ANCIENT ROME

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A. D. 

By Robert F. Pennell

_Revised Edition_

PREFACE. 

This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's Historyof Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many highschools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise andfall of Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of herinstitutions, manners, and religion. 

For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additionalmatter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary tomeet recent requirements. 

The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the textand Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to indicate thepresent range of requirement in leading colleges. 

The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for thisbook. The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible;consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as arule, been omitted. 

ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890. 

(Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR. )

ANCIENT ROME. 

CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. 

Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 mileslong from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad inits widest part, i. E. From the Little St. Bernard to the hills north ofTrieste. It has an area of nearly 110, 000 square miles, about that ofthe State of Nevada. 

The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the restof Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the leastdifficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over thispass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend throughthe whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extendeasterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging thecoast through its whole extent. This conformation of the country causesthe rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into theTyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic. 

Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by thePadus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA (Gaulthis side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticínus on the north, and theTrebia on the south, are of historical interest. 

The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is amountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on thecoast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, betweenthe Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which comes the nameVenice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, and Forum Julii. 

Gallia Cisalpína contained many flourishing towns. North of the Paduswere Veróna, Mediolánum (Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, and Vercellae, a noted battle-field. South of this river were Augusta Taurinórum(Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The Rubicon, a littlestream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia Cisalpína on thesoutheast. The Mucra, another little stream, was the southern boundaryon the other side of Italy. 

CENTRAL ITALY, _Italia Propria_, or Italy Proper, included all of thepeninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In thisdivision are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which emptyinto the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, whichempty into the Adriatic. 

The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, borderingon the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and tothe south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICÉNUM, andSAMNIUM. 

The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was Veii, an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba Longa. Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, wasLavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to AlbaLonga were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were nearthe coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near Rome. 

In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. In Campania were Capua, Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Caudium, Salernum, Casilínum, and Nola. The famous volcano of Vesuviuswas here, and also Lake Avernus. 

In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interiorwere Sentinum and Camerínum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat ofHasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria. 

In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum. 

SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA andBRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea. 

Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Itsonly stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought afamous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns. 

In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum. 

The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. Among them were Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania;and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium. 

The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about10, 000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by thepoets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained manyimportant cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these wereSyracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Selínus, Egesta(or Segesta), Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. There are many mountains, the chief of which is Aetna. 

SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably smaller. ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is off Etruria;CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Strombóli) and LIPARA arenorth of Sicily, and the AEGÁTES INSULAE are west of it. 

CHAPTER II. THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY. 

So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided intothree races, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANS were thefirst to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and werepushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into thesoutheastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were mostlyabsorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh centuriesall along the southern and southwestern coast, and who were more highlycivilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the Etruscans andItalians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, the former of whomsettled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria. 

The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerful andwarlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the arts oflife. They probably came from the north, and at first settled in theplain of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading Gauls, they moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed a confederationof twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of these cities themost noted were Volsinii, the head of the confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, Caere, and Clusium. This people also formed scattering settlements inother parts of Italy, but gained no firm foothold. At one time, in thesixth century, they were in power at Rome. Corsica, too, was at thistime under their control. Their commerce was considerable. Many wellpreserved monuments of their art have been discovered, but no one hasyet been able to decipher any of the inscriptions upon them. The powerof these people was gradually lessened by the Romans, and after the fallof Veii, in 396, became practically extinct. 

The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellénes, and belongedto the Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly inScandinavia. While the Hellénes were settling in Greece, the Italiansentered Italy. 

At this time the Italians had made considerable progress incivilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture; thebuilding of houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire in preparingfood, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make various weapons andornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife were recognized, and the people were divided into clans (tribes). 

That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plainwhich is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by theTyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. 

This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 squaremiles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fiftymiles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, andits tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte in thenortheast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculumnear Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern_Campagna_) were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the first settlementswere made on the hills, which also could be easily fortified. 

The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other towns, as Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, Roma, andLavinium. 

These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATINCONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival wascelebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount, called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offeredsacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (_Latiaris_). 

(Illustration: Latium)

CHAPTER III. THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT. 

We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settledin Latium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine moreparticularly that one of the Latin towns which was destined to outstripall her sisters in prosperity and power. 

Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level ofthe plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster ofhills (Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine, Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, Quirínal, and Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of the Tiber, and was held by the early Romans as a stronghold against the Etruscans. It was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge (_Pons Sublicius_). )rising to a considerable height, around one of which, the PALATINE, first settled a tribe of Latins called RAMNES, --a name gradually changedto ROMANS. 

When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753. Itmay have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome were possiblya colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they unitedthemselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of them on theQUIRÍNAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe. A thirdtribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins, was afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL. All earlycommunities, to which the Romans were no exception, were composed ofseveral groups of FAMILIES. The Romans called these groups GENTES, anda single group was called a GENS. All the members of a _gens_ weredescended from a common ancestor, after whom the _gens_ received itsname. 

The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absoluteauthority (Footnote: Called _patria potestas_. ) over his household, evenin the matter of life and death. 

The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of thefamilies, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holdingoffice for life. His duties were to command the army, to perform certainsacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assembly of theFathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. E. An assemblyof old men (_Senex_). 

This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of thefamilies, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDREDmembers, holding life office, and appointed during the regal period bythe king. Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still later bythe Censors, and for nearly one hundred years before Christ all personswho had held certain offices were thereby vested with the right of seatsin the Senate. Hence, during this later period, the number of Senatorswas greatly in excess of three hundred. The Senators, when addressed, were called PATRES, or "Fathers, " for they were Fathers of the families. 

The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes, _Ramnes_, _Tities_, and _Luceres_ Each tribe was subdivided into tendistricts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES(3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, therefore, belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a_pater-familias_; every family belonged to a particular _gens_, namedafter a common ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular _curia_;and every curia to a particular _tribe_. 

We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king, and a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was an assemblycomposed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms. (Footnote: We mustremember that at this time no one was a Roman citizen who did notbelong to some family. All other residents were either slaves or had nopolitical rights, i. E. Had no voice in the government. ) This assembly ofRoman citizens met, from time to time, in an enclosed space called theCOMITIUM, which means a place of gathering or coming together. This wasbetween the Palatine and Quirínal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. This assembly itself was called the COMITIA CURIÁTA, i. E. An assemblycomposed of the 30 curiae. This body alone had the power of changing theexisting laws; of declaring war or peace; and of confirming the electionof kings made by the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken byeach curia, and the majority of the curiae decided any question. 

CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. 

The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in theLatin Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation, shenaturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered and grewwealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds, easilyheld against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the most powerfulof the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted with theirs, she had no scruples about conquering any of them and annexing theirterritory. Thus Alba was taken during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, andhis successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several cities along the river, and at its mouth founded a colony which was named OSTIA, the seaport ofRome. 

At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (_ager Románus_) comprisednearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lying mostlyalong the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten or twelvemiles from the river. It was not materially increased during the nexttwo centuries. 

The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were calledPATRICIANS, i. E. Belonging to the _Patres_, or Fathers of the families. They formed a class distinct from all others, jealously protecting theirrights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricians was a class calledCLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights, i. E. They hadno voice in the government, but were bound to assist in every way thePatrician, called PATRON, to whom they were attached. In return, thelatter gave them his support, and looked after their interests. Theseclients corresponded somewhat to serfs, worked on the fields of theirpatrons, and bore the name of the _gens_ to which their patron belonged. Their origin is uncertain; but they may have come from foreign townsconquered by the Latins, and whose inhabitants had not been made slaves. 

In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were theproperty of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure. Sometimes a slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS(freedman) and became the client of his former master. 

As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of peopleflocked into the city from foreign places, who might be called residentforeigners, corresponding in general to the _Metics_ at Athens. Suchwere many merchants and workmen of all trades. These all were supposedto be under the protection of some patrician who acted as their patron. 

These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, were allof a different race from the Romans. This should be constantly borne inmind. 

We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of theLatin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants of thesetowns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowed any oftheir civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. Many of themwere wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the _ager Romanus_, or inRome itself, were called Plebeians (_Plebs_, multitude). Their very nameshows that they must have been numerous. They belonged to no gensor curia, but were free, and allowed to engage in trade and to ownproperty. In later times (from about 350) all who were not Patricians orslaves were called Plebeians. 

THE ARMY. 

Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composedentirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning _levy_), and numbered three thousand infantry called _milites_, from _mille_, a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. The cavalrynumbered three hundred at first, one hundred from each tribe, and wasdivided into three companies called Centuries. 

During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had nowbecome numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIANreform of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had beenrequired to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. Toaccomplish this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he owned twoacres, was enrolled and ranked according to his property. There werefive "Classes" of them. The several classes were divided into 193subdivisions called "Centuries, " each century representing the sameamount of property. In the first class there were forty centuries inactive service, composed of men under forty-six, forty centuries ofreserve, and eighteen centuries of cavalry. 

In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centurieseach, ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class hadthirty centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. 

The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry fromthe first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield, breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rank wascomposed of the second class, who were armed like the first, withoutbreastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class, who hadneither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourth class, armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having only slings. 

Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry, however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. 

This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originallyonly for military purposes, --that the army might be increased, and theexpenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people. Butgradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to be felt, the organization was found well adapted for political purposes, andall the people were called together to vote under it. It was called theCOMITIA CENTURIÁTA, i. E. An assembly of centuries. The place of meetingwas on the CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of the city. 

In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided bythe majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system wasto give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century representedthe same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or richerclasses were much smaller than those in the lower or poorer classes, sothat a majority of the centuries might represent a small minority ofthe people. The majority of the wealthy people at Rome were stillpatricians, so the assembly was virtually controlled by them. In thisassembly magistrates were elected, laws made, war declared, and judgmentpassed in all criminal cases. 

(Illustration: CAMPANIA)

CHAPTER V. THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. 

Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three were undoubtedlyof Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city many traces ofEtruscan influence. The Etruscans were great builders, and the onlybuildings of importance that Rome possessed, until a much later period, were erected under this dynasty. The names of these kings are said tohave been LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS TULLIUS, his son-in-law, and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. 

Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITERCAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO andMINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and fromit we get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Romanreligion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. 

During this reign the famous CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended todrain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewerwas so well built that it is still used. 

Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city wassurrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirínal, Coelian, and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the oppositeside of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge (_ponssublicius_). 

The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in theprevious chapter, was attributed also to this king. 

The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tulliusand those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus earlywas the Greek influence felt at Rome. 

During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIÁNA was erected onthe Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns. 

Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMÁNUS the territory of the cityof GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were afterwards lost. The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow of this king, and aRepublic was established, which lasted until the death of Julius Caesar. 

CHAPTER VI. THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES. 

At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form ofgovernment was abolished, and instead of one king who held office forlife, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from thePATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as asalutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse hispower. This change took place towards the close of the sixth centurybefore Christ. 

In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be appointedby one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; but his tenureof office never exceeded six months, and he must be a patrician. Heexercised his authority only outside of the city walls. It was atthis time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA came to be the moreimportant assembly, superseding in a great measure the COMITIA CURIÁTA. 

We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried, magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not forgetthat, since it was on a property basis, it was under the control of thepatricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. Still there weremany wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a gain for thisparty. 

About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely ofFathers of the families (_Patres_), admitted into its ranks some of therichest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. (Footnote:This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers addressing the Senate, viz. : "_Patres (et) Consripti_") These, however, could take no part indebates, nor could they hold magistracies. 

In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates madein the Comitia Centuriáta was confirmed or rejected. In this way itcontrolled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must remember, were those of generals and supreme judges, though every Roman citizenhad the privilege of appealing from their decision in cases whichinvolved life. 

Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed bythe Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTÓRES, managed the finances ofthe state, under the direction of the Senate. 

The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the centurypreceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the stateand crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but especiallyby the small landed plebeians whose fields had been devastated. Theywere obliged to mortgage their property to pay the taxes, and, whenunable to meet the demands of their creditors, according to the lawsthey could be imprisoned, or even put to death. 

The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by"farming" the public revenues; i. E. The state would let out to them, for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and otherduties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), wouldextort all they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselvesunlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, andthe unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable. 

The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged toserve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; forthe Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, andnaturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry servicewas at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while the olderones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of military duty fellon the plebeians. 

This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity forrebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, theplebeians were not slow in accepting it. 

The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, andVolscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consulsliberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger wasaverted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been setfree were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners wereagain needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finally persuadedby the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon their return tothe city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and, marching to ahill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a new city unless theirwrongs were redressed. This is called the First Secession of the Plebs, and is said to have been in 494. 

The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made, for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt werereleased from their obligations, and the plebeians received the rightto choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called TRIBÚNIPLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the power ofVETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This power, however, was confined within the city walls, and could never beexercised outside of them. 

The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent interferencewith them while in discharge of their duties, and if any one attemptedto stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if the Consuls orQuaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, or tobe unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could step in, and bytheir VETO stop the matter at once. 

This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified ingiving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded. 

The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still laterto ten. 

CHAPTER VII. THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS. 

The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment fromtheir own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. (Footnote: The word"Aedile" is derived from _Aedes_, meaning temple. ) These officers heldnearly the same position in reference to the Tribunes that the Quaestorsdid to the Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in the performance oftheir various duties, and also had special charge of the temple ofCeres. In this temple were deposited, for safe keeping, all the decreesof the Senate. 

These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of thefirst secession, were filled by elections held at first in the ComitiaCenturiáta, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBÚTA, whichmet sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls. 

This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes"(_tributa_, meaning composed of tribes), each tribe being entitled toone vote, and its vote being decided by the majority of its individualvoters. (Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorial division, corresponding roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this time there wereprobably sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. The plebeians in thecity lived mostly in one quarter, on the Aventine Hill. )

The Comitia Tribúta was convened and presided over by the Tribunes andAediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. By it any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at firstmeasures passed in it were not binding on the people at large, itpresently became a determined body, with competent and bold leaders, whowere felt to be a power in the state. 

The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes;that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend the influenceof the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to hand contestsoccurred in the city. Many families left Rome and settled in neighboringplaces to escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that the governmentwithstood the strain, so fierce was the struggle. 

The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws hadreference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired alarge amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities. Thisland was called AGER PUBLICUS, or _public land_. 

Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads, " and then itbecame AGER PRIVÁTUS, or _private land_. But the most of it was occupiedby permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usually richpatricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. This land, sooccupied, was called AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or _possessio_; but it really wasstill the property of the state. The rent paid was a certain per cent(from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for cattle on pastureland. Although the state had the undoubted right to claim this land atany time, the magistrates allowed the occupants to retain it, and wereoften lenient about collecting dues. In course of time, this land, whichwas handed down from father to son, and frequently sold, began to beregarded by the occupants as their own property. Also the land tax(TRIBÚTUM), which was levied on all _ager privátus_, and which wasespecially hard upon the small plebeian land-owners, could not legallybe levied upon the _ager occupátus_. Thus the patricians who possessed, not owned, this land were naturally regarded as usurpers by theplebeians. 

The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil. 

SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a lawthat the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, anddistribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). The lawwas carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius his life, andwas never enforced. 

CHAPTER VIII. THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS. 

The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, ifnot more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many of theirleaders were persistent in their efforts to better the conditionof their followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil andpolitical rights to an equality with those of the patricians. Thestruggle finally culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes, GnarusGenucius, for attempting to veto some of the acts of the Consuls. 

VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried, notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to theeffect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the _ComitiaTribúta_, instead of the _Comitia Centuriáta_. Thus the plebeiansgained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW(_Plebiscítum Publilium_). (Footnote: All bills passed in the ComitiaTribúta were called Plebiscíta, and until 286 were not necessarilybinding upon the people at large; but this bill seems to have beenrecognized as a law. )

For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. The plebeiansdemanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. 

We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first the unwrittenones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far, had beeninterpreted according to the wishes and traditions of the patriciansonly. A change was demanded. This was obtained by the TERENTILIANROGATION, a proposal made in 461 by Gaius Terentilius Harsa, a Tribune, to the effect that the laws thereafter be written. The patricianfamilies, led by one Kaeso Quinctius, made bitter opposition. Kaesohimself, son of the famous Cincinnátus, was impeached by the Tribune andfled from the city. 

Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriáta should select fromthe people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold office forone year, to direct the government and supersede all other magistrates, and especially to draw up a code of laws to be submitted to the peoplefor approval. A commission of three patricians was sent to Athens toexamine the laws of that city, which was now (454) at the height ofits prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, and upon theirreturn in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate was appointed. 

The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tables ofcopper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two moretables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were the only Romancode. 

The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws were approved, but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel and tyrannicalmanner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice, finallyrebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a sentencethat brought an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power. Her father, Virginius, saved his daughter's honor by stabbing her to the heart, andfleeing to the camp called upon the soldiers to put down such wickedgovernment. 

A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACREDMOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into thecity, they compelled the Decemviri to resign. 

The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and weknow but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtorwas apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of the _paterfamilias_ over his family was abolished. The close connection heretoforeexisting between the clients and patrons was gradually relaxed, theformer became less dependent upon the latter, and finally were absorbedinto the body of the plebeians. _Gentes_ among the plebeians now beganto be recognized; previously only the patricians had been divided into_gentes_. 

Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer andnearer. 

In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and were instrumentalin passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, the substance of whichwas as follows:--

I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to the Comitia Centuriáta againstthe sentence of any magistrate. 

II. All the decisions of the Comitia Tribúta (_plebiscita_), ifsanctioned by the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta, were made bindingupon patricians and plebeians alike. This assembly now became of equalimportance with the other two. 

III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian officers, were to be considered sacred. 

IV. The Tribunes could take part in the debates of the Senate, and vetoany of its decisions. 

Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must still bepatricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tribúta. Heretofore they hadbeen appointed by the Consuls. 

In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, and called the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right ofintermarriage (_connubium_) with the patricians, and enacting that allissue of such marriages should have the rank of the father. 

Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. Thatthe consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, wasmade, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul, andto elect annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriáta, theoffice being open to all citizens. The people voted every year whetherthey should have consuls or military tribunes, and this custom continuedfor nearly a half-century. The patricians, however, were so influential, that for a long time no plebeian was elected. 

As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their own ranksevery five years (_lustrum_) to hold office for eighteen months. 

The duties of the Censors were:--

I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. 

II. To punish immorality in the Senate by the removal of any members whowere guilty of offences against public morals. 

III. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works ofthe state. This office became in after years the most coveted at Rome. 

A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward byobtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. Therewere now four Quaestors. 

Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance, sustained loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hithertooften found it for their interest to side with the patricians, joinedthe farmers or lower classes. 

Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passedthe following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS. 

I. To abolish the six military tribunes, and elect annually, asformerly, two Consuls, choosing one or both of them from the plebeians. 

II. To forbid any citizen's holding more than 500 _jugera_ (300 acres)of the public lands, or feeding thereon more than 100 oxen or 500 sheep. 

III. To compel all landlords to employ on their fields a certain numberof free laborers, proportionate to the number of their slaves. 

IV. To allow all interest hitherto paid on borrowed money to be deductedfrom the principal, and the rest to be paid in three yearly instalments. 

These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave theman opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostlyby slaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect ofbecoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was opento them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to beprotected. The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated byCamillus as a mark of gratitude for the better times that theserogations promised. 

The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, exceptthat of _Interrex_, were thrown open to them. First they gained that ofDictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in 286, bythe law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon all the peoplewithout the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta. After 200 thesacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could be filled by plebeians. 

Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended;and although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons, yettheir rights as citizens were no greater than those of the plebeians. 

To recapitulate:--

Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz. : that of trading andholding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that ofintermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES). 

The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second theyobtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBÚTA; the third by theCANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent bills. 

CHAPTER IX. EXTERNAL HISTORY. 

The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city thenpossessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. Thenumber of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it becamethirty-five. 

In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines intoEtruria and attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Romanambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission, were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small riverabout eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. TheRomans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of thefoe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome. Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, whichlasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians wereinduced to withdraw. 

During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, andwe have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to 390. 

The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and militarycolonies were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, andalso at Circeii and Setia. (Footnote: These military colonies, of whichthe Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established toprotect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed andequipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wivesand children, slaves and followers, and established a local governmentsimilar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights asRoman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES. ) Theneighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been a faithfulally, was annexed to Rome. 

The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to springup all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, untilfinally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, andgained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. Thetown was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. 

The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowedthe full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern theirown city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were subsequentlymade MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE SUFFRAGIO, "citizens without suffrage. "

During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowlandcountries as far south as TARRACÍNA. To the north, across the Tiber, shehad acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPÉNA. 

In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treatywith the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the mountainousdistricts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over the southernhalf of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of CAPUA, andthree years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they had beenpractically masters of the whole of Campania. 

After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samniteshad, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. TheSamnites went so far as to attack Teánum, a city of Northern Campania, which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared beforeCapua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome. 

Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse tobreak her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering theircity unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the Samnites, shewould simply be defending her subjects. 

Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century withvarying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usualto divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third SamniteWars. 

THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341). 

The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clearidea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantageto either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a_municipium_, annexing its territory to her own. 

THE LATIN WAR (340-338). 

The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time lookingwith jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights hadbeen disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or loseeverything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the Consuls andhalf of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war followed, inthe third year of which was fought the battle of Trigánum, near MountVesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, were victoriousthrough the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS TORQUÁTUS, one of theillustrious names of this still doubtful period. The remainder of theoperations was rather a series of expeditions against individual citiesthan a general war. 

In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. TheLatin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four ofthe Latin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were leftindependent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Theirterritory became part of the _Ager Románus_, and the inhabitants Romanplebeians. 

Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as _municipia_, three moretowns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volscian town. 

LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to theVolturnus. 

Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES, which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that thecolonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas themilitary colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. Thefirst of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were establishedTARRACÍNA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwardsfounded. 

Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy wasdestroyed, and the beaks (_rostra_) of its ships were taken to Rome, andplaced as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the Senate-House. Hence the name ROSTRA. 

At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of allkinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for politicaldiscussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and brokers had theiroffices here. Smaller _Fora_ were started near the river, as the _ForumBoarium_ (cattle market) and the _Forum Holitorium_ (vegetable market). 

Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing aboutthese improvements. 

THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290). 

The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we haveseen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain of Rome. 

There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the Romans, the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the weakest, andhad been declining ever since the capture by the Romans of Veii in 396, and of Caere in 353. 

In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, thecombatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact andconcentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but were morescattered. They were both equally brave. 

During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans wereusually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. In this period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number ofmilitary posts in the enemy's country. 

The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again renewed. By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius Pontius, by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned against theRomans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans into a smallplain, at each end of which was a defile (Furculae Caudinae). Onreaching this plain they found Pontius strongly posted to oppose them. After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him to retreat, the Romansthemselves were compelled to give way. But meanwhile Pontius had alsooccupied the defile in their rear, and they were obliged to surrender. 

A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius, according to which peace was to be made, and everything restored to itsformer condition. 

Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the mosthumiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was madeto pass under the yoke, --which was made of three spears, two stuck intothe ground parallel to each other and the third placed above them, --andthen suffered to depart. 

Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed inmourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy wasdevoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of thetreaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unlesssanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver theConsuls who had signed it to the enemy. 

Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and thewar was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the Samniteswere so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKEVADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any effectiveresistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their sea-coast, their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. 

During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against theRoman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military colonyof Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. The ConsulQuintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove the Etruscansinto the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated them. 

Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring tounite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, andETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome. 

The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by thesanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led byGellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUSMAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS. 

In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites wereassisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a matchfor the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by Decius. Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul vowed hislife to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, rushing into themidst of the enemy, was slain. (Footnote: It is said that the fatherof Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of the Latin war. ) Hissoldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example, rallied and pushed backthe Gauls. The victory was now complete, for the Samnites were alreadyfleeing before that part of the army which was under Fabius. 

The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUSDENTÁTUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who hadrecently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence, and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens (_sinesuffragio_), and their territory was annexed to the _Ager Románus_. Thisterritory now reached across Italy from the Tuscan to the AdriaticSea, separating the Samnites and other nations on the south from theUmbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north. 

In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and BoianGauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA. 

CHAPTER X. WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272). 

In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it had beenthe custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve the pressureof too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, Asia Minor, andespecially in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the country became sothoroughly Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA. Here were manyflourishing cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, and Thurii. These had, at the time of their contact with Rome, greatly fallen from their formergrandeur, owing partly to the inroads of barbarians from the north, partly to civil dissensions, and still more to their jealousy of eachother; so that they were unable to oppose any firm and united resistanceto the progress of Rome. It had been their custom to rely largely uponstrangers for the recruiting and management of their armies, --a factwhich explains in part the ease with which they were overcome. 

Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had beenmade by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond which theirfleet was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not to allowtheir vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond the Lacinianpromontory. As usual, the Romans found no difficulty in evading theirtreaty whenever it should profit them. 

Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid fromTarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domestic affairspermitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and the wedge wasentered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, and deliver theformer over to Rome. 

Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided toignore the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay ofTarentum. It was a gala day, and the people were assembled in thetheatre that overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It wasdetermined to punish the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four of theRoman squadron were destroyed. 

An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, wastreated with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of theTarentines, that their blood should wash out the stain. The next yearone of the Consuls was ordered south. 

Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the young andambitious KING OF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great, and, since he had obtained no share in the division of the conquests of thisgreat leader, his dream was to found an empire in the West that wouldsurpass the exhausted monarchies of the East. 

Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20, 000 infantry, 3, 000 cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling theeffeminate Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places of amusementwere closed; the people were forced to perform military duty; disturbersof the public safety were put to death; and other reforms were madewhich the dangers of the situation seemed to demand. Meanwhile theRomans acted with promptness, and boldly challenged him to battle. Thearmies met in 280 on the plain of HERACLÉA, on the banks of the Liris, where the level nature of the country was in favor of the Greek methodof fighting. The Macedonian phalanx was the most perfect instrument ofwarfare the world had yet seen, and the Roman legions had never yet beenbrought into collision with it. 

The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of acharge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, theyretired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed bythe heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victorywill send me back without a man to Epirus. " He recognized the inferiorqualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. A trustedmessenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his eloquence, which was said to have gained more for his master than the sword. Through him Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety wasguaranteed to his allies in Italy. 

The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators;and though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, when the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate, and declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms. 

Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declaredthat the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple. 

Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appearedwithin eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. Thedefection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, andthe armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to uniteagainst him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum, where he received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent to proposean interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes and threats wereemployed to shake the courage of the men sent by the Senate; and, on hispart, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desired exchange. 

Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed. The armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; butthough the Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhicvictories which were almost as disastrous as defeat. 

The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against theCarthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on the islandthree years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for the lasttime in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the Consul MANIUSCURIOUS DENTÁTUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomed to theelephants, and used burning arrows against them. The wounded beastsbecame furious and unmanageable, and threw the army into disorder. Withthis battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. He returned home, andtwo years later was accidentally killed by a woman at Argos. 

The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two yearslater, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the city walls weredemolished, and the fleet given up. 

CHAPTER XI. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY. --NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD. 

Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. Thiscountry was divided into two parts. 

I. The AGER ROMÁNUS, including about one quarter of the whole, boundedon the north by CAERE, on the south by FORMIAE, and on the east by theAPENNINES. 

II. The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES. 

The _Ager Románus_ was subdivided, for voting and financial purposes, into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts (tribes), four ofwhich were in Rome. The elections were all held at Rome. 

These districts were made up, --

a. Of ROME. 

b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, mostly maritime, now numbering seven, butfinally increased to thirty-five. 

c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns bound to service). 

d. Of the PRAEFECTÚRAE (towns governed by a praefect, who was sent fromRome and appointed by the Praetor). 

The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up, --

a. Of the LATIN (military) COLONIES, now numbering twenty-two, afterwards increased to thirty-five. 

b. Of the ALLIES of Rome (_Socii_), whose cities and adjoining territorycomposed more than one half of the country controlled by Rome. 

These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to paytribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troops forthe Roman army. 

The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz. --

a. Those who possessed both PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, i. E. FULL RIGHTS. (Footnote: Public rights consisted of the _jus suffragii_(right of voting at Rome); _jus honorum_ (right of holding office), and _jus provocationis_ (right of appeal). Private rights were _jusconnubii_ (right of intermarriage); and _jus commercii_ (right oftrading and holding property). Full rights were acquired either bybirth or gift. A child born of parents, both of whom enjoyed the_jus connubii_, was a Roman citizen with full rights. Foreigners weresometimes presented with citizenship (_civitas_))

b. Those who were subjects and did not possess full rights. 

c. Those who were ALLIES (_Socii_). 

d. Those who were SLAVES, who possessed no rights. 

e. Those who were RESIDENT FOREIGNERS, who possessed the right oftrading. 

To class _a_ belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Roman colonies, andof some of the Municipia. 

To class _b_ belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, whopossessed only private rights, the citizens of all the _Praefectúrae_, and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. 

ROADS. 

Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with thecapital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in everydirection, --broad, level ways, over which armies might be marchedor intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound herpossessions indissolubly together. Some of them remain today a monumentof Roman thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity, --the wonder andadmiration of modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fastentogether the constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that noteven the successes of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking offidelity, for which ample punishment was both speedy and certain. 

NOTED MEN. 

The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two precedingchapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and ManiusCurius Dentátus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians. 

We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to one ofthe tribes, and could vote in the _Comitia Tribúta_; this, however, shutout the plebeians of the city who owned no land, and also the freedmen, who were generally educated and professional men, such as doctors, teachers, etc. 

APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of theexclusive privilege of voting in the _Comitia Tribúta_, and gave toproperty owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years later thislaw was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribes alone, andthe thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landed property only. 

During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular water supplyby the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA, wasbuilt under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome as faras Capua. It was constructed so well that many parts of it are today ingood condition. The road was afterward extended to Brundisium, throughVenusia and Tarentum. 

MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, andhis opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. Heobtained for the soldiers large assignments of the _Ager Publicus_. Hedrained the low and swampy country near Reáte by a canal. He wasthe conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities, frugal andunostentatious, after his public life he retired to his farm and spentthe remainder of his days in seclusion as a simple peasant. 

GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentátus, was from the peasants. He was aHernican. As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he wasincorruptible, and of great use to his country. Previous to the battleof Asculum, Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him by large sums of money, and, failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant behinda curtain; the curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius, thoughimmediately under the elephant's trunk, stood unmoved. 

In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had notflowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. Thegreat mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugalhabits and moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estates asyet, or possessed large tracts of the _Ager Publicus_. A century later, when most of the available land in the peninsula was held by the wealthyand farmed by slaves, we find a great change. 

The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Largetreasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in SouthernItaly. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. Greedfor wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the Romans. From now on the moral tone of the people continued to degenerate inproportion as their empire increased. 

CHAPTER XII. FOREIGN CONQUEST. 

ROME AND CARTHAGE. --FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241. ) (Footnote: The word"Punic" is derived from _Phoenici_. The Carthaginians were said tohave come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast of theMediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is ofcourse familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aenéas. )

While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to theStraits of Messána, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, oppositeItaly and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, throughindustry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. 

Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, itrequired centuries to gain her power. 

It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of her subduedallies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies in the supportof her immense population and the equipment of her numerous fleets andarmies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, once wandering nomads, wereforced to become tillers of the soil; and, with colonies sent out byherself, they formed the so called Libyo-Phoenician population, opento the attack of all, and incapable of defence. Thus the country aroundCarthage was weak, and the moment a foreign enemy landed in Africa thewar was merely a siege of its chief city. 

The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passed thegold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory, slaves, and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of Cyprus; andthe iron of Elba. 

But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruel religion, which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of the rights ofothers, their well known treachery, all shut them off from the highercivilization of Rome and Greece. 

The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of afew of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managed thestate. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the people summonedand consulted. 

Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after theestablishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By thesetreaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies andCarthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But theRomans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage. 

In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-field forRome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Rome wouldbe shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it, "thecommerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze of onenight would carry the Roman fleets to her walls". 

At this time the island was shared by three powers, --HIERO, king ofSyracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigands whocame from Campania. The latter, making Messána their head-quarters, hadbeen pillaging all of the island that they could reach. Being shut upin Messána by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on the ground that they werefrom Campania. Although Rome was in alliance with Hiero, and hadbut recently executed 300 mercenaries for doing in Rhegium what theMamertines had done in Sicily, --she determined to aid them, for Sicilywas a rich and tempting prey. 

Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, atruce had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege ofMessána was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet and garrisonof Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though the Mamertinesno longer needed their aid, landed at Messána and dislodged theCarthaginians. 

Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a doublealliance with Syracuse and Messána, thus gaining control of the easterncoast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside of Italy. 

The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here theCarthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces underHANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but werethemselves cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heracléa intheir rear. Both besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a battlewas fought (262), in which the Romans were victorious, owing to theirsuperior infantry. Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholds on thecoast were left to the Carthaginians. 

The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthage ruledthe sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of the seaports ofSicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usual energy, theRomans began the work. (Footnote: In 259, three years previous to thebattle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipio captured Blesia, aseaport of Corsica, and established there a naval station. ) A wreckedCarthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and by the spring of 260 anavy of 120 sail was ready for sea. 

The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for thepurpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind ofhanging stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could belowered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sideswith parapets, and had space for two men in front. On coming to closequarters with the enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastened tothe opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus the Roman marineswere enabled to board with ease their opponents' ship, and fight as ifon land. 

Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE(260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). 

In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engagedunder the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commanderwas captured. 

In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUSDUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son of Gisco. The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romans were foundto be very effective. The enemy could not approach near without thesebridges descending with their grappling irons and holding them fast tothe Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, with the loss of nearlyhalf their fleet. 

A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels, waserected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestal ofit is still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldestinscriptions in the Latin language. 

The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. 

In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350sail. Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, andsixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to the coastof Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for another battle. Butthe Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsula which helps toform the bay, and there landed without opposition. 

MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces inAfrica. For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginians becamedisheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, and thecapital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the terms offeredwere too humiliating to be accepted. 

Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive atTunis, near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat to hisfortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised, hisarmy cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequently dieda captive at Carthage. 

The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to relievetheir comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way, it gained avictory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Herméan promontory, sinking114 of the enemy's ships. 

It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africa wasnow abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partly destroyed ina storm, only eighty ships reaching port. 

Hostilities continued for six years without any great results. Panormuswas taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253; Thermae and theisland of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249. 

DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held byCarthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the citywas blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered as muchas the besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by the cavalry ofthe Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned by disease. 

The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determined tosurprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana (249). He was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. Anotherfleet of 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violent storm. 

The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years. Four fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population. They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicilywere still in the enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on(249-243). 

A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhile tookthe field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and military talent, and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a fair wayto regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great, that atlast some private citizens built and manned at their own expense a fleetof 200 sail. 

GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy andoccupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginianfleet which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGÁTESINSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support andsupplies. He saw that peace must be made. 

Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of thewar, --about $3, 000, 000, --one third down, and the remainder in ten annualpayments. Thus ended the First Punic War. 

CHAPTER XIII. ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS(241-218). 

Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. The Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time incrushing a mutiny of their mercenary troops. 

Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed, seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected, threatened to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than onemillion dollars as a fine (237). 

The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into thegovernment of Rome a new system; viz. The PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. 

Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had exercisedtheir functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicily was madewhat the Romans called a _provincia_, or PROVINCE. Sardinia and Corsicaformed another province (235). 

Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. Forthis purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all. Thepower of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief, chiefmagistrate, and supreme judge. 

The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS. All the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenthof their produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports andexports. They were not obliged to furnish troops, as were the dependantsof Rome in Italy. 

The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As themorals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered withoutmercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors. 

The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, who didmuch damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, but to nopurpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea was cleared ofthe pirates in 229. 

"The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was themeans of establishing, for the first time, direct political relationsbetween Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which the suppressionof piracy was of as much importance as to Rome herself. Allianceswere concluded with CORCÝRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; and embassiesexplaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into Greece weresent to the Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth. The admissionof the Romans to the Isthmian Games in 228 formally acknowledged them asthe allies of the Greek states. "

The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPÍNA. Theappetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace with theGauls since the battle of Lake Vadimónis in 283. The _ager publicus_, taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied. In 232 theTribune Gaius Flaminius (Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by his agrarian lawsgained the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the first Governor ofSicily, and there showed himself to be a man of integrity and honesty, a great contrast to many who succeeded him. ) carried an agrarian law, to the effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorerclasses. The law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gaulsthis seemed but the first step to the occupation of the whole of theircountry. They all rose in arms except the Cenománi. 

This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invaded byan army of 70, 000 men. The plans of the invaders, however, miscarried, and they were hemmed in between two Roman armies near TELAMON in 222, and annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at the hands of the ConsulMARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was now mistress of the wholepeninsula of Italy, excepting some tribes in Liguria, who resisted ashort time longer. 

Three _military_ (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gauls incheck; PLACENTIA and CREMÓNA in the territory of the Insubres, andMUTINA in that of the Boii. The _Via Flaminia_, the great northern road, was extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. (Footnote: During this periodthe _Comitia Centuriáta_ was reorganized on the basis of tribes (35)instead of money. )

Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of themercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN ascompensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. HamilcarBarca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold inSouthern and Southeastern Spain. 

At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Many townswere founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. The discoveryof rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means of enriching thetreasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220, the ablestleader was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young man of buttwenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy he hadshown great courage and ability in camp under his father. He was a fineathlete, well educated in the duties of a soldier, and could endurelong privation of sleep and food. For the last few years he had beenin command of the cavalry, and had distinguished himself for personalbravery, as well as by his talents as a leader. 

Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once. He therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. Ineight months the place was compelled to capitulate (219). 

When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, anddeclared herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted thechallenge, and the Second Punic War began in 218. 

CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. --FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TOTHE BATTLE OF CANNAE. (218-216. )

In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthágo Nova to invadeItaly. His army consisted of 90, 000 infantry, 12, 000 cavalry, and 37elephants. His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to theopposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back apart of his troops, retaining 50, 000 infantry and 9, 000 cavalry, allveterans. With these he crossed the mountains, and marched along thecoast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemansus (Nîmes), through the Celticterritory, with little opposition. The last of July found him onthe banks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio (Avignon). The Romans wereastonished at the rapidity of his movements. 

The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former had beenin Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibal inSpain; the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invade Africa. Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the end of June. Learning there for the first time that Hannibal had already leftSpain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes of theneighborhood were won over to his side. Troops collected from these werestationed along the river, but Scipio's main army remained at Massilia. It was Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipio arrived withhis troops. He obtained all the boats possible, and constructed numerousrafts to transport his main body of troops. A detachment of soldierswas sent up the river with orders to cross at the first available place, and, returning on the opposite bank, to surprise the Celtic forces inthe rear. The plan succeeded. The Celts fled in confusion, and theroad to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipio was outgeneralled in the verybeginning. 

His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with all hisforces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, hesent most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, andhimself, with but a few men, set sail for Pisae. 

Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across the Isara, through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, in sixteendays from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont du Chat). Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature of the countryand the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on through the country ofthe Centrónes, along the north bank of the Isara. As he was leaving thisriver and approaching the pass of the Little St. Bernard, he was againattacked by the Celts, and obliged to make the ascent amidst continualand bloody encounters. After toiling a day and a night, however, thearmy reached the summit of the pass. Here, on a table-land, his troopswere allowed a brief rest. 

The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertilevalley of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished and exhaustedsoldiers. Here they encamped, in September, and recruited their weariedenergies. 

This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, and cost him 20, 000 infantry and 3, 000 cavalry. 

The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was in Spainunder Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa, underthe Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately available were afew soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po to restrain theGauls, who had recently shown signs of defection. 

Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took command ofthese. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the river Ticinus, a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in which he waswounded and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwards thefamous Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerable loss. 

They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying thebridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marchedalong its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia, opposite Placentia. Here he encamped. 

Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved thedisabled Scipio. 

Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of theCarthaginians was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon anyresistance was met, to retreat. The other troops of Hannibal were drawnup ready to give the enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected, theyshould pursue his retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught in thetrap, and all his army, except one division of 10, 000, was cut topieces. The survivors took refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where theyspent the winter. Sempronius himself escaped to Rome. 

The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes inthe valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60, 000 infantryand 4, 000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering near Placentia, the Romans stationed troops to guard the two highways leading north fromRome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, The Consuls for this year wereGAIUS FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The former occupied Arretium, thelatter Ariminum. Here they were joined by the troops that had winteredat Placentia. 

In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march byeither of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans byturning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy and unhealthycountry, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lost an eye fromophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report of his course firstreached Flaminius, who at once broke camp and endeavored to intercepthis enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start, and was now near LAKETRASIMÉNUS. 

Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on the other. Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill. Hislight-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment on eitherside. 

The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to theunoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing theposition of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill, Hannibal gave the signal for attack. The cavalry closed up the entranceto the pass, and at the same time the mist rolled away, revealing theCarthaginian arms on the right and left. It was not a battle, but a mererout. The main body of the Romans was cut to pieces, with scarcely anyresistance, and the Consul himself was killed. Fifteen thousand Romansfell, and as many more were captured. The loss of the Carthaginians wasbut 1, 500, and was confined mostly to the Gallic allies. All Etruriawas lost, and Hannibal could march without hindrance upon Rome, whosecitizens, expecting the enemy daily, tore down the bridges over theTiber and prepared for a siege. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointedDictator. 

Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria, devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he halted onthe shores of the Adriatic, in Picénum. After giving his army a rest, heproceeded along the coast into Southern Italy. 

The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raisedanother army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man ofdetermination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined toavoid a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassing himand cutting off his supplies as far as possible. 

Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart ofItaly to Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian citydependent upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers tothe melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy's cavalryplundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained what heconsidered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal, disappointedin his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him, and not beingprepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towards the Adriatic. Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, on the left bank ofthe Volturnus. The heights that commanded the right bank of the riverwere occupied by his main army; and the road itself, which led acrossthe river, was guarded by a strong division of men. 

Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend the heightsover the road during the night, driving before them oxen with burningfagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an army marching bytorchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandoned the road andmarched for the heights, along which they supposed the enemy were going. Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continued his march with thebulk of his army. The next morning he recalled his light-armed troops, which had been sent on to the hills with the oxen. Their engagement withthe Romans had resulted in a severe loss to Fabius. 

Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterlydirection, by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, with muchbooty and a full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here he encamped ina plain rich in grain and grass for the support of his army. 

At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparentinaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator(the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be sharedby one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided intotwo corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at thefirst opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to hisformer tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for his rashness, and his whole corps would have been annihilated had not Fabius come tohis assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passed the winter of217-216 unmolested. 

The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for the springcampaign. An army of 80, 000 infantry and 6, 000 cavalry was raised andput under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUS PAULLUS and GAIUSTERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal's strength once more inopen battle. His army was only half as strong as the Roman in infantry, but was much superior in cavalry. 

In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces atCANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning inJune the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, withtheir cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the leftunder Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre. 

The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked bycavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The onsetwas terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage increased bythe thought that their homes, wives, and children were at stake, theywere overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on the field, among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and eighty men ofsenatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat ever experienced bythe Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latin colonies and the Greekcities on the coast, went over to Hannibal. 

CHAPTER XV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. -FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA(216-202). 

ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All theLatin allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old menalike took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if they wouldjoin the ranks. 

Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, the secondcity of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations that othercities would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went into winterquarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their luxurious andeffeminate habits, are said to have injured his soldiers. But Hannibal'ssuperiority as a general is unquestionable, and his want of successafter this was due to insufficient aid from home, and to the fact thatthe resources of Rome were greater than those of Carthage. The Latinallies of Rome had remained true to their allegiance, and only one cityof importance was under his control. It was an easy matter to conquerthe enemy in open battle, but to support his own army was moredifficult, for all Italy had been devastated. On the other hand, theRomans were well supplied with food from their possessions in Sicily. 

Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those alreadyemployed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. Heformed an alliance with Philip V. Of Macedonia, and earnestly urgedHasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance. Hehoped, with this army from the north, with supplies and reinforcementsfrom Carthage, and with such troops as he might obtain from Macedonia, to concentrate a large force at Rome and compel her into submission. 

The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces theycould spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius and Gnaeus. With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching the enemyfrom that quarter. At the same time their army in Northern Greeceeffectually engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years (214-212)passed without any material change in the situation of affairs in Italy. 

In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy, besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recoverCampania, and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marchedrapidly north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosed thecity, resolved to advance on Rome itself. 

Silently and quickly he marched along the _Via Latino_ through the heartof the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city, and withhis vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But no allyjoined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposals ofpeace reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence ofthe enemy, he withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to hishead-quarters in the South. 

Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome, wasremoved to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted upon Capua wassevere. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundred of her chiefcitizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves. The city andits territory were declared to be Roman territory, and the place wasafterwards repeopled by Roman occupants. 

Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times as Romeitself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia, renownedfor its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all the highest artsand culture. 

AFFAIRS IN SICILY. 

HIERO II. , tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign ofmore than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome inher struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successor ofHiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant, whowas arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a few months. 

The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginianfaction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless theleaders of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored toarouse the citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Romeand the Roman party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked and stormedLeontini. The Syracusans then closed their city gates against him. Asiege of two years (214-212) followed, famous for the various devicesadopted by the noted mathematician ARCHIMÉDES (Footnote: Archimédes wasa great investigator in the science of mathematics. He discovered theratio of a sphere to its circumscribed cylinder. One of his famoussayings was, "Give me where to stand, and I will move the world. " Heexerted his ingenuity in the invention of powerful machines for thedefence of Syracuse. Eight of his works on mathematics are in existence. He was killed at the close of the siege by a Roman soldier, who wouldhave spared his life had he not been too intent on a mathematicalproblem to comply with the summons to surrender. On his tombstone, itis said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing a sphere. ) to defeat themovements of the Romans. The city was finally betrayed by a Spanishofficer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures in which it was sorich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time (212) the citybecame a part of the province of Sicily and the head-quarters of theRoman Governor. 

THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN. 

PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIOCALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNOand HASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, thelocation of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained overto Rome, when the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent largereinforcements there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated, surprised, and overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spain waslost to Rome. 

Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enter Italy, and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger. PUBLIUSCORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then but twenty-fouryears of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. He had previouslymade himself very popular as Aedile, and was unanimously elected to thecommand. On his arrival in Spain in 210, he found the whole country westof the Ebro under the enemy's control. 

Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBALand MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did not actin harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring (209), tocapture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. A good harbor wasgained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-three transports, $600, 000, and10, 000 captives fell into the hands of the Romans. 

Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, atBAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but thebattle was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing thePyrenees, with a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent thewinter (209-208) in Gaul. 

The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, the sonof Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to the Baleares, to wait for reinforcements from home. 

The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting inthe total defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in thesouthwestern part of Spain. 

The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossedthe straits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX andMASINISSA, whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return, after quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied abouttheir pay, he resigned his command, and started for Rome, where heintended to become a candidate for the consulship. 

OPERATIONS IN ITALY. 

The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome. Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. TheConsuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, and MARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task ofkeeping Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of interceptingHasdrubal was given to the latter. 

The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the riverMetaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sentmessengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line ofmarch. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents of theirdespatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces, joinedLivius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, and defeated hisarmy with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubal himself. Neroreturned south without delay, and the first intimation that Hannibal hadof this battle was the sight of his brother's head thrown into the campby the victorious foe. 

The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during fouryears more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he waspowerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughoutItaly. Nothing now remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except theground on which Hannibal was making his last stand. 

INVASION OF AFRICA. 

Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion of Africa. He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as his province, withpermission to cross into Africa if it seemed to him wise. He was sopopular that voluntary contributions of men, money, and supplies pouredin from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, however, did not likehim, as his taste for splendid living and Greek culture was particularlyoffensive to them; and a party in the Senate would have recalled him, had not the popular enthusiasm in his favor been too strong to beresisted. 

In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He was welcomedby Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previous visit toAfrica from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; but in 203Scipio twice defeated him and the Carthaginian forces. 

Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthageprevailed. Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battlewith Rome, October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west of Carthage. The issue was decided by the valor of the Roman legions, who loved theircommander and trusted his skill. Hannibal met his first and only defeat, and Scipio won his title of AFRICÁNUS. The battle was a hard one. Afterall the newly enrolled troops of Hannibal had been killed or putto flight, his veterans, who had remained by him in Italy, althoughsurrounded on all sides by forces far outnumbering their own, foughton, and were killed one by one around their beloved chief. The army wasfairly annihilated. Hannibal, with only a handful, managed to escape toHadrumétum. 

The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthagewas broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed to retainher own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten, were givenup, and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about $200, 000, forfifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and she could carryon no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was rewarded by anincrease in territory, and was enrolled among the "allies and friends ofthe Roman people. "

Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great Mediterraneanpower. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the north of Africa wasunder her protection. 

Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio waswelcomed home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph never beforeequalled. His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crowned withlaurels, in the Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, which he hadthe sense to refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking no part inpolitics. 

CHAPTER XVI. ROME IN THE EAST. 

ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects. The kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vastempire of Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell thelimits of Roman authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greeceproper. 

EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time thevalley of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and anumber of towns in Thrace. 

SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed ofvarious nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetentrulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. Thus arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia. 

MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V. , and included also a large portion ofNorthern Greece. 

GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES, theformer including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter the greaterpart of Central Greece. 

Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting intocloser contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in 273. From this country had come in part her supply of corn during the SecondPunic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. Became king, and, through fear of theMacedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome. 

The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome into closerrelations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient to open theEastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthage had left herno time or strength to interfere actively in Eastern politics, until shewas forced to take action by the alliance of Philip V. Of Macedonia andHannibal, and by the former's threatened invasion of Italy in 214. Asmall force was sent into Greece, which was soon largely increased bythe dissatisfied subjects of Philip. 

The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) wasto prevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she waspartially successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, butfour thousand of them were at Zama. 

The military operations of this war were of slight importance. MarcusValerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king so hardthat he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended to sail forItaly. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinus assistedthe Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home to think ofoperations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing to concentratetheir energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace. 

Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded theirreturn. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have it. 

There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIANWAR (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III. , king of Syria, toattempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probable thatthe young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V. ), who was only four years old, would not be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministers ofEgypt sought the protection of Rome. On their journey, the Roman envoyssent to assume the office of protectorship remonstrated with Philip. 

In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity that thepeople rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece was driven toseek alliances which would protect her against him. 

Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were inducedto vote for one, on the representation that the only means of preventingan invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad. 

This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with aconsiderable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of theConsul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisiveresults, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, a man ofdifferent calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip onthe Aóus, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next year utterlydefeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. 

The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first hebroke through the line of the legions, which, however, closed in aroundhim with but little loss. The other division was attacked by the Romans, while it was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. The victory of theRomans was decisive. 

About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and theRhodians defeated his troops in Caria. 

Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession ofMacedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece, Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to wagewar without Rome's consent. 

The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece" wasproclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years laterFlamininus withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters ofGreece, "--Chalcis, Demetrias, and Corinth, --and, urging the Greeks toshow themselves worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returned hometo enjoy a well earned triumph. 

The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firmestablishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedgehad been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs wasassured. 

CHAPTER XVII. THE SYRIAN WAR. 

Antiochus III. Of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip, had been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did nothear of his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, heclaimed for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philip hadpreviously held, and which Rome now declared free and independent. Hecrossed the Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare to enterGreece, although earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians, until afterFlamininus had withdrawn all his troops (192). 

Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, thepower behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after hisdefeat at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became thechief magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared themoral atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity. Underhim Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues with Antiochus, with whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome an opportunity tointerfere. His surrender was demanded. He fled, and, after wanderingfrom coast to coast, became the trusted adviser of the Syrian king. 

Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he could haveaccomplished something before the Roman troops came. But he disregardedthe warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minor matters. TheRomans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylae drove back theintruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. The Aetolians were punishedfor their infidelity. 

In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in commandof the army in the East, with the understanding that he should beaccompanied by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of hismilitary skill and experience. Under his command, the Romans crossed theHellespont and sought Antiochus in his own kingdom. 

Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of theking. They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in190, and 80, 000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30, 000 Romans, 50, 000 beingslain. The loss of the victors was slight. 

On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished allpretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurusmountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were allsurrendered. 

Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to hisname, as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration of hisvictory. 

Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaignagainst the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before, and had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excuse forthe campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; the reasonwas, their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory. 

The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and theythemselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war is noticeablechiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it _without the authorityof the Senate_, the first instance of its kind, and a precedent whichwas too frequently followed in later times. On his return to Rome he wasallowed a triumph, which stamped his act as legal. 

These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laidthe foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finallyundermined the strength of the state. From Greece were introducedlearning and refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. The vigorand tone of Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown than in thelength of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinous exotics. 

Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in theascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtainedduring his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce hisaccount-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them, tore them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus, however, was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimatedthat his brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemiesthat their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary ofZama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges weremade. 

Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum, on the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years. Hiswife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae, andthe sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia. Hisdaughter, CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous GRACCHI. Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During thecampaign in the East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. Inthe conversation Hannibal is reported to have said that he consideredAlexander the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himselfconquered Scipio, he would have placed himself before either. 

Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practicallythe mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, andas conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed a charmwhich made him popular at a time when the culture and arts of Greecewere not so courted at Rome as in later days. 

Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, but, escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, Kingof Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent toarrest him. Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ring andswallowed the poison which it contained (183). 

Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aimof his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life wasso marked that people have ever since looked with wonder uponthe tremendous magnitude of what he undertook, and came so nearaccomplishing. 

This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of theGreeks, " PHILOPOEMEN. (Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145. )

CHAPTER XVIII. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (171-146. )

Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign againstAntiochus, he did not receive from them the expected reward in additionsto his territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; but he laboredpatiently and quietly to increase his resources, and to stir up amongthe neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. He placed his armyon the best footing possible, and soon began to enlarge his boundaries. Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was compelled to give up hisconquests, and confine himself to the limits of Macedonia. In 179 Philipdied, and was succeeded by his son PERSEUS. 

The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient ofsubjection. He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed amarriage connection with Antiochus IV. Of Syria, and strove to arouseamong the Greeks memories of their former greatness. 

The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to check him. War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were at first ledby incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished until LICIUS AEMILIUSPAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in 168. 

Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who waskilled at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULE AEDILE, (Footnote: See page 225) in 192, he prosecuted persons who had made anillegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior Spain in 191as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down all insurrections. He was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering a tribe ofmarauders in Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph. 

He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus. The war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on theThermáic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothráce with his treasuresand family. He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated withkindness by the Consul. 

Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted by commissioners, he arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country was divided intofour small republics, independent of each other, but prohibited fromintermarriage and commerce with one another. 

On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was gracedby Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died fouryears later. 

Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adoptedby Fabius Maximus Cunctátor, the younger by the son of Africánus theelder, his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, ofperfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhatsuperstitious. A patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave his sonsthe best training under Greek masters. A strong proof of his popularityis the fact that his body was carried to its last resting place byvolunteers from the various peoples he had conquered. 

Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it isalleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia. 

After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for theconquered monarch made the Romans more watchful of her interests there. All suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy, and amongthese was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for more than twentyyears, and became a great friend of the younger Africánus, whom heaccompanied to the siege of Carthage. 

Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent ofeach other, with no rights of _connubium_ or _commercium_. Utterdemoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to allalliances liable to shake the authority of Rome. 

Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminatingin what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Underthe leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, thepeople rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twice defeatedin 148 by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gained the agnomenof MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province, with a Romanmagistrate at its head. 

At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metellus warnedthem to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, he easilydefeated them near SCARPHEIA. 

Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to anillustrious plebeian _gens_, the Caecilian. Before his death in 115three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was acandidate for the consulship. 

Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harshleader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146was marked by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground;beautiful pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Goldin abundance was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek libertyvanished. The country became a Roman province under the name of ACHAIA. 

Corinth, the "eye of all Greece, " remained in ruins for a century, whenit was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site a colonyof veterans and freedmen. 

CHAPTER XIX. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE. 

Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercialprosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by the quarrelsof conflicting factions. 

MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continualsource of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory, and, as she was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies of Rome, her only recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 an embassy wassent to inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, the chief of theembassy, was especially alarmed at the prosperity of the city, and fromthat time never ceased to urge its destruction. The embassy did notreach any decision, but allowed matters to go on as they might. Finally, when some sympathizers with Masinissa were banished from the city, heattacked and defeated the Carthaginians, compelled their army topass under the yoke, and afterwards treacherously destroyed it (150). Carthage was compelled to give up some of her territory, and pay$5, 000, 000 indemnity. 

After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must bedisciplined for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed toclose any speech he might make in the Senate with the same cruel words, _Delenda est Carthago_, "Carthage must be destroyed. " The people ofCarthage were called to account. Desponding and broken-hearted, theysent ambassadors to Rome. The answer given them was obscure. They wererequested to make reparation to Rome, and at the same time they wereassured that nothing should be undertaken against Carthage herself. But in 149 the Consuls crossed with a large army into Sicily, where thetroops were organized, and Carthaginian ambassadors were expected. 

When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wish toencroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired some security;for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, three hundredchildren of the noblest families should be delivered into their handsas hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coolly crossed overto Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they were ready to treatwith them on any question not previously settled. 

When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were toldthat Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, theysaid, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthagepossessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They were thentold that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Rome had nocontrol over the city so long as it was fortified. The preservation ofpeace, therefore, required that the people should quit the city, giveup their navy, and build a new town without walls at a distance of tenmiles from the sea. The indignation and fury which this demand excitedwere intense. The gates were instantly closed, and all the Romans andItalians who happened to be within the city were massacred. 

The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imaginedthat the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despair hadsuggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in every direction. All assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day and night in themanufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrending than this laststruggle of despair. Every man and every woman labored to the uttermostfor the defence of the city with a furious enthusiasm. 

Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICÁNUS, the Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the legalage), for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege. Aftertwo years of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part of thedefenders, the famished garrison could hold out no longer. 

Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeendays. The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was given toNumidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA. 

The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's mostbitter enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall, --MASINISSAand CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five. 

Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to get thepromised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was given tohis rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of the possessions ofSyphax fell to Masinissa, and among them this same Sophonisba, whom hemarried. Scipio, however, fearing her influence over him, demandedher as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison. Masinissa was acourageous prince, but a convenient tool for the Romans. 

CATO THE ELDER (_Major_), (234-149, ) whose long public career was aconstant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with thefashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the _old_ Romancharacter, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting theinterests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity asCensor, he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old-fashionedprinciples, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. All innovationswere in his eyes little less than crimes. He was the author of severalworks, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, has been preserved. 

Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth yeardiscoursing about old age with Africánus the younger, and Laelius, afriend of the latter. 

CHAPTER XX. ROME AND SPAIN. -THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132. )

Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial governmentof nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces, separated by the IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to apraetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really brought intoa state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forests were aformidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerilla warfare, which makes conquest slow and laborious. 

The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, whooccupied the interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain andintractable, continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato theelder put down a rebellion led by them. He established more firmly theRoman power east of the Ibérus. He disarmed the inhabitants of this partof Spain, and compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivir topull down their fortifications. 

Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for, sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the father of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting thetroublesome Celtibéri. He captured over one hundred of their towns, buttempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himself greaterin peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes lands onfavorable conditions, and did much to produce contentment among thenatives. But farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and inLusitania (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare. 

In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, wasGovernor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouraged theCeltibéri to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, witha massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUSMARCELLUS avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed thecountry humanely. His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA, were so cruel and grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into another openrebellion, headed by VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring bandit. During sevenyears (147-140) he defeated again and again the armies sent against him. The Celtibéri joined his standards, and Spain seemed likely to slip fromthe Romans. The only check to these successes was during the command ofMETELLUS MACEDONICUS (143); when he was recalled, matters returned totheir former condition. 

In 140, the Consul Mancínus was obliged to capitulate, and, to savehimself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused tosanction. 

Viriáthus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by the ConsulCaepio; his people were then subdued, and the government was ablyconducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS. 

THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133). 

The Celtibéri, however, were still in arms. The strong city of NUMANTIA, the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than one defeat of aRoman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sent out her bestgeneral, Africanus the younger. 

After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, hebegan (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with theutmost bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme offamine, it surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, andthe town was levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with thetitle of NUMANTÍNUS. 

The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain, whichwas never lost. The country now, with the exception of its northerncoast, was nominally Roman territory. Several towns were establishedwith Latin municipal rights _(municipia)_, and, on the whole, order wasmaintained. Along the coast of the Mediterranean there sprang up manythriving and populous towns, which became centres of civilization to theneighboring districts, and were treated by Rome rather as allies thanas subjects. Some of them were allowed to coin the silver money of Rome. The civilizing process, due to Roman influence, went on rapidly in theseparts, while the interior remained in barbarism. 

In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race fromthe north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the braveCeltibéri, who forced the invaders back into Gaul. 

 THE SERVILE WAR (134-132). 

While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slavesbroke out in Sicily, where they had been treated with special barbarity. 

For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that offreemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by theregular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea andGreece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy. 

The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of awealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, whopretended to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats were sufferedby the Roman armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS captured thestrongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thus closed thewar. For his success he was allowed an ovation. 

CHAPTER XXI. INTERNAL HISTORY. --THE GRACCHI. We have seen how the longstruggle between the patricians and plebeians terminated in a nominalvictory for the latter. From about 275, the outward form of the oldconstitution had undergone little change. It was nominally that of a"moderate democracy. " The Senate and offices of state were, in law, open to all alike. In practice, however, the constitution became anoligarchy. The Senate, not the Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, theSenate was controlled by a class who claimed all the privileges of anobility. The Comitias were rarely called upon to decide a question. Most matters were settled by a DECREE OF THE SENATE (_SenatusConsultum_). To be sure the Comitia declared for war or peace, but theSenate conducted the war and settled the conditions of peace. It alsousually assigned the commands, organized the provinces, and managed thefinances. 

The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. Itwas a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could beconvened at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias were scatteredover all Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent to decidequestions demanding knowledge of military matters and foreign policy. 

The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. Allpatricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. Thepatricians were the descendants of the original founders of the city. The nobles were the descendants of any one who had filled one of thefollowing six curule offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the right toplace in their hall, or carry in funeral processions, a wax mask ofthis ancestor, and also of any other member of the family who had held acurule office. 

A plebeian who first held this office was called a _novus homo_, or "newman. "

The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this time themonopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority. The right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was onlywanting a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legalrights, and urge the exercise of them. 

Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With himwas ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, andbrought to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. On one side or the other we find them, --MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR andPOMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY--arraying Rome against herself, until theglories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor ofthe Empire. 

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX. ) belonged to thenobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, the daughterof Africánus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom all but threedied young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. The daughter, SEMPRONIA, married Africánus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUS and GAIUS, grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother, who was left awidow when they were mere boys. 

Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in-lawduring the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestor inSpain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to the mildpolicy which his father had previously followed. His popular measureshere displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be a favoritewith him. On his return home he passed through Tuscany where he wasastonished to see large tracts of the _ager publicus_ (see Chapter VII. )cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizens of the Republicwere wandering in towns without employment, and deprived of the landwhich, according to law (see the Licinian Rogations), should havebeen divided among them, and not held in large quantities by the richland-owners. 

Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himself ascandidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then began boldly thebattle for the commons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian Law, now adead letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320 acres of the_ager publicus_ by one individual. Occupants who had fenced this landand improved it were to be compensated therefor. 

The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides against Tiberius, and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUS CAECÍNA, who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of his authority asTribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the question. 

Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained, contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office, andpassed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, himself, his brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carry it intoeffect. 

It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office ofTribune for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carryout his plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself ascandidate for the next year. The election day came, and when it becameevident that he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turned outin full force on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armed slavesand clients, raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with three hundred ofhis followers, threw their bodies into the Tiber (133). Thus was shedthe first blood of the civil struggle. The mob was led by SCIPIO NASÍCA, the uncle of Tiberius. Africánus, when he heard of the murder of hisbrother-in-law, exclaimed, "Justly slain. "

The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just tobe openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued their work, until, within two years, 40, 000 families were settled on tracts ofthe public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. But thecommissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands were notalways satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them were enraged. The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed. 

The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after hisbrother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army inAfrica and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, andjustice made him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded withsuspicion at Rome. In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re-elected. He revived his brother's agrarian law, and became at once the avowedenemy of the Senate. As a means of increasing his popularity, heendeavored to admit all the Italians to the privileges of Romancitizenship, and to limit the price of bread. 

Gains gained the favor of the _Equites_ (Knights), the commercial class, by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicial functionswere taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights. Heretoforeall civil and criminal cases of importance had been tried before a jurychosen from the Senate. These juries were often venal and corrupt, andit was a notorious fact that their verdicts could be bought. 

The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a timevery powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect that noRoman citizen should be put to death without legal trial and an appealto the assembly of the people. 

But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italians ruinedhis popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share their rightswith the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as ten yearsbefore. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3, 000 of hisfriends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more master of thesituation. 

However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Fortythousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was inforce. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unless thestate was held to be in danger. 

Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of theGracchi; but viewed in the light of to-day their characters were noble, and their virtues too conspicuous to be obscured. 

A few years previous to this, the younger Africánus died (129). Hisremark about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to thepopular party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, probably "a victim of political assassination. "

Africánus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend ofscholars, a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poetsLUCILIUS and TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his age towardsluxury and extravagance. He was an orator, as well as a general. Theone blot on his career is the terrible destruction of Carthage, which hepossibly might have averted had he shown firm opposition to it. 

SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, thoughPontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. 

CHAPTER XXII. EXTERNAL HISTORY. --PERGAMUM. --JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104). 

Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caícus, fifteen miles fromthe sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander. Itsfirst king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to the city. He was an ally of the Romans, and his successors remained their firmfriends. The city became one of the most prosperous and famous in AsiaMinor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library, andits schools. Attalus III. , at his death in 133, bequeathed to Rome hiskingdom, which included Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. It wasmade a province under the name of ASIA. 

THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. 

After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom in Africawas NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, which werecentres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdom to hisson Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA. The nephewwas a brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio in the Numantinewar, and returned to Africa covered with honors. He was named joint heirwith his cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsa dying soon after, Jugurtha murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal, claimed the wholekingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, who appealed toRome. Commissioners were sent to investigate. They were bought off byJugurtha, and returned home without accomplishing anything. Adherbal wasafterwards captured, savagely tortured, and finally killed. 

The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make aninvestigation, moved so slowly that some of its members were accused ofaccepting bribes. War was declared at last, but the campaign languished, and peace was soon made on such easy terms for the prince that it wasevident his money had again been freely used. The scandalous transactionwas denounced at Rome by the Tribune MEMMIUS. Jugurtha then repaired tothe city in person, and bought up all the authorities except Memmius, whom he found incorruptible. He had another cousin in the city, whom hecaused to be murdered. After this the Senate ordered him to leave, andas he departed, it is said he exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon toperish, if a purchaser be found!"

War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeatof the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated bythe defeat, the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUSMETELLUS, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. Hewas a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a rigidaristocrat. Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him as hislieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. 

Marius, born at Arpínum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and washimself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, and soonattracted notice for his punctual performance of all duties, and hisstrictness in discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia, andhis courage caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career. He soonrose to be Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of the People, and two years later Praetor. The fact that he was respected and valuedin high circles is shown by his subsequent marriage into the family ofthe Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, hebecame a person of social distinction. 

The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near theriver Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where his stronghold, Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, as unconditional surrenderwas demanded, he still held out. The popular party at Rome, irritatedthat such a petty prince should give so much trouble, demanded thatMarius should be made Consul and have charge of the war. When thelieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence to enable him to bepresent at the elections, as was necessary according to the law, hisgeneral ridiculed the idea, and told him to wait another twenty years. He went, however, and was elected in 107, being the first plebeianchosen to that office for more than a century. 

Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen ofNUMIDICUS. 

Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must bereorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no otheroccupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men ofrank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a youngpatrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested fromJugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was over. By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed (106)into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of Marius. 

The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward ofhis treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by nativeprinces, until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Mariusreturned home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into adungeon, and there starved to death. 

CHAPTER XXIII. THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES. --POLITICAL QUARRELS. 

The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in astruggle requiring all his talents. 

The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, werethreatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had metwith five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone. Eighty thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said tohave fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosento enter Italy, the destruction of Rome would have been a certainresult. Fortunately, they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping over themountains, overran for a season the province of Spain. 

Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies to formingand training the army. He selected the plains on the banks of the Rhonein Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here he drilledhis troops, accustoming them to the greatest possible exertions. Manyperished under the strain, but the survivors became hardened soldiers. Corps of engineers were attached to each legion, and the soldiers weretaught the use of tools, as well as of arms. At length, in his fourthconsulship (102), he felt prepared to meet the enemy. 

The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, theCimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towards Noricum, with the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, while theTeutones remained in Gaul. 

As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortified campnear AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him, andthen followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to fallupon them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were no match forthe drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contest lasted twodays, and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces (20 July, 102). At the close of this battle word was brought to Marius that he hadbeen elected Consul for the fifth time. 

Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging the fertilefields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from Catulus, theother Consul. 

The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri metthe same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101). 

No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political quarrelsbroke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consul for thesixth time. The popular heroes of the hour were two demagogues, theTribune SATURNÍNUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They carried corn laws andland laws, (Footnote: These were the APPULEIAN LAWS (100):--I. Any Romancitizen could buy corn of the state at a nominal price. II. The landin Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians had occupied, should be dividedamong the Italian and Roman citizens. III. Colonies from the veteransof Marius were to be founded in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. ) andcompelled the Senators to take an oath to execute their laws. MetellusNumidicus refusing to comply with their wishes, Saturnínus sent a guardto the Senate-House, dragged him out, and expelled him from the city. 

During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician. He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please allparties he pleased none. 

On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led byMEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, andthe radical one, led by Saturnínus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glauciaboth ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to besuccessful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturnínusand Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in theSenate-House, the roof of which was torn off, and the wretches werestoned to death. 

The fall of Saturnínus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recallof Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it wassuspected that he was a victim of treachery. 

Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of hisvacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradátes, King of Pontus. 

For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparativequiet. 

CHAPTER XXIV. INTERNAL HISTORY. -THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). 

At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and theequestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosenthe governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers(_publicani_) and the money-brokers (_negotiatores_). It will help us tounderstand better the condition of affairs, if we study the compositionof the Senate and the Equites. 

The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was increasedto six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies occurredfrom death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by theCensor, (Footnote: See the duties of Censor) who appointed a person thathad held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, Praetor, CuruleAedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All persons who had heldthese offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed to join in debate in theSenate, but not to vote. No Senator could engage in business. Hence hemust be wealthy. 

We saw in Chapter IV. That Roman citizens were divided into six classesaccording to their property, and that these classes were subdivided intoone hundred and ninety-three other classes called centuries. About 225, the number was increased to three hundred and seventy-three. Eighteenof the centuries of the first class were called EQUITES, and must haveproperty worth twenty thousand dollars or more. This name was given tothem because at first they served in the army as horsemen, though inlater times the cavalry was composed only of allied troops. The Equiteswere originally from the aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeiansincreased in wealth, many of them became rich enough to be included inthis class. 

There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in 123, Gaius Gracchus passed the _Lex Judicaria_, which prescribed that thejurors _(judices)_ should be chosen from the Equites, and not theSenate. From this time dates the struggle between the two classes, and the breach widened every year. On the one side were the nobles, represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian order. Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control of thecourts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power, especially inthose courts which were established to try governors for extortion inthe management of provinces _(quaestiones rerum repetundarum)_. Fromthe Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers of the provinces. Theypillaged and robbed the people at will, and, if a governor had thecourage to interfere with them, a threat of prosecution was held overhis head. The average governor preferred to connive at their exactions;the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles for their courage. Anothertrouble was threatening the commonwealth. The Italian allies of Rome didnot possess the franchise belonging to a Roman citizen. For nearly twocenturies they had shared dangers and victories with the Romans; theynow eagerly demanded all their privileges. 

In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle thequestion peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform thecourts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him manyenemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of Romancitizenship aroused great opposition. 

His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. He was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by anassassin in the same year. 

The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations enteredinto a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian Apennines, astheir capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which they gave thename ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of Corfinium, and here wasto be the place of assembly and the Senate-House. 

Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both tookthe field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were Marius andSulla. 

This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i. E. The war with the allies(_Socii_), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran Campania, defeated the Romans several times, and entered into negotiations withthe Northern Italians, whose fidelity began to waver. 

It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turnedin the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to makeconcessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar carriedthe JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to all whohad not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented by thePLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an Italian townthe franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at Rome withinsixty days. About the same time was passed another law, the CALPURNIAN, which permitted Roman magistrates in the field to bestow the franchiseon all who wished it. These laws resulted in disorganizing therebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out the longest, but werefinally put down by Marius. 

The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newlyenfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was tornasunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affectedby the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury wasempty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradátes, Kingof Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were eager tohave the command. 

At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forwardthe following bills:--

1. That the command of the war against Mithradátes be given to Marius. 

2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes. 

3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be deprivedof his seat. 

4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian revoltbe recalled. 

In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But thetriumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troopshad been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and forthe first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions. 

CHAPTER XXV. MARIUS AND SULLA. -CINNA. 

With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUSSULLA (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inheriteda moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank, lounging in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He wasa poet, an artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he wasnaturally a soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor underMarius in the Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and usefulofficer. " In these African campaigns he showed that he knew how towin the hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through his wholesubsequent career, the secret of his brilliant successes seems to havebeen the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he always held wellunder control, even when they were allowed to indulge in plunder andlicense. It was to Sulla's combined adroitness and courage that Mariusowed the final capture of Jugurtha. He served again under Marius inthe campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones, and gave efficient helptowards the victory. But the Consul became jealous of his rising power, and all friendly feeling between the two ceased. 

After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no partin politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival arealmost unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he waselected Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of ahundred lions in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 hewent as Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he first metMITHRADÁTES. 

This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. Hespoke many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundlessambition. He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began toenlarge his own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome's interference. 

Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and wasruled by a prince, ARIOBARZÁNES, that Rome had recognized. This countryMithradátes attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on the throne hisown nephew. 

Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. Heaccomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned to Romewith new honors. He took an active part in the Social War, eclipsingthe fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognized leader of theconservative and aristocratic party. The feeling between the rivals wasmore bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had by no means lost hisprestige with the popular party. 

It was at this time that Mithradátes, learning of the Social War, thought it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extendhis realm. He collected all his available forces, and invaded Bithynia. With his fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into the Archipelago. The extortions of the Roman governors had been so great, that Ionia, Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor, gladly revoltedfrom Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Roman residents withtheir families were massacred on a single day. It is said that 80, 000persons perished. Mithradátes himself next crossed the Bosphorus, andmarched into Northern Greece, which received him with open arms. 

Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried thebills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that Mariushave charge of the war against Mithradátes. This was not to Sulla'sliking. He was in Campania with the legions that had served in theSocial War. The soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to follow himanywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking matters into his own hands, marchedinto the city at the head of his troops. The people resisted; Sulpiciuswas slain; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa, where helived for a time, watching the course of events. 

Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the Eastcalled him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civil warburst out anew (87). 

LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. Hetried to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally drivenfrom the city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. Heinvoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready tofollow him. The neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, andMarius, coming from Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. Theymarched upon Rome. The city was captured. Cinna was acknowledgedConsul, and the sentence of outlawry which had been passed on Marius wasrevoked. 

The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinna forthe second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had a body-guardof slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished. The houses ofthe rich were plundered, and the honor of noble families was exposed tothe mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died sixteen days after heentered office, and the shedding of blood ceased. 

For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional governmentwas practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and atrusty colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In84, he was murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla inAsia. 

Sulla left Italy for the East with 30, 000 troops. He marched againstAthens, where Archeláus, the general of Mithradátes, was intrenched. After a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86. Thesame year he defeated Archeláus at CHAERONÉA in Boeotia, and the nextyear at ORCHOMENOS. 

Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained twovictories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now readyto negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personalinterview with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were asfollows. The king was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, and withdraw to his former dominions. He was also to pay an indemnityamounting to about $3, 500, 000, and surrender eighty ships of war. 

Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydiansand Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, bycompelling them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was now readyto return to Rome. 

The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40, 000troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Everypreparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but nosooner did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desert tohim in immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession of allLower Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was young POMPEY, then but twenty-three years old, and it was to his efforts that Sulla'ssuccess was largely due. The next year, 83, the Marian party was joinedby the Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely than ever. At length, however, Sulla was victorious under the walls of Rome. The city lay athis mercy. His first act, an order for the slaughter of 6, 000 Samniteprisoners, was a fit prelude to his conduct in the city. Every effortwas made to eradicate the last trace of Marian blood and sympathy fromthe city. A list of men, declared to be outlaws and public enemies, was exhibited in the Forum, and a succession of wholesale murders andconfiscations throughout Rome and Italy, made the name of Sulla foreverinfamous. 

Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendid triumphfor the Mithradátic war, he carried (80-79) his political measures. The main object of these was to invest the Senate, the thinned ranksof which he filled with his own creatures, with full control over thestate, over every magistrate and every province. 

In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he diedthe next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses. 

THE REFORMS OF SULLA. 

Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of theSenate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and noformer Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetorwithout having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held thepraetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be atleast thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from sixto eight; that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls andPraetors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, andthen go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. 

Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and allwho had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate. 

The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to theSenate. 

On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls;but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not toraise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade hisoath by going to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return, marched against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated byCrassus and Pompey in 78, and soon after died. 

CHAPTER XXVI. SERTORIUS. --SPARTACUS. --LUCULLUS. --POMPEY AND CRASSUS. 

Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village ofNursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and servedunder him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 heserved in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which hisfame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. Hewas a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and on Sulla'sreturn from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took the leadof the Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleased theSpaniards. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. He defeatedone of Sulla's generals, and drove out of Lusitania (Portugal) METELLUSPIUS, (Footnote: Son of Metellus Numidicus. He received the agnomen ofPius on account of the love which he displayed for his father, whomhe begged the people to recall from banishment in 99. ) who had beenspecially sent against him from Rome. 

The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain after theRoman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, and founded atOsca a school for native children. He was strict and severe towards hissoldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was his favorite pet andconstant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In 77 he was joined byPERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey, then a young man, wassent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertorius proved more than a match forboth of these generals, and defeated them near Saguntum. 

The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius nowformed a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also enteredinto negotiations with Mithradátes, and opened correspondence with theslaves in Italy, who were rebelling. 

But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of these wasthat he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72, andwith his death fell the Marian party in Spain. 

Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her ownborders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one oftheir number, named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school at Capuaand took up a strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They were joined bylarge numbers of slaves and outcasts of every description, and were soonin a position to defeat two Praetors who were sent against them. 

The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himself atthe head of 100, 000 men. Four generals sent against him were defeated;and for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and even threatened Rome. But intestine division showed itself in his ranks; his lieutenants grewjealous of him, and his strength began to wane. 

In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it insix months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey, returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of thosewho had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man. Crassus pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the road fromRome to Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken. 

Mithradátes meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, wasagain in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent against him. 

Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the SocialWar, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, asQuaestor, in his campaign against Mithradátes in 88. With Cotta he waschosen to the consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assigned tohim, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradátes invaded Bithynia, defeated Cotta, and besieged him at Chalcédon. 

Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to the aidof his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him at Cabírain 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to take refugewith his son-in-law, TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia. 

Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration of provincialgovernments in the East. The revenues of the provinces were farmed out, and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect the tax-payersagainst the tax-gatherers (_publicani_). His reforms met with bitteropposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whose chief source ofincome was often this same tax-farming. Intrigues against him by personssent from Rome began to create dissatisfaction among his troops. He hadbeen a severe disciplinarian, and so it was all the easier to turn thesoldiers against him. 

In 68 he won a victory over Tigránes and Mithradátes, at the riverArsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he wasobliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The next yearhis soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey. 

Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement, dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxuriousdinners which he gave. 

POMPEY AND CRASSUS. 

The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, asit had been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, afavorite officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the laws laiddown by his general. 

GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhood tohis death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's side inthe civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan of thelatter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. Hedefeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 wasallowed to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legallyqualified. Sulla then greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which heever afterwards bore. He was then sent to Spain, with what success wehave seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUSCRASSUS were elected Consuls amid great enthusiasm. 

Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immense wealthby speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods. Avarice issaid to have been his ruling passion, though he gave large sums to thepeople for political effect. 

Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, waseligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, and wasonly thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, and ought tohave waited two years. 

The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regainedtheir prerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts wastransferred again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former bodywas cleared of its most worthless members, who had been appointed bySulla. 

For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompeyremained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expeditionagainst the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders hadbeen in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean. During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so thatthe city was compelled to take an active part against them. They hadparalyzed the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italywere not safe from their raids. 

GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his commandfor three years; that he should have supreme authority over all Romanmagistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and over thecoasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants, allex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed. 

In three months the pirates were swept from the sea. 

The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by theMANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entirecontrol of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. Hisappointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially by CATULUS, the "father of the Senate, " and by the orator HORTENSIUS; but CICEROwith his first political speech (_Pro Lege Manilia_) came to Pompey'sassistance, and to him was given the command by which he becamevirtually dictator in the East. His operations there were thoroughlysuccessful, and, though he doubtless owed much to the previous victoriesof Lucullus, he showed himself an able soldier. Mithradátes was obligedto flee across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (Kertch). 

In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country inthe name of Rome, and made it a province. 

Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus, two aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary tothe wishes of the people, and to enforce it he led his army againstJerusalem, which he captured after a siege of three months. He installedHyrcánus on the throne on condition of an annual tribute. 

Meanwhile Mithradátes had returned to Pontus for the prosecution of hisold design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Roman arms, thateven his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn affairs hadtaken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63, after a reignof fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years all formidableopposition to Rome in Asia. 

Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete were nowmade provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by the additionof Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minor notyet provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus;Cappadocia, by Ariobarzánes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. 

After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome, January1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-five years old, had accomplished a really great work, had founded several cities whichafterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization, and was hailedas the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia. 

The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar. Hiswife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relations betweenthe two men had been friendly. 

Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise to politicalimportance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy of CATILINE. 

CHAPTER XXVII. CAESAR. --CICERO. --VERRES. 

The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian _gens_, which claimeddescent from IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS. Eight generations of Caesarshad held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had been Consuls, Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the moderate wing. The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can be traced no furtherback than his grandfather. This gentleman, of the same name as the greatCaesar, married Marcia, who claimed descent from Ancus Marcius, thefourth King of Rome. They had three children, Gaius Julius, the fatherof the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, who became the wife ofMarius. Gaius Julius held no higher office than Praetor. He was marriedto Aurelia, a stately woman of simple and severe tastes. Their son Gaiuswas born on July 12th, 100. 

During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth, tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, and features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending theproscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged, must have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimatecompanions was CICERO, who was six years his senior. 

Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, anddetermined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcely fifteen, a priest of Jupiter (_flamen dialis_), which sacred office carried withit a handsome income. 

Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closelywith the popular party, whose champion he remained. 

When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was buteighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party was ruined, his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yet free fromproscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising young man to hisown side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wife and marryone whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was then tried. Hispriesthood was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. His estate wasconfiscated, and, when this had no effect, he was himself declared anoutlaw, and a price was set on his head. Influential friends, however, interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator was finally persuaded topardon him; but with reluctance, and with the remark that in Caesar wasthe making of many a Marius. The youth then left Italy, and joined thearmy in Asia. 

Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined the forcesof the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the pirates that weremaking their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, finding his troopsinsufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar to Nicomédes, a Romanally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additional forces. He wassuccessful in his mission, and, upon his return to Lesbos, distinguishedhimself for his bravery in the attack upon Mityléne, and was awarded theoak wreath, a coveted honor, for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. 

Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaignagainst the pirates who were marauding along the coast of that country. While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once left the armyand returned home (77). The next year he began his struggle with thenobility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a former Governor ofMacedonia. Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and his cause wastheirs. The best talent was engaged to defend him, and Caesar lost thecase. 

Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studiedrhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his propertyand priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way he wascaptured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some $50, 000 wasraised and paid. Upon arriving at Milétus he at once got together somevessels, returned to the island where he had been in captivity, seized the crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had them tried, convicted, and crucified. He then resumed his journey to Rhodes, wherehe remained two years in the pursuit of his studies. Then the report ofthe uprisal of Mithradátes reached him, and he at once crossed over tothe mainland, collected a body of volunteers, and saved Caria to Rome. 

Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietlyfor a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events. 

While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle in whichhe was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companion of hisyouth, was beginning to attract attention at Rome. 

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belongedto the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greekteachers. As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the partyopposed to Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping togain fame as a speaker before the Senate, and finally to become oneof its members. He took part in the Social War (89), but during thetroubled times that followed he remained quietly engaged in literarypursuits. His first public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, whowas falsely accused of murdering his father, was a great success, andguaranteed for him a brilliant future. Cicero improved the next fewyears by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly after his return, in 75, he was elected Quaestor, and thus became a member of the Senate. His year of office he spent in Sicily, in the performance of his duties. There he obtained an insight into the corrupt extortions of the Romangovernors. Five years later, he conducted his famous case againstVerres. 

VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions hadamassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greeceand Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty. Withthe money thus acquired, he had bought his election to the praetorship, became Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to govern Sicily. His government there may have been no worse than that of many otherproconsuls in the different provinces, but we have a fuller account ofit owing to the prosecution of Cicero, whose speeches against Verres arepreserved. 

Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his official position, he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit broughtbefore him he gave to the party that could pay him best. Property wasconfiscated on false charges, and works of art of great value werestolen. By such a course Verres collected, it is said, property tothe value of $4, 000, 000. Two thirds of this he expected to spend insilencing accusations. The rest he hoped to enjoy in peace, but Cicero'seloquence forced him to abandon his defence and retire into exile. 

It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studiesabroad, and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a rewardfor what he had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he waselected Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this timehis aunt Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, he deliveredthe funeral oration. 

Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interestswere common. The latter, although but six years older, was already agreat man and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, and he married for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. Whensent as Quaestor to Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begun byPompey and settled the finances of the troubled country, a task whichhe found the easier as he was known to belong to the popular party, ofwhich Marius and Sertorius had been leaders. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. TROUBLES AT ROME. --CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. 

While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becomingworse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic. There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were anxious toregain what they had lost, and there were many who, enriched by theDictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and now only waiteda leader to renew the assault upon the state. The Senate was jealous ofthe power of the people, and the people distrusted the Senate. 

Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUSSERGIUS CATILÍNA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold, and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next yearGovernor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enoughmoney, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. Onhis return home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquittedthrough Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury. 

He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year(63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of MarkAntony, and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so thestruggle was really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was elected, owing to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of Verres andhis defence of the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the goal for whichhe had been so long striving. 

Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he hadbeen Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of theCapitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscúri (Castor and Pollux). Butwhat made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish displayat the public games and exhibitions. 

Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63the office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, becamevacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became acandidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes thanboth the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidence ofthe popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). 

Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to hisfame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be electedcaused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had manyfollowers, men of noble families, among whom were the former ConsulLentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the Censors, and Cethégus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to regain afortune by a change in government. There were veterans of Sulla, starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and outlawsof every description. The conspirators were divided into two parties;those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose head-quarterswere at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army of trainedsoldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. Here secretmeetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite an uprising, killthe magistrates, seize the government, and then unite with the army inEtruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by spies, and justbefore the plans for the uprising were matured, he disclosed them to theSenate. 

Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus andCethégus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A seriousdifficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentuluswas at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers weresacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of anyRoman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. Toomany were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe. 

In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, and Cicero. 

Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment forlife. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form acomplete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and selfish, weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the people and ofhis own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would becomedangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of thestate, would make an example and warning for the future. The one, forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other, unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost. 

Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordancewith the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing wasmore impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicerowas the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar, with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide. 

A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, causedthe conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). Thesuppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeatof the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fellfighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force ofsoldiers near Pistoria. 

The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for thevigilance shown in this affair. 

The execution of Lentulus and Cethégus resulted as Caesar had expected. It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the Senate, and itwas felt that by it the constitution was still more endangered. Thepeople demanded that Pompey return. In him they thought to have adeliverer from internal strifes. 

Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a secondRomulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of theretiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewingthe acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbadehis speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman citizenswithout a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the uproar Cicerocould only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus threatened toimpeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever heat. The Tribunemoved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. The Senate feared hiscoming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), favored it, and earnestlyseconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who was also Tribune, orderedMetellus to stop speaking, and snatched his manuscript from hishand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke up the meeting. Constitutional law was trampled under foot on all sides. The Senate wasriding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellus and Caesar were declareddeposed from their offices. The people, however, believed in Caesar. Hewas followed to his home by crowds, who begged him to be their leader, and make an example of the law-breakers in the Senate. But Caesarrefused. He would have nothing to do with lawlessness; he let hisopponents play that _rôle_, and awaited the results. The Senate soon sawits mistake, and requested him to resume his official duties. 

The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. Hehad already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions ofthe country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were heldby robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed thesubjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized thegovernment, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. Hisadministration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for itwould, he hoped, be the consulship. 

Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium inDecember, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princesand immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst thegreatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted towear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased. 

Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. Thoughfeared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the people, and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army behind him. He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend in all hiscareer. 

Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on hisside, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUSwas counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These threethen formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE, --"a union ofshrewdness, renown, and riches, " by which Caesar expected to rise togreat power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greaterwealth. 

CHAPTER XXIX. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. 

Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and inreturn supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus wasto contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar was electedwithout opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was MarcusBibulus. 

Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of politicaloffices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful inkeeping within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himself inpolitical quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. Nowhe was in a position to push his ideas of reform, and to show thearistocracy of what stuff he was made. 

It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had theorator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he was toovain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his superiors, and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would shine theremore, and be more likely to redound to his own personal fame. 

Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except thearistocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, was bitterlyopposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus, and byCato. The law provided that large tracts of the _ager publicus_, thenheld on easy terms by the rich patricians, be distributed among theveterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the holders a reasonable sumfor their loss, though legally they had no claim whatever on the land. Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, and the Tribunes vetoed, stillthe Assembly passed the law, and voted in addition that the Senate beobliged to take an oath to observe it. 

The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during hisyear of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover manycrimes the commission of which had been for a long time undermining thestate. 

The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at theabuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make adouble return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open forinspection, the other to be kept at Rome. 

When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from thereluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years. He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his workwould be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year(58) so adroitly, that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he couldrely, were elected. 

There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous forCaesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him bitterly. Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body only too willingto crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's good fortune, or, as some believe, the result of his own scheming, that both these menwere put temporarily out of the way. 

CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. Atone time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittance tothe festival of _Bona Dea_, which was celebrated only by women. He wasdiscovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but acquitted bymeans of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in bringing himto trial, and Clodius never forgot it. He got adopted into a plebeianfamily in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship, and wassuccessful. He then proposed to the Assembly that any person who had putto death a Roman citizen without allowing him to appeal to the people beconsidered a violator of the constitution. The proposal was carried. All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to Macedonia. Hisproperty was confiscated, his houses were destroyed, and his palace inthe city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. 

The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80. TheSenate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island wasruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. 

Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded theAssembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties weresatisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7, 000, 000 toincrease the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of thecity, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in Caesar'sabsence. 

CHAPTER XXX. CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. Caesar was now in the prime ofmanhood, in the full vigor of mind and body. His previous experience incamp life had been comparatively small. His early service in Asia, andhis more recent campaigns in Spain, however, had shown his aptitude formilitary life. 

The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, thesouthern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Romanprovince, called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo which theRomans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France, and apart of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were allof the Celtic race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhine andsettled in the North, and the AQUITÁNI, who lived in the Southwest andwho are represented by the Basques of to-day. 

The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contactwith the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government, likethe early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes, which weremostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into factions amongthemselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the factions werefrequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes were the AEDUIand SEQUANI. The former had been taken under the protection of Rome; thelatter, impatient of control and Roman influence, had invited a tribeof Germans under Ariovistus to come into Gaul and settle, and be theirallies. These Germans had attacked and conquered the Aeduans, taken fromthem hostages, and with the Sequanians were in the ascendency. 

In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbersthat their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed toemigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands borderedon those of the Helvetians, gave them permission to march through theircountry. 

Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling thatthe passage of such a large body of emigrants (368, 000) through Gaulwould be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), he determinedto interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, near Autun, and aftera terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, were defeatedwith great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one third, were treatedkindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland. 

Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west ofthe Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, duringwhich the bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces cametogether. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for thedrilled legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few ofthe barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus. 

The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent intowinter quarters among the Sequanians under Labiénus, the lieutenant ofCaesar. He himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties asadministrator, and to have communication with his friends at Rome. 

THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE. 

While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labiénus that theBELGAE were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people occupiedthe northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, of whichthe principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIÓNES, and NERVII. The lastwere the fiercest and least civilized. 

Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marched againstthe Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach alarmedthe Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and they immediately putthemselves under his protection. From them he learned that the Belgaecould muster about 300, 000 men. 

By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearlyannihilated the Suessiónes. The Bellovaci now put themselves under hisprotection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the sixlegions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nervii andtheir allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in the woods onthe opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and so quick wasthe enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on their helmets, to remove the covering from their shields, or to find their properplaces in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they became almostpanic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched a shield froma soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived their courage. TheNervii were checked, and victory was assured. But the enemy fought onwith a bravery that excited the admiration of Caesar. Of sixty thousandmen scarcely five hundred survived. The women and children were caredfor kindly by Caesar, and settled in their own territory. 

The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, wereconquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. 

Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winterquarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. Inhis honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. 

THE VENETI. --INVASION OF GERMANY. 

All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) exceptthe VENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, andlieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, inducingothers to join them, seized some Roman officers sent among them byCrassus. The campaign of the third year (56) was directed against thesepeople. They were mostly sailors and fishermen, with villages builton the end of promontories and easily defended by land. In a navalengagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet wasdestroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for theirtreachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold intoslavery. 

The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. 

During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine intoGaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe calledthe SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops and advancedto within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave the invaderstwenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expiration of thetime, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights, and twomen of aristocratic families. In the general engagement that followed, the Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain. 

Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus toinspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his famousbridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and, thinking hisobject accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the bridge behind him. 

INVASION OF BRITAIN. 

It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by crossingthe Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with but littleresistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country for ashort time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near and theweather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters among theBelgae, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. 

During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After allpreparations were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the nextday landed on the island. He defeated the Britons under their leaderCASSIVELAUNUS, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. Manythousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. 

FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS. 

In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among severaltribes. That stationed in the territory of the Eburónes was commandedby the lieutenants, Gabínus and Cotta. News reached the encampment thatthere was an uprisal of the Eburónes. It was decided to break up camp, and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest companions. On the march they were surprised and nearly all killed. Only a fewstragglers carried the news to Labiénus, who was wintering with a legionamong the Remi. 

This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenantwho was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. 

In 53 Caesar punished the Eburónes for their action in the previouswinter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, Ambiorix, escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesar again crossedthe Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned to Cisalpine Gaul, supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was mistaken. Thepatriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. The chiefs of allthe tribes secretly established communication with each other. A day wassettled upon for a general uprising. The Roman inhabitants of Genabum, on the Liger, were massacred. The leading spirit in this last struggleof the Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief of the Averni. 

Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of crossingthe Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected his legions, marchedupon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town. 

Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all thetowns of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricum alonewas spared. Within its walls were placed the best of their goods anda strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a well defendedsiege, captured the town and killed every person in it, excepting eighthundred, who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix. Large quantitiesof corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied his soldiers. He thenmarched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. As the town wason a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, he laid siege to it. Apart of the army, contrary to instructions, one day attempted to assaultthe place. The battle which followed was disastrous to the Romans, andthe only defeat Caesar received in Gaul. Forty-six officers and sevenhundred men fell. The siege was raised. It was a serious position forCaesar. All Gaul was in flames. Retreating at once, he formed a junctionwith Labiénus at Agendicum, and with all his troops started for GalliaNarbonensis to protect it from invasion. 

On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched witheighty thousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hilland considered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress beeninvested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force of Gaulsthat had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and genius. But they did not fail him. The relieving army, though five times aslarge as his, was driven back and sent flying home. 

Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefsand advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demandedunconditional surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold intoslavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers. Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, andafterwards died in a dungeon. 

With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practicallycompleted. 

The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; someof the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to theSenate. The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces wereformed, Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D. ) the former of these wassubdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was introduced, and Latin became the official language. 

CHAPTER XXXI. CLODIUS AND MILO. --DEATH OF CRASSUS. 

During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, great confusionprevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, which wouldstop the shedding of blood and insure security of person and property. Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had failed. Therewere two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the other by MILO. 

"Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary period. He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for speech; hehad no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person which for themoment was convenient to him; and yet for five years this man was theleader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice, insult the Consuls, beatthe Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang of armed slaves, killingpersons disagreeable to him; and in the Senate itself he had highfriends and connections, who threw a shield over him when his audacityhad gone beyond endurance. " Milo was as disreputable as Clodius. Hischief fame had been gained in the schools of the gladiators. Gangsof armed slaves accompanied him everywhere, and there were constantcollisions between his retainers and those of Clodius. 

In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall wasdemanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles, ledby their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties metin bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till Milo'sparty finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened, and therecall voted. 

For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard lot. He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. Outsidethe city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were waiting toreceive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and to rebuildhis palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the publicexpense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted theworkmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke down thewalls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him. 

At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The longstruggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a candidatefor the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The two meeting byaccident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was murdered, 20 January, 52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, who was nominated soleConsul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was evident, and he went intoexile at Massilia. Cicero prepared an elaborate speech in his defence, but did not dare to deliver it. 

During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesarrenewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that wereheld at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, thatof Spain; Crassus, that of Syria. 

CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was accompaniedby his son, who had done good service under Caesar in Gaul. They arrivedat Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrátes; and the Romans, sevenlegions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew themselves up along theriver. The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man of ability, proposed to Crassus aplan of the campaign, which consisted in following the river as far asSeleucia, in order not to be separated from his fleet and provisions, and to avoid being surrounded by the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassusallowed himself to be deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to thesandy plains of Mesopotamia at Carrhae. 

The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushedupon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempteda charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthians yielded, but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after greatdeeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was borne beforethe eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and despair, gavethe command into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gave orders for a generalretreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman army to continual losses, andCrassus himself was killed in a conference (53). 

In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousandRomans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve asslaves in the army of the Parthians. 

The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, had sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who marriedCornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of MetellusScipio. 

CHAPTER XXXII. CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY. --BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. 

Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw offall pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to theinterests of the Senate and aristocracy. 

The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound impressionupon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the northernbarbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for himselfdistinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey. "He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province larger thanSpain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a nation ofwarriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions. " The nobility hadwatched his successes with bitter envy; but they were forced to vote athanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made sixty. "

Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired asecond consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and onthis account would not disband his army; for, according to the custom, he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, however, he must disband it before he could offer himself as a candidate for theconsulship. But he asked permission to set aside this custom, and tobecome a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army. 

The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been suspendedseveral times before this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. Hisenemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he felt that, if hereturned as a private citizen, his personal safety would be in danger;whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred. 

The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, thedays of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, wasto weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a force inItaly, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a legion which hadbeen loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. Thevote was taken on the ostensible plea that the troops were needed inAsia Minor against the Parthians; but when they reached Italy they wereplaced under Pompey's command in Campania. The Consuls chosen for theyear 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He had taken up his winterquarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering on Italy. From here he sent a messenger with letters to the Senate, statingthat he was ready to resign his command, if Pompey did the same. Themessenger arrived at Rome, January 1, 49, on the day in which the newConsuls entered upon their duties. 

The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spiriteddiscussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his command. The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, they werecompelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna. 

When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called togetherhis soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and my armyhave served our country loyally and with some degree of success. We havedriven the Germans across the Rhine; we have made Gaul a province; andthe Senate, for answer, has broken the constitution in setting aside theTribunes who spoke in my defence. It has voted the state in danger, andhas called Italy to arms, when no single act of mine can justify it inthis course. " The soldiers became enthusiastic, and were eager to followtheir leader without pay. Contributions were offered him by both men andofficers. LABIENUS, his trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stoleaway, and joined Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from acrossthe Alps. With these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, andmarched to Ariminum. 

Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy hadimagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would desert. Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators, -leaving wives, children, and property to their fate, -fled from the city to seek safetywith Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the money from thetreasury, but left it locked. 

Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating thathe was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his provincein Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willingto have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received bythe Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was, that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain, and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and givesecurity that he would dismiss his army. 

These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them. Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountainsto Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancóna, beforePompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw opentheir gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers fled. Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until when hereached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand troops. 

This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocratsand a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitiusendeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him overto Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its garrisonfilled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried to Brundisium, where ships were in readiness for them to depart. 

Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his arrivaloutside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had alreadygone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve thousandtroops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused to seeCaesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, he wasunsuccessful, owing to want of ships. 

Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half theSenate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but afleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded hisattention. 

In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his wayto Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, buthe preferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, andassembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and CassiusLongínus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were withPompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his own forbearanceand concessions, of their unjust demands, and their violent suppressionof the authority of the Tribunes. He was still willing to send envoys totreat with Pompey, but no one was found willing to go. After three daysspent in useless discussion, Caesar decided to act for himself. Byhis own edict, he restored the children of the victims of Sulla'sproscription to their rights and property. The money in the treasurywas voted him by the Assembly of the people. He took as much of it ashe needed, and started at once for Gaul to join his troops on his way toSpain. 

He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey'slieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions andallied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain suppliesof Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. To Sicily he sentCurio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in charge of Sicily, immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardinia received Caesar'stroops with open arms. 

Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of Massiliahad risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius whom he hadsent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the city, and, leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued his journey toSpain. He found Afranius and Petreius strongly intrenched at ILERDA inCatalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty days he brought them to terms, and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, was eager to surrender. All Spainwas at his feet. 

Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romansto Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority. He then set sail from Gades to Tarragóna, where he joined his legionsand marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready tosurrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius wasallowed to escape a second time. 

Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrivedat Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful. Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not succeeded, however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, and he hadlost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been surprised andkilled in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato and Pompey'sfollowers. 

During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual course. He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius Lepidus, and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at Massilia, when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him Dictator. Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary. Publiccredit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began. Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time estimateswere drawn of all debts as they were one year before, the interest wasremitted and the principal declared still due. This measure relieved thedebtors somewhat. 

It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape fromBrundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epírus. Here had gatheredmany princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorial familiesof Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and the renegadeLabiénus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry and auxiliaries, amounting in all to 100, 000 men. 

Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces werefewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more than15, 000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all veterans, inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man was devotedto his leader. 

On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing afteran uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towardsDyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, andintrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country waswell disposed and furnished him with ample supplies. 

Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport hisremaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across andmany of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself totrifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit outa second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When Antonyfinally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. Pompey'sforces were between him and Caesar, and his position was full of danger;but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him beforePompey knew of his movements. 

The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of stronglyfortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. He turnedthe streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as possible tothe enemy. So the siege dragged on into June. 

Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. Atthis point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops weresurprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause themto rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, anda few hundred soldiers were captured. 

This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance wasexaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically over;and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected tofollow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to recoverfrom the blow. 

The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompeyfollowed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused themselveswith quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and Ciceroremained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions of thedegenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health. 

The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus, only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSÁLUS, which gave name to the battle which followed. 

"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special placein history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in theirown persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sonsof Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Romanfamilies, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of thepolitical party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present onthe field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble multitudewhose deaths were of less significance. The plains of Pharsalia werewatered by the precious blood of the elect of the earth. "

For several days the armies watched each other without decisive action. One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) Caesar noticeda movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected attack wascoming. 

The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wingrested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompeyhimself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had takenfrom Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by thecavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. His left and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony andCassius Longínus. 

At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threwtheir darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's cavalrycharged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back theopposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they advancedflushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had held inreserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions, appearedin their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeians wavered, turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw themselvesupon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. This wing, composedof Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood to fight its formercomrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. Pompey himselfmounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the battle ended in arout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while fifteen thousand ofthe enemy lay dead on the field. 

The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricianshad built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protecttheir delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were stretched outready for them to take repose after their expected victory, and tableswere spread with dainty food and wines on which to feast. As he sawthese preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the men who accused mysuffering, patient army, which needed the common necessaries of life, of dissoluteness and profligacy. " But Caesar could not delay. Leaving aportion of his forces in camp, by rapid marching he cut off the retreatof the enemy. Twenty-four thousand surrendered, all of whom werepardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at Corfinium and Massilia, was killedtrying to escape. Labiénus, Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal awayby night. Thus ended the battle of Pharsalia. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN. 

Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest wayto the sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a fewcompanions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mityléne, and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the youngPTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 September, 48. 

Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year. "Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved thesurname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said tohave excelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of beinga first-class general. He won great successes in Spain, and moreespecially in the East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebtedto what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a goodstatesman, he had really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choosea side and stand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he couldnot but fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time henever used his opportunities for plunder and extortion. "

Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, setsail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought tohim. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers nowsaw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his sister, the famous CLEOPÁTRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants ofAlexandría revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with ahandful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fireto the neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards hereturned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishingCLEOPÁTRA upon the throne (47). 

Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, where PHARNACES, son of Mithradátes, was inciting a revolt against Rome. Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity renderedproverbial by his words, _Veni, vidi, vici_, I CAME, I SAW, I CONQUERED. 

He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italybefore it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence fromthe capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of thecitizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the genius andfortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he had been madeDictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life. 

Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. Heinsisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of propertyrespected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three monthsprepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania, but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expectedprivilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certainpromised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into openrevolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. Caesarcollected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state theirgrievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it, citizens"(_Quirites_), said the Imperator. Heretofore he had always addressedthem as "fellow soldiers, " and the implied rebuke was so keen, that areaction at once began, and they all begged to be received again intohis service. He accepted them, telling them that lands had been allottedto each soldier out of the _ager publicus_, or out of his own estates. 

Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, KingJUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now ralliedall the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labiénus, Afranius, Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius. 

Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen legionsof troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon Sicily, Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if captured, wereput to death without mercy. 

Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such cruelties. He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, and chargedwith currying favor of the Dictator. 

Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing nearLeptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formeduseful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in theprovince came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba togive the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also camein, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in councils ofwar. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits sent from Uticaby Cato. 

For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement;Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia. Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4, 46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushedto the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather aslaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was interceptedin his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, but, findingtheir retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortal combat; whenthe first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his own sword. Labiénus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape to Spain. Afraniuswas captured and executed. 

Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, andcommitted suicide. 

Thus ended the African campaign. 

On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on foursuccessive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, oneover Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers withliberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. Theywere feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two thousandtables, each table having three couches, and each couch three persons. Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of wild beastsand gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. 

Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving offorty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Anotherwas inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to himin the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (_Quintilis_) of theRoman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was appointed Dictatorfor two years, and later for life. He received for three years theoffice of Censor, which enabled him to appoint Senators, and to beguardian of manners and morals. He had already been made Tribune(48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). In a word, he was king ineverything excepting name. 

Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was theREVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had beenso inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months behind. Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is still inuse. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed Sosigenes, anAlexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform. 

While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the Senate. Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were expelled, and thevacancies filled with persons of merit. 

Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle ofPharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus hadbeen sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The soldiersbecame mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied with Romanaffairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there in itswanderings. Thus Labiénus and Pompey's two sons managed to collect anarmy as numerous as that which had been defeated at Thapsus. There werethirteen legions in all. 

Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for theprovince accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the EmperorAUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. Thestruggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisivebattle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, nearCordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was onthe side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it handto hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so doubtful atone time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his horse, seized astandard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, Labiénus was seen togallop across the field. It was thought he was fleeing. Panic seized histroops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand were slain, including threethousand Roman Knights, and Labiénus himself. 

Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a numberof years. 

Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn, when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and festivals, which kept the populace in a fever of delight and admiration. 

CATO. -METELLUS SCIPIO. 

MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS (Footnote: Cato the Younger, calledUTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica. ) (95-46) was thegreat-grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of theold school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere inhis habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a fanatic, who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any subject. As ageneral, he was a failure, having neither taste nor genius for militaryexploits. He held various offices at Rome, as Quaestor and Praetor; butwhen candidate for the consulship he was defeated, because he declinedto win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue. 

QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family ofthe Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was oneof the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed Caesar. He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a pliant toolagainst the great conqueror. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. MURDER OF CAESAR. 

Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who had foughtagainst him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS, MARCUSBRUTUS, and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate to ninehundred. He cut off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob inidleness. He sent out impoverished men to colonize old cities. Herebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site ofCarthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits weremarked by frugality. The rich young patricians were forbidden to becarried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libraries were formed. Eminent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle in Rome. Theharbor of Ostia was improved, and a road constructed from the Adriaticto the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A temple to Mars was built, and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the foot of the TarpeianRock. 

In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered. 

CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in theconspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant ofCrassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. AtPharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardonedby Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephewand son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, andalso been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, andBrutus tyranny. 

These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and menwho had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands. Cicero was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and allwho knew him must have felt that he would never consent to the takingthe life of one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies. 

On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered theSenate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators, headedby Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiled brother; andwhile the rest joined him in the request, he, grasping Caesar's hand, kissed his head and breast. As Caesar attempted to rise, Cimber draggedhis cloak from his shoulders, and Casca, who was standing behind hischair, stabbed him in the neck. The first blow was struck, and the wholepack fell upon their noble victim. Cassius stabbed him in the face, andMarcus Brutus in the groin. He made no further resistance; but, wrappinghis gown over his head and the lower part of his body, he fell at thebase of POMPEY'S STATUE, which was drenched with the martyr's blood. 

Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of theSenators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspiratorsmeanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment wasagainst them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and manymore were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration ofMark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon the crowd. They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man's toga, anddisclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body to be carriedto the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeral pile in theForum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed in troops, brokeinto and destroyed the houses of the conspirators. Brutus and Cassiusfled from the city for their lives, followed by the other murderers. 

 As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, exceptingpossibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility ofhis resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies howto conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem forevery emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but apre-eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. Asa historian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and alsosimple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicerosaid that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man wouldattempt it. 

CHAPTER XXXV. THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. --PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. 

Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of hissister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his otherrelatives were to have the remaining fourth. 

Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. He went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow, Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house, --alarge sum, --and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator'swritings and memoranda. 

Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, andshowed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Romewas disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar'sproperty. He claimed that he had already expended it for publicpurposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly outof his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among the people. He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumn and winterof 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquent Cicero, whowas delivering against Antony his famous fourteen PHILIPPICS, --so calledfrom their resemblance to the great orations of Demosthenes againstPhilip. 

During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was atMutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then appointedConsul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the Senate, madefriends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 November, 43)the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to govern and reorganizethe state, and to hold office for five years. 

The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain andGallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and GalliaCisalpína; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody prescriptionfollowed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was surrendered to pleaseAntony, 300 Senators, and 2, 000 Equites. 

PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. 

The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East, whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These twohad organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to 80, 000infantry and 20, 000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering varioustowns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, assembled theirforces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. After marchingthrough Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony and Octaviusopposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120, 000 troops. There weretwo battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the first, Brutus defeatedOctavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, and, unaware of hiscolleague's victory, committed suicide. In the second battle, threeweeks later, Brutus was defeated by the united armies of the Triumvirs, and, following the example of Cassius, put an end to his life. WithBrutus fell the Republic. The absolute ascendency of individuals, whichis monarchy, was then established. 

The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Romanworld among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius tookItaly and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. 

Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were tobe overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was incommand of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of theMediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, exposedthe city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to raisea fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated by Pompey, butlater, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily, therebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers, but was takenprisoner at Milétus by one of the lieutenants of Antony, and put todeath. 

Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal sharein the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. But hissoldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to surrenderto Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his power andprovinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but ceased to be afactor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all rivals, Octaviusand Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking the West, the latterthe East. 

Antony now repaired to Alexandría, and surrendered himself to thefascinations of the famous Cleopátra. He assumed the habits and dress ofan Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his friendsand supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, and finallydivorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, disregardinghis good name and the wishes of his friends. Thus gradually he becamemore and more estranged from Octavius, until finally the ruptureresulted in open war. 

The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in Greece, September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the East alarge army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by thatof Cleopátra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but Cleopátrainsisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of Octavius wascommanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea-fight offNaulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still undecided, whenCleopátra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels hastened to leave theline. Antony at once followed her. The battle, however, continued untilhis remaining fleet was destroyed, and his army, after a few days'hesitation, surrendered. 

Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter inSamos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was occupiedin restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to satisfy thedemands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At length heturned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the key ofthe country, he marched upon Alexandría. Antony, despairing of success, committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopátra. The queen, disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed his example, and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with her two faithfulattendants also dead at her feet. 

Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capitalto celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settleddisputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. Hearrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. Thegates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, and hadbeen closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once betweenthe First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was at peace withall the world. 

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. 

CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from thedictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed bynature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had notsufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to playa part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. Thus ithappened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and repelled, deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of hisadversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between which hetried to steer his course. 

CHAPTER XXXVI. AUGUSTUS (30 B. C. -14 A. D. )

After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to theprecedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but heallowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give himthat name for ten years, --a period which was repeatedly renewed. Inthis way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next theImperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the authority ofCensor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, and to restoreto this body something of its ancient respectability. By judiciouspruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and required a propertyqualification for membership. He placed himself at its head as PRINCEPS(prince), a title which implied that the Emperor was the _first_citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling anysuspicions of the populace. 

The Senate still decided the most important questions. It hadjurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws. It was convened three times each month; viz. On the 1st, 5th (or 7th), and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators. 

The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then itmade him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), andConsul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of sittingin the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular Consuls, ofcourse, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, he was madePontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion. 

Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate waspractically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost allvoice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate, however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 A. D. ). 

As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern asProconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himselfresided at the capital, and sent deputies (_legati_) to oversee them. The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by Proconsulsappointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, Africa, Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, and GalliaNarbonensis. 

The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus wasassisted by three _Praefects_; one in charge of the corn supplies, asecond in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his bodyguard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These Praefectssoon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through them Augustusreigned supreme. 

The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering onthe Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the UpperEuphrátes) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, andwest to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled, and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reignAugustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising theterritory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all. 

Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territorybetween the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardymountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His twostep-sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. They were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two newprovinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B. C. ). 

Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the provinceof Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B. C. 

Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made acampaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished theconquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, B. C. ), and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his work. 

Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in Germany. His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards Emperor. 

In 7 A. D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquiredterritory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recentlyconquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, theyrose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful chief. 

Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A. D. ) into a pass in theTeutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. Afterthree days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his waythrough the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the enemyin full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus killedhimself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became again theRoman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and the Emperoris said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, give me back mylegions!"

Five years later (14 A. D. ) Augustus died. In his last moments he askedhis friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of life. 

Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39B. C. --14 A. D. ), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for herbeauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was marriedthree times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, bywhom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. Shewas banished on account of her conduct, and died in want. 

OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty andaccomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Herson MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C. ). The famous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. 869-887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them totears, and winning for the author a munificent reward. 

After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to MarkAntony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was theancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO. 

AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend andcounsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the fleetof Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, and hadthree sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died before him;the third was murdered by Tiberius. 

Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct inhis personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold andambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather inthe ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by fortune, than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the will. His success depended on the temper of the people and the peculiarcircumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness is found inthe fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to live in peacefor more than forty years, He made the world to centre on one will, andthe horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were the legitimateresult of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He formed hisempire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the future. Thus itwould seem that the part he played was that of a shrewd politician, rather than that of a wise statesman. 

CHAPTER XXXVII. THE AUGUSTAN AGE. 

In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whosenames have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the AUGUSTANAGE a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign abrilliancy unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced than diminishedby the fame of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded, and that ofTacitus, Seneca, and others, who followed; for they belong to an epochin which Augustus stands the central figure in all which pertains to thearts of peace. 

In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age. Bornat Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremona andMediolánum. After completing his education he retired to his paternalestate. In the division of land among the soldiers after the battle ofPhilippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which was subsequentlyrestored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, partly inCampania. His health was never good, and he died in his fifty-secondyear (22 September, 19 B. C. ). 

Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainlyimitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his toneinspiring and elevating. 

In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable, --a good son, a faithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and idealinterests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks anddifficulties of practical life. 

In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronagegave him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had the friendshipof all the most accomplished men of his day, among whom was Horace, whoentertained a strong affection for him. His fame, which was establishedin his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance inwhich every Roman had a share; and his works became school-books evenbefore the death of Augustus, and have continued such ever since. 

HORACE (65-8 B. C. ) was born at Venusia, but received his education atRome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), where hefought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were his _Satires_. These he read to his friends, and their merit was at once recognized. His great patron was MAECÉNAS, who introduced him to the Emperor, andgave him a fine country seat near Tivoli, among the Sabine Mountains. He died the same year as his patron, and was buried beside him at theEsquiline Gate. 

The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life inthe Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness and felicityof thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries read and quotedmore than those of any other ancient writer. 

OVID (43 B. C. -18 A. D. ), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgiland Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift fornarration. 

"Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization, partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties ofnature, and partly because his subject is love. His representations ofthis passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled otherpoets in the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the characterand rhythm of his verses. " He spent his last days in exile, banished byAugustus for some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasing verseswere written during this period. 

One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECÉNAS, thewarm friend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of theliterature and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and hismagnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, He helpedboth Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter isconstantly referring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C. ) childless, and left his fortune to Augustus. 

The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, andNepos. 

LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a man ofrhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. The historicalvalue of his work cannot be overestimated, on account of the scarcity, and in many cases the utter lack, of other historical documents on thetimes of which he wrote. His style is spirited, and always interesting. His accuracy, however, is not to be compared with that of Caesar. Onlythirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-two books that he wrote arepreserved. 

NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, _De Viris Illustribus_, has come down to us; it is neither accurate norinteresting, and of little value. 

SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy ofCatiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical. He excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as to beobscure. 

GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainments ofthis time. He was strongly attached to the old republican institutions, a man of great independence of character, and a poet of no mean merit, as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none of his writings arepreserved. 

 The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvementsin Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left oneof marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-two thathad fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls of justice(_Basilicae_), which were erected around its borders. The most famousof these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesar and finishedby Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun north of the greatForum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, finished by theEmperor of that name. 

The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, was thePANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church. Here areburied many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected a mausoleumfor himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey, --the first stonetheatre of Rome. 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. 

TIBERIUS (14-37 A. D. )

Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B. C. ), the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. His mother obtained adivorce from Tiberius, and married Augustus. 

Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian, and commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander inCantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted hiscampaigns with success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7 B. C. , he celebrated a triumph, and afterwards married Julia, the dissolutedaughter of Augustus. This marriage proved to be the ruin of Tiberius, developing everything that was bad in his character, and making himjealous, suspicious, and hypocritical. 

Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him toRhodes, where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother'sinfluence, however, he was recalled in 2 A. D. , and was afterwardsappointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at the age offifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and ambitions werelocked behind an impenetrable barrier. " He is said but once to havetaken counsel with his officers. He was a master of dissimulation, andon this account an object of dislike and suspicion. But until hislater years, his intellect was clear and far-seeing, penetrating alldisguises. 

Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire atlarge, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms which hadbeen established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance were made. First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only in smallbodies, was permanently encamped in full force close to the walls. Bythis course the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly, the oldCOMITIAS were practically abolished. But the Senate was treated withgreat deference. 

Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dread ofpunishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in publicexpenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and his reign onthe whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. 

Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on theslightest pretext. _Majestas_ nearly corresponds to treason; but itis more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word waseffecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of onewho had the _imperium_ or _potestas_. Tiberius stretched the applicationof this offence even to words or conduct which could in any way beconsidered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of informers(_delatores_) sprung up, and the lives of all were rendered unsafe. The dark side of this ruler's character is made specially prominent byancient historians; but their statements are beginning to be taken withmuch allowance. 

After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in a faintingfit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. 

LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice. Sheexercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus. Shehad great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. She managedto ruin, one after another, the large circle of relatives of Augustus, until finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in the palace withLivia and her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated the Empress, and her sonfeared and hated her. She survived Augustus fifteen years, and died in29. Tiberius refused to visit her on her death-bed, and was not presentat her funeral. 

SEJÁNUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He wastrusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. Hepersuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison herhusband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marryher. He so maligned Agrippína, the widow of Germanicus and daughter ofAgrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero andDrusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island of Capreae, and he himself became the real master of Rome. 

Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejánus was arrestedand executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn inpieces by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber. 

CALIGULA (37-41). 

Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, sonof Germanicus and Agrippína, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson ofAugustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA, --a nickname givenhim by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-five yearsof age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subject tofits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens, andconfiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, and is saidto have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one neck, thathe might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fond of adulation, and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guise of a god, and demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant was enough. He wasmurdered by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. 

THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. 

CLAUDIUS (41-54). 

A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form ofgovernment; but while the Senate was considering this question, thePraetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor. 

Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He was aman of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of histwo wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALÍNA, was sonotorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness. Hissecond wife, his niece AGRIPPÍNA, sister of Caligula, was nearly as bad. This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whom she inducedthe Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithless wife thencaused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to be proclaimed Emperor. 

At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. Inthe government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. He undertookthe CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen days he laid thefoundation of its final subjugation, which occurred about forty yearslater, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained a Roman provincefor four hundred years, but the people never assimilated Roman customs, as did the Gauls, and when the Roman garrisons were withdrawn, theyquickly returned to their former condition. However, many remains ofRoman buildings in the island show that it was for the time well undersubjection. 

The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed a newharbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueduct calledthe AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen to this day. He also reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land by draining theFucine Lake. 

NERO (54-68). 

NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two or threeyears he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, the author, andBURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his governmentwas during this period the most respectable of any since the time ofAugustus. His masters kept the young Emperor amused, and removed fromthe cares of state. But he soon became infatuated with an unscrupulouswoman, POPPAEA SABÍNA, for whom he neglected and finally killed hiswife, Octavia. 

It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from thistime. A freedman, TIGELLÍNUS, became his adviser, and was the real rulerof the Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices and wickedness. Poppaea died from a kick administered by Nero in anger; Burrhus wasdisposed of; Agrippína, and Britannicus, the true heir to the throne, were murdered. The wealthy were plundered, and the feelings of hissubjects outraged in every conceivable manner. The Emperor appeared inpublic, contending first as a musician, and afterwards in the sports ofthe circus. 

The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the city, was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and the stories ofhis conduct during the conflagration are doubtless pure fictions. Itwas necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; so the CHRISTIANS, then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer people, were accusedof the crime, and persecuted without mercy. They were often enclosed infagots covered with pitch, and burned alive. 

In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrenceof a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow windingalleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hardstone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply wasalso carefully regulated. 

In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for themagnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE. Itswalls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces of artfrom Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows, lakes, groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue of Nerohimself, one hundred and ten feet high. 

Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan wereimplicated, both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's lifeafter this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, heconducted himself so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked, and Roman patience could endure him no longer. The Governor of HitherSpain, GALBA, proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome. Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to theinsurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemnedhim to death. He fled from the city and put an end to his life, June 9, 68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down, hisname everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With him endedthe Claudian line of Emperors. 

LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C. -65 A. D. ) was born at Corduba in Spain, of a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was ateacher of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Senecabegan to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerablereputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years later hewas recalled to be tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. Hewas Consul in 57, and during the first years of Nero's reign he sharedthe administration of affairs with the worthy Burrhus. His influenceover Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though often maintained bydoubtful means. In course of time Nero began to dislike him, and whenBurrhus died his fate was sealed. By the Emperor's command he committedsuicide. Opening the veins in his feet and arms, he discoursed with hisfriends on the brevity of life till death ensued. 

Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moralessays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Of thelast, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. 

GALBA (68-69). --OTHO (69). --VITELLIUS (69). 

GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but onaccount of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, and wasmurdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached Rome. He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was sincerelyregretted by the better element in the city. 

OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrectionagainst Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of hisaccession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of the Rhine, revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, and committedsuicide after a reign of three months. 

VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak andincapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, during whichhe had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality. 

CHAPTER XXXIX. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. 

VESPASIAN (69-79). 

The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, thesoldiers who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaeaproclaimed as Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIÁNUS. Heleft the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived atRome in 70. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the courseof this struggle the Capitol was burned. This he restored, rebuildingalso a large part of the city. 

In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury andextravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in thegeneral tone of society. He removed from the Senate many impropermembers, replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 heput down a formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titus returnedfrom the capture of Jerusalem, (Footnote: Jerusalem was taken in70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which have beengraphically detailed by the Jewish historian Joséphus, who was presentin the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants soldinto slavery. ) they enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus wasclosed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign. 

Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. Anew Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famousCOLOSSÉUM was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue ofNero, which had stood near by. 

On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, frugaland virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was marked bypeace and general prosperity. 

One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at ForumJulii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, which he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing theircivilization. He remained in Britain until 85, when he was recalled. Hislife was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. 

TITUS (79-81). 

Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues ofhis father. He finished the Colosséum, begun by Vespasian, and built atriumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the ViaSacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacredcandlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. 

It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyed byan eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER, themost noted writer of his day. His work on _Natural History_, the onlyone of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a true student. His passion for investigation led him to approach too near the volcano, and caused his death. 

DOMITIAN (81-96). 

DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus, --cruel, passionate, and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, duringwhich he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his crimesand inconsistencies. 

In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He added tothe Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Baden andWirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on the Rhineto Ratisbon on the Danube. 

With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also thelast of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by the historianSuetonius. 

CHAPTER XL. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. 

NERVA (96-98). 

NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the firstEmperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or influence. He associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then in command ofthe army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; but during thattime he restored tranquillity among the people, conferring happiness andprosperity upon every class. 

TRAJAN (98-117). 

Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guarantyin the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, longafterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler wasthat he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan. "Trajan was a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peacefullife, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. 

He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danubeand the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory becameso thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day isfounded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. It was in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OFTRAJAN, which still remains, was erected. 

Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded animportant route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, however, resulted in no permanent advantage. 

During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITSPOWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in thefinancial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free peasantry, until in the next century they were reduced to a condition of practicalserfdom. 

The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the Augustanage. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prose writerswere, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superior to itspoets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THE YOUNGER, and QUINTILIAN. 

The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, andSTATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. 

HADRIAN (117-138). 

Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain. One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent conquestsof Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. The reasonsfor this were that they had reached the utmost limits which could lendstrength to the power of Rome, or be held in subjection withoutconstant and expensive military operations. The people occupying thenew conquests were hardy and warlike, scattered over a country easy ofdefence, and certain to strive constantly against a foreign yoke. 

Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, to overlook personally its administration and protection. He visitedBritain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built afortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from sea tosea. The remains of this great work are still to be seen, correspondingnearly to the modern boundary between England and Scotland. He alsovisited the East, where the Jews were making serious trouble, andcompleted their overthrow. 

On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its adornment. Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. The mostfamous of these is the MAUSOLÉUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now known as theCastle of San Angelo. 

Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseasesfrom which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to securea proper succession, he associated with himself in the government TITUSAURELIUS ANTONÍNUS, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius Verus andLucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, Hadriandied, leaving the Empire to Titus. 

TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138-161). 

ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeededto the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senate onaccount of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him theaffairs of state moved smoothly. 

MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS (161-180). 

On the death of Antonínus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under thetitle of Marcus Aurelius Antonínus. 

The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke intoGaul; the army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and theParthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war, however, ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by cedingMesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it apestilence, which spread devastation throughout the West. The Christianswere charged with being the cause of the plague, and were cruellypersecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, and Polycarpat Smyrna. 

The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague whoattracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. The Emperorwas thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have become hisgreatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was scarcely lessunhappy. 

The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. Rome had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inabilityeven to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius wasengaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoringto check their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in thefifty-ninth year of his life (180). 

Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace boughtwith money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lackedthe strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms. 

Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes werequiet; he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. Hisfaults were amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. His_Meditations_ have made him known as an author of fine tastes andthoughts. With him ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After his death, Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. 

THE CHRISTIANS. 

The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, werepersecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground forthese persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuseto worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had flourished. It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the Emperor's statue, as an act of adoration. The Christians not only refused homage tothe Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense as sacrilegious. AURELIUS gave his sanction to the most general persecution this secthad yet suffered. The last combined effort to suppress them was underDIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it ended with the EDICT OF MILAN in 312, whichfamous decree gave the imperial license to the religion of Christ. 

CHAPTER XLI. PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM. --DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 

COMMODUS (180-192). 

On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and wasreceived by both the Senate and army without opposition. Hischaracter was the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity andvindictiveness he was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors ofunhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he rid himselfof the best members of the Senate. His government became so corrupt, he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable. His proudestboasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheatre, and of his ability tokill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reign of twelve yearshis servants rid the Empire of his presence. 

PERTINAX (192-193). 

PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator, followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as itwas not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attemptedreforms were stopped by his murder. 

JULIANUS (193). --SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211). 

The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who provedto be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about a thousanddollars to each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand in number. Afterenjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed and executed. 

In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by theirrespective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVÉRUS, an African, belonging to the army of the Danube. 

Sevérus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banished themfrom Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousand legionaries, whoacted as his body guard. The person whom he placed in command of thisguard was made to rank next to himself, with legislative, judicial, andfinancial powers. The Senate he reduced to a nonentity. 

After securing the capital, Sevérus carried on a campaign against theParthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and Arabia. In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a magnificentarch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died at Eboracum(York), in Britain, while making preparations for a campaign against theCaledonians. 

CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS. 

Sevérus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself inthe government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and theelder, CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presenceof their mother. 

Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216) hewas murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famousbaths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. Caracalla was succeeded by MACRÍNUS, who reigned but one year, andwas followed by HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, atrue Oriental, with but few virtues. His end was like that of hispredecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. 

FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS (222-268). 

ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavoredin vain to check the decline of the state. The military had becomeall powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign(222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. 

Sevérus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor for threeyears (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. 

GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiersin his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249-251)both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of theChristians severer than any that preceded it. 

The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. Several generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. TheEmpire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss ofterritory. Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period isoften called the AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 

FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283). 

FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shattered strengthof the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275); TACITUS(275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelian undertook acampaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA. In her he founda worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered more brilliant byher justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she fortified herselfin Palmýra, which was taken after a siege and destroyed. Zenobia wascarried to Rome, where she graced the triumph of her conqueror, but wasafterwards permitted to live in retirement. Aurelian was the first whobuilt the walls of Rome in their present position. 

DIOCLETIAN (284-305). 

With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form ofgovernment at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lostthe last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a moreunited country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himselfMAXIMIAN, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduinga dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUS andCONSTANTIUS, whom he called CAESARS, --one to have charge of the East, and the other of the West. By means of these assistants he crushed allrevolts, strengthened the waning power of the Empire, and imposed peaceand good order upon the world. 

Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their twoCaesars to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turn appointedCaesars as assistants. 

Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINE wasproclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter strugglefollowed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, andwas declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT. 

CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (306-337). 

Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, whichshould be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offeringthe greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the seaand the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, whileas a seaport its advantages were unrivalled, --a feature not in the leastshared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; the city wasbuilt, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat of governmentwas permanently removed thither, and every inducement was offered toimmigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined to drag out amiserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome had fallen aprey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reign of thirty years, in his sixty-fourth year (337). 

Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness withwhich he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother, HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that thismildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had kepton increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quite influentialbody. It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN was issued, in313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ; and also inthis reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325), met to settlequestions of creed. 

In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in allwarlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patient andprudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition aloneled him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy marked hiscourse after his success. He was filial in his affection towards hismother; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put to deathhis father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. If he wasgreat in his virtues, in his faults he was contemptible. 

DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 

Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II. , CONSTANTIUS, and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves(337-353). Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over thepossession of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the deathof the former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, because the Persian war in the East occupied Constantius, while Constanswas satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation. Constans wasmurdered in 350, and his brother was sole Emperor. He died ten yearslater, and was succeeded by his cousin, Julian (360-363)

JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love andrespect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thusgained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however, hadtoo firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being shaken. Thefailure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. After a reignof three years, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. Hissuccessor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by the army, died after areign of only seven months. 

VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, the thronewas bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself hisbrother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, withConstantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILANthe seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from herancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch evervisited the city during his reign. (Footnote: Since the building ofConstantinople no Emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to bemistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a provincialcity. ) He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son GRATIAN(375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and under himChristianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain in a battleagainst the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and WesternEmpires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make himself soleruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne. Gratian, likeso many of his predecessors, was murdered. His successors, MAXIMUS(383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS (392-394), wereeither deposed or assassinated, and again there was, for a short time, one ruler of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom Gratian had made Emperorof the East. He was sole Emperor for one year (394-395). On his deathhis two sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS (395-423) taking the West, andArcadius the East. 

Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placedunder the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied bymarriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were drivenfrom the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa wassuppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitateto murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power he waswielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome was besieged, captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When this evil waspast, numerous contestants arose in different parts of the Empire, eacheager for a portion of the fabric which was now so obviously crumblingto pieces. 

Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the imperialline, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but a relic of itsformer self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically lost; Illyriaand Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africa was soon afterseized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in the possessionof AETIUS, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld the Roman name, winning for himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS. He was assassinatedby his ungrateful master. A few months later, in 455, the Emperorhimself was killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, who succeeded him, but foronly three months, when AVÍTUS (455-456), a noble of Gaul, becameEmperor. He was deposed by RICIMER (457-467), a Sueve, of considerableability, who for some time managed the affairs of the Empire, makingand unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After the removal of Avítus, tenmonths were allowed to elapse before a successor was appointed; and thenthe crown was bestowed upon MAJORIAN (457-461). SEVÉRUS followed him, aman too weak to interfere with the plans of Ricimer. 

After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until thepeople demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), whoattempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of Ricimer;but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited a horde ofbarbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and sacked Rome, and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himself died. 

Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapidsuccession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared theoffice of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government of theDIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOÁCER, with the title of Patrician. 

CHAPTER XLII. INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS. 

The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in aseparate chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, because by this plan a better idea of the operations can be given; andespecially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensiveconception of the rise of the nations, which, tearing in pieces theRoman Empire, have made up Modern Europe. 

The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the WesternEmpire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As theymoved westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met anddefeated the GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of theDanube, and who were ruled by a king named Hermanric. 

The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, EasternGoths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths werethe more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obliged tosubmit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble in overrunningthe country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the hideousappearance and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to the Danube, andbesought the Romans to allow them to cross the river and take refuge intheir territory. The favor was granted, but the refugees were treatedwith indignity, and compelled to undergo every privation. 

Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, alsodesiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seizedshipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. They foundthe condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, that they unitedwith them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sent against them, andravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field in person, and wasdefeated (378). The Goths then moved southward and westward into Greece, everywhere pillaging the country. 

When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strongpoints from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable momentfor an attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a completevictory. The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and thefirst chapter of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to aclose. 

We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, ALARIC and STILICHO. 

Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the yearthe Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens wascompelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken andplundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectual resistance. Atthis juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire, hastened to thescene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, but Alaric burst throughhis lines and escaped. He then made peace with Constantinople, and theoffice of Master-General of Illyricum was bestowed upon him. How sincerethe barbarian was in his offers of peace may be seen from the fact thatin two years he invaded Italy (400). 

Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak that eventhe genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hear of theapproach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety for himself, leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called from Britain, Gaul, and the other provinces far and near, leaving their places vacantand defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape to Gaul, wassurprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified town of Asta, was there besieged until the arrival of the brave Stilicho, who attackedthe besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterly routed them. In hisretreat, Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but he was again defeated, and escaped only by the fleetness of his horse. Honorius returned home(404), and enjoyed a triumph. 

Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape from theGoths, when she was threatened by a new enemy. 

The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes of Germanywho dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves, Vandals, andBurgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, these tribes invadedItaly with about two hundred thousand men. They were met near Florenceby Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisus himself was killed. The survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul, ravaged the lowerportion of the country, and finally separated. One portion, theBurgundians, remained on the frontier, and from their descendants comesthe name of Burgundy. 

The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where theyestablished kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot ofthe Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Suevessettled in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over toAfrica, where they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and atone time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Rome itself. 

Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor, nolonger needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plotting forthe throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends. 

With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, Alaric again appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city intosubmission. Famine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally peacewas purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon returned. The city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries became thesecond time a prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410). 

The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew to ravagethe surrounding country. But the days of this great leader were almostspent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly after his armymarched into France, where they established a kingdom reaching from theLoire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. 

The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of theBurgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts toenlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselvesfirmly in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under thename of FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447). 

Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elderappealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. 

The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God. " Theportrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the markof his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, smalldeep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a beard, broad shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strength thoughdisproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, an army ofover half a million troops. 

At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation tointerfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating aninvasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect of anally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italy from thewest, was too favorable to be neglected. 

A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossingthis, they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatever citieslay in their route. 

The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, met theHuns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in 451, wasfought a great battle, which saved the civilization of Western Europe. Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by the Romans; and a chargeof the Visigoths completed the discomfiture of the savages. Aetius didnot push his victory, but allowed the Huns to retreat in the directionof Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked, captured, and rased to theground Aquileia. He then scoured the whole country, sparing only thosewho preserved their lives by the surrender of their wealth. 

It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants, whofled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the lagoonsat the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. 

Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, andwith his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The VANDALS, wehave seen, had established themselves in Africa. They were now ruled byGENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were continuallyravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their fleets. 

Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the widowof the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in revengesent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once set sailfor the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into his handson his promise to spare the property of the Church (June, 455), and forfourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. Genseric then leftRome, taking with him Eudoxia. 

This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one yearselapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). 

CHAPTER XLIII. ROMAN LITERATURE. 

PLAUTUS (254-184). 

PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers. Bornat Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked on the stageat Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for some time heworked in a treadmill, but finally gained a living by translating Greekcomedies into Latin. Twenty of his plays have come down to us. They arelively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting a mixture of Greek and Romanlife. 

TERENCE (195-159). 

TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an earlyage as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated andliberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays of Plautus, they are free translations from the Greek, and of the same generalcharacter. 

ENNIUS (139-69). 

QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato theYounger. Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem, the_Annàles_, relates the traditional Roman history, from the arrival ofAenéas to the poet's own day. 

CICERO (106-43). 

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpínum, ranks as the first prosewriter in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy naturaltalent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his lively imagination, hisgreat sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness of expression, which wasnever at a loss for a word or tone to suit any circumstances or mood, his felicitous memory, his splendid voice and impressive figure, allcontributed to render him a powerful speaker. He himself left nothingundone to attain perfection. Not until he had spent a long time inlaborious study and preparation did he make his _début_ as an orator;nor did he ever rest and think himself perfect, but, always working, made the most careful preparation for every case. Each success was tohim only a step to another still higher achievement; and by continualmeditation and study he kept himself fully equipped for his task. Hencehe succeeded, as is universally admitted, in gaining a place besideDemosthenes, or at all events second only to him. 

There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments of twentymore. His famous _Philippics_ against Antony caused his proscriptionby the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villa at Formiae, inDecember, 43. 

His chief writings on rhetoric were _De Oratore; Brutus de ClarisOratoribus;_ and _Orator ad M. Brutum_. Cicero was a lover ofphilosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those mostread are _De Senectute, De Amicitia, _ and _De Officiis_. 

Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and theyfurnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history. 

CAESAR (100-44). 

Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are his _Commentarii_, containing the history of the first seven years of the Gallic war, andthe history of the civil strife down to the Alexandrine war. The accountof his last year in Gaul was written probably by Aulus Hirtius; that ofthe Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars, by some unknown hand. As anorator, Caesar ranks next to Cicero. 

NEPOS (94-24). 

CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of bothCicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his _De VirisIllustribus_ is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor goodstyle. 

LUCRETIUS (98-55). 

TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, _De Rerum Natura_. Thetone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter. 

CATULLUS (87-47). 

GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Veróna, is the greatest lyric poet of Romanliterature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant. 

VIRGIL (70-19). 

The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His _Aenéis_, in twelve books, gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aenéas, and hisstruggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revised when Virgildied, and it was published contrary to his wishes. 

Besides the _Aenéis_, Virgil wrote the _Bucolica_, ten Eclogues imitatedand partially translated from the Greek poet Theocritus. The _Georgica_, a poem of four books on agriculture in its different branches, isconsidered his most finished work, and the most perfect production ofRoman art-poetry. (See page 179. )

HORACE (65-8). 

QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two ofSatires, two of Epistles, and the _Ars Poetica_. (See page 180. )

TIBULLUS (54-29). 

ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poemsthe beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. 

PROPERTIUS (49-15). 

SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, andwrote mostly on love. 

OVID (43 B. C. --18 A. D. )

PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of _Amores_; one of _Heroides_;the _Ars Amatoria_; _Remedia Amoris_; the _Metamorphoses_ (fifteenbooks); the _Tristia_; and the _Fasti_. (See page 181. )

LIVY (59 B. C. --17 A. D. ). 

TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books havebeen preserved. (See page 181. )

PHAEDRUS. 

PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius(14-37). He was originally a slave. His fables are ninety-seven innumber, and are written in iambic verse. 

SENECA (8 B. C. --65 A. D. )

For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero, page189. 

CURTIUS. 

QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign of Claudius(50 A. D. ). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great. 

PERSIUS (34-62). 

PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. Hewrote six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand. 

LUCAN (39-65). 

LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called_Pharsalia_, upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. 

PLINY THE ELDER (23-79). 

GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar inhistory, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work on _NaturalHistory_ has come down to us. 

STATIUS, MARTIAL, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL. STATIUS (45-96), a native ofNaples, had considerable poetical talent. He wrote the _Thebaid_, the_Achilleis_ (unfinished), and the _Silvae_. 

MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteen booksare extant. He was a native of Spain. 

QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher ofeloquence for many years in Rome. His work _On the Training of anOrator_, is preserved. 

JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquínum, was a great satirist, who described andattacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires arestill in existence. 

TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of his age. His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of a hightone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He wrote, --

1. A dialogue on orators. 2. A biography of his father-in-law, Agricola. 3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. 4. A history ofthe reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (_Historiae_). 5. _Annales_, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. 

PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son ofPliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine booksof his letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presentingvivid pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluentand smooth. 

CHAPTER XLIV. ROMAN ROADS. --PROVINCES. 

The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteento fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers, placed above the foundation. The upper layer was made of large polygonalblocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so as to makean even surface. On each side of the road were footpaths strewnwith gravel. Stone blocks for the use of equestrians were at regulardistances, and also milestones telling the distance from Rome. 

There were four main public roads:--

1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, and Brundisium. 

2. VIA LATÍNA, from Rome to Aquínum and Teánum, joining the Via Appia atBeneventum. 

3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near Ocriculum andNarnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, joining the main line atFulsinia. It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and Nuceria, whereit again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortúnae on the Adriatic, the other to Ancóna, and from there along the coast to Fanum Fortúnae, where the two branches, again uniting, passed on to Ariminum throughPisaurum. From here it was extended, under the name of VIA AEMILIA, into the heart of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, andPlacentia, where it crossed the Po, to Mediolánum. 

4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast road, reached the west coast at Alsium, following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, by Genua, as faras Forum Julii, in Gaul. 

PROVINCES. 

After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions weredivided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At firstPraetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwardspersons who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expirationof their office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consuls also, at the end of their year of office, were sent to govern provinces, with the title of PROCONSUL. Such provinces were called _ProvinciaeConsuláres_. The provinces were generally distributed by lot, but theirdistribution was sometimes arranged by agreement among those entitledto them. The tenure of office was usually a year, but it was frequentlyprolonged. When a new governor arrived in the province, his predecessorwas expected to leave within thirty days. 

The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of thefinancial duties of the government. Originally the governor was obligedto account at Rome for his administration, from his own books and thoseof the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C. , he was obliged to deposit twocopies of his accounts in the two chief cities of his province, and toforward a third to Rome. 

If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of his officialduties, the provincials might apply for redress to the Senate, and toinfluential Romans who were their patrons. 

The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certaincontributions from the people of the province for the support of himselfand his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary, notary, lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme inmilitary and civil matters, and he could not be removed from office. Butafter his term had ended, he could be tried for mismanagement. 

Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vastsums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of thesewas Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations. 

At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces; viz. Sicilia (227 (Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate the dateat which the province was established. )), Sardinia and Corsica (227), Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum (167), Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), Gallia Citerior(80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), Bithynia andPontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), Numidia (46), andMauritania (46). 

Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia, Galatia, Rhodus, Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and Assyria. 

CHAPTER XLV. 

(Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered indifferent parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it intoone chapter for readier reference. )

ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC. 

The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the _Majores_, or higher, and the _Minores_, or lower. The former, except the Censor, had the_Imperium_; the latter did not. To the former class belonged theConsuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all elected in the ComitiaCenturiáta. The magistrates were also divided into two other classes, viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices were those of Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and Curule Aedile. Theseofficers had the right to sit in the _sella curúlis_, chair of state. This chair was displayed upon all public occasions, especially inthe circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the Praetor when headministered justice. In shape it was plain, resembling a common foldingcamp-stool, with crooked legs. It was ornamented with ivory, and lateroverlaid with gold. 

The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles, and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeralprocessions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any otherdeceased members of the family of curule rank. 

A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had neverheld one, was called a _novus homo_, i. E. A new man. The most famousnew men were Marius and Cicero. 

The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the earlyrepublic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. Theplebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian Aediles andthe Tribúni Plebis. 

All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; andall but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on January1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the Quaestor, December 5th. 

The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through whichone must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for holdingeach was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the aedileship, thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the consulship, forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only the wealthycould afford to hold office. 

THE CONSULS. 

The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator wasappointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power wasequal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the Senateand the Comitia Centuriáta, in each of which they presided. "When bothConsuls were in the city, they usually took turns in performing theofficial duties, each acting a month; and during this time the Consulwas always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, who preceded him insingle file, each carrying on his shoulders a bundle of rods (_fasces_), to signify the power of the magistrate to scourge criminals. Outside thecity, these fasces showed an axe projecting from each bundle, signifyingthe power of the magistrate to behead criminals. "

At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern aprovince for one year, and was then called the _Proconsul_. He was chiefin his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases. 

PRAETORS. 

There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, as _Propraetors_, to govern provinces. The most important Praetor wascalled _Praetor Urbánus_. He had charge of all civil suits between Romancitizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city, he acted intheir place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors in the city, andby six outside. The _Praetor Peregrínus_ had charge of civil cases inwhich one or both parties were aliens. The other six Praetors presidedover the permanent criminal courts. 

AEDILES. 

The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence ofthe police of the city, and the care of the public games and buildings. Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, called CuruleAediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and might be patricians. They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their supervision of thepublic games gave them great opportunities for gaining favor with thepopulace, who then, as now, delighted in circuses and contests. A smallsum was appropriated from the public treasury for these games; butan Aedile usually expended much from his own purse to make the showmagnificent, and thus to gain votes for the next office, that ofPraetor. Only the very wealthy could afford to hold this office. 

QUAESTORS. 

There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, havingcharge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the differentgovernors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through theirclerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes, and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestoralways accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as hisquartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the ComitiaTribúta. 

TRIBUNI PLEBIS. 

There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tribúta. They werealways plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto anydecree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act ofa magistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one couldhinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penaltyof death. They called together the Comitia Tribúta, and they also hadauthority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sulla succeededin restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. The Tribunes did notpossess the _imperium_. 

CENSORS. 

There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office foreighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this periodbeing called a _lustrum_. They ranked as higher magistrates withoutpossessing the _imperium_. Their duties were:

(1) To take the census, i. E. Register the citizens and their amount ofproperty, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. (2) To have a generaloversight of the finances, like our Secretary of the Treasury; tocontract for the erecting of public buildings, and for the making orrepairing of public roads, sewers, etc. ; to let out the privilege ofcollecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest bidder. (Footnote:In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under (2) fell to theAediles. ) (3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guiltyparties from the Senate, the Equites, or the tribe. 

DICTATOR. 

In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appointa Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure ofoffice could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators werenot appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it wasthought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, butchanged its tenure, the latter holding it for life. 

MAGISTER EQUITUM. 

This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next inauthority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. 

PONTIFICES. 

The priests formed a body (_collegium_) of fifteen members, at the headof whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure of officewas for life, and they were responsible to no one in the discharge oftheir duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. 

IMPERIUM. 

This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicialfunctions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor)by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiáta. The _Imperium_ couldbe exercised only outside of the city walls (_pomoerium_), exceptby special permission of the Senate for the purpose of celebrating atriumph. The one receiving the _Imperium_ was called IMPERATOR. 

POTESTAS. 

This was the power, in general, which _all_ magistrates possessed. 

CHAPTER XLVI. HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 

The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after theconquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Manyhouses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses aresaid to have cost as much as two million dollars. 

The principal parts of a Roman house were the _Vestibulum_, _Ostium_, _Atrium_, _Alae_, _Tablínum_, _Fauces_, and _Peristylium_. TheVESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, and openon the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in general to ourfront hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which was a largeroom with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which therain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under theopening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called theALAE, and the TABLÍNUM was a balcony attached to it. The passagesfrom the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. The PERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open courtsurrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It wassomewhat larger than the Atrium. 

The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls werelined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were eitherbare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory, gold, and frescoing. 

The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received theirlight from these, and not through windows looking into the street. Thewindows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until thetime of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered withlattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally used, inwhich charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the smoke passedout through the windows or the openings in the roofs. 

The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The wallswere frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. Inthe vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doorsornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive rugsfrom the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained likely toadd to the attractiveness of the room. 

Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps, which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flaton the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more roundholes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were suspendedby chains from the ceiling. 

MEALS. 

The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was ourbreakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as fouro'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandiumwas a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served betweenthree and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first courseconsisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, whichwas the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with condiments;the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, and cakes. 

At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and fulldress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil thecouches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, whoreclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported bypillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner wasserved in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House, " thedining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes tochange with every course. 

DRESS. --BATHING. 

The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The formerwas a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a longtunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The tunicwas girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly a Romangarment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was alsothe garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was worn bysoldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly semicircular, butbeing a cumbrous garment, it became customary in later times to wear itonly on state occasions. The poor wore only the tunic, others wore, inplace of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an open cloak, fastened to theright shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until about sixteen, wore a toga witha purple hem. 

The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose garment, gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce extending tothe feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their fancy forornaments as freely as their purses would allow. 

Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. Theformer was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latterwere sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The poorused wooden shoes. 

Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, withelegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, and vaporbaths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places of popularresort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, with seatsfor spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before dinner. Uponleaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body with oil. 

FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC. 

The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitantsof Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the artsof civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December, corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lastedseven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted, the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves wererelieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves topleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends. 

The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancientfestivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus weresaid to have been nursed by the she wolf (_lupa_). The priests ofLupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their tenureof office is not known. On the day of the festival these priests met atthe Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a meal, withplenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats which they hadsacrificed. With some of these they covered parts of their bodies, andwith others, they made thongs, and, holding them in their hands, ranthrough the streets of Rome, striking with them all whom they met, especially women, as it was believed this would render them fruitful. 

The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirínus(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. 

Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre andother places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were firstexhibited at Rome in 264 B. C. , and were confined to public funerals;but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men ofrank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusement increasedto such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained in schools(_ludi_) and their trainers were called _Lanistae_. The person who gavean exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published (_edere_), some timebefore the show, a list of the combatants. In the show the fights beganwith wooden swords, but at the sound of the trumpet these were exchangedfor steel weapons. When a combatant was wounded, if the spectatorswished him spared, they held their thumbs down, but turned them up ifthey wanted him killed. Gladiators who had served a long time, wereoften discharged and presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), Hence theywere called _rudiarii_. 

THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS. 

The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of anellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word Amphitheatrewas first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. Augustus builtone of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most celebrated amphitheatrewas built by Vespasian and Titus, and dedicated in 80 A. D. It is stillstanding, though partly in ruins, covers nearly six acres, and couldseat ninety thousand people. The name given to it to-day is theCOLOSSÉUM. The open space in the centre was called the ARÉNA, and wassurrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high to protect the spectatorsfrom the wild beasts. Before the time of Caesar the shows were held inthe Forum and in the Circus. 

The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. Theplays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden stages. Thefirst stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C. , near the CampusMartius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of fortythousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at present, the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other distinguishedpersons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for the Equites, and behindthese sat the ordinary crowd. 

The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. Between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was builtfor chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immensestructure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal calledEurípus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In thecentre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six kindsof games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight betweenyoung men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and cavalry;4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts, suchas lions, boars, etc. ; 6th, sea fights. Water was let into the canalto float ships. The combatants were captives, or criminals condemnedto death, who fought until one party was killed, unless saved by thekindness of the Emperor. 

A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. 

The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, wassometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had beenDictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever enteredthe city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved one. Whena favorable decision was reached, the temples were all thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and incense smokedon every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal car and entered acity gate, where he was met by the whole body of the Senate, headed bythe magistrates. 

The procession then proceeded in the following order:--

1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3. Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body offlute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants andrare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insigniaof the leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, withtheir relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperatorin single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperatorhimself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired ina gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough inhis right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled with alaurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the Imperator. 12. The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel. 

The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered thecity on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in apurple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep(_ovis_) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a triumph. 

POMOERIUM. 

The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which noperson holding the _Imperium_ was allowed to enter. It did not alwaysrun parallel to the city walls. 

NAMES. 

Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (_praenomen_), asLucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (_nomen_), as Cornelius, Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (_cognómen_), as Scipio, Cicero, Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, the _agnomen_, givenfor some exploit, or to show that the person was adopted from someother gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called AFRICÁNUS, and all hisdescendants had the right to the name. Africánus the younger was adoptedfrom the Cornelian gens into the Aemilian gens; therefore he added tohis other names AEMILIÁNUS. 

The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter ofScipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her fromothers of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of Scipio. If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the eldest wasadded _prima_ (first), to that of the next, _secunda_ (second), etc. 

MARRIAGE. 

Intermarriage (_connubium_) between patricians and plebeians wasforbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of suchmarriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, tomarry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was given, the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. Thewedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or February. Thebride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal veil, and shoesof a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the evening to her futurehusband's home by three boys, one of whom carried before her a torch, the other two supporting her by the arm. They were accompanied byfriends of both parties. The groom received the bride at the door, whichshe entered with distaff and spindle in hand. The keys of the house werethen delivered to her. The day ended with a feast given by the husband, after which the bride was conducted to the bridal couch, in the atrium, which was adorned with flowers. On the following day another feast wasgiven by the husband, and the wife performed certain religious rites. 

The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different fromthat of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated herchildren, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and sharedthe honors and respect shown to her husband. 

FUNERALS. 

When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative presentendeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was removedfrom the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his eyes andmouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon the deceasedby name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, and anointedwith oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small coin was placedin the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) in Hades, and thebody was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with its feet toward thedoor. In early times all funerals were held at night; but in later timesonly the poor followed this custom, mainly because they could not afforddisplay. The funeral, held the ninth day after the death, was headed bymusicians playing mournful strains, and mourning women hired to lamentand sing the funeral song. These were sometimes followed by players andbuffoons, one of whom represented the character of the deceased, andimitated his words and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceasedhad liberated, each wearing the cap of liberty. Before the body werecarried the images of the dead and of his ancestors, and also the crownand military rewards which he had gained. The couch on which the bodywas carried was sometimes made of ivory, and covered with gold andpurple. Following it were the relatives in mourning, often uttering loudlamentations, the women beating their breasts and tearing their hair. 

The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, and stopped before the _Rostra_, where a funeral oration was delivered. From here the body was carried to its place of burial, which must beoutside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in the later timesof the Republic this became quite common. 

EDUCATION. 

In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks ataste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (_paedagogi_)were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and toteach them to converse in Greek. 

A full course of instruction included the elementary branches mentionedabove, and a careful study of the best _Greek_ and Latin writers, besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some well knownprofessor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. 

BOOKS. --LETTER WRITING. 

The most common material on which books were written was the thin rindof the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was oftenused. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to formone sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from_volvere_, to roll). 

Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were usuallywritten with the _stylus_, an iron instrument like a pencil in sizeand shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with wax, and foldedtogether with the writing on the inside. The slips were tied togetherby a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and stamped with asignet ring. Letters were also written on parchment with ink. Specialmessengers were employed to carry letters, as there was no regular mailservice. Roman letters differed from ours chiefly in the opening andclose. The writer always began by sending "greeting" to the personaddressed, and closed with a simple "farewell, " without any signature. Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. = sends greeting) would be the usualopening of a letter from Cicero to Pompey. 

CHAPTER XLVII. PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC. 

_Rome_ was built on seven hills, --the Palatine, the Aventine, theCapitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal, andthe Coelian. 

There were various public squares (_forum_ = square or park). Somewere places of resort for public business, and most were adorned withporticos. The most celebrated square was the _Forum Románum_, or simply_The Forum_. There were also the _Forum Caesaris_ and _Forum Trajáni_. Some served as markets; as _Forum Boarium_, the cattle market; _ForumSuarium_, the hog market, etc. 

Temples were numerous. The _Pantheon_ (temple of all the gods), builtby Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It wassituated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now used asa Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatínus, built by Augustus, was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was founded byAugustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiber; thatof Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in377 B. C. , and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus was an archedpassage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Upto the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three times, once inNuma's reign, again at the close of the battle of Actium. Janus wasone of the oldest Latin divinities, and was represented with a face infront and another on the back of his head. From him is named the monthof January. 

(Illustration: ROME AND ENVIR. )

There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was thatof Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolínus, built during the dynasty ofthe Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V. ) There were alsonumerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities. 

The COLOSSÉUM was the largest building in Rome. 

There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of Balbus;and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus. 

The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most importantwas the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, whichwas situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations ofwhich can still be seen. 

The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiaehad a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were discussed publicquestions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion. 

The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of Nero, of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which stillexist. 

Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills byfourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three ofwhich are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built about313 B. C. , by Appius Claudius. 

SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immensesize. The CLOÁCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is stillin use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. 

There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five nowremain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor ofClaudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefson this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at Jerusalem, carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, builtby the Senate in 207 A. D. , at the end of the Via Sacra, in honor ofthe Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians andArabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. 

There were two famous MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and thatof Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of SanAngelo. 

The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The mostremarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and calledCOLUMNAE ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at Mylae(261 B. C. ), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to eachside. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan isperhaps best known. 

The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. Itwas called _Milliarium Aureum_, or the golden milestone. 

CHAPTER XLVIII. COLONIES. --THE CALENDAR. --RELIGION. 

Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. Theywere intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to represshostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; apractice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors. 

No colony was established without a _lex_, _plebiscítum_, or _senatusconsultum_. Religious ceremonies always accompanied their foundation, and the anniversary was observed. 

The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latinor military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Romancitizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. The _Latíni_, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal tothem, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, passed in 90 B. C. , they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and wereplaced on the same footing as Roman colonists. 

THE CALENDAR. 

The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and eachmonth had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalendsfell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight daysafter the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was saidto occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happenedbetween any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many days_before_ the division _following_ the event. The year was reckonedfrom the foundation of the city (753 B. C. ), and often the names of theConsuls of that year were added. 

RELIGION. 

The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: JUPITERand JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of seed-sowing;TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the goddess ofgrowth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; PALES, the god ofthe flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. Various festivalswere celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; theTellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April; andthe Lupercalia, in February. 

VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altarerected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, hada common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were alsoworshipped the Penátes and Lares. 

The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protectedfields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often indog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on theKalends of May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, andby offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals uponplates. 

The PENÁTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers ofhouses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, werealso kept in the inner hall. 

The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTALVIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chosetwenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lotto fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. TheVestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private seatsin the public shows, and had the power of delivering from punishmentany condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses andwhite fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning onthe hearth (_focus publicus_) in the temple. They could not marry. 

FLAMINES. 

The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular god. There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiáta, and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most distinguished of allthe Flamines was the FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He had the right to alictor, to the _sella curulis_, and to a seat in the Senate. If one inbonds took refuge in his house, the chains were at once removed. Thispriest, however, could not be away from the city a single night, and wasforbidden to sleep out of his own bed for three consecutive nights. Hewas not allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look uponan army outside of the city walls. 

THE SALII. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and alwayschosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the1st of March, and for several successive days. 

THE AUGURES. 

This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteenin the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed tointerpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens werefavorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, noelection held, no law passed, no war waged, without first consulting theomens. There was no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hencetheir power was great. They held office for life, and were a closecorporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. C. 

THE FETIALES. 

This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numberingprobably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose withother nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilitiesshould be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace. 

CHAPTER XLIX. THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME. 

The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded toour regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohortinto three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries(platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, inpractice about four thousand. The usual order of battle was to draw upeach legion in three lines (_acies_ triplex), the first consisting offour cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor ofthe legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (fourfeet by two and a half), greaves, and corselets of various material. The outer garment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders bya buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armorwas a short, straight two-edged sword (_gladius_), about two feet long, worn by privates on the right side, so as not to interfere with theshield, but on the left side by officers. The javelin (_pilum_) was aheavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feetlong and weighing fully ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Romancitizens. The auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were alwayslight-armed. The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliariestaken from the different provinces. 

The officers were:--1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. 2. TheLEGÁTI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. 3. TheQUAESTOR, or quartermaster. 4. The TRIBÚNI MILITUM, numbering six ineach legion, and assisting the Imperator in his duties. 5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. 6. TheCENTURIÓNES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in rank forgood service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six in eachcohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the ranks, butrarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the officers, exceptthe centurions, came from either senatorial or equestrian families. 

The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as bodyguard to the Imperator. 

The STANDARD (_signum_) of the legion was an eagle with outstretchedwings, perched upon a pole. 

The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They madeit rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the sameway. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiersencamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thussurrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. Thegeneral's tent was called the _Praetorium_, and the entrance to thecamp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The oppositeentrance was called the Decuman Gate. 

CHAPTER L. LEGENDARY ROME. 

AENEAS, son of Anchíses and Venus, fled from Troy after its captureby the Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his sonIÚLUS and a number of brave followers. LATÍNUS, who was king of thedistrict where Aenéas landed, received him kindly, and gave him hisdaughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aenéas founded a city, which he namedLAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iúlus, also calledASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albánus a city, which hecalled ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital. 

Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was SILVIUSPROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. They dividedthe kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter the crown. Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, fearingthat they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and made thedaughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to prevent hermarrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, however, becamepregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named ROMULUS and REMUS. When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their mother into prison, andordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber. 

At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed itsbanks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, and, the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, hearingtheir cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a shepherd who wasnear by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared them. When they grewup and learned who they were, they killed Amulius, and gave the kingdomto their grandfather, Numitor. Then (753) they founded a city on MountPalatínus, which they called ROME, after Romulus. While they werebuilding a wall around this city, Remus was killed in a quarrel with hisbrother. 

Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number heopened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboringpeople, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged inlooking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabinevirgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in acompromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus thenchose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided thepeople into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign hedisappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven. 

One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), aSabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbaroussubjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was noted for thefall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), the grandson ofNuma. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered the Latins, enlargedthe city, and built new walls around it. He was the first to build aprison, and to bridge the Tiber. (Footnote: This bridge was called the_pons sublicius_ i. E. A bridge resting on piles. ) He also founded acity at its mouth, which he called OSTIA. 

The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS(616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, becoming afavorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After the death ofAncus, he wrested the government from them, and became king himself. He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on many warssuccessfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city. He built theCLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day. Tarquin also beganthe temple of JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill. He was killedin the thirty-eighth year of his reign by the sons of Ancus, from whomhe had snatched the kingdom. 

His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), whoenlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diána, and took a censusof the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained 83, 000souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus. 

TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was energeticin war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which was Ardea, a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, begun by hisfather. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman from Cumae, aGreek colony, came to him, and offered for sale nine books of oraclesand prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, and he refused topurchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, returning, asked thesame price for the remaining six. The king again refused. She burnedthree more, and obtained from the monarch for her last three theoriginal price. These books were preserved in the Capitol, and held ingreat respect. They were destroyed with the temple by fire, on July 6, 83. Two men had charge of them, who were called _duoviri sacrórum_. The worship of the Greek deities, Apollo and Latóna, among others, wasintroduced through these books. 

In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. (Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered bySextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatínus. Unable to bearthe humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family, having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs) A Republic was thenformed, with two Consuls at the head of the government. 

Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, allunsuccessful. (Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has beenpainted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in 509. )In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of theEtruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUSCOCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (_pans sublicius_)over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He then swam the riverin safety to his friends. (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of AncientRome. ")

During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageousyouth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killingKing Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was seizedand carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of burning. Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the burning altaruntil it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic act, pardoned him. Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three hundred other men asbrave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena was so alarmed, thathe made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius received his nameScaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss of his right hand. 

Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days inretirement. 

In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted bytaxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, andcrossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sentMENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions (Footnote:Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of the bellyand members. ) the people were induced to return to the city, and for thefirst time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own ranks torepresent their interests. These officers were called Tribúni Plebis. 

Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met anddefeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this hereceived the name of CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, he advised that grainshould not be distributed to the plebeians unless they relinquishedtheir right to choose the Tribúni Plebis. For this he was banished. Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched against Rome, andcame within five miles of the city. Here he was met by a deputation ofhis own citizens, who begged him to spare the city. He refused; but, when his wife and mother added their tears, he was induced to withdrawthe army. He was afterwards killed by the Volscians as a traitor. (Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus. ")

After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the mostdistinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for sevenconsecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabiangens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and thewhole gens, numbering 306 males and 4, 000 dependents, was driven fromRome. For two years they carried on war alone against the Veientes, but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus FabiusVibulánus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of the Fabii. 

In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territoryhad been overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, werein imminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS wasappointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of thisperiod. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment found himworking with bare arms in his field. Cincinnátus told his wife to throwover him his mantle, that he might receive the messengers of the statewith proper respect. Such was the simplicity of his character, and yetso deeply did he reverence authority. The Aequi could not withstand hisvigorous campaign, but were obliged soon to surrender, and made to passunder the yoke as a sign of humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a wellearned triumph. 

In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by thebeauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Laysof Ancient Rome. ") a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the betrothed ofLucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an infamous plot toobtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that she was a slave. When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl's father and lover, theDecemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudged her to be the slaveof his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into his daughter's bosom, inpresence of the people in the Forum. The enraged populace compelled theDecemviri to resign, and Appius, to escape worse punishment, put an endto his own life. 

MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. Hewas called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 hecaptured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebratedthe most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwardsimpeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls underBrennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the head offorty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, and in thebattle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was Dictator five times, Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and enjoyed four triumphs. He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight. 

BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, whoinvaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia (July18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which he besiegedfor six months. 

 During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsedby Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace wasfinally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds ofgold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his swordon the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appearedwith his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome mustbe ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed, theGauls were defeated. 

CHRONOLOGY. 

 (The dates previous to 389 B. C. Are uncertain. )

 B. C. 753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus. 753-510. REGAL PERIOD. 753-716. Romulus. 716-673. Numa Pompilius. 673-641. Tullus Hostilius. 640-616. Ancus Marcius. 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. 578-534. Servius Tullius. 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. 510-30. THE REPUBLIC. 509. Battle of Lake Regillus. 508. Porsena. Horatius Codes. 494. Tribúni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa. 492. Corioli. Coriolánus. 477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens. 458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnátus. 451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. 396. Capture of Veil. Camillus. 390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). 387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. 367. The Licinian Rogations. 353. Caere: the first Municipium. 343-341. First Samnite War. 340-338. The Latin War. 338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. 326-304, The Second Samnite War. 321. The Caudine Forks. 298-290. The Third Samnite War. 295. Sentínum. 283. Lake Vadimónis. 281-272. Pyrrhus. 280. Heracléa. Cineas. 279. Asculum. 274. Beneventum. 272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. 264. Period of foreign conquest begins. 264-241. First Punic War. 260. Lipara; Mylae. 257. Tyndaris. 256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea. 249. Drepana. 241. Aegátes Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. 237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established. 229. Illyrican War. Important results. 222. Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle of Telamon. 220. Hannibal in Spain. 219. Saguntum. 218-202. Second Punic War. 218. Ticinus. Trebia. 217. Trasiménus. Casilínum. 216. Cannae. 212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimédes. 207. Baecula. Metaurus. 202. Zama. 214-205. First Macedonian War. 200-197. Second Macedonian War. 198. Cynoscephalae. 190. Magnesia. 183. Death of Africánus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. 171-168. Third Macedonian War. 168. Pydna. 149-146. Third Punic War. 149. , Death of Cato the elder. 146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. 143-133. The Numantine War. 134-132. The Servile War. 133. Tiberius Gracchus. 129. Death of Africánus the younger. 123-121. Gaius Gracchus. 118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla. 102. Aquae Sextiae. 101. Vercellae. 90-89. The Italian or Social War. 86. Death of Marius. 86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes. 84. Death of Cinna. 80. Reforms of Sulla. 78. Death of Sulla. 80-72. Sertorius in Spain. 73-71. Spartacus. 72-67. Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes. 67. Pompey conquers the pirates. 67-61. Pompey in the East. 63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. 59. First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. 59. The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. Cato sent to Cyprus. 58-49. Caesar in Gaul. 57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. 53. Death of Crassus. Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and 52 separation from Caesar. 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. 49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. 48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. 48. Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. 48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. 47. Battle of Zela. 47 (Sept. ). Caesar returns to Rome. 46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. 45 (Mar. 17). Munda. 44 (Mar. 15). Murder of Caesar. 43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. 43 (Dec. ) Murder of Cicero. 42 (Nov. ). Philippi. 36. Naulochus. 31 (Sept. 2). Actium. 

 THE EMPIRE. 

 B. C. / A. D. 30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS. 30-14. Augustus. 

 A. D. 14-37. Tiberius. 37-41. Caligula. 41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. 41-54. Claudius. 54-68. Nero. 68-69. Galba. 69. Otho. 69-96. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. 69-79. Vespasian. 79. Destruction of Jerusalem. 79-81. Titus. 80. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 81-96. Domitian. 96-180. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. 96-98. Nerva. 98-117. Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. 117-138. Hadrian. 138-161. Antonínus Pius. 161-180. Marcus Aurelius. 180-192. Commodus. 192-284. From Pertinax to Diocletian. 284-305. Diocletian. 306-337. Constantine the Great. 312. Edict of Milan. 325. Council of Nice. 337-476. From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus. 

SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. 

HARVARD COLLEGE. 

JUNE, 1889. 

1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsálus;Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what importantevents was each connected? (Omit one; answer very briefly. )

2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. 

3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. 

4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. 

5. (_a_) Education in Rome. (_b_) Amusements at Rome. (Take one)

1888. 

1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Romancitizen, --what were they? (Take four. )

2. (_a_) How did Augustus obtain his power? (_b_) The reign of Hadrian;(_c_) The first Punic war. (Take one. )

3. (_a_) The Roman religion; (_b_) Decay of the Empire, (Take one)

4. Sulla's rule in Rome. 

5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. (4 and 5 are for"additional readings. ")

1887. 

(a) (Take five. ) The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, Numantia, Massilia, -where? Mention (with dates) historical eventsconnected with four of these places. (Take any two. )

1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times?

2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor?

3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, Curia, Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas. 

_Questions on the "additional reading. "_

(Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional readingmay substitute one of the following questions for one of the first threein this group. )

4. (TIGHE. ) How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ fromits theoretical powers?

5. (BEESLEY. ) What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria ofGaius Gracchus?

September, 1886. 

1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before thefounding of Rome. 

2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of theMediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated?

3. Describe the three forms of the Roman _comitia_, and trace thedevelopment of the _comitia tributa_. 

4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? Theeffect of this victory upon Italy?

5. Explain _patria potestas_, _princeps senatus_, _municipium_, _agerRomanus_, _equites_. 

YALE COLLEGE. 

EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION. 

June, 1889. 

1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. Licinian Laws. 

2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and atwhat times introduced?

3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles inItaly. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did Hannibalfail?

4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. 

5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. First Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. 

1887. 

(Time allowed, 30 minutes. )

1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change didhe make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine make?

2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the causesof each extension, and dates. 

3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christianera? How were they acquired, and when?

4. Explain _praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis;comitia centuriata_. 

5. _Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia;_ where were they?what happened there, and when?

1886. 

1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was established. 

2. When and where did the principal military events in the war betweenthe Caesarians and Pompeians occur?

3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. 

4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essentialpoints did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First?

5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to theprovinces?

6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian?

June, 1885. 

1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). 

2. Explain _tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator_. 

3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under theEmpire?

4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results?

5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat ofVarus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over Pyrrhus;the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first Romanprovince?

UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. 

35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889. --Time, 9. 30 A. M. To 12 M. , only. 48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. 

1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2)

2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization ofthe world. (1)

3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; statethe result in each contest. (4)

4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, andstate an important historical event connected with each: Caudine Forks;Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4)

5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of Jugurtha;(2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of Antony, ordeath of Cicero? (3)

6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two whichoccur in Roman history. (3)

7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2)

8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus;Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4)

9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2)

10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of theChristian era. (3)

11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome. (2)

12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2)

13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on whatground were the Christians punished? (2)

14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. Describe two engines used by them for this purpose. (3)

15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2)

THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA. 

16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1)

17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2)

18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2)

19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2)

20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2)

34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. 

June 14, 1889. --Time, 9 30 A. M. To 12 M. , only. 

48 _credits; necessary to pass, _ 36. 

1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy beforethe founding of Rome. (2)

2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. (4)

3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were firstelected. (1)

4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose inconnection with them? (2)

5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had hefor hoping to succeed? (3)

6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did hefail? (3)

7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following dates:B. C. 55, 44, 42? (3)

8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed theRubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "theRubicon"? (3)

9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instancesof this. (3)

10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one ofthem. (4)

11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by Diocletian?(1)

12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was socalled. (2)

13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to astranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus. (3)

14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character ofthe writings of each. (6)

15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall ofRome. (2)

THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS. 

16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1)

17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1)

18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour ofhis Country"? (1)

19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1)

20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of Mariusand Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2)

33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. 

March 8, 1889. --Time, 9. 30 A M. To 12 M. , only. 

44 _credits; necessary to pass_, 33. 

1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1)

2. Tell what you know about the (_a_) Patricians, (_b_) Plebeians, (_c_)Tribune, (_d_) Consul. (4)

3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2)

4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2)

5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2)

6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2)

7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of theireffect upon the Republic. (2)

8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its result?(2)

9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1)

10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? WhatRoman general commanded in this battle? (2)

11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2)

12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character ofthe Roman people? (2)

13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this war. (2)

14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving thecause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3)

15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the EmperorAugustus? (1)

16. For what were the following men noted: (_a_) Juvenal, (_b_) Seneca, (_c_) Cato the Censor, (_d_) Fabius, (_e_) Caligula? (5)

THE GRACCHI. 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of theGracchi form a part? (1)

18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure byCaius Gracchus? (2)

19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2)

20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied bybirth? with which, by sympathy? (2)

21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very greatsignificance? (2)

31st Advanced Academic Examination, June 15, 1888. --Time, 9. 30 A. M. To 12 M. , only. 

48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. 

1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants ofItaly be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4)

2. Who established the _comitia centuriata_? How did it differ from the_comitia curiata_? (2)

3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1)

4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What wasthe result of the war? (2)

5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause ofthe siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state thecircumstances of his death. (4)

6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of conquest, 266-133 B. C. (5)

7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard toliterature and morals. (2)

8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2)

9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2)

10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey andCaesar? (1)

11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain intheir proscription? (4)

12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1)

13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of theChristians? (1)

14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3)

15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1)

THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES. 

16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1)

17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of thetreaty made there. (4)

18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of thefinal peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3)

19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for herself?(3)

20. Distinguish between _Roman citizens_ and _subjects_ (_or Latins_)(2)

30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. 

March 2, 1888. --Time, 9. 30 A. M. To 12 M. , only. 

48 _credits; necessary to pass, _ 36. 

1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location ofRome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6)

2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first Consuls?(3)

3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the twoconditions of the return? (3)

4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powersintrusted to them. (2)

5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2)

6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the causeof the First Samnite War? (2)

7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in whichdirection it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3)

8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic War?(1)

ANCIENT ROME. 

9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conductof the First Punic War. (2)

10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the battle. (2)

11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi. (2)

12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla. (2)

13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength dideach contribute to it? (3)

14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1)

15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: Nero;Trajan. (2)

THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME. 

16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3)

17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2)

18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was itmodelled? (2)

19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in itsmembership? (2)

20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senateperform? (2)

21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1)

_29th Advanced Academic Examination. _

November 18, 1887. --Time, 9. 30 A. M. To 12 M. , only. 

_48 credits; necessary to pass, 36. _

1. When was Rome founded? (1)

2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was thebasis of the new constitution? (2)

3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kingsoverturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3)

4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, howlong did it continue, and how did it result? (3)

5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2)

6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B. C. , where did theycontend with the Roman army, and with what result? (3)

7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and wealth, and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in arms? (3)

8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, whatpolicy did he pursue, and with what result? (3)

9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character andhabits. (2)

10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was itdefeated, and in what manner? (3)

11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1)

12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its result?(2)

13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, andthe character of his reign. (2)

14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2)

15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention somearticles used by them for food. (2)

THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS. 

16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, andthe rivers Tiber and Arno. (4)

17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, Naples, Tarentum. (3)

18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, whatpart of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latinsdescended? (7)

INDEX. 

 Achaeans Achaia Acroceraunia Actium Adherbal Aduatuci Aediles Aedui Aegátes Islands Aegyptus Aemilian Way Aemilius Aenéas Aequians Aesis, R. Aetius Aetna Aetolians Afranius Africa Africánus Agendicum Ager occupátus Ager privátus Ager publicus Ager Románus Agrarian Laws Agricola Agrigentum Agrippa Agrippína, daughter of Agrippa Agrippína, sister of Caligula Alae Alans Alaric Alba Longa Alban Lake Alban Mts. Alesia Alexander the Great Alexandría Allia Allies Alsium Ambiorix Amphitheatres Amulius Anchíses Ancóna Ancus Marcius Andes Andriscus Anio, R. Anthemius Antiochus III. Antiochus IV. Antium Antonia Antonius Antonínus, Marcus Aurelius Antonínus Pius Antony Aóus, R. Apennines Apollo, worship of Apollonia Apollonius Appeal, right of Appian Way Appius Claudius, Decemvir Appius Claudius, father-in-law of Gracchus Appius Claudius Caecus Appuleian Laws Apsus, R. Apulia Aqua Claudia Aquae Sextiae Aqueducts Aquileia Aquínum Aquitáni Arabia Arabia Petraea Arcadius Archeláus Arches Archimédes Ardea Argos Aricia Ariminum Ariobarzánes Ariovistus Aristobúlus Armenia Arminius Armor Army Arnus Arpi Arpínum Arretium Arsanias, R. Aryan Race Ascanius Asculum in Apulia Asia Assyria Aternus Athens Athesis Atrium Attalus II. Attalus III. Attila Aufidus, R. Augurs Augustan Age Augusta Taurinórum Augusti Augustus Aulerci Aurelia Aurelian Aurelian Way Aurelius, M. Antonínus Avaricum Averni Avernus, Lake

 Baeculae Baetis, R. Baiae Basilicae Basilica Julia Bathing Baths Bellovaci Beneventum Bibracte Bibulus Bithynia Bocchus Boian Gauls Bononia Books Bovillae Brennus Bridge, Rhine Bridge, Tiber Britain Britannia Britannicus Brittany Brundisium Bruttium Brutus, nephew of Tarquin Brutus Brutus, Decimus Junius Brutus, Marcus Burgundians Burrhus Byzantium

 Cabíra Caecína Caepio Caere Caesar, Gaius Julius Caesar, Lucius Julius Caesars Caícus Calabria Calceus Caledonians Calendar Caligula Calpurnia Calpurnian Law Camarína Camerínum Camillus Campania Campus Martius Candles Cannae Canuleian Law Canuleius Canusium Capéna Capitoline Hill Capitolium Cappadocia Capreae Capua Caracalla Carrhae Carthage Carthaginians Carthágo Nova Carus Casca Casilínum Cassius. Cassivelaunus Catalonia Catana Catiline Cato, the elder Cato, the younger Catullus Catulus, father of the Senate Catulus, Gaius Lutatius Caudine Forks Caudium Celtibéri Celts Cenománi Censors Centuries Centurions Ceres Cerialia Cethégus Chaeronéa Chalcédon Chalons Christians Cicero, Marcus Tullius Cicero, Quintus Tullius Cilicia Cimber Cimbri Cincinnátus Cineas Cinna Circeii Circeium, Promontory Circus Circus Maximus Citizenship City walls Claudian Emperors Claudius, Emperor Claudius, Publius Cleopátra Clients Cloáca Maxima Clodion Clodius Clupea Clusium Coena Cohors Praetoria Collatínus Colonies, Latin Colonies, Maritime Colonies, Military. Comitia Centuriáta Comitia Curiáta Comitia Tribúta Comitium Colosséum Colossus Column of Trajan Columna Milliaria Columns Commodus Constans Constantine the Great Constantine II. Constantinople Constantius I. Constantius II. Conscripti, Patres Consuls Consus Cora Corcýra Corduba Corfinium Corinth Coriolánus Corioli Corn laws Cornelia, daughter of Cinna Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africánus Corsica Cotta Council of Nice Court-houses Courts Crassus, the Triumvir Crassus, son of the Triumvir Cremóna Crete Croton Cumae Cures Curia Curiae Curio. Curtius Curule Aedile Curule chair Curule offices Cynoscephalae Cyprus Cyrenaica

 Dacia Damophilus Deal Debts, Debtors Decemvirs Decius, Emperor Decius, Publius Decree of the Senate Deiotarus Dentátus Dependent Communities Dictator Diocletian Dolabella Domitian Domitius. Drepana Dress Drusus, Germanicus Drusus, Marcus Livius Duilius Duoviri Sacrórum Dyrrachium

 Eburónes Ecnomus Edict of Milan Editor. Education Egesta Egnatius Egypt Elba Elections Enipeus, R. Enna Ennius Epidamnus Epiphanes Epírus Equites Eryx Etruria Etruscans Eudoxia Eugenius Eunus Euphrátes Examination Papers

 Fabii Fabius, Cunctátor Fabius Quintus Fabius Vibulánus Fabricius Faesulae Farming the revenues Fauces Faustulus Festivals Fetiales Five Good Emperors Flamen Diális Flamines Flaminian Way Flaminínus Flaminius Flavian Emperors Floors Florentia Foreigners resident at Rome Formiae Forum Forum Boarium Forum Caesaris Forum Holitorium Forum Julii, in Gaul Forum Julii, in Venetia Forum Suarium Forum of Trajan Forum of Vespasian Franks Freedmen Fundi Funerals Furniture

 Gabii Gabinius Gabínus Gades Galatia Galba, Emperor Galba, Servius Galerius Gallia Cisalpína Gallia Narbonensis Gaul Gauls Games Gela Genabum Gens, Gentes Genseric Genua Genucius Gergovia Germanicus, Drusus Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ. Germans Glabrio Gladiators Glass Glaucia Golden House of Nero Good Emperors Gordian Goths Gracchi Gracchus, Gains Gracchus, Tiberius (senior) Gracchus, Tiberius Gratian Greece Greek Empire

 Hadrian Hadrumétum Hamilcar Barca Hannibal, son of Gisco Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Hanno Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal Hasdrubal, son of Gisco Helena Heliogabalus Helvetii Heracléa Herculaneum Herméan Promontory Hiempsal Hiero II. Hieronymus Hirtius Hispania Citerior Hispania Ulterior Honorius Horace Horatius Codes Hortensius, Quintus Hortensius, the Orator Homesteads Houses Huns Hyrcánus

 Iapygia Iapygians Ibérus, R. Icilius Igilium Ilerda Illyrican War Illyricum Ilva Imperator Imperium Intermarriage Interest Interrex Isara, R. Isauria Isthmian Games Italians Italy Iúlus

 Janiculum Janus Jentaculum Jerusalem Jews Joséphus Jovian Juba Judaea Jugurtha Julia, daughter of Caesar Julia, daughter of Augustus Julian Emperors Julian the Apostate Julian Law Juliánus Juno Jupiter Juries Justin Martyr Juvenal

 Kaeso, Quinctius King of Rome Knights. 

 Labiénus Lacerna Lacinian Promontory Laevínus Laevínus, Marcus Lamps Land-owners, classes of Lanistae Lanuvium Lares Last of the Romans Latin Confederacy Latínus Latium Latóna Laurentum Lavinia Lavinium Legáti Leges Juliae Legion Lentulus Leontíni Lepidus, Consul Lepidus, Triumvir Leptis Lesbos Letter-writing Lex de Repetundis Licinian Rogations Licinius Liger Lights Liguria Lilybaeum Lipara Islands Liris, R. Literature Livia Livilla Livius Locri Longínus Luca Lucan Lucania Luceres Luceria Lucilius Lucretia Lucretius Lucullus Lupercalia Luperci Lupercus Lupus Lycia

 Macedonia Macedonian War Macrínus Maecénas Maenius Magister Equitum Magna Graecia Magnesia Mago Majestas Majorian Mamertines Mancínus Manilian Law Manilius Manlius, Marcus Manlius Capitolínus Mantua Marcellus Marcellus, nephew of Augustus Marius, Marriage Mars Martial Masinissa. Massilia Mauretania Mausoléum of Augustus Mausoléum of Hadrian Maximian Maximin Maximus I. Maximus II. Meals Mediolánum Memmius Menenius Agrippa Mesopotamia Messalína Messána Metapontum Metaurus, R. Metellus Macedonicus Metellus Nepos Metellus Numidicus Metellus Pius Micipsa Milan, Edict of Milétus Military Tribunes Milliarium Aureum Milo Minerva Minturnae Minucius Mithradátes Mityléne Moesia Money brokers Mons Sacer Moors Mucra, R. Mummius Munda Municipia Muthul Mutina Mylae Mysia

 Names Naples Naulochus Navy Nepos Nero, Consul Nero, Emperor Nerva Nervii Nicaea Nicomédes Nobles Nola Noricum Novus Homo Numantia Numantian War Numa Pompilius Numidia Numitor Nursia

 Octavia, sister of Augustus Octavia, wife of Nero Octavius Odoácer Offices and officers Ops Orchomenos Osca Ostia Ostium Ostrogoths Otho Ovation Ovid

 Padua (Patavium) Palatine Pales, Palilia Palmýra Pannonia Panormus Pantheon Parma Parthia, Parthians Pater-familias Patres Patrician Patricians Patrons Paullus Pelusium Penátes Pergamum Peristylium Perperna Perseus Persius Pertinax Petreius Phaedrus Pharnaces Pharsalia, Pharsálus Philip, Emperor Philip of Macedonia Philippi Philippics Philopoemen Phoenicia Picénum Picts' Pirates Pisae Pisaurum Piso Placentia Plautian-Papirian Law Plautus Plebeians Plebiscita Pliny, the elder Pliny, the younger Pollio Polybius Polycarp Pomoerium Pompeia Pompeii Pompeius, Gnaeus Pompeius, Sextus Pompey the Great Pomptine Marshes Pontifices Pontius Pontus Poppaea Sabína Porsena Postumius Potestas Praefect Praefectúrae Praeneste Praetor Praetorian Guard Praetorium Prandium Private Lands Private Rights Probus Proconsul Propertius Propraetor Provinces Provincial System Prusias Ptolemy, brother of Cleopátra Ptolemy of Cyprus Ptolemy V. , Epiphanes Ptolemy Alexander Publicani Public Lands Public Rights Publilian Law, Publilius Punic Wars Puteoli Pydna Pyrrhus

 Quaestors Quinctius Cincinnátus Quinctius, Kaeso Quintilian Quirínal Quirinalia

 Radagaisus Ramnes Ravenna Reáte Reforms of Caesar Reforms of Sulla Regillus, Lake Regulus Remi Remus Rents Republic Rhaetia Rhea Silvia Rhegium Rhodes Ricimer Roads Roman Empire Romans Rome Rome, Hills of Romulus Roscius Rostra Rubicon Rutilius

 Sabines Sabis, R. Sacred Mount Sacredness of Officials Sagum Saguntum Salernum Salii Sallust Samnites Samnite Wars Samnium Samos Sardinia Sardis Saturn Saturnalia Saturnínus Scaevola Scarpheia Scipio, Gnaeus Scipio, Consul 218 B. C. Scipio Africánus, the elder Scipio Africánus, the younger Scipio Asiaticus Scipio, Metellus Scipio Nasíca Scribonia Segesta Sejánus Seleucia Selínus Sempronia Sempronius Sena Gallica Senate Senones Sentínum Sequani Sertorius Servian Reform Servile War Servilius Servius Tullius Setia Sevérus, Alexander Sevérus, Septimius Sevérus III. Sewers Sextus Lateránus Sextus, son of Tarquin Ships Sibylline Books Sicily Silver Age Silvius Procas Sinuessa Slaves. Social War Soleae Solon Sophonisba Soracte, Mt. Sosigenes Spain Sparta Spartacus Spoletium Spurius Cassius Standards Statius Stilicho Stola Strongyle Islands Suessiónes Sueves, Suevi Sulla Sulmo Sulpicius Galba Sulpicius Rufus Sutrium Sybaris Syphax Syracuse Syria

 Tablinum Tacitus, Emperor Tacitus, Historian Tarentum. Tarquinii Tarquinius Priscus Tarquinius Superbus Tarracína Tarragóna Tauromenium Tax-gatherers Teánum Telamon Tellilia, Tellus Temple of Aesculapius Temple of Apollo Palatínus Temple of Ceres Temple of Concordia Temple of Diána Temple of Janus Temple of Juno Temple of Jupiter Temple of Mars Temple of Peace Tenth Legion, revolt of Terence Terentilius, Terentilian Rogations Teutoberger Forest Teutones Thala Thapsus Theatre Theatre of Balbus Theatre of Marcellus Theatre of Pompey Theodosius Thermae Thermus Thessaly Thirty Tyrants Thurii Tibullus Tibur Tiberius Ticínus, R. Tigellínus Tigránes Time, mode of reckoning Tities Titus Tivoli Toga Torquátus Trajan Trasiménus, Lake Trebia, R. Trebonius Tribes Tribunes Tribúni Militum Tribútum Triclinium Trigánum Trinacria Triumphal Arches Triumphal Procession Triumvirate, First Triumvirate, Second, Tullia, daughter of Servius Tullius Tullus Hostilius Tunica Tunis Tusculum Twelve Caesars Twelve Tables Tyndaris

 Umbria, Umbrians Utica

 Vadimónis, Lake Valens Valentinian I. Valentinian II. Valentinian III. Valerius, Valerio-Horatian Laws Valerius, Caesar's Lieutenant Valero Publilius Vandals Varro, Consul at Cannae Varro, Pompey's Lieutenant Varus Veii, Veientes Velítrae Veneti Venetia Venice Venusia Vercellae Vercingetorix Verginius Veróna Verres Verus, Annius Verus, Lucius Vespasian Vesta. Vestal Virgins Vestibulum Vesuvius, Mt. Veto Veturius Via Aemilia Via Appia Via Aurelia Via Flaminia Via Latína Via Sacra Vienna Villius Virgil Virginia, Virginius Viriáthus Visigoths Vitellius Volaterrae Volsci Volsinii Volturnus Voting Vulso

 Windows Writing Written Code of Laws

 York

 Zama Zela Zeno Zenobia Zeugma Zeugma