seventeen of them remained to thetime of Ptolemy Lagus; adding that most of them were destroyed in histime. Strabo says, that above the Memnonium, the precise locality ofDenon's description, were the sepulchres of the kings of Thebes, ingrottos cut out of the rock, being about forty in number, wonderfullyexecuted and worthy to be seen. In these, he says, were obelisks withinscriptions on them, setting forth the riches, power, and empire ofthese kings, as far as Scythia, Bactria, India, and Ionia, their greatrevenues, and their immense armies, consisting of one million of men. In Egypt, the honors paid to the dead partook of the nature of areligious homage. By the process of embalming, they endeavored topreserve the body from the common laws of nature; and they providedthose magnificent and durable habitations for the dead--sublimemonuments of human folly--which have not preserved but buried the memoryof their founders. By a singular fatality, the well-adapted punishmentof pride, the extraordinary precautions by which it seemed in a mannerto triumph over death, have only led to a more humiliatingdisappointment. The splendor of the tomb has but attracted the violenceof rapine; the sarcophagus has been violated; and while other bodieshave quietly returned to their native dust in the bosom of their motherearth, the Egyptian, converted into a mummy, has been preserved only tothe insults of curiosity, or avarice, or barbarism. THE PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT. The pyramids of Egypt, especially the two largest of the group of Jizehor Gize, are the most stupendous masses of buildings in stone that humanlabor has ever been known to accomplish, and have been the wonder ofancient and modern times. --The number of the Egyptian pyramids, largeand small, is very considerable; they are situated on the west bank ofthe Nile, and extend in an irregular line, and in groups at somedistance from each other, from the neighborhood of Jizeh, in 30° N. Latitude, as far as sixty or seventy miles south of that place. Thepyramids of Jizeh are nearly opposite Cairo. They stand on a plateau orterrace of limestone, which is a projection of the Lybianmountain-chain. The surface of the terrace is barren and irregular, andis covered with sand and small fragments of rock; its height, at thebase of the great pyramid, is one hundred and sixty four feet above theordinary level of the Nile, from which it is distant about five miles. There are in this group three large pyramids, and several small ones. Herodotus, who was born B. C. 484, visited these pyramids. He wasinformed by the priests of Memphis, that the great pyramid was built byCheops, king of Egypt, about B. C. 900, and that one hundred thousandworkmen were employed twenty years in building it, and that the body ofCheops was placed in a room beneath the bottom, surrounded by a vault, to which the waters of the Nile were conveyed through a subterraneantunnel. A chamber has been discovered under the centre of the pyramid, but it is about fifty-six feet above the low-water mark of the Nile. Thesecond pyramid, Herodotus says, was built by Cephren or Cephrenes, thebrother and successor of Cheops, and the third by Mycerinus, the son ofCheops. Herodotus also says that the two largest pyramids are whollycovered with white marble; Diodorus and Pliny, that they are built ofthis costly material. The account of Herodotus is confirmed by presentappearances. Denon, who accompanied the French expedition to Egypt, wascommissioned by Buonaparte to examine the great pyramid of Jizeh; threehundred persons were appointed to this duty. They approached the bordersof the desert in boats, to within half a league of the pyramid, by meansof the canals from the Nile. Denon says, "the first impression made onme by the sight of the pyramids, did not equal my expectations, for Ihad no object with which to compare them; but on approaching them, andseeing men at their base, their gigantic size became evident. " WhenSavary first visited these pyramids, he left Jizeh at one o'clock in themorning, and soon reached them. The full moon illuminated their summits, and they appeared to him "like rough, craggy peaks piercing theclouds. " Herodotus gives 800 feet as the height of the great pyramid, and says this is likewise the length of its base, on each side; Strabomakes it 625, and Diodorus 600. Modern measurements agree most nearlywith the latter. The pyramid of Cheops consists of a series of platforms, each of whichis smaller than the one on which it rests, and consequently presents theappearance of steps which diminish in length from the bottom to the top. There are 203 of these steps, and the height of them decreases, but notregularly, the greatest height being about four feet eight inches, andthe least about one foot eight inches. The horizontal lines of theplatforms are perfectly straight, the stones are cut and fitted to eachother with the greatest accuracy, and joined with a cement of lime, withlittle or no sand in it. It has been ascertained that a bed has been cutin the solid rock, eight inches deep, to receive the lowest externalcourse of stones. The vertical height, measured from this base in therock to the top of the highest platform now remaining, is 456 feet. Thislast platform is thirty two feet eight inches square, and if to thiswere added what is necessary to complete the pyramid, the total heightwould be 479 feet. Each side of the base, measured round the stones letinto the rock, is 763 feet 5 inches, and the perimeter of the base isabout 3, 053 feet. The measurements of travelers differ somewhat, butthe above are very nearly correct. The area of the base is 64, 753square yards, or about 13-1/3 acres. The surface of each face, notincluding the base, is 25, 493 square yards; and that of the four facesis consequently 101, 972 square yards, or more than 21 acres. The solidcontents of the pyramid, without making deductions for the smallinterior chambers, is 3, 394, 307 cubic yards. Reckoning the total heightat 479 feet, the pyramid would be 15 feet higher than St. Peter's atRome, and 119 higher than St. Paul's, London. The entrance to the greatpyramid is on the north face, 47½ feet above the base, and on the levelof the fifteenth step from the foundation. The entrance is easilyreached by the mass of rubbish which has fallen or been thrown down fromthe top. The passage to which this opening leads is 3 feet 7½ inchessquare, with a downward inclination of about 26°. It is lined with slabsof limestone, accurately joined together. This passage leads to another, which has an ascending inclination of 27°. The descending passage is 73feet long, to the place where it meets the ascending one, which is 109feet long; at the top of this is a platform, where is the opening of awell or shaft, which goes down into the body of the pyramid, and thecommencement of a horizontal gallery 127 feet long which leads to theQueen's chamber, an apartment 17 feet long, 14 wide, and 12 high. Another gallery, 132 feet long, 26½ high, and 7 wide, commences also atthis platform, and is continued in the same line as the formerascending passage, till it reaches a landing place, from which a shortpassage leads to a small chamber or vestibule, whence another shortpassage leads to the King's chamber, which as well as the vestibule andintermediate passage, is lined with large blocks of granite, wellworked. The king's chamber is 34½ feet long, 17 wide, and 19¾ high. The roof is formed of nine slabs of granite, reaching from side to side;the slabs are therefore more than 17 feet long by 3 feet 9½ inches wide. This chamber contains a sarcophagus of red granite; the cover is gone, having probably been broken and carried away. The sarcophagus is 7 feet6½ inches long, 3 feet 3 inches wide, 3 feet 8½ inches high on theoutside, the bottom being 7½ inches thick. There are no hieroglyphicsupon it. Several other chambers have been discovered above the king'schamber, but as they are not more than three or four feet high, theywere probably intended to lessen and break the weight of the mass above, which would otherwise fall on the King's chamber. In 1816, Captain Caviglia discovered that the entrance passage did notterminate at the bottom of the ascending passage, but was continueddownwards in the same inclined plane of 26°, 200 feet further, and by ashort horizontal passage, opened on what appeared to be the bottom ofthe well. The passage, however, continued in the same direction 23 feetfarther; then became narrower, and was continued horizontally 28 feetmore, where it opened into a large chamber cut out of the rock belowand under the centre of the pyramid. This chamber is about 26 by 27feet. Another passage leads from this chamber 55 feet, where it appearsto terminate abruptly. The well, which appeared to Mr. Davidson and Capt. Caviglia to descendno lower than where it was intersected by the descending passage, itsdepth there being 155 feet, was afterwards cleared out by the French tothe depth of near 208 feet, of which 145 feet are in the solid rock; sothat the base of the pyramid being 164 feet above the low water level ofthe Nile, the present bottom of the well is 19 feet above the Nile; butthe actual bottom does not appear to have been reached. The temperaturewithin the body of the pyramid was found to be 81° 5', Farenheit, and inthe well it was still higher. Herodotus was informed that the chamberscut in the solid rock, were made before the building of the pyramid wascommenced. It is evident it was intended that the pyramid should not beentered after the body or bodies were deposited in it, as blocks ofgranite were fixed in the entrances to the principal passages, in such amanner as not only to close them, but to conceal them. --There areevidences, however, that this pyramid was entered both by the Roman andArab conquerors of Egypt. The materials of all the pyramids are limestone, and, according toHerodotus, were brought from the mountains near Cairo, where there areancient quarries of vast extent; but Belzoni is of opinion that a partof them, for the second pyramid at least, was procured immediately onthe spot; others think that the greatest part of the materials came fromthe west side of the Nile. The granite which forms the roofing of thechambers, etc. , was brought down the Nile from Syene. The stones ofwhich it is built, rarely exceed 9 feet in length, and 6½ in breadth;the thickness has already been stated. The ascent to the great pyramid, though not without difficulty anddanger, is frequently accomplished, even by females. The pyramid of Cephren, the second in size, according to Belzoni, hasthe following dimensions: Side of the base, 684 feet. Vertical height, 456 " Perpendicular, bisecting the face of the pyramid, 568 " Coating from the top, to where it ends, 140 " Belzoni, after great exertion, succeeded in opening the second pyramid, and after traversing passages similar to those already described in thegreat pyramid, reached the main chamber, which is cut in the solid rock, and is 46 feet 3 inches long, 16 feet 3 inches wide, and 23 feet 6inches high. The covering is made of blocks of limestone, which meet inan angular point, forming a roof, of the same slope as the pyramid. Thechamber contained a sarcophagus, formed of granite, 8 feet long, 3 feet6 inches wide, and 2 feet 3 inches deep, on the inside. There were nohieroglyphics on it. Some bones were found in it, which were sent toLondon, and proved to be those of a bull or an ox. From an Arabicinscription on the wall of the chamber, it appears that some of the Arabrulers of Egypt had entered the pyramid, and closed it again. Belzonialso discovered another chamber in this pyramid. The pyramid of Mycernius, the third in size of the Jizeh group, is about330 feet square at the base, and 174 feet high. This pyramid has neverbeen opened. There are some large pyramids at Sakkârah, one of which is next indimensions to the pyramid of Cheops, each side of the base being 656feet, and the height 339 feet. At Dashour there are also some largepyramids, one of which has a base of 700 feet on each side, and aperpendicular height of 343 feet; and it has 154 steps or platforms. Another pyramid, almost as large at the base as the preceding, isremarkable. It rises to the height of 184 feet at an angle of 70°, whenthe plane of the side is changed, to one of less inclination, whichcompletes the pyramid. At Thebes, there are some small pyramids of sundried bricks. Herodotus says, "About the middle of Lake Moeris, thereare two pyramids, each rising about 300 feet above the water. The partthat is under the water is just the same height. " It is probable thatthese pyramids were built on an island in the lake, and that Herodotuswas misinformed as to the depth of the water. There are numerouspyramids in Nubia--eighty or more--but they are generally small. The object of the Egyptians in building these pyramids, is not known. Some writers maintain that they were as memorials, pillars, or altarsconsecrated to the sun; others, that they served as a kind of gnomon forastronomical observations; that they were built to gratify the vanityand tyranny of kings, or for the celebration of religious mysteries;according to Diderot, for the transmission and preservation ofhistorical information; and to others, for sepulchres for thekings, --which last was the common opinion of the ancients. Some supposethat they were intended as places for secret meetings, magazines forcorn, or lighthouses; but their structure, and great distance from thesea, are sufficient refutations of these absurd hypotheses. PERILOUS ASCENT OF THE PYRAMID OF CEPHREN. The upper part of this pyramid is still covered with the originalpolished coating of marble, to the distance of 140 feet from the toptowards the base, which makes the ascent extremely difficult anddangerous. Mr. Wilde, in his "Narrative of a Voyage to Madeira, Teneriffe, and along the shore of the Mediterranean, " published in 1840, made the ascent to the top, and thus describes the adventure: "I engaged two Arabs to conduct me to the summit of the pyramid--one anold man, and the other about forty, both of a mould, which forcombination of strength and agility, I never saw surpassed. We soonturned to the north, and finally reached the outer casing on the westside. All this was very laborious to be sure, though not very dangerous;but here was an obstacle that I knew not how the Arabs themselves couldsurmount, much less how I could possibly master--for above our headsjutted out, like an eave or coping, the lower stones of the coating, which still remain and retain a smooth, polished surface. Asconsiderable precaution was necessary, the men made me take off my hat, coat, and shoes at this place; the younger then placed his raised andextended hands against the projecting edge of the lower stone, whichreached above his chin; and the elder, taking me up in his arms as Iwould a child, placed my feet on the other's shoulders, and my body flaton the smooth surface of the stone. In this position, we formed an anglewith each other; and here I remained for upwards of two minutes, tillthe older man went round, and by some other means, contrived to get overthe projection, when, creeping along the line of junction of the casing, he took my hands, drew me up to where he was above me, and then lettingdown his girdle, assisted to mount up the younger, but less daring andless active of the two. We then proceeded much as follows. One of themgot on the shoulders of the other, and so gained the joining of thestone above. The upper man then helped me in a similar action, while thelower pushed me up by the feet. Having gained this row, we had after tocreep to some distance along the joining, to where another opportunityof ascending was offered. In this way we proceeded to the summit; andsome idea may be formed of my feelings, when it is recollected that allof these stones of such a span are highly polished, are set on an angleof little less than 45°, and that the places we had to grip with ourhands and feet were often not more than two inches wide, and theirheight above the ground more than 400 feet. A single slip of the foot, and we all three must have been dashed to atoms long before we reachedthe bottom. (This actually happened to an English traveler in 1850. ) Ongaining the top, my guides gave vent to sundry demonstrations ofsatisfaction, clapping me on the back, patting me on the head, andkissing my hands. From this I began to suspect that something wonderfulhad been achieved; and some idea of my perilous situation broke upon me, when I saw some of my friends beneath, waving their handkerchiefs andlooking up with astonishment, as we sat perched upon the top, which isnot more than six feet square. The apex stone is off, and it nowconsists of four outer slabs, and one in the centre, which is raised upon the end and leans to the eastward. I do not think human hands couldhave raised it from its bed, on account of its size, and the confinedspace they would have to work in. I am inclined to think the top wasstruck by lightning, and the position of the stone thus altered by it. The three of us had just room to sit upon the place. The descent, asmight be expected, was much more dangerous, though not so difficult. Theguides tied a long sash under my arms, and so let me slide down fromcourse to course of these coverings of stones, which are of a yellowishlimestone, somewhat different from the material of which the steps arecomposed, and totally distinct from the rock at the base, or the coatingof the passages. " EGYPTIAN OBELISKS. Obelisks belong to the oldest and most simple monuments of Egyptianarchitecture, and are high four-sided pillars, diminishing as theyascend, and terminating in a small pyramid. Herodotus speaks of them, and Pliny gives a particular account of them. The latter mentions kingMesphres, or Mestres, of Thebes, as the first builder of obelisks, butdoes not give the time; nor is this king noticed either by Herodotus orDiodorus. It is probable that these monuments were first built beforethe time of Moses, at least two centuries before the Trojan war. Thereare still several obelisks in Egypt; there is one erect, and anotherfallen at Alexandria, between the new city and the light-house; one atMatarea, among the ruins of old Heliopolis; one in the territory ofFayoum, near ancient Arsinoë; eight or ten among the ruins of Thebes;the two finest at Luxor, at the entrance of the temple, &c. Theseobelisks, exclusively of the pedestals, are mostly from 50 to 100 feethigh, and of a red polished granite (sienite); a few of the later onesare of white marble and other kinds of stone. At their base, theycommonly occupy a space of from 4½ to 12 feet square, and often more. Some are adorned on all sides, and some on fewer, with hieroglyphics cutin them, sometimes to the depth of two inches, divided into littlesquares and sections, and filled with paint: sometimes they are stripedwith various colors. Some are entirely plain and without hieroglyphics. The foot of the obelisk stands upon a quadrangular base, commonly two orthree feet broader than the obelisk, with a socket, in which it rests. They were commonly hewn out of a single stone, in the quarries of UpperEgypt, and brought on canals, fed by the Nile, to the place of theirerection. The Romans carried many of them from Egypt to Rome, Arles, andConstantinople, most of which were afterwards overturned, but have beenput together and replaced in modern times. Augustus, for instance, hadtwo large obelisks brought from Heliopolis to Rome, one of which heplaced in the Campus Martius. The other stood upon the Spina, in theCircus Maximus, and is said to have been the same which kingSemneserteus (according to Pliny) erected. At the sack of Rome by thebarbarians, it was thrown down, and remained, broken in three pieces, amidst the rubbish, until, in 1589, Sixtus V. Had it restored by thearchitect Domenico Fontana, and placed near the church Madonna delPopolo. Under Caligula, another large obelisk was brought fromHeliopolis to Rome, and placed in the Circus Vaticanus. It has stood, since 1586, before St. Peter's church: it is without hieroglyphics; and, with the cross and pedestal, measures 126 feet in height. It is the onlyone in Rome which has remained entire. Its weight is estimated at 10, 000cwt. Claudius had two obelisks brought from Egypt, which stood beforethe entrance of the Mausoleum of Augustus, and one of which was restoredin 1567, and placed near the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. Caracallaalso procured an Egyptian obelisk for his circus, and for the AppianWay. The largest obelisk (probably erected by Rameses) was placed byConstantius II. , in the Circus Maximus at Rome. In the fifth century, itwas thrown down by the barbarians, and lay in pieces upon the ground, until Sixtus V. , in 1588, had it raised upon the square, before St. John's church of the Lateran, thence called the _Lateran obelisk_. It isbeautifully adorned with sculpture; its weight is 13, 000 cwt. ; itsheight, exclusive of the pedestal, 140 feet; with the pedestal, 179feet. Several others have been erected by succeeding popes. REMOVAL OF AN OBELISK BY FONTANA. The following curious account of the removal of the obelisk in theCircus Vaticanus to the centre of St. Peter's square, by DomenicoFontana, is extracted from Milizia's life of that famous architect. Itshows plainly that the Egyptians must have attained great skill andperfection in mechanics and engineering, to have been able to quarry outobelisks at least a third larger, and convey them often several hundredmiles, to the places where they erected them. "Sixtus V. Was now desirous of raising in the centre of the square ofSt. Peter's the only obelisk which remained standing, but partlyinterred, near the wall of the Sacristy, where was formerly the Circusof Nero. Other pontiffs had had the same wish, but the difficulty of theenterprise had prevented the execution. "This obelisk, or pyramid, is of red granite, called by the ancientRomans, Marmor Thebanum (Theban marble), on account of having beenworked near Thebes, in Egypt, whence it was transported to Rome in thetime of Cæsar. Of the immense number in Rome, this is the only oneremaining entire; it is without hieroglyphics, 84 feet high, 8 feet 6inches wide at the base, and 5 feet 6 inches at the top. One cubic footof this granite weighs about 160 pounds; so that the whole weight of theobelisk must be somewhat less than 759, 000 lbs. Of the manner in whichthe Egyptians and Romans moved these enormous masses we have no idea, and so many centuries having elapsed since such a thing had been done, this proposition of Sixtus V. Was considered so novel, that a generalassembly was called of all the mathematicians, engineers, and learnedmen from various parts of Europe; and, in a congress held by the pope, more than 500 persons presented themselves, bringing with them theirinventions; some with drawings, some with models, others with writingsor arguments. "The greater number were for removing it by means of an iron carriageand thirty-two levers. Others invented a half wheel, on which theobelisk was to be raised by degrees. Some proposed screws, and othersthought of carrying it upon slings. "Bartolomeo Ammanati, a Florentine architect and sculptor, sentexpressly by the grand duke, presented himself before the pope, withouteither models or designs, and requested a year to consider it; for thishe was most severely reprimanded by the pontiff. Fontana exhibited hiswooden model, with a leaden pyramid, which, by means of a windlass andcrane, was raised and lowered with the greatest facility; he explainedthe nature of these machines and movements, and gave a practical proofof their capability by raising a small pyramid in the mausoleum ofAugustus, which was in a ruinous condition. After many disputes, Fontana's invention was approved; but, as he had not yet acquired a nameof sufficient importance, the execution of it was committed to twoarchitects of renown, Giacomo della Porta and BartolomeoAmmanati. --These immediately commenced a scaffold in the centre of thesquare where the obelisk was to stand. "Fontana being justly displeased that his own discovery should not beentrusted to his execution, went to the pope, and respectfullyrepresented to him, that no one could so properly execute a design asthe inventor. Sixtus was persuaded, and committed the entire directionof it to him. The architect then commenced his work with the utmostcelerity. He dug a square hole of 44 feet, in the piazza, 24 feet deep, and finding the soil watery and chalky, he made it firm by strong andmassive piles. At the same time he had ropes made, three inches indiameter, 1500 feet long, an immense quantity of cords, large iron rodsto strengthen the obelisk, and other pieces of iron for the cases of thecranes, pins, circles, pivots, and instruments of every kind. The ironto secure the obelisk alone amounted to 40, 000 lbs. , and was made in themanufactories of Rome, Ronciglione, and Subbiaco. The beams, taken fromthe woods of Nettuno, were of such a prodigious size, that each wasdrawn by seven pair of buffalos. From Terracina, elm was brought, forthe caseing, and Holm oak for the shafts of windlass; and to prevent theground from giving way, it being soft and marshy, in consequence of thegreat weight, he made a bed with two layers of timber, crossing eachother in a contrary direction. On this foundation he placed the castleor carriage, which had eight columns: each of these columns was composedof so many thick planks, that they measured 13 feet in circumference. These were united together by thick cords, without screws, in order tobe done and undone with greater quickness. The height of the beams wasrequired to be 90 feet; and not any being of that length, they wereplaced one on the other, and united by iron bands. These columns werestrengthened by forty-eight braces, and tied together on all sides. Theobelisk was entirely covered with double mats, to prevent its beinginjured; it was then surrounded by planks, over which were placed largerods of iron, and these embracing the thick part underneath, camedirectly over the four faces of the mass, which thus became totallyencircled with these coverings. The whole pyramid thus weighed onemillion and a half pounds. Fontana calculated that every windlass, withgood ropes and cranes, would be able to move 20, 000 lbs. Weight; andconsequently forty would move 800, 000, and he gained the rest by fivelevers of thick beams 52 feet long. "So novel an apparatus excited the curiosity of all Rome, and offoreigners also, who came from distant countries to see what effectwould be produced by this mass of beams, mingled with ropes, windlasses, levers, and pulleys. In order to prevent confusion, Sixtus V. Issued oneof his mandates, that on the day of its being worked, no one, except theworkmen, should enter the enclosure, on pain of death, and that no oneshould make the least noise, nor even speak loud. Accordingly, on the30th of April, 1586, the first to enter the barrier was the chiefjustice and his officers, and the executioner to plant the gibbet, notmerely as a matter of ceremony. Fontana went to receive the benedictionof the pope, who, after having bestowed it, told him to be cautious ofwhat he did, for a failure would certainly cost him his head. On thisoccasion, Sixtus felt the difference between his regard for his ownglory, and his affection for the architect. Fontana, in terror, secretlyplaced horses at every gate, ready to convey him from the papal anger, in case of an accident. At the dawn of day, two masses of the Holy Ghostwere celebrated; all the artificers made their communion, and receivedthe papal benediction, and before the rising of the sun all entered thebarrier. The concourse of spectators was such, that the tops of thehouses were covered, and the streets crowded. The nobility and prelateswere at the barriers, between the Swiss guards and the cavalry: all werefixed and attentive to the proceedings; and, terrified at the sight ofthe inexorable gibbet, every one was silent. "The architect gave an order that, at the sound of the trumpet, eachshould begin working, and at that of the bell, placed in the castle ofwood, each should desist; there were more than 900 workmen, and 75horses. The trumpet sounded, and in an instant, men, horses, windlasses, cranes, and levers were all in motion. The ground trembled, the castlecracked, all the planks bent from the enormous weight, and the pyramid, which inclined a foot towards the choir of St. Peter, was raisedperpendicularly. The commencement having prospered so well, the bellsounded a rest. In twelve more movements the pyramid was raised almosttwo feet from the ground, in such a situation that it could be placed onthe rollers, and it remained firmly fixed by means of wedges of iron andwood. At this happy event the castle of St. Angelo discharged all itsartillery, and a universal joy pervaded the whole city. "Fontana was now convinced that the ropes were better than iron bands, these being most broken or distorted, or expanded by the weight. On the7th of May the pyramid was placed on the sledge--a more difficult andtedious operation than that of raising it, it being necessary to conveyit over the piazza to the situation intended for it, which was 115 rodsfrom where it then stood. The level of the piazza being about 30 feetlower, it was necessary to throw up an earthen embankment from one placeto the other, well secured by piles, &c. This being done, on the 13thof June, by means of four windlasses, the pyramid was removed with thegreatest facility on the rollers, to the place of its destination. Thepope deferred its erection to the next autumn, lest the summer heatsshould injure the workmen and spectators. "In the meantime the pedestal, which was interred 30 feet, was removed:it was composed of two parts, the ogee and basement being of the samemass, and the plinth of white marble. All the preparations were made forthis last operation on the 10th of September, with the same solemnities;140 horses and 800 men were employed. The pope selected this day for thesolemn entrance of the duke of Luxembourg, ambassador of ceremony fromHenry III. Of France, and caused the procession to enter by the PortaAngelica, instead of the Porta del Popolo. When this nobleman crossedthe Piazza of St. Peter's, he stopped to observe the concourse ofworkmen in the midst of a forest of machines, and saw, admiring, Romerising again by the hand of Sixtus V. In fifty-two movements the pyramidwas raised, and at the setting of the sun it was placed firm upon itspedestal. The castle disappeared, and the artificers, intoxicated withjoy, carried Fontana on their shoulders in triumph to his own house, amidst the sound of drums and trumpets, and the plaudits of an immensecrowd. "In placing it upright on the pedestal, Fontana considered the methodadopted by the ancients as the least difficult; which was to rest oneend on two globes, then draw the point round, raising it at the sametime, afterwards letting it fall perpendicularly on the pedestal. It isconjectured that this was the practice adopted by the ancients, becausetwo dies alone were always covered with lead for a foot or more, andwere moreover crushed at the extremities. Sixtus V. Placed a cross 7feet high at the top of the obelisk, which was carried in procession, and which made the whole height 132 feet. "For this undertaking, Fontana was created a knight of the Golden Spur, and a Roman nobleman; he had a pension of 2000 crowns, transferable tohis heirs, ten knighthoods, 5000 crowns of gold in ready money, andevery description of material used in the work, which was valued at morethan 20, 000 crowns. Two bronze medals of him were struck; and thefollowing inscription was placed on the base of the pyramid by order ofthe pope:--" Dominicvs Fontana, Ex. Pago. Agri. Novocomensis. Transtvlit. Et. Erexit. REMOVAL OF AN OBELISK FROM THEBES TO PARIS. In 1833, the French removed the smallest of the two obelisks which stoodbefore the propylon of the temple of Luxor to Paris, and elevated it inthe Place de la Concorde. The shaft is 76 feet high, and eight feetwide on the broadest side of the base; the pedestal is 10 feet square by16 feet high. Permission for the removal of both the obelisks havingbeen granted to the French government by the Viceroy of Egypt, a vesselconstructed for the purpose was sent out in March, 1831, under M. Lebas, an eminent engineer, to whom the undertaking was confided, it beingpreviously determined to bring away only one, and M. Lebas found itsufficiently difficult to bring away the smallest of the two. Afterthree months' labor with 800 men, the obelisk was removed on an inclinedplane into the vessel, through a hole made in the end for the purpose. It arrived safely up the Seine to Paris, Dec. 23d, 1833. An inclinedplane of solid masonry was then constructed, leading from the river upto a platform, also of rough masonry, level with the top of thepedestal. The obelisk, having been placed on a kind of timber car orsledge, was drawn up by means of ropes and capstans. One edge of thebase having been brought to its place on the pedestal, it was raised toa perpendicular position by ropes and pulleys attached to the heads often masts, five on each side. When all was ready, the obelisk waselevated to its place under the direction of M. Lebas, in three hours, without the least accident, Oct. 25th, 1836. It is said that Lebas hadprovided himself with loaded pistols, in the firm determination to blowout his brains in case of an accident! In 1820, the Viceroy of Egypt presented to the English government themonolith lying on the ground at Alexandria, one of the two obeliskscalled Cleopatra's Needles; the other is still standing. The project ofremoving it to London and erecting it in Waterloo Square, wasentertained for some time by the English government, but seems to havebeen long abandoned; recently, however, an expedition is being fittedout for the purpose. CARBURI'S BASE FOR THE EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF PETER THE GREAT. Milizia gives the following interesting account of the removal of theimmense mass of granite, which forms the pedestal or base of theequestrian statue of Peter the Great, from the bogs of the Neva to St. Petersburg, a distance of about fourteen miles. He also cites it as aninstance of extraordinary ingenuity and skill in mechanics. It is, however, a much easier task to move a ponderous mass of rough, unhewnrock, than a brittle obelisk, an hundred feet or so in length, requiringthe greatest care to preserve it from injury. It is also worthy ofmention, that in widening streets in New York, it is no uncommon thingto see a three-story brick house set back ten or fifteen feet, and evenmoved across the street, and raised an extra story into the bargain--thestory being added to the _bottom_ instead of the _top_ of the building. Thus the large free stone and brick school-house in the First Ward, anedifice of four lofty stories, 50 by 70 feet, and basement walls 2½ feetthick, has been raised six feet, to make it correspond with the newgrade in the lower part of Greenwich-street. It is also no uncommonthing to see a ship of a thousand tons, with her cargo on board, raisedout of the water at the Hydraulic Dock, to stop a leak, or make someunexpected but necessary repairs. "In 1769, the Count Marino Carburi, of Cephalonia, moved a mass ofgranite, weighing three million pounds, to St. Petersburg, to serve as abase for the equestrian statue of Peter the Great, to be erected in thesquare of that city, after the design of M. Falconet, who discarded thecommon mode of placing an equestrian statue on a pedestal, where, properly speaking, it never could be; and suggested a rock, on which thehero was to have the appearance of galloping, but suddenly be arrestedat the sight of an enormous serpent, which, with other obstacles, heovercomes for the happiness of the Muscovites. None but a Catherine II. , who so gloriously accomplished all the great ideas of that hero, couldhave brought to perfection this extraordinary one of the artist. Animmense mass was accidentally found buried 15 feet in a bog, four milesand a half from the river Neva and fourteen from St. Petersburg. It wasalso casually that Carburi was at the city to undertake the removal ofit. Nature alone sometimes forms a mechanic, as she does a sovereign, ageneral, a painter, a philosopher. The expense of this removal was only70, 000 rubles and the materials left after the operation were worthtwo-thirds of that sum. The obstacles surmounted do honor to the humanunderstanding. The rock was 37 feet long, 22 high, and 21 broad, in theform of a parallelopipedon. It was cleft by a blast, the middle parttaken away, and in the cavity was constructed a forge for the wants ofthe journey. Carburi did not use cylindrical rollers for hisundertaking, these causing an attrition sufficient to break thestrongest cables. Instead of rollers he used balls composed of brass, tin, and calamina, which rolled with their burden under a species ofboat 180 feet long, and 66 wide. This extraordinary spectacle waswitnessed by the whole court, and by Prince Henry of Prussia, a branchfrom the great Frederick. Two drums at the top sounded the march; fortystone-cutters were continually at work on the mass during the journey, to give it the proposed form--a singularly ingenious idea. The forge wasalways at work: a number of other men were also in attendance to keepthe balls at proper distances, of which there were thirty, of thediameter of five inches. The mountain was moved by four windlasses, andsometimes by two; each required thirty-two men: it was raised andlowered by screws, to remove the balls and put them on the other side. When the road was even, the machine moved 60 feet in the hour. Themechanic, although continually ill from the dampness of the air, wasstill indefatigable in regulating the arrangements; and in six weeks thewhole arrived at the river. It was embarked, and safely landed. Carburithen placed the mass in the square of St. Peter's, to the honor ofPeter, Falconet, Carburi, and of Catherine, who may always, from heractions, be classed among illustrious men. It is to be observed, that inthis operation the moss and straw that was placed underneath the rock, became by compression so compact, that it almost equalled in hardnessthe ball of a musket. Similar mechanical operations of the ancients havebeen wonderfully exaggerated by their poets. " COMPARATIVE SKILL OF THE ANCIENTS AND MODERNS IN MECHANICS. Many persons suppose, and maintain, that the grandeur of the monumentsof the ancients, and the great size of the stones they employed forbuilding purposes, prove that they understood mechanics better than themoderns. The least knowledge in mechanics, however, will show thisopinion to be erroneous. The moderns possess powers which were unknownto the ancients, as the screw, and the hydraulic press, the power ofwhich last is only limited by the strength of the machinery. The worksof the ancients show that they expended a vast deal of power and laborto gratify the pride and ambition of kings; but the moderns can do allthese things much easier, and in far less time, whenever they deem itproper. There was nothing in ancient times to be compared with thatdaring, ingenious, and stupendous monument of engineering skill--theBritannia Tubular Bridge, across the Menai straits--projected, designed, and built by Robert Stephenson, the famous English engineer. He hadpreviously built a similar but smaller structure--the Conway TubularBridge. THE BRITANNIA TUBULAR RAILWAY BRIDGE. Had this stupendous fabric existed in ancient times, it would have beenregarded as the _first_ of the seven wonders of the world. Greater andmore expensive structures have been raised, but none displaying morescience, skill, and ingenuity, and none requiring such tremendousmechanical power to execute. The Britannia Tubular Bridge was built to conduct the Chester andHolyhead Railway across the Menai Straits, to the island of Anglesea, inthe Irish Sea. The difficulties which the engineer had to overcome, were greatlyaugmented by the peculiar form and situation of the straits. Sir FrancisHead says, "The point of the straits which it was desired to cross, although broader than that about a mile distant; preoccupied by Mr. Telford's suspension bridge--was of course one of the narrowest thatcould be selected, in consequence of which the ebbing and flowingtorrent rushes through it with such violence, that, except where thereis back water, it is often impossible for a small boat to pull againstit; besides which, the gusts of wind which come over the tops, down theravines, and round the sides of the neighboring mountains, are sosudden, and occasionally so violent, that it is as dangerous to sail asit is difficult to row; in short, the wind and the water, sometimesplayfully and sometimes angrily, seem to vie with each other--like someof Shakspeare's fairies--in exhibiting before the stranger the utmostvariety of fantastic changes which it is in the power of each toassume. " The Menai Straits are about twelve miles long, through which, imprisoned between the precipitous shores, the waters of the Irish Seaand St. George's Channel are not only everlastingly vibrating, backwardsand forwards, but at the same time and from the same causes, areprogressively rising and falling 20 to 25 feet, with each successivetide, which, varying its period of high water, every day formsaltogether an endless succession of aqueous changes. THE TUBES. The tubes forming the viaducts, rest upon two abutments and three piers, called respectively the Anglesea abutment and pier, the Carnarvonabutment and pier, and the Britannia or central pier, built upon theBritannia rock in the middle of the straits, which gives name to thebridge. The Anglesea abutment is 143 feet 6 inches high, 55 feet wide, and 175 feet long to the end of the wings, which terminate in pedestals, supporting colossal lions on either side, 25 feet 6 inches in length, 12feet 6 inches high, and 8 feet broad, carved out of a single block ofAnglesea marble. The space between the Anglesea abutment and pier is 230feet. This pier is 196 feet high, 55 feet wide, and 32 feet long. TheCarnarvon abutment and pier are of the same dimensions as those abovedescribed, on the opposite shore. The Britannia pier is 240 feet high, 55 feet wide, and 45 feet long. This pier is 460 feet clear of each ofthe two side piers. The bottom of the tubes are 124 feet above low watermark, so that large ships can pass under them, under full sail. There are two tubes, to accommodate a double track (one would have donein this country, but in England they do nothing by halves), and each is1513 feet long. The total length of the bridge is 1841 feet. These tubesare not round or oval, but nearly square at the termini; the bridgebeing constructed on the principle of the arch. A section of one of thetubes at the Britannia pier is in the form of a parallelogram, where itis 30 feet high, gradually diminishing towards each end to 20 feet. Thetubes are riveted together into continuous hollow beams; they are ofthe uniform width of 14 feet 8 inches throughout; they are constructedentirely of iron, and weigh about 12, 000 tons, each tube containing 5000tons of wrought iron, and about 1000 tons of cast iron. The tubes wereconstructed each in four sections; the sections extending from theabutments to their corresponding piers, each 250 feet long, were built_in situ_, on immense scaffolding, made of heavy timbers for thepurpose, even with the railway; but the middle sections, each 470 feetlong, were built on piers on the Carnarvonshire shore, then floated intothe stream, and elevated to their position; each of these sectionsweighed 1800 tons. CONSTRUCTION OF THE TUBES. The sides, bottom, and top of these gigantic tubes are formed of oblongwrought iron plates, varying in length, width, and thickness, accordingto circumstances, but of amazing size and weight. They are so arrangedas to obtain the greatest possible strength, the whole being rivetedtogether in the strongest manner. In addition to the 1600 tons ofwrought iron in each of the four large pieces, an additional 200 tonswas used to form lifting frames, and cast iron beams for the purpose ofattaching the tube to those huge chains by which they were elevated. Theconstruction of the tubes is thus described in the London IllustratedNews, from which this account is derived: "In order to carry out this vast work (the construction of the tubes), eighty houses have been erected for the accommodation of the workmen, which, being whitewashed, have a peculiarly neat and picturesqueappearance; among them are seen butcher's, grocer's, and tobacconist'sshops, supplying the wants of a numerous population. A day school, Sunday school, and meeting-house also conspicuously figure. Workshops, steam-engines, store-houses, offices, and other buildings meet the eyeat every turn; one is led to conclude that a considerable time haselapsed since the works were commenced, yet it is little more than twoyears ago. A stranger, on coming to the ground, is struck with wonderwhen for the first time he obtains a near view of the vast piles ofmasonry towering majestically above all the surrounding objects--strongas the pillars of Hercules, and apparently as endurable--his eyes wanderinstinctively to the ponderous tubes, those masterpieces of engineeringconstructiveness and mathematical adjustment; he shrinks into himself ashe gazes, and is astonished when he thinks that the whole is thedeveloped idea of one man, and carried out, too, in the face ofdifficulties which few would have dared to encounter. " FLOATING OF THE TUBES. The tubes were floated to the places whence they were elevated to theirpositions on eight huge pontoons, fitted with valves and pumps toexhaust the water from them, when all was ready to float the prodigiousiron beams. These pontoons or boxes were each 90 feet long, 25 feetwide, and 15 feet deep. The pontoons having been placed under one of thetubes (sections), the floating was easily effected, and the operation isthus described by the "Assistant Engineer. " "The operation of floating the tubes (the four sections, and one only ata time), will be commenced by closing the valves in the pontoons at lowwater; as the tide rises, the pontoons will begin to float, and shortlyafterwards to bear the weight of the tube, which will at last be raisedby them entirely off its temporary supporting piers; about an hour and ahalf before high water, the current running about four miles an hour, itwill be dragged out into the middle of the stream, by powerful capstansand hawsers, reaching from the pontoons at each end, to the oppositeshore. In order to guide it into its place with the greatest possiblecertainty, three large hawsers will be laid down the stream, one end oftwo of them being made fast to the towers (piers) between which the tubeis intended to rest, and the other to strong fixed points on the twoshores, near to and opposite the further end of the tube platforms; intheir course, they will pass over and rest upon the pontoons, beingtaken through 'cable-stoppers' which are contrivances for embracing andgripping the hawser extended across the stream, and thereby retarding, or if necessary entirely destroying, the speed induced by the current. " RAISING THE TUBES The tubes of the Britannia bridge were raised by means of threehydraulic presses of the most prodigious size, strength, weight, andpower; two of which were placed in the Britannia pier, above the pointswhere the tubes rest, and the other alternately on the Anglesea andCarnarvon piers. In order that all who read these pages may understand this curiousoperation, it is necessary to describe the principle of the hydraulicpress. If a tube be screwed into a cask or vessel filled with water, andthen water poured into the tube, the pressure on the bottom and sides ofthe vessel will not be the contents of the vessel and tube, but that ofa column of water equal to the length of the tube and the depth of thevessel. This law of pressure in fluids is rendered very striking in theexperiment of bursting a strong cask by the action of a few ounces ofwater. This law, so extraordinary and startling of belief to those whodo not understand the reasoning upon which it is founded, has beencalled the _Hydrostatic paradox_, though there is nothing in realitymore paradoxical in it, than that one pound at the long end of a lever, should balance ten pounds at the short end. This principle has beenapplied to the construction of the Hydrostatic or Hydraulic press, whose power is only limited by the strength of the materials of which itis made. Thus, with a hydraulic press no larger than a common tea-pot, abar of iron may be cut as easily as a slip of pasteboard. The exertionof a single man, with a short lever, will produce a pressure of 1500atmospheres, or 22, 500 pounds on every square inch of surface inside thecylinder. By means of hydraulic presses, ships of a thousand tonsburthen, with cargo on board, are lifted out of the water for repairs, and the heaviest bodies raised and moved, without any other expense ofhuman labor beyond the management of the engine. The tubes on the Anglesea side were raised first. The presses in theBritannia tower were each capable of raising a weight of 1250 tons; thatin the Anglesea tower, larger than the others, 1800 tons, or the wholeweight of the tube. These presses were worked by two steam engines of 40horse power each, which forced the water into the cylinders, through atube half an inch in diameter. These steam engines were placed in theBritannia and Anglesea piers. The press in the Anglesea pier is thusdescribed, the others being constructed in the same manner. Thehydraulic press stands on massive beams of wrought iron platesconstructed on the principle of the arch, placed in the tower above thepoints where the tubes rest. The press consists of a huge cylinder, 9feet 2 inches in length, 3 feet 6 inches outside diameter, and the ram 1foot 8 inches in diameter, making the sides and bottom of the cylinder11 inches thick; it was calculated that it would resist a pressure of8000 or 9000 pounds to the square inch. The ram or piston was attachedto an exceedingly thick and heavy beam of cast iron, called thecross-head, strengthened with bars of wrought iron. To the cross-headwere attached the huge chains that descended to the tubes far below, towhich they were secured, so that, as the ram was forced up 6 feet ateach stroke, the tube was raised the same distance. "The power of thepress is exerted on the tube by aid of chains, the links of which are 6feet in length, bolted together in sets of eight or nine linksalternately. --The ram raises the cross-head 6 feet at each stroke, andwith it the tube, when that height is attained, a lower set of chains onthe beams grip the next set of links, and thus prevent them fromslipping down, whilst the clamps on the cross-heads are unscrewed, theupper links taken off, and the ram and cross-head lowered to takeanother stroke. " To guard against all chances of injury to the tubes incase of accident to the machinery, a contrivance was adopted by whichthe tubes were followed up with wedges. The importance of thisprecaution was fully proved on the very first attempt to raise the tubeon the Anglesea side, when the huge cylinder broke, almost at thecommencement of the operations. The following is the engineer'sinteresting report of the accident: "On Friday last (August 17, 1849), at a quarter to twelve o'clock, wecommenced lifting the tube at the Anglesea end, intending to raise itsix feet, and afterwards to have raised the opposite end the sameheight. "The tube rose steadily to the height of two feet six inches, beingclosely followed up by inch wooden boards packed beneath it, whensuddenly, and without any warning, the bottom of the hydraulic pressgave way, separating completely from the body of the press. "The ram, cross-head, and chains descended violently on the press, witha tremendous noise, the tube sinking down upon the wooden packingbeneath it. The bottom of the press, weighing nearly two tons and ahalf, fell on the top of the tube, a depth of eighty feet. "A sailor, named Owen Parry, was ascending a rope ladder at the time, from the top of the tube into the tower; the broken piece of press inits descent struck the ladder and shook him off; he fell on to the tube, a height of fifty feet, receiving a contusion of the skull, and otherinjuries, of so serious a nature that he died the same evening. He wasnot engaged in the raising, and had only chosen to cross the tube, asbeing the nearest road from one tower to the other. An inquest was heldon the following day, and a verdict of accidental death returned. No oneactually engaged in the operation was injured, although Mr. EdwinClark, who was superintending the operation, on the top of thecross-head, and his brother, Mr. L. Clark, who was standing beneath it, had both a very narrow escape. "The tube is not at all injured, but some portions of the cast ironlifting frames are broken, and require repairing; some weeks must elapsebefore a new cylinder is made, and the operation continued. " Sir Francis Head, when he saw one of the tubes raised, and in its place, observed, "It seemed surprising to us that by any arrangement ofmaterials, it could possibly be made strong enough to support evenitself, --much less heavily laden trains of passengers and goods, flyingthrough it, and actually passing each other in the air at railway speed. And the more we called reason and reflection to our assistance, the moreincomprehensible did the mystery practically appear; for the plate ironof which the aërial gallery is composed is literally _not so thick_ asthe lid, sides, and bottom which, by heartless contract, are _required_for an elm coffin 6½ feet long, 2¼ wide, and 2 deep, of strengthmerely sufficient to carry the corpse of an emaciated pauper from theworkhouse to his grave! The covering of this iron passage, 1841 feet inlength, is literally not thicker than the hide of an elephant; lastly, it is scarcely thicker than the bark of the good old English oak, --andif this noble sovereign, notwithstanding 'the heart' and interiorsubstance of which it boasts, is, even in the well-protected park inwhich it has been born and bred, often prostrated by the storm, howdifficult is it to conceive that an attenuated aërial hollow beam, nothicker than its mere rind, should, by human science, be constructedstrong enough to withstand, besides the weights rushing through it, thenatural gales and artificial squalls of wind to which, throughout itsentire length, and at its fearful height, it is permanently to beexposed. " Notwithstanding these "incomprehensible" speculations, the tubes areabundantly strong to sustain the pressure of the heaviest trains, evenwere they to stand still in the middle of the bridge. It is calculatedthat each tube, in its weakest part, would sustain a pressure of four orfive thousand tons, "support a line of battle ship, with all hermunitions and stores on board, " and "bear a line of locomotives coveringthe entire bridge. " The bridge was completed, and the first train passedthrough it March 5th, 1850. The total cost of this gigantic structurewas only £601, 865. GLORY OF ANCIENT ROME. Ancient Rome was built upon seven hills, which are now scarcelydiscoverable on account of the vast quantities of rubbish with which thevalleys are filled. Pliny estimates the circumference of the city in histime at 13, 000 paces (which nearly agrees with modern measurements), andthe population at 3, 000, 000. Rome was filled with magnificent publicedifices, temples, theatres, amphitheatres, circuses, naumachiæ, porticos, basilicæ, baths, gardens, triumphal arches, columns, sewers, aqueducts, sepulchres, public and private palaces, etc. In the time of the Cæsars, fourteen magnificent aqueducts, supported byimmense arches, conducted whole rivers into Rome, from a distance ofmany miles, and supplied one hundred and fifty public fountains, onehundred and eighteen large public baths, the artificial seas in whichnaval combats were represented in the Colosseum, and the golden palaceof Nero, besides the water necessary to supply the daily use of theinhabitants. One hundred thousand marble and bronze statues ornamentedthe public squares, the temples, the streets, and the houses of thenobility: ninety colossal statues raised on pedestals; and forty-eightEgyptian obelisks of red granite, some of the largest size, also adornedthe city. Such was ancient Rome, "the Eternal City. " Although visited for morethan a thousand years by various calamities, she is still the mostmajestic of cities; the charm of beauty, dignity, and grandeur stilllingers around the ruins of ancient, as well as the splendid structuresof modern Rome, and brilliant recollections of every age are connectedwith the monuments which the passing traveler meets at every step. THE CAPITOL. The Capitol or Citadel of ancient Rome stood on the Capitoline hill, thesmallest of the seven hills of Rome, called the _Saturnine_ and_Tarpeian rock_. It was begun B. C. 614, by Tarquinius Priscus, but wasnot completed till after the expulsion of the kings. After being thricedestroyed by fire and civil commotion, it was rebuilt by Domitian, whoinstituted there the Capitoline games. Dionysius says the temple, withthe exterior palaces, was 200 feet long, and 185 broad. The wholebuilding consisted of three temples, which were dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, and separated from one another by walls. In the wideportico, triumphal banquets were given to the people. The statue ofJupiter, in the Capitol, represented the god sitting on a throne ofivory and gold, and consisted in the earliest times of clay painted red;under Trajan, it was formed of gold. The roof of the temple was made ofbronze; it was gilded by Q. Catulus. The doors were of the same metal. Splendor and expense were profusely lavished upon the whole edifice. Thegilding alone cost 12, 000 talents (about $12, 000, 000), for which reasonthe Romans called it the _Golden Capitol_. On the pediment stood achariot drawn by four horses, at first of clay, and afterwards of brassgilded. The temple itself contained an immense quantity of the mostmagnificent presents. The most important state papers, and particularlythe Sibylline books were preserved in it. A few pillars and some ruinsare all that now remain of the magnificent temple of JupiterCapitolinus. Its site is mostly occupied by the church of theFranciscans, and partly by the modern capitol called the _Campidoglio_, which was erected after the design of Michael Angelo, consisting ofthree buildings. From the summit of the middle one, the spectator has asplendid view of one of the most remarkable regions in the world--theCampagna, up to the mountains. For a description of the Colosseum, seevol ii, page 29, of this work. MODERN ROME. Modern Rome is about thirteen miles in circuit, and is divided by theTiber into two parts. In 1830, Rome contained 144, 542 inhabitants, 35, 900 houses, 346 churches, 30 monasteries, and upwards of 120 palaces. The view of the majestic ruins; the solemn grandeur of the churches andpalaces; the recollections of the past; the religious customs; the magicand almost melancholy tranquillity which pervades the city; theenjoyment of the endless treasures of art--all conspire to raise themind of the traveler to a high state of excitement. The churches, palaces, villas, squares, streets, fountains, aqueducts, antiquities, ruins--in short, everything proclaims the ancient majesty and thepresent greatness of Rome. Almost every church, palace, and villa is atreasury of art. Among the churches, St. Peter's is the mostconspicuous, and is, perhaps, the most beautiful building in the world. Bramante began it; Sangallo and Peruzzi succeeded him; but MichaelAngelo, who erected its immense dome, which is four hundred and fiftyfeet high to the top of the cross, designed the greatest part. Manyother architects were often employed upon it; Maderno finished the frontand the two towers. The erection of this edifice, from 1506 to 1614, cost 45, 000, 000 Roman crowns. Before we arrive at this grand temple, theeye is attracted by the beautiful square in front of it, surrounded by amagnificent colonnade by Bernini, and ornamented by an Egyptian obelisk, together with two splendid fountains. Upon entering the vestibule, Giotto's mosaic, la Navicella, is seen. Under the portico, opposite thegreat door, is Bernini's great bas relief representing Christ commandingPeter to feed his sheep; and at the ends of the portico are theequestrian statues of Constantine by Bernini, and of Charlemagne byCornachini. The union of these masterpieces has an indescribable effect. The harmony and proportion which prevail in the interior of this augusttemple are such, that, immense as it is, the eye distinguishes all theparts without confusion or difficulty. When each object is minutelyexamined, we are astonished at its magnitude, so much more considerablethan appears at first sight. The immense canopy of the high altar, supported by four bronze pillars of 120 feet in height, particularlyattracts the attention. The dome is the boldest work of modernarchitecture. The cross thereon is 450 feet above the pavement. Thelantern affords the most beautiful prospect of the city and thesurrounding country. The splendid mosaics, tombs, paintings, frescos, works in marble, gilded bronze and stucco, the new sacristy--a beautifulpiece of architecture, but not in unison with the rest--deserve separateconsideration. The two most beautiful churches in Rome next to St. Peter's are the St. John's of the Lateran, and the Santa Maria Maggiore. The former, built by Constantine the Great, is the parochial church ofthe pope; it therefore takes precedence of all others, and is called_Omnium urbis el orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput_ (the head and motherof all churches of the city and the world). In it is celebrated thecoronation of the popes. It contains several pillars of granite, _verdeantico_, and gilt bronze; the twelve apostles by Rusconi and Legros; andthe beautiful chapel of Corsini, which is unequalled in its proportions, built by Alexander Galilei. The altar-piece is a mosaic from a paintingby Guido, and the beautiful porphyry sarcophagus, which is under thestatue of Clement XII. , was found in the Pantheon, and is supposed tohave contained the ashes of M. Agrippa. The nave of the church of SantaMaria Maggiore is supported by forty Ionic pillars of Grecian marble, which were taken from a temple of Juno Lucina: the ceiling was gildedwith the first gold brought from Peru. We are here struck withadmiration at the mosaics; the high altar, consisting of an antiqueporphyry sarcophagus; the chapel of Sixtus V. , built from the designs ofFontana, and richly ornamented; the chapel of Paul V. , adorned withmarble and precious stones; the chapel of Sforza, by Michael Angelo; andthe sepulchres of Guglielmo della Porta and Algardi. In the squarebefore the front is a Corinthian column, which is considered amasterpiece of its kind. The largest church in Rome next to St. Peter'swas the Basilica di San Paolo fuori delle Mura, on the road to Ostia, burnt a few years since. The church of S. Lorenzo, without the city, possesses some rare monuments of antiquity. The church of San Pietro inVincola contains the celebrated statue of Moses, by Michael Angelo. Thechurch of St. Agnes, in the place Navona, begun by Rainaldi andcompleted by Borromini, is one of the most highly ornamented, particularly with modern sculpture. Here is the admirable relief ofAlgardi, representing St. Agnes deprived of her clothes, and coveredonly with her hair. The Basilica of St. Sebastian, before the PortaCapena, contains the statue of the dying saint, by Giorgetti, a pupil ofAlgardi, and the master of Bernini. Under these churches are thecatacombs, which formerly served as places of burial. In the church ofSt. Agnes, before the Porta Pia, among many other beautiful columns arefour of porphyry, belonging to the high altar, and considered the mostbeautiful in Rome. In a small chapel is a bust of the Savior by MichaelAngelo--a masterpiece. In the church of St. Augustine, there is apicture by Raphael representing the prophet Isaiah, and an Ascension byLanfranco. The monastery has a rich library, called the Angelica, andincreased by the library of cardinal Passionei. The following churchesalso deserve to be mentioned, on account of their architecture and worksof art; the churches of St. Ignatius, St. Cecilia, S. Andrea dellaValle, S. Andrea del Noviziato, the Pantheon (also called la Rotonda), in which Raffaelle, Annibale Caracci, Mengs, etc. , are interred. All the364 churches of Rome contain monuments of art or antiquity. Among thepalaces, the principal is the Vatican, an immense pile, in which themost valuable monuments of antiquity, and the works of the greatestmodern masters are preserved. Here are the museum Pio-Clementinum, established by Clement XIV. , and enlarged by Pius VI. , and thecelebrated library of the Vatican. The treasures carried away by theFrench have been restored. Among the paintings of this palace, the mostbeautiful are Raffaelle's frescos in the _stanze_ and _loggie_. Theprincipal oil paintings are in the _appartamento_ Borgia, which alsocontains the Transfiguration, by Raphael. In the Sistine chapel is theLast Judgment by Michael Angelo. The popes have chosen the palace ofMonte Cavallo, or the Quirinal palace, with its extensive and beautifulgardens, for their usual residence, on account of its healthy air andfine prospect. The Lateran palace, which Sixtus V. Had rebuilt byFontana, was changed, in 1693, into an alms-house. Besides these, thefollowing are celebrated: the palace della Cancellario, the palace de'Conservatori, the palace of St. Mark, the buildings of the Academy, etc. Among the private palaces, the Barberini is the largest; it was built byBernini, in a beautiful style. Here are the Magdalen of Guido, one ofthe finest works of Caravaggio, the Paintings of the great hall, amasterpiece of Pietro da Cortona, and other valuable paintings. Of worksof sculpture, the Sleeping Fawn, now in Munich, was formerly here; themasterly group representing Atalanta and Meleager, a Juno, a sick Satyrby Bernini, the bust of Cardinal Barberini by the same artist, and thebusts of Marius, Sylla, and Scipio Africanus, are in this palace. Thelibrary is calculated to contain 60, 000 printed books, and 9000manuscripts; a cabinet of medals, bronzes, and precious stones, is alsoconnected with the library. The Borghese palace, erected by Bramante, isextensive, and in a beautiful style; the colonnade of the court issplendid. This palace contains a large collection of paintings, rareworks of sculpture, valuable tables, and utensils of rich workmanship, of red porphyry, alabaster, and other materials. The upper hall isunrivalled; the great landscapes of Vernet, with which it is adorned, are so true to nature, that, upon entering, one imagines himselftransported into real scenes. The palace Albani, the situation of whichis remarkably fine, possesses a valuable library, a great number ofpaintings, and a collection of designs by Caracci, Polidoro, Lanfranco, Spagnoletto, Cignani, and others. The palace Altieri, one of the largestin Rome, is in a simple style of architecture, and contains raremanuscripts, medals, paintings, etc. , and valuable furniture. In thepalace Colonna there is a rich collection of paintings by the firstmasters; all the rooms are decorated with them, and particularly thegallery, which is one of the finest in Europe. In the gardens are theruins of the baths of Constantine and those of the temple of Sol. TheAldobrandini palace contains the proudest monument of ancientpainting--the Aldobrandine Wedding, a fresco purchased by Pius VII. , in1818, in which the design is admirable. The great Farnese palace, begunfrom the designs of Sangallo, and completed under the direction ofMichael Angelo, is celebrated both for its beauty and its treasures ofart. The Caracci and Domenichino have immortalized themselves by theirfrescos in its gallery. The Farnese Hercules, the masterly Flora, andthe urn of Cæcilia Metella, formerly adorned the court; and in thepalace itself was the beautiful group of the Farnese bull. But when theking of Naples inherited the Farnese estate, these statues, with otherworks of art, were carried to Naples, where they now adorn the palacedegli Studi. Not far off is the palace Corsini, where queen Christinalived and died in 1689. It contains a valuable library and gallery. Thepalace Giustiniani also had a gallery adorned with numerous valuablestatues and works of sculpture; its principal ornaments were thecelebrated statue of Minerva, the finest of that goddess now known, andthe bas-relief of Amalthæa suckling Jupiter. These treasures werenominally bought by Napoleon, and are now in Paris. The paintings arechiefly in the possession of the king of Prussia. In the palace Spada isthe statue of Pompey, at the foot of which Cæsar fell under the daggersof his murderers. We have yet to mention the palace Costaguti, onaccount of its fine frescos; Chigi, for its beautiful architecture, itspaintings and library; Mattei, for its numerous statues, reliefs, andancient inscriptions; the palace of Pamfili, built by Borromini, for itssplendid paintings and internal magnificence; that of Pamfili in thesquare of Navona, with a library and gallery; Rospigliosi, upon theQuirinal hill, etc. Among the palaces of Rome, which bear the name of_villas_, is the Villa Medici, on the Pincian mount, on which wereformerly situated the splendid gardens of Lucullus: it once contained avast number of masterpieces of every kind; but the grand dukes Leopoldand Ferdinand have removed the finest works (among them, the group ofNiobe, by Scopas) to Florence. This palace, however, is yet worthy ofbeing visited. Under the portico of the Villa Negroni are the two finestatues of Sylla and Marius, seated on the _sella curulis_. In theextensive garden, which is three miles in circuit, some beautiful frescopaintings have been found in the ruins of some of the houses. The VillaMattei, on the Coelian mount, contains a splendid collection ofstatues. The Villa Ludovisi, on the Pincian mount, not far from theruins of the circus and the gardens of Sallust, is one and a half milesin circuit, and contains valuable monuments of art, particularly theAurora of Guercino, an ancient group of the senator Papirius and hismother (or rather of Phædra and Hippolytus), another of Arria and Pætus, and Bernini's rape of Proserpine. The Villa Borghese, near Rome, has afine but an unhealthy situation. The greatest part of the city, and theenvirons as far as Frascati and Tivoli, are visible from it. It has agarden, with a park three miles in circuit. This palace was ornamentedin its interior, and furnished with so much richness and elegance, thatit might have been considered the first edifice in Rome, next to thecapitol, particularly for its fine collection of statues. The mostremarkable among them were the Fighting Gladiator; Silenus and a Faun;Seneca, in black marble, or rather a slave at the baths; Camillus; theHermaphrodite; the Centaur and Cupid; two Fauns, playing on the flute;Ceres; an Egyptian; a statue of the younger Nero; the busts of LuciusVerus, Alexander, Faustina and Verus; various relievos, among which wasone representing Curtius; an urn, on which was represented the festivalof Bacchus; another supported by the Graces; two horns of plenty, etc. The greatest part of these has not been restored from Paris. Theexterior is ornamented with ancient reliefs. The Villa Pamfili, beforethe Porta di San Pancrazio, also called Belrespiro, has an agreeablesituation, and is seven miles in circumference. The architecture is byAlgardi, but has been censured by connoisseurs. In the interior thereare some fine specimens of sculpture. Full descriptions of this and ofthe Villa Borghese have been published. The Villa Albani, upon aneminence which commands Tivoli and the Sabina, is an edifice of tasteand splendor. The cardinal Alexander Albani expended immense sums uponit, and, during the space of fifty years, collected a splendid cabinet. The ceiling of the gallery was painted by Mengs, and is a model ofelegance. The Villa Lante and the Villa Corsini deserve to be mentionedon account of their fine prospects. The Villa Doria (formerly Algiati), in which Raffaelle lived, contains three fresco paintings of this greatmaster. The Villa Farnese contains the remains of the palace of theRoman emperors. The capitol contains so many and such magnificentobjects of every description, that it is impossible to enumerate themhere. We must be satisfied with mentioning the equestrian statue ofMarcus Aurelius, before the palace; the Captive Kings, in the court;the _columna rostrata_; and within, the colossal statue of Pyrrhus; thetomb of Severus; the Centaurs, of basalt; the beautiful alabasterpillars; the masterpiece in mosaic, which once belonged to cardinalFurietti, representing three doves on the edge of a vessel filled withwater, which is described by Pliny. The fountains are among theprincipal ornaments of the squares in Rome. The fountain in the PiazzaNavona, the most splendid of them all, has been particularly admired; itis surmounted by an obelisk, and ornamented by four colossal statues, which represent the four principal rivers in the world. The fountain ofPaul V. , near the church di San Pietro in Montorio, is in bad taste, butfurnishes such a body of water, that several mills are carried by it. The fountain di Termini is adorned with three reliefs, representingMoses striking water from the rock, and with a colossal statue of thatprophet, and two Egyptian lions in basalt. The splendid fountain ofTrevi supplies the best water, which it receives through an ancientaqueduct. Among the streets, the Strada Felice and the Strada Pia, whichcross each other, are the most remarkable; among the bridges, that ofSt. Angelo (formerly Pons Ælius), 300 feet in length; and among thegates the Porta del Popolo (formerly Porta Flaminia). Of ancientmonuments, the following yet remain: the Pantheon, the Coliseum, thecolumn of Trajan, that of Antonine, the amphitheatre of Vespasian; themausoleum of Augustus, the mausoleum of Adrian (now the fortress of St. Angelo); the triumphal arches of Severus, Titus, Constantine, Janus, Nero, and Drusus; the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Stator, of JupiterTonans, of Concordia, of Pax, of Antoninus and Faustina, of the sun andmoon, of Romulus, of Romulus and Remus, of Pallas, of Fortuna Virilis, of Fortuna Muliebris, of Virtue, of Bacchus, of Vesta, of MinervaMedica, and of Venus and Cupid; the remains of the baths of Dioclesian, of Caracalla and Titus, etc. ; the ruins of the theatre of Pompey, nearthe Curia Pompeii, where Cæsar was murdered, and those of the theatre ofMarcellus; the ruins of the old forum (now called Campo Vaccino); theremains of the old bridges; the circus Maximus; the circus of Caracalla;the house of Cicero; the Curia Hostilia; the trophies of Marius; theportico of Philip and Octavius; the country house and tower of Mæcenas;the Claudian aqueduct; the monuments of the family of Aruns, of theScipios, of Metella (called Capo di Bove); the prison of Jugurtha(Carcero Mamertino), in which St. Peter was imprisoned; the monument ofCaius Cestius, which is entirely uninjured, in form of a pyramid, nearwhich the Protestants are buried; the Cloaca Maxima, built by Tarquin, etc. Besides the obelisk near the Porta del Popolo, that raised in thepontificate of Pius VI. , on mount Cavallo, is deserving of notice. Theprincipal collections of literature and the arts have already beennoticed; but the Museo Kircheliano deserves to be particularlymentioned; there are, besides, many private collections and monasticlibraries, which contain many valuable works. Such treasures, especiallyin the arts, make Rome the great school of painters, statuaries, andarchitects, and a place of pilgrimage to all lovers of the arts; andthere are here innumerable _studios_ of painters and sculptors. Romanart seems to have received a new impulse. The academy of San Luca wasestablished solely for the art of painting. There are also many literaryinstitutions in the city. THE FOUNDATION OF VENICE. It is recorded in the archives of Padua, says Milizia, that whenRhadagasius entered Italy, and the cruelties exercised by the Visigothsobliged the people to seek refuge in various places, an architect ofCandia, named Eutinopus, was the first to retire to the fens of theAdriatic, where he built a house, which remained the only one there forseveral years. At length, when Alaric continued to desolate the country, others sought an asylum in the same marshes, and built twenty-fourhouses, which formed the germ of Venice. The security of the place nowinduced people to settle there rapidly, and Venice soon sprung up a cityand gradually rose to be mistress of the seas. The Venetian historiansinform us that the house of Eutinopus, during a dreadful conflagration, was miraculously saved by a shower of rain, at the prayer of thearchitect, who made a vow to convert it into a church; he did this, anddedicated it to St. James, the magistrates and inhabitants contributingto build and ornament the edifice. The church is still standing, in thequarter of the Rialto, which is universally considered the oldest partof Venice. THEODORIC THE GREAT, AND HIS LOVE OF THE FINE ARTS. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, and afterwards also king of Italy, was born at Amali, near Vienna, in 455, and died in 526. Though a Goth, he was so far from delighting in the destruction of public monuments, and works of art, that he issued edicts for their preservation at Romeand throughout Italy, and assigned revenues for the repair of the publicedifices, for which purpose he employed the most skillful and learnedarchitects, particularly Aloïsius, Boëtius, and Symmachus. According toCassiodorus (lib. Ii. Varior. Epist. Xxxix. ), Theodoric said: "It isglorious to preserve the works of antiquity; and it is our duty torestore the most useful and the most beautiful. " Symmachus had thedirection of the buildings constructed or rebuilt at Rome. The king thuswrote to him: "You have constructed fine edifices; you have, moreover, disposed of them with so much wisdom that they equal those of antiquity, and serve as examples to the moderns; and all you show us is a perfectimage of the excellence of your mind, because it is not possible tobuild correctly without good sense and a well cultivated understanding. " In his directions to the Prefect of Rome, on the architecture of thepublic edifices, Theodoric thus wrote: "The beauty of the Roman buildings requires a skillful overseer, inorder that such a wonderful forest of edifices should be preserved withconstant care, and the new ones properly constructed, both internallyand externally. Therefore we direct our generosity not only to thepreservation of ancient things, but to the investing the new ones withthe glories of antiquity. Be it known, therefore, to your illustriousperson, that for this end an architect of the Roman walls is appointed. And because the study of the arts requires assistance, we desire that hemay have every reasonable accommodation that his predecessors haveenjoyed. He will certainly see things superior to what he has read of, and more beautiful than he could ever have imagined. The statues stillfeel their renowned authors, and appear to live: he will observeexpressed in the bronze, the veins, the muscles swollen by exertion, thenerves gradually stretched, and the figure expressing those feelingswhich act on a living subject. "It is said that the first artists in Italy were the Etruscans, and thusposterity has given to them, as well as to Rome, almost the power ofcreating man. How wonderful are the horses, so full of spirit, withtheir fiery nostrils, their sparkling eyes, their easy and gracefullimbs;--they would move, if not of metal. And what shall we say of thoselofty, slender, and finely fluted columns, which appear a part of thesublime structure they support? That appears wax, which is hard andelegant metal; the joints in the marble being like natural veins. Thebeauty of art is to deceive the eye. Ancient historians acquaint us withonly seven wonders in the world: the Temple of Diana, at Ephesus; themagnificent sepulchre of the king Mausolus, from whence is derived theword mausoleum; the bronze Colossus of the Sun, in Rhodes; the statue ofJupiter Olympius, of gold and ivory, formed by the masterly hand ofPhidias, the first of architects; the palace of Cyrus, King of Media, built by Memnon of stones united by gold; the walls of Babylon, constructed by Semiramis of brick, pitch, and iron; the pyramids ofEgypt, the shadows of which do not extend beyond the space of theirconstruction. But who can any longer consider these as wonders, afterhaving seen so many in Rome? Those were famous because they preceded us;it is natural that the new productions of the then barbarous ages shouldbe renowned. It may truly be said that all Rome is wonderful. We havetherefore selected a man clever in the arts, who, in seeing so manyingenious things of antiquity, instead of remaining merely enchantedwith them, has set himself to work to investigate the reason, studytheir books, and instruct himself, that he may become as learned asthose in the place of whom he is to consider himself appointed. " Milizia says of Theodoric, "Is this the language of a Gothic barbarian, the destroyer of good taste? Pericles, Alexander, Adrian, or one of theMedici could not have reasoned better. " And again, "Can these Goths bethe inventors of that architecture vulgarly called Gothic? and are thesethe barbarians said to have been the destroyers of the beautifulmonuments of antiquity? Ecclesiastical history gives to the goodChristians and the jealous ecclesiastics the honor of having dismantledtemples, and disfigured statues in Italy, Greece, Asia, and Egypt. * * *It is clear that the Goths were not the authors of that architecturecalled Gothic. The Goths and barbarians who overran Italy had not anycharacteristic architecture, good or bad. They brought with them neitherarchitects, painters, nor poets. They were all soldiers, and when fixedin Italy employed Italian artists; but as in that country, good tastewas much on the decline, it now became more debased, notwithstanding theefforts made by the Goths to revive it. " ARCHIMEDES. This wonderful genius was of royal descent, and born at Syracuse aboutB. C. 287. He was a relative of king Hiero, who held him in the highestesteem and favor, though he does not appear to have held any publicoffice, preferring to devote himself entirely to science. Such was hisenthusiasm, that he appears at times to have been so completely absorbedin contemplation and calculations, as to be totally unconscious of whatwas passing around him. We cannot fully estimate his services tomathematics, for want of an acquaintance with the previous state ofscience; still we know that he enriched it with discoveries of thehighest importance, upon which the moderns have founded theiradmeasurements of curvilinear surfaces and solids. Euclid, in hiselements, considers only the relations of some of these magnitudes toeach other, but does not compare them with surfaces and solids boundedby straight lines. Archimedes developed the proportions necessary foreffecting this comparison, in his treatises on the sphere and cylinder, the spheroid and conoid, and in his work on the measure of the circle. He rose to still more abstruse considerations in his treatise on thespiral. Archimedes is also the only one of the ancients who has left usanything satisfactory on the theory of mechanics and hydrostatics. Hefirst taught the principle "that a body immersed in a fluid, loses asmuch in weight, as the weight of an equal volume of the fluid. " Hediscovered this while bathing, which is said to have caused him so muchjoy that he ran home from the bath undressed, exclaiming, "I have foundit; I have found it!" By means of this principle, he determined how muchalloy a goldsmith had added to a crown which king Hiero had ordered ofpure gold. Archimedes had a profound knowledge of mechanics, and in amoment of enthusiasm, with which the extraordinary performances of hismachines had inspired him, he exclaimed that he "could move the earthwith ease, by means of his machines placed on a fixed point near it. " Hewas the inventor of the compound pulley, and probably of the endlessscrew which bears his name. He invented many surprising engines andmachines. Some suppose that he visited Egypt, and raised the sites ofthe towns and villages of Egypt, and begun those mounds of earth bymeans of which communication was kept up from town to town, during theinundations of the Nile. When Marcellus, the Roman consul, besiegedSyracuse, he devoted all his talents to the defense of his nativecountry. He constructed machines which suddenly raised up in the air theships of the enemy in the bay before the city, and then let them fallwith such violence into the water that they sunk; he also set them onfire with his burning glasses. Polybius, Livy, and Plutarch speak indetail, with wonder and admiration, of the machines with which herepelled the attacks of the Romans. When the town was taken and given upto pillage, the Roman general gave strict orders to his soldiers not tohurt Archimedes, and even offered a reward to him who should bring himalive and safe to his presence. All these precautions proved useless, for the philosopher was so deeply engaged at the time in solving aproblem, that he was even ignorant that the enemy were in possession ofthe city, and when a soldier entered his apartment, and commanded him tofollow him, he exclaimed, according to some, "Disturb not my circle!"and to others, he begged the soldier not to "kill him till he had solvedhis problem"; but the rough warrior, ignorant of the august personbefore him, little heeded his request, and struck him down. Thishappened B. C. 212, so that Archimedes, at his death, must have beenabout 75 years old. Marcellus raised a monument over him, and placedupon it a cylinder and a sphere, thereby to immortalize his discovery oftheir mutual relations, on which he set a particular value; but itremained long neglected and unknown, till Cicero, during his questorshipof Sicily, found it near one of the gates of Syracuse, and had itrepaired. The story of his burning glasses had always appeared fabulousto some of the moderns, till the experiments of Buffon demonstrated itstruth and practicability. These celebrated glasses are supposed to havebeen reflectors made of metal, and capable of producing their effect atthe distance of a bow-shot. THE TRIALS OF GENIUS. FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI. This eminent architect was one of those illustrious men, who, havingconceived and matured a grand design, proceed, cool, calm, andindefatigable, to put it in execution, undismayed by obstacles that seeminsuperable, by poverty, want, and what is worse, the jeers of men whosecapacities are too limited to comprehend their sublime conceptions. Theworld is apt to term such men enthusiasts, madmen, or fools, till theirglorious achievements stamp them almost divinely inspired. Brunelleschi was nobly descended on his mother's side, she being amember of the Spini family, which, according to Bottari, became extincttowards the middle of the last century. His ancestors on his father'sside were also learned and distinguished men--his father was a notary, his grandfather "a very learned man, " and his great-grandfather "afamous physician in those times. " Filippo's father, though poor, educated him for the legal or medical profession; but such was hispassion for art and mechanics, that his father, greatly against hiswill, was compelled to allow him to follow the bent of his genius: heaccordingly placed him, at a proper age, in the Guild of the Goldsmiths, that he might acquire the art of design. Filippo soon became aproficient in the setting of precious stones, which he did much betterthan any old artists in the vocation. He also wrought in niello, andexecuted several figures which were highly commended, particularly twofigures of Prophets, for an altar in the Cathedral of Pistoja. Filipponext turned his attention to sculpture, and executed works inbasso-relievo, which showed an extraordinary genius. Subsequently, having made the acquaintance of several learned men, he began to turnhis attention to the computation of the divisions of time, theadjustment of weights, the movement of wheels, etc. He next bent histhoughts to the study of perspective, to which, before his time, solittle attention was paid by artists, that the figures often appeared tobe slipping off the canvas, and the buildings had not a true point ofview. He was one of the first who revived the Greek practice ofrendering the precepts of geometry subservient to the painter; for thispurpose, he studied with the famous geometrician Toscanelli, who wasalso the instructor, friend, and counsellor of Columbus. Filippo pursuedhis investigations until he brought perspective to great perfection; hewas the first who discovered a perfectly correct method of taking theground plan and sections of buildings, by means of intersectinglines--"a truly ingenious thing, " says Vasari, "and of great utility tothe arts of design. " Filippo freely communicated his discoveries to hisbrother artists. He was imitated in mosaic by Benedetto da Macano, andin painting by Masaccio, who were his pupils. Vasari says Brunelleschiwas a man of such exalted genius, that "we may truly declare him to havebeen given to us by Heaven, for the purpose of imparting a new spirit toarchitecture, which for hundreds of years had been lost; for the men ofthose times had badly expended great treasures in the erection ofbuildings without order, constructed in a most wretched manner, afterdeplorable designs, with fantastic inventions, labored graces, and worsedecorations. But it then pleased Heaven, the earth having been for somany years destitute of any distinguished mind and divine genius, thatFilippo Brunelleschi should leave to the world, the most noble, vast, and beautiful edifice that had ever been constructed in modern times, oreven in those of the ancients; giving proof that the talent of theTuscan artists, although lost for a time, was not extinguished. He was, moreover, adorned by the most excellent qualities, among which was thatof kindliness, insomuch that there never was a man of more benign andamicable disposition; in judgment he was calm and dispassionate, andlaid aside all thought of his own interest and even that of his friends, whenever he perceived the merits and talents of others to demand that heshould do so. He knew himself, instructed many from the stores of hisgenius, and was ever ready to succor his neighbor in all hisnecessities; he declared himself the confirmed enemy of all vice, andthe friend of those who labored in the cause of virtue. Never did hespend his moments vainly, but, although constantly occupied in his ownworks, in assisting those of others, or administering to theirnecessities, he had yet always time to bestow on his friends, for whomhis aid was ever ready. " In the meantime, Brunelleschi had studied architecture, and made suchprogress that he had already conceived two grand projects--the one wasthe revival of the good manner of ancient architecture, which was thenextinct, and the other was to discover a method for constructing thecupola of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, in Florence, thedifficulties of which were so great that, after the death of Arnolfo diLapi, no architect had been found of sufficient courage and capacity toattempt the vaulting of that cupola. [1] If he could accomplish one orboth of these designs, he believed that he would not only immortalizehis own name, but confer a lasting benefit on mankind. Filippo, havingresolved to devote himself entirely to architecture in future, set outfor Rome in company with his friend Donatello, without imparting hispurpose to any one. Here his mind became so absorbed that he laboredincessantly, scarcely allowing himself the rest which nature required. He examined, measured, and made careful drawings of all the edifices, ruins, arches, and vaults of antiquity; to these he devoted perpetualstudy, and if by chance he found fragments of capitals, columns, cornices, or basements of buildings, partly buried in the earth, he setlaborers at work to lay them open to view. One day, Filippo andDonatello found an earthen vase full of ancient coins, which caused areport to be spread about Rome that the artists were _treasure-seekers_, and this name they often heard, as they passed along the streets, negligently clothed, the people believing them to be men who studiedgeomancy, for the discovery of treasures. Donatello soon returned toFlorence, but Filippo pursued his studies with unremitting diligence. Having exhausted his means, although he lived in the most frugal manner, he contrived to supply his wants, says Milizia, by pawning his jewels, but Vasari with greater probability, by setting precious stones for thegoldsmiths, who were his friends. "Nor did he rest, " says Vasari, "untilhe had drawn every description of fabric--temples, round, square, oroctagon; basilicas, aqueducts, baths, arches, the Colosseum, amphitheatres, and every church built of bricks, of which he examinedall the modes of binding and clamping, as well as the turning of thevaults and arches; he took note, likewise, of all the methods used foruniting the stones, as well as of the means used for securing theequilibrium and close conjunction of all the parts; and having foundthat in all the larger stones there was a hole, formed exactly in thecentre of each on the under side, he discovered that this was for theinsertion of the iron instrument with which the stones are drawn up, andwhich is called by us the mason's clamps (_la ulivella_), an invention, the use of which he restored, and ever afterwards put in practice. Thedifferent orders were next divided by his cares, each order, the Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian being placed apart; and such was the effect of hiszeal in that study, that he became capable of entirely reconstructingthe city in his imagination, and of beholding Rome as she had beenbefore she was ruined. But in the year 1407 the air of the place causedFilippo some slight indisposition, when he was advised by his friends totry change of air. He consequently returned to Florence, where manybuildings had suffered by his absence, and for these he made manydrawings and gave numerous counsels on his return. "In the same year an assemblage of architects and engineers was gatheredin Florence, by the Superintendents of the works of Santa Maria delFiore, and by the Syndics of the Guild of wool-workers, to consult onthe means by which the cupola might be raised. Among these appearedFilippo, who gave it as his opinion that the edifice above the roof mustbe constructed, not after the design of Arnolfo, but that a frieze, fifteen braccia high, must be erected, with a large window in each ofits sides: since not only would this take the weight off the piers ofthe tribune, but would also permit the cupola itself to be more easilyraised. " The obstacles appeared so insuperable to the Superintendents and theSyndics, that they delayed the execution of the cupola for severalyears. In the meantime, Filippo secretly made models and designs for hiscupola, which perpetually occupied his thoughts. He boldly asserted thatthe project was not only practicable, but that it could be done withmuch less difficulty and at less expense than was believed. At length, his boldness, genius, and powerful arguments, brought many of thecitizens to his opinion, though he refused to show his models, becausehe knew the powerful opposition and influences he would have toencounter, and the almost certain loss of the honor of building thecupola, which he coveted above everything else. Vasari thus continueshis admirable history: "But one morning the fancy took him, hearing thatthere was some talk of providing engineers for the construction of thecupola, of returning to Rome, thinking that he would have morereputation and be more sought for from abroad, than if he remained inFlorence. When Filippo had returned to Rome accordingly, the acutenessof his genius and his readiness of resource were taken intoconsideration, when it was remembered that in his discourses he hadshowed a confidence and courage that had not been found in any of theother architects, who stood confounded, together with the builders, having lost all power of proceeding; for they were convinced that nomethod of constructing the cupola would ever be found, nor any beamsthat would make a scaffold strong enough to support the framework andweight of so vast an edifice. The Superintendents were thereforeresolved to have an end of the matter, and wrote to Filippo in Rome, entreating him to repair to Florence, when he, who desired nothingbetter, returned very readily. The wardens of Santa Maria del Fiore andthe syndics of the Guild of Woolworkers, having assembled on hisarrival, set before him all the difficulties, from the greatest to thesmallest, which had been made by the masters, who were present, togetherwith himself, at the audience: whereupon Filippo replied in thesewords--'Gentlemen Superintendents, there is no doubt that greatundertakings always present difficulties in their execution; and if noneever did so before, this of yours does it to an extent of which you arenot perhaps even yet fully aware, for I do not know that even theancients ever raised so enormous a vault as this will be. I, who havemany times reflected on the scaffoldings required, both within andwithout, and on the method to be pursued for working securely at thiserection, have never been able to come to a decision; and I amconfounded, no less by the breadth than the height of the edifice. Now, if the cupola could be arched in a circular form, we might pursue themethod adopted by the Romans in erecting the Pantheon of Rome; that is, the Rotunda. But here we must follow the eight sides of the building, dove-tailing, and, so to speak, enchaining the stones, which will be avery difficult thing. Yet, remembering that this is a temple consecratedto God and the Virgin, I confidently trust, that for a work executed totheir honor, they will not fail to infuse knowledge where it is nowwanting, and will bestow strength, wisdom, and genius on him who shallbe the author of such a project. But how can I help you in the matter, seeing that the work is not mine? I tell you plainly, that if itbelonged to me, my courage and power would beyond all doubt suffice todiscover means whereby the work might be effected without so manydifficulties; but as yet I have not reflected on the matter to anyextent, and you would have me tell you by what method it is to beaccomplished. But even if your worships should determine that the cupolashall be raised, you will be compelled not only to make trial of me, whodo not consider myself capable of being the sole adviser in so importanta matter, but also to expend money, and to command that within a year, and on a fixed day, many architects shall assemble in Florence; notTuscans and Italians only, but Germans, French, and of every othernation: to them it is that such an undertaking should be proposed, tothe end that having discussed the matter and decided among so manymasters, the work may be commenced and entrusted to him who shall givethe best evidence of capacity, or shall display the best method andjudgment for the execution of so great a charge. I am not able to offeryou other counsel, or to propose a better arrangement than this. ' "The proposal and plan of Filippo pleased the Syndics and Wardens of theworks, but they would have liked that he should meanwhile prepare amodel, on which they might have decided. But he showed himself to haveno such intention, and taking leave of them, declared that he wassolicited by letters to return to Rome. The syndics then perceiving thattheir request and those of the wardens did not suffice to detain him, caused several of his friends to entreat his stay; but Filippo notyielding to these prayers, the wardens, one morning, ordered him apresent of money; this was on the 26th of May, 1417, and the sum is tobe seen among the expenses of Filippo, in the books of the works. Allthis was done to render him favorable to their wishes; but, firm to hisresolution, he departed nevertheless from Florence and returned to Rome, where he continued the unremitting study of the same subject, makingvarious arrangements and preparing himself for the completion of thatwork, being convinced, as was the truth, that no other than himselfcould conduct such an undertaking to its conclusion. Nor had Filippoadvised the syndics to call new architects for any other reason, thanwas furnished by his desire that those masters should be the witnessesof his own superior genius: he by no means expected that they could orwould receive the commission for vaulting that tribune, or wouldundertake the charge, which he believed to be altogether too difficultfor them. Much time was meanwhile consumed, before the architects, whomthe syndics had caused to be summoned from afar, could arrive from theirdifferent countries. Orders had been given to the Florentine merchantsresident in France, Germany, England, and Spain, who were authorized tospend large sums of money for the purpose of sending them, and werecommanded to obtain from the sovereigns of each realm the mostexperienced and distinguished masters of the respective countries. "In the year 1420, all these foreign masters were at length assembled inFlorence, with those of Tuscany, and all the best Florentine artists indesign. Filippo likewise then returned from Rome. They all assembled, therefore, in the hall of the wardens of Santa Maria del Fiore, theSyndics and Superintendents, together with a select number of the mostcapable and ingenious citizens being present, to the end that havingheard the opinion of each on the subject, they might at length decide onthe method to be adopted for vaulting the tribune. Being called into theaudience, the opinions of all were heard one after another, and eacharchitect declared the method which he had thought of adopting. And afine thing it was to hear the strange and various notions thenpropounded on that matter: for one said that columns must be raised fromthe ground up, and that on these they must turn the arches, whereon thewoodwork for supporting the weight must rest. Others affirmed that thevault should be turned in cysteolite or sponge-stone (spugna), therebyto diminish the weight; and several of the masters agreed in the opinionthat a column must be erected in the centre, and the cupola raised inthe form of a pavilion, like that of San Giovanni in Florence. Nay, there were not wanting those who maintained that it would be a good planto fill the space with earth, among which small coins (quatrini) shouldbe mingled, that when the cupola should be raised, they might then givepermission that whoever should desire the soil might go and fetch it, when the people would immediately carry it away without expense. Filippoalone declared that the cupola might be erected without so great a massof woodwork, without a column in the centre, and without the mound ofearth; at a much lighter expense than would be caused by so many arches, and very easily, without any framework whatever. "Hearing this, the syndics, who were listening in the expectation ofhearing some fine method, felt convinced that Filippo had talked like amere simpleton, as did the superintendents, and all the other citizens;they derided him therefore, laughing at him, and turning away; they badehim discourse of something else, for that this was the talk of a fool ormadman, as he was. Therefore Filippo, thinking he had cause of offence, replied, 'But consider, gentlemen, that it is not possible to raise thecupola in any other manner than this of mine, and although you laugh atme, yet you will be obliged to admit (if you do not mean to beobstinate), that it neither must nor can be done in any other manner;and if it be erected after the method that I propose, it must be turnedin the manner of the pointed arch, and must be double--the one vaultingwithin, the other without, in such sort that a passage should be formedbetween the two. At the angles of the eight walls, the building must bestrengthened by the dove-tailing of the stones, and in like manner thewalls themselves must be girt around by strong beams of oak. We mustalso provide for the lights, the staircases, and the conduits by whichthe rain-water may be carried off. And none of you have remembered thatwe must prepare supports within, for the execution of the mosaics, withmany other difficult arrangements; but I, who see the cupola raised, Ihave reflected on all these things, and I know that there is no othermode of accomplishing them, than that of which I have spoken. ' Becomingheated as he proceeded, the more Filippo sought to make his views clearto his hearers, that they might comprehend and agree with him, the morehe awakened their doubts, and the less they confided in him, so that, instead of giving him their faith, they held him to be a fool and ababbler. Whereupon, being more than once dismissed, and finally refusingto go, they caused him to be carried forcibly from the audience by theservants of the place, considering him to be altogether mad. Thiscontemptuous treatment caused Filippo at a later period to say, that hedared not at that time pass through any part of the city, lest some oneshould say, 'See, where goes that fool!' The syndics and others formingthe assembly remained confounded, first, by the difficult methodsproposed by the other masters, and next by that of Filippo, whichappeared to them stark nonsense. He appeared to them to render theenterprise impossible by his two propositions--first, by that of makingthe cupola double, whereby the great weight to be sustained would berendered altogether unmanageable, and next by the proposal of buildingwithout a framework. Filippo, on the other hand, who had spent so manyyears in close study to prepare himself for this work, knew not to whatcourse to betake himself, and was many times on the point of leavingFlorence. Still, if he desired to conquer, it was necessary to armhimself with patience, and he had seen enough to know that the heads ofthe city seldom remained long fixed to one resolution. He might easilyhave shown them a small model which he had secretly made, but he wouldnot do so, knowing the imperfect intelligence of the syndics, the envyof the artists, and the instability of the citizens, who favored now oneand now another, as each chanced to please them. And I do not wonder atthis, because every one in Florence professes to know as much of thesematters, as do the most experienced masters, although there are very fewwho really understand them; a truth which we may be permitted to affirmwithout offence to those who are well informed on the subject. WhatFilippo therefore could not effect before the tribunal, he began toattempt with individuals, and talking apart now with a syndic, now witha warden, and again with different citizens, showing moreover certainparts of his design; he thus brought them at length to resolve onconfiding the conduct of this work, either to him or to one of theforeign architects. Hereupon, the syndics, the wardens, and thecitizens, selected to be judges in the matter, having regained courage, gathered together once again, and the architects disputed respecting thematter before them; but all were put down and vanquished on sufficientgrounds by Filippo, and here it is said that the dispute of the eggarose, in the manner following. The other architects desired thatFilippo should explain his purpose minutely, and show his model, as theyhad shown theirs. This he would not do, but proposed to all the masters, foreigners and compatriots, that he who could make an egg stand uprighton a piece of smooth marble, should be appointed to build the cupola, since in doing that, his genius would be made manifest. They took an eggaccordingly, and all those masters did their best to make it standupright, but none discovered the method of doing so. Wherefore, Filippo, being told that he might make it stand himself, took it daintily intohis hand, gave the end of it a blow on the plane of the marble, and madeit stand upright. [2] Beholding this, the artists loudly protested, exclaiming that they could all have done the same; but Filippo replied, laughing, that they might also know how to construct the cupola, if theyhad seen the model and design. It was thus at length resolved thatFilippo should receive the charge of conducting the work, but was toldthat he must furnish the syndics and wardens with more exactinformation. "He returned, therefore, to his house, and stated his whole purpose on asheet of paper, as clearly as he could possibly express it, when it wasgiven to the tribunal in the following terms:--'The difficulties of thiserection being well considered, magnificent signors and wardens, I findthat it cannot by any means be constructed in a perfect circle, sincethe extent of the upper part, where the lantern has to be placed, wouldbe so vast, that when a weight was laid thereon, it would soon give way. Now it appears to me that those architects who do not aim at givingperpetual duration to their fabrics, cannot have any regard for thedurability of the memorial, nor do they even know what they are doing. Ihave therefore determined to turn the inner part of this vault inangles, according to the form of the walls, adopting the proportions andmanner of the pointed arch, this being a form which displays a rapidtendency to ascend, and when loaded with the lantern, each part willhelp to give stability to the other. The thickness of the vault at thebase must be three braccia and three-quarters; it must then rise in theform of a pyramid, decreasing from without up to the point where itcloses, and where the lantern has to be placed, and at this junction thethickness must be one braccia and a quarter. A second vault shall thenbe constructed outside the first, to preserve the latter from the rain, and this must be two braccia and a half thick at the base, alsodiminishing proportionally in the form of a pyramid, in such a mannerthat the parts shall have their junction at the commencement of thelantern, as did the other, and at the highest point it must havetwo-thirds of the thickness of the base. There must be a buttress ateach angle, which will be eight in all, and between the angles, in theface of each wall, there shall be two, sixteen in all; and these sixteenbuttresses on the inner and outer side of each wall must each have thebreadth of four braccia at the base. These two vaults, built in the formof a pyramid, shall rise together in equal proportion to the height ofthe round window closed by the lantern. There will thus be constructedtwenty-four buttresses with the said vaults built around, and six stronghigh arches of a hard stone (macigno), well clamped and bound with ironfastenings, which must be covered with tin, and over these stones shallbe cramping irons, by which the vaults shall be bound to the buttresses. The masonry must be solid, and must leave no vacant space up to theheight of five braccia and a quarter; the buttresses being thencontinued, the arches will be separated. The first and second coursesfrom the base must be strengthened everywhere by long plates of_macigno_ laid crosswise, in such sort that both vaults of the cupolashall rest on these stones. Throughout the whole height, at every ninthbraccia there shall be small arches constructed in the vaults betweenthe buttresses, with strong cramps of oak, whereby the buttresses bywhich the inner vault is supported will be bound and strengthened; thesefastenings of oak shall then be covered with plates of iron, on accountof the staircases. The buttresses are all to be built of _macigno_, orother hard stone, and the walls of the cupola are, in like manner, to beall of solid stone bound to the buttresses to the height of twenty-fourbraccia, and thence upward they shall be constructed of brick or ofspongite (spugne), as shall be determined on by the masters who buildit, they using that which they consider lightest. On the outside, apassage or gallery shall be made above the windows, which below shallform a terrace, with an open parapet or balustrade two braccia high, after the manner of those of the lower tribunes, and forming twogalleries, one over the other, placed on a richly decorated cornice, theupper gallery being covered. The rain-water shall be carried off thecupola by means of a marble channel, one third of an ell broad, thewater being discharged at an outlet to be constructed of hard stone(pietra forte), beneath the channel. Eight ribs of marble shall beformed on the angles of the external surface of the cupola, of suchthickness as may be requisite; these shall rise to the height of onebraccia above the cupola, with cornices projecting in the manner of aroof, two braccia broad, that the summit may be complete, andsufficiently furnished with eaves and channels on every side; and thesemust have the form of the pyramid, from their base, or point ofjunction, to their extremity. Thus the cupola shall be constructed afterthe method described above, and without framework, to the height ofthirty braccia, and from that height upwards, it may be continued aftersuch manner as shall be determined on by the masters who may have tobuild it, since practice teaches us by what methods to proceed. ' "When Filippo had written the above, he repaired in the morning to thetribunal, and gave his paper to the syndics and wardens, who took thewhole of it into their consideration; and, although they were not ableto understand it all, yet seeing the confidence of Filippo, and findingthat the other architects gave no evidence of having better ground toproceed on, --he moreover showing a manifest security, by constantlyrepeating the same things in such a manner that he had all theappearance of having vaulted ten cupolas:--the Syndics, seeing all this, retired apart, and finally resolved to give him the work; they wouldhave liked to see some example of the manner in which he meant to turnthis vault without framework, but to all the rest they gave theirapprobation. And fortune was favorable to this desire: BartolomeoBarbadori having determined to build a chapel in Santa Felicita, andhaving spoken concerning it with Filippo, the latter had commenced thework, and caused the chapel, which is on the right of the entrance, where is also the holy water vase (likewise by the hand of Filippo), tobe vaulted without any framework. At the same time he constructedanother, in like manner, for Stiatta Ridolfi, in the church of SantoJacopo sopr' Arno; that, namely, beside the chapel of the High Altar;and these works obtained him more credit than was given to his words. The consuls and wardens feeling at length assured, by the writing he hadgiven them, and by the works which they had seen, entrusted the cupolato his care, and he was made principal master of the works by a majorityof votes. They would nevertheless not commission him to proceed beyondthe height of twelve braccia, telling him that they desired to see howthe work would succeed, but that if it proceeded as successfully as heexpected, they would not fail to give him the appointment for theremainder. The sight of so much obstinacy and distrust in the syndicsand wardens was so surprising to Filippo, that if he had not knownhimself to be the only person capable of conducting the work, he wouldnot have laid a hand upon it; but desiring, as he did, to secure theglory of its completion, he accepted the terms, and pledged himself toconduct the undertaking perfectly to the end. The writing Filippo hadgiven was copied into a book wherein the purveyor kept the accounts ofthe works in wood and marble, together with the obligation into whichFilippo had entered as above said. An allowance was then made to him, conformably with what had at other times been given to other masters ofthe works. "When the commission given to Filippo became known to the artists andcitizens, some thought well of it, and others ill, as always is thecase with a matter which calls forth the opinions of the populace, thethoughtless, and the envious. Whilst the preparation of materials forbeginning to build was making, a party was formed among the artists andcitizens; and these men proceeding to the syndics and wardens, declaredthat the matter had been concluded too hastily, and that such a workought not to be executed according to the opinion of one man only; theyadded, that if the syndics and wardens had been destitute ofdistinguished men, instead of being furnished with such in abundance, they would have been excusable, but that what was now done was notlikely to redound to the honor of the citizens, seeing, that if anyaccident should happen, they would incur blame, as persons who hadconferred too great a charge on one man, without considering the lossesand disgrace that might result to the public. All this considered, itwould be well to give Filippo a colleague, who might restrain hisimpetuosity (furore). "Lorenzo Ghiberti had at that time attained to high credit by theevidence of his genius, which he had given in the doors of San Giovanni;and that he was much beloved by certain persons who were very powerfulin the government was now proved with sufficient clearness, since, perceiving the glory of Filippo to increase so greatly, they labored insuch a manner with the syndics and wardens, under the pretext of careand anxiety for the building, that Ghiberti was united with Filippo inthe work. The bitter vexation of Filippo, the despair into which hefell, when he heard what the wardens had done, may be understood by thefact that he was on the point of flying from Florence; and had it notbeen that Donato and Luca della Robbia comforted and encouraged him, hewould have gone out of his senses. A truly wicked and cruel rage is thatof those men, who, blinded by envy, endanger the honors and noble worksof others in the base strife of ambition: it was not the fault of thesemen that Filippo did not break in pieces the models, set fire to thedesigns, and in one half hour destroy all the labors so long endured, and ruin the hopes of so many years. The wardens excused themselves atfirst to Filippo, encouraging him to proceed, reminding him that theinventor and author of so noble a fabric was still himself, and noother; but they, nevertheless, gave Lorenzo a stipend equal to that ofFilippo. The work was then continued with but little pleasure on thepart of Filippo, who knew that he must endure all the labors connectedtherewith, and would then have to divide the honor and fame equally withLorenzo. Taking courage, nevertheless, from the thought that he shouldfind a method of preventing the latter from remaining very long attachedto that undertaking, he continued to proceed after the manner laid downin the writing given to the wardens. Meanwhile the thought occurred tothe mind of Filippo of constructing a complete model, which, as yet, hadnever been done. This he commenced forthwith, causing the parts to bemade by a certain Bartolomeo, a joiner, who dwelt near his studio. Inthis model (the measurements of which were in strict accordance withthose of the building itself, the difference being of size only), allthe difficult parts of the structure were shown as they were to be whencompleted; as, for example, staircases lighted and dark, with everyother kind of light, with the buttresses and other inventions for givingstrength to the building, the doors, and even a portion of the gallery. Lorenzo, having heard of this model, desired to see it, but Filipporefusing, he became angry, and made preparations for constructing amodel of his own, that he might not appear to be receiving his salaryfor nothing, but that he also might seem to count for something in thematter. For these models Filippo received fifty lire and fifteen soldi, as we find by an order in the book of Migliore di Tommaso, under date ofthe 3d October, 1419, while Lorenzo was paid three hundred lire for thelabor and cost of his model, a difference occasioned by the partialityand favor shown to him, rather than merited by any utility or benefitsecured to the building by the model which he had constructed. "This vexatious state of things continued beneath the eyes of Filippountil the year 1426, [3] the friends of Lorenzo calling him the inventorof the work, equally with Filippo, and this caused so violent acommotion in the mind of the latter, that he lived in the utmostdisquietude. Various improvements and new inventions were, besides, presenting themselves to his thoughts, and he resolved to rid himself ofhis colleague at all hazards, knowing of how little use he was to thework. Filippo had already raised the walls of the cupola to the heightof twelve braccia in both vaults, but the works, whether in wood orstone, that were to give strength to the fabric, had still to beexecuted, and as this was a matter of difficulty, he determined to speakwith Lorenzo respecting it, that he might ascertain whether the latterhad taken it into consideration. But Lorenzo was so far from havingthought of this exigency, and so entirely unprepared for it, that hereplied by declaring that he would refer that to Filippo as theinventor. The answer of Lorenzo pleased Filippo, who thought he here sawthe means of removing his colleague from the works, and of making itmanifest that he did not possess that degree of knowledge in the matterthat was attributed to him by his friends, and implied in the favorwhich had placed him in the situation he held. All the builders were nowengaged in the work, and waited only for directions, to commence thepart above the twelve braccia, to raise the vaults, and render allsecure. The closing in of the cupola towards the top having commenced, it was necessary to provide the scaffolding, that the masons andlaborers might work without danger, seeing that the height was such asto make the most steady head turn giddy, and the firmest spirit shrink, merely to look down from it. The masons and other masters were thereforewaiting in expectation of directions as to the manner in which thechains were to be applied, and the scaffoldings erected; but, findingthere was nothing determined on either by Lorenzo or Filippo, therearose a murmur among the masons and other builders, at not seeing thework pursued with the solicitude previously shown; and as the workmenwere poor persons who lived by the labor of their hands, and who nowbelieved that neither one nor the other of the architects had courageenough to proceed further with the undertaking, they went about thebuilding employing themselves as best they could in looking over andfurbishing up all that had been already executed. "But one morning, Filippo did not appear at the works: he tied up hishead, went to bed complaining bitterly, and causing plates and towels tobe heated with great haste and anxiety, pretending that he had an attackof pleurisy. The builders who stood waiting directions to proceed withtheir work, on hearing this, demanded orders of Lorenzo for what theywere to do; but he replied that the arrangement of the work belonged toFilippo, and that they must wait for him. 'How?' said one of them, 'doyou not know what his intentions are?' 'Yes, ' replied Lorenzo, 'but Iwould not do anything without him. '" This he said by way of excusinghimself; for as he had not seen the model of Filippo, and had neverasked him what method he meant to pursue, that he might not appearignorant, so he now felt completely out of his depth, being thusreferred to his own judgment, and the more so as he knew that he wasemployed in that undertaking against the will of Filippo. The illness ofthe latter having already lasted more than two days, the purveyor of theworks, with many of the master-builders, went to see him, and repeatedlyasked him to tell them what they should do; but he constantly replied, 'You have Lorenzo, let him begin to do something for once. ' Nor couldthey obtain from him any other reply. When this became known, it causedmuch discussion: great blame was thrown upon the undertaking, and manyadverse judgments were uttered. Some said that Filippo had taken to hisbed from grief, at finding that he had not power to accomplish theerection of the Cupola, and that he was now repenting of having meddledwith the matter; but his friends defended him, declaring that hisvexation might arise from the wrong he had suffered in having Lorenzogiven to him as a colleague, but that his disorder was pleurisy, brought on by his excessive labors for the work. In the midst of allthis tumult of tongues, the building was suspended, and almost all theoperations of the masons and stone-cutters came to a stand. These menmurmured against Lorenzo, and said, 'He is good enough at drawing thesalary, but when it comes to directing the manner in which we are toproceed, he does nothing; if Filippo were not here, or if he shouldremain long disabled, what can Lorenzo do? and if Filippo be ill, isthat his fault?' The wardens, perceiving the discredit that accrued tothem from this state of things, resolved to make Filippo a visit, andhaving reached his house, they first condoled with him on his illness, told him into what disorder the building had fallen, and described thetroubles which this malady had brought on them. Whereupon Filippo, speaking with much heat, partly to keep up the feint of illness, butalso in part from his interest in the work, exclaimed, 'What! is notLorenzo there? why does not he do something? I cannot but wonder at yourcomplaints. ' To this the wardens replied, 'He will not do anythingwithout you. ' Whereunto Filippo made answer, 'But I could do it wellenough without him. ' This acute and doubly significant reply sufficed tothe wardens, and they departed, having convinced themselves that Filippowas sick of the desire to work alone; they therefore sent certain of hisfriends to draw him from his bed, with the intention of removingLorenzo from the work. Filippo then returned to the building, but seeingthe power that Lorenzo possessed by means of the favor he enjoyed, andthat he desired to receive the salary without taking any share whateverin the labor, he bethought himself of another method for disgracing him, and making it publicly and fully evident that he had very littleknowledge of the matter in hand. He consequently made the followingdiscourse to the wardens (Operai) Lorenzo being present:--'SignoriOperai, if the time we have to live were as well secured to us as is thecertainty that we may very quickly die, there is no doubt whatever thatmany works would be completed, which are now commenced and leftimperfect. The malady with which I have had the misfortune to beattacked, might have deprived me of life, and put a stop to this work;wherefore, lest I should again fall sick, or Lorenzo either, which Godforbid, I have considered that it would be better for each to executehis own portion of the work: as your worships have divided the salary, let us also divide the labor, to the end that each, being incited toshow what he knows and is capable of performing, may proceed withconfidence, to his own honor and benefit, as well as to that of therepublic. Now there are two difficult operations which must at this timebe put into course of execution--the one is the erection of scaffoldingsfor enabling the builders to work in safety, and which must be preparedboth for the inside and outside of the fabric, where they will berequired to sustain the weight of the men, the stones and the mortar, with space also for the crane to draw up the different materials, andfor other machines and tools of various kinds. The other difficulty isthe chain-work, which has to be constructed upon the twelve bracciaalready erected, this being requisite to bind and secure the eight sidesof the cupola, and which must surround the fabric, enchaining the whole, in such a manner that the weight which has hereafter to be laid on itshall press equally on all sides, the parts mutually supporting eachother, so that no part of the edifice shall be too heavily pressed on oroverweighed, but that all shall rest firmly on its own basis. LetLorenzo then take one of these works, whichever he may think he can mosteasily execute; I will take the other, and answer for bringing it to asuccessful issue, that we may lose no more time. ' Lorenzo having heardthis, was compelled, for the sake of his honor, to accept one or otherof these undertakings; and although he did it very unwillingly, heresolved to take the chain work, thinking that he might rely on thecounsels of the builders, and remembering also that there was achain-work of stone in the vaulting of San Giovanni di Fiorenza, fromwhich he might take a part, if not the whole, of the arrangement. Onetook the scaffolds in hand accordingly, and the other the chain-work, sothat both were put in progress. The scaffolds of Filippo wereconstructed with so much ingenuity and judgment, that in this matterthe very contrary of what many had before expected was seen to havehappened, since the builders worked thereon with as much security asthey would have done on the ground beneath, drawing up all the requisiteweights and standing themselves in perfect safety. The models of thesescaffolds were deposited in the hall of the wardens. Lorenzo executedthe chain-work on one of the eight walls with the utmost difficulty, andwhen it was finished the wardens caused Filippo to look at it. He saidnothing to them, but with some of his friends he held discourse on thesubject, declaring that the building required a very different work ofligature and security to that one, laid in a manner altogether unlikethe method there adopted; for that this would not suffice to support theweight which was to be laid on it, the pressure not being of sufficientstrength and firmness. He added that the sums paid to Lorenzo, with thechain-work which he had caused to be constructed, were so much labor, time, and money thrown away. The remarks of Filippo became known, and hewas called upon to show the manner that ought to be adopted for theconstruction of such a chain-work; wherefore, having already preparedhis designs and models, he exhibited them immediately, and they were nosooner examined by the wardens and other masters, than they perceivedthe error into which they had fallen by favoring Lorenzo. For this theynow resolved to make amends; and desiring to prove that they werecapable of distinguishing merit, they made Filippo chief andsuperintendent of the whole fabric for life, commanding that nothingshould be done in the work but as he should direct. As a further mark ofapprobation, they presented him moreover with a hundred florins, orderedby the syndics and wardens, under date of August 13, 1423, throughLorenzo Paoli, notary of the administration of the works, and signed byGherardo di Messer Filippo Corsini: they also voted him an allowance ofone hundred florins for life. Whereupon, having taken measures for thefuture progress of the fabric, Filippo conducted the works with so muchsolicitude and such minute attention, that there was not a stone placedin the building which he had not examined. Lorenzo on the other hand, finding himself vanquished and in a manner disgraced, was neverthelessso powerfully assisted and favored by his friends, that he continued toreceive his salary, under the pretext that he could not be dismisseduntil the expiration of three years from that time. [4] "Drawings and models were meanwhile continually prepared by Filippo forthe most minute portions of the building, for the stages or scaffoldsfor the workmen, and for the machines used in raising the materials. There were nevertheless several malicious persons, friends of Lorenzo, who did not cease to torment him by daily bringing forward models inrivalry of those constructed by him, insomuch that one was made byMaestro Antonio da Verzelli, and other masters who were favored andbrought into notice--now by one citizen and now by another, theirfickleness and mutability betraying the insufficiency of their knowledgeand the weakness of their judgment, since having perfection within theirreach, they perpetually brought forward the imperfect and useless. "The chain-work was now completed around all the eight sides, and thebuilders, animated by success, worked vigorously; but being pressed morethan usual by Filippo, and having received certain reprimands concerningthe masonry and in relation to other matters of daily occurrence, discontents began to prevail. Moved by this circumstance and by theirenvy, the chiefs among them drew together and got up a faction, declaring that the work was a laborious and perilous undertaking, andthat they would not proceed with the vaulting of the cupola, but oncondition of receiving large payments, although their wages had alreadybeen increased and were much higher than was usual: by these means theyhoped to injure Filippo and increase their own gains. This circumstancedispleased the wardens greatly, as it did Filippo also; but the latter, having reflected on the matter, took his resolution, and one Saturdayevening he dismissed them all. The men seeing themselves thus sent abouttheir business, and not knowing how the affair would turn, were verysullen; but on the following Monday Filippo set ten Lombards to work atthe building, and by remaining constantly present with them, and saying, 'do this here' and 'do that there, ' he taught them so much in one daythat they were able to continue the work during many weeks. The masons, seeing themselves thus disgraced as well as deprived of theiremployment, and knowing that they would find no work equally profitable, sent messengers to Filippo, declaring that they would willingly return, and recommending themselves to his consideration. Filippo kept them forseveral days in suspense, and seemed not inclined to admit them again;they were afterwards reinstated, but with lower wages than they hadreceived at first: thus where they had thought to make gain theysuffered loss, and by seeking to revenge themselves on Filippo, theybrought injury and shame on their own heads. "The tongues of the envious were now silenced, and when the building wasseen to proceed so happily, the genius of Filippo obtained its dueconsideration; and, by all who judged dispassionately, he was alreadyheld to have shown a boldness which has, perhaps, never before beendisplayed in their works, by any architect, ancient or modern. Thisopinion was confirmed by the fact that Filippo now brought out hismodel, in which all might see the extraordinary amount of thoughtbestowed on every detail of the building. The varied invention displayedin the staircases, in the provision of lights, both within and without, so that none might strike or injure themselves in the darkness, were allmade manifest, with the careful consideration evinced by the differentsupports of iron which were placed to assist the footsteps wherever theascent was steep. In addition to all this, Filippo had even thought ofthe irons for fixing scaffolds within the cupola, if ever they should berequired for the execution of mosaics or pictures; he had selected theleast dangerous positions for the places of the conduits, to beafterwards constructed for carrying off the rain water, had shown wherethese were to be covered and where uncovered; and had moreover contriveddifferent outlets and apertures, whereby the force of the winds shouldbe diminished, to the end that neither vapors nor the vibrations of theearth, should have power to do injury to the building: all which provedthe extent to which he had profited by his studies, during the manyyears of his residence in Rome. When in addition to these things, thesuperintendents considered how much he had accomplished in the shaping, fixing, uniting, and securing the stones of this immense pile, they werealmost awe-struck on perceiving that the mind of one man had beencapable of all that Filippo had now proved himself able to perform. Hispowers and facilities continually increased, and that to such an extent, that there was no operation, however difficult and complex, which he didnot render easy and simple; of this he gave proof in one instance amongothers, by the employment of wheels and counterpoises to raise heavyweights, so that one ox could draw more than six pairs could have movedby the ordinary methods. The building had now reached such a height, that when a man had once arrived at the summit, it was a very greatlabor to descend to the ground, and the workmen lost much time in goingto their meals, and to drink; arrangements were therefore made byFilippo, for opening wine-shops and eating-houses in the cupola; wherethe required food being sold, none were compelled to leave their laboruntil the evening, which was a relief and convenience to the men, aswell as a very important advantage to the work. Perceiving the buildingto proceed rapidly, and finding all his undertakings happily successful, the zeal and confidence of Filippo increased, and he laboredperpetually; he went himself to the ovens where the bricks were made, examined the clay, proved the quality of the working, and when they werebaked he would select and set them apart, with his own hands. In likemanner, while the stones were under the hands of the stone-cutters, hewould look narrowly to see that they were hard and free from clefts; hesupplied the stone-cutters with models in wood or wax, or hastily cut onthe spot from turnips, to direct them in the shaping and junction of thedifferent masses; he did the same for the men who prepared the ironwork; Filippo likewise invented hook hinges, with the mode of fixingthem to the door-posts, and greatly facilitated the practice ofarchitecture, which was certainly brought by his labors to a perfectionthat it would else perhaps never have attained among the Tuscans. "In the year 1423, when the utmost rejoicing and festivity wasprevailing in Florence, Filippo was chosen one of the _Signori_ for thedistrict of San Giovanni, for the months of May and June; Lapo Niccolinibeing chosen Gonfalonier for the district of Santa Croce: and if Filippobe found registered in the Priorista as 'di Ser Brunellesce Lippi, ' thisneed not occasion surprise, since they called him so after hisgrandfather, Lippo, instead of 'di Lapi, ' as they ought to have done. And this practice is seen to prevail in the Priorista, with respect tomany others, as is well known to all who have examined it, or who areacquainted with the custom of those times. Filippo performed hisfunctions carefully in that office; and in others connected with themagistracy of the city, to which he was subsequently appointed, heconstantly acquitted himself with the most judicious consideration. "The two vaults of the cupola were now approaching their close, at thecircular window where the lantern was to begin, and there now remainedto Filippo, who had made various models in wood and clay, both of theone and the other, in Rome and Florence, to decide finally as to whichof these he would put in execution, wherefore he resolved to completethe gallery, and accordingly made different plans for it, which remainedin the hall of wardens after his death, but which by the neglect ofthose officials have since been lost. But it was not until our own daysthat even a fragment was executed on a part of one of the eight sides(to the end that the building might be completed); but as it was not inaccordance with the plan of Filippo, it was removed by the advice ofMichael Angelo Buonarotti, and was not again attempted. "Filippo also constructed a model for the lantern, with his own hand; ithad eight sides, the proportions were in harmony with those of thecupola, and for the invention as well as variety and decoration, it wascertainly very beautiful. He did not omit the staircase for ascending tothe ball, which was an admirable thing; but as he had closed theentrance with a morsel of wood fixed at the lower part, no one buthimself knew its position. Filippo was now highly renowned, butnotwithstanding this, and although he had already overcome the envy andabated the arrogance of so many opponents, he could not yet escape thevexation of finding that all the masters of Florence, when his model hadbeen seen, were setting themselves to make others in various manners;nay, there was even a lady of the Gaddi family, who ventured to placeher knowledge in competition with that of Filippo. The latter, meanwhile, could not refrain from laughing at the presumption of thesepeople, and when he was told by certain of his friends that he ought notto show his model to any artist lest they should learn from it, hereplied that there was but one true model, and that the others were goodfor nothing. Some of the other masters had used parts of Filippo's modelfor their own, which, when the latter perceived, he remarked, 'The nextmodel made by this personage will be mine altogether. ' The work ofFilippo was very highly praised, with the exception, that, notperceiving the staircase by which the ball was to be attained, the modelwas considered defective on that point. The superintendents determined, nevertheless, to give him the commission for the work, but on conditionthat he should show the staircase;[5] whereupon Filippo, removing themorsel of wood which he had placed at the foot of the stair, showed itconstructed as it is now seen, within one of the piers, and presentingthe form of a hollow reed or blow-pipe, having a recess or groove on oneside, with bars of bronze, by means of which the summit was graduallyattained. Filippo was now at an age which rendered it impossible that heshould live to see the lantern completed; he therefore left directions, by his will, that it should be built after the model here described, andaccording to the rules which he had laid down in writing, affirming thatthe fabric would otherwise be in danger of falling, since, beingconstructed with the pointed arch, it required to be rendered secure bymeans of the pressure of the weight to be thus added. But, thoughFilippo could not complete the edifice before his death, he raised thelantern to the height of several braccia, causing almost all the marblesrequired for the completion of the building to be carefully preparedand brought to the place. At the sight of these huge masses as theyarrived, the people stood amazed, marvelling that it should be possiblefor Filippo to propose the laying of such a weight on the cupola. Itwas, indeed, the opinion of many intelligent men that it could notpossibly support that weight. It appeared to them to be a piece of goodfortune that he had conducted it so far, and they considered the loadingit so heavy to be a tempting of Providence. Filippo constantly laughedat these fears, and having prepared all the machines and instrumentsrequired for the construction of the edifice, he ceased not to employall his time in taking thought for its future requirements, providingand preparing all the minutiæ, even to guarding against the danger ofthe marbles being chipped as they were drawn up: to which intent thearches of the tabernacles were built within defences of woodwork; andfor all beside the master gave models and written directions, as we havesaid. "How beautiful this building is, it will itself bear testimony. Withrespect to the height, from the level ground to the commencement of thelantern, there are one hundred and fifty-four braccia;[6] the body ofthe lanthorn is thirty-six braccia high; the copper ball four braccia;the cross eight braccia; in all two hundred and two braccia. And it maybe confidently affirmed that the ancients never carried their buildingsto so vast a height, nor committed themselves to so great a risk as todare a competition with the heavens, which this structure verily appearsto do, seeing that it rears itself to such an elevation that the hillsaround Florence do not appear to equal it. And of a truth it might seemthat the heavens were envious of its height, since their lightningsperpetually strike it. While this work was in progress, Filippoconstructed many other fabrics. " BRUNELLESCHI'S ENTHUSIASM. One morning, as Brunelleschi was amusing himself on the Piazza di SantaMaria del Fiore, in company with Donatello and other artists, theconversation happened to turn on ancient sculpture. Donatello relatedthat when he was returning from Rome, he had taken the road of Orvieto, to see the remarkable façade of the Cathedral of that city--a highlycelebrated work, executed by various masters, and considered in thosedays a very remarkable production. He added that as he was passingthrough Cortona, he had seen in the capitular church of that city a mostbeautiful antique marble vase, adorned with sculpture--a rare thing atthat time, as most of the beautiful works of antiquity have since beenbrought to light. As Donatello proceeded to describe the manner in whichthe artist had treated this work, the delicacy, beauty, and perfectionof the workmanship, Filippo became inflamed with such an ardent desireto see it, that he set off immediately, on foot, to Cortona, dressed ashe was in his mantle, hood, and wooden shoes, without communicating hispurpose to any one. Finding that Donatello had not been too lavish ofhis praise, he drew the vase, returned to Florence, and surprised hisfriends with the accurate drawing he had made, before they knew of hisdeparture, they believing that he must be occupied with his inventions. This urn, or funeral vase, according to the Florentine editors ofVasari, is still in the Cathedral of Cortona. The sculptures representthe Battle of the Centaurs and Lapithæ, or as some say, a WarlikeExpedition of Bacchus. The design and workmanship are exquisite. It wasfound in a field without the city, and almost close to the Cathedral. BRUNELLESCHI AND DONATELLO. "Among other works, " says Vasari, "Donato received an order for acrucifix in wood, for the church of Santa Croce at Florence, on which hebestowed extraordinary labor. When the work was completed, believinghimself to have produced an admirable thing, he showed it to Filippo diSer Brunellesco, his most intimate friend, desiring to have his opinionof it. Filippo, who had expected from the words of Donato, to see a muchfiner production, smiled somewhat as he regarded it, and Donato seeingthis, entreated him by the friendship existing between them, to say whathe thought of it. Whereupon Filippo, who was exceedingly frank, repliedthat Donatello appeared to him to have placed a clown on the cross, andnot a figure resembling that of Jesus Christ, whose person wasdelicately beautiful, and in all parts the most perfect form of man thathad ever been born. Donato hearing himself censured where he hadexpected praise, and more hurt than he was perhaps willing to admit, replied, 'If it were as easy to execute a work as to judge it, my figurewould appear to thee to be Christ and not a boor; but take wood, and tryto make one thyself. ' Filippo, without saying anything more, returnedhome, and set to work on a crucifix, wherein he labored to surpassDonato, that he might not be condemned by his own judgment; but hesuffered no one to know what he was doing. At the end of some months, the work was completed to the height of perfection, and this done, Filippo one morning invited Donato to dine with him, and the latteraccepted the invitation. Thereupon, as they were proceeding togethertowards the house of Filippo, they passed by the Mercato Vecchio, wherethe latter purchased various articles, and giving them to Donato, said, 'Do thou go forward with these things to the house, and wait for methere; I'll be after thee in a moment. ' Donato, therefore, havingentered the house, had no sooner done so than he saw the crucifix, whichFilippo had placed in a suitable light. Stopping short to examine thework, he found it so perfectly executed, that feeling himself conquered, full of astonishment, and, as it were startled out of himself, hedropped the hands which were holding up his apron, wherein he had placedthe purchases, when the whole fell to the ground, eggs, cheese, andother things, all broken to pieces and mingled together. But Donato, notrecovering from his astonishment, remained still gazing in amazement andlike one out of his wits when Filippo arrived, and inquired, laughing, 'What hast thou been about, Donato? and what dost thou mean us to havefor dinner, since thou hast overturned everything?' 'I, for my part, 'replied Donato, 'have had my share of dinner for to-day; if thou mustneeds have thine, take it. But enough said: to thee it has been given torepresent Christ; to me, boors only. '" This crucifix now adorns thealtar of the chapel of the Gondi. DONATELLO. This old Florentine sculptor was born in 1383. He was the first of themoderns who forsook the stiff and gothic manner, and endeavored torestore to sculpture the grace and beauty of the antique. He executed amultitude of works in wood, marble and bronze, consisting of images, statues, busts, basso-relievos, monuments, equestrian statues, etc. Which gained him great reputation, and some of which are much esteemedat the present day. He was much patronized by Cosmo de' Medici, and hisson Pietro. Among Donatello's principal works, are three statues, each three bracciaand a half high, (Vasari erroneously says four, and each five bracciahigh), for the façade of the church of Santa Maria del Fiore, whichfaces the Campanile. They represent St. John; David, called Lo Zuccone(so called, because bald-headed); and Solomon, or as some say, theprophet Jeremiah. The Zuccone is considered the most extraordinary andthe most beautiful work ever produced by Donatello, who, while workingon it, was so delighted with his success, that he frequently exclaimed, "Speak then! why wilt thou not speak?" Whenever he wished to affirm athing in a manner that should preclude all doubt, he would say, "By thefaith I place in my Zuccone. " DONATELLO AND THE MERCHANT. A rich Genoese merchant commissioned Donatello to execute his bust inbronze, of life size. When the work was completed, it was pronounced acapital performance, and Cosmo de' Medici, who was the friend of bothparties, caused it to be placed in the upper court of the palace, between the battlements which overlook the street, that it might be seenby the citizens. When the merchant, unacquainted with the value of suchworks, came to pay for it, the price demanded appeared to him soexorbitant that he refused to take it, whereupon the mutter was referredto Cosmo. When the latter sought to settle the difference, he found theoffer of the merchant to be very far from the just demand of Donatello, and turning towards him, observed that he offered too smallcompensation. The merchant replied that Donatello could have made it ina month, and would thus be gaining half a florin a day (about onedollar). Donatello, disgusted and stung with rage, told the merchantthat he had found means in the hundredth part of an hour to destroy thewhole labor and cures of a year, and knocked the bust out of the window, which was dashed to pieces on the pavement below, observing, at the sametime, that "it was evident he was better versed in bargaining forhorse-beans than in purchasing statues. " The merchant now ashamed of hisconduct, and regretting what had happened, offered him double his priceif he would reconstruct the bust, --but Donatello, though poor, flatlyrefused to do it on any terms, even at the request of Cosmo himself. DONATELLO AND HIS KINSMAN. When Donatello was very sick, certain of his kinsfolk, who were well todo in the world, but had not visited him in many years, went to condolewith him in his last illness. Before they left, they told him it washis duty to leave to them a small farm which he had in the territoriesof Prato, and this they begged very earnestly, though it was small andproduced a very small income. Donatello, perceiving the motive of theirvisit, thus rebuked them: "I cannot content you in this matter, kinsmen, because I resolve--and it appears to me just and proper--to leave thefarm to the poor husbandman who has always tilled it, and who hasbestowed great labor on it; not to you, who without ever having doneanything for it, or for me, but only thought of obtaining it, now comewith this visit of yours, desiring that I should leave it to you. Go!and the Lord be with you. " DEATH OF DONATELLO. Donatello died on the 13th of December, 1466. He was buried with greatpomp and solemnity in the church of San Lorenzo, near the tomb of Cosmo, as he himself had commanded (for he had purchased the right), "to theend, " as he said, "that his body might be near him when dead, as hisspirit had ever been near him when in life. " Bottari observes thatanother reason for his choice of San Lorenzo, may have been that many ofhis works were in that church. DONATELLO AND MICHAEL ANGELO COMPARED. "I will not omit to mention, " says Vasari, "that the most learned andvery reverend Don Vincenzio Borghini, of whom we have before spoken inrelation to other matters, has collected into a large book, innumerabledrawings of distinguished painters and sculptors, ancient as well asmodern, and among these are two drawings on two leaves opposite to eachother, one of which is by Donato, and the other by Michael AngeloBuonarroti. On these he has with much judgment inscribed the two Greekmottos which follow; on the drawing of Donato, "[Greek: Ê DonatosBonarrotixei], " and on that of Michael Angelo, "[Greek: Ê BonarrotosDonatixei], " which in Latin ran thus: _Aut Donatus Bonarrotom exprimit etrefert, aut Bonarrotus Donatum_; and in our language they mean, 'Eitherthe spirit of Donato worked in Buonarroti, or that of Buonarroti firstacted in Donato. '" SOFONISBA ANGUISCIOLA'S EARLY DISTINCTION. This noble lady of Cremona (born about 1530), was one of six sisters, all amiable, and much distinguished in arts and letters. She displayed ataste for drawing at a very early age, and soon became the best pupil inthe school of Antonio Campi. One of her early sketches, of a boy caughtwith his hand in the claw of a lobster, with a little girl laughing athis plight, was in possession of Vasari, and by him esteemed worthy of aplace in a volume which he had filled with drawings by the most famousmasters of that great age. Portraiture was her chief study; and Vasaricommends a picture which he saw at her father's house, of three of thesisters, and an ancient housekeeper of the family playing at chess, as awork "painted with so much skill and care, that the figures wanted onlyvoice to appear alive. " He also praises a portrait which she painted ofherself, and presented to Pope Julius III. , who died in 1555, whichshows that she must have attracted the notice of princes while yet inher girlhood. At Milan, whither she accompanied her father, she paintedthe portrait of the Duke of Sessa, the Viceroy, who rewarded her withfour pieces of brocade and various rich gifts. SOFONISBA'S VISIT TO SPAIN. Her name having become famous in Italy, in 1559, the King of Spainordered the Duke of Alba, who was then at Rome, to invite her to thecourt of Madrid. She arrived there in the same year, and was receivedwith great distinction, and lodged in the palace. Her first work was theportrait of the king, who was so much pleased with the performance thathe rewarded her with a diamond worth 1500 ducats, and settled upon her apension of 200 ducats. Her next sitters were the young queen Elizabethof Valois, known in Spain as Isabel of the Peace, then in the bloom ofbridal beauty, and the unhappy boy, Don Carlos. By the desire of PopePius IV. , she made a second portrait of the Queen, sent to his Holinesswith a dutiful letter, which Vasari has preserved, as well as thegracious reply of the pontiff, who assures her that her painting shallbe placed among his most precious treasures. Sofonisba held the post oflady-in-waiting to the queen, and was for some time governess to herdaughter, the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, --an appointment whichproves that she must have resided in Spain for some time after 1566, theyear of that princess' birth. SOFONISBA'S MARRIAGES. Her royal patrons at last married their fair artist, now arrived to amature age, to Don Fabrizio de Moncada, a noble Sicilian, giving her adowry of 12, 000 ducats and a pension of 1, 000, besides many richpresents in tapestries and jewels. The newly wedded pair retired toPalermo, where the husband died some years after. Sofonisba was theninvited back to the court of Madrid, but excused herself on account ofher desire to see Cremona and her kindred once more. Embarking for thispurpose on board of a Genoese galley, she was entertained with suchgallant courtesy by the captain, Orazio Lomellini, one of the merchantprinces of the "city of Palaces, " that she fell in love with him, and, according to Soprani, offered him her hand in marriage, which heaccepted. On hearing of her second nuptials, their Catholic Majestiesadded 400 crowns to her pension. SOFONISBA'S RESIDENCE AT GENOA, AND HER INTERCOURSE WITH VANDYCK. After her second marriage, Sofonisba continued to pursue the art atGenoa, where her house became the resort of all the polished andintellectual society of the Republic. The Empress of Germany paid her avisit on her way to Spain, and accepted a little picture, --one of themost finished and beautiful of her works. She was also visited by herformer charge, the Infanta, then the wife of the Archduke Albert, andwith him co-sovereign of Flanders. That princess spent many hours inconversing with her of by-gone days and family affairs; she also sat forher portrait, and presented Sofonisba with a gold chain enriched withjewels, as a memorial of their friendship. Thus courted in the societyof Genoa, and caressed by royalty, this eminent paintress lived to theextreme age of ninety-three years. A medal was struck in her honor atBologna; artists listened reverentially to her opinions; and poets sangher praises. Though deprived of sight in her latter years, she retainedto the last her other faculties, her love of art, and her relish for thesociety of its professors. Vandyck was frequently her guest during hisresidence at Genoa, in 1621; and he used to say of her that he hadlearned more of the practical principles of the art from a blind woman, than by studying all the works of the best Italian masters. CARRIERA ROSALBA. This celebrated Italian paintress was born at Chiozza, near Venice, in1675. She acquired an immense reputation, and was invited to several ofthe courts of Europe. Few artists have equalled Rosalba in crayonpainting. ROSALBA'S MODESTY. Notwithstanding she received so many flattering marks of distinctionfrom crowned heads, Rosalba's native modesty never deserted her, and sheseemed to esteem her works less than did many of her admirers, becauseshe was sensible how far she fell short of her idea of perfection. "Everything I do, " said she, "seems good enough to me just after I havedone it, and perhaps for a few hours afterwards, but then I begin todiscover my imperfections!" Thus it is with true merit; those who aresuperficial or pretending can never find out, or never will acknowledgetheir own faults. ROSALBA'S KNOWLEDGE OF TEMPERS. Rosalba used to say, "I have so long been accustomed to study features, and the expression of the mind by them, that I know people's tempers bytheir faces. " She frequently surprised her friends by the accuracy ofcharacter which she read in the faces of persons who were entirestrangers to her. ELIZABETH SIRANI. Elizabeth Sirani was born at Bologna in 1638. She early exhibited themost extraordinary talent for painting, which was perfectly cultivatedby her father, Gio. Andrea Sirani, an excellent disciple and imitator ofGuido. She attached herself to an imitation of the best style of Guido, which unites great relief with the most captivating amenity. Her firstpublic work appeared in 1655, when she was seventeen years of age. It isalmost incredible that in a short life of not more than twenty-six ortwenty-seven years, she could have executed the long list of worksenumerated by Malvasia, copied from a register kept by herself, amounting to upwards of one hundred and fifty pictures and portraits;and our astonishment is increased, when we are told by the same author, that many of them are pictures and altar-pieces of large size, andfinished with a care that excludes all appearance of negligence andhaste. There are quite a number of her works in the churches of Bologna. Lanzi also speaks of her in terms of high commendation, and says, that"in her smaller works, painted by commission, she still improvedherself, as may be seen by her numerous pictures of Madonnas, Magdalens, saints, and the infant Saviour, found in the Zampieri, Zambeccari, andCaprara palaces at Bologna, and in the Corsini and Bolognetticollections at Rome. " She received many commissions from many of thesovereigns and most distinguished persons of Europe. She had twosisters, Anna and Barbara, whom, according to Crespi, she instructed inthe art, and who possessed considerable talent. Her fame was so great, that after her death not only the works of her sisters, but many ofthose of her father, were attributed to her. Lanzi says, "She is nearlythe sole individual of the family whose name occurs in collections outof Bologna. " She also executed some spirited etchings mostly from herown designs. DEATH OF ELIZABETH SIRANI. This accomplished, amiable, and talented lady was cut off in the flowerof her life, August 29th, 1665, by poison, administered by one of herown maids, instigated, as is supposed, by some jealous young artists. Her melancholy death was bewailed with demonstrations of public sorrow, and her remains were interred with great pomp and solemnity in thechurch of S. Domenico, in the same vault where reposed the ashes ofGuido. RACHEL RUYSCH. This celebrated paintress of fruit and flowers was born at Amsterdam in1664. She was the daughter of Frederick Ruisch or Ruysch, the celebratedprofessor of anatomy. She early showed an extraordinary taste fordepicting fruit and flowers, and attained to such perfection in herart, that some have not hesitated to equal and even prefer her works tothose of John van Huysum. She grouped her flowers in the most tastefuland picturesque manner, and depicted them with a grace and brilliancythat rivalled nature. Descamps says that "in her pictures of fruit andflowers, she surpassed nature herself. " The extraordinary talents ofthis lady recommended her to the patronage of the Elector Palatine--agreat admirer of her pictures--for whom she executed some of herchoicest works, and received for them a munificent reward. Though sheexercised her talents to an advanced age, her works are exceedinglyrare, so great was the labor bestowed upon them. She spent seven yearsin painting two pictures, a fruit and a flower piece, which shepresented to one of her daughters as a marriage portion. She marriedJurian Pool, an eminent portrait painter, by whom she had ten children;she is frequently called by his name, though she always signed herpictures with her maiden name. Smith, in his Catalogue raisonné, vols. Vi. And ix. , gives a description of only about thirty pieces by her--aproof of their extreme rarity. They now command very high prices whenoffered for sale, which rarely happens. She died in 1760, aged 86 years. SIR ANTHONY VANDYCK. This eminent Flemish painter was born at Antwerp in 1599. His fatherearly gave him instruction in drawing; he was also instructed by hismother, who painted landscapes, and was very skillful in embroidery. Hestudied afterwards under Henry van Balen, and made rapid progress in theart; but attracted by the fame of Rubens, he entered the school of thatmaster, and showed so much ability as to be soon entrusted with theexecution of some of his instructor's designs. Some writers, among whomD'Argenville was the first, assert that Rubens became jealous ofVandyck's growing excellence, and therefore advised him to devotehimself to portrait painting; assigning the following anecdote as thecause of his jealousy. During the short absences of Rubens from hishouse, for the purpose of recreation, his disciples frequently obtainedaccess to his studio, by means of bribing an old servant who kept thekeys; and on one of these occasions, while they were all eagerlypressing forward to view the great picture of the Descent from the Cross(although later investigations concerning dates seem to indicate that itwas some other picture), Diepenbeck accidentally fell against thecanvas, effacing the face of the Virgin, and the Magdalen's arm, whichhad just been finished, and were not yet dry. Fearful of expulsion fromthe school, the terrified pupils chose Vandyck to restore the work, andhe completed it the same day with such success that Rubens did not atfirst perceive the change, and afterwards concluded not to alter it. Walpole entertains a different and more rational view respectingRubens' supposed jealousy: he thinks that Vandyck felt the hopelessnessof surpassing his master in historical painting, and therefore resolvedto devote himself to portrait. One authority states that the abovementioned incident only increased Rubens' esteem for his pupil, inperfect accordance with the distinguished character for generosity andliberality, which that great master so often evinced, and which formsvery strong presumptive evidence against so base an accusation. Besides, his advice to Vandyck to visit Italy--where his own powers had been, ashis pupil's would be, greatly strengthened--may be considered assufficient to refute it entirely. They appear to have parted on the bestterms; Vandyck presented Rubens with an Ecce Homo, Christ in the Garden, and a portrait of Helen Forman, Rubens' second wife; he was presented inreturn, by Rubens, with one of his finest horses. VANDYCK'S VISIT TO ITALY. At the age of twenty, Vandyck set out for Italy, but delayed some timeat Brussels, fascinated by the charms of a peasant girl of Saveltheim, named Anna van Ophem, who persuaded him to paint two pictures for thechurch of her native place--a St. Martin on horseback, painted fromhimself and the horse given him by Rubens; and a Holy Family, for whichthe girl and her parents were the models. On arriving in Italy, hespent some time at Venice, studying with great attention the works ofTitian; after which he visited Genoa, and painted many excellentportraits for the nobility, as well as several pictures for the churchesand private collections, which gained him great applause. From Genoa hewent to Rome, where he was also much employed, and lived in great style. His portrait of Cardinal Bentivoglio, painted about this time, is one ofhis masterpieces, and in every respect an admirable picture; it is nowin the Palazzo Pitti, at Florence, hanging near Raffaelle's celebratedportrait of Leo X. Vandyck was known at Rome as the _PittoreCavalieresco_; his countrymen there being men of low and intemperatehabits, he avoided their society, and was thenceforward so greatlyannoyed by their criticisms and revilings, that he was obliged to leaveRome about 1625, and return to Genoa, where he met with a flatteringreception, and plentiful encouragement. Invited to Palermo, he visitedthat city, and painted the portraits of Prince Philibert of Savoy, theViceroy of Sicily, and several distinguished persons, among whom was thecelebrated paintress Sofonisba Anguisciola, then in her 92d year; butthe plague breaking out, he returned to Genoa, and thence to his owncountry. VANDYCK'S RETURN TO ANTWERP. On his return to Antwerp, whither his reputation had preceded him, Vandyck was speedily employed by various religious societies, and hispicture of St. Augustine for the church of the Augustines in that city, established his reputation among the first painters of his time. Hepainted other historical pictures, for the principal public edifices atAntwerp, Brussels, Mechlin, and Ghent; but acquired greater fame by hisportraits, particularly his well known series of the eminent artists ofhis time, which were engraved by Vorstermans, Pontius, Bolswert, andothers. His brilliant reputation at length roused the jealousy of hiscotemporaries, many of whom were indefatigable in their intrigues tocalumniate his works. In addition to these annoyances, the conduct ofthe canons of the Collegiate church of Courtray, for whom he painted anadmirable picture of the Elevation of the Cross, proved too much for hisendurance. After he had exerted all his powers to produce a masterpieceof art, the canons, upon viewing the picture, pronounced it acontemptible performance, and the artist a miserable dauber; and Vandyckcould hardly obtain payment for his work. When the picture had receivedhigh commendation from good judges, they became sensible of their error, and requested him to execute two more works; but the indignant artistrefused the commission. Disgusted with such treatment, Vandyck readilyaccepted an invitation to visit the Hague, from Frederick, Prince ofOrange, whose portrait he painted, and those of his family, theprincipal personages of his court, and the foreign ambassadors. VANDYCK'S VISIT TO ENGLAND. Hearing of the great encouragement extended to the arts by Charles I. , he determined to visit England in 1629. While there, he lodged with hisfriend and countryman, George Geldorp the painter, and expected to bepresented to the king; but his hopes not being realized, he visitedParis; and meeting no better success there, be returned to his owncountry, with the intention of remaining there during the rest of hislife. Charles, however, having seen a portrait by Vandyck, of themusician, Fic. Laniere, director of the music of the king's chapel, requested Sir Kenelm Digby to invite him to return to England. Accordingly, in 1631, he arrived a second time at London, and wasreceived by the king in a flattering manner. He was lodged atBlackfriars, among the King's artists, where his majesty frequently wentto sit for his portrait, as well as to enjoy the society of the painter. The honor of knighthood was conferred upon him in 1632, and thefollowing year he was appointed painter to the king, with an annuity of£200. Prosperity now flowed in upon the Fleming in abundance, and although heoperated with the greatest industry and facility, painting singleportraits in one day, he could hardly fulfill all his commissions. Naturally fond of display, he kept a splendid establishment, and hissumptuous table was frequented by persons of the highest distinction. He often detained his sitters to dinner, where he had an opportunity toobserve more of their peculiar characteristics, and retouched theirpictures in the afternoon. Notwithstanding his distinguished success, hedoes not appear to have been satisfied with eminence in portraitpainting; and not long after his marriage with Maria Ruthven, granddaughter of Lord Gowrie, he went to Antwerp with his lady, on avisit to his family and friends, and thence proceeded to Paris. The famewhich Rubens had acquired by his celebrated performances at theLuxembourg, rendered Vandyck desirous to execute the decorations at theLouvre; but on arriving at the French capital, he found the commissiondisposed of to Nicholas Poussin. He soon returned to England, and beingstill desirous of executing some great work, proposed to the kingthrough Sir Kenelm Digby, to decorate the walls of the Banqueting House(of which the ceiling was already adorned by Rubens), with the Historyand Progress of the Order of the Garter. The sum demanded was £8000, andwhile the king was treating with him for a less amount, the project wasterminated by the death of Vandyck, December 9th, 1641, aged 42 years. He was buried with extraordinary honors in St. Paul's cathedral. Hishigh living had brought on the gout during his latter years, and luxuryhad considerably reduced his fortune, which he endeavored to repair bythe study of alchemy. He left property amounting to about £20, 000. Inhis private character, Vandyck was universally esteemed for the urbanityof his manners, and his generous patronage to all who excelled in anyscience or art, many of whose portraits he painted gratuitously. WILLIAM VAN DE VELDE, THE ELDER. This eminent Dutch marine painter was born at Leyden, in 1610. He dreweverything after nature, and was one of the most correct, spirited, andadmirable designers of marine subjects. He made an incredible number ofdrawings on paper, heightened with India ink, all of them sketched fromnature with uncommon elegance and fidelity. His talents recommended himto the notice of the States of Holland, and Descamps says they furnishedhim with a small vessel to accompany their fleets, that he might designthe different manoeuvres and engagements; that he was present invarious sea-fights, in which he fearlessly exposed himself to the mostimminent danger, while making his sketches; he was present at the severebattle between the English and Dutch fleets, under the command of theDuke of York and Admiral Opdam, in which the ship of the latter, withfive hundred men, was blown up, and in the still more memorableengagement in the following year, between the English under the Duke ofAlbemarle, and the Dutch Admiral de Ruyter, which lasted three days. Itis said that during these engagements he sailed alternately between thefleets, so as to represent minutely every movement of the ships, and themost, material circumstances of the actions with incredible exactnessand truth. So intent was he upon his drawing, that he constantly exposedhimself to the greatest danger, without the least apparent anxiety. Hewrote over the ships their names and those of their commanders; andunder his own frail craft _V. Velde's Gallijodt_, or _Myn Gallijodt_. VAN DE VELDE AND CHARLES II. After having executed many capital pictures for the States of Holland, Van de Velde was invited to England by Charles II. , who had becomeacquainted with his talents during his residence in Holland. He arrivedin London about 1675, well advanced in years, and the king settled uponhim a pension of £100 per annum until his death, in 1693, as appearsfrom this inscription on his tomb-stone in St. James' church: "Mr. William van de Velde, senior, late painter of sea-fights to theirMajesties, King Charles II. And King James, died in 1693. " He wasaccompanied by his son, who was also taken into the service of the king, as appears from an order of the privy seal, as follows: "Charles theSecond, by the grace of God, &c. , to our dear Cousin, Prince Rupert, andthe rest of our commissioners for executing the place of Lord HighAdmiral of England, greeting. Whereas, we have thought fit to allow thesalary of £100 per annum unto William van de Velde the Elder, for takingand making draughts of sea-fights; and the like salary of £100 per annumunto William van de Velde the younger, for putting the said draughts incolor for our particular use; our will and pleasure is, and we do herebyauthorize and require you to issue your orders for the present and thefuture establishment of said salaries to the aforesaid William van deVelde the Elder and William van de Velde the Younger, to be paid untothem, or either of them, during our pleasure, and for so doing, theseour letters shall be your sufficient warrant and discharge. Given underour privy-seal, at our palace of Westminster, the 20th day of February, in the 26th year of our reign. " Many of the large pictures of sea-fights in England, and doubtless inHolland, bearing the signature _W. Van de Velde_, and generallyattributed to the son, were executed by him from the designs of hisfather. Such are the series of twelve naval engagements and sea-ports inthe palace at Hampton Court, though signed like the best works of theyounger van de Velde; they are dated 1676 and 1682. WILLIAM VAN DE VELDE THE YOUNGER. This eminent artist was the son of the preceding, and born at Amsterdamin 1633. He had already acquired a distinguished reputation in hisnative country for his admirable cabinet pictures of marine subjects, when he accompanied his father to England, where his talents not onlyrecommended him to the patronage of the king, but to the principalnobility and personages of his court, for whom he executed many of hismost beautiful works. "The palm, " says Lord Orford, "is not lessdisputed with Raffaelle for history, than with Van de Velde forsea-pieces. " He died in 1707. THE YOUNGER VAN DE VELDE'S WORKS. Like his father, the younger Van de Velde designed everything fromnature, and his compositions are distinguished by a more elegant andtasteful arrangement of his objects, than is to be found in theproductions of any other painter of marines. His vessels are designedwith the greatest accuracy, and from the improvements which had beenmade in ship-building, they are of a more graceful and pleasing formthan those of his predecessors; the cordage and rigging are finishedwith a delicacy, and at the same time with a freedom almost withoutexample; his small figures are drawn with remarkable correctness, andtouched with the greatest spirit. In his calms the sky is sunny, andbrilliant, and every object is reflected in the glassy smoothness of thewater, with a luminous transparency peculiar to himself. In his freshbreezes and squalls, the swell and curl of the waves is delineated witha truth and fidelity which could only be derived from the most attentiveand accurate study of nature; in his storms, tempests, and hurricanes, the tremendous conflict of the elements and the horrors of shipwreck arerepresented with a truthfulness that strikes the beholder with terror. The works of the younger Van de Velde are very numerous, and the greaterpart of them are in England, where Houbraken says they were so highlyesteemed that they were eagerly sought after in Holland, and purchasedat high prices to transport to London; so that they are rarely to be metwith in his native country. Smith, in his Catalogue raisonné, vol. Vi. And Supplement, describes about three hundred and thirty pictures byhim, the value of which has increased amazingly, as may be seen by a fewexamples. The two marines now in the Earl of Ellesmere's collection, onea View of the Entrance to the Texel, sold in 1766 for £80, now valued at£1, 000; the other sold in 1765 for £84, now valued at £500. A Sea-View, formerly in the collection of Sir Robert Peel, sold in 1772 for only£31; brought in 1828, £300. The Departure of Charles II. From Holland in1660, sold in 1781 for £82; it brought recently, at public sale, £800. AView off the Coast of Holland sold in 1816 for £144; it brought, in SirSimon Clarke's sale in 1840, £1, 029. A View on the Sea-Shore, 16 inchesby 12, sold in 1726 for £9, and in 1835 for £108. The picture known as_Le Coup de Canon_, sold in 1786 for £52, in 1790 for only £36, but in1844 it brought 1, 380 guineas. The drawings, and especially the sketches and studies of the younger Vande Velde are very numerous, and prove the indefatigable pains he took indesigning his vessels, their appurtenances, and the ordonnance of hiscompositions. His sketches are executed in black lead only; his morefinished drawings with the pencil or pen, and shaded with India ink. Heexecuted these with wonderful facility; it is recorded that he was sorapid in his sketching, that he frequently filled a quire of paper in anevening. Stanley says that during the years 1778 and 1780, about 8, 000of his drawings were sold in London at public auction. Some of hischoicest drawings in India ink brought, at the sale of M. Goll deFrankenstein at Amsterdam, in 1833, and at that of the late BaronVerstolk de Soelen, in the same city in 1847, prices varying from £27 upto £144 each. He inherited his father's drawings, and all these seem nowto be attributed to him. NICHOLAS POUSSIN. This distinguished French painter was born at Andely, in Normandy, in1594. He was descended from a noble family, originally of Soissons, whose fortunes had been ruined in the disastrous civil wars in the timeof Charles IX. And Henry III. His father, Jean Poussin, after servingin the army of Henry IV. , settled on a small paternal inheritance atAndely, where he cultivated a taste for literature and the sciences, andinstructed his son in the same. Young Poussin had already distinguishedhimself for the solidity of his judgment, and his progress in letters, when a natural fondness for drawing, developed by an acquaintance he hadformed with Quintin Varin, an artist of some eminence, induced him tosolict the permission of his father to adopt painting as a profession. POUSSIN'S FIRST CELEBRITY. In 1612, at the age of eighteen, Poussin went to Paris in search ofimprovement, where he devoted himself to studying the best works towhich he could gain access (for the fine arts were then at a low ebb inFrance) with the greatest assiduity. In 1620, according to Felibien, theJesuits celebrated the canonization of the founder of their order, Ignatius Loyola and St. Francis Xavier, on which occasion theydetermined to display a series of pictures by the first artists inParis, representing the miracles performed by their patron saints. Ofthese, Poussin painted six in distemper, in an incredibly short space oftime, and when the exhibition came off, although he had been obliged toneglect detail, his pictures excited the greatest admiration on accountof the grandeur of conception, and the elegance of design displayed inthem. They obtained the preference over all the others, and broughtPoussin immediately into notice. POUSSIN'S FIRST VISIT TO ROME. While Poussin resided at Paris, his talents, and the endowments of hismind procured him the esteem of several men of letters and distinction, among whom was the Cav. Marino, the celebrated Italian poet, whohappened then to be in Paris. Marino strongly urged him to accompany himto Rome, an invitation which Poussin would gladly have accepted, had henot then been engaged in some commissions of importance, which havingcompleted, he set out for Rome in 1624, where he was warmly received byhis friend Marino, who introduced him to the Cardinal Barberini. Hehowever derived little advantage from this favorable notice at the time, as the Cardinal soon after left Rome on his legation to France andSpain, and the Cav. Marino died about the same time. Poussin now foundhimself a stranger, friendless and unknown in the Eternal City, in veryembarrassed circumstances; but he consoled himself with the thought thathis wants were few, that he was in the very place where he had longsighed to be, surrounded by the glorious works of ancient and modernart, and that he should have abundant leisure to study. Therefore, though he could scarcely supply his necessities by the disposal of hisworks, and was often compelled to sell them for the most paltry prices, his courage did not fail him, but rather stimulated him to the greatestassiduity to perfect himself in the art. He lodged in the same housewith Francis du Quesnoy, called Il Fiammingo, the state of whosefinances at that time were not more flourishing than his own, and helived in habits of intimacy and strict friendship with that eminentsculptor, with whom he explored, studied, and modeled the mostcelebrated antique statues and bas-reliefs, particularly the Meleager inthe Vatican, from which he derived his rules of proportion. At first hecopied several of the works of Titian, and improved his style ofcoloring, but he afterwards contemplated the works of Raffaelle with anenthusiasm bordering on adoration. The admirable expression and purityof the works of Domenichino, rendered them particularly interesting tohim, and he used to regard his Communion of St. Jerome as the secondpicture at Rome, the Transfiguration by Raffaelle being the first. POUSSIN'S DISTRESS AT ROME. While Poussin was thus pursuing his studies at Rome, he was left by thedeath of his friend Marino, in a state of extreme distress, and wasobliged to dispose of his paintings at the most paltry prices, toprocure the necessaries of life. Filibien says that he sold the twofine battle-pieces which were afterwards in the collection of the Dukede Noailles for seven crowns each, and a picture of a Prophet for eightlivres. His celebrated picture of "the Ark of God among the Philistines"brought him but sixty crowns; the original purchaser sold it not longafterwards to the Duc de Richelieu for one thousand crowns! POUSSIN'S SUCCESS AT ROME. A brighter day now dawned upon Poussin. What had happened to him, whichwould have been regarded by most young artists as the greatestmisfortune and sunk them in despondency and ruin, proved of the greatestadvantage to him. The Cardinal Barberini having returned to Rome, gavehim some commissions, which he executed in such an admirable manner asat once established his reputation among those of the greatest artistsof the age. The first work he executed for his patron was his celebratedpicture of the Death of Germanicus, which Lanzi pronounces one of hisfinest productions. He next painted the Taking of Jerusalem by Titus. These works gave the Cardinal so much satisfaction that he procured forhim the commission to paint a large picture of the Martyrdom of St. Erasmus, for St. Peter's, now in the pontifical palace at Monte Cavallo. These works procured him the friendship and patronage of the Cav. DelPozzo, for whom he painted his first set of pictures, representing theSeven Sacraments, now in the collection of the Duke of Rutland. Heafterwards painted another set of the same, with some variations, for M. De Chantelou, formerly in the Orleans collection, now in that of theMarquis of Stafford. POUSSIN'S INVITATION TO PARIS. In 1639, Poussin was invited to Paris by Louis XIII. , who honored him onthis occasion with the following autograph letter, which was anextraordinary and unusual homage to art: "DEAR AND WELL BELOVED, "Some of our especial servants having made a report to us of thereputation which you have acquired, and the rank which you hold amongthe best and most famous painters of Italy; and we being desirous, inimitation of our predecessors, to contribute, as much as lies in us, tothe ornament and decoration of our royal houses, by fixing around usthose who excel in the arts, and whose attainments in them haveattracted notice in the places where those arts are most cherished, dotherefore write you this letter, to acquaint you that we have chosen andappointed you to be one of our painters in ordinary, and that, henceforward, we will employ you in that capacity. To this effect ourintention is, that on the receipt of this present, you shall disposeyourself to come hither, where the services you perform shall meet withas much consideration as do your merits and your works, in the placewhere you now reside. By our order, given to M. De Noyers, you willlearn more particularly the favor we have determined to shew you. Wewill add nothing to this present, but to pray God to have you in hisholy keeping. "Given at Fontainebleau, Jan. 15, 1639. " Poussin accepted the invitation with great reluctance, at the earnestsolicitation of his friends. On his arrival at Paris he was receivedwith marked distinction, appointed principal painter to the king, with apension, and accommodated with apartments in the Tuileries. He wascommissioned to paint an altar-piece for the chapel of St. Germain enLaie, where he produced his admirable work of the Last Supper, and wasengaged to decorate the Gallery of the Louvre with the Labors ofHercules. He had already prepared the designs and some of the cartoonsfor these works, when he was assailed by the machinations of Simon Vouetand his adherents; and even the landscape painter Fouquieres, jealous ofhis fame, presumed to criticise his works and detract from their merit. POUSSIN'S RETURN TO ROME. Poussin, naturally of a peaceful turn of mind, fond of retirement andthe society of a few select literary friends, was disgusted with theostentation of the court and the cabals by which he was surrounded; hesecretly sighed for the quiet felicity he had left at Rome, and resolvedto return thither without delay. For this purpose, he solicited andobtained leave of the king to visit Italy and settle his affairs, andfetch his wife; but when he had once crossed the Alps, no inducementcould prevail on him to revisit his native country, or even to leaveRome. During a period of twenty-three years after his return to Romefrom Paris, he lived a quiet, unostentatious life, and executed a greatnumber of pictures, which decorate the principal cabinets of Europe, andwill ever be regarded as among their most valuable ornaments. Heconfined himself mostly to works of the large easel size, which wereeagerly sought after, and usually disposed of as soon as they wereexecuted. He never made any words about the price of his pictures, butasked a modest and moderate price, which he always marked upon the backof his canvas, and which was invariably paid. Many of his works weresent to Paris, where they were valued next to the productions ofRaffaelle. He was plain and unassuming in his manners, very frugal inhis living, yet so liberal and generous that at his death he left anestate of only 60, 000 livres--about $12, 000. Felibien relates ananecdote which pleasingly illustrates his simple and unostentatious modeof life. The Cardinal Mancini was accustomed to visit his studiofrequently, and on one occasion, having staid later than usual, Poussinlighted him to the door, at which the prelate observed, "I pity you, Monsieur Poussin, that you have not one servant. " "And I, " replied thepainter, "pity your Excellency much more, that you are obliged to keepso many. " SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS' CRITIQUE ON POUSSIN. "The favorite subjects of Poussin were ancient fables; and no painterwas ever better qualified to paint such subjects, not only from hisbeing eminently skilled in the knowledge of the ceremonies, customs, andhabits of the ancients, but from his being so well acquainted with thedifferent characters which those who invented them gave to theirallegorical figures. Though Rubens has shown great fancy in his Satyrs, Silenuses, and Fauns, yet they are not that distinct, separate class ofbeings which is carefully exhibited by the ancients, and by Poussin. Certainly, when such subjects of antiquity are represented, nothingshould remind us of modern times. The mind is thrown back intoantiquity, and nothing ought to be introduced that may tend to awaken itfrom the illusion. "Poussin seemed to think that the style and the language in which suchstories are told is not the worse for preserving some relish of the oldway of painting, which seemed to give a general uniformity to the whole, so that the mind was thrown back into antiquity, not only by thesubject, but also by the execution. "If Poussin, in imitation of the ancients, represents Apollo driving hisChariot out of the sea, by way of representing the sun rising, if hepersonifies lakes and rivers, it is noways offensive in him, but seemsperfectly of a piece with the general air of the picture. On thecontrary, if the figures which people his pictures had a modern air andcountenance, if they appeared like our countrymen, if the draperies werelike cloth or silk of our manufacture, if the landscape had theappearance of a modern one, how ridiculous would Apollo appear insteadof the sun, and an old Man or a Nymph with an urn to represent a riveror lake?" He also says, in another place, that "it may be doubtedwhether any alteration of what is considered defective in his works, would not destroy the effect of the whole. " POUSSIN'S VIEWS OF HIS ART. Poussin, in his directions to artists who came to study at Rome, used tosay that "the remains of antiquity afforded him instruction that hecould not expect from masters;" and in one of his letters to M. DeChantelou, he observes that "he had applied to painting the theory whichthe Greeks had introduced into their music--the Dorian for the grave andthe serious; the Phrygian for the vehement and the passionate; theLydian for the soft and the tender; and the Ionian for the riotousfestivity of his bacchanalians. " He was accustomed to say "that aparticular attention to coloring was an obstacle to the student in hisprogress to the great end and design of the art; and that he whoattaches himself to this principal end, will acquire by practice areasonably good method of coloring. " He well knew that splendor ofcoloring and brilliancy of tints would ill accord with the solidity andsimplicity of effect so essential to heroic subjects, and that thesublime and majestic would be degraded by a union with the florid andthe gay. The elevation of his mind is conspicuous in all his works. Hewas attentive to vary his style and the tone of his color, distinguishing them by a finer and more delicate touch, a tint morecheerful or austere, a site more cultivated or wild, according to thecharacter of his subject and the impression he designed to make; so thatwe are not less impressed with the beauty and grandeur of his scenery, than with the varied, appropriate, and dignified characteristics whichdistinguish his works. POUSSIN'S WORKS. In Smith's Catalogue raisonné may be found a descriptive account ofupwards of three hundred and fifty of the works of this great artist, inmany instances tracing the history from the time they were painted, thenames of the present possessors, and the principal artists by whom theyhave been engraved, together with many interesting particulars of thelife of the painter. There are eight of his pictures in the EnglishNational Gallery, fourteen in the Dulwich Gallery, and many in thepossession of the nobility of England. The prices paid for those in theNational Gallery vary from 150 to 1000 guineas. MARINO AND POUSSIN. Marino was born at Naples. Some political disturbances, in which he andhis family had taken part, obliged him to quit that kingdom, and he tookrefuge successively in several of the petty courts of Italy. His talentfor satire involved him in various literary disputes, as well as somepolitical quarrels, and he never resided long in one place, until Maryof Medicis invited him to the court of France, where he passed much ofhis life, and where he wrote most of his poems, which, though licentiousboth in matter and style, contain numerous beauties, and are full ofclassical imagery. Marino gave Poussin an apartment in his house atRome, and as his own health was at that time extremely deranged, heloved to have Poussin by the side of his couch, where he drew orpainted, while Marino read aloud to him from some Latin or Italianauthor, or from his own poems, which Poussin illustrated by beautifuldrawings, most of which it is to be feared are lost; although it isbelieved that there is still existing in the Massimi library, a copy ofthe Adonis in Marino's hand-writing, with Poussin's drawingsinterleaved. To this kind of study which he pursued with Marino, mayperhaps be attributed Poussin's predilection for compositions whereinnymphs, and fairies, and bacchanals are the subjects--compositions inwhich he greatly excelled. POUSSIN ROMANIZED. While the court of France was at variance with the Holy See, considerable acrimony existed among his Holiness's troops against allFrenchmen; consequently, wherever they met them in Rome, they instantlyattacked them with sticks and stones, and sometimes with even moreformidable weapons. It happened one day that Poussin and three or fourof his countrymen, returning from a drawing excursion, met at theQuattro Fontane near Monte Cavallo, a company of soldiers, who seeingthem dressed in the French costume, instantly attacked them. They allfled but Poussin, who was surrounded, and received a cut from a sabrebetween the first and second finger. Passeri, who relates the anecdote, says that the sword turned, otherwise "a great misfortune must havehappened both to him and to painting. " Not daunted, however, he foughtunder the shelter of his portfolio, throwing stones as he retreated, till being recognized by some Romans who took his part, he effected hisescape to his lodgings. From that day he put on the Roman dress, adopted the Roman way of living, and became so much a Roman, that heconsidered the city as his true home. POUSSIN'S HABITS OF STUDY. Poussin not only studied every vestige of antiquity at Rome and in itsenvirons, with the greatest assiduity while young, but he followed thispractice through life. It was his delight to spend every hour he couldspare at the different villas in the neighborhood of Rome, where, besides the most beautiful remains of antiquity, he enjoyed theunrivalled landscape which surrounds that city, so much dignified by thenoble works of ancient days, that every hill is classical, the verytrees have a poetic air, and everything combines to excite in the soul akind of dreaming rapture from which it would not be awakened, and whichthose who have not felt it can scarcely understand. He restored the antique temples, and made plans and accurate drawings ofthe fragments of ancient Rome; and there are few of his pictures, wherethe subject admits of it, in which we may not trace the buildings, bothof the ancient and the modern city. In the beautiful landscape of thedeath of Eurydice, the bridge and castle of St. Angelo, and the tower, commonly called that of Nero, form the middle ground of the picture. Thecastle of St. Angelo appears again in one of his pictures of theExposing of Moses; and the pyramid of Caius Cestius, the Pantheon, theruins of the Forum, and the walls of Rome, may be recognised in theFinding of Moses, and several others of his remarkable pictures. "I have often admired, " said Vigneul de Marville, who knew him at a lateperiod of his life, "the love he had for his art. Old as he was, Ifrequently saw him among the ruins of ancient Rome, out in the Campagna, or along the banks of the Tyber, sketching a scene which had pleasedhim; and I often met him with his handkerchief full of stones, moss, orflowers, which he carried home, that he might copy them exactly fromnature. One day I asked him, how he had attained to such a degree ofperfection as to have gained so high a rank among the great painters ofItaly? He answered, '_I have neglected nothing!_'" POUSSIN'S OLD AGE. The genius of Poussin seems to have gained vigor with age. Nearly hislast works, which were begun in 1660, and sent to Paris 1664, were thefour pictures, allegorical of the seasons, which he painted for the Ducde Richelieu. He chose the terrestrial paradise, in all the freshness ofcreation, to designate spring. The beautiful story of Boaz and Ruthformed the subject of summer. Autumn was aptly pictured, in the twoIsraelites bearing the bunch of grapes from the Promised Land. But themasterpiece was Winter, represented in the Deluge. This picture hasbeen, perhaps, the most praised of all Poussin's works. A narrow space, and a very few persons have sufficed him for this powerfulrepresentation of that great catastrophe. The sun's disc is darkenedwith clouds; the lightning shoots in forked flashes through the air:nothing but the roofs of the highest houses are visible above thedistant water upon which the ark floats, on a level with the highestmountains. Nearer, where the waters, pent in by rocks, form a cataract, a boat is forced down the fall, and the wretches who had sought safetyin it are perishing: but the most pathetic incident is brought close tothe spectator. A mother in a boat is holding up her infant to itsfather, who, though upon a high rock, is evidently not out of reach ofthe water, and is only protracting life a very little. POUSSIN'S LAST WORK AND DEATH. The long and honorable race of Poussin was now nearly run. Early in thefollowing year, 1665, he was slightly affected by palsy, and the onlypicture of figures that he painted afterwards was the Samaritan Woman atthe Well, which he sent to M. De Chantelou, with a note, in which hesays, "This is my last work; I have already one foot in the grave. "Shortly afterwards he wrote the following letter to M. Felibien: "Icould not answer the letter which your brother, M. Le Prieur de St. Clementin, forwarded to me, a few days after his arrival in this city, sooner, my usual infirmities being increased by a very troublesome cold, which continues and annoys me very much. I must now thank you not onlyfor your remembrance, but for the kindness you have done me, by notreminding the prince of the wish he once expressed to possess some of myworks. It is too late for him to be well served; I am become too infirm, and the palsy hinders me in working, so that I have given up the pencilfor some time, and think only of preparing for death, which I feelbodily upon me. It is all over with me. " He expired shortly afterwards, aged 71 years. POUSSIN'S IDEAS OF PAINTING. "Painting is an imitation by means of lines and colors, on somesuperfices, of everything that can be seen under the sun; its end is toplease. _Principles that every man capable of reasoning may learn:_--There canbe nothing represented, Without light, Without form, Without color, Without distance, Without an instrument, or medium. _Things which are not to be learned, and which make an essential part ofpainting. _ First, the subject must be noble. It should have received no qualityfrom the mere workmen; and to allow scope to the painter to display hispowers, he should choose it capable of receiving the most excellentform. He must begin by composition, then ornament, propriety, beauty, grace, vivacity, probability, and judgment, in each and all. These lastbelong solely to the painter, and cannot be taught. The nine are thegolden bough of Virgil, which no man can find or gather, if his fate donot lead him to it. " POUSSIN AND THE NOBLEMAN. A person of rank who dabbled in painting for his amusement, having oneday shown Poussin one of his performances, and asked his opinion of itsmerits, the latter replied, "You only want a little poverty, sir, tomake a good painter. " POUSSIN AND MENGS. The admirers of Mengs, jealous of Poussin's title of "the Painter ofPhilosophers, " conferred on him the antithetical one of "the Philosopherof Painters. " Though it cannot be denied that Mengs' writings and hispictures are learned, yet few artists have encountered such a storm ofcriticism. POUSSIN AND DOMENICHINO. Next to correctness of drawing and dignity of conception, Poussin valuedexpression in painting. He ranked Domenichino next to Raffaelle for thisquality, and not long after his arrival at Rome, he set about copyingthe Flagellation of St. Andrew, painted by that master in the church ofS. Gregorio, in competition with Guido, whose Martyrdom of that Saint ison the opposite side of the same church. Poussin found all the studentsin Rome busily copying the Guido, which, though a most beautiful work, lacks the energy and expression which distinguish the Flagellation; buthe was too sure of his object to be led away by the crowd. According toFelibien, Domenichino, who then resided at Rome, in a very delicatestate of health, having heard that a young Frenchman was making acareful study of his picture, caused himself to be conveyed in his chairto the church, where he conversed some time with Poussin, without makinghimself known; charmed with his talents and highly cultivated mind, heinvited him to his house, and from that time Poussin enjoyed hisfriendship and profited by his advice, till that illustrious painterwent to Naples, to paint the chapel of St. Januarius. POUSSIN AND SALVATOR ROSA. Among the strolling parties of monks and friars, cardinals and prelates, Roman princesses and English peers, Spanish grandees and Frenchcavaliers which crowded the _Pincio_, towards the latter end of theseventeenth century, there appeared two groups, which may have recalledthose of the Portico or the Academy, and which never failed to interestand fix the attention of the beholders. The leader of one of thesesingular parties was the venerable Niccolo Poussin! The air of antiquitywhich breathed over all his works seemed to have infected even hisperson and his features; and his cold, sedate, and passionlesscountenance, his measured pace and sober deportment, spoke thatphlegmatic temperament and regulated feeling, which had led him to studymonuments rather than men, and to declare that the result of all hisexperience was "to teach him to live well with all persons. " Soberlyclad, and sagely accompanied by some learned antiquary or piouschurchman, and by a few of his deferential disciples, he gave out histrite axioms in measured phrase and emphatic accent, lectured ratherthan conversed, and appeared like one of the peripatetic teachers of thelast days of Athenian pedantry and pretension. In striking contrast to these academic figures, which looked like theirown "grandsires cut in alabaster, " appeared, unremittingly, on thePincio, after sun-set, a group of a different stamp and character, ledon by one who, in his flashing eye, mobile brow, and rapid movement, allfire, feeling, and perception--was the very personification of geniusitself. This group consisted of Salvator Rosa, gallantly if notsplendidly habited, and a motley gathering of the learned and witty, thegay and the grave, who surrounded him. He was constantly accompanied inthese walks on the Pincio by the most eminent virtuosi, poets, musicians, and cavaliers in Rome; all anxious to draw him out on avariety of subjects, when air, exercise, the desire of pleasing, and theconsciousness of success, had wound him up to his highest pitch ofexcitement; while many who could not appreciate, and some who did notapprove, were still anxious to be seen in his train, merely that theymight have to boast "_nos quoque_. " From the Pincio, Salvator Rosa was generally accompanied home by themost distinguished persons, both for talent and rank; and while thefrugal Poussin was lighting out some reverend prelate or antiquarianwith one sorry taper, Salvator, the prodigal Salvator, was passing theevening in his elegant gallery, in the midst of princes, nobles, and menof wit and science, where he made new claims on their admiration, bothas an artist and as an _improvisatore_; for till within a few years ofhis death he continued to recite his own poetry, and sing his owncompositions to the harpsichord or lute. POUSSIN, ANGELO, AND RAFFAELLE COMPARED. Poussin is, in the strict sense of the word, an historical painter. Michael Angelo is too intent on the sublime, too much occupied with theeffect of the whole, to tell a common history. His conceptions are epic, and his persons, and his colors, have as little to do with ordinarylife, as the violent action of his actors have resemblance to theusually indolent state of ordinary men. Raffaelle's figures interest so much in themselves, that they make usforget that they are only part of a history. We follow them eagerly, aswe do the personages of a drama; we grieve, we hope, we despair, werejoice with them. Poussin's figures, on the contrary, tell their story; we feel not theintimate acquaintance with themselves, that we do with the creations ofRaffaelle. His Cicero would thunder in the forum and dissipate aconspiracy, and we should take leave of him with respect at the end ofthe scene; but with Raffaelle's we should feel in haste to quit thetumult, and retire with him to his Tusculum, and learn to love thevirtues, and almost to cherish the weaknesses of such a man. Poussin has shown that grace and expression may be independent of whatis commonly called beauty. His women have none of that soft, easy, andattractive air, which many other painters have found the secret ofimparting, not only to their Venuses and Graces, but to their Madonnasand Saints. His beauties are austere and dignified. Minerva and theMuses appear to have been his models, rather than the inhabitants ofMount Cithæron. Hence subjects of action are more suited to him thanthose of repose. --_Graham's Life of Poussin_. REMBRANDT. Paul Rembrandt van Rhyn, one of the most eminent painters and engraversof the Dutch school, was the son of a miller, and was born in 1606, at asmall village on the banks of the Rhine, between Leyderdorp and Leyden, whence he was called Rembrandt van Rhyn, though his family name wasGerretz. It is said that his father, being in easy circumstances, intended him for one of the learned professions, but was induced byRembrandt's passion for the art to allow him to follow his inclination. He entered the school of J. Van Zwaanenberg at Amsterdam, where hecontinued three years, and made such surprising progress as astonishedhis instructor. Having learned from Zwaanenberg all he was capable ofimparting, he next studied about six months with Peter Lastmann, andafterwards for a short time with Jacob Pinas, from whom it is said heacquired that taste for strong contrasts of light and shadow, for whichhis works are so remarkable. He was, however, more indebted for his bestimprovement to the vivacity of his own genius, and an attentive study ofnature, than to any information he derived from his instructors. Onreturning home, he fitted up an attic room, with a skylight, in hisfather's mill, for a studio, where he probably pursued his labors forseveral years, as he did not remove to Amsterdam till 1630. Here hestudied the grotesque figure of the Dutch boor, or the rotund contour ofthe bar-maid of an ale house, with as much precision as the greatartists of Italy have imitated the Apollo Belvidere, or the MediceanVenus. He was exceedingly ignorant, and it is said that he couldscarcely read. He was of a wayward and eccentric disposition, and soughtfor recreation among the lowest orders of the people, in the amusementsof the ale-house, contracting habits which continued through life; evenwhen in prosperous circumstances, he manifested no disposition toassociate with more refined and intellectual society. It will readily beperceived that his habits, disposition, and studies could not conducthim to the noble conceptions of Raffaelle, but rather to an exactimitation of the lowest order of nature, with which he delighted to besurrounded. The life of Rembrandt is much involved in fable, and inorder to form a just estimate of his powers, it is necessary to takethese things into consideration. It is said by some writers, that, hadhe studied the antique, he would have reached the very perfection of theart, but Nieuwenhuys, in his review of the Lives and Works of the mosteminent painters of the Dutch and Flemish schools, in Smith's Catalogueraisonné, vol xii. And supplement, says that he was by no meansdeficient on that point. "For it is known that he purchased, at a highprice, casts from the antique marbles, paintings, drawings, andengravings by the most excellent Italian masters, to assist him in hisstudies, and which are mentioned in the inventory of his goods whenseized for debt. " He then goes on to give a list of the works so seized. Be this as it mayhe certainly never derived any advantage from them. He had collected agreat variety of old armor, sabres, flags, and fantastical vestments, ironically terming them his antiques, and frequently introducing theminto his pictures. Rembrandt had already brought both the arts of painting and engraving tovery great perfection (in his own way), when a slight incident led himto fame and fortune. He was induced by a friend to take one of hischoicest pictures to a picture-dealer at the Hague, who, being charmedwith the performance, instantly gave him a hundred florins for it, andtreated him with great respect. This occurrence served to convince thepublic of his merit, and contributed to make the artist sensible of hisown abilities. In 1630 he went to Amsterdam, where he married a handsomepeasant girl (frequently copied in his works), and settled there forlife. His paintings were soon in extraordinary demand, and his famespread far and wide; pupils flocked to his studio, and he received forthe instruction of each a hundred florins a year. He was so excessivelyavaricious that he soon abandoned his former careful and finishedstyle, for a rapid execution; also frequently retouched the pictures ofhis best pupils, and sold them as his own. His deceits in dating severalof his etchings at Venice, to make them more saleable, led some of hisbiographers to believe that he visited Italy, and resided at Venice in1635 and 1636; but it has been satisfactorily proved that he never leftHolland, though he constantly threatened to do so, in order to increasethe sale of his works. As early as 1628, he applied himself zealously toetching, and soon acquired great perfection in the art. His etchingswere esteemed as highly as his paintings, and he had recourse to severalartifices to raise their price and increase their sales. For example, hesold impressions from the unfinished plates, then finished them, andafter having used them, made some slight alterations, and thus sold thesame works three or four times; producing what connoisseurs term_variations_ in prints. By these practices, and his parsimonious mannerof living, Rembrandt amassed a large fortune. REMBRANDT'S WORKS. His works are numerous, and are dispersed in various public and privatecollections of Europe; and when they are offered for sale they commandenormous prices. There are eight of his pictures in the English NationalGallery; one of these, the Woman taken in Adultery, formerly in theOrleans collection, sold for £5000. In Smith's Catalogue raisonné is adescription of six hundred and forty pictures by him, the public andprivate galleries and collections in which they were located at the timeof the publication of the work, together with a copious list of hisdrawings and etchings, and much other interesting information. He leftmany studies, sketches, and drawings, executed in a charming style, which are now scarce and valuable. REMBRANDT AS AN ENGRAVER. Rembrandt holds a distinguished rank among the engravers of his country;he established a more important epoch in this art than any other master. He was indebted entirely to his own genius for the invention of aprocess which has thrown an indescribable charm over his plates. Theyare partly etched, frequently much assisted by the dry point, andoccasionally, though rarely, finished with the graver; evincing the mostextraordinary facility of hand, and displaying the most consummateknowledge of light and shadow. His free and playful point sports inpicturesque disorder, producing the most surprising and enchantingeffects, as if by accident; yet an examination will show that hismotions are always regulated by a profound knowledge of the principlesof light and shadow. His most admirable productions in both arts are hisportraits, which are executed with unexampled expression and skill. Fora full description of his prints, the reader is referred to Bartsch'sPeintre Graveur. His prints are very numerous, yet they command very high prices. Thelargest collection of his prints known, was made by M. De Burgy at theHague, who died in 1755. This collection contained 665 prints with theirvariations, namely, 257 portraits, 161 histories, 155 figures, and 85landscapes. There are no less than 27 portraits of Rembrandt by himself. ANECDOTE OF SCHWARTS. Sandrart relates the following anecdote of Christopher Schwarts, afamous German painter, which, if true, redounds more to his ingenuitythan to his credit. Having been engaged to paint the ceiling of the TownHall at Munich by the day, his love of dissipation induced him toneglect his work, so that the magistrates and overseers of the work werefrequently obliged to hunt him out at the cabaret. As he could no longerdrink in quiet, he stuffed an image of himself, left the legs hangingdown between the staging where he was accustomed to work, and sent oneof his boon companions to move the image a little two or three times aday, and to take it away at noon and night. By means of this deception, he drank without the least disturbance a whole fortnight together, theinn-keeper being privy to the plot. The officers came in twice a day tolook after him, and seeing the well known stockings and shoes which hewas accustomed to wear, suspected nothing wrong, and went their way, greatly extolling their own convert, as the most industrious andconscientious painter in the world. JACQUES CALLOT. This eminent French engraver was born at Nancy, in Lorraine, in 1593. Hewas the son of Jean Callot, a gentleman of noble family, who intendedhim for a very different profession, and endeavored to restrain hisnatural passion for art; but when he was twelve years old, he left hishome without money or resources, joined a company of wanderingBohemians, and found his way to Florence, where some officer of thecourt, discovering his inclination for drawing, placed him underCantagallina. After passing some time at Florence, he went to Rome, where he was recognized by some friends of his family, who persuaded himto return to his parents. Meeting with continual opposition, he againabsconded, but was followed by his brother to Turin, and taken back toNancy. His parents, at length finding his love of art too firmlyimplanted to be eradicated, concluded to allow him to follow the bent ofhis genius, and they sent him to Rome in the suite of the Envoy from theDuke of Lorraine to the Pope. Here he studied with the greatestassiduity, and soon distinguished himself as a very skillful engraver. From Rome he went to Florence, where his talents recommended him to thepatronage of the Grand Duke Cosmo II. , on whose death he returned toNancy, where he was liberally patronized by Henry, Duke of Lorraine. When misfortune overtook that prince, he went to Paris, whither hisreputation had preceded him, where he was employed by Louis XIII. Toengrave the successes of the French arms, particularly the siege of theIsle de Ré, in sixteen sheets; the siege of Rochelle, do. ; and the siegeof Breda, in eight sheets. His prints are very numerous, and are highlyesteemed; Heineken gives a full list of his prints, amounting to overfifteen hundred! The fertility of his invention and the facility of hishand were wonderful; yet his prints are accurately designed. Hefrequently made several drawings for the same plate before he wassatisfied. Watelet says that he saw four different drawings by him forthe celebrated Temptation of St. Anthony. His drawings are also greatlyadmired and highly prized. CALLOT'S PATRIOTISM. When Cardinal Richelieu desired Callot to design and engrave a set ofplates descriptive of the siege and fall of his native town, he promptlyrefused; and when the Cardinal peremptorily insisted that he should doit, he replied, "My Lord, if you continue to urge me, I will cut off thethumb of my right hand before your face, for I never will consent toperpetuate the calamity and disgrace of my sovereign and protector. " INGENUITY OF ARTISTS. Pliny asserts that an ingenious artist wrote the whole of the Iliad onso small a piece of parchment that it might be enclosed within thecompass of a nut-shell. Cicero also records the same thing. Thisdoubtless might be done on a strip of thin parchment, and rolling itcompactly. Heylin, in his life of Charles I. , says that in Queen Elizabeth's time, a person wrote the Ten Commandments, the Creed, the Pater Noster, theQueen's name, and the date, within the compass of a penny, which hepresented to her Majesty, together with a pair of spectacles of such anartificial make, that by their help she plainly discerned every letter. One Francis Almonus wrote the Creed, and the first fourteen verses ofthe Gospel of St. John, on a piece of parchment no larger than a penny. In the library of St. John's College, Oxford, is a picture of Charles I. Done with a pen, the lines of which contain all the psalms, written in alegible hand. "At Halston, in Shropshire, the seat of the Myttons, is preserved acarving much resembling that mentioned by Walpole in his Anecdotes ofPainting, vol. Ii. , p. 42. It is the portrait of Charles I. , full-faced, cut on a peach-stone; above, is a crown; his face, and clothes which areof a Vandyck dress are painted; on the reverse is an eagle transfixedwith an arrow, and round it is this motto: _I feathered this arrow. _ Thewhole is most admirably executed, and is set in gold, with a crystal oneach side. It probably was the work of Nicholas Bryot, a great graver ofthe mint in the time of Charles I. "--_Pennant's Wales. _ In the Royal Museum at Copenhagen is a common cherry-stone, on thesurface of which are cut two hundred and twenty heads! A HINT TO JEWELERS. "When the haughty and able Pope Innocent III. Caused Cardinal Langton tobe elected Archbishop of Canterbury in despite of King John, andcompelled him to submit, to appease the latter and to admonish him, hisHoliness presented him with four golden rings, set with precious stones, at the same time taking care to inform him of the many mysteries impliedin them. His Holiness begged of him (King John), " says Hume, "toconsider seriously the _form_ of the rings, their _number_, their_matter_, and their _color_. Their _form_, he said, shadowed outeternity, which had neither beginning nor end; and he ought thence tolearn his duty of aspiring from earthly objects to heavenly, from thingstemporal to things eternal. The _number_, from being a square, denotedsteadiness of mind, not to be subverted either by adversity orprosperity, fixed forever on the firm base of the four cardinalvirtues. _Gold_, which is the matter, being the most precious of themetals, signified wisdom, which is the most precious of all theaccomplishments, and justly preferred by Solomon to riches, power, andall exterior attainments. The _blue color_ of the sapphire representedFaith; the _verdure_ of the emerald, Hope; the _redness_ of the ruby, Charity; and the _splendor_ of the topaz, good works. " Jewelers, whousually deal so little in sentiment in their works, may learn from thisingenious allegory the advantage of calling up the wonder-working aid offancy, in forming their combinations of precious things. CURIOUS PAINTINGS. In the Cathedral at Worms, over the altar, is a very old painting, inwhich the Virgin is represented throwing the infant Jesus into thehopper of a mill; while from the other side he issues, changed intowafers or little morsels of bread, which the priests are administeringto the people. Mathison, in his letters, thus describes a picture in a church atConstance, called the Conception of the Holy Virgin. "An old man lies ona cloud, whence he darts a vast beam, which passes through a dovehovering just below; at the end of the beam appears a large transparentegg, in which egg is seen a child in swaddling clothes, with a gloryround it; Mary sits leaning in an arm-chair and opens her mouth toreceive the egg!" Which are the most profane--these pictures, or theVenus Anadyomene of Apelles, the Venus of Titian, and the Leda ofCorreggio? THE OLDEST OIL PAINTING EXTANT. "The oldest oil painting now in existence, is believed to be one of theMadonna and infant Jesus in her arms, with an Eastern style ofcountenance. It is marked DCCCLXXXVI. (886). This singular andvaluable painting formed part of the treasures of art in the old palaceof the Florentine Republic, and was purchased by the Director Bencivennifrom a broker in the street, for a few livres. " The above is found quoted in many books, in proof that oil painting wasknown long before the time of the Van Eycks; but all these old_supposed_ oil paintings have been proved by chemical analysis to havebeen painted in distemper. See vol. Ii. , p. 141, of this work. CURIOUS REPRESENTATIONS OF THE HARPIES. Homer represents the Harpies as the rapacious goddesses of the storms, residing near the Erinnyes, or the Ocean, before the jaws of hell. Ifany person was so long absent from home that it was not known what hadbecome of him, and he was supposed to be dead, it was commonly said, "The Harpies have carried him off. " Hesiod represents them as youngvirgins of great beauty. The later poets and artists vied with eachother in depicting them under the most hideous forms; they commonlyrepresented them as winged monsters, having the face of a woman and thebody of a vulture, with their feet and fingers armed with sharp claws. Spanheim, in his work, gives three representations of the harpies, takenfrom ancient coins and works of art; they have female heads, with thebodies and claws of birds of prey; the first has a coarse female face, the second a beautiful feminine head, and two breasts, and the third avisage ornamented with wreaths and a head-dress. There are various otherrepresentations of them, one of the most remarkable of which is amonster with a human head and the body of a vampire bat. ADRIAN BROWER. This extraordinary painter was born at Haerlem, in 1608. His parentswere extremely poor, and his mother sold to the peasants bonnets andhandkerchiefs, which the young Adrian painted with flowers and birds. These attempts were noticed by Francis Hals, a distinguished painter ofHaerlem, who offered to take the young artist into his school--whichproposal was gladly accepted. Hals, on discovering his superior genius, separated him from all his companions, and locked him up in a garret, that he might profit by his talents. The pictures of Brower soldreadily at high prices, but the avaricious Hals treated him withincreased severity, lest he should become acquainted with the value ofhis talents, and leave him. This cruelty excited the pity of Adrian vanOstade, then a pupil of Hals; and he found an opportunity of advisingBrower to make his escape, which the latter effected, and fled toAmsterdam. Soon after arriving in that city, he painted a picture ofBoors Fighting, which he gave to the landlord of the inn where helodged, and requested him to sell it. The host soon returned with onehundred ducats, which he had received for the work. The artist wasamazed at such a result of his labors, but instead of exerting hiswonderful talents, he plunged into a course of dissipation. This naturalpropensity to alternate work and indulgence marked his whole life, andinvolved him in many extraordinary adventures. BROWER, THE DUKE D'AREMBERG, AND RUBENS. When the States-General were at war with Spain, Brower started on avisit to Antwerp, whither his reputation had already proceeded him. Omitting to provide himself with a passport, he was arrested as a spy, and confined in the citadel, where the Duke d'Aremberg was imprisoned. That nobleman lived in friendship with Rubens, who often visited him inhis confinement; and the Duke, having observed the genius of Brower, desired Rubens to bring a palette and pencils, which he gave to Brower, and the latter soon produced a representation of Soldiers playing atCards, which he designed from a group he had seen from his prisonwindow. The Duke showed the picture to Rubens, who immediately exclaimedthat it was by the celebrated Brower, whose pictures he often admired;and he offered the Duke six hundred guilders for the work, but thelatter refused to part with it, and presented the artist with a muchlarger sum. Rubens lost no time in procuring his liberty, which he didby becoming his surety, took him into his own house, and treated himwith the greatest kindness. DEATH OF BROWER. Brower did not continue long in the hospitable mansion of Rubens, whoserefined and elegant manners, love of literature, and domestic happinesswere less congenial to this erratic genius than the revels of hispot-companions. Brower soon became weary of his situation, and returnedto his vicious habits, to which he soon fell a victim in 1640, at theearly age of 32 years. He died in the public hospital at Antwerp, andwas buried in an obscure manner; but when Rubens knew it, he had thebody reinterred, with funeral pomp, in the church of the Carmelites; andhe intended also to have erected a superb monument to his memory, had helived to see it executed; though Sandrart says there was a magnificentone over his tomb, with an epitaph to perpetuate his honor. BROWER'S WORKS. The subjects of Brower were of the lowest order, representing thefrolics of his pot companions; but his expression is so lively andcharacteristic, his coloring so transparent and brilliant, and thepassions and movements of his figures are so admirably expressed, thathis works have justly elicited the applause of the world. They arehighly valued, and in consequence of his irregular life, are exceedinglyscarce. Brower also etched a few plates in a very spirited style. ROSA DA TIVOLI. The name of this artist was Philip Roos, and he was born at Frankfort in1655. He early showed a passion for painting, and exhibited suchextraordinary talents that the Landgrave of Hesse took him under hisprotection, and sent him to Italy with a pension sufficient for hissupport. To facilitate his studies, he established himself at Tivoli(whence his name), where he kept a kind of menagerie, and on account ofthe number and variety of the animals, his house was called _Noah'sArk_. ROSA DA TIVOLI'S WORKS. Rosa da Tivoli's pictures usually represent pastoral subjects, withherdsmen and cattle, or shepherds with sheep and goats, which hefrequently painted as large as life. He designed everything from nature, not only his animals, but the sites of his landscapes, ruins, buildings, rocks, precipices, rivers, etc. His groups are composed with greatjudgment and taste, and his landscapes, backgrounds, skies, anddistances are treated in a masterly style. His cattle and animals, inparticular, are designed with wonderful truth and spirit; his coloringis full of force, his lights and shadows are distributed with judgmentand his touch is remarkably firm and spirited. ROSA DA TIVOLI'S FACILITY OF EXECUTION. Rosa da Tivoli acquired a wonderful facility in design and execution, for which reason he was named _Mercurius_ by the Bentvogel Society. Aremarkable instance of his powers is recorded by C. Le Blond, then astudent at Rome. "It happened one day, " says he, "that several youngartists and myself were occupied in designing from the bassi-relievi ofthe Arch of Titus, when Roos passing by, was particularly struck withsome picturesque object which caught his attention, and he requested oneof the students to accommodate him with a crayon and paper. What wasour surprise, when in half an hour he produced an admirable drawing, finished with accuracy and spirit. " It is also related that the Imperial Ambassador, Count Martinez, laid awager with a Swedish general that Roos would paint a picture ofthree-quarters' size, while they were playing a game at cards; and inless than half an hour the picture was well finished, though itconsisted of a landscape, a shepherd, and several sheep and goats. ROSA DA TIVOLI'S HABITS. Rosa da Tivoli unfortunately fell into extravagant and dissipatedhabits, which frequently caused him great inconvenience. From hisfacility, he multiplied his pictures to such an extent as greatly todepreciate their value. It is related that he would sit down, whenpressed for money, dispatch a large picture in a few hours, and send itdirectly to be sold at any price. His servant, possessing morediscretion than his master, usually paid him the highest price offeredby the dealers, and kept the pictures himself, till he could dispose ofthem to more advantage. LUCA CAMBIASO'S FACILITY IN PAINTING. The most remarkable quality of this distinguished Genoese painter washis rapidity of operation. He began to paint when ten years old, underthe eye of his father, Giovanni Cambiaso, who evinced good taste insetting him to copy some works by the correct and noble Mantegna. Hisprogress was so rapid that at the age of seventeen he was entrusted todecorate some façades and chambers of the Doria palace at Genoa, wherehe displayed his rash facility of hand by painting the story of Niobe ona space of wall fifty palms long and of proportionate height, withoutcartoons or any drawing larger than his first hasty sketch on a singlesheet of paper! While he was engaged on this work, there came onemorning some Florentine artists to look at it. Seeing a lad enter soonafter, and commence painting with prodigious fury, they called out tohim to desist; but his mode of handling the brushes and colors, whichthey had imagined it was his business merely to clean or pound, soonconvinced them that this daring youngster was no other than Lucahimself; whereupon they crossed themselves, and declared he would oneday eclipse Michael Angelo. CAMBIASO'S WORKS IN SPAIN. After attaining a high reputation in Italy, Cambiaso was invited toMadrid by Philip II. Of Spain. He executed there a great number ofworks, among which the most important was the vault of the choir of theEscurial church, where he painted in fresco the "Glory of the Blessed inHeaven. " Instead of allowing the artist to paint from his ownconceptions, the king listened to the counsels of the monks, who"recommended that the heavenly host should be drawn up in duetheological order. " A design "more pious than picturesque" being at lastagreed upon, the painter fell to work with his wonted fury, and sospeedily covered vast spaces with a multitude of figures, that the king, according to the expressive Italian phrase, "remained stupid, " not beingable to believe that the master, with only one assistant, could haveaccomplished so much. Philip often visited Cambiaso while at work, andone day remarking that the head of St. Anne among the blessed was tooyouthful, the painter replied by seizing his pencil, and with fourstrokes so seamed the face with wrinkles, and so entirely altered itsair, that the royal critic once more "remained stupid, " hardly knowingwhether he had judged amiss, or the change had been effected by magic. By means of thus painting at full speed, frequently without sketches, and sometimes with both hands at once, Cambiaso clothed the vault withits immense fresco in about fifteen months. The coloring is still fresh, and many of the forms are fine and the figures noble; but thecomposition cannot be called pleasing. The failure must be mainlyattributed to the unlucky meddling of the friars, who have marshalled "The helmed Cherubim, And sworded Seraphim, " with exact military precision, ranged the celestial choir in rows likethe fiddlers of a sublunary orchestra, and accommodated the congregationof the righteous with long benches, like those of a Methodistmeeting-house! However, the king was so well pleased with the work, thathe rewarded Cambiaso with 12, 000 ducats. CAMBIASO'S ARTISTIC MERITS. In the earlier part of his career, the impetuosity of his genius led himastray; he usually painted his pictures in oil or fresco withoutpreparing either drawing or cartoon; and his first style was giganticand unnatural. Subsequently, however, he checked this impetuosity, andit was in the middle of his life that he produced his best works. Hisfertility of invention was wonderful; his genius grappled with andconquered the most arduous difficulties of the art, and he shows hispowers in foreshortening in the most daring variety. He was rapid andbold in design, yet was selected by Boschini as a model of correctness;hence his drawings, though numerous, are highly esteemed. His Rape ofthe Sabines, in the Palazzo Imperiali at Terralba, near Genoa, has beenhighly extolled. It is a large work full of life and motion, passionateravishers and reluctant damsels, fine horses and glimpses of noblearchitecture, with several episodes heightening the effect of the mainstory. Mengs declared he had seen nothing out of Rome that so vividlyreminded him of the chambers of the Vatican. RARITY OF FEMALE PORTRAITS IN SPAIN. Very few female portraits are found in the Spanish collections. Theirpainters were seldom brought in professional contact with the beauty ofhigh-born women--the finest touchstone of professional skill--and theirgreat portrait painters lived in an age of jealous husbands, who carednot to set off to public admiration the charms of their spouses. Velasquez came to reside at court about the same time that Madrid wasvisited by Sir Kenelm Digby, who had like to have been slain the firstnight of his arrival, for merely looking at a lady. Returning with twofriends from supper at Lord Bristol's, the adventurous knight relates inhis Private Memoirs, how they came beneath a balcony where a love-lornfair one stood touching her lute, and how they loitered awhile to admireher beauty, and listen to her "soul-ravishing harmony. " Their delightfulcontemplations, however, were soon arrested by a sudden attack fromseveral armed men, who precipitated themselves upon the three Britons. Their swords were instantly drawn, and a fierce combat ensued; but thevaliant Digby slew the leader of the band, and finally succeeded inescaping with his companions. Of the sixty-two works by Velasquez in the Royal Gallery at Madrid, there are only four female portraits; and of these, two representchildren, another an ancient matron, and a fourth his own wife! The Dukeof Abuquerque, who at the door of his own palace waylaid andhorsewhipped Philip IV. , and his minister Olivarez, feigning ignoranceof their persons, as the monarch came to pay a nocturnal visit to theDuchess, was not very likely to call in the court painter to take herGrace's portrait. Ladies lived for the most part in a sort of Orientalseclusion, amongst duennas, waiting-women, and dwarfs; and going abroadonly to mass, or to take the air in curtained carriages on the Prado. Insuch a state of things, the rarity of female portraits in the Spanishcollections was a natural consequence. MURILLO'S PICTURES IN SPANISH AMERICA. It is related that this great Spanish painter visited America in earlylife, and painted there many works; but the later Spanish historianshave shown that he never quitted his native country; and thecircumstance of his pictures being found in America, is best accountedfor by the following narrative. After acquiring considerable knowledgeof the art under Juan del Castillo at Seville, he determined to travelfor improvement; but how to raise the necessary funds was a matter ofdifficulty, for his parents had died leaving little behind them, and hisgenius had not yet recommended him to the good offices of any wealthyor powerful patron. But Murillo was not to be balked of his cherisheddesires. Buying a large quantity of canvas, he divided it into squaresof various sizes, which he primed and prepared with his own hands forthe pencil, and then converted into pictures of the more popular saints, landscapes, and flower-pieces. These he sold to the American traders forexportation, and thus obtained a sum of money sufficient for hispurpose. MURILLO'S "VIRGIN OF THE NAPKIN. " The small picture which once adorned the tabernacle of the Capuchin highaltar at Seville, is interesting on account of its legend, as well asits extraordinary artistic merits. Murillo, whilst employed at theconvent, had formed a friendship with a lay brother, the cook of thefraternity, who attended to his wants and waited on him with peculiarassiduity. At the conclusion of his labors, this Capuchin of the kitchenbegged for some trifling memorial of his pencil. The painter was quitewilling to comply, but said that he had exhausted his stock of canvas. "Never mind, " said the ready cook, "take this napkin, " offering him thatwhich he had used at dinner. The good-natured artist accordingly went towork, and before evening he had converted the piece of coarse linen intoa picture compared to which cloth of gold or the finest tissue of theEast would be accounted worthless. The Virgin has a face in whichthought is happily blended with maidenly innocence; and the divineinfant, with his deep earnest eyes, leans forward in her arms, struggling as it were almost out of the frame, as if to welcome thecarpenter Joseph home from his daily toil. The picture is colored with abrilliancy which Murillo never excelled, glowing with a golden light, asif the sun were always shining on the canvas. This admirable work is nowin the Museum of Seville. ANECDOTE OF AN ALTAR-PIECE BY MURILLO. One of Murillo's pictures, in the possession of a society of friars inFlanders, was bought by an Englishman for a considerable sum, and thepurchaser affixed his signature and seal to the back of the canvas, atthe desire of the venders. In due time it followed him to England, andbecame the pride of his collection. Several years afterwards, however, while passing through Belgium, the purchaser turned aside to visit hisfriends the monks, when he was greatly surprised to find the beautifulwork which he had supposed was in his own possession, smiling in all itsoriginal brightness on the very same wall where he had been firstsmitten by its charms! The truth was, that the monks always kept underthe canvas an excellent copy, which they sold in the manner aboverelated, as often as they could find a purchaser. MURILLO AND HIS SLAVE GOMEZ. Sebastian Gomez, the mulatto slave of Murillo, is said to have becomeenamored of art while performing the menial offices of his master'sstudio. Like Erigonus, the color grinder of Nealces, or like Pareja, themulatto of Velasquez, he devoted his leisure to the secret study of theprinciples of drawing, and in time acquired a skill with the brushrivalled by few of the regular scholars of Murillo. There is a traditionat Seville, that he took the opportunity one day, when the painting roomwas empty, of giving the first proof of his abilities, by finishing thehead of a Virgin, that stood ready sketched on his master's easel. Pleased with the beauty of this unexpected interpolation, Murillo, whenhe discovered the author of it, immediately promoted Gomez to the use ofthose colors which it had hitherto been his task to grind. "I am indeedfortunate, Sebastian, " said the good-natured artist, "for I have notonly created pictures, but a painter. " AN ARTIST'S LOVE ROMANCE. Francisco Vieira, an eminent Portuguese painter, was still a child whenhe became enamored of Doña Ignez Elena de Lima, the daughter of nobleparents, who lived on friendly terms with his own and permitted theintercourse of their children. The thread of their loves was broken fora while by the departure of the young wooer to Rome, in the suite of theMarquis of Abrantes. There he applied himself diligently to the study ofpainting, under Trevisani, and carried off the first prize in theAcademy of St. Luke. On returning to Portugal, although only in his 16thyear, he was immediately appointed by King John V. To paint a largepicture of the Mystery of the Eucharist, to be used at the approachingfeast of Corpus Christi; and he also painted the king's portrait. An absence of seven years had not affected Vieira's constancy, and hetook the first opportunity of flying once more to Ignez. He was kindlyreceived by the Lima family, at their villa on the beautiful shores ofthe Tagus, and was permitted to reside there for a while, painting thescenery, and wooing his not unwilling mistress. When the maiden's heartwas fairly won, the parents at length interfered, and the lovers foundthe old adage verified, that "the course of true love never did runsmooth. " Vieira was ignominiously turned out of doors, and the fairIgnez was shut up in the convent of St. Anna, and compelled to take theveil. The afflicted lover immediately laid his cause before the king, butreceived an unfavorable answer. Nothing daunted, he then went to Rome, and succeeded in obtaining from the Pope a commission to the Patriarchof Lisbon, empowering him to inquire into the facts of the case; andthat prelate's report being favorable, the lover was made happy with abull annulling the religious vows of the nun, and authorizing theirmarriage. It is uncertain how long this affair remained undecided; but aPortuguese Jesuit having warned Vieira that at home he ran the risk ofbeing punished by confiscation of his property, for obtaining a bullwithout the consent of the civil power, he prolonged his residence atRome to six years, that the affair might have time to be forgotten atLisbon. During this period he continued to exercise his pencil with somuch success that he was elected a member of the Academy of St. Luke. After such a probation, the energy and perseverance of the lover isalmost unparalleled. He finally ventured to return to his native Tagus, and accomplished the object of his life. Disguising himself as abricklayer, he skulked about the convent where Ignez lay immured, mingling with the workmen employed there, till he found means to open acommunication with her and concert a plan of escape. He then furnishedher with male attire, and at last successfully carried her off onhorseback (though not without a severe wound from the brother of hisbride), to another bishopric, where they were married in virtue of thePope's bull. After residing for some time in Spain and Italy, however, Vieira was commanded to return to Portugal, and appointed painter to theking. Being the best artist in that kingdom, his talents soonobliterated the remembrance of his somewhat irregular marriage, andduring forty years he painted with great reputation and success for theroyal palaces at Nafra and elsewhere, for the convents, and thecollections of the nobility. It will doubtless be pleasing to the fairreaders of these anecdotes, that all this long course of outwardprosperity was sweetened by the affection of his constant wife. ESTEBAN MARCH'S STRANGE METHOD OF STUDY. Estéban March, a distinguished Spanish painter of the 17th century, waseccentric in character and violent in temperament. Battles being hisfavorite subjects, his studio was hung round with pikes, cutlasses, javelins, and other implements of war, which he used in a very peculiarand boisterous manner. As the mild and saintly Joanes was wont toprepare himself for his daily task by prayer and fasting, so his riotouscountryman used to excite his imagination to the proper creative pitchby beating a drum, or blowing a trumpet, and then valiantly assaultingthe walls of his chamber with sword and buckler, laying about him, likeanother Don Quixote, with a blind energy that told severely on theplaster and furniture, and drove his terrified scholars or assistants toseek safety in flight. Having thus lashed himself into sufficientfrenzy, he performed miracles, according to Palomino, in the field ofbattle-pieces, throwing off many bold and spirited pictures of Pharaohand his host struggling in the angry waters, or mailed Christiansquelling the turbaned armies of the Crescent. Few will withhold from himthe praise of Bermudez, for brilliancy of coloring, and for the skillwith which the dust, smoke, and dense atmosphere of the combat aredepicted. MARCH'S ADVENTURE OF THE FISH FRIED IN LINSEED OIL. Palomino says that March had gone out one day, leaving neither meat normoney in the house, and was absent till past midnight, when he returnedwith a few fish, which he insisted on having instantly dressed forsupper. His wife said there was no oil; and Juan Conchillos, one of hispupils, being ordered to get some, objected that all the shops were shutup. "Then take linseed oil, " cried the impetuous March, "for, _porDios_, I will have these fish presently fried. " The mess was thereforeserved with this unwonted sauce, but was no sooner tasted than it beganto act as a vigorous emetic upon the whole party, "for indeed, " gravelywrites Palomino, "linseed oil, at all times of a villainous flavor, whenhot is the very devil. " Without more ado, the master of the feast threwfish and frying-pan out of the window; and Conchillos, knowing hishumor, flung the earthen chafing-dish and charcoal after them. March wasdelighted with this sally, and embracing the youth, he lifted him fromthe floor, putting him in bodily fear, as he after wards told Palomino, that he was about to follow the coal and viands into the street. As forthe poor weary wife, she thought of her crockery, and remarking in amatter of-fact way, "What shall we have for supper now?" went to bed;whither her husband, pleased with the frolic of spoiling his meal andbreaking the dishes, seems to have followed her in a more complacentmood than common. A PAINTER'S REBUKE. José Antonilez, a Spanish painter, studied under Francisco Rizi atMadrid. When the latter was occupied in preparing some new scenery forthe theatre at Buon Retiro, Antonilez spoke of him as a painter offoot-cloths--an expression which was soon communicated to his master. Rizi immediately administered a wholesome practical rebuke, bycommanding the attendance of Antinolez on his Majesty's service, andordering him to execute a piece of painting in distemper. The unluckywag, being quite ignorant of the mode of performing the work, and tooproud to confess it, worked for a whole day, at the end of which he hadmerely spoiled a large piece of canvas. "So, sir, " said Rizi, quietly, "you see painting foot-cloths is not so easy after all;" and turning tohis servant, added, "here, boy, take this canvas and carry it to thecistern to be washed. " A PAINTER'S RETORT COURTEOUS. Jean Ranc, an eminent French portrait painter, was sometimes annoyed byimpertinent and vexatious criticism. Having exhausted all his talentupon a particular portrait, the friends of the sitter refused to bepleased, although the sitter himself appears to have been wellsatisfied. In concert with the latter, Ranc concerted a plan for apractical retort. After privately painting a copy of the picture, he cutthe head out of the canvas, and placed it in such a position that theoriginal could supply the opening with his own veritable face, undetected. After all was ready, the cavilers were invited to view theperformance, but they were no better pleased. Falling completely intothe snare, the would-be critics were going on to condemn the likeness, when the relaxing features and hearty laughter of the supposed portrait, speedily and sufficiently avenged the painter of their fastidiousness. ARDEMANS AND BOCANEGRA--A TRIAL OF SKILL. These Spanish painters contended in 1689 for the office of Master of theWorks in the Cathedral of Granada. Bocanegra was excessively vain andoverbearing, and boasted his superiority to all the artists of his time;but Ardemans, though a stranger in Granada, was not to be daunted, and atrial of skill, "a duel with pencils, " was accordingly arranged betweenthem, which was, that each should paint the other's portrait. Ardemans, who was then hardly twenty-five years of age, first entered the lists, and without drawing any outline on the canvas, produced an excellentlikeness of his adversary in less than an hour. Bocanegra, quite dauntedby this feat, and discouraged by the applause accorded to his rival bythe numerous spectators, put off his own exhibition till another day, and in the end utterly failed in his attempt to transfer the features ofhis rival to canvas. His defeat, and the jeers of his former admirers, so overwhelmed him with mortification, that he died shortly after. A PAINTER'S ARTIFICE TO "KEEP UP APPEARANCES. " The Spanish painter Antonio Pereda married Doña Maria de Bustamente, awoman of some rank, and greater pretension, who would associate onlywith people of high fashion, and insisted on having a duenna in constantwaiting in her antechamber, like a lady of quality. Pereda was not richenough to maintain such an attendant; he therefore compromised mattersby painting on a screen an old lady sitting at her needle, withspectacles on her nose, and so truthfully executed that visitors werewont to salute her as they passed, taking her for a real duenna, toodeaf or too discreet to notice their entrance! A GOOD-NATURED CRITICISM. Bartolomeo Carducci, who was employed in the service of the Spanishcourt for many years, was expressing one day his admiration of a newlyfinished picture by a brother artist, when one of his own scholars drewhis attention to a badly executed foot. "I did not observe it, " repliedhe, "it is so concealed by the difficult excellence of this bosom andthese hands"--a piece of kindly criticism that deserves to be recorded. ALONSO CANO AND THE INTENDANT OF THE BISHOP OF MALAGA. The Bishop of Malaga, being engaged in improving his Cathedral church, invited Cano to that city, for the purpose of designing a new tabernaclefor the high altar, and new stalls for the choir. He had finished hisplans, very much to the prelate's satisfaction, when he was privatelyinformed that the Intendant of the works proposed to allow him but avery trifling remuneration. "These drawings, " said Cano, "are either tobe given away, or to fetch 2, 000 ducats;" and packing them up, hemounted his mule, and took the road to Granada. The niggardly Intendant, learning the cause of his departure, became alarmed, and sent amessenger after him post-haste, offering him his own price for theplans! CANO'S LOVE OF SCULPTURE. Skillful as Cano was with the pencil, he loved the chisel above all hisother artistic implements. He was so fond of sculpture that, whenwearied with painting, he would take his tools, and block out a piece ofcarving. A disciple one day remarking that to lay down a pencil and takeup a mallet, was a strange method of repose, he replied, "Blockhead!don't you see that to create form and relief on a flat surface, is agreater labor than to fashion one shape into another?" CASTILLO'S SARCASM ON ALFARO. Juan de Alfaro first studied under Antonio del Castillo at Seville, andsubsequently in the school of Velasquez at Madrid. After his return toSeville, he was wont to plume himself upon the knowledge of art which hehad acquired in the school of that great painter; and he also signed allhis pictures in a conspicuous manner, "_Alfaro, pinxit_. " This was toomuch for Castillo, and he accordingly inscribed his Baptism of St. Francis, executed for the Capuchin convent, where his juvenile rival waslikewise employed, "_Non pinxit Alfaro_. " Years after, Palomino becamesufficiently intimate with Alfaro, to ask him what he thought ofCastillo's sarcastic inscription. "I think, " replied the unabashedobject of the jest, "that it was a great honor for me, who was then abeardless boy, to be treated as a rival by so able an artist. " TORRES' IMITATIONS OF CARAVAGGIO. Matias de Torres, a Spanish painter, affected the style of Caravaggio. His compositions were half veiled in thick impenetrable shadows, whichconcealed the design, and sometimes left the subject a mystery. Francisco de Solis was standing before one of them, in the church ofVictory at Madrid, representing a scene from the life of St. Diego, andwas asked to explain the subject depicted. "It represents, " said thewitty painter, "_San Brazo_, " St. Arm, nothing being distinguished butthe arm of a mendicant in the background. PANTOJA AND THE EAGLE. Palomino relates that a superb eagle, of the bearded kind, having beencaptured in the royal chase, near the Prado, the king (Philip III. ) gaveorders to Pantoja to paint its likeness, which he did with suchtruthfulness that the royal bird, on seeing it, mistook it for a realeagle, and attacked the picture with such impetuosity that he tore it inpieces with his beak and talons before they could secure him. Theindignant bird was then tied more carefully, and the portrait paintedover again. THE PAINTER METHODIUS AND THE KING OF BULGARIA. Pacheco relates a remarkable effect produced by a picture from thepencil of Methodius, who resided at Constantinople about 854. He wasinvited to Nicopolis by Bogoris, king of the Bulgarians, to decorate abanqueting-hall in his palace. That prince left the choice of hissubject to the artist, limiting him to those of a tragic or terriblecharacter. The sister of Bogoris, during a long captivity atConstantinople, had become a convert to the Greek church, and greatlydesired that her brother should renounce paganism; therefore it wasprobably at her instance, in this case, that Methodius painted the LastJudgment. He succeeded in depicting the glories of the blessed and thepains of the damned in such a fearful manner, that the heathen king wasinduced in his terror to send for a Bishop, and signify his willingnessto unite with the Greek church; and the whole Bulgarian nation soonfollowed his example. JOHN C. VERMEYEN AND CHARLES V. This Dutch painter was invited to Spain by Charles V. , and accompaniedthat monarch on his expedition to Tunis, of which he preserved somescenes that were afterwards transferred to Brussels tapestries. Hefollowed the court for many years, and exercised his art with honor andprofit, in portrait, landscape, and sacred subjects. The palace of thePrado was adorned with a number of his works, particularly eightpictures representing the Imperial progresses in Germany, and Views ofMadrid, Valladolid, Naples, and London; all of which perished in thefire of 1608. Vermeyen was an especial favorite of Charles V. , whoordered his bust to be executed in marble, "for the sake of the gravityand nobleness of his countenance. " He was very remarkable for his longbeard, which gained him the surname of _El Barbudo_ or _Barbalonga_. Infact, so very lengthy was this beard, that Descamps says the Emperor inhis playful moods used to amuse himself by treading on it, as it trailedon the ground! BLAS DE PRADO AND THE EMPEROR OF MOROCCO. In 1593 the Emperor of Morocco applied to Philip II. For the loan of apainter, to which the latter made answer that they had in Spain twosorts of painters--the ordinary and the excellent--and desired to knowwhich his infidel brother preferred. "Kings should always have thebest, " replied the Moor; and so Philip sent him Blas de Prado to Fez. There he painted various works for the palace, and a portrait of themonarch's daughter, to the great satisfaction of her father. Afterkeeping the artist several years in his service, the emperor finallysent him away, with many rich gifts; and he returned to Castile withconsiderable wealth. The Academy of San Ferdinando possesses a fine workby him, representing the Virgin and Infant seated in the clouds. DON JUAN CARRENO This Spanish painter was a favorite with King Charles II. He waspainting his Majesty's portrait one day in the presence of the Queenmother, when the royal sitter asked him to which of the knightly ordershe belonged. "To none, " replied the artist, "but the order of yourMajesty's servants. " "Why is this?" said Charles. The Admiral ofCastile, who was standing by, replied that he should have a crossimmediately; and on leaving the royal presence, he sent Carreño a richbadge of Santiago, assuring him that what the king had said entitled himto wear it. Palomino says, however, that the artist's modesty preventedhim from accepting the proffered honor. His royal master continued totreat him with unabated regard, and would allow no artist to paint himwithout Carreño's permission. CARRENO'S COPY OF TITIAN'S ST. MARGARET. Palomino was one day in company with Carreño at the house of Don Pedrode Arce, when a discussion arose about the merits of a certain copy ofTitian's St. Margaret, which hung in the room After all present hadvoted it execrable, Carreño quietly remarked, "It at least has the meritof showing that no man need despair of improving in art, for I paintedit myself when I was a beginner. " CARRENO'S ABSTRACTION OF MIND. Being at his easel one morning with two friends, one of them, for ajest, drank the cup of chocolate which stood untasted by his side. Themaid-servant removing the cup, Carreño remonstrated, saying that he hadnot breakfasted, and on being shown that the contents were gone, appealed to the visitors. Being gravely assured by them that he hadactually emptied the cup with his own lips, he replied, like Newton, "Well really, I was so busy that I had entirely forgotten it. " ANECDOTE OF CESPEDES' LAST SUPPER. The Cathedral of Cordova still possesses his famous Supper, but in sofaded and ruinous a condition that it is impossible to judge fairly ofits merits. Palomino extols the dignity and beauty of the Saviour'shead, and the masterly discrimination of character displayed in those ofthe apostles. Of the jars and vases standing in the foreground, it isrelated that while the picture was on the easel, these accessoriesattracted, by their exquisite finish, the attention of some visitors, tothe exclusion of the higher parts of the composition, to the greatdisgust of the artist. "Andres!" cried he, somewhat testily, to hisservant, "rub out these things, since after all my care and study, andamongst so many heads, figures, hands, and expressions, people choose tosee nothing but these impertinences;" and much persuasion and entreatywere needed to save the devoted pipkins from destruction. ZUCCARO'S COMPLIMENT TO CESPEDES. The reputation which the Spanish painter Cespedes enjoyed among hiscotemporaries, is proved by an anecdote of Federigo Zuccaro. On beingrequested to paint a picture of St. Margaret for the Cathedral ofCordova, he for some time refused to comply, asking, "Where is Cespedes, that you send to Italy for pictures?" DONA BARBARA MARIA DE HUEVA. Doña Barbara Maria de Hueva was born at Madrid in 1733. Before she hadreached her twentieth year, according to Bermudez, she had acquired somuch skill in painting, that at the first meeting of the Academy of St. Ferdinand in 1752, on the exhibition of some of her sketches, she wasimmediately elected an honorary academician, and received the firstdiploma issued under the royal charter. "This proud distinction, " saidthe president, "is conferred in the hope that the fair artist may beencouraged to rival the fame of those ladies already illustrious inart. " How far this hope was realized, Bermudez has omitted to inform us. THE MIRACULOUS PICTURE OF THE VIRGIN. The eminent American sculptor Greenough, who has recently (1853)departed this life, wrote several years ago a very interesting accountof a wonderful picture at Florence, from which the following isextracted: "When you enter the church of Santissima Annunziata, at Florence, yourattention is drawn at once to a sort of miniature temple on the lefthand. It is of white marble; but the glare and flash of crimson hangingsand silver lamps scarcely allow your eye the quiet necessary toappreciate either form or material. A picture hangs there. It is the_Miraculous Annunciation_. The artist who was employed to paint it, hadfinished all except the head of the Virgin Mary, and fell asleep beforethe easel while the work was in that condition. On awakening, he beheldthe picture finished; and the short time which had elapsed, and his ownposition relative to the canvas, made it clear (so says the tradition)that a divine hand had completed a task which, to say the least, amortal could only attempt with despair. "Less than this has made many pictures in Italy the objects ofattentions which our Puritan fathers condemned as idolatrous. Themiraculous 'Annunziata' became, accordingly, the divinity of a splendidshrine. The fame of her interposition spread far and wide, and hertabernacle was filled with the costly offerings of the devout, the showytributes of the zealous. The prince gave of his abundance, nor was thewidow's mite refused; and to this day the reputation of this shrinestands untouched among all papal devotees. "The Santissima Annunziata is always veiled, unless her interposition isurgently demanded by the apprehension of famine, plague, cholera, orsome other public calamity. During my own residence at Florence, I havenever known the miraculous picture to be uncovered during a drought, without the desired result immediately following. In cases of longcontinued rains, its intervention has been equally happy. I have heardseveral persons, rather inclined to skepticism as to the miraculousqualities of the picture, hint that the _barometer_ was consulted onthese occasions; else, say they, why was not the picture uncoveredbefore the mischief had gone so far? What an idea is suggested by thebare hint! "I stood on the pavement of the church, with an old man who had himselfbeen educated as a priest. He had a talent for drawing, and became apainter. As a practical painter, he was mediocre; but he was learned ineverything relating to art. He gradually sank from history to portrait, from portrait to miniature, from miniature to restoration; and had thegrim satisfaction, in his old age, of mending what in his best days henever could make--good pictures. When I knew him, he was one of theconservators of the Royal Gallery. He led me before the shrine, andwhispered, with much veneration, the story I have related of its origin. When I had gazed long at the picture, I turned to speak to him, but hehad left the church. As I walked through the vestibule, however, I sawhim standing near one of the pillars that adorn the façade. He wasevidently waiting for me. Me-thinks I see him now, with his face ofseventy and his dress of twenty-five, his bright black wig, his velvetwaistcoat, and glittering gold chain--his snuff-box in his hand, and alatent twinkle in his black eyes. 'What is really remarkable in thatmiraculous picture, ' said he, taking me by the button, and forcing me tobend till his mouth and my ear were exactly on a line--'What is reallyremarkable about it is, that the angel who painted that Virgin, socompletely adopted the style of that epoch! Same angular, incorrectoutline! Same opaque shadows! eh? eh?' He took a pinch, and wishing me agood appetite, turned up the Via S. Sebastiano. " THE CHAIR OF ST. PETER. "La Festra di Cattreda, or commemoration of the placing of the chair ofSt. Peter, on the 18th of January, is one of the most strikingceremonies, at Rome, which follow Christmas and precede the holy week. At the extremity of the great nave of St. Peter's, behind the highaltar, and mounted upon a tribune designed or ornamented by MichaelAngelo, stands a sort of throne, composed of precious materials, andsupported by four gigantic figures. A glory of seraphim, with groups ofangels, shed a brilliant light upon its splendors. This throne enshrinesthe real, plain, worm-eaten wooden chair, on which St. Peter, the princeof the apostles, is said to have pontificated; more precious than allthe bronze, gold, and gems with which it is hidden, not only fromimpious, but holy eyes, and which once only, in the flight of ages, wasprofaned by mortal inspection. "The sacrilegious curiosity of the French, however, broke through allobstacles to their seeing the chair of St. Peter. They actually removedits superb casket, and discovered the relic. Upon its mouldering anddusty surface were traced carvings, which bore the appearance ofletters. The chair was quickly brought into a better light, the dust andcobwebs removed, and the inscription (for an inscription it was), faithfully copied. The writing is in Arabic characters, and is the wellknown confession of Mahometan faith--'There is but one God, and Mahometis his prophet. ' It is supposed that this chair had been, among thespoils of the Crusaders, offered to the church at a time when a tastefor antiquarian lore, and the deciphering of inscriptions, were not yetin fashion. The story has been since hushed up, the chair replaced, andnone but the unhallowed remember the fact, and none but the audaciousrepeat it. Yet such there are, even at Rome!"--_Ireland's Anecdotes ofNapoleon. _ THE SAGRO CATINO, OR EMERALD DISH. "The church of St. Lorenzo, at Genoa, is celebrated for containing amost sacred relic, the 'Sagro Catino, ' a dish of one entire and perfect_emerald_, said to be that on which our Saviour ate his last supper. Such a dish in the house of a Jewish publican was a miracle in itself. Mr. Eustace says, he looked for this dish, but found that the French, 'whose delight is brutal violence, as it is that of the lion or thetiger, ' had carried it away. And so indeed they did. But that wasnothing. The carrying off relics--the robbing of Peter to pay Paul, andspoliating one church to enrich another--was an old trick of legitimateconquerors in all ages; for this very '_dish_' had been carried away bythe royal crusaders, when they took _Cesarea_ in Palestine, under_Guillaume Embriaco_, in the twelfth century. In the division of spoils, this emerald fell to the share of the _Genoese Crusaders_, into whoseholy vocation some of their old trading propensities evidently entered;and they deemed the vulgar value, the profane price, of this treasure, so high, that on an emergency, they pledged it for nine thousand fivehundred livres. Redeemed and replaced, it was guarded by the _knights ofhonor_ called _Clavigeri_; and only escaped once a year! Millions kneltbefore it, and the penalty on the bold but zealous hand that touched itwith a diamond, was a thousand golden ducats. " The French seized this relic, as the crusaders had done in the twelfthcentury; but instead of conveying it from the church of San Lorenzo tothe abbey of St. Denis (_selon les règles_), they most sacrilegiouslysent it to a _laboratory_. Instead of submitting it, with a traditionalstory, to a _council of Trent_, they handed it over to the _institute ofParis_; and chemists, geologists, and philosophers, were called on todecide the fate of that relic which bishops, priests and deacons hadpronounced to be too sacred for human investigation, or even for humantouch. _The result of the scientific investigation was, that the emeralddish was a piece of green glass!_ When England made the King of Sardinia a present of the dukedom of oneof the oldest republics in Europe, and restitutions were making "_depart et d'autre_;" _Victor Emmanuel_ insisted upon having his emeralddish; not for the purpose of putting it in a cabinet of curiosities, asthey had done at Paris, to serve as a curious monument of the remoteepoch in which the art of making colored glass was known--(of its greatantiquity there is no doubt)--but of restoring it to its shrine at SanLorenzo--to its guard of knights servitors--to the homage, offerings, and bigotry of the people! with a republished assurance that this is theinvaluable _emerald dish_, the '_Sagro Catino_, ' which _Queen Sheba_offered, with other gems, to King Solomon (who deposited it, where allgems should be, in his church), and which afterwards was reserved for ahigher destiny than even that assigned to it in the gorgeous temple ofJerusalem. The story of the analysis by the institute of Paris is hushedup, and those who would revive it would be branded with the odium ofblasphemy and sedition; none now remember such things, but those who arethe determined enemies of social order, or as the Genoese Royal Journalwould call them, '_the radicals of the age_. '--_Italy, by LadyMorning_. "THE PAINTER OF FLORENCE. " There is an old painting in the church of the Holy Virgin at Florence, representing the Virgin with the infant Jesus in her arms, trampling thedragon under her feet, about which is the following curious legend, thushumorously described by Southey, in the Annals of the Fine Arts: There once was a Painter in Catholic days, Like Job who eschewed all evil, Still on his Madonnas the curious may gaze With applause and amazement; but chiefly his praise And delight was in painting the devil. They were angels compared to the devils he drew, Who besieged poor St. Anthony's cell, Such burning hot eyes, such a _d----mnable_ hue, You could even smell brimstone, their breath was so blue He painted his devils so well. And now had the artist a picture begun, 'Twas over the Virgin's church door; She stood on the dragon embracing her son, Many devils already the artist had done, But this must outdo all before. The old dragon's imps as they fled through the air, At seeing it paused on the wing, For he had a likeness so just to a hair, That they came as Apollyon himself had been there, To pay their respects to their king. Every child on beholding it, shivered with dread, And screamed, as he turned away quick; Not an old woman saw it, but raising her head, Dropp'd a bead, made a cross on her wrinkles, and said, "God help me from ugly old Nick!" What the Painter so earnestly thought on by day, He sometimes would dream of by night; But once he was started as sleeping he lay, 'Twas no fancy, no dream--he could plainly survey That the devil himself was in sight. "You rascally dauber, " old Beelzebub cries, "Take heed how you wrong me, again! Though your caricatures for myself I despise, Make me handsomer now in the multitude's eyes, Or see if I threaten in vain. " Now the painter was bold and religious beside, And on faith he had certain reliance, So earnestly he all his countenance eyed, And thanked him for sitting with Catholic pride, And sturdily bid him defiance. Betimes in the morning, the Painter arose, He is ready as soon as 'tis light; Every look, every line, every feature he knows, 'Twas fresh to his eye, to his labor he goes, And he has the wicked old one quite. Happy man, he is sure the resemblance can't fail, The tip of his nose is red hot, There's his grin and his fangs, his skin cover'd with scales And that--the identical curl of the tail, Not a mark--not a claw is forgot. He looks and retouches again with delight; 'Tis a portrait complete to his mind! He touches again, and again feeds his sight, He looks around for applause, and he sees with affright, The original standing behind. "Fool! idiot!" old Beelzebub grinned as he spoke, And stamp'd on the scaffold in ire; The painter grew pale, for he knew it no joke, 'Twas a terrible height, and the scaffolding broke; And the devil could wish it no higher. "Help! help me, O Mary, " he cried in alarm, As the scaffold sank under his feet, From the canvas the Virgin extended her arm, She caught the good painter, she saved him from harm, There were thousands who saw in the street. The old dragon fled when the wonder he spied, And curs'd his own fruitless endeavor: While the Painter called after, his rage to deride, Shook his palette and brushes in triumph, and cried, "Now I'll paint thee more ugly than ever!" LEGEND OF THE PAINTER-FRIAR, THE DEVIL AND THE VIRGIN. Don José de Valdivielso, one of the chaplains of the gay Cardinal InfantFerdinand of Austria, relates the following legend in his paper on theTax on Pictures, appended to Carducho's Dialogos de la Pintura. Acertain young friar was famous amongst his order, for his skill inpainting; and he took peculiar delight in drawing the Virgin and theDevil. To heighten the divine beauty of the one, and to devise new andextravagant forms of ugliness for the other, were the chief recreationsfor his leisure hours. Vexed at last by the variety and vigor of hissketches, Beelzebub, to be revenged, assumed the form of a lovelymaiden, and crossed under this guise the path of the friar, who being ofan amorous disposition, fell at once into the trap. The seeming damselsmiled on her shaven wooer, but though nothing loth to be won, would notsurrender her charms at a less price than certain reliquaries and jewelsin the convent treasury--a price which the friar in an evil hourconsented to pay. He admitted her at midnight within the convent walls, and leading her to the sacristy, took from its antique cabinet thethings for which she had asked. Then came the moment of vengeance. Passing in their return through the moonlit cloister as the friar stolealong, embracing the booty with one arm, and his false Duessa with theother, the demon-lady suddenly cried out "Thieves!" with diabolicalenergy, and instantly vanished. The snoring monks rushed disordered fromtheir cells and detected their unlucky brother making off with theirplate. Excuse being impossible, they tied the culprit to a column, andleaving him till matins, when his punishment was to be determined, wentback to their slumbers. When all was quiet, the Devil reappeared, butthis time in his most hideous shape. Half dead with cold and terror, thediscomfited caricaturist stood shivering at his column, while histormentor made unmercifully merry with him; twitting him with hisamorous overtures, mocking his stammered prayers, and irreverentlysuggesting an appeal for aid to the beauty he so loved to delineate. Thepenitent wretch at last took the advice thus jeeringly given--when lo!the Virgin descended, radiant in heavenly loveliness, loosened hiscords, and bade him bind the Evil One to the column in his place--anorder which he obeyed through her strength, with no less alacrity thanastonishment. She further ordered him to appear among the other monks attable, and charged herself with the task of restoring the stolen plateto its place. Thus the tables were suddenly turned. The friar presentedhimself among his brethren in the morning, to their no smallastonishment, and voted with much contrition for his own condemnation--asentence which was reversed when they came to examine the contents ofthe sacristy, and found everything correct. As to the Devil, whoremained fast bound to the pillar, he was soundly flogged, and so fellinto the pit which he had digged for another. His dupe, on the otherhand, gathered new strength from his fall, and became not only a wiserand a better man, but also an abler artist; for the experience of thatterrible night had supplied all that was wanting to complete the idealof his favorite subjects. Thenceforth, he followed no more afterenticing damsels, but remained in his cloister, painting the Madonnamore serenely beautiful, and the Arch Enemy more curiously appallingthan ever. GERARD DOUW. This extraordinary artist was born at Leyden, in 1613. He was the son ofa glazier, and early exhibited a passion for the fine arts, which hisfather encouraged. He received his first instruction in drawing fromDolendo, the engraver. He was afterwards placed with Peter Kowenhoorn, to learn the trade of a glass-stainer or painter; but disliking thisbusiness, he became the pupil of Rembrandt when only fifteen years ofage, in whose school be continued three years. From Rembrandt he learnedthe true principles of coloring, to which he added a delicacy ofpencilling, and a patience in working up his pictures to the highestdegree of neatness and finish, superior to any other master. He was morepleased with the earlier and more finished works of Rembrandt, than withhis later productions, executed with more boldness and freedom ofpencilling; he therefore conceived the project of combining the rich andglowing colors of that master with the polish and suavity of extremefinishing, and he adopted the method of uniting the powerful tunes andthe magical light and shadow of his instructor with a minuteness andprecision of pencilling that so nearly approached nature as to becomeperfect illusion. But though his manner appears so totally differentfrom that of Rembrandt, yet it was to him he owed that excellence ofcoloring which enabled him to triumph over all the artists of his time. His pictures are usually of small size, with figures so exquisitelytouched, and with a coloring so harmonious, transparent, and delicate, as to excite the astonishment and admiration of the beholder. Althoughhis pictures are wrought up beyond the works of any other artist, thereis still discoverable a spirited and characteristic touch that evincesthe hand of a consummate master, and a breadth of light and shadow whichis only to be found in the works of the greatest masters of the art ofchiaro-scuro. The fame acquired by Douw is a crowning proof thatexcellence is not confined to any particular style or manner, and hadhe attempted to arrive at distinction by a bolder and less finishedpencil, it is highly probable that his fame would not have been sogreat. It has been truly said that there are no positive rules by whichgenius must be bounded to arrive at excellence. Every intermediatestyle, from the grand and daring handling of Michael Angelo to thelaborious and patient finishing of Douw, may conduct the painter todistinction, provided he adapts his manner to the character of thesubjects he treats. DOUW'S STYLE. Douw designed everything from nature, and with such exactness that eachobject appears as perfect as nature herself. He was incontestibly themost wonderful in his finishing of all the Flemish masters, although thenumber of artists of that school who have excelled in this particularstyle are quite large. The pictures he first painted were portraits, andhe wrought by the aid of a concave mirror, and sometimes by looking atthe object through a frame of many squares of small silk thread. Hespent so much time in these works that, notwithstanding they wereextremely admired, his sitters became disgusted, and he was obliged toabandon portrait painting entirely, and devote his attention to fancysubjects, in the execution of which he could devote as much time as hepleased. This will not appear surprising, when Sandrart informs us that, on one occasion, in company with Peter de Laer, he visited Douw, andfound him at work on a picture, which they could not forbear admiringfor its extraordinary neatness, and on taking particular notice of abroom, and expressing their surprise that he could devote so much timein finishing so minute an object, Douw informed them that he should workon it three days more before he should think it complete. The sameauthor also says that in a family picture of Mrs. Spiering, that ladysat five days for the finishing of one of her hands, supporting it onthe arm of a chair. DOUW'S METHOD OF PAINTING. His mind was naturally turned to precision and exactness, and it isevident that he would have shown this quality in any other profession, had he practiced another. Methodical and regular in all his habits, heprepared and ground his own colors, and made his own brushes of apeculiar shape, and he kept them locked up in a case made for thepurpose, that they might be free from soil. He permitted no one to enterhis studio, save a very few friends, and when he entered himself, hewent as softly as he could tread, so as not to raise the dust, and aftertaking his seat, waited some time till the air was settled before heopened his box and went to work; scarcely a breath of air was allowed toventilate his painting-room. DOUW'S WORKS. Everything that came from his pencil was precious, even in hislife-time. Houbraken says that his great patron, Mr. Spiering thebanker, allowed him one thousand guilders a year, and paid besideswhatever sum he pleased to ask for his pictures, some of which hepurchased for their weight in silver; but Sandrart informs us, with moreprobability, that the thousand guilders were paid to Douw by Spiering oncondition that the artist should give him the choice of all the pictureshe painted. The following description of one of Gerhard's most capitalpictures, for a long time in the possession of the family of Van Hoek, at Amsterdam, will serve to give a good idea of his method of treatinghis subjects. The picture is much larger than his usual size, beingthree feet long by two feet six inches wide, inside the frame. The roomis divided into two apartments by a curtain of curiously wroughttapestry. In one apartment sits a woman giving suck to her child; at herside is a cradle, and a table covered with tapestry, on which is placeda gilt lamp which lights the room. In the second apartment is a surgeonperforming an operation upon a countryman, and by his side stands awoman holding some utensils. The folding doors on one side shows astudy, and a man making a pen by candle light; and on the other, aschool, with boys writing, and sitting at different tables. The wholeis lighted in an agreeable and surprising manner; every object isexpressed with beauty and astonishing force. Nor does the subject appeartoo crowded, for it was one of his peculiar talents to show, in a smallcompass, more than other painters could do in a much larger space. Hispictures are generally confined to a few figures, and sometimes to asingle one, and when he attempted larger compositions, he was generallyless successful. The works of this artist are not numerous, from theimmense labor and time he bestowed upon a single one; and from thiscircumstance, and the estimation in which they are held by the curiouscollectors, they have ever commanded enormous prices. They were alwaysparticularly admired in France, in the days of Napoleon, there were noless than seventeen of his pictures gathered into the Louvre, most ofwhich were, after his downfall, restored to their original proprietors, among which was the famous Dropsical Woman, from the collection of theKing of Sardinia. At Turin, are several pictures by Douw, the mostfamous of which is the one just named--the Dropsical Woman, attended byher physician, who is examining an urinal. This picture is wonderfullytrue to nature, and each particular hair and pore of the skin isrepresented. In the gallery at Florence is one of his pictures, representing an interior by candle-light, with a mountebank, surroundedby a number of clowns, which is exquisitely finished. The great fame ofGerhard Douw, and the eager desire for his works, have given rise tonumerous counterfeits. We may safely say that there is not an originalpicture by this artist in the United States. Douw died, very rich, in1674. ALBERT DURER. This extraordinary artist was born at Nuremberg in 1471. His father wasa skillful goldsmith, from Hungary, and taught his son the firstrudiments of design, intending him for his own profession; but his earlyand decided inclination for the arts and sciences induced him to permityoung Durer to follow the bent of his genius. He received his firstinstruction in painting and engraving from Martin Hapse. When he hadreached the age of fourteen, it was his father's intention to haveplaced him under the instruction of Martin Schoen, of Colmar, the mostdistinguished artist of his time in Germany, but the death of the latterhappening about that time, he became a pupil of Michael Wolgemut, in1486, the first artist then in Nuremberg, with whom he studieddiligently four years. He also cultivated the study of perspective, themathematics, and architecture, in all of which he acquired a profoundknowledge. Having finished his studies, he commenced his travels in1490, and spent four years in traveling through Germany, theNetherlands, and the adjacent counties and provinces. On his return toNuremberg, in 1494, he ventured to exhibit his works to the public, which immediately attracted great attention. His first work was a pieceof the Three Graces, represented by as many female figures, with a globeover their heads. He soon after executed one of his masterpieces, adrawing of Orpheus. About this time, to please his father, as it issaid, he married the daughter of Hans Fritz, a celebrated mechanic, whoproved a fierce Xantippe, and embittered, and some say shortened hislife. In 1506, he went to Venice to improve himself, where his abilitiesexcited envy and admiration. Here he painted the Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew for the church of S. Marco, which was afterwards purchasedby the Emperor Rodolphus, and removed to Prague. He also went toBologna, and returned home in 1507. This journey to Italy had no effectwhatever upon his style, though doubtless he obtained much informationthat was valuable to him, for at this period commenced the proper era ofhis greatness. DURER'S WORKS AS A PAINTER. Though Durer was most famous as an engraver, yet he executed many largepaintings, which occupy a distinguished place in the royal collectionsof Germany, and other European countries. In the imperial collection atMunich are some of the most celebrated, as Adam and Eve, the Adorationof the Magi, the Crucifixion--a grand composition--the Crowning of theVirgin, the Battle between Alexander and Darius, and many other greatworks. Durer painted the Wise Men's Offering, two pictures of thePassion of Christ, and an Assumption of the Virgin, for a monastery ofFrankfort, which proved a source of income to the monks, from thepresents they received for exhibiting them. The people of Nurembergstill preserve, in the Town Hall, his portraits of Charlemagne and someEmperors of the House of Austria, with the Twelve Apostles, whosedrapery is remarkable for being modern German, instead of Oriental. Hesent his own portrait to Raffaelle, painted on canvas, without anycoloring or touch of the pencil, only heightened with shades and white, yet exhibiting such strength and elegance that the great artist to whomit was presented expressed the greatest surprise at the sight of it. This piece, after the death of Raffaelle, fell into the possession ofGiulio Romano, who placed it among the curiosities of the palace ofMantua. Besides the pictures already mentioned, there is by him an EcceHomo at Venice, his own portrait, and two pictures representing St. James and St. Philip, and an Adam and Eve in the Florentine Gallery. There are also some of his works in the Louvre, and in the royalcollections in England. As a painter, it has been observed of Durer thathe studied nature only in her unadorned state, without attending tothose graces which study and art might have afforded him; but hisimagination was lively, his composition grand, and his pencil delicate. He finished his works with exact neatness, and he was particularlyexcellent in his Madonnas, though he encumbered them with heavydraperies. He surpassed all the painters of his own country, yet he didnot avoid their defects--such as dryness and formality of outline, thewant of a just degradation of the tints, an expression withoutagreeableness, and draperies broad in the folds, but stiff in the forms. He was no observer of the propriety of costume, and paid so littleattention to it that he appears to have preferred to drape his saintsand heroes of antiquity in the costume of his own time and country. Fuseli observes that "the coloring of Durer went beyond his age, and inhis easel pictures it as far excelled the oil color of Raffaelle injuice, and breadth, and handling, as Raffaelle excelled him in everyother quality. " DURER'S WORKS AS AN ENGRAVER. Durer derived most of his fame from his engravings, and he is allowed tohave surpassed every artist of his time in this branch of art. Born inthe infancy of the art, he carried engraving to a perfection that hashardly been surpassed. When we consider that, without any models worthyof imitation, he brought engraving to such great perfection, we areastonished at his genius, and his own resources. Although engraving hashad the advantage and experience of more than three centuries, it wouldperhaps be difficult to select a specimen of executive excellencesurpassing his print of St. Jerome, engraved in 1514. He had a perfectcommand of the graver, and his works are executed with remarkableneatness and clearness of stroke; if we do not find in his plates thatboldness and freedom desirable in large historical works, we find inthem everything that can be wished in works more minute and finished, aswere his. To him is attributed the invention of etching; and if he wasnot the inventor, he was the first who excelled in the art. He alsoinvented the method of printing wood-cuts in chiaro-scuro, or with twoblocks. His great mathematical knowledge enabled him to form a regularsystem of rules for drawing and painting with geometrical precision. Hehad the power of catching the exact expression of the features, and ofdelineating all the passions. Although he was well acquainted with theanatomy of the human figure, and occasionally designed it correctly, hiscontours are neither graceful nor pleasing, and his prints are neverentirely divested of the stiff and formal taste that prevailed at thetime, both in his figures and drapery. Such was his reputation, both athome and abroad, that Marc' Antonio Raimondi counterfeited his Passionof Christ, and the Life of the Virgin at Venice, and sold them for thegenuine works of Durer. The latter, hearing of the fraud, was soexasperated that he set out for Venice, where he complained to thegovernment of the wrong that had been done him by the plagiarist, but hecould obtain no other satisfaction than a decree prohibiting Raimondifrom affixing Durer's monogram or signatures to these copies in future. Vasari says that when the prints of Durer were first brought into Italy, they incited the painters there to elevate themselves in that branch ofart, and to make his works their models. DURER'S FAME AND DEATH. The fame of Durer spread far and wide in his life-time. The EmperorMaximillian I. Had a great esteem for him, and appointed him his courtpainter, with a liberal pension, and conferred on him letters ofnobility; Charles V. , his successor, confirmed him in his office, bestowing upon him at the same time the painter's coat of arms, viz. , three escutcheons, argent, in a deep azure field. Ferdinand, King ofHungary, also bestowed upon him marked favors and liberality. Durer wasin favor with high and low. All the artists and learned men of his timehonored and loved him, and his early death in 1528 was universallylamented. DURER'S HABITS AND LITERARY WORKS. Durer always lived in a frugal manner, without the least ostentation forthe distinguished favors heaped upon him. He applied himself to hisprofession with the most constant and untiring industry, which, togetherwith his great knowledge, great facility of mechanical execution, and aremarkable talent for imitation, enabled him to rise to suchdistinction, and to exert so powerful an influence on German art for agreat length of time. He was the first artist in Germany who practicedand taught the rules of perspective, and of the proportions of the humanfigure, according to mathematical principles. His treatise onproportions is said to have resulted from his studies of his picture ofAdam and Eve. His principal works are _De Symmetria partium in rectisformis humanorum corporum_, printed at Nuremberg in 1532; and _DeVerieitate Figurarum, et flexuris partium, et Gestibus Imaginum_; 1534. These works were written in German, and after Durer's death translatedinto Latin. The figures illustrating the subjects were executed byDurer, on wood, in an admirable manner. Durer had also much merit as amiscellaneous writer, and labored to purify and elevate the Germanlanguage, in which he was assisted by his friend, W. Pirkheimer. Hisworks were published in a collected form at Arnheim, in 1603, folio, inLatin and in French. J. J. Roth wrote a life of Durer, published atLeipsic in 1791. LUDOLPH BACKHUYSEN. This eminent painter was born in 1631. His father intended him for themercantile profession, but nature for a marine painter. His passion forart induced him to neglect his employer's business, with whom his fatherhad placed him, and to spend his time in drawing, and in frequenting thestudios of the painters at Amsterdam. His fondness for shipping led himfrequently to the port of the city, where he made admirable drawings ofthe vessels with a pen, which were much sought after by the collectors, and were purchased at liberal prices. Several of his drawings were soldat 100 florins each. This success induced him to paint marine subjects. His first essays were successful, and his pictures universally admired. While painting, he would not admit his most intimate friends to hisstudio, lest his fancy might be disturbed. He hired fishermen to takehim out to sea in the most tremendous gales, and on landing, he wouldrun impatiently to his palette to secure the grand impressions of theviews he had just witnessed. He has represented that element in its mostterrible agitation, with a fidelity that intimidates the beholder. Hispictures on these subjects have raised his reputation even higher thanthat of W. Van de Velde; although the works of the later, whichrepresent the sea at rest, or in light breezes, are much superior, andindeed inimitable. His pictures are distinguished for their admirableperspective, correct drawing, neatness and freedom of touch, andremarkable facility of execution. For the burgomasters of Amsterdam, hepainted a large picture with a multitude of vessels, and a view of thecity in the distance; for which they gave him 1, 300 guilders, and ahandsome present. This picture was presented to the King of France, whoplaced it in the Louvre. The King of Prussia visited Backhuysen, and theCzar Peter took delight in seeing him paint, and often endeavored tomake drawings after vessels which the artist had designed. JOHN BAPTIST WEENIX, THE ELDER. This eminent Dutch painter was born at Amsterdam in 1621. He possessedextraordinary and varied talents. He painted history, portraits, landscapes, sea-ports, animals, and dead game, in all which branches heshowed uncommon ability; but his greatest excellence lay in paintingItalian sea-ports, of a large size, enriched with noble edifices, anddecorated with figures representing embarkations and all the activity ofcommercial industry. In these subjects he has scarcely been surpassedexcept by his pupil, Nicholas Berghem. WEENIX'S FACILITY OF HAND. Houbraken relates several instances of his remarkable facility of hand. He frequently painted a large landscape and inserted all the figures ina single day--feats so much admired in Salvator Rosa, and GasparPonssin. On one occasion he commenced and finished three portraits, oncanvass, of three-quarters size, with heads as large as life, fromsun-rise to sun-set, on a summer's day. Lanzi warns all artists, especially the youthful aspirant, not to imitate such expedition, asthey value their reputation. JOHN BAPTIST WEENIX, THE YOUNGER. Was the son of the preceding, and born at Amsterdam in 1644. Possessingless varied talent than his father; he was unrivaled in painting allsorts of animals, huntings, dead games, birds, flowers, and fruit. Hewas appointed Court painter to the Elector Palatine, with a liberalpension, and decorated his palace at Bernsberg with many of his choicestworks. He painted in one gallery a series of pictures representing theHunting of the Stag; and in another the Chase of the Wild Boar, whichgained him the greatest applause. There are many of his best works inthe Dusseldorf Gallery. He painted all kinds of birds and fowls in aninimitable manner; the soft down of the duck, the glossy plumage of thepigeon, the splendor of the peacock, the magnificent spread of aninanimate swan producing a flood of light, and serving as a contrast toall the objects around it, are so attractive that it is impossible tocontemplate one of his pictures of these subjects without feelingadmiration and delight at the painter's skill in rivaling nature. JAN STEEN. The life of this extraordinary artist, if we are to believe hisbiographers, is soon told. He was born at Leyden in 1636. He earlyexhibited a passion for art, which his father, a wealthy brewer of thatcity, endeavored to restrain, and afterwards apprehending that he couldnot procure a comfortable subsistence by the exercise of his pencil, established him in his own business at Delft, where, instead ofattending to his affairs, he gave himself up to dissipation, and soonsquandered his means and ruined his establishment; his indulgent parent, after repeated attempts to reclaim him, was compelled to abandon him tohis fate. He opened a tavern, which proved more calamitous than theformer undertaking. He gave himself up entirely to reveling andintoxication, wrought only when his necessities compelled him, and soldhis pictures to satisfy his immediate wants, and often for the mostpaltry prices to escape arrest. JAN STEEN'S WORKS. The pictures of Jan Steen usually represent merry-makings, and thefrolics and festivities of the ale-house, which he treated with acharacteristic expression of humorous drollery, that compensated forthe vulgarity of his subjects. He sometimes painted interiors, domesticassemblies, conversations, mountebanks, etc. , which he generallyaccompanied with some facetious trait of wit or humor, admirablyrendered. Some of his works of this description are little inferior tothe charming productions of Gabriel Metzu. His compositions areingenious and interesting, his design is correct and spirited, hiscoloring chaste and clear, and his pencil free and decided. He also hada good knowledge of the chiaro-scuro, which enabled him to give hisfigures a fine relief. His works are invariably finished with care anddiligence, and do not betray any haste or infirmity of hand or head. Itis evident that, from some untoward circumstance, his works were notappreciated in his day, but after his death they rose amazingly invalue, and have continued to increase ever since, --a true test of amaster's merit--till now they are scarcely to be found except in royaland noble collections and the public galleries of Europe. His pictureswere, for a long time, scarcely known out of Holland, but now they aredeservedly placed in the choicest collections. His works are verynumerous, sufficient to have continually occupied the life time of notonly a sober and industrious artist, but one possessing great facilityof hand. Smith, in his Catalogue raisonné, vol. Iv. And Supplement, gives a descriptive account of upwards of 300 genuine pictures bySteen, many of them compositions of numerous figures, and almost all ofthem executed with the greatest care. It cannot be believed that a manliving in a state of continued dissipation and inebriety, could findtime to produce so many admirable works, displaying, as they do, a deepstudy of human nature, and a great discrimination of character, or thatthe hand of a habitual drunkard could operate with such beauty andprecision. Nor is it probable that a mind besotted by drink, and debasedby low intercourse, could moralize so admirably as he has done on theevil consequences of intemperance and the indulgence of evil passions. KUGLER'S CRITIQUE ON THE WORKS OF JAN STEEN. Dr Kügler, a judicious critic, thus sums up his character as an artist:"The works of Jan Steen imply a free and cheerful view of common life, and he treats it with a careless humor, such as seems to deal with allits daily occurrences, high and low, as a laughable masquerade and amere scene of perverse absurdity. His treatment of the subjects differedessentially from that adopted by other artists. Frequently, indeed, theyare the same jolly drinking parties, or the meetings of boors; but inother masters the object is, for the most part, to depict a certainsituation, either quiet or animated, whilst in Jan Steen is generally tobe found action more or less developed, together with all thereciprocal relations and interests between the characters which springfrom it. This is accompanied by great variety and force of individualexpression, such as evinces the sharpest observation. He is almost theonly artist in the Netherlands who has thus, with true genius, broughtinto full play all these elements of comedy. His technical executionsuits his design; it is carefully finished, and notwithstanding theclosest attention to minute details, it is as firm and correct as it islight and free. " FROLICS OF MIERIS AND JAN STEEN. Sandrart says that Mieris had a real friendship for Jan Steen, anddelighted in his company, though he was by no means fond of drinking asfreely as Jan was accustomed to do every evening at the tavern. Notwithstanding this, he often passed whole nights with his friend in ajoyous manner, and frequently returned very late to his lodging. Oneevening, when it was very dark and almost midnight, as Mieris strolledhome from the tavern, he unluckily fell into the common sewer, which hadbeen opened for the purpose of cleansing, and the workmen had leftunguarded. There he must have perished, had not a cobbler and his wife, who worked in a neighboring stall, heard his cries and instantly ran tohis relief. Having extricated Mieris, they took all possible care ofhim, and procured the best refreshment in their power. The next morningMieris, having thanked his preservers, took his leave, but particularlyremarked the house, that he might know it another time. The poor peoplewere totally ignorant of the person whom they had relieved, but Mierishad too grateful a heart to forget his benefactors, and having painted apicture in his best manner, he brought it to the cobbler and his wife, telling them it was a present from the person whose life they hadcontributed to save, and desired them to carry it to his friendCornelius Plaats, who would give them the full value for it. The woman, unacquainted with the real worth of the present, concluded she mightreceive a moderate gratuity for the picture, but her astonishment wasinexpressible, when she received the sum of eight hundred florins. SIR ANTHONY MORE. This eminent painter was born at Utrecht, in 1519. In 1552, heaccompanied the Cardinal Granville to Spain, who recommended him to thepatronage of the Emperor Charles V. , whose portrait he painted, and thatof Prince Philip, which gave so much satisfaction to the monarch, thathe sent him to Portugal, to paint the portraits of King John III. , Catherine of Austria his Queen, and sister to Charles, and that of theirdaughter, the Princess Donna Maria, then contracted to Philip; he alsopainted the portrait of Donna Catalina, Charles' younger sister; all ofwhich gave entire satisfaction, and the artist was munificentlyrewarded, and the honor of knighthood conferred on him. The Emperor nextdespatched More to England to take the portrait of the princess Maryprevious to her marriage with Philip of Spain. On this occasion, he issaid to have employed all the flattering aids of his art, and socaptivated the courtiers of Spain, with the charms of Mary's person, that he was employed by Cardinal Granville and several of the grandeesto make copies of it for them. He accompanied Philip to England, wherehe remained till the death of Queen Mary, who highly honored him, presented him a gold chain, and allowed him a pension of £100 a year. The Emperor Charles V. Having abdicated in favor of his son Philip II. , the latter returned to Spain, and made More his court-painter, where histalents procured him great respect and abundant employment. SIR ANTHONY MORE AND PHILIP II. Philip II. Was accustomed to honor More by frequent visits to hisstudio, on which occasions he treated him with extraordinaryfamiliarity. One day, in a moment of condescension and admiration, themonarch jocosely slapped More on the shoulder which compliment thepainter, in an unguarded moment, playfully returned by smearing his handwith a little carmine from his brush. The King withdrew his hand andsurveyed it for a moment, seriously; the courtiers were petrified withhorror and amazement; the hand to which ladies knelt before they had thehonor to kiss it, had never before been so dishonored since thefoundation of the monarchy; at that moment the fate of More was balancedon a hair; he saw his rashness, fell on his knees, kissed the King'sfeet, and humbly begged pardon for the offence. Philip smiled, andpardoned him, and all seemed to be well again; but the person of theKing was too sacred in those days, and the act too daring to escape thenotice of the Inquisition, from whose bigotry and vengeance the Kinghimself could not have shielded him. Happily for More, one of Philip'sministers advised him of his danger, and without loss of time he set outfor Brussels, upon the feigned pretence of pressing engagements, norcould Philip ever induce him to return to his court. MORE'S SUCCESS AND WORKS. More was employed by most of the princes of Europe, who liberallyrewarded him, and at every court his paintings were beheld withadmiration and applause, but at none more than at those of Spain andEngland. He acquired an ample fortune. When he was in Portugal, thenobility of that country, in token of their esteem, presented him, inthe name of their order, a gold chain valued at a thousand ducats. Heclosely imitated nature. He designed and painted in a bold, masculinestyle, with a rich tone of coloring; he showed a good knowledge of thechiaro-scuro, and he finished his pictures with neatness and care; hisstyle is said to resemble that of Hans Holbein, though not possessinghis delicacy and clearness; and there is something dry and hard in hismanner. His talents were not confined to portraits; he painted severalhistorical subjects in Spain for the Royal Collection, which were highlyapplauded, but which were unfortunately destroyed in the conflagrationof the palace of the Prado. While he resided in Spain, he copied someportraits of illustrious women, in a style said to approach Titian. Hisown portrait, painted by himself, charmingly colored, and full of lifeand nature, is in the Florentine Gallery. His best work was a picture ofthe Circumcision, intended for the Cathedral at Antwerp, but he did notlive to finish it, and died there in 1575. PERILOUS ADVENTURE OF A PAINTER. John Griffier, a Dutch painter of celebrity, went to London in 1667, where he met with great encouragement. While there he painted many viewson the Thames, and in order to observe nature more attentively, hebought a yacht, embarked his family, and spent his whole time on theriver. After several years he sailed for Holland in his frail craft butwas wrecked in the Texel, where, after eight days of suffering, he andhis family barely escaped with their lives, having lost all hispaintings, and the fruits of his industry. This mishap cured him of hispassion for the sea. ANECDOTE OF JOHN DE MABUSE. An amusing anecdote is related of this eminent painter. He wasinordinately given to dissipation, and spent all his money, as fast ashe earned it, in carousing with his boon companions. He was for a longtime in the service of the Marquess de Veren, for whom he executed someof his most capital works. It happened on one occasion that the EmperorCharles V. Made a visit to the Marquess, who made magnificentpreparations for his reception, and among other things ordered all hishousehold to be dressed in white damask. When the tailor came to measureMabuse, he desired to have the damask, under the pretence of inventing asingular habit. He sold it immediately, spent the money, and thenpainted a paper suit, so like damask that it was not distinguished as hewalked in procession between a philosopher and a poet, other pensionersof the Marquess; but the joke was too good to be kept, so his friendsbetrayed him to the Marquess, who, instead of being displeased washighly diverted, and asked the Emperor which of the three suits he likedbest. The Emperor pointed to that of Mabuse, as excelling in whitenessand beauty of the flowers; and when he was told of the painter'sstratagem, he would not believe it, till he had examined it with his ownhands. CAPUGNANO AND LIONELLO SPADA. Lanzi relates the following amusing anecdote of Giovanni da Capugnano, an artist of little merit, but whose assurance enabled him to attractconsiderable attention in his day. "Misled by a pleasing self-delusion, he believed himself born to become a painter; like that ancientpersonage, mentioned by Horace, who imagined himself the owner of allthe vessels that arrived in the Athenian port. His chief talent lay inmaking crucifixes, to fill up the angles, and in giving a varnish to thebalustrades. Next, he attempted landscape in water-colors, in which wereexhibited the most strange proportions; of houses less than the men;these last smaller than his sheep; and the sheep again than his birds. Extolled, however, in his own district, he determined to leave hisnative mountains, and figure on a wider theatre at Bologna; there heopened his house, and requested the Caracci, the only artists hebelieved to be more learned than himself, to furnish him with a pupil, whom he intended to polish in his studio. Lionello Spada, an admirablewit, accepted this invitation; he went and copied designs, affecting theutmost obsequiousness towards his master. At length, conceiving it timeto put an end to the jest, he left behind him a most exquisite paintingof Lucretia, and over the entrance of the chamber some fine satiricaloctaves, in apparent praise, but real ridicule of Capugnano. His worthymaster only accused Lionello of ingratitude, for having acquired fromhim in so short a space the art of painting so beautifully from hisdesigns; but the Caracci at last acquainted him with the joke, whichacted as a complete antidote to his folly. " MICHAEL ANGELO DA CARAVAGGIO--HIS QUARRELSOME DISPOSITION. Caravaggio possessed a very irascible and roving disposition. At theheight of his popularity at Rome, he got into a quarrel with one of hisown young friends, in a tennis-court, and struck him dead with a racket, having been severely wounded himself in the affray. He fled to Naples, where he executed some of his finest pictures, but he soon got weary ofhis residence there, and went to Malta. Here his superb picture of theGrand Master obtained for him the Cross of Malta, a rich gold chain, placed on his neck by the Grand Master's own hands, and two slaves toattend him. All these honors did not prevent the new knight from fallingback into old habits. "_Il suo torbido ingegno_, " says Bellori, plungedhim into new difficulties; he fought and wounded a noble cavalier, wasthrown into prison, from which he escaped almost by a miracle, and fledto Syracuse, where he obtained the favor of the Syracusans by painting asplendid picture of the Santa Morte, for the church of S. Lucia. Inapprehension of being taken by the Knights of Malta, he soon fled toMessina, thence to Palermo, and returned to Naples, where hopes wereheld out to him of the Pope's pardon. Here he got into a quarrel withsome military men in a public house, was wounded, and took refuge onboard a felucca, about to sail for Rome. Stopping at a small port on theway, he was arrested by a Spanish guard, by mistake, for another person;when released, he found the felucca gone, and in it all his property. Traversing the burning shore, under an almost vertical sun, he wasseized with a brain fever, and continued to wander through the PontineMarshes till he arrived at Porto Ercoli, when he expired, aged fortyyears. JACOPO AMICONI. Giacomo Amiconi, a Venetian painter, went to England, in 1729, where hewas first employed by Lord Tankerville to paint the staircase of hispalace in St. James' Square. He there represented the stories ofAchilles, Telemachus and Tiresias, which gained him great applause. Whenhe was to be paid, he produced his bills of the workmen for scaffolding, materials, &c. , amounting to £90, and asked no more, saying that he wascontent with the opportunity of showing what he could do. The peer, however, gave him £200 more. This brought him into notice, and he wasmuch employed by the nobility to decorate their houses. PAINTING THE DEAD. Giovanni Baptista Gaulli, called Baciccio, one of the most eminentGenoese painters, was no less celebrated for portraits than for history. Pascoli says he painted no less than seven different Pontiffs, besidesmany illustrious personages. Possessing great colloquial powers, heengaged his sitters in the most animated conversation, and thustransferred their features to his canvas, so full of life andexpression, that they looked as though they were about to speak to thebeholder. He also had a remarkable talent of painting the dead, so as toobtain an exact resemblance of deceased persons whom he had never seen. For this purpose, he drew a face at random, afterwards altering it inevery feature, by the advice and under the inspection of those who hadknown the original, till he had improved it to a striking likeness. TADDEO ZUCCARO. This eminent painter was born at San Angiolo, in the Duchy of Urbino, in1529. At a very early age he evinced a passion for art and a precociousgenius. After having received instruction from his father, a painter oflittle note, his extraordinary enthusiasm induced him, at fourteen yearsof age, to go to Rome, without a penny in his pocket, where he passedthe day in designing, from the works of Raffaelle. Such was his poverty, that he was compelled to sleep under the loggie of the Chigi palace; hecontrived to get money enough barely to supply the wants of nature, bygrinding colors for the shops. Undaunted by difficulties that would havedriven a less devoted lover of the art from the field, he pursued hisstudies with undiminished ardor, till his talents and industry attractedthe notice of Daniello da Por, an artist then in repute, who generouslyrelieved his wants and gave him instruction. From that time he maderapid progress, and soon acquired a distinguished reputation, but hedied at Rome in 1566, in the prime of life. ZUCCARO'S RESENTMENT. Federigo Zuccaro, the brother of Taddeo, was employed by Pope GregoryXIII. In the Pauline chapel. While proceeding with his work, however, hefell out with some of the Pope's officers; and conceiving himselftreated with indignity, he painted an allegorical picture of Calumny, introducing the portraits of all those individuals who had offended him, decorated with asses' ears. This he caused to be exhibited publicly overthe gate of St. Luke's church, on the festival day of that Saint. Hisenemies, upon this, made such complaints that he was forced to fly fromRome, and passing into France, he visited Flanders and England. As soonas the pontiff was appeased, he returned to Rome, and completed his workin the Pauline chapel, fortunate in not losing his head as the price ofsuch a daring exploit. ROYAL CRITICISM. Federigo Zuccaro was invited to Madrid by Philip II. To execute somefrescos in the lower cloister of the Escurial, which, failing to givesatisfaction to his royal patron, were subsequently effaced, and theirplace supplied by Pellegrino Tibaldi; the king nevertheless munificentlyrewarded him. One day, as he was displaying a picture of the Nativity, which he had painted for the great altar of the Escurial, for theinspection of the monarch, he said, "Sire, you now behold all that artcan execute; beyond this which I have done, the powers of paintingcannot go. " The king was silent for some time; his countenance betrayedneither approbation nor contempt; at last, preserving the sameindifference, he quietly asked the painter what _those things_ were inthe basket of one of the shepherds in the act of running? He repliedthey were eggs. "It is well then, that he did not break them, " said theking, as he turned on his way--a just rebuke for such fulsomeself-adulation. PIETRO DA CORTONA. The name of this illustrious painter and architect was Berrettini, andhe was born at Cortona, near Florence, in 1596. At the age of fourteenhe went to Rome, where he studied the works of Raffaelle and Caravaggiowith the greatest assiduity. It is said that at first he betrayed butlittle talent for painting, but his genius burst forth suddenly, to theastonishment of those companions who had laughed at his incapacity; thisdoubtless was owing to his previous thorough course of study. While yetyoung, he painted two pictures for the Cardinal Sacchetti, representingthe Rape of the Sabines, and a Battle of Alexander, which gained him somuch celebrity that Pope Urban VIII. Commissioned him to paint a chapelin the church of S. Bibiena, where Ciampelli was employed. The latter atfirst regarded with contempt the audacity of so young a man's daring toattempt so important a public work, but Cortona had no sooner commencedthan Ciampelli's disgust changed to admiration of his abilities. Hissuccess in this performance gained him the celebrated work of theceiling of the grand saloon in the Barberini palace, which is consideredone of the greatest productions of the kind ever executed. Cortona wasinvited to Florence by the Grand Duke Ferdinand II. , to paint the saloonand four apartments in the Pitti palace, where he represented theClemency of Alexander to the family of Darius, the Firmness of Porsena, the Continence of Cyrus, the History of Massanissa, and other subjects. While thus employed, the Duke, one day, having expressed his admirationof a weeping child which he had just painted, Cortona with a singlestroke of his pencil made it appear laughing, and with another restoredit to its former state; "Prince, " said he, "you see how easily childrenlaugh and cry. " Disgusted with the intrigues of some artists jealous ofhis reputation, he left Florence abruptly, without completing his works, and the Grand Duke could never persuade him to return. On his return toRome, he abounded with commissions, and Pope Alexander VII. Honored himwith the order of the Golden Spur. Cortona was also distinguished as anarchitect. He made a design for the Palace of the Louvre, which was sohighly approved by Louis XIV. That he sent him his picture richly set injewels. Cortona was a laborious artist, and though tormented with thegout, and in affluent circumstances, he continued to paint till hisdeath, in 1699. "KNOW THYSELF. " Mario Ballassi, a Florentine painter born in 1604, studied successivelyunder Ligozzi, Roselli, and Passignano; he assisted the latter in theworks he executed at Rome for Pope Urban XIII. His chief talent lay incopying the works of the great masters, which he did to admiration. DonTaddeo Barberini employed him to copy the Transfiguration of Raffaelle, for the Church of the Conception, in which he imitated the touch andexpression of the original in so excellent a manner as to excite thesurprise of the best judges at Rome. At the recommendation of theCardinal Piccolomini, he was introduced to the Emperor Ferdinand III. , who received him in an honorable manner. Elated with his success, hevainly imagined that if he could imitate the old masters, he could alsoequal them in an original style of his own. He signally failed in theattempt, which brought him into as much contempt as his former works hadgained him approbation. BENVENUTO CELLINI. This eminent sculptor and famous medalist was in high favor with ClementVII. , who took him into his service. During the time of the Spanishinvasion, Cellini asked the Pope for absolution for certain homicideswhich "he believed himself to have committed in the service of thechurch. " The Pope absolved him, and, to save time, he added anabsolution in _prospectu_, "for all the homicides thereafter which thesaid Benvenuto might commit in the same service. " On another occasion, Cellini got into a broil, and committed a homicide that was not in theservice of the church. The friends of the deceased insisted upon condignpunishment, and presumed to make some mention to the Pope about "thelaws;" upon which the successor of St. Peter, knowing that it was easierto hang than to replace such a man, assumed a high tone, and told thecomplainants that "men who were masters of their art should not besubject to the laws. " FRACANZANI AND SALVATOR ROSA. The first accents of the "thrilling melody of sweet renown" which evervibrated to the heart of Salvator Rosa, came to his ear from thekind-hearted Fracanzani, his sister's husband, and a painter of merit. When Salvator returned home from his sketching tours among themountains, Fracanzani would examine his drawings, and when he sawanything good, he would smilingly pat him on the head and exclaim, "Fruscia, fruscia, Salvatoriello--che va buono" (_Go on, go on, Salvator--this is good_). These simple plaudits were recalled to hismemory with pleasure, in after years, when his fame rung among thepolished circles at Rome and Florence. POPE URBAN VIII. AND BERNINI. When the Cardinal Barberini, who had been the warm friend, patron, andprotector of Bernini, was elevated to the pontificate, the latter wentto offer his congratulations to his benefactor. The Pope received him inthe most gracious manner, uttering these memorable words, "E granfortuna la vostra, Bernini, di vedere Papa, il Card. Maffeo Barberini;ma assai maggiore è la nostra, che il Cav. Bernini viva nel nostropontificato;" (_It is a great piece of fortune for you, Bernini, tobehold the Cardinal Maffeo Barberini Pope; but how much greater is ours, that the Cav. Bernini lives in our pontificate;_) and he immediatelycharged him with the execution of those great works which haveimmortalized both their names. Among the great works which he executedin this pontificate are the Baldachin, or great altar of St. Peter's, inbronze and gilt, under the centre of the great dome; the four colossalstatues which fill the niches under the pedatives; the pulpit and canopyof St. Peter's; the Campanile; and the Barberini palace. For theseservices, the Pope gave Bernini 10, 000 crowns, besides his monthlysalary of 300, which he increased, and extended his favors to hisbrothers--"a grand piece of fortune, " truly. EMULATION AND RIVALRY IN THE FINE ARTS. Emulation carries with it neither envy nor unfair rivalry, but inspiresa man to surpass all others by superiority alone. Such was the emulationand rivalry between Zeuxis and Parrhasius, which contributed to theimprovement of both; and similar thereto was that which inspired themaster-minds of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle; of Titian and Pordenone;of Albert Durer and Lucas van Leyden; of Agostino and Annibale Caracci;and we may add, in our own country, of Thomas Cole and Durand. Theemulation between the Caracci, though it tended to the improvement ofboth, was more unfortunate in its result, as it finally engendered sucha bitter rivalry as to drive Agostino from the field, and it is said bysome that both the Caracci declined when their competition ceased. The confraternity of the Chartreuse at Bologna proposed to the artistsof Italy to paint a picture for them in competition, and to send designsfor selection. The Caracci were among the competitors, and the design ofAgostino was preferred before all others; this, according to severalauthors, first gave rise to the jealousy between the two brothers. Thepicture which Agostino painted was his celebrated Communion of St. Jerome which Napoleon placed in the Louvre, but is now in the gallery atBologna. It is esteemed the masterpiece of the artist. It represents thevenerable saint, carried to the church of Bethlehem on his approachingdissolution, where he receives the last sacrament of the Roman Church, the Viaticum, in the midst of his disciples, while a monk writes downhis pious exhortations. Soon after the completion of this sublimepicture, the two brothers commenced the celebrated Farnese Gallery inconjunction; but the jealous feelings which existed between them causedcontinual dissentions, and the turbulent disposition of Annibalecompelled Agostino to abandon him and quit Rome. Agostino, who accordingto all authorities was the best tempered of the two, from that time gavehimself up almost entirely to engraving. Annibale, though he has thehonor of having executed the immortal works in the Farnese Gallery, yetowed much there, as elsewhere, to the acquirements and poetical geniusof Agostino. In the composition of such mythological subjects theunlettered Annibale was totally inadequate. See vol. I. , page71 of this work. THE NOTTE OF CORREGGIO. This wonderful picture is one of the most singular and beautiful worksof that great master. Adopting an idea till then unknown to painters, hehas created a new principle of light and shade; and in the limited spaceof nine feet by six, has expanded a breadth and depth of perspectivewhich defies description. The subject he has chosen, is the adoration ofthe shepherds, who, after hearing the glad tidings of joy and salvation, proclaimed by the heavenly host, hasten to hail the new-born King andSaviour. On so unpromising a subject as the birth of a child, in so meana place as a stable, the painter has, however, thrown the air ofdivinity itself. The principal light emanates from the body of theinfant, and illuminates the surrounding objects; but a secondary lightis borrowed from a group of angels above, which, while it aids thegeneral effect, is yet itself irradiated by the glory breaking from thechild, and allegorizing the expression of scripture, that Christ is thetrue light of the world. Nor is the art, with which the figures arerepresented less admirable than the management of the light. The face ofthe child is skillfully hidden, by its oblique position, from theconviction that the features of a new-born infant are ill-adapted toplease the eye; but that of the Virgin is warmly irradiated, and yet sodisposed, that in bending with maternal fondness over her offspring, itexhibits exquisite beauty, without the harshness of deep shadows. Thelight strikes boldly on the lower part of her face, and is lost in afainter glow on the eyes, while the forehead is thrown into shade. Thefigures of Joseph and the shepherds are traced with the same skillfulpencil; and the glow which illuminates the piece is heightened to theimagination, by the attitude of a shepherdess, bringing an offering ofdoves, who shades her eyes with her hand, as if unable to sustain thebrightness of incarnate divinity. The glimmering of the rising dawn, which shews the figures in the background, contributes to augment thesplendor of the principal glory. "The beauty, grace, and finish of thepiece, " says Mengs, "are admirable, and every part is executed in apeculiar and appropriate style. " Opie, in his lectures, speaking of this work, justly observes, "In theNótte, where the light diffused over the piece emanates from the child, he has embodied a thought at once beautiful, picturesque, and sublime;an idea which has been seized upon with such avidity, and produced somany imitations that no one is accused of plagiarism. The real author isforgotten, and the public accustomed to consider this incident asnaturally a part of the subject, have long ceased to inquire, when, orby whom, it was invented. " The history of this picture is curious, though involved in muchobscurity. It is generally stated that while Correggio was engaged uponthe grand cupola at Parma, he generally passed the colder season, whenhe could not work in fresco, in his native place. Passing through Reggioin one of his journeys, he received a commission from Alberto Pratonerofor an altar-piece of the Nativity, which produced one of his finestpictures, now called La Nótte. The indefatigable Tiraboschi discoveredthe original contract for the work, which is dated October 14th, 1522, and fixes the price at two hundred and eight _livre di moneta Vecchia_, or forty-seven and a half gold ducats (about $104). It was painted forthe Pratoneri chapel in the church of S. Prospero at Reggio, but it wasnot fixed in its destined place till 1530. It is said that it wasremoved surreptitiously by order of Francesco I. , the reigning Duke ofModena, who substituted a copy. The same story, however, is related ofCorreggio's Ancona, painted for the church of the Conventuals atCorreggio. (See vol. Ii. , page 257, of this work. ) At all events, the elector of Saxony subsequently purchased this gem, withother valuable pictures, from the Ducal Gallery at Mantua, and it nowforms one of the principal ornaments of the Dresden Gallery. THE DRESDEN GALLERY. The Gallery of Dresden is well known to most amateurs from theengravings which have been made of many of its most capital pictures. Inthe works of Correggio it stands preëminent above all others; andalthough some of these have suffered by injudicious cleaning, still theyare by Correggio. In the works of Titian, Raffaelle, Lionardo da Vinci, Parmiggiano, Andrea del Sarto, the Caracci, Guido, &c. , it holds also ahigh place; while it is rich in the works of the Flemish and Dutchmasters. Of the works of Reubens there are, 30; of Vandyck, 18; ofRembrandt, 15; of Paul Potter, 3; of David Teniers, jun. , 24; of PhilipWouvermans, 52; of Adrian Ostade, 6; of Gerard Douw, 16; of FrancisMieris, 14; of Gabriel Metzu, 6; of Berghem, 9; of Adrian van de Velde, 5; of Ruysdael, 13; and others by the Dutch masters. Tho entirecollection contains 1010 Flemish and Dutch pictures, and 350 pictures ofthe Italian schools, the principal part of which, particularly thepictures of Correggio, etc. , belonged formerly to the Mantuacollection, and were purchased by the Elector Augustus III. , afterwardsKing of Poland. PAINTING AMONG THE EGYPTIANS. The antiquity of painting, as well as of sculpture, among the Egyptians, is sunk in fable. Yet it is certain that they made little or no progressin either art. Plato, who flourished about 400 B. C. , says that the artof painting had been practiced by the Egyptians upwards of ten thousandyears, and that there were existing in that country paintings of thathigh antiquity, which were neither inferior to, nor very different from, those executed by the Egyptian artists in his own time. Before the French expedition to Egypt, a great deal had been written onthe subject of Egyptian art, without eliciting anything satisfactory. Norden, Pococke, Bruce, and other modern travelers, speak ofextraordinary paintings found on the walls of the temples and in thetombs at Thebes, Denderah, and other places in Upper Egypt; andWinckelmann justly regrets that those curious remains had not beenvisited by artists or persons skilled in works of art, "by whosetestimony we might have been correctly informed of their character, style, and manoeuvre. " The man at last came, and Denon, in his _Voyagedans le Basse et Haute Egypt_, has set the matter at rest. He has givena curious and interesting account of the paintings at Thebes, which hereports to be as fresh in color as when they were first executed. Thedesign is in general stiff and incorrect; and whatever attitude is givento the figure, the head is always in profile. The colors are entire, without blending or degradation, as in playing cards, and the wholeexhibits the art in a very rude state. They exhibit little or noknowledge of anatomy. The colors they used were confined to four--blue, red, yellow, and green; and of these, the blue and red predominate. Theperfect preservation of the Egyptian paintings for so many ages is to beattributed to the dryness of a climate where it never rains. The Egyptian painters and sculptors designed their figures in a stylepeculiarly stiff and formal, with the legs invariably closed, except insome instances in the tombs of the Kings at Thebes, and their arms stuckto their sides, as if they had consulted no other models than theirbandaged mummies. The reasons why the Egyptians never made any progressin art till the time of the Greco-Egyptian kings, were their manners andcustoms, which prohibited any innovations, and compelled every one tofollow the beaten track of his cast, without the least deviation fromestablished rules, thus chaining down genius, and the stimulus ofemulation, honor, renown and reward. When Egypt passed under thedominion of the Ptolemys, she made rapid progress in art, and producedsome excellent painters, sculptors, and architects, though doubtlessthey were mostly of Greek origin. It is related of Ptolemy Philopator, that he sent a hundred architects to rebuild Rhodes, when it wasdestroyed by an earthquake. See vol. Iii. , page 1, of this work. PAINTING AMONG THE GREEKS. The origin of Painting in Greece was unknown to Pliny, to whom we arechiefly indebted for the few fragments of the biography of Greekartists; he could only obtain his information from Greek writers, ofwhom he complains that they have not been very attentive to theiraccustomed accuracy. It is certain, however, that the arts werepracticed in Egypt and in the East, many ages before they were known inGreece, and it is the common opinion that they were introduced into thatcountry from Egypt and Asia, through the channel of the Phoeneciantraders. It has been a matter of admiration that the Greeks, in thecourse of three or four centuries, should have attained such perfectionin every species of art that ennobles the human mind, as oratory, poetry, music, painting, sculpture, and architecture. Two things explainthe cause--freedom of action, and certainty of reward. This isexemplified in the whole history of the arts and sciences. The ancienteastern nations, among whom the freedom of thought and action wasforbidden, and every man obliged to follow the trade of his caste, nevermade any progress; nor will the moderns progress in those countriestill caste is done away, and every man allowed to follow theinclinations of his genius. The Greeks were favored with a climate the most congenial for theperfect development of the mental and physical powers, and beauty ofform. Every man was at liberty freely to follow his favorite pursuits. They rewarded all who excelled in anything that was useful or beautiful, and that with a lavish hand. The prices they paid their great artistswere truly astonishing; in comparison to which, the prices paid to thegreatest artists of modern times are small. Nor was this so great anincentive as the admiration and the caresses they received. The man ofgenius was sure of immortality and wealth. Their academic groves andtheir games were the admiration and resort of all the surroundingcountries. They decreed statues to their great men who deserved well oftheir country. To other powerful incentives, the Greek artists had theadvantage of the best models before them, in their gymnastic exercisesand public games, where the youth contended for the prize quite naked. The Greeks esteemed natural qualities so highly that they decreed thefirst rewards to those who distinguished themselves in feats of agilityand strength. Statues were often raised to wrestlers. Not only the firstyouth of Greece, but the sons of kings and princes sought renown in thepublic games and gymnastic exercises. Chrysippus and Cleanthusdistinguished themselves in these games before they were known asphilosophers. Plato appeared as a wrestler both at the Isthmian andPythian games; and Pythagoras carried off the prize at Elis. The passionwhich inspired them was glory--the ambition of having statues erected totheir memory, in the most sacred place in Greece, to be admired by thewhole people. Although it is universally admitted that the Greeks carried sculptureand architecture to such a state of perfection that they have never beenequalled by the moderns, except in imitating them, yet there is a greatcontrariety of opinion among the most eminent modern writers as to theirsuccess in painting; some, full of admiration for the works of antiquitywhich have descended to us, have not hesitated to declare that theGreeks must have been equally successful in painting, while others, professing that we possess colors, vehicles, and science (as theknowledge of foreshortening, perspective, and of the chiaro-scuro)unknown to them, have as roundly asserted that they were far inferior tothe moderns in this branch, and that their pictures, could we now seethem in all their beauty, would excite our contempt. Much of thisboasted modern knowledge is, however, entirely gratuitous; the Greekscertainly well understood foreshortening and perspective, as we haveabundance of evidence in their works, to say nothing of these beingexpressly mentioned by Pliny, and that it is impossible to execute anywork of excellence without them. This erroneous opinion has sprung fromthe ignorance and imperfections of _the old fathers_ of Italian art inthese particulars, and the discoveries and perfections of those moremodern. If the moderns possess any advantages over the ancients, it isthat chemistry has invented some beautiful colors unknown to them, theinvention of oil painting, and that illusion which results from aperfect acquaintance with the principles of the chiaro-scuro; but evenhere the mineral colors--the most valuable and permanent--were wellknown to them; and if they had not oil colors, they had a method of_encaustic painting_ not positively known to us, which might haveanswered as good a purpose--nor are we sure they did not practice thechiaro-scuro. Besides, the most renowned modern masters were morecelebrated in fresco than in oil painting, and the ancients wellunderstood painting in fresco. In this, as in most other disputes, it may reasonably be presumed, thata just estimation of both will be found between the extremes. Incomparing the paintings of the moderns with those of the ancients, itmay be fairly inferred that the latter surpassed the former inexpression, in purity of design, in attitude of the figures, and inideal beauty. The moderns have doubtless surpassed the ancients in thearrangement of their groups, in perspective, foreshortening andchiaro-scuro--and in coloring. For a further disquisition on thissubject, see Vol. I. P. 22, of this work, article Apelles. NUMISMATICS. Numismatics is the science which has for its object the study of coinsand medals, especially those struck by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The word is derived from the Greek [Greek: nomisma], or the Latin_numus_, _coin or medal_. Numismatics is now regarded as indispensableto archæology, and to a thorough acquaintance of the fine arts; it isalso of great assistance in philology and the explanation of the ancientclassics; it appears to have been entirely unknown to the ancients, butsince the middle of the sixteenth century, it has occupied the attentionof many learned men. The name of _coins_ is given to pieces of metal, on which the publicauthority has impressed different marks to indicate their weight andvalue, to make them a convenient medium of exchange. By the word_medals_, when used in reference to modern times, is understood piecesof metal similar to coins but not intended as a medium of exchange, butstruck and distributed to commemorate some important event, or in memoryof some distinguished personage. The name of medals, however, is alsogiven to all pieces of money which have remained from ancient times. Theterm _medallion_ is given to medals of a very large size, many of thembeing several inches in diameter. The parts of a coin or medal are thetwo sides; first, the _obverse_ side, face or head, which contains theportrait of the person at whose command or in whose honor it wasstruck, or other figures relating to him: this portrait consists eitherof the head alone, or the bust, half length, or full figure; second, the_reverse_ contains mythological, allegorical, or historical figures. Thewords around the border form the _legend_, and those in the middle the_inscription_. The lower part of the coin, which is separated by a linefrom the figures or the inscription, is the _basis_ or _exergue_, andcontains subsidiary matter, as the date, the place where the piece wasstruck, etc. Numismatics has the same divisions as history. --Ancient Numismaticsextends to the extinction of the empire of the West; the Numismatics ofthe middle ages commences with Charlemagne; and modern Numismatics withthe revival of learning. Medals indicate the names of provinces and cities, determine theirposition, and present pictures of many celebrated places. They fix theperiod of events, frequently determine their character, and enable us totrace the series of kings. They also enable us to learn the differentmetallurgical processes, the different alloys, the modes of gilding andplating practiced by the ancients, the metals which they used, theirweight and measures, their different modes of reckoning, the names andtitles of the various kings and magistrates, and also their portraits, their different divinities, with their attributes and titles, theutensils and ceremonies of their worship, the costume of theirpriests--in fine, everything which relates to their usages, civil, military, and religious. Medals also acquaint us with the history ofart. They contain representations of several celebrated works ofantiquity which have been lost, the value of which may be estimated fromthe ancient medals of those still existing, as the Farnese Hercules, Niobe and her Children, the Venus of Gnidos, etc. Like gems and statues, they enable us to trace the epochs of different styles of art, toascertain its progress among the most civilized nations, and itscondition among the rude. The ancient medals were struck or cast; some were first cast and thenstruck. The first coins of Rome and other cities of Italy must have beencast, as the hammer could not have produced so bold a relief. The coppercoins of Egypt were cast. The right of coining money has always been oneof the privileges which rulers have confined to themselves. The freecities have inscribed only their names on their coins. The citiessubject to kings sometimes obtained permission to strike money in theirown name, but were most frequently required to add the name or image ofthe king to whom they were subject. The medals of the Parthians and thePhoenecians offer many examples of this sort. Rome, under therepublic, allowed no individual the right to coin money; no magistratecould put his name thereon, though this honor was sometimes allowed, asa special favor, by a decree of the Senate. We can count as numismaticcountries only those into which the Greeks and Romans carried the useof money; though some of the oriental nations used gold and silver as amedium of exchange, before their time it was by weight. The people inthe northern part of Europe had no money. The coins preserved from antiquity are estimated to be more numerousthan those we possess from the middle ages, in the proportion of ahundred to one! Millin thinks that the number of extant ancient medalsamounts to 70, 000! What a fund of the most curious and authenticinformation do they contain, and what a multitude of errors have beencorrected by their means! There are valuable cabinets of medals in allthe principal cities of Europe; that of Paris is by far the richest;Pillerin alone added to it 33, 000 ancient coins and medals. The coins ofthe kings of Macedon are the most ancient of any yet discovered havingportraits; and Alexander I. , who commenced his reign about B. C. 500, isthe earliest monarch whose medals have yet been found. Then succeed thesovereigns who reigned in Sicily, Caria, Cyprus, Heraclea, and Pontus. Afterwards comes the series of kings of Egypt, Syria, the CimmerianBosphorus, Thrace, Parthia, Armenia, Damascus, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Pergamos, Galatia, Cilicia, Sparta Pæonia, Epirus, Illyricum, Gaul, andthe Alps. This series reaches from the time of Alexander the Great tothe Christian Era, comprising a period of about 330 years. A perfectand distinct series is formed by the Roman emperors, from the time ofJulius Cæsar to the destruction of the empire, and even still later. TheGrecian medals claim that place in a cabinet, from their antiquity, which their workmanship might ensure them, independently of thatadvantageous consideration. It is observed by Pinkerton, that an immensenumber of the medals of cities, which, from their character, we mightjudge to be of the highest antiquity, have a surprising strength, beauty, and relief in their impressions. About the time of Alexander theGreat, this art appears to have attained its highest perfection. Thecoins of Alexander and his father exceed in beauty all that were everexecuted, if we except those of Sicily, Magna Grecia, and the ancientones of Asia Minor. Sicilian medals are famous for workmanship, evenfrom the time of Gelo. The coins of the Syrian kings, successors toAlexander, almost equal his own in beauty; but adequate judges confinetheir high praises of the Greek mint to those coins struck before thesubjection of Greece to the Roman empire. The Roman coins, considered asmedals in a cabinet, may be divided into two great classes--the consularand the imperial; both are numerous and valuable. In the cabinet of theGrand Duke of Tuscany is a set of twelve medals of Antonius Pius, eachwith one of the signs of the Zodiac on the reverse, and part of anotherset, eight in number with as many of the labors of Hercules. RESTORING ANCIENT EDIFICES. As in comparative anatomy it is easy, from a single bone, to designateand describe the animal to which it belonged, so in architecture it iseasy to restore, by a few fragments, any ancient building. Inconsequence of the known simplicity and regularity of most antiqueedifices, the task of restoration, by means of drawings and models, ismuch less difficult than might be supposed. The ground work, or somesufficient parts of it, commonly extant, shows the length and breadth ofthe building, with the positions of the walls, doors and columns. Asingle column, or part of a column, whether standing or fallen, with afragment of the entablature, furnishes data from which the remainder ofthe colonnade and the height of the edifice can be made out. A singlestone from the cornice of the pediment, is sufficient to give the angleof inclination, and consequently the height of the roof. In this way thestructure of many beautiful edifices has been accurately determined, when in so ruinous a state as scarcely to have left one stone uponanother. NAPOLEON'S LOVE OF ART. Napoleon was not only a true lover of art, but an excellent connoisseur. He did more to elevate the arts and sciences in France than all themonarchs together who had preceded him. It was a part of his policy tohonor and reward every man of genius, no matter what his origin, andthus to develop the intellect of his country. He foresaw the advantageof making Paris the great centre of art; therefore he did not hesitateto transport from the countries he conquered, the most renowned andvaluable works of ancient and modern times. "Paris is Rome; Paris is nowthe great centre of art, " said he to Canova in 1810, when that greatsculptor visited Paris at his command, and whom he endeavored topersuade to permanently remain in his service. West, after his return toEngland from Paris, where he had had several interviews with Bonaparte, expressed his admiration of the man in such warm terms as offended theofficials of the government, and caused such opposition, that he deemedit proper to resign the President's chair in the Royal Academy. Thetruth is, it was not the conqueror, as the English pretended, but hisexalted ideas of the arts, and of their value to a country, whichcaptivated West, whose peaceful tenets led him to abhor war anddevastation. Napoleon's enlightened policy is also seen in those stupendous workspublished by the French government, as the _Description de l'Egypte, ouRecueil des Observationes et des Recherches pendant l'Expedition del'Armée Français_, 25 vols. In elephant folio. This work corresponds ingrandeur of its proportions to the edifices and monuments which itdescribes. Everything that zeal in the cause of science, combined withthe most extensive knowledge, had been able to collect in a landabounding in monuments of every kind, and in the rarest curiosities, isdescribed and illustrated in this work by a committee of savansappointed for the purpose. It contains more than 900 engravings, and3000 illustrative sketches. The Musée Français, and the Musée Royal, containing 522 plates, after the gems of the world, are not less grandand magnificent, and far more valuable contributions to art. These willbe described in a subsequent page. Such was Napoleon; deprive him ofevery other glory, his love of art, and what he did for its promotion, and the adornment of his country, would immortalize his name. Napoleon delighted to spend some of his leisure moments in contemplatingthe master pieces of art which he had gathered in the Louvre, and thathe might go there when he pleased, without parade, he had a privategallery constructed leading to that edifice from the Tuilleries. (SeeSpooner's Dictionary of Painters, Engravers, Sculptors, and Architects, articles West, David, Denon, Canova, etc. , and vol i. , page8, of this work. ) NAPOLEON'S WORKS AT PARIS. "The emperor was, most indisputably, the monarch who contributed in thegreatest degree to the embellishment of Paris. How many establishmentsoriginated under his reign! nevertheless, on beholding them, theobserver has but a faint idea of all he achieved; since every principalcity of the empire witnessed alike the effects of his munificence andgrandeur of mind; the streets were widened, roads constructed and canalscut; even the smallest towns experienced improvements, the result ofthat expanded genius which was daily manifested. I shall, therefore, content myself by placing before the reader a mere sketch of the worksachieved at Paris; for were it requisite to give a catalogue of all themonuments erected during his reign, throughout the French empire, aseries of volumes would be required to commemorate those multifariouslabors. "--_Ireland_. _Palaces. _ The Louvre was completely restored, which a succession of Frenchmonarchs had not been able to accomplish. The Palace of the Luxembourgequally embellished throughout, as well in the interior as the exterior, and its gardens replanted. The Exchange founded. The Palace of theUniversity reconstructed, as well as the Gallery uniting the Palace ofthe Tuilleries to that of the Louvre. _Fountains. _ The situation of the Fountain of the Innocents changed, and the wholereërected; that of Saint Sulpicius; of the Four Nations; of Desaix inthe Place Dauphine; of Gros-Caillon; of the Quay de L'Ecole; of theBridge of Saint Eustatius; of the Rue Ceusder; of the Rue Popincourt; ofthe Chateau D'Eau; of the Square of the Chatelet; of the Place NotreDame; of the Temple; and of the Elephant, in the Place of the Bastille. _Acqueducts. _ The subterranean acqueducts were constructed, which convey the water ofthe Canal de L'Ourcq throughout the different quarters of Paris, fromwhence a vast number of small fountains distribute them in everydirection, to refresh the streets during the summer season, and tocleanse them in the winter; these same channels being also formed toreceive the waters which flow from the gutters in the streets. _Markets. _ That of the Innocents, the largest in Paris; the Jacobins, whereformerly stood the monastery of that name, and during the heat of therevolution, the club so called; the Valley for the sale of Poultry; theMarket of Saint Joseph; the Halle for the sale of Wines; the Market ofSaint Martin; that of Saint Germain, and of Saint Jacques-la-Boucherie. _Slaughter Houses. _ Those of the Deux Moulins; of the Invalids; of Popincourt; of Miromeuil, and of Les Martyrs. As the killing of animals, for the consumption of Paris, within theconfines of the city, was deemed not only unwholesome, but verydisgusting, these buildings were erected by order of Napoleon, and haveproved of the greatest utility. The edifices are very spacious, containing all the requisites for the purpose intended, and being alsoplaced in different directions and without the barriers of the city, theeyes of the inhabitants are no longer disgusted by beholding thosetorrents of blood which formerly inundated the streets, and which, inthe summer season, produced an effluvia not only disgusting to thesmell, but highly detrimental to the health of the population of thecity. _Watering Places for Animals. _ That of the School of Medicine, a superb marble structure, together withthe Abreuvoir of the Rue L'Egout, Saint Germain. _Public Granary, or Halle du Blé. _ Necessity gave rise to the noble plan of this stupendous fabric, theidea of which was taken from the people of antiquity. _Boulevard. _ That called Bourdon was formed, occupying the environs of the spot wherethe Bastille stood. _Bridges. _ Those of the Arts; of the City; of Austerlitz; and of Jena. _Triumphal Arches. _ The Carousel; the Etoile; and the Arch of Louis XIV. , restored. _Quays. _ Those of Napoleon; of Flowers; of Morland; and of Caténat. _The Column of Austerlitz. _ Situated in the centre of the Place Vendôme, formed of the brassproduced from the cannon which were taken from the Austrians during thememorable campaign of 1805. _Place de Victoires. _ In the middle of this square was erected a colossal bronze statue of thegallant General Desaix, who nobly fell at the battle of Marengo, whenleading to the charge a body of cavalry, which decided the fate of thatdesperate conflict; this tribute, however, to the memory of the brave, was removed by order of the Bourbons, on their first restoration. _Squares. _ In the middle of the Place Royale a fine basin has been constructed, from whence plays a magnificent piece of water; the Squares of theApport de Paris; of the Rotunda; and of Rivoli. _The Pantheon. _ The pillars supporting the vast dome of this lofty pile, which had longthreatened the overthrow of the structure were replaced, and thetottering foundations rendered perfect and solid. _The Hotel Dieu. _ The whole façade of this immense Hospital was reconstructed. _The Canal de L'Ourcq. _ This grand undertaking was rendered navigable, and the basin, sluices, &c. Completely finished. THE NAPOLEON MEDALS. Of the numerous means employed to commemorate the achievements ofNapoleon, the public buildings and monuments of France bear amplewitness. Indeed, Bonaparte's name and fame are so engrafted with thearts and literature of France, that it would be impossible for thegovernment to erase the estimation in which he is held by the Frenchpeople. _A series of medals in bronze_, nearly one hundred and thirty in number, struck at different epochs of his career, exist, each in celebration ofthe prowess of the French army, or of some great act of his government:a victory, a successful expedition, the conquest of a nation, theestablishment of a new state, the elevation of some of his family, orhis own personal aggrandizement. The medal commemorative of the _battle of Marengo_ bears, on one side, alarge bunch of keys, environed by two laurel branches; and, on thereverse, Bonaparte, as a winged genius, standing on a dismounted cannonto which four horses are attached upon the summit of Mount St. Bernard, urges their rapid speed, with a laurel branch in one hand, whilst hedirects the reins with the other. That on the _peace of Luneville_ is two inches and a quarter indiameter, with the head of the first consul in uncommonly bold relief;the device, as mentioned in another place, is the sun arising insplendor upon that part of the globe which represents France, and whichis overshadowed by laurels, whilst a cloud descends and obscures GreatBritain. The commencement of hostilities by England, after the _peace of Amiens_, is designated by the English leopard tearing a scroll, with theinscription, _Le Traité d'Amiens Rompu par l'Angleterre en Mai de l'An_1803; on the reverse, a winged female figure in breathless haste forcingon a horse at full speed, and holding a laurel crown, inscribed, _L'Hanovre occupé var l'Armée Francaise en Juin de l'An_ 1803; andbeneath, _Frappée avec l'Argent des Mines d'Hanovre, l'An 4 deBonaparte_. His medal, on assuming the purple, has his portrait, _NapoleonEmpereur_, by Andrieu, who executed nearly all the portraits on hismedals; on the reverse, he is in his imperial robes, elevated by twofigures, one armed, inscribed, _Le Senat et le Peuple_. The _battle of Austerlitz_ has, on the reverse, simply a thunderbolt, with a small figure of Napoleon, enrobed and enthroned on the upper endof the shaft of the thunder. In 1804, he struck a medal with a Herculean figure on the reverse, confining the head of the English leopard between his knees, whilstpreparing a cord to strangle him, inscribed _En l'An XII. 2000 barquessont construites_;--this was in condemnation of the invasion andconquest of England. The reverse of the medal on the _battle of Jena_ represents Napoleon onan eagle in the clouds, as warring with giants on the earth, whom heblasts with thunderbolts. The medal on the _Confederation of the Rhine_ has, for its reverse, numerous warriors in ancient armor, swearing with their right hands onan altar, formed of an immense fasces, with the imperial eagleprojecting from it. Not the least characteristic of the series is a medal, with the usualhead _Napoleon Emp. Et Roi_, on the exergue, with this remarkablereverse, a throne, with the imperial robes over the back and across thesceptre, which is in the chair; before the throne is a table, withseveral crowns, differing in shape and dignity, and some sceptres withthem lying upon it; three crowns are on the ground, one broken and twoupside down; an eagle with a fasces hovers in the air; the inscriptionis, _Souverainetés donnés_ M. DCCCVI. The reverses of the last four in succession, struck during the reign ofNapoleon, are, 1. The _Wolga_, rising with astonishment from his bed atthe sight of the French eagle; 2. A representation of _la Bataille de laMoskowa, 7 Septembre, 1812_; 3. _A view of Moscow_, with the French flagflying on the Kremlin, and an ensign of the French eagle, bearing theletter N. Loftily elevated above its towers and minarets, dated 14thSeptember, 1812; 4. A figure in the air, directing a furious stormagainst an armed warrior resembling Napoleon, who, unable to resist theattack, is sternly looking back, whilst compelled to fly before it--adead horse, cannon dismounted, and a wagon full of troops standingstill, perishing in fields of snow; the inscription is, _Retraite del'Armée, Novembre, 1812_. The workmanship of the preceding medals are admirable, but most of themare surpassed in that respect by some to which we can do little morethan allude. A finely executed medal, two inches and five-eights in diameter, represents Napoleon enthroned in his full imperial costume, holding alaurel wreath; on the reverse is a head of _Minerva_, surrounded bylaurel and various trophies of the fine arts, with thisinscription--_Ecole Francaise des Beaux Arts à Rome, rétablie etaugmentée par Napoleon en 1803_. The reverses--of the Cathedral atParis--a warrior sheathing his sword (on the battle of Jena)--andBonaparte holding up the King of Rome, and presenting him to thepeople--are amongst the most highly finished and most inestimablespecimens of art. Unquestionably the _worst_ in the collection is the consular medal, which, on that account, deserves description; it is, in size, about ahalf crown piece, on the exergue, over a small head of Bonaparte, isinscribed _Bonaparte premier consul_; beneath it, _Cambacères secondconsul, le Brun troisième consul de la république Francaise_; on thereverse, _Le peuple Francais à défenseurs, cette première pierre de lacolonne nationale, posée par Lucien Bonaparte, ministre de l'interieur, 25 Messidore, An 8, 14 Juillet, 1800_. --One other medal only appearswith the name of Lucien Bonaparte; it is that struck in honor of MarshalTurenne, upon the _Translation du corps de Turenne au Temple de Mars parles ordres du premier Consul Bonaparte_; and is of a large size, bearingthe head of Turenne, with, beneath it, _Sa gloire appartient au peupleFrancais_. Several are in honor of General Desaix, whose memory Napoleonheld in great esteem. Those on his marriage with Marie Louise bear herhead beside his own; and a small one on that occasion has for itsreverse, a Cupid carrying with difficulty a thunderbolt. Those on thebirth of their child bear the same heads on the exergue, with the headof an infant, on the reverse, inscribed, _Napoleon François JosephCharles, Rio de Rome, XX. Mars M. DCCCXI. --Ireland_. THE ELEPHANT FOUNTAIN. When Napoleon had decided that a stupendous fountain should occupy thecentre of the area where the celebrated state prison of the Bastillestood, the several artists, employed by the government, were ordered toprepare designs for the undertaking, and numerous drawings were inconsequence sent in for the emperor's inspection. On the day appointed, he proceeded to examine these specimens, not one of which, however, proved at all commensurate with the vast idea he had in contemplation;wherefore, after pacing the chamber a few minutes, Napoleon suddenlyhalted, exclaiming: "Plant me a colossal elephant there, and let thewater spout from his extended trunk!" All the artists stood astonishedat this bold idea, the propriety and grandeur of which immediatelyflashed conviction upon their minds, and the only wonder of each was, that no such thought should have presented itself to his ownimagination: the simple fact is, _there was but one Napoleonpresent_!--_Communicated to Ireland by David. _ This fountain was modeled in Plaster of Paris on the spot. It isseventy-two feet in height; the _jet d'eau_ is through the nostrils ofhis trunk; the reservoir in the tower on his back; and one of his legscontains the staircase for ascending to the large room in the inside ofhis belly. The elephant was to have been executed in bronze, with tusksof silver, surrounded by lions of bronze, which were to spout water fromone cistern to another. INTERESTING DRAWINGS. On the sailing of the French expedition for Egypt, from Malta, under theorders of Bonaparte, the fleet was intentionally dispersed in order toarrive without being noticed; they had no sooner, however, left Malta, than they learned that Nelson had penetrated their design, and was inpursuit of them. Expecting every hour to be come up with, and being tooweak to risk a combat, it was the resolution of Bonaparte and the restof the illustrious persons on board the _Orient_ to blow her up, ratherthan be taken prisoners; but, that the memory of those who perishedmight be preserved, and their features known by posterity, Bonapartecaused the portraits of eighteen to be taken on two sheets of paper, which were to be rolled up, put in bottles, and committed to the waves:the names of the persons are, -- _First Drawing. _ Desaix, Berthier, Kleber, Dalomieu, Berthollet, Bonaparte, Caffarelli, Brueys, Monge. _Second Drawing. _ Rampon, Junot, Regnier, Desgenettes, Larrey, Murat, Lasnes, Belliard, Snulkanski. The portraits were executed in medallions, with India ink; they werecarefully preserved by the famous surgeon, Baron Larrey; and theyadorned his study at Paris till his death. SEVRES CHINA. On the river at Sévres, near Paris, a manufactory is carried on, whichproduces the beautiful porcelain, commonly called Sévres, china. It isequal to all that has been said of it, and after declining, as everyother great national establishment did, during the revolution, flourished greatly under the peculiar patronage of the emperor Napoleon. He made presents hence to those sovereigns of Europe with whom he was inalliance. Napoleon had two vases made of this china, which, even at thisday, form the principal ornament of the gallery at St. Cloud. Thesewere made at Sévres, and are valued at 100, 000 francs each. The claymade use of was brought at a great expense from a distant part ofFrance, and affords an instance of how much the value of raw materialmay be increased by the ingenuity of a skillful artist. DISMANTLING OF THE LOUVRE. In Scott's Paris Revisited (A. D. 1815), we have the followinginteresting particulars of the removal of the celebrated pictures andstatues from this famous emporium of the fine arts. "Every day new arrivals of strangers poured into Paris, all anxious togain a view of the Louvre, before its collection was broken up; it wasthe first point to which all the British directed their steps everymorning, in eager curiosity to know whether the business of removal hadcommenced. The towns and principalities, that had been plundered, weremaking sedulous exertions to influence the councils of the allies todetermine on a general restoration; and several of the great powersleaned decidedly towards such a decision. "Before actual force was employed, representations were repeated to theFrench government, but the ministers of the king of France would neitherpromise due satisfaction, nor uphold a strenuous opposition. They showeda sulky disregard of every application. A deputation from theNetherlands formally claimed the Dutch and Flemish pictures taken duringthe revolutionary wars from those countries; and this demand wasconveyed through the Duke of Wellington, as commander-in-chief of theDutch and Belgian armies. About the same time, also, Austria determinedthat her Italian and German towns, which had been despoiled, should havetheir property replaced, and Canova, the anxious representative of Rome, after many fruitless appeals to Talleyrand, received assurances that he, too, should be furnished with an armed force sufficient to protect himin taking back to that venerable city, what lost its highest value inits removal from thence. "Contradicting reports continued to prevail among the crowds ofstrangers and natives as to the intentions of the allies, but onSaturday, the 23d of September, all doubt was removed. On going up tothe door of the Louvre, I found a guard of one hundred and fifty Britishriflemen drawn up outside. I asked one of the soldiers what they werethere for? 'Why, they tell me, sir, that they mean to take away thepictures, ' was his reply. I walked in amongst the statues below, and ongoing to the great staircase, I saw the English guard hastily tramplingup its magnificent ascent: a crowd of astonished French followed in therear, and, from above, many of the visitors in the gallery of pictureswere attempting to force their way past the ascending soldiers, catching an alarm from their sudden entrance. The alarm, however, wasunfounded; but the spectacle that presented itself was very impressive. A British officer dropped his men in files along this magnificentgallery, until they extended, two and two, at small distances, from itsentrance to its extremity. All the spectators were breathless, ineagerness to know what was to be done, but the soldiers stopped asmachines, having no care beyond obedience to their orders. "The work of removal now commenced in good earnest: porters withbarrows, and ladders, and tackles of ropes made their appearance. Thecollection of the Louvre might from that moment be considered as brokenup for ever. The sublimity of its orderly aspect vanished: it took nowthe melancholy, confused, desolate air of a large auction room, after aday's sale. Before this, the visitors had walked down its profoundlength with a sense of respect on their minds, influencing them topreserve silence and decorum, as they contemplated the majesticpictures; but decency and quiet were dispelled when the signal was givenfor the breaking up of the establishment. It seemed as if a nation hadbecome ruined through improvidence, and was selling off. "The guarding of the Louvre was committed by turns to the British andAustrians, while this process lasted. The Prussians said that they haddone their own business for themselves, and would not now incur odiumfor others. The workmen being incommoded by the crowds that now rushedto the Louvre, as the news spread of the destruction of its greatcollection, a military order came that no visitors should be admittedwithout permission from the foreign commandant of Paris. This directionwas pretty much adhered to by the sentinels as far as the exclusion ofthe French, but the words _Je suis Anglais_, were always sufficient togain leave to pass from the Austrians: our own countrymen were rathermore strict, but, in general, foreigners could, with but littledifficulty, procure admission. The Parisians stood in crowds around thedoor, looking wistfully within it, as it occasionally opened to admitGermans, English, Russians, &c. , into a palace of their capital fromwhich they were excluded. I was frequently asked by French gentlemen, standing with ladies on their arms, and kept back from the door by theguards, to take them into their own Louvre, under my protection as anunknown foreigner! It was impossible not to feel for them in theseremarkable circumstances of mortification and humiliation; and theagitation of the French public was now evidently excessive. EveryFrenchman looked a walking volcano, ready to spit forth fire. Groups ofthe common people collected in the space before the Louvre, and aspokesman was generally seen, exercising the most violentgesticulations, sufficiently indicative of rage, and listened to by theothers, with lively signs of sympathy with his passion. As the packagescame out, they crowded round them, giving vent to torrents of _pestes_, _diables_, _sacres_, and other worse interjections. "Wherever an Englishman went, in Paris, at this time, whether into ashop or a company, he was assailed with the exclamation, _'Ah! voscompatriotes!'_ and the ladies had always some wonderful story to tellhim, of an embarrassment or mortification that had happened to _his_duke; of the evil designs of the Prince Regent, or the dreadful revengethat was preparing against the injuries of France. The great gallery ofthe Louvre presented every fresh day a more and more forlorn aspect; butto the reflecting mind, it combined a number of interesting points ofview. The gallery now seemed to be the abode of all the foreigners inthe French capital:--we collected there, as a matter of course, everymorning--but it was easy to distinguish the last comers from the rest. They entered the Louvre with steps of eager haste, and looks of anxiousinquiry; they seemed to have scarcely stopped by the way--and to havemade directly for the pictures on the instant of their reaching Paris. The first view of the stripped walls made their countenances sink underthe disappointment, as to the great object of their journey. Crowdscollected round the _Transfiguration_--that picture which, according tothe French account, _destiny_ had always intended for the French nation:it was every one's wish to see it taken down, for the fame which thisgreat work of Raffaelle had acquired, and its notoriety in the generalknowledge, caused its departure to be regarded as the consummation ofthe destruction of the picture gallery of the Louvre. It was taken awayamong the last. "Students of all nations fixed themselves round the principal pictures, anxious to complete their copies before the workmen came to remove theoriginals. Many young French girls were seen among these, perched uponsmall scaffolds, and calmly pursuing their labors in the midst of thethrong and bustle. When the French gallery was thoroughly cleared of theproperty of other nations, I reckoned the number of pictures which thenremained to it, and found that the total left to the French nation, ofthe fifteen hundred pictures which constituted their magnificentcollection, was _two hundred and seventy-four_! The Italian divisioncomprehended about eighty-five specimens; these were now dwindled to_twelve_: in this small number, however, there are some very exquisitepictures by Raffaelle, and other great masters. Their Titians are muchreduced, but they keep the Entombment, as belonging to the King ofFrance's old collection, which is one of the finest by that artist. Amelancholy air of utter ruin mantled over the walls of this superbgallery: the floor was covered with empty frames: a Frenchman, in themidst of his sorrow, had his joke, in saying, 'Well, we should not haveleft to _them_ even these!' In walking down this exhausted place, Iobserved a person, wearing the insignia of the legion of honor, suddenlystop short, and heard him exclaim, '_Ah, my God--and the Paul Potter, too!_' This referred to the famous painting of a bull by that master, which is the largest of his pictures, and is very highly valued. Itbelonged to the Netherlands, and has been returned to them. It was saidthat the emperor Alexander offered fifteen thousand pounds for it. "The removal of the statues was later in commencing, and took up moretime; they were still packing these up when I quitted Paris. I saw theVenus, the Apollo, and the Laocoön removed: these may be deemed thepresiding deities of the collection. The solemn antique look of thesehalls fled forever, when the workmen came in with their straw andPlaster of Paris, to pack up. The French could not, for some time, allowthemselves to believe that their enemies would dare to deprive them ofthese sacred works; it appeared to them impossible that they should beseparated from France--from _la France_--the country of the Louvre andthe Institute; it seemed a contingency beyond the limits of humanreverses. But it happened, nevertheless: they were all removed. Oneafternoon, before quitting the place, I accidentally stopped longer thanusual, to gaze on the Venus, and I never saw so clearly her superiorityover the Apollo, the impositions of whose style, even more than thegreat beauties with which they are mingled, have gained for it aninordinate and indiscriminating admiration. On this day, very few, ifany of the statues had been taken away--and many said that France wouldretain them, although she was losing the pictures. On the followingmorning I returned, and the pedestal on which the Venus had stood for somany years, the pride of Paris, and the delight of every observer, wasvacant! It seemed as if a soul had taken its flight from a body. " REMOVAL OF THE VENETIAN HORSES FROM PARIS. "The removal of the well known horses taken from the church of St. Markin Venice, was a bitter mortification to the people of Paris. These hadbeen peculiarly the objects of popular pride and admiration. Beingexposed to the public view, in one of the most frequented situations ofParis, this was esteemed the noblest trophy belonging to the capital;and there was not a Parisian vender of a pail-full of water who did notlook like a hero when the Venetian horses were spoken of. "'Have you heard what has been determined about the horses?' was everyforeigner's question. 'Oh! they cannot mean to take the horses away, 'was every Frenchman's answer. On the morning of Thursday, the 26th ofSeptember, 1815, however it was whispered that they had been at work allnight in loosening them from their fastening. It was soon confirmedthat this was true--and the French then had nothing left for it, but tovow, that if the allies were to attempt to touch them in the _daylight_, Paris would rise at once, exterminate its enemies, and rescue its honor. On Friday morning I walked through the square; it was clear that someconsiderable change had taken place; the forms of the horses appearedfiner than I had ever before witnessed. When looking to discover whathad been done, a private of the British staff corps came up, 'You see, sir, we took away the harness last night, ' said he. 'You have made agreat improvement by so doing, ' I replied; 'but are the British employedon this work?' The man said that the Austrians had requested theassistance of our staff corps, for it included better workmen than anythey had in their service. I heard that an angry French mob had givensome trouble to the people employed on the Thursday night, but that abody of Parisian gendarmerie had dispersed the assemblage. The Frenchmencontinued their sneers against the allies for working in the dark: fearand shame were the causes assigned. 'If you take them at all, why nottake them in the face of day? But you are too wise to drag uponyourselves the irresistible popular fury, which such a sight wouldexcite against you!' "On the night of Friday, the order of proceeding was entirely changed. It had been found proper to call out a strong guard of Austrians, horseand foot. The mob had been charged by the cavalry, and it was said thatseveral had their limbs broken. I expected to find the place on Saturdaymorning quiet and open as usual; but when I reached its entrance, whatan impressive scene presented itself! The delicate plan--for such intruth it was--of working by night, was now over. The Austrians hadwished to spare the feelings of the king the pain of seeing his capitaldismantled before his palace windows, where he passed in his carriagewhen he went out for his daily exercise. But the acute feelings of thepeople rendered severer measures necessary. My companion and myself werestopped from entering the place by Austrian dragoons: a large mob ofFrenchmen were collected here, standing on tip-toe to catch the arch inthe distance, on the top of which the ominous sight of numbers ofworkmen, busy about the horses, was plainly to be distinguished. Weadvanced again to the soldiers: some of the French, by whom we weresurrounded, said, 'Whoever you are, you will not be allowed to pass. ' Iconfess I was for retiring--for the whole assemblage, citizens andsoldiers, seemed to wear an angry and alarming aspect. But my companionwas eager for admittance. He was put back again by an Austrianhussar:--'_What, not the English!_' he exclaimed in his own language. The mob laughed loudly, when they heard the foreign soldier soaddressed; but the triumph was ours; way was instantly made for us--andan officer on duty, close by, touched his helmet as we passed. "The king and princes had left the Tuilleries, to be out of the view ofso mortifying a business The court of the palace, which used to be gaywith young _gardes du corps_ and equipages, was now silent, deserted, and shut up. Not a soul moved in it. The top of the arch was filled withpeople, and the horses, though as yet all there, might be seen to beginto move. The carriages that were to take them away were in waitingbelow, and a tackle of ropes was already affixed to one. The small doorleading to the top was protected by a strong guard: every one wasstriving to obtain permission to gratify his curiosity, by visiting thehorses for the last time that they could be visited in this situation. Permission, however, could necessarily be granted but to few. I was ofthe fortunate number. In a minute I had climbed the narrow dark stair, ascended a small ladder, and was out on the top, with the mostpicturesque view before me that can be imagined. An English lady askedme to assist her into Napoleon's car of victory: his own statue was tohave been placed in it, _when he came back a conqueror from his Russianexpedition!_ I followed the lady and her husband into the car, and wefound a Prussian officer there before us. He looked at us, and, with agood humored smile, said, 'The emperor kept the English out of France, but the English have now got where he could not! '_Ah, pauvre, Napoleon!_' "The cry of the French now was, that it was abominable, execrable, toinsult the king in his palace--to insult him in the face of his ownsubjects by removing the horses in the face of day! I adjourned with afriend to dine at a _restaurateur's_, near the garden of the Tuilleries, after witnessing what I have described. Between seven and eight in theevening we heard the rolling of wheels, the clatter of cavalry, and thetramp of infantry. A number of British were in the room; they all roseand rushed to the door without hats, and carrying in their haste theirwhite table napkins in their hands. The horses were going past inmilitary procession, lying on their sides, in separate cars. First camecavalry, then infantry, then a car; then more cavalry, more infantry, then another car; and so on till all four passed. The drums werebeating, and the standards went waving by. This was the only appearanceof parade that attended any of the removals. Three Frenchmen, seeing thegroup of English, came up to us, and began a conversation. They appealedto us if this was not shameful. A gentleman observed, that the horseswere only going back to the place from whence the French had taken them:if there was a right in power for France, there must also be one forother states but the better way to consider these events was asterminating the times of robbery and discord. Two of them seemed muchinclined to come instantly round to our opinion: but one was much moreconsistent. He appeared an officer, and was advanced beyond the middleage of life. He kept silence for a moment; and then, with strongemphasis, said--'You have left me nothing for my children but hatredagainst England; this shall be my legacy to them. '"--_Scott. _ REMOVAL OF THE STATUE OF NAPOLEON FROM THE PLACE VENDOME. "What will posterity think of the madness of the French government andthe exasperation of public feeling in a nation like the French, souniformly proud of military glory, when very shortly after the firstarrival of their new monarch, Louis XVIII. , an order was issued forleveling with the dust that proud monument of their victories, thefamous column and statue of Napoleon in the Place Vendôme cast fromthose cannon which their frequent victories over the Austrians hadplaced at their disposal? The ropes attached to the neck of the colossalbrazen figure of the Emperor, wherewith the pillar was crowned, extendedto the very iron gratings of the Tuillerie gardens; thousands essayed tomove it, but all attempts were vain--the statue singly defied theirmalice; upon which a second expedient was resorted to, and the carriagehorses, etc. , from the royal stables were impressed into this service, and affixed to the ropes, thus uniting their powerful force to that ofthe _bipeds_: but even this proved abortive; the statue and columnbraved the united shocks of man and beast, and both remainedimmoveable. " The statue was afterwards quietly dislodged from itsstation by the regular labors of the experienced artisan. It was notreplaced till after the Revolution in 1830. --_Ireland. _ THE MUSEE FRANCAIS AND THE MUSEE ROYAL. When the Allies entered Paris in 1815, they found in the gallery of theLouvre about two thousand works of art--the gems of the world inpainting and antique sculpture--mostly the spoils of war, depositedthere by the Emperor Napoleon. The selection of these works wasentrusted to a commission, at the head of whom was the Baron Denon, whoaccompanied the Emperor in all his expeditions for this purpose. TheLouvre, at this time, was the acknowledged emporium of the fine arts. The grand determination of Napoleon to place France highest in art amongthe nations, did not rest here. The design of combining in one singleseries, five hundred and twenty-two line engravings from the finestpaintings and antique statues in the world, was a conception worthy ofhis genius and foresight, and by its execution he conferred a lastingfavor not only on the artistic, but the civilized world, for theoriginals were subsequently restored by the Allies to their rightfulowners and only about three hundred and fifty pieces remained of thatsplendid collection. "These works" (the Musée Français, and the MuséeRoyal), says a distinguished connoisseur, "are unquestionably thegreatest production of modern times. They exhibit a series of exquisiteengravings by the most distinguished artists, of such a magnificentcollection of painting and of sculpture as can never be again united. "These works were intended as a great treasury of art, from which notonly artists, but the whole world might derive instruction and profit. To secure the utmost perfection in every department, no expense wasspared. The drawings for the engravers to engrave from, were executed bythe most distinguished artists, in order to ensure that everypeculiarity, perfection, and _imperfection_ in the originals should beexactly copied, and these are pointed out in the accompanyingcriticisms. These drawings alone cost the French government 400, 000francs. The engravings were executed by the most distinguished engravers ofEurope, without regard to country, among whom it is sufficient tomention Raffaelle Morghen, the Chevalier von Müller, and his son C. F. Von Müller, Bervic, Richomme, Rosaspina, Bartolozzi, Gandolfi, Schiavonetti, the elder and younger Laurent, Massard, Girardet, Lignon, Chatillon, Audouin, Forster, Claessens, etc. Stanley says that proofimpressions of Bervic's masterpiece, the Laocoön, have been sold inLondon for thirty guineas each. There are many prints in these worksnot less celebrated, and which are regarded by connoisseurs asmasterpieces of the art. Nor was this all. Napoleon summoned Visconti, the famous antiquary, archæologist, and connoisseur, from Rome to Paris, to assist in gettingup the admirable descriptions and criticisms, particularly of theancient statues. This department was confided to Visconti, Guizot, Clarac, and the elder Duchesne. The supervision of the engraving andpublishing department was entrusted to the Messrs. Robilliard, Peronville, and Laurent. These works were published in numbers of fourplates, atlas folio, at the price of 96 francs each for the proofsbefore the letter, and 48 francs for the prints. The first number of theMusée Français was issued in 1803, and the last in 1811; but the MuséeRoyal, which was intended to supply the deficiencies of the MuséeFrançais, was not completed till 1819; nevertheless, it was Napoleon'swork, though consummated in the reign of Louis XVIII. The Musée Français was originally published in five volumes, andcontains, besides the descriptions and criticisms on the plates, admirable essays--1st. On the History of Painting, from its origin inancient times down to the time of Cimabue; 2d. On the History ofPainting in the German, Dutch, Flemish, and French schools; 3d. On theHistory of Engraving; 4th. On the History of Ancient Sculpture. TheMusée Royal was published in two volumes. A second edition of the MuséeFrançais was published by the Messrs. Galignani, in four volumes, withan English and French letter-press, but both greatly abridged. Theletter-press of the Musée Royal has never been rendered into English. The plates were sold by the French government in 1836, since which timea small edition has been printed from both works. BOYDELL'S SHAKSPEARE GALLERY. About the year 1785, Alderman J. Boydell, of London, conceived theproject of establishing a 'Shakspeare Gallery, ' upon a scale of grandeurand magnificence which should be in accordance with the fame of thepoet, and, at the same time, reflect honor upon the state of the arts inGreat Britain and throughout the world. Mr. Boydell was at this time aman of great wealth and influence, and a patron of the fine arts, beingan engraver himself, and having accumulated his fortune mostly bydealings in works of that character. He advertised for designs from artists throughout Great Britain, andpaid a guinea for every one submitted, whether accepted or not; and forevery one accepted by the committee, a prize of one hundred guineas. Thecommittee for selecting these designs was composed of five eminentartists, Boydell himself being the president. The first painters of theage were then employed to paint these pictures, among whom were SirJoshua Reynolds, Sir Benjamin West, Fusell, Romney, Northcote, Smirke, Sir William Beechy, and Opie. Allan Cunningham, in his 'Lives of Eminent British Artists, ' mentionsthat Sir Joshua Reynolds was at first opposed to Boydell's project, asimpracticable on such an immense scale, and Boydell, to gain hisapprobation and assistance, privately sent him a letter enclosing a£1000 Bank of England note, and requesting him to paint two pictures athis own price. What sum was paid by Boydell for these pictures was neverknown. A magnificent building was erected in Pall Mall to exhibit thisimmense collection, called the Shakspeare Gallery, which was for a longtime the pride of London. The first engravers of England were employed to transfer these gems tocopper, and such artists as Sharp, Bartolozzi, Earlom, Thew, Simon, Middiman, Watson, Fyttler, Wilson, and many others, exerted theirtalents for years in this great work. In some instances, the labor ofmore than five years was expended on a single plate, and proofimpressions were taken for subscribers at almost every stage of thework. At length in 1803, after nearly twenty years, the work wascompleted. The price fixed (which was never reduced) was two guineaseach for the first three hundred impressions, and the subscription listwas then filled up at one guinea each, or one hundred guineas a set ofone hundred plates. Besides these subscriptions, large donations were made by many of thenoblemen of England, to encourage the undertaking, and to enable Boydellto meet his enormous outlay. The cost of the whole work, from thecommencement, is said to have been about one million pounds sterling;and although the projector was a wealthy man when he commenced it, hedied soon after its completion, a bankrupt to the amount, it is said, of£250, 000. After these plates were issued, Boydell petitioned Parliament to allowhim to dispose of his gallery of paintings by a lottery. The petitionwas granted, and the whole collection was thus disposed of. One of thefinest of these pictures, King Lear, by Sir Benjamin West, is now in theBoston Athenæum. One fact in relation to these plates gives great value to them. "All theprincipal historical characters are genuine portraits of the personsrepresented in the play; every picture gallery and old castle in Englandwas ransacked to furnish these portraits. " BRIEF SKETCH OF A PLAN FOR AN AMERICAN NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART. Public Galleries of Art are now regarded by the most enlightened men, and the wisest legislators, as of incalculable benefit to everycivilized country. (See vol. I. , page 6, of this work. )They communicate to the mind, through the eye, "the accumulated wisdomof ages, " relative to every form of beauty, in the most rapid andcaptivating manner. If such institutions are important in Europe, abounding in works of art, how much more so in our country, separated asit is by the broad Atlantic from the artistic world, which fewcomparatively can ever visit: many of our young artists, for the want ofsuch an institution, are obliged to grope their way in the dark, and tospend months and years to find out a few simple principles of art. A distinguished professor, high in public estimation, has declared thatthe formation of such an institution in this country, however importantand desirable it may be, is almost hopeless. He founds his opinion onthe difficulty of obtaining the authenticated works of the greatmasters, and the enormous prices they now command in Europe. The writerventures to declare it as his long cherished opinion that a UnitedStates National Gallery is entirely practicable, as far as all usefulpurposes are concerned; and at a tithe of the cost of such institutionsin Europe. In the present state of the Fine Arts in our country, weshould not attempt to emulate European magnificence, but utility. The"course of empire is westward, " and in the course of time, as wealth andtaste increases, sale will be sought here, as now in England, for manyworks of the highest art. It is also to be hoped that some publicbenefactors will rise to our assistance. After the foundation of theinstitution, it may be extended according to the taste and wants of thecountry; professorships may be added, and the rarest works purchased. When the country can and will afford it, no price should be regarded toogreat for a perfect masterpiece of art, as a model in a nationalcollection. To begin, the Gallery should contain, 1st. A complete library of all standard works on Art, historical andillustrative, in every language. 2d. A collection of the masterpieces of engraving; these should bemounted on linen, numbered, bound, described and criticised. 3d. A complete collection of casts of medals and antique gems, where theoriginals cannot be obtained. There are about 70, 000 antique medals ofhigh importance to art. (See Numismatics, vol. Iii. , p. 269, of this work. ) These casts could easily be obtained through ourdiplomatic agents; they should be taken in Plaster of Paris or Sulphur, double--i. E. , the reverse and obverse, --classified, catalogued, described, and arranged in cases covered with plate glass, for theirpreservation. 4th. A collection of plaster casts of all the best works of sculpture, particularly of the antique. Correct casts of the Elgin marbles are soldby the British Museum at a very reasonable price, and in this casewould doubtless be presented to the institution. 5th. A collection of Paintings. This is the most difficult part of theproject, yet practicable. Masterpieces of the art only should beadmitted, but historical authenticity disregarded. The works of thegreat masters have been so closely imitated, that there are no certainmarks of authenticity, where the history of the picture cannot betraced. (See Spooner's Dictionary of Painters, etc. , Introduction, andTable of Imitators. ) Half the pictures in foreign collections cannot beauthenticated, and many of those which are, are not the best productionsof the master, nor worthy of the places they occupy. (See Mrs. Jameson'sHand-Book to the Public Galleries in and near London; also theCatalogues of the various Public Galleries of Europe. ) Therefore, instead of paying 5, 000 or 10, 000 guineas for an authenticated piece bya certain master, as is sometimes done in Europe, competent and _true_men should be appointed to select capital works, executed in the styleof the great masters. Many such can be had in this country as well as inEurope, at moderate prices. 6th. The Institution should be located in New York, as the mostconvenient place, and as the great centre of commerce, where artistscould most readily dispose of their works. For this favor, the citywould doubtless donate the ground, and her citizens make liberalcontributions. The edifice should be built fire-proof, and threestories high--the upper with a skylight, for the gallery of paintings. Such an institution need not be very expensive; yet it would afford theelements for the instruction and accomplishment of the painter, theengraver, the sculptor, the architect, the connoisseur, thearchæologist, and the public at large; it would be the means ofawakening and developing the sleeping genius of many men, to the honor, glory, and advantage of their country, which, without it, must sleep onforever. See vol. Ii. , pp. 149 and 155, and vol. Iii. , p. 265of this work. INDEX. Advantages of the Cultivation of the Fine Arts to a Country, i, 6; Sir M. A. Shoe's Opinion, i, 6; Sir George Beaumont's, i, 7; West's, i, 8; Taylor's, i, 9; see also, i, 69; Reynolds' Opinion, i, 204; Napoleon's, iii, 274. Ætion, his picture of the Nuptials of Alexander and Roxana, ii, 184. Agaptos, Porticos of, ii, 185. Ageladus, his works, ii, 185. Aldobrandini Wedding, Fresco of, ii, 55. Allston, Washington, i, 60; his Prayer answered, i, 61; his success in London, i, 62; his Death, i, 62; Vanderlyn's letter--his Reflections on his Death, i, 63. American Patronage at Home and Abroad, i, 66; Weir, Greenough, and Cooper's testimony, i, 67; Cooper's Letter, i, 68. Amiconi, Jacopo, iii, 249. Angelo, Michael, his Early Passion for Art, i, 47; his Mask of a Satyr, i, 48; his Sleeping Cupid, i, 48; Angela and Julius II, i, 50; St. Peter's Church, i, 50; Angelo and Lorenzo the Magnificent, i, 52; his Cartoon of Pisa, i, 53; his Last Judgment, i, 54; his Coloring, i, 56; his Grace, i, 57; his Oil Paintings, i, 58; his Prophets and Julius II, i, 58; his Bon-Mots, i, 59; Angelo and Raffaelle, i, 70-72. Anguisciola, Sofonisba, iii, 129; her Early Distinction, iii, 129; her Invitation to Spain iii, 130; her Marriages, iii, 131; her Residence at Genoa, her Honors, and her Intercourse with Vandyck, iii, 132. Antique Sculptures in Rome, ii, 159. Antiquities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, ii, 43. Antiquity of the Fine Arts, i, 12. Aparicio, Canova, and Thorwaldsen, i, 236. Apelles, i, 18; his Works, i, 18; his Industry, i, 19; his Portraits of Philip and Alexander, i, 19; his Venus Anadyomene, i, 20; Apelles and the Cobbler, i, 23; his Foaming Charger, i, 24; his Freedom with Alexander, i, 25; Apelles and Protogenes, i, 25; the celebrated Contest of Lines, i, 26; his Generosity to Protogenes, i, 28. Apelles of Ephesus, i, 93; his Treatment by Ptolomy Philopator, i, 94; his Revenge in his famous Picture of Calumny, i, 94; Lucian's description of it, i, 94; Raffaelle's Drawing of it, i, 95; Proof that there were two Painters named Apelles, i, 95. Apollo Belvidere--West's Criticism, i, 41. Apollo, Colossal Etruscan, i, 90. Apollo Sauroctonos, i, 155. Apollodorus the Painter, i, 162; his Works and Style, i, 163. Apollodorus the Architect, i, 163; his Worke, i, 164; Trajan's Column, i, 164; Apollodorus and Adrian, i, 165; his Wicked Death, i, 165. Aqueducts of Ancient Rome, ii 152. Arch, Origin and Antiquity of the, ii. 41. Arches, Triumphal, ii, 157. Archimedes, iii, 77; his Genius, Discoveries, and Inventions, iii, 77; his Wonderful Machines, iii, 78; his Death and Monument, iii, 79; Story of his Burning Glasses proved true, iii, 79. Ardemans and Bocanegra--a Trial of Skill, iii, 201. Art, Egyptian, iii, 1-42, and iii, 263. Art, Grecian, derived from the Egyptian--Champollion's Opinion, iii, 1; Origin of, iii, 265. Athenians, Ingratitude of, to Artists, i, 159. Backhuysen, Ludolph, Sketch of his Life and Works, iii, 235. Banks, Thomas--his Ambition, i, 2; his Character, i, 295; his Genius, i, 297; his Kindness to Young Sculptors, i, 298; his Personal Appearance and Habits, i, 299; Flaxman's Tribute, i, 300. Barry, James--his Enthusiasm, i, 2; his Poverty, Death, and Monument, i, 3; Johnson's Opinion of his Genius, i, 3. Bassano, Jacopo--singular instance of his Skill, ii, 139. Beaumont, Sir George--his Opinion of the Importance of the Fine Arts, i, 7; his Enthusiasm and munificent gift to the English National Gallery, i, 7. Beauty, Ideal, as Conceived and Practiced by the Greatest Masters, ii, 247. Belzoni--his Travels in Egypt, iii, 25. The Belzoni Sarcophagus, ii, 194. Bernazzano, the Zeuxis of Italy, ii, 140. Bernini, the Cav. , i, 101; his Precocity, i, 101; his Bust of Charles I. And his Prediction, i, 101; Bernini and Louis XIV. , i, 102; his Triumphal Visit to Paris, i, 102; the Medal struck in his Honor, i, 103; his Works, i, 103; his Restoration of the Verospi Hercules, i, 104; Lanzi's Critique, i, 103; his Love of Splendor and his Riches, i, 104; Bernini and Urban VIII. , iii, 256. Blake, William--his Enthusiasm, Eccentricity, and Poverty, i, 3; his melancholy yet triumphant Death, 1, 4. Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery, iii, 305. Bridge, Trajan's, across the Danube, i, 164. Bridge, Mandrocles', across the Bosphorus, ii, 162. Bridge, the Britannia Railway Tubular, iii 46; the Tubes, iii, 47; the Piers, iii, 48; Construction of the Tubes, iii, 49; Floating the Tubes, iii, 50; Raising the Tubes, iii, 52; the prodigious Hydraulic Presses used, iii, 53; Bursting of one, iii, 55; Sir Francis Head's Description, iii, 56; Cost of the Structure, iii, 57. Brower, Adrian, iii, 182; his Escape from a Cruel Master, iii, 183; Brower, the Duke d'Aremberg, and Rubens, iii, 184; his Death, iii, 184; his Works, iii, 185. Brunelleschi, Filippo--remarkable instance of the Trials and Triumphs of Genius, iii, 80; his Inquiring Mind, Industry, and Discoveries, iii, 81; his Genius, iii, 82; his Ambition, iii, 83; his first Visit to Rome and Assiduity, iii, 84; Assembly of Architects to consult on the best means of raising the Cupola of the Cathedral of Florence, iii, 85; his Return to Rome, iii, 86; his Invitation back to Florence, iii, 87; his Discourse, iii, 87; his Return to Rome, iii, 89; grand Assemblage of Architects from all parts of Europe, iii, 90; their Opinions and ridiculous Projects to raise the Cupola, iii, 91; Filippo's Opposition and Discourse, iii, 92; taken for a Madman, and driven out of the Assembly, iii, 93; his Discourse, iii, 94; his Arguments, and his Proposal that he who could make an Egg stand on one end should build the Cupola, iii, 94; his Plan submitted, iii, 96; its Adoption, iii, 99; Opposition encountered, iii, 101; Lorenzo Ghiberti associated with him, iii, 101; his Vexation and Despair, iii, 102; Commencement of the Work, iii, 103; Lorenzo's incapacity for such a Work, iii, 104; Filippo's Scheme to get rid of him, iii, 105; Lorenzo disgraced, iii, 109; Filippo appointed Sole Architect, iii, 111; his Industry, the wonderful Resources of his Mind, and his triumphant Success, iii, 112; Filippo chosen Magistrate of the City, iii, 116; Jealousies he still encountered, iii, 118; his Arrest, Mortifying Affront, and Triumph, iii, 118; Grandeur and Magnificence of his Cupola, iii, 120; his Enthusiasm, iii, 122; Brunelleschi and Donatello, iii, 123. Buffalmacco, the successor of Giotto, ii, 267; his comical Tricks to enjoy his sweetest Sleep, ii, 268; his Employment by the Nuns of Faenza, ii, 270; his Use of their best wine, ii, 272; his Employment by Bishop Guido, ii, 273; Comical Pranks of the Bishop's Monkey, ii, 274; his Trick on the Bishop, ii, 277; Origin of Libel Painting, ii, 278; Utility of ancient paintings, ii, 280; his Commission from the Countryman, and its curious execution, ii, 282; his Commission from the Perugians, ii, 283; their Impertinence requited, ii, 284; his Novel Mode of enforcing Payment, ii, 285. Callot, Jacques, iii, 176; his uncontrollable Passion for Art, iii, 176; his Patriotism, iii, 177. Callimachus--his invention of the Corinthian Capital, i, 152. Cambiaso, Luca--his Precocity and remarkable Facility of Hand, iii, 187; his Invitation to Spain, iii, 188; Luca and Philip II. , iii, 189; his Artistic Merits, iii, 190; Boschini and Mengs' Opinions, iii, 190. Campaspe and Apelles, i, 21. Campus Martius, i, 91. Cano, Alonso, i, 230; his Liberality, i, 231; his Eccentricities, i, 231; his Hatred of the Jews, i, 232; his Ruling Passion strong in Death, i, 234; Cano and the Intendant of the Bishop of Malaga, iii, 203; his love of Sculpture, iii, 204. Canova--his Visit to his Native Place in his old age, i, 32. Capitol, ancient, of Rome, iii, 59. Capugnano and Lionello Spada, iii, 247. Caracci, the School of, ii, 122. Caracci, Annibale--his Letter to Lodovico, and his Opinion of the Works of Correggio, i, 253; instance of his Skill, ii, 137; his Jealousy of Agostino, iii, 258. Carburi, Count--his Skill in Engineering, iii, 42. Caracciolo, Gio. Battista--his Intrigues, ii, 128. Carducci, Bartolomeo--his kind Criticism, iii, 203. Carlos, the Four, of the 17th Century, ii, 184. Caravaggio, Michael Angelo da--his Quarrelsome Disposition and his Death, iii, 248. Carreño, Don Juan, and Charles II, iii, 208; his Copy of Titian's St. Margaret, iii, 208; his Abstraction of Mind, iii, 209. Castagno, Andrea del, his Treachery and Death, ii, 144. Castillo's Sarcasm on Alfaro, iii, 204. Catacombs of Egypt, iii, 12. Catino, the Sagro, or Emerald Dish, iii, 215. Cellini, Benvenute, iii, 255; Cellini and Urban VIII; his absolution for sins committed in the service of the Church, iii, 255. Cespedes, Pablo--his Last Supper, iii, 209; Zuccaro's Compliment to Cespedes, iii, 210. Chair of St. Peter, iii, 213. Church, St Peter's, iii, 61 Churches of Rome, iii, 60. Cimabue, Giovanni--Sketch of his Life, ii, 251; his Style, ii, 252; his Passion for Art, ii, 252; his famous picture of the Virgin, ii, 253; remarkable instance of homage to Art, ii, 254; his Works, ii, 255; his Death, ii, 256; his Care of Giotto, ii, 257. Cloaca Maxima at Rome, ii, 42. Coello, Claudio, his challenge to Giordano, ii, 234. Column, Trajan's, i, 164. Column of Austerlitz, iii, 280. Colosseum, description of, ii, 29; Montaigne's quaint account of its Spectacles, ii, 31. Colossus of the Sun at Rhodes, ii, 162. "Columbus and the Egg, " story of, derived by him from Brunelleschi, iii, 95. Contarini, Cav. Giovanni--his skill in Portraits, ii, 139. Contri, Antonio--his method of transferring frescos from walls to canvass, ii, 146; see also Palmarolis, ii, 147. Cooper, J. Fennimore--his Encouragement of Greenough, i, 66; his Letter to Induce his Countrymen to Patronize their own Artists, i, 67. Corenzio, Belisario--his Intrigues, ii, 128. Corinthian Capital, invention of, i, 152. Correggio--Sketch of his Life, i, 243; his Cupola of the Church of St. John at Parma, i, 244; his grand Cupola of the Cathedral, i, 246; his Fate Exaggerated, i, 249; Lanzi's Opinion, i, 251; his Marriage and Children, i, 252; Caracci's Opinion of Correggio, and his Letter, i, 258; his Enthusiasm, i, 255; his Grace, i, 255; Correggio and the Monks, i, 256; his Kindness--his Muleteer, i, 256; Duke of Wellington's Correggio, i, 257; Correggio's Ancona, i, 257; Portraits of Correggio, i, 258; did Correggio ever visit Rome? i, 259; Singular History of Correggio's Adoration of the Shepherds, i, 261; of his Education of Cupid, i, 262; of a Magdalen, i, 264; of a Charity, i, 265; the celebrated Nótte of Correggio, iii, 259. Cortona, Pietro--Sketch of his Life, iii, 253; Anecdotes of, iii, 254. David, Jacques Louis, i, 176; his Politics and Love of Liberty, i, 176; David and Napoleon, i, 177; his Banishment to Brussels, i, 177; his famous picture of the Coronation of Napoleon, i, 178; David and Canova, i, 179; Napoleon's Compliments to David, i, 180; the King of Wurtemberg's, i, 181; List of Portraits it contained, i, 182; its Barbarous Destruction by the Bourbons, i, 184; David and the Duke of Wellington at Brussels, i, 184; David and the Cardinal Caprara, i, 185; Talma and David in his Banishment, 1, 186. Denon, the Baron--his description of the Necropolis of Thebes, iii, 16, his Employment by Napoleon, iii, 802. Digby, Sir Kenelm--his Love Adventure in Spain, iii, 199. Dinocrates--his Proposal to cut Mount Athos into a Statue of Alexander the Great, ii, 165; Pope's Idea of its Practicability, ii, 166; Dinocrates' Temple with an Iron Statue suspended in the air by Loadstone, ii, 168. Domenichino, ii, 121; his Dullness in his Youth, ii, 121; Caracci's prediction of his rise to Eminence, ii, 122; Lanzi and Mengs' Testimony of his Genius and Merits, ii, 123; his Scourging of St. Andrew, ii, 123; his Communion of St. Jerome, ii, 124; his Enemies at Rome, ii, 125; Lanzi's Account of the Decision of Posterity on his Merits, ii, 126; his Caricatures, ii, 128; Intrigues of the Neapolitan Triumvirate of Painters, ii, 128; Lanzi's Account of this disgraceful Cabal, ii, 129; his Works in the Chapel of St Januarius, and the Prices he received, ii, 131; his Death, ii, 132. Donatello, iii, 125; Donatello and the Merchant, iii, 126; Donatello and his unworthy Kinsmen, iii, 127; his Death, iii, 128; Donatello and Michael Angelo Compared, iii, 128; Donatello and Brunelleschi, iii, 123; Donatello and Uccello, ii, 292. Douw, Gerard, iii, 222; his Style, iii, 224; his Method of Painting, iii, 225; his Works, iii, 226; his Dropsical Woman, iii, 227. Dramatic Scenery at Rome, i, 93. Durer, Albert, iii, 228; his unfortunate Marriage, iii, 229; his Works as a Painter, iii, 229; his Works as an Engraver, iii, 231; his Fame and Death, iii, 233; his Habits, iii, 234; his Literary Works, iii, 234. Egyptian Art, iii, 1, and iii, 263. Electioneering Pictures at Rome, i, 91. Emulation and Rivalry of Advantage to Artists, iii, 257. Engraving, Invention of Copper-Plate, i, 287. Era, Brightest, of Grecian Art, i, 11, and ii, 154. Era, Brightest, of Roman Art, ii, 152. Era, Brightest, of Italian Art, ii, 149. Eyck, John van--his Invention of Oil Painting, ii, 141. Fabius Maximus--his Estimation of Art, i, 145. Fanaticism, Religious, destructive to Art, i, 105; its Effects in England, i, 105. Figure, the Nude, i, 109; Barry's Opinion, i, 109; Schlegel's, i, 110. Fine Arts, Golden Age of, in Greece, i, 11. Fine Arts, Golden Age of, in Rome, ii, 152 Fine Arts, Golden Age of, In Italy, ii, 149. Finiguerra, Maso--his Invention of Copper-Plate Engraving, i, 287. Fiorentino, Stefano, one of the Fathers of Painting, ii, 286. Foreshortening, ii, 145; its Invention, ii, 145. Fontana, Domenico, iii, 33; his Removal of an Obelisk at Rome, iii, 34; Dangers he Encountered, iii, 37; Honors bestowed on him for his Success, iii, 40. Force of Habit, i, 202. Fornarina, La Bella, i, 75. Fountain, the Elephant, iii, 286. "Four Carlos of the 17th Century, " ii, 184. "Four Finest Pictures at Rome, " ii, 183 Frescos, Ancient, ii, 55; the Aldobrandini Wedding, ii, 56. Fuseli, Henry--his Birth, ii, 59; his Early Passion for Art, ii, 59; his Literary and Poetical Taste, ii, 60; Fuseli, Lavater, and the Unjust Magistrate, ii, 61; his Travels and Literary Distinction, ii, 62; his Arrival in London, ii, 63; his Change from Literature to Painting, ii, 63; his Visit to Italy, ii, 65; his "Nightmare, " ii, 66; his OEdipus and his Daughters, ii, 66; Fuseli and the Shakspeare Gallery, ii, 67; his Hamlet's Ghost, ii, 69; his Titania, ii, 69; his Election as a Royal Academician, ii, 70; Fuseli and Walpole, ii, 71; Fuseli and Coutts, ii, 72; Fuseli and Prof. Porson, ii, 72; his Method of giving Vent to his Passion, ii, 73; his Love of Terrific Subjects, ii, 73; his Revenge on Lawrence, ii, 74; his Estimate of Reynolds as an Historical Painter, ii, 75; his Friendship for Lawrence, ii, 75; Fuseli as Keeper of the Royal Academy, ii, 76; his Jests and Oddities with the Students, ii, 77; his Sarcasms on Northcote, ii, 78; on various Artists, ii, 79; his Retorts, ii, 80; his Retort in Mr. Coutts' Banking-House, ii, 82; his Sarcasm on Landscape and Portrait Painters, ii, 83; his own Attainment of Happiness, ii, 84; his Habits, ii, 84; his Wife's Novel Method of Curing his Fits of Despondency, ii, 85; his Personal Appearance, Sarcastic Disposition, and Quick Temper, ii, 86; his Near Sight, ii, 87; his Popularity, ii, 88; his Artistic Merits, ii, 88; his Milton Gallery, etc. , ii, 89. Fulton, Robert, as a Painter, i, 122; his Love of Art, i, 123; his Exalted Mind, i, 123; his Account of his first Steamboat Voyage to Albany, and his Predictions, i, 124. Gallery, English National, i, 107. Gallery, Dresden, iii, 262. Gallery of the Louvre, iii, 289 and 302. Gallery, United States National--Suggestions for One, iii, 307. Galleries, Prices of, i, 112. Galletti, Pietro, and the Bolognese Students, ii, 184. Garland Twiner, i, 148. Gaulli, Gio. Battista--his Excellence in Portraiture, iii, 250; his curious method of Painting the Dead, iii, 250. Genius, Trials of, i, 1, and iii, 80. Ghiberti, Lorenzo--his famous Doors of San Giovanni, i, 60, and iii, 101; as an Architect, iii, 102. Giordano, Luca--his Wonderful Precocity, ii, 224; his Enthusiasm, ii, 225; Origin of his Nickname of _Luca-fa Presto_, ii, 226; his Skill in copying and Imitating, ii, 226; his Success at Naples, ii, 227; Giordano, the Viceroy, and the Duke of Diano, ii, 228; his Invitation to Florence--Giordano and Carlo Dolci, ii, 229; his Invitation to the Court of Spain, ii, 230; his Flattering Reception, ii, 230; his Works in Spain, ii, 231; in the Escurial, ii, 232; his Habits, iii 233; his first Picture at Madrid, ii, 233; a great Favorite at Court, ii, 234; Coello's Challenge, ii, 234; Anecdotes, ii, 234; Painting with his Fingers, ii, 235; Rich Presents he Received, ii, 236; his Return to Naples, ii, 236; his Reception at Genoa, Florence, Rome and Naples, ii, 237; his Personal Appearance and Character, ii, 237; his Popularity, Love of Gain, and "Three Sorts of Pencils, " ii, 238; his Riches, ii, 238; his Wonderful Facility of Hand, ii, 239; his Fame and Reputation, ii, 240; his Genius and merits, ii, 241; his Tricks for Notoriety, his False Style and its Injurious Effects on Art at the Time, ii, 241; Remarkable Instance of his Rapidity of Execution in his altar-piece of St. Francis Xavier, ii, 242. Giotto--Sketch of his Life, ii, 257; his Early Passion for Art, ii, 257; his Works, ii, 258; as an Architect, ii, 259; his St. Francis Stigmata, ii, 259; his Invitation to Rome, ii, 260; "Round as Giotto's O, " ii, 261; Story of his Living Model, ii, 262; Giotto and the King of Naples, ii, 264; his Bon Mots, ii, 265; Giotto and Dante, ii, 266; Death of Giotto ii 266. Giottino, ii, 286. Gladiator, Statue of the Dying, i, 144. Gladiator, Statue of the Fighting, ii, 187. Glass, Ancient, ii, 57; Ancient Pictures of, ii, 58. Golden Age of Art in Greece, i, 11, and ii, 154. Golden Age of Art in Rome, ii, 152. Golden Age of Art in Italy, ii, 149. Goldsmith, Dr. , and Reynolds, i, 199; his "Deserted Village, " i, 200; his Retaliation, i, 200. Gomez, the Slave of Murillo, iii, 195. Grecian Art derived from the Egyptians, iii, 1. Greenough, Horatio--his Chanting Cherubs, i, 67; Commission for his Statue of Washington for the Capitol, i, 68; his Modesty, i, 69; his account of the Miraculous Picture of the Virgin at Florence, iii, 211. Griffier, John--his Perilous Adventure, iii, 245. Group of Niobe and her Children, ii, 185. Group of Laocoön and his Sons, ii, 187. Guercino--his Power of Relief, ii, 140. Hals, Frank, and Vandyck, ii, 312. Hanneman--his picture of Peace, i, 310. Harpies, Curious Representations of, iii, 181. Heliopolis, iii, 7. Herculaneum--its Destruction--Antiquities and Works of Art discovered, ii, 43. Hogarth--Value of his Works, i, 6; his Genius, i, 166; his Apprenticeship, i, 167; his Revenge, i, 168; his Method of Sketching an Incident, i, 168; his Marriage, i, 168; his Successful Expedient to get Payment, i, 169; his Picture of the Red Sea, i, 170; his Courtesy, i, 171; his Absence of Mind, i, 171; his March to Finchley, i, 172; his unfortunate Dedication to the King, i, 172; his Strange Manner of Selling his Pictures, i, 172; Paltry Prices he received, i, 174; his last Work, "the Tail-Piece, " i, 175; his Death, i, 176. Holbein, Hans, ii, 216; his Portrait with the Fly, ii, 216; his Visit to England, ii, 216; Holbein and Henry VIII. , ii, 217; his Adventure with the Nobleman, ii, 217; the King's Rebuke and Protection, ii, 218; his Portrait of the Duchess of Milan, ii, 218; his Dangerous Flattery, ii, 219; his Portrait of Cratzer, ii, 219; his Portraits of Sir Thomas More and his Family, ii, 220; Bon-Mot of Sir Thomas, ii, 221. Illusions in Painting, i, 228; Singular Pictorial, ii, 137. Industry necessary to Success in Art--Reynold's Opinion, i, 201; Durer's, iii, 228 and 234; Michael Angelo's, i, 60; Apelles', i, 19; Da Vinci's, i, 275, 280, and 282; Vernet's, ii, 297 and 299; Rubens', i, 80 and 82; Raffaelle's, i, 71; Poussin's, iii, 150 and 161; Gierdano's, ii, 226 and 233; Brunelleschi's, iii, 81 and 84. Infelicities of Artists, i, 1-6. Ingenuity of Artists, iii, 178. Inquisition, Evil Influence of the, on Spanish Art, i, 211; and Torreggiano, i, 2; and Sir Anthony Moore, iii, 243. Jarvis, John Wesley, i, 113; his Eccentricity, and Lore of Jesting, Mimicking, and Story-Telling, i, 113; his Ludicrous Readings from Shakspeare, i, 115; Dr. Francis' Account of him, i, 116; the "Biggest Lie, " i, 118; Jarvis and Bishop Moore, i, 119; and Commodore Perry, i, 119; and the Philosopher, i, 120; and Dr. Mitchell, i, 120; his Habits, i, 121; Jarvis and Sully, i, 122; his Fondness for Notoriety, i, 122. Jervas, Charles, ii, 213; Jervas and Pope, ii, 214; and Dr. Arbuthnot, ii, 215; his Vanity, ii, 215; Kneller's Sarcasm, ii, 216. Jewelers, a hint to, iii, 179. Johnson, Dr. --his Friendship for Reynolds, i, 196; his Apology for Portrait Painting, i, 197; his Portrait, i, 198; his Death, i, 199. Julian the Apostate--his Attempt to rebuild Jerusalem, ii, 160. Jupiter--see Temples and Statues. Kirk, Thomas--his Genius, Misfortune, and untimely Death, i, 5. Kneller, Sir Godfrey--his Arrival in England, and great Success, i, 96; Kneller's Portrait of Charles II. , i, 99; Kneller and James II. , i, 97; his Compliment to Louis XIV. , i, 97; his Wit and Bon-Mots, i, 98; his Knowledge of Physiognomy, i, 99; Kneller as a Justice of the Peace, i, 99; his Decisions regulated by Equity rather than Law, i, 99; Kneller and Clostermans, i, 100. La Bella Fornarina, i, 75. Labyrinth of Egypt, iii, 11. Lake Moeris, iii, 9. Lamps, Perpetual, ii, 182. Laocoön, Group of the, ii, 187; Pliny's Account of, ii, 189; Michael Angelo's Opinion, ii, 190; Sangallo's Account of its Discovery, ii, 190. Lanfranco, the Cav. , ii, 91; his Hostility to Domenichino, ii, 125. Lasson, M. De--his Caricature, ii, 311. Layard--his Nineveh and its Remains, ii, 34. Lebas, M. --his Removal of an Obelisk from Thebes to Paris, iii, 40. Louvre, Gallery of the, iii, 302; Dismantling of, iii, 289. Love makes a Painter, i, 112, i, 148, i, 235, and iii, 195. Love of Art among the Romans, i, 146. Luca-fa-Presto, ii, 226. Mabuse, John de, Anecdote of, iii, 246. Mandrocles' Bridge across the Bosphorus, ii, 162. March, Estéban--his Strange Method of Study, iii, 198; his Adventure of the Fish fried in Linseed Oil, iii, 199. Marbles, very curious Imitations of, ii, 147. Marbles, the Elgin, ii, 171. Matsys, Quintin, i, 112; his Love and Monument, i, 113. Masters, the Old, i, 111. Mausolus, Tomb of, ii, 161. Mechanics, Comparative Skill of the Ancients and Moderns in, iii, 45. Medals, 70, 000 Ancients, iii, 272. Medals of Napoleon, iii, 281. Memphis, iii, 8. Messina, Antonella da, ii, 143. Methodius and the King of Bulgaria, iii, 206. Mieris and Jan Steen, Frolics of, iii, 241. Mignard Pierre--his Skill in imitating other Masters, i, 186; amusing instance of, i, 187; his Skill in Portraits, ii, 138. Modesty, an Overplus of, dangerous to Success, i, 307. Moeris, Lake of, iii, 9. More, Sir Anthony, iii, 242; his Visit to Spain and great Success, iii, 242; his Visit to England and flattering Reception, iii, 243; More and Philip II. , iii, 244; his fortunate Escape, iii, 244; his Success and Works, iii, 244. Morland, George--Sketch of his Life, ii. 197; his wonderful Precocity, ii, 198; his early Fame, ii, 199; his Mental and Moral Culture under an Unnatural Parent, ii, 260; his Escape from his Thraldom, ii, 201; his Marriage and Temporary Reform, ii, 202; his Social Position, ii, 203; his unpleasant Encounter, ii, 204; his Stay in the Isle of Wight, ii, 205; his Novel Mode of fulfilling commissions, ii, 206; Morland and the Pig, ii, 206; his Pictures in the Isle of Wight, ii, 207; his Freaks, ii, 208; his Dread of Bailiffs, ii, 208; his Apprehension as a Spy, ii, 209; his Sign of the "Black Bull, " ii, 210; Morland and the Pawnbroker, ii, 211; his Idea of a Baronetcy, ii, 212; his Artistic Merits, ii, 212. Mosaics, i, 15; ancient, ii, 55; of the Battle of Platea, ii, 55. Mudo, El, and Titian's Last Supper, ii, 14. Murillo, i. 236; his Visit to Madrid and Velasquez, i, 236; his Return to Seville, i, 237; Murillo and Iriarte, i, 238; his Death, i, 238; his Style, i, 239; his Works, i, 240; Soult's Murillos, i, 240 and 242; Castillo's Tribute, i, 242; his "Virgin of the Napkin, " iii, 193; his pictures in Spanish America, iii, 192; Anecdote of an Altar-Piece in Flanders, iii, 194; his Slave Gomez, iii, 195. Musée Francais and Musée Royal, iii, 302. Names of Architects designated by Reptiles, ii, 156. Napoleon--his Love of Art, iii, 274; his Enlightened Policy to Encourage Art, iii, 275; his Works at Paris, iii, 276; The Napoleon Medals, iii, 281; the Elephant Fountain, iii, 286; Interesting Drawing, iii, 287; Sévres China, iii, 288; Dismantling of the Louvre, iii, 289; Removal of the Venetian Horses, iii, 296; Removal of the Statue of Napoleon from the Column of Austerlitz, iii, 301. Needles, Cleopatra's, iii, 42. Niello, Works in, i, 286. Nineveh and its Remains, ii, 34; Description of the Royal Palace exhumed at Nimroud, ii, 37; Layard's description of its interior, ii, 39. Niobe and her Children, Group of, ii, 185; Schlegel's Criticism, ii, 186. Nollekens, Joseph, i, 301; his Visit to Rome, i, 301; Nollekens and Garrick, i, 302; his Talents in Bust Sculpture, i, 303; his Bust of Johnson, i, 304; his Liberality and Kindness to Chantrey, i, 304; Nollekens and the Widow, i, 305; his odd Compliments, i, 306. Norgate, Edward--his Visit to Italy, Mishaps, and travelling Home on foot, i, 308. Northcote, James, and Fuseli, ii, 78. Numismatics, iii, 269; Value of the Science to Archæology, Philology, the Fine Arts, etc. , iii, 270; 70, 000 Ancient Medals, iii, 272. Obelisks, Egyptian, iii, 30; Number of, at Rome, ii, 152; Removal of one by Fontana, iii, 33; Removal of one from Thebes to Paris, iii, 40; Cleopatra's Needles, iii, 42. Odeon, the first at Athens, ii, 182. Olynthian Captive, Story of, i, 151. Origin of Label Painting, ii, 278. Pacheco--his Opinions on Art as restricted by the Inquisition, i, 212. Pareda, Antonio--his Artifice to Keep up Appearances, iii, 202. Pareja, Juan de, the Slave of Velasquez, i, 228; his Love of Painting and his Success, i, 229; his Gratitude to his Master, i, 229. Painter, perilous adventure of a, iii, 245 Painter of Florence, Curious Legend of the, iii, 217 Painter-Friar, the Devil, and the Virgin, iii, 220. Painting among the Egyptians, iii, 1 and 263. Painting among the Greeks, i, 22, 27, and iii, 265. Painting among the Romans, i, 88, and ii, 152. Painting, Revival of, in Italy, ii, 244. Painting, Italian Schools of, ii, 292. Painting, Golden Age of, in Italy, ii, 149; Lanzi's Philosophy of, ii, 150; Milizia's, ii, 154. Painting--different Schools Compared, i, 110. Painting, Effects of, on the Mind, i, 147. Painting from Nature, i, 18. Painting, Oil, Invention of, ii, 141. Painting, oldest Oil, extant, iii, 181. Painting, Portrait, Johnson's Apology for, i, 197. Painting, Origin of Label, ii, 278. Paintings transferred from Walls and Panels to Canvas, ii, 146. Paintings, Curious, iii, 180. Paintings, Evanescent, i, 106. Palace, Nero's Golden, ii, 155. Palaces of Rome, iii, 65. Palmaroli--his Method of transferring Paintings from Walls and Panels to Canvas, ii, 147. Pantoja and the Eagle, iii, 205. Parrhasius, i, 150; his Demos and other Works, i, 150; the Olynthian Captive, i, 151; his Vanity, i, 152. Parthenon at Athens, ii, 170; its Dilapidation, by the Venetians, Turks, and Lord Elgin, ii, 171. Pausias, i, 148; his Works and the Garland Twiner, i, 148. Perpetual Lamps, ii, 182. Pharos, Light-house of, ii, 164. Phidias, i, 157; his Statue of Minerva, i, 158, and ii, 171; Phidias and Alcamenes, i, 159; Ingratitude of the Athenians, i, 159; his Olympian Jupiter, i, 17, and i, 160; his Model for the Olympian Jupiter, i, 161. Picture of Ialysus and his Dog, Protogenes, i, 149, and i, 281. Picture of Calumny, Apelles', i, 94. Picture of the Virgin, the Miraculous, iii, 211. Pictures, first brought to Rome, i, 88. Pictures of Glass, Ancient, ii, 58. Pictures, Four finest at Rome, ii, 183. Pillar of On, iii, 8. Poecile at Athens, i, 13. Pompeii--its Destruction; Antiquities and Works of Art discovered, ii, 43; Vivid Sketch of its present Appearance, etc. , by an American Traveler, ii, 46. Pope as a Painter--his Fame, i, 201; his Proficiency in the Art, ii, 214; his Idea of the Practicability of Dinocrates' Plan of cutting Mount Athos into a Statue of Alexander the Great, ii, 166. Portici, the Site of Herculaneum, ii, 44 and 46. Portraits, Female, Rarity of, in Spain, iii, 191. Poussin, Nicholas--his Noble Descent, iii, 148; his First Celebrity, iii, 149; his first Visit to Rome, iii, 150; his Enthusiasm and Assiduity, iii, 150; his Distress, and the Paltry Prices he received for his Works, iii, 151; his Ultimate Appreciation and Success, iii, 152; his Invitation back to Paris, iii, 153; the King's Autograph Letter on the Occasion, iii, 153; Intrigues, his Disgust, and Secret Return to Rome, iii, 154; his Modesty, unostentatious Mode of Living, and his Generosity, iii, 155; Poussin and Cardinal Mancini, iii, 155; Reynolds' Critique, iii, 156; Poussin and Marino, iii, 159; Poussin Romanized, iii, 160; his Habits of Study, iii, 161; his Old Age, iii, 162; his Master-Piece, iii, 163; his last Work and Death, iii, 163; his Letter to M. Felibien, iii, 164; his Ideas of Painting, iii, 164; Poussin and the Nobleman, iii, 165; and Mengs, iii, 165; and Domenichino, iii, 166; and Salvator Rosa, iii, 166; his Dignity, iii, 167; Poussin, Angelo, and Raffaelle compared, iii, 168. Prado, Blas de, and the Emperor of Morocco, iii, 207. Praxiteles, i, 155; his Works--the Venus of Cnidus and the Apollo Sauroctonos, i, 155; Praxiteles and Phryne, i, 156; the King of Bithynia, and the Venus of Cnidus, i, 157. Press, Hydraulic, explained, iii 52; its Tremendous Power and Use, iii, 53. Proctor, his Genius and Works, i, 4; his Misfortunes and melancholy Death, i, 5. Protogenes, i, 149; his Works, and his famous picture of Ialysus and his Dog, i, 149; Protogenes and Demetrius Poliorcetes, i, 28, and i, 149; and Apelles, i, 25. Pyramids of Egypt, iii, 19. Pyramid of Cephren, Perilous Ascent of, iii, 27. Raffaelle, i, 70; his ambition, i, 70; Raffaelle and Michael Angelo, i, 71; his Transfiguration, i, 72; his Death, i, 74; his Character, i, 74; his Mistress, i, 75; his Genius, i, 76; his Model for his Female Saints, i, 76; his Oil Paintings, i, 77; his Portraits of Julius II. , i, 78; his different Manners, i, 78; his Skill in Portraits, ii, 138; Skull of Raffaelle in the Academy of St Luke, ii, 183. Ranc, Jean--his Retort, iii, 201. Rebuke, a Painter's just, iii, 200. Retort Courteous, a Painter's, iii, 201. Rembrandt--Sketch of his Life, iii, 170; his Studio and Models, iii, 171; his great Success, iii, 172; his Deceits to sell and increase the Price of his Works, iii, 173; his numerous Works, iii, 173; his extraordinary Merits as an Engraver, iii, 174. Reynolds, Sir Joshua, i, 188; his pleasing Manners, Fortune, and Collection of Works of Art, i, 189; his new Style and its Success, i, 189; his Prices, i, 191; his Method with his Sitters, i, 192; his Removal to Leicester Square, i, 192; his showy Coach, i, 193; his Table and Guests, i, 194; the Founding of the Royal Academy, and his election as President, i, 194; Reynolds and Dr. Johnson, i, 195; Johnson's Friendship for Reynolds, and his Apology for Portrait Painting, i, 196 and 197; the Literary Club, i, 198; Johnson's Portrait, i, 198; Johnson's Death, i, 199; Reynolds and Dr. Goldsmith, i, 199; the "Deserted Village, " i, 200; "Retaliation, " i, 200; Pope's Fan i, 201; Reynolds' first Attempts in Art, i, 202; Force of Habit, i, 202; Paying the Piper, i, 203; his Modesty and his Generosity, i, 203; his Love of Art, i, 204; his Critique on Rubens, i, 205; Reynolds and Haydn, i, 206; his Skill in Compliment, i, 207; his Excellent Advice, i, 208; Reynolds as Mayor of Plympton and his two Portraits, i, 208; his Kindness of Heart, i, 209; Burke's Eulogy, i, 209; his Experiments and Use of Old Paintings, i, 210; his Method of Working, i, 193; Rubens' Last Supper, i, 206. Rhodes, Statues and Paintings at, ii, 164. Ribalta Francisco--his Love Romance and his Success, i, 235. Ribera, Giuseppe, (Spagnoletto, ) his Early Enthusiasm, Poverty, and Industry at Rome, ii, 133; his Return to Naples and Marriage, ii, 134; his Rise to Eminence, ii, 135; his Discovery of the Philosopher's Stone, ii, 135; his Favorite Subjects, ii. 136; his Disposition, ii, 137; his Intrigues, ii, 138; Lanzi's Account of his Death, ii, 132. Riley, John, i, 307; his Diffidence and Merits, i, 308. Rizi, Francisco--his Rebuke to Antonilez, iii, 200. Romans, Fondness of, for Works of Art, i, 88; for Etruscan Sculpture, i, 90. Rome, Ancient, Glory of, ii, 152, and iii, 57 and 71; first Pictures brought to Rome, i, 88; Electioneering pictures at Rome, i, 91; Dramatic Scenery at Rome, i, 93; Ancient Map of Rome, ii, 160; 100, 000 Statues at Rome, ii, 152. Rome, Modem--its Churches, Palaces, Villas, and Treasures of Art, iii, 60. Rosa, Salvator, ii, 91; Cav. Lanfranco's Generosity, ii, 91; Rosa at Rome and Florence, ii, 92; his Return to Rome, ii, 93; brightest Era of Landscape Painting, ii, 93; his Subjects, ii, 93; his wonderful Facility of Execution, ii, 94; his Flagellation by the Monks, ii, 95; Rosa and the higgling Prince, ii, 96; his Opinion of his own Works, ii, 98; his Banditti, ii, 98; Rosa and Massaniello, ii, 100; and Cardinal Sforza, ii, 100; his Manifesto, ii, 101; his Banishment from Rome, ii, 102; his Secret Visit to Rome, ii, 102; his Wit, ii, 103; his Reception at Florence, ii, 103; his Histrionic Powers, ii, 104; his Reception at the Pitti Palace, ii, 105; his Satires, ii, 92 and 105; his Harpsichord, ii, 106; Rare Portrait, ii, 106; his Return to Rome, ii, 109; his Love of Show and Magnificence, ii, 109; his Last Works, ii, 111; his over-weening Desire to be considered a Historical Painter, ii, 112; Ghigi, his Physician and Rosa, ii, 113; Lady Morgan's Account of his Death-Bed, ii, 115; Rosa and Poussin iii, 166; Rosa and Fracanzani, iii, 256. Rosada Tivoli, iii, 185; his Works, iii, 186; his wonderful Rapidity of Hand, iii, 186; a Wager won, iii, 187; his Habits and Improvidence, iii, 187. Rosa, Giovanni--a modern Zeuxis, ii, 139. Rosalba, Carriera, iii, 133; her Modesty, and Knowledge of Tempers, iii, 133. Rubens, Peter Paul, i, 79; his Visit to Italy, i, 80; his Reception by the Duke of Mantua, i, 80; his Enthusiasm, i, 80; his Embassy to Spain, i, 81; his Return to Antwerp, i, 81; his Marriage, House, and rich collection of Works of Art, i, 81; his Habits, Extraordinary Memory and Acquirements, i, 82; his Detractors, i, 82; his Magnanimity, i, 83; the Gallery of the Luxembourg, i, 83; Rubens sent Ambassador to the Courts of Spain and England, i, 83; his Reception and Works at Madrid, i, 84; his Reception and Works in England, i, 84; his Delicacy, Address, and the Honors conferred on him on the occasion, i, 85; his Death, i, 85; his Numerous Works, i, 86; his Method of Working, i, 206. Ruysch, Rachel--her Life and Works, iii, 135. Scagliola or Mischia, Works in, ii, 147. Schwarts, amusing Anecdote of, iii, 175. Sculpture, Invention of, i, 153; Etruscan, i, 90; Egyptian, iii, 1; Grecian, i, 154 and 157. Sculptures, Antique, at Rome, ii, 159. Seymour, Anecdotes of, and the Proud Duke, ii, 223. Shakspeare Gallery, iii, 305. Sirani, Elizabeth--her Life and Works, iii, 134; her melancholy Death, iii, 135. Soane, Sir John, ii, 191; his Success and Works, ii, 192; his Liberality and Public Munificence, ii, 192; his Museum, ii, 193 ; the Belzoni Sarcophagus, ii, 194; Tasso's MS. Of Gerusalemme Liberata, ii, 195; other rare MSS. , Antiquities, Works of Art, etc. , ii, 195. Sostratus, his Light-House on the Isle of Pharos, ii, 164. Spagnoletto--See Ribera. Spain, Melancholy State of the Fine Arts in, i, 217; Rarity of Female Portraits in, iii, 191. Spanish Art, Evil Effects of the Inquisition on, i, 211. Sphinx, the Colossal, iii, 10. Stabiæ--its Destruction, ii, 43. Statue of the Apollo Belvidere, i, 41; of the Apollo Sauroctonos, i, 155; of the Apollo, Colossal Etruscan, i, 90. Statue of the Venus de Medici, i, 147. Statue of the Venus of Cnidus, i, 156 Statue of the Venus Victrix, i, 147. Statue of Minerva, Phidia's, i, 158, and ii, 171. Statue of the Olympian Jupiter, Phidias', i, 160 Statue of the Fighting Gladiator, ii, 187. Statue of the Dying Gladiator, i, 144. Statue of Pompey the Great, ii, 159. Statue of Semiramis, cut out of a Mountain, ii, 167. Statue of Napoleon on the Column of Austerlitz, iii, 301. Statue, Equestrian, of Peter the Great, iii, 42. Statues, the Greek, i, 109. Statues, Sounding, iii, 6. Statues of Memnon, iii, 6. Stratagem, an Architect's, i, 309. Stratagem, Hogarth's, i, 169. Steen, Jan, iii, 238; his Works, iii, 238; Kugler's Critique on, iii, 240; Frolics of Steen and Mieris, iii, 241. Stephenson, Robert, and the Britannia Bridge, iii, 46. Stuart, Charles Gilbert, i, 124; his Visit to Scotland and Return before the Mast, i, 125; his Visit to London, i, 125; his Skill in Music, and its Use in Time of Need, i, 126; his Introduction to West, i, 126; his Portrait of West, i, 126; his Scholarship, i, 131; his Rule of half prepayment, i, 131; his Powers of Perception i, 132; Allston's Eulogium, i, 133; his great Conversational Powers, i, 133; his Success in Europe, i, 136; in Ireland, i, 136; his Return to America, i, 137; Stuart and Washington, i, 137; his Last Picture, i, 142; Stuart, his Boy and his Dog, i, 142; his Mark, i, 142. Tasso's MS. Of "Gerusalemme Liberata, " ii, 195. Temple of Diana at Ephesus, i, 144. Temple of Jupiter Olympius at Athens, ii, 168. Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, ii, 153, and iii, 59. Temple of Minerva at Athens, ii, 170. Temple of Carnac, iii, 5. Temple of Luxor, iii, 5. Titian--Sketch of his Life, ii, 1; his famous picture of St. Peter the Martyr, ii, 2; his Refusal of the Office of the Leaden Seal, ii, 4; his different Manners, ii, 5; his Works, ii, 6; his Imitators, ii, 7; his Venus, ii, 8; Ottley's Description of it, ii, 8; Titian and the Emperor Charles V. , ii. 10; extraordinary Friendship of Charles for Titian, his Favors and Remarkable Sayings, ii, 11; Charles' rebukes to his jealous Nobles, ii, 12; Titian and Philip II. , ii, 13; his Letter of Congratulation to Philip, ii, 13; Philip and the Titian Venus, ii, 14; Titian's Last Supper and El Mudo, ii, 14; his Old Age, ii, 15; Monument to Titian, ii, 15. Thebes, Ancient, iii, 2. Theodoric the Great--his Love of Art, iii, 73. Torregiano--his Visit to Spain, and his Group of the Virgin and Child, i, 1; his Horrid Treatment and Death, i, 2. Torres--Sarcasm on his Imitations of Caravaggio, iii, 205. Transfiguration of Raffaelle, i, 72. Tristan, Luis, i, 229; Tristan and Velasquez, i, 229; Tristan and El Greco, i, 230. "Triumvirate of Historical Painters, " i, 244. "Triumvirate of Landscape Painters, " ii, 93. Triumvirate of Neapolitan Painters, Intrigues of, ii, 128. Uccello, Paolo, one of the Fathers of Painting, ii, 287; his Enthusiasm, ii, 288; Uccello and the Monks of San Miniato, ii, 289; his remarkable Picture of the most distinguished Artists of his Time, ii, 290; his Incredulity of St. Thomas, ii, 291; Uccello and Donatello, ii, 292. Utility of Ancient Works, ii, 280. Vanbrugh, Sir John, and his Severe Critics, ii, 221; Reynolds' celebrated Criticism in his favor, ii, 221. Vase, the Portland, ii, 56. Vandyck, Sir Anthony--his Conduct in the School of Rubens, iii, 136; his Visit to Italy, iii, 138; his Return to Antwerp, iii, 139; his Success and the Jealousy of Artists, iii, 140; his celebrated Picture of the Elevation of the Cross, and the Canons of Courtray, iii, 140; his Visit to England, iii, 141; his Success and Honors, iii, 141; his Death and Character, iii, 142; Remarkable Instance of his Rapidity of Execution, ii, 312. Velasquez, Don Diego, i, 226; Velasquez and Rubens compared by Mrs. Jameson, i, 226; Velasquez and Philip IV--the favors and extraordinary Honors conferred on him, i, 227; his Skill in Portraits, i, 227; his Portrait of Innocent X, i, 228; his Generosity to his Slave, i, 228. Velde, William van de, the Elder, iii, 143; his Intrepidity in Painting Naval Engagements, iii, 143; his Invitation to England and his Works, iii, 143; Van de Velde and Charles II. , iii, 145. Velde, William van de, the Younger, iii, 145; his Admirable Works, iii, 146; Present Value of his Works, iii, 147; his numerous Drawings, and their Estimation and Value, iii, 148. Veneziano, Domenico, ii, 144; his treacherous Death, ii, 144. Venice, Foundation of, iii, 72. Venetian Horses, the famous, Removal of from Paris, iii, 296. Venus Anadyomene, i, 2. Venus of Cnidus, i, 155. Venus de Medici, i, 147. Venus Victrix, i, 147. Venus, Titian's, ii, 8. Vermeyen, John C. , and the Emperor Charles V. , iii, 206; his singular Dress and long Beard, iii, 207. Vernet, Claude Joseph, ii, 295; his Passion for Art, and his Precocity, ii, 295; his Enthusiasm, ii, 296; his Sketching the Tempest, lashed to the Mast, ii, 297; his Arrival at Rome, ii, 298; his Industry and Poverty, ii, 299; his "Alphabet of Tones, " ii, 299; Vernet and the Connoisseur, ii, 301; his Success and Works, ii, 301; Diderot's Eulogy, ii, 303; his Passion for Music, ii, 306; his Opinion of his own Artistic Merits, ii, 307; Characteristic Letter to the Marquis de Marigny, ii, 309; his Prices, ii, 310. Vernet, Charles, ii, 310; his Works, ii, 310; his rebuke to a Minister of State, ii, 311. Vernet, Horace--his Life, Style, and Works, ii, 16-28. Vieira, Francisco--his Love Romance, iii, 195; his Success, iii, 198. Vinci, Lionardo da, i, 266; Precocity of his Genius, i, 266; his first remarkable Picture, i, 267; the extraordinary Versatility of his Talents, i, 268; his Works at Milan, i, 268; his famous Battle of the Standard, i, 270; Vinci and Leo X. , i, 271; Vinci and Francis I. , i, 271; his Death, i, 272; his Learning, i, 272; his Writings, i, 273; his Sketch Books, i, 275; his Last Supper, i, 276; Copies of his Last Supper, i, 278; his Discrimination, i, 279; his Idea of Perfection in Art, i, 280; Vinci and the Prior, i, 282; his Drawings of the Heads in the Last Supper, i, 284; Francis I. And the Last Supper, i, 284; Authenticated Works of Da Vinci, i, 285. Weenix, John Baptist the Elder, iii, 236; his wonderful Facility of Hand, iii, 236. Weenix, the Younger, iii, 237. Weesop, Anecdote of, i, 310. West, Benjamin--his Opinion of the Value of the Fine Arts to a Country, i, 8; Anecdotes of West, i, 28; his Ancestry, i, 28; his Birth, i, 29; his First Remarkable Feat, i, 30; his doings with the Indians, i, 30; his Cat's-Tail's Pencils, i, 30; his First Picture, i, 31; his First Visit to Philadelphia, i, 32; his Ambition, i, 33; his First Patrons, i, 34; his Education, i, 35; his Dedication to Art, i, 36; his Early Prices, i, 38; his Arrival at Rome, i, 39; his Reception at Rome, i, 40; his Criticism on the Apollo Belvidere, i, 41; his Early Friends, i, 41; his Course of Study, i, 42; a Remarkable Prophecy, i, 43; West in London--his Fondness for Skating, i, 44; his Death of Wolfe, i, 45; his Defense for Innovation before the King, i, 46; Stuart's Anecdotes of West, i, 127-131. Wilson, Richard--his Poverty and Want of Appreciation, i, 6; Present Value of his Works, i, 6. Winde William--his successful Stratagem, i, 399. Wissing, William--Freedom of the Times in England in the reign of Charles II. , i, 309. Wolf, the Bronze, "the Thunder-Stricken Nurse of Rome", i, 90. Wonders, the Seven, of the World, iii, 75. Wren, Sir Christopher, i, 290; his Self-Command, i, 290; his Restraints in designing his Edifices, i, 292; the great Fire in London, i, 293; St. Paul's Cathedral, i, 294; his Death, i, 295; Wren and Charles II. , i, 295. Zuccaro, Taddeo, iii, 250; his Poverty, Enthusiasm, and Works, iii, 251. Zuccaro, Federigo--his Resentment, iii, 251; Royal Criticism on his Self-Adulation, iii, 252. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: Arnolfo had proposed to raise the cupola immediately abovethe first cornice, from the model of the church in the chapel of theSpaniards, where the cupola is extremely small. Arnolfo was followed byGiotto in 1331. To Giotto succeeded Taddeo Gaddi, after whom, firstAndrea Orgagna, next Lorenzo di Filippo, and lastly Brunelleschi werearchitects of the Cathedral. ] [Footnote 2: The story of Columbus and the Egg is familiar to every one. The jest undoubtedly originated with Brunelleschi, as it is attested bymany of the Italian writers; it happened in 1420, fourteen years beforeColumbus was born. Toscanelli was a great admirer of Brunelleschi, whoseknowledge of the Scriptures and powers of argument were so great, thathe could successfully dispute in public assemblies, or in private withthe most learned theologians, so that Toscanelli was accustomed to saythat "to hear Filippo in argument, one might fancy one's self listeningto a second Paul. " So capital a retort could hardly have failed to reachColumbus, through his instructor, nor would he have hesitated to use itagainst his antagonists under similar circumstances. Brunelleschi wasborn in 1377 and died in 1444; Columbus in 1436, and died in 1506. ] [Footnote 3: Vasari means that Lorenzo continued to receive his salarytill 1426, although Filippo had been appointed sole master of the worksin 1423, as he himself relates in the sequel. ] [Footnote 4: How different was the treatment Ghiberti received fromBrunelleschi, when the artists presented their models for one of thebronze doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni at Florence. The designsof Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, and Donatello, were considered the threebest; but the two latter, considering that Ghiberti was fairly entitledto the prize, withdrew their claims in his favor, and persuaded thesyndics to adjudge the work to him. Brunelleschi was requested toundertake the work in concert with Ghiberti, but he would not consent tothis, desiring to be first in some other art or undertaking than equal, or perhaps secondary, in another. "Now, this was in truth, " says Vasari, "the sincere rectitude of friendship; it was talent without envy, anduprightness of judgment in a decision respecting themselves, by whichthese artists were more highly honored than they could have been byconducting the work to the utmost summit of perfection. Happy spirits!who, while aiding each other took pleasure in commending the labors oftheir competitors. How unhappy, on the contrary, are the artists of ourday, laboring to injure each other, yet still unsatisfied, they burstwith envy, while seeking to wound others. "] [Footnote 5: This distrust seems astonishing, after what Brunelleschihad accomplished, but it shows the opposition and enmity he had toencounter. In 1434, he received a mortifying affront from the Guild ofBuilders. Finding that he carried on the building without thinking topay the annual tax due from every artist who exercised his calling, theycaused him to be apprehended and thrown into prison. As soon as thisoutrage was known to the wardens, they instantly assembled withindignation, and issued a solemn decree, commanding that Filippo shouldbe liberated, and that the Consuls of the Guild should be imprisoned, which was accordingly done. Baldinucci discovered and printed theauthentic document containing the decree, which is dated August 20, 1434. ] [Footnote 6: Masselli says that the Tuscan braccio, is the ancient Romanfoot doubled for greater convenience, and is equal to one foot nineinches and six lines, Paris measure. The editors of the Florentineedition of Vasari, 1846-9, remark that the measure of the whole edificeas given by Vasari, differs from that given by Fantozzi; the lattergives 196 braccia as its total height. Milizia says, "Brunelleschicompleted his undertaking, which surpassed in height any work of theancients. The lantern alone remained imperfect; but he left a model forit, and always recommended, even in his last moments, that it should bebuilt of heavy marble, because the cupola being raised on four arches, it would have a tendency to spring upwards if not pressed with a heavyweight. The three mathematicians who have written on the cupola of St. Peter's, have clearly demonstrated a truth differing from the opinion ofBrunelleschi, viz. , that the small cupola increases, in a great degree, the lateral pressure. The whole height of the structure from the groundto the top, is 385 feet; that is, to the lantern 293 feet, the latterbeing 68 feet 6 inches; the ball 8 feet; the cross 15 feet 6 inches. * * * "The plan of the dome is octangular; each side in the interior is 57feet, and the clear width between the sides, not measuring into theangles, is 137 feet; the walls are 16 feet 9 inches thick; the wholelength of the church is 500 feet. The nave has four pointed arches oneach side, on piers, separating it from the side aisles. The transeptand choir have no side aisles, but are portions of an octagon, attachedto the base of the dome, giving the whole plan the figure of a cross. The edifice has a Gothic character, and is incrusted in marble andmosaic work. " * * * According to Fontani, this cupola exceeds that of the Vatican, both inheight and circumference by four braccia; and although supported byeight ribs only, which renders it much lighter than that of the Vatican, which has sixteen flanking buttresses, it is nevertheless more solid andfirm. Thus it has never required to be supported by circling hoops ofiron, nor has it demanded the labors of the many engineers andarchitects who have printed volumes upon the subject. The constructionof this cupola is remarkable in these particulars--that it isoctangular, that it is double, and built entirely on the walls, unsupported by piers, and that there are no apparent counterforts. ]