AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR

FOR THE USE OF

HIGH SCHOOL, ACADEMY, AND COLLEGE CLASSES

BY

W. M. BASKERVILL

PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN VANDERBILTUNIVERSITY NASHVILLE, TENN. 

AND

J. W. SEWELL

OF THE FOGG HIGH SCHOOL, NASHVILLE, TENN. 

1895

PREFACE. 

Of making many English grammars there is no end; nor should there betill theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more happilywedded. In this field much valuable work has already beenaccomplished; but it has been done largely by workers accustomed totake the scholar's point of view, and their writings are addressedrather to trained minds than to immature learners. To find an advancedgrammar unencumbered with hard words, abstruse thoughts, and difficultprinciples, is not altogether an easy matter. These things enhance thedifficulty which an ordinary youth experiences in grasping andassimilating the facts of grammar, and create a distaste for thestudy. It is therefore the leading object of this book to be both asscholarly and as practical as possible. In it there is an attempt topresent grammatical facts as simply, and to lead the student toassimilate them as thoroughly, as possible, and at the same time to doaway with confusing difficulties as far as may be. 

To attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the foregroundthe _real basis of grammar_; that is, good literature. Abundantquotations from standard authors have been given to show the studentthat he is dealing with the facts of the language, and not with thetheories of grammarians. It is also suggested that in preparingwritten exercises the student use English classics instead of "makingup" sentences. But it is not intended that the use of literarymasterpieces for grammatical purposes should supplant or eveninterfere with their proper use and real value as works of art. Itwill, however, doubtless be found helpful to alternate the regularreading and æsthetic study of literature with a grammatical study, sothat, while the mind is being enriched and the artistic sensequickened, there may also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keenobservation of all grammatical forms and usages. Now and then it hasbeen deemed best to omit explanations, and to withhold personalpreferences, in order that the student may, by actual contact with thesources of grammatical laws, discover for himself the better way inregarding given data. It is not the grammarian's business to"correct:" it is simply to record and to arrange the usages oflanguage, and to point the way to the arbiters of usage in alldisputed cases. Free expression within the lines of good usage shouldhave widest range. 

It has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as isconsistent with the proper definition of the word. Therefore, inaddition to recording and classifying the facts of language, we haveendeavored to attain two other objects, --to cultivate mental skill andpower, and to induce the student to prosecute further studies in thisfield. It is not supposable that in so delicate and difficult anundertaking there should be an entire freedom from errors andoversights. We shall gratefully accept any assistance in helping tocorrect mistakes. 

Though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at firsthand, and to make an independent use of it, we desire to express ourobligation to the following books and articles:--

Meiklejohn's "English Language, " Longmans' "School Grammar, " West's"English Grammar, " Bain's "Higher English Grammar" and "CompositionGrammar, " Sweet's "Primer of Spoken English" and "New EnglishGrammar, " etc. , Hodgson's "Errors in the Use of English, " Morris's"Elementary Lessons in Historical English Grammar, " Lounsbury's"English Language, " Champney's "History of English, " Emerson's"History of the English Language, " Kellner's "Historical Outlines ofEnglish Syntax, " Earle's "English Prose, " and Matzner's "EnglischeGrammatik. " Allen's "Subjunctive Mood in English, " Battler's articleson "Prepositions" in the "Anglia, " and many other valuable papers, have also been helpful and suggestive. 

We desire to express special thanks to Professor W. D. Mooney of Wall &Mooney's Battle-Ground Academy, Franklin, Tenn. , for a criticalexamination of the first draft of the manuscript, and to ProfessorJno. M. Webb of Webb Bros. School, Bell Buckle, Tenn. , and ProfessorW. R. Garrett of the University of Nashville, for many valuablesuggestions and helpful criticism. 

W. M. BASKERVILL. 

J. W. SEWELL. 

NASHVILLE, TENN. , January, 1896. 

CONTENTS. 

 INTRODUCTION

 PART I. 

 _THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. 

 NOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES ARTICLES VERBS AND VERBALS Verbs Verbals How to Parse Verbs and Verbals ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS PREPOSITIONS WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING INTERJECTIONS

 PART II. 

 _ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES_. 

 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS Simple Sentences Contracted Sentences Complex Sentences Compound Sentences

 PART III. 

 _SYNTAX_. 

 INTRODUCTORY NOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES ARTICLES VERBS INDIRECT DISCOURSE VERBALS ADVERBS CONJUNCTIONS PREPOSITIONS

 INDEX

INTRODUCTION. 

So many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use ofteaching grammar as compared with teaching science, that it is plainthe fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a science. Theobject we have, or should have, in teaching science, is not to fill achild's mind with a vast number of facts that may or may not proveuseful to him hereafter, but to draw out and exercise his powers ofobservation, and to show him how to make use of what he observes. .. . And here the teacher of grammar has a great advantage over the teacherof other sciences, in that the facts he has to call attention to lieready at hand for every pupil to observe without the use of apparatusof any kind while the use of them also lies within the personalexperience of every one. --DR RICHARD MORRIS. 

The proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of thehighest order. If I except discussions on the comparative merits ofPopery and Protestantism, English grammar was the most importantdiscipline of my boyhood. --JOHN TYNDALL. 

INTRODUCTION. 

What various opinions writers on English grammar have given in answerto the question, _What is grammar?_ may be shown by the following--

[Sidenote: _Definitions of grammar. _]

 English grammar is a description of the usages of the English language by good speakers and writers of the present day. --WHITNEY

 A description of account of the nature, build, constitution, or make of a language is called its grammar--MEIKLEJOHN

 Grammar teaches the laws of language, and the right method of using it in speaking and writing. --PATTERSON

 Grammar is the science of _letter_; hence the science of using words correctly. --ABBOTT

 The English word _grammar_ relates only to the laws which govern the significant forms of words, and the construction of the sentence. --RICHARD GRANT WHITE

These are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about Englishgrammar--

[Sidenote: _Synopsis of the above. _]

(1) It makes rules to tell us how to use words. 

(2) It is a record of usage which we ought to follow. 

(3) It is concerned with the _forms_ of the language. 

(4) English _has_ no grammar in the sense of forms, or inflections, but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of words insentences. 

[Sidenote: _The older idea and its origin. _]

Fierce discussions have raged over these opinions, and numerous workshave been written to uphold the theories. The first of them remainedpopular for a very long time. It originated from the etymology of theword _grammar_ (Greek _gramma_, writing, a letter), and from an effortto build up a treatise on English grammar by using classical grammaras a model. 

Perhaps a combination of (1) and (3) has been still more popular, though there has been vastly more classification than there are forms. 

[Sidenote: _The opposite view_. ]

During recent years, (2) and (4) have been gaining ground, but theyhave had hard work to displace the older and more popular theories. Itis insisted by many that the student's time should be used in studyinggeneral literature, and thus learning the fluent and correct use ofhis mother tongue. It is also insisted that the study and discussionof forms and inflections is an inexcusable imitation of classicaltreatises. 

[Sidenote: _The difficulty_. ]

Which view shall the student of English accept? Before this isanswered, we should decide whether some one of the above theories mustbe taken as the right one, and the rest disregarded. 

The real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of twodistinct things, --what the _definition_ of grammar should be, and whatthe _purpose_ of grammar should be. 

[Sidenote: _The material of grammar_. ]

The province of English grammar is, rightly considered, wider than isindicated by any one of the above definitions; and the student oughtto have a clear idea of the ground to be covered. 

[Sidenote: _Few inflections_. ]

It must be admitted that the language has very few inflections atpresent, as compared with Latin or Greek; so that a small grammar willhold them all. 

[Sidenote: _Making rules is risky_. ]

It is also evident, to those who have studied the languagehistorically, that it is very hazardous to make rules in grammar: whatis at present regarded as correct may not be so twenty years from now, even if our rules are founded on the keenest scrutiny of the"standard" writers of our time. Usage is varied as our way of thinkingchanges. In Chaucer's time two or three negatives were used tostrengthen a negation; as, "Ther _nas no_ man _nowher_ so vertuous"(There never was no man nowhere so virtuous). And Shakespeare usedgood English when he said _more elder_ ("Merchant of Venice") and_most unkindest_ ("Julius Cæsar"); but this is bad English now. 

If, however, we have tabulated the inflections of the language, andstated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome places, there is still much for the grammarian to do. 

[Sidenote: _A broader view_. ]

Surely our noble language, with its enormous vocabulary, its peculiarand abundant idioms, its numerous periphrastic forms to express everypossible shade of meaning, is worthy of serious study, apart from themere memorizing of inflections and formulation of rules. 

[Sidenote: _Mental training. An æsthetic benefit. _]

Grammar is eminently a means of mental training; and while it willtrain the student in subtle and acute reasoning, it will at the sametime, if rightly presented, lay the foundation of a keen observationand a correct literary taste. The continued contact with the highestthoughts of the best minds will create a thirst for the "well ofEnglish undefiled. "

[Sidenote: _What grammar is_. ]

Coming back, then, from the question, _What ground should grammarcover?_ we come to answer the question, _What should grammar teach?_and we give as an answer the definition, --

_English grammar is the science which treats of the nature of words, their forms, and their uses and relations in the sentence_. 

[Sidenote: _The work it will cover. _]

This will take in the usual divisions, "The Parts of Speech" (withtheir inflections), "Analysis, " and "Syntax. " It will also require adiscussion of any points that will clear up difficulties, assist theclassification of kindred expressions, or draw the attention of thestudent to everyday idioms and phrases, and thus incite hisobservation. 

[Sidenote: _Authority as a basis_. ]

A few words here as to the _authority_ upon which grammar rests. 

[Sidenote: _Literary English_. ]

The statements given will be substantiated by quotations from theleading or "standard" literature of modern times; that is, from theeighteenth century on. This _literary English_ is considered thefoundation on which grammar must rest. 

[Sidenote: _Spoken English_. ]

Here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from _spoken_ or_colloquial English_, by which is meant the free, unstudiedexpressions of ordinary conversation and communication amongintelligent people. 

These quotations will often throw light on obscure constructions, since they preserve turns of expressions that have long since perishedfrom the literary or standard English. 

[Sidenote: _Vulgar English_. ]

Occasionally, too, reference will be made to _vulgar English, _--thespeech of the uneducated and ignorant, --which will serve to illustratepoints of syntax once correct, or standard, but now undoubtedly badgrammar. 

The following pages will cover, then, three divisions:--

Part I. The Parts of Speech, and Inflections. 

Part II. Analysis of Sentences. 

Part III. The Uses of Words, or Syntax. 

PART I. 

_THE PARTS OF SPEECH_. 

NOUNS. 

1. In the more simple _state_ of the _Arabs_, the _nation_ is free, because each of her _sons_ disdains a base _submission_ to the _will_of a _master_. --GIBBON. 

[Sidenote: _Name words_]

By examining this sentence we notice several words used as names. Theplainest name is _Arabs_, which belongs to a people; but, besides thisone, the words _sons_ and _master_ name objects, and may belong to anyof those objects. The words _state, submission, _ and _will_ areevidently names of a different kind, as they stand for ideas, notobjects; and the word _nation_ stands for a whole group. 

When the meaning of each of these words has once been understood, theword naming it will always call up the thing or idea itself. Suchwords are called nouns. 

[Sidenote: _Definition_. ]

2. A noun is a name word, representing directly to the mind anobject, substance, or idea. 

[Sidenote: _Classes of nouns_. ]

3. Nouns are classified as follows:--

(1) Proper. 

(2) Common. (a) CLASS NAMES: i. Individual. Ii. Collective. (b) MATERIAL. 

(3) Abstract. (a) ATTRIBUTE. (b) VERBAL

[Sidenote: _Names for special objects. _]

4. A proper noun is a name applied to a particular object, whetherperson, place, or thing. 

It specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied, reducing itto a narrow application. Thus, _city_ is a word applied to any one ofits kind; but _Chicago_ names one city, and fixes the attention uponthat particular city. _King_ may be applied to any ruler of a kingdom, but _Alfred the Great_ is the name of one king only. 

The word _proper_ is from a Latin word meaning _limited, belonging toone_. This does not imply, however, that a proper name can be appliedto only one object, but that each time such a name is applied it isfixed or proper to that object. Even if there are several Bostons orManchesters, the name of each is an individual or proper name. 

[Sidenote: _Name for any individual of a class. _]

5. A common noun is a name possessed by _any_ one of a class ofpersons, animals, or things. 

_Common_, as here used, is from a Latin word which means _general, possessed by all_. 

For instance, _road_ is a word that names _any_ highway outside ofcities; _wagon_ is a term that names _any_ vehicle of a certain kindused for hauling: the words are of the widest application. We may say, _the man here_, or _the man in front of you_, but the word _man_ ishere hedged in by other words or word groups: the name itself is ofgeneral application. 

[Sidenote: _Name for a group or collection of objects. _]

Besides considering persons, animals, and things separately, we maythink of them in groups, and appropriate names to the groups. 

Thus, men in groups may be called a _crowd_, or a _mob_, a_committee_, or a _council_, or a _congress_, etc. 

These are called COLLECTIVE NOUNS. They properly belong under commonnouns, because each group is considered as a unit, and the nameapplied to it belongs to any group of its class. 

[Sidenote: _Names for things thought of in mass. _]

6. The definition given for common nouns applies more strictly toclass nouns. It may, however, be correctly used for another group ofnouns detailed below; for they are common nouns in the sense that thenames apply to _every particle of similar substance_, instead of toeach individual or separate object. 

They are called MATERIAL NOUNS. Such are _glass_, _iron_, _clay_, _frost_, _rain_, _snow_, _wheat_, _wine_, _tea_, _sugar_, etc. 

They may be placed in groups as follows:--

(1) The metals: _iron_, _gold_, _platinum_, etc. 

(2) Products spoken of in bulk: _tea_, _sugar_, _rice_, _wheat_, etc. 

(3) Geological bodies: _mud_, _sand_, _granite_, _rock_, _stone_, etc. 

(4) Natural phenomena: _rain_, _dew_, _cloud_, _frost_, _mist_, etc. 

(5) Various manufactures: _cloth_ (and the different kinds of cloth), _potash_, _soap_, _rubber_, _paint_, _celluloid_, etc. 

7. NOTE. --There are some nouns, such as _sun_, _moon_, _earth_, which seem to be the names of particular individual objects, but whichare not called proper names. 

[Sidenote: _Words naturally of limited application not proper. _]

The reason is, that in proper names the intention is _to exclude_ allother individuals of the same class, and fasten a special name to theobject considered, as in calling a city _Cincinnati_; but in the words_sun_, _earth_, etc. , there is no such intention. If several bodieslike the center of our solar system are known, they also are called_suns_ by a natural extension of the term: so with the words _earth_, _world_, etc. They remain common class names. 

[Sidenote: _Names of ideas, not things. _]

8. Abstract nouns are names of qualities, conditions, or actions, considered abstractly, or apart from their natural connection. 

When we speak of a _wise man_, we recognize in him an attribute orquality. If we wish to think simply of that quality without describingthe person, we speak of the _wisdom_ of the man. The quality is stillthere as much as before, but it is taken merely as a name. So_poverty_ would express the condition of a poor person; _proof_ meansthe act of proving, or that which shows a thing has been proved; andso on. 

Again, we may say, "_Painting_ is a fine art, " "_Learning_ is hard toacquire, " "a man of _understanding_. "

9. There are two chief divisions of abstract nouns:--

(1) ATTRIBUTE NOUNS, expressing attributes or qualities. 

(2) VERBAL NOUNS, expressing state, condition, or action. 

[Sidenote: _Attribute abstract nouns. _]

10. The ATTRIBUTE ABSTRACT NOUNS are derived from adjectives andfrom common nouns. Thus, (1) _prudence_ from _prudent_, _height_ from_high_, _redness_ from _red_, _stupidity_ from _stupid_, etc. ; (2)_peerage_ from _peer_, _childhood_ from _child_, _mastery_ from_master_, _kingship_ from _king_, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Verbal abstract nouns. _]

II. The VERBAL ABSTRACT NOUNS Originate in verbs, as their nameimplies. They may be--

(1) Of the same form as the simple verb. The verb, by altering itsfunction, is used as a noun; as in the expressions, "a long _run_" "abold _move_, " "a brisk _walk_. "

(2) Derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a suffix:_motion_ from _move_, _speech_ from _speak_, _theft_ from _thieve_, _action_ from _act_, _service_ from _serve_. 

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

(3) Derived from verbs by adding _-ing_ to the simple verb. It must beremembered that these words are _free from any verbal function_. Theycannot govern a word, and they cannot _express_ action, but are merely_names_ of actions. They are only the husks of verbs, and are to berigidly distinguished from _gerunds_ (Secs. 272, 273). 

To avoid difficulty, study carefully these examples:

The best thoughts and _sayings_ of the Greeks; the moon caused fearful_forebodings_; in the _beginning_ of his life; he spread his_blessings_ over the land; the great Puritan _awakening_; our birth isbut a sleep and a _forgetting_; a _wedding_ or a festival; the rude_drawings_ of the book; masterpieces of the Socratic _reasoning_; the_teachings_ of the High Spirit; those opinions and _feelings_; thereis time for such _reasonings_; the _well-being_ of her subjects; her_longing_ for their favor; _feelings_ which their original _meaning_will by no means justify; the main _bearings_ of this matter. 

[Sidenote: _Underived abstract nouns. _]

12. Some abstract nouns were not derived from any other part ofspeech, but were framed directly for the expression of certain ideasor phenomena. Such are _beauty_, _joy_, _hope_, _ease_, _energy_;_day_, _night_, _summer_, _winter_; _shadow_, _lightning_, _thunder_, etc. 

The adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either themselvesderived from the nouns or are totally different words; as_glad_--_joy_, _hopeful_--_hope_, etc. 

Exercises. 

1. From your reading bring up sentences containing ten common nouns, five proper, five abstract. 

--NOTE. --Remember that all sentences are to be _selected_ fromstandard literature. 

2. Under what class of nouns would you place (_a_) the names ofdiseases, as _pneumonia_, _pleurisy_, _catarrh_, _typhus_, _diphtheria_; (_b_) branches of knowledge, as _physics_, _algebra_, _geology_, _mathematics_?

3. Mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of thefollowing individual nouns:--

 man horse bird fish partridge pupil bee soldier book sailor child sheep ship ruffian

4. Using a dictionary, tell from what word each of these abstractnouns is derived:--

 sight speech motion pleasure patience friendship deceit bravery height width wisdom regularity advice seizure nobility relief death raid honesty judgment belief occupation justice service trail feeling choice simplicity

SPECIAL USES OF NOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Nouns change by use. _]

13. By being used so as to vary their usual meaning, nouns of oneclass may be made to approach another class, or to go over to itentirely. Since words alter their meaning so rapidly by a widening ornarrowing of their application, we shall find numerous examples ofthis shifting from class to class; but most of them are in thefollowing groups. For further discussion see the remarks on articles(p. 119). 

[Sidenote: _Proper names transferred to common use. _]

14. Proper nouns are used as common in either of two ways:--

(1) _The origin of a thing is used for the thing itself_: that is, thename of the inventor may be applied to the thing invented, as a_davy_, meaning the miner's lamp invented by Sir Humphry Davy; the_guillotine_, from the name of Dr. Guillotin, who was its inventor. Orthe name of the country or city from which an article is derived isused for the article: as _china_, from China; _arras_, from a town inFrance; _port_ (wine), from Oporto, in Portugal; _levant_ and_morocco_ (leather). 

Some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we canscarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word; forexample, the word _port_, above. Others of similar character are_calico_, from Calicut; _damask_, from Damascus; _currants_, fromCorinth; etc. 

(2) _The name of a person or place noted for certain qualities istransferred to any person or place possessing those qualities_;thus, --

 Hercules and Samson were noted for their strength, and we call a very strong man _a Hercules_ or _a Samson_. Sodom was famous for wickedness, and a similar place is called _a Sodom_ of sin. 

 _A Daniel_ come to judgment!--SHAKESPEARE. 

 If it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power, _a Locke_, _a Lavoisier_, _a Hutton_, _a Bentham_, _a Fourier_, it imposes its classification on other men, and lo! a new system. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: _Names for things in bulk altered for separate portions. _]

15. Material nouns may be used as class names. Instead ofconsidering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made, one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance; as--

(1) _Of individual objects_ made from metals or other substancescapable of being wrought into various shapes. We know a number ofobjects made of iron. The material _iron_ embraces the metal containedin them all; but we may say, "The cook made the _irons_ hot, "referring to flat-irons; or, "The sailor was put in _irons_" meaningchains of iron. So also we may speak of _a glass_ to drink from or tolook into; _a steel_ to whet a knife on; _a rubber_ for erasing marks;and so on. 

(2) _Of classes_ or _kinds_ of the same substance. These are the samein material, but differ in strength, purity, etc. Hence it shortensspeech to make the nouns plural, and say _teas_, _tobaccos_, _paints_, _oils_, _candies_, _clays_, _coals_. 

(3) _By poetical use_, of certain words necessarily singular in idea, which are made plural, or used as class nouns, as in the following:--

 The lone and level _sands_ stretch far away. --SHELLEY. 

 From all around-- Earth and her _waters_, and the depths of air-- Comes a still voice. --BRYANT. 

 Their airy ears _The winds_ have stationed on the mountain peaks. --PERCIVAL. 

(4) _Of detached portions_ of matter used as class names; as _stones_, _slates_, _papers_, _tins_, _clouds_, _mists_, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Personification of abstract ideas. _]

16. Abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by beingpersonified; that is, the ideas are spoken of as residing in livingbeings. This is a poetic usage, though not confined to verse. 

 Next _Anger_ rushed; his eyes, on fire, In lightnings owned his secret stings. --COLLINS. 

 _Freedom's_ fame finds wings on every wind. --BYRON. 

 _Death_, his mask melting like a nightmare dream, smiled. --HAYNE. 

 _Traffic_ has lain down to rest; and only _Vice_ and _Misery_, to prowl or to moan like night birds, are abroad. --CARLYLE. 

[Sidenote: _A halfway class of words. Class nouns in use, abstract inmeaning. _]

17. Abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of inthe plural. 

They are not then pure abstract nouns, nor are they common classnouns. For example, examine this:--

 The _arts_ differ from the _sciences_ in this, that their power is founded not merely on _facts_ which can be communicated, but on _dispositions_ which require to be created. --RUSKIN. 

When it is said that _art_ differs from _science_, that the power ofart is founded on _fact_, that _disposition_ is the thing to becreated, the words italicized are pure abstract nouns; but in case _anart_ or _a science_, or _the arts_ and _sciences_, be spoken of, theabstract idea is partly lost. The words preceded by the article _a_, or made plural, are still names of abstract ideas, not materialthings; but they widen the application to separate kinds of _art_ ordifferent branches of _science_. They are neither class nouns nor pureabstract nouns: they are more properly called _half abstract_. 

Test this in the following sentences:--

 Let us, if we must have great _actions_, make our own so. --EMERSON. 

 And still, as each repeated _pleasure_ tired, Succeeding _sports_ the mirthful band inspired. --GOLDSMITH. 

 But ah! those _pleasures_, _loves_, and _joys_ Which I too keenly taste, The Solitary can despise. --BURNS. 

 All these, however, were mere _terrors_ of the night. --IRVING. 

[Sidenote: _By ellipses, nouns used to modify. _]

18. Nouns used as descriptive terms. Sometimes a noun is attachedto another noun to add to its meaning, or describe it; for example, "a_family_ quarrel, " "a _New York_ bank, " "the _State Bank Tax_ bill, ""a _morning_ walk. "

It is evident that these approach very near to the function ofadjectives. But it is better to consider them as nouns, for thesereasons: they do not give up their identity as nouns; they do notexpress quality; they cannot be compared, as descriptive adjectivesare. 

They are more like the possessive noun, which belongs to another word, but is still a noun. They may be regarded as elliptical expressions, meaning a walk _in the morning_, a bank _in New York_, a bill _as totax on the banks_, etc. 

NOTE. --If the descriptive word be a _material_ noun, it may beregarded as changed to an adjective. The term "_gold_ pen" conveys thesame idea as "_golden_ pen, " which contains a pure adjective. 

WORDS AND WORD GROUPS USED AS NOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _The noun may borrow from any part of speech, or from anyexpression. _]

19. Owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms, and to theconsequent flexibility of English speech, words which are usuallyother parts of speech are often used as nouns; and various word groupsmay take the place of nouns by being used as nouns. 

[Sidenote: _Adjectives, Conjunctions, Adverbs. _]

(1) _Other parts of speech_ used as nouns:--

 _The great_, _the wealthy_, fear thy blow. --BURNS. 

 Every _why_ hath a _wherefore_. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 When I was young? Ah, woeful _When_! Ah! for the change 'twixt _Now_ and _Then_! --COLERIDGE. 

(2) _Certain word groups_ used like single nouns:--

 _Too swift_ arrives as tardy as _too slow_. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 Then comes the "_Why, sir_!" and the "_What then, sir_?" and the "_No, sir_!" and the "_You don't see your way through the question, sir_!"--MACAULAY

(3) Any part of speech may be considered merely as a word, withoutreference to its function in the sentence; also titles of books aretreated as simple nouns. 

 The _it_, at the beginning, is ambiguous, whether it mean the sun or the cold. --Dr BLAIR

 In this definition, is the word "_just_, " or "_legal_, " finally to stand?--RUSKIN. 

 There was also a book of Defoe's called an "_Essay on Projects_, " and another of Dr. Mather's called "_Essays to do Good_. "--B. FRANKLIN. 

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

20. It is to be remembered, however, that the above cases areshiftings of the _use_, of words rather than of their _meaning_. Weseldom find instances of complete conversion of one part of speechinto another. 

When, in a sentence above, the terms _the great_, _the wealthy_, areused, they are not names only: we have in mind the idea of persons andthe quality of being _great_ or _wealthy_. The words are used in thesentence where nouns are used, but have an adjectival meaning. 

In the other sentences, _why_ and _wherefore_, _When_, _Now_, and_Then_, are spoken of as if pure nouns; but still the reader considersthis not a natural application of them as name words, but as a figureof speech. 

NOTE. --These remarks do not apply, of course, to such words as becomepure nouns by use. There are many of these. The adjective _good_ hasno claim on the noun _goods_; so, too, in speaking of the _principal_of a school, or a state _secret_, or a faithful _domestic_, or a_criminal_, etc. , the words are entirely independent of any adjectiveforce. 

Exercise. 

Pick out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell to which classeach belongs. Notice if any have shifted from one class to another. 

1. Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 

2. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate. 

3. Stone walls do not a prison make. Nor iron bars a cage. 

4. Truth-teller was our England's Alfred named. 

5. A great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a littlecourage. 

6. Power laid his rod aside, And Ceremony doff'd her pride. 

7. She sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies. 

8. Learning, that cobweb of the brain. 

9. A little weeping would ease my heart; But in their briny bed My tears must stop, for every drop Hinders needle and thread. 

10. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves something forhereafter. 

11. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much; Wisdom is humblethat he knows no more. 

12. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 

13. And see, he cried, the welcome, Fair guests, that waits you here. 

14. The fleet, shattered and disabled, returned to Spain. 

15. One To-day is worth two To-morrows. 

16. Vessels carrying coal are constantly moving. 

17. Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest, Some Cromwell guiltless of his country's blood. 

18. And oft we trod a waste of pearly sands. 

19. A man he seems of cheerful yesterdays And confident to-morrows. 

20. The hours glide by; the silver moon is gone. 

21. Her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea. 

22. My soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy. 

23. But pleasures are like poppies spread, You seize the flower, its bloom is shed. 

24. All that thou canst call thine own Lies in thy To-day. 

INFLECTIONS OF NOUNS. 

GENDER. 

[Sidenote: _What gender means in English. It is founded on sex. _]

21. In Latin, Greek, German, and many other languages, some generalrules are given that names of male beings are usually masculine, andnames of females are usually feminine. There are exceptions even tothis general statement, but not so in English. Male beings are, inEnglish grammar, always masculine; female, always feminine. 

When, however, _inanimate_ things are spoken of, these languages aretotally unlike our own in determining the gender of words. Forinstance: in Latin, _hortus_ (garden) is masculine, _mensa_ (table) isfeminine, _corpus_ (body) is neuter; in German, _das Messer_ (knife)is neuter, _der Tisch_ (table) is masculine, _die Gabel_ (fork) isfeminine. 

The great difference is, that in English the gender follows the_meaning_ of the word, in other languages gender follows the _form_;that is, in English, gender depends on _sex_: if a thing spoken of isof the male sex, the _name_ of it is masculine; if of the female sex, the _name_ of it is feminine. Hence:

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

22. Gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words, oradditions to words. 

23. It is evident from this that English can have but twogenders, --masculine and feminine. 

[Sidenote: _Gender nouns. Neuter nouns. _]

All nouns, then, must be divided into two principal classes, --gendernouns, those distinguishing the sex of the object; and neuternouns, those which do not distinguish sex, or names of things withoutlife, and consequently without sex. 

Gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals;neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects. 

[Sidenote: _Some words either gender or neuter nouns, according touse. _]

24. Some words may be either gender nouns or neuter nouns, accordingto their use. Thus, the word _child_ is neuter in the sentence, "Alittle _child_ shall lead them, " but is masculine in the sentencefrom Wordsworth, --

 I have seen A curious _child_ . .. Applying to _his_ ear The convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell. 

Of animals, those with which man comes in contact often, or whicharouse his interest most, are named by gender nouns, as in thesesentences:--

 Before the barn door strutted the gallant _cock_, that pattern of a husband, . .. Clapping _his_ burnished wings. --IRVING. 

 _Gunpowder_ . .. Came to a stand just by the bridge, with a suddenness that had nearly sent _his_ rider sprawling over _his_ head--_id. _

Other animals are not distinguished as to sex, but are spoken of asneuter, the sex being of no consequence. 

 Not a _turkey_ but he [Ichabod] beheld daintily trussed up, with _its_ gizzard under _its_ wing. --IRVING. 

 He next stooped down to feel the _pig_, if there were any signs of life in _it_. --LAMB. 

[Sidenote: _No "common gender. _"]

25. According to the definition, there can be no such thing as"common gender:" words either distinguish sex (or the sex isdistinguished by the context) or else they do not distinguish sex. 

If such words as _parent_, _servant_, _teacher_, _ruler_, _relative_, _cousin_, _domestic_, etc. , do not show the sex to which the personsbelong, they are neuter words. 

26. Put in convenient form, the division of words according to sex, or the lack of it, is, --

 (MASCULINE: Male beings. Gender nouns { (FEMININE: Female beings. 

Neuter nouns: Names of inanimate things, or of living beings whosesex cannot be determined. 

27. The inflections for gender belong, of course, only to masculineand feminine nouns. _Forms_ would be a more accurate word than_inflections_, since inflection applies only to the _case_ of nouns. 

There are three ways to distinguish the genders:--

(1) By prefixing a gender word to another word. 

(2) By adding a suffix, generally to a masculine word. 

(3) By using a different word for each gender. 

I. Gender shown by Prefixes. 

[Sidenote: _Very few of class I. _]

28. Usually the gender words _he_ and _she_ are prefixed to neuterwords; as _he-goat_--_she-goat_, _cock sparrow_--_hen sparrow_, _he-bear_--_she-bear_. 

One feminine, _woman_, puts a prefix before the masculine _man_. _Woman_ is a short way of writing _wifeman_. 

II. Gender shown by Suffixes. 

29. By far the largest number of gender words are those marked bysuffixes. In this particular the native endings have been largelysupplanted by foreign suffixes. 

[Sidenote: _Native suffixes. _]

The native suffixes to indicate the feminine were _-en_ and _-ster_. These remain in _vixen_ and _spinster_, though both words have losttheir original meanings. 

The word _vixen_ was once used as the feminine of _fox_ by theSouthern-English. For _fox_ they said _vox_; for _from_ they said_vram_; and for the older word _fat_ they said _vat_, as in _winevat_. Hence _vixen_ is for _fyxen_, from the masculine _fox_. 

_Spinster_ is a relic of a large class of words that existed in Oldand Middle English, [1] but have now lost their original force asfeminines. The old masculine answering to _spinster_ was _spinner_;but _spinster_ has now no connection with it. 

The foreign suffixes are of two kinds:--

[Sidenote: _Foreign suffixes. Unaltered and little used. _]

(1) Those belonging to borrowed words, as _czarina_, _señorita_, _executrix_, _donna_. These are attached to foreign words, and arenever used for words recognized as English. 

[Sidenote: _Slightly changed and widely used. _]

(2) That regarded as the standard or regular termination of thefeminine, _-ess_ (French _esse_, Low Latin _issa_), the one most used. The corresponding masculine may have the ending _-er_ (_-or_), but inmost cases it has not. Whenever we adopt a new masculine word, thefeminine is formed by adding this termination _-ess_. 

Sometimes the _-ess_ has been added to a word already feminine by theending _-ster_; as _seam-str-ess_, _song-str-ess_. The ending _-ster_had then lost its force as a feminine suffix; it has none now in thewords _huckster_, _gamester_, _trickster_, _punster_. 

[Sidenote: _Ending of masculine not changed. _]

30. The ending _-ess_ is added to many words without changing theending of the masculine; as, --

 baron--baroness count--countess lion--lioness Jew--Jewess heir--heiress host--hostess priest--priestess giant--giantess

[Sidenote: _Masculine ending dropped. _]

The masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine _-ess_ isadded; as, --

 abbot--abbess negro--negress murderer--murderess sorcerer--sorceress

[Sidenote: _Vowel dropped before adding_ -ess. ]

The feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine; asin--

 actor--actress master--mistress benefactor--benefactress emperor--empress tiger--tigress enchanter--enchantress

_Empress_ has been cut down from _emperice_ (twelfth century) and_emperesse_ (thirteenth century), from Latin _imperatricem_. 

_Master_ and _mistress_ were in Middle English_maister_--_maistresse_, from the Old French _maistre_--_maistresse_. 

31. When the older _-en_ and _-ster_ went out of use as thedistinctive mark of the feminine, the ending _-ess_, from the French_-esse_, sprang into a popularity much greater than at present. 

[Sidenote: _Ending_ -ess _less used now than formerly. _]

Instead of saying _doctress_, _fosteress_, _wagoness_, as was said inthe sixteenth century, or _servauntesse_, _teacheresse_, _neighboresse_, _frendesse_, as in the fourteenth century, we havedispensed with the ending in many cases, and either use a prefix wordor leave the masculine to do work for the feminine also. 

Thus, we say _doctor_ (masculine and feminine) or _woman doctor_, _teacher_ or _lady teacher_, _neighbor_ (masculine and feminine), etc. We frequently use such words as _author_, _editor_, _chairman_, torepresent persons of either sex. 

NOTE. --There is perhaps this distinction observed: when we speak of afemale _as an active agent_ merely, we use the masculine termination, as, "George Eliot is the _author_ of 'Adam Bede;'" but when we speakpurposely _to denote a distinction from a male_, we use the feminine, as, "George Eliot is an eminent _authoress_. "

III. Gender shown by Different Words. 

32. In some of these pairs, the feminine and the masculine areentirely different words; others have in their origin the same root. Some of them have an interesting history, and will be noted below:--

 bachelor--maid boy--girl brother--sister drake--duck earl--countess father--mother gander--goose hart--roe horse--mare husband--wife king--queen lord--lady wizard--witch nephew--niece ram--ewe sir--madam son--daughter uncle--aunt bull--cow boar--sow

Girl originally meant a child of either sex, and was used for maleor female until about the fifteenth century. 

Drake is peculiar in that it is formed from a corresponding femininewhich is no longer used. It is not connected historically with ourword _duck_, but is derived from _ened_ (duck) and an obsolete suffix_rake_ (king). Three letters of _ened_ have fallen away, leaving ourword _drake_. 

Gander and goose were originally from the same root word. _Goose_has various cognate forms in the languages akin to English (German_Gans_, Icelandic _gás_, Danish _gaas_, etc. ). The masculine wasformed by adding _-a_, the old sign of the masculine. This _gansa_ wasmodified into _gan-ra_, _gand-ra_, finally _gander_; the _d_ beinginserted to make pronunciation easy, as in many other words. 

Mare, in Old English _mere_, had the masculine _mearh_ (horse), butthis has long been obsolete. 

Husband and wife are not connected in origin. _Husband_ is aScandinavian word (Anglo-Saxon _hūsbonda_ from Icelandic _hús-bóndi_, probably meaning house dweller); _wife_ was used in Old and MiddleEnglish to mean woman in general. 

King and queen are said by some (Skeat, among others) to be fromthe same root word, but the German etymologist Kluge says they arenot. 

Lord is said to be a worn-down form of the Old English _hlāf-weard_(loaf keeper), written _loverd_, _lhauerd_, or _lauerd_ in MiddleEnglish. Lady is from _hlœ̄̄fdige_ (_hlœ̄̄f_ meaning loaf, and_dige_ being of uncertain origin and meaning). 

Witch is the Old English _wicce_, but wizard is from the OldFrench _guiscart_ (prudent), not immediately connected with _witch_, though both are ultimately from the same root. 

Sir is worn down from the Old French _sire_ (Latin _senior_). Madam is the French _ma dame_, from Latin _mea domina_. 

[Sidenote: _Two masculines from feminines. _]

33. Besides _gander_ and _drake_, there are two other masculinewords that were formed from the feminine:--

Bridegroom, from Old English _brȳd-guma_ (bride's man). The _r_ in_groom_ has crept in from confusion with the word _groom_. 

Widower, from the weakening of the ending _-a_ in Old English to_-e_ in Middle English. The older forms, _widuwa_--_widuwe_, becameidentical, and a new masculine ending was therefore added todistinguish the masculine from the feminine (compare Middle English_widuer_--_widewe_). 

Personification. 

34. Just as abstract ideas are personified (Sec. 16), materialobjects may be spoken of like gender nouns; for example, --

 "Now, where the swift _Rhone_ cleaves _his_ way. "--BYRON. 

 The _Sun_ now rose upon the right: Out of the sea came _he_. --COLERIDGE. 

 And haply the _Queen Moon_ is on _her_ throne, Clustered around by all her starry Fays. --KEATS, _Britannia_ needs no bulwarks, No towers along the steep; _Her_ march is o'er the mountain waves, _Her_ home is on the deep. --CAMPBELL

This is not exclusively a poetic use. In ordinary speechpersonification is very frequent: the pilot speaks of his boat asfeminine; the engineer speaks so of his engine; etc. 

[Sidenote: _Effect of personification. _]

In such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun, and not by the formof the noun. But the fact that in English the distinction of gender isconfined to difference of sex makes these departures more effective. 

NUMBER. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

35. In nouns, number means the mode of indicating whether we arespeaking of one thing or of more than one. 

36. Our language has two numbers, --_singular_ and _plural_. Thesingular number denotes that one thing is spoken of; the plural, morethan one. 

37. There are three ways of changing the singular form to theplural:--

(1) By adding _-en_. 

(2) By changing the root vowel. 

(3) By adding _-s_ (or _-es_). 

The first two methods prevailed, together with the third, in OldEnglish, but in modern English _-s_ or _-es_ has come to be the"standard" ending; that is, whenever we adopt a new word, we make itsplural by adding _-s_ or _-es. _

I. Plurals formed by the Suffix _-en_. 

[Sidenote: _The_ -en _inflection. _]

38. This inflection remains only in the word oxen, though it wasquite common in Old and Middle English; for instance, _eyen_ (eyes), _treen_ (trees), _shoon_ (shoes), which last is still used in LowlandScotch. _Hosen_ is found in the King James version of the Bible, and_housen_ is still common in the provincial speech in England. 

39. But other words were inflected afterwards, in imitation of theold words in _-en_ by making a double plural. 

[Sidenote: -En _inflection imitated by other words. _]

Brethren has passed through three stages. The old plural was_brothru_, then _brothre_ or _brethre_, finally _brethren_. Theweakening of inflections led to this addition. 

Children has passed through the same history, though theintermediate form _childer_ lasted till the seventeenth century inliterary English, and is still found in dialects; as, --

 "God bless me! so then, after all, you'll have a chance to see your _childer_ get up like, and get settled. "--QUOTED BY DE QUINCEY. 

Kine is another double plural, but has now no singular. 

 In spite of wandering _kine_ and other adverse circumstance. --THOREAU. 

II. Plurals formed by Vowel Change. 

40. Examples of this inflection are, --

 man--men foot--feet goose--geese louse--lice mouse--mice tooth--teeth

Some other words--as _book_, _turf_, _wight_, _borough_--formerly hadthe same inflection, but they now add the ending _-s_. 

41. Akin to this class are some words, originally neuter, that havethe singular and plural alike; such as _deer_, _sheep_, _swine_, etc. 

Other words following the same usage are, _pair_, _brace_, _dozen_, after numerals (if not after numerals, or if preceded by theprepositions _in_, _by_, etc, they add _-s_): also _trout_, _salmon_;_head_, _sail_; _cannon_; _heathen_, _folk_, _people_. 

The words _horse_ and _foot_, when they mean soldiery, retain thesame form for plural meaning; as, --

 The _foot_ are fourscore thousand, The _horse_ are thousands ten. --MACAULAY. 

 Lee marched over the mountain wall, -- Over the mountains winding down, _Horse_ and _foot_, into Frederick town. --WHITTIER. 

III. Plurals formed by Adding -s or -es. 

42. Instead of _-s, _ the ending _-es_ is added--

(1) If a word ends in a letter which cannot add _-s_ and bepronounced. Such are _box, cross, ditch, glass, lens, quartz_, etc. 

[Sidenote: _-Es added in certain cases_. ]

If the word ends in a _sound_ which cannot add _-s_, a new syllable ismade; as, _niche--niches, race--races, house--houses, prize--prizes, chaise--chaises_, etc. 

_-Es_ is also added to a few words ending in -o, though this soundcombines readily with _-s_, and does not make an extra syllable:_cargo--cargoes, negro--negroes, hero--heroes, volcano--volcanoes_, etc. 

Usage differs somewhat in other words of this class, some adding _-s_, and some _-es_. 

(2) If a word ends in _-y_ preceded by a consonant (the _y_ being thenchanged to _i_); e. G. , _fancies, allies, daisies, fairies_. 

[Sidenote: _Words in -ies. _]

Formerly, however, these words ended in _-ie_, and the real ending istherefore _-s_. Notice these from Chaucer (fourteenth century):--

[Sidenote: _Their old form. _]

 The _lilie_ on hir stalke grene. Of _maladie_ the which he hadde endured. 

And these from Spenser (sixteenth century):--

 Be well aware, quoth then that _ladie_ milde. At last fair Hesperus in highest _skie_ Had spent his lampe. 

(3) In the case of some words ending in -_f_ or -_fe_, which havethe plural in _-ves_: _calf_--_calves_, _half_--_halves_, _knife_--_knives_, _shelf_--_shelves_, etc. 

Special Lists. 

43. Material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular. Whensuch words take a plural ending, they lose their identity, and go overto other classes (Secs. 15 and 17). 

44. Proper nouns are regularly singular, but may be made pluralwhen we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the samename; e. G. , _the Washingtons_, _the Americas_. 

45. Some words are usually singular, though they are plural inform. Examples of these are, _optics_, _economics_, _physics_, _mathematics_, _politics_, and many branches of learning; also _news_, _pains_ (care), _molasses_, _summons_, _means_: as, --

 _Politics_, in its widest extent, is both the science and the art of government. --_Century Dictionary_. 

 So live, that when thy _summons comes_, etc. --BRYANT. 

 It served simply as _a means_ of sight. --PROF. DANA. 

[Sidenote: Means _plural_. ]

Two words, means and politics, _may be plural_ in theirconstruction with verbs and adjectives:--

 Words, by strongly conveying the passions, by _those means_ which we have already mentioned, fully compensate for their weakness in other respects. --BURKE. 

 With great dexterity _these means_ were now applied. --MOTLEY. 

 By _these means_, I say, riches will accumulate. --GOLDSMITH. 

[Sidenote: Politics _plural_. ]

 Cultivating a feeling that _politics_ are tiresome. --G. W. CURTIS. 

 The _politics_ in which he took the keenest interest _were politics_ scarcely deserving of the name. --MACAULAY. 

 Now I read all the _politics_ that _come_ out. --GOLDSMITH. 

46. Some words have no corresponding singular. 

 aborigines amends annals assets antipodes scissors thanks spectacles vespers victuals matins nuptials oats obsequies premises bellows billiards dregs gallows tongs

[Sidenote: _Occasionally singular words_. ]

Sometimes, however, a few of these words have the construction ofsingular nouns. Notice the following:--

 They cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of _a scissors_ can cut without the other. --J. L. LAUGHLIN. 

 A relic which, if I recollect right, he pronounced to have been _a tongs_. --IRVING. 

 Besides this, it is furnished with _a forceps_. --GOLDSMITH. 

 The air, --was it subdued when. .. The wind was trained only to turn a windmill, carry off chaff, or work in _a bellows_?--PROF. DANA. 

In Early Modern English _thank_ is found. 

 What _thank_ have ye?--_Bible_

47. Three words were _originally singular_, the present ending _-s_not being really a plural inflection, but they are regularly construedas plural: _alms, eaves, riches_. 

[Sidenote: _two plurals_. ]

48. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. 

 brother--brothers (by blood), brethren (of a society or church). 

 cloth--cloths (kinds of cloth), clothes (garments). 

 die--dies (stamps for coins, etc. ), dice (for gaming). 

 fish--fish (collectively), fishes (individuals or kinds). 

 genius--geniuses (men of genius), genii (spirits). 

 index--indexes (to books), indices (signs in algebra). 

 pea--peas (separately), pease (collectively). 

 penny--pennies (separately), pence (collectively). 

 shot--shot (collective balls), shots (number of times fired). 

In speaking of coins, _twopence_, _sixpence_, etc. , may add _-s_, making a double plural, as two _sixpences_. 

[Sidenote: _One plural, two meanings. _]

49. Other words have one plural form with two meanings, --onecorresponding to the singular, the other unlike it. 

 custom--customs: (1) habits, ways; (2) revenue duties. 

 letter--letters: (1) the alphabet, or epistles; (2) literature. 

 number--numbers: (1) figures; (2) poetry, as in the lines, --

 I lisped in _numbers_, for the numbers came. --POPE. 

 Tell me not, in mournful _numbers_. --LONGFELLOW. 

_Numbers_ also means issues, or copies, of a periodical. 

 pain--pains: (1) suffering; (2) care, trouble, part--parts: (1) divisions; (2) abilities, faculties. 

[Sidenote: _Two classes of compound words. _]

50. Compound words may be divided into two classes:--

(1) _Those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute oneword. _ These make the last part plural. 

 courtyard dormouse Englishman fellow-servant fisherman Frenchman forget-me-not goosequill handful mouthful cupful maidservant pianoforte stepson spoonful titmouse

(2) _Those groups in which the first part is the principal one, followed by a word or phrase making a modifier. _ The chief member adds_-s_ in the plural. 

 aid-de-camp attorney at law billet-doux commander in chief court-martial cousin-german father-in-law knight-errant hanger-on

NOTE. --Some words ending in _-man_ are not compounds of the Englishword _man_, but add _-s_; such as _talisman_, _firman_, _Brahman_, _German_, _Norman_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_. 

51. Some groups pluralize both parts of the group; as _man singer_, _manservant_, _woman servant_, _woman singer_. 

[Sidenote: _Two methods in use for names with titles. _]

52. As to plurals of names with titles, there is some disagreementamong English writers. The title may be plural, as _the Messrs. Allen_, _the Drs. Brown_, _the Misses Rich_; or the name may bepluralized. 

The former is perhaps more common in present-day use, though thelatter is often found; for example, --

 Then came Mr. And Mrs. Briggs, and then _the three Miss Spinneys_, then Silas Peckham. --DR. HOLMES. 

 Our immortal Fielding was of the younger branch of the _Earls of Denbigh_, who drew their origin from the _Counts of Hapsburgh_. --GIBBON. 

 The _Miss Flamboroughs_ were reckoned the best dancers in the parish. --GOLDSMITH. 

 The _Misses Nettengall's_ young ladies come to the Cathedral too. --DICKENS. 

 The _Messrs. Harper_ have done the more than generous thing by Mr. Du Maurier. --_The Critic_. 

53. A number of foreign words have been adopted into Englishwithout change of form. These are said to be _domesticated_, andretain their foreign plurals. 

Others have been adopted, and by long use have altered their power soas to conform to English words. They are then said to be_naturalized_, or _Anglicized_, or _Englished_. 

[Sidenote: _Domesticated words. _]

The domesticated words may retain the original plural. Some of themhave a secondary English plural in _-s_ or _-es_. 

Exercise. 

Find in the dictionary the plurals of these words:--

I. FROM THE LATIN. 

 apparatus appendix axis datum erratum focus formula genus larva medium memorandum nebula radius series species stratum terminus vertex

II. FROM THE GREEK. 

 analysis antithesis automaton basis crisis ellipsis hypothesis parenthesis phenomenon thesis

[Sidenote: _Anglicized words. _]

When the foreign words are fully naturalized, they form their pluralsin the regular way; as, --

 bandits cherubs dogmas encomiums enigmas focuses formulas geniuses herbariums indexes seraphs apexes

[Sidenote: _Usage varies in plurals of letters, figures, etc. _]

54. Letters, figures, etc. , form their plurals by adding _-s_ or_'s_. Words quoted merely as words, without reference to theirmeaning, also add _-s_ or _'s_; as, "His _9's_ (or _9s_) look like_7's_ (or _7s_), " "Avoid using too many _and's_ (or _ands_), " "Changethe _+'s_ (or _+s_) to _-'s_ (or _-s_). "

CASE. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

55. Case is an inflection or use of a noun (or pronoun) to show itsrelation to other words in the sentence. 

In the sentence, "He sleeps in a felon's cell, " the word _felon's_modifies _cell_, and expresses a relation akin to possession; _cell_has another relation, helping to express the idea of place with theword _in_. 

56. In the general wearing-away of inflections, the number of caseforms has been greatly reduced. 

[Sidenote: _Only two_ case forms. ]

There are now only two case forms of English nouns, --one for the_nominative_ and _objective_, one for the _possessive_: consequentlythe matter of inflection is a very easy thing to handle in learningabout cases. 

[Sidenote: _Reasons for speaking of_ three cases _of nouns_. ]

But there are reasons why grammars treat of _three_ cases of nounswhen there are only two forms:--

(1) Because the relations of all words, whether inflected or not, mustbe understood for purposes of analysis. 

(2) Because pronouns still have three case forms as well as three caserelations. 

57. Nouns, then, may be said to have three cases, --thenominative, the objective, and the possessive. 

I. Uses of the Nominative. 

58. The nominative case is used as follows:--

(1) _As the subject of a verb_: "_Water_ seeks its level. "

(2) _As a predicate noun_, completing a verb, and referring to orexplaining the subject: "A bent twig makes a crooked _tree_. "

(3) _In apposition_ with some other nominative word, adding to themeaning of that word: "The reaper _Death_ with his sickle keen. "

(4) _In direct address_: "_Lord Angus_, thou hast lied!"

(5) _With a participle in an absolute or independent phrase_ (there issome discussion whether this is a true nominative): "The _work_ done, they returned to their homes. "

(6) _With an infinitive in exclamations_: "_David_ to die!"

Exercise. 

Pick out the nouns in the nominative case, and tell which use of thenominative each one has. 

1. Moderate lamentation is the right of the dead; excessive grief, theenemy of the living. 

2. Excuses are clothes which, when asked unawares, Good Breeding to naked Necessity spares. 

3. Human experience is the great test of truth. 

4. Cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers. 

5. Three properties belong to wisdom, --nature, learning, andexperience; three things characterize man, --person, fate, and merit. 

6. But of all plagues, good Heaven, thy wrath can send, Save, save, oh save me from the candid friend!

7. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 

8. They charged, sword in hand and visor down. 

9. O sleep! O gentle sleep! Nature's soft nurse, how have I frighted thee?

II. Uses of the Objective. 

59. The objective case is used as follows:--

(1) _As the direct object of a verb_, naming the person or thingdirectly receiving the action of the verb: "Woodman, spare that_tree_!"

(2) _As the indirect object of a verb_, naming the person or thingindirectly affected by the action of the verb: "Give the _devil_ hisdue. "

(3) _Adverbially_, defining the action of a verb by denoting _time_, _measure_, _distance_, etc. (in the older stages of the language, thistook the regular accusative inflection): "Full _fathom_ five thyfather lies;" "Cowards die many _times_ before their deaths. "

(4) _As the second object_, completing the verb, and thus becomingpart of the predicate in acting upon an object: "Time makes the worstenemies _friends_;" "Thou makest the storm a _calm_. " In thesesentences the real predicates are _makes friends_, taking the object_enemies_, and being equivalent to one verb, _reconciles_; and _makesta calm_, taking the object _storm_, and meaning calmest. This is alsocalled the _predicate objective_ or the _factitive object_. 

(5) _As the object of a preposition_, the word toward which thepreposition points, and which it joins to another word: "He must havea long spoon that would eat with the _devil_. "

The preposition sometimes takes the _possessive_ case of a noun, aswill be seen in Sec. 68. 

(6) _In apposition with another objective_: "The opinions of thisjunto were completely controlled by Nicholas Vedder, a _patriarch_ ofthe village, and _landlord_ of the inn. "

Exercise. 

Point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences, and tellwhich use each has:--

1. Tender men sometimes have strong wills. 

2. Necessity is the certain connection between cause and effect. 

3. Set a high price on your leisure moments; they are sands ofprecious gold. 

4. But the flood came howling one day. 

5. I found the urchin Cupid sleeping. 

6. Five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory. 

7. The noblest mind the best contentment has. 

8. Multitudes came every summer to visit that famous naturalcuriosity, the Great Stone Face. 

9. And whirling plate, and forfeits paid, His winter task a pastime made. 

10. He broke the ice on the streamlet's brink, And gave the leper to eat and drink. 

III. Uses of the Possessive. 

60. The possessive case always modifies another word, expressed orunderstood. There are three forms of possessive showing how a word isrelated in sense to the modified word:--

(1) _Appositional possessive_, as in these expressions, --

 The blind old man of _Scio's_ rocky isle. --BYRON. 

 Beside a pumice isle in _Baiæ's_ bay. --SHELLEY. 

In these sentences the phrases are equivalent to _of the rocky isle[of] Scio_, and _in the bay [of] Baiæ_, the possessive being reallyequivalent here to an appositional objective. It is a poeticexpression, the equivalent phrase being used in prose. 

(2) _Objective possessive_, as shown in the sentences, --

 Ann Turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady had been hanged for _Sir Thomas Overbury's_ murder. --HAWTHORNE. 

 He passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow, or in writing _yesterday's_ elegy. --THACKERAY

In these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a verbalexpression: as, _for murdering Sir Thomas Overbury_; _an elegy tocommemorate yesterday_. For this reason the use of the possessive hereis called objective. 

(3) _Subjective possessive_, the most common of all; as, --

 The unwearied sun, from day to day, Does his Creator's power display. --ADDISON. 

If this were expanded into _the power which his Creator possesses_, the word _Creator_ would be the subject of the verb: hence it iscalled a subjective possessive. 

61. This last-named possessive expresses a variety of relations. _Possession_ in some sense is the most common. The kind of relationmay usually be found by expanding the possessive into an equivalentphrase: for example, "_Winter's_ rude tempests are gathering now"(i. E. , tempests that winter is likely to have); "His beard was of_several days'_ growth" (i. E. , growth which several days haddeveloped); "The _forest's_ leaping panther shall yield his spottedhide" (i. E. , the panther which the forest hides); "Whoso sheddeth_man's_ blood" (blood that man possesses). 

[Sidenote: _How the possessive is formed. _]

62. As said before (Sec. 56), there are only two case forms. One isthe simple form of a word, expressing the relations of nominative andobjective; the other is formed by adding _'s_ to the simple form, making the possessive singular. To form the possessive plural, onlythe apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in _-s_; the_'s_ is added if the plural nominative does not end in _-s_. 

Case Inflection. 

[Sidenote: _Declension or inflection of nouns. _]

63. The full declension of nouns is as follows:--

 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. _Nom. And Obj. _ lady ladies _Poss. _ lady's ladies'

2. _Nom. And Obj. _ child children _Poss. _ child's children's

[Sidenote: _A suggestion. _]

NOTE. --The difficulty that some students have in writing thepossessive plural would be lessened if they would remember there aretwo steps to be taken:--

(1) Form the nominative plural according to Secs 39-53

(2) Follow the rule given in Sec. 62. 

Special Remarks on the Possessive Case. 

[Sidenote: _Origin of the possessive with its apostrophe. _]

64. In Old English a large number of words had in the genitive casesingular the ending _-es_; in Middle English still more words tookthis ending: for example, in Chaucer, "From every _schires_ ende, ""Full worthi was he in his _lordes_ werre [war], " "at his _beddes_syde, " "_mannes_ herte [heart], " etc. 

[Sidenote: _A false theory. _]

By the end of the seventeenth century the present way of indicatingthe possessive had become general. The use of the apostrophe, however, was not then regarded as standing for the omitted vowel of thegenitive (as _lord's_ for _lordes_): by a false theory the ending wasthought to be a contraction of _his_, as schoolboys sometimes write, "George Jones _his_ book. "

[Sidenote: _Use of the apostrophe. _]

Though this opinion was untrue, the apostrophe has proved a greatconvenience, since otherwise words with a plural in _-s_ would havethree forms alike. To the eye all the forms are now distinct, but tothe ear all may be alike, and the connection must tell us what form isintended. 

The use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the seventeenthcentury, from thinking that _s_ was not a possessive sign, and from adesire to have distinct forms. 

[Sidenote: _Sometimes_ s _is left out in the possessive singular. _]

65. Occasionally the _s_ is dropped in the possessive singular ifthe word ends in a hissing sound and another hissing sound follows, but the apostrophe remains to mark the possessive; as, _for goodness'sake, Cervantes' satirical work_. 

In other cases the _s_ is seldom omitted. Notice these three examplesfrom Thackeray's writings: "Harry ran upstairs to his _mistress's_apartment;" "A postscript is added, as by the _countess's_ command;""I saw what the _governess's_ views were of the matter. "

[Sidenote: _Possessive with compound expressions. _]

66. In compound expressions, containing words in apposition, a wordwith a phrase, etc. , the possessive sign is usually last, thoughinstances are found with both appositional words marked. 

Compare the following examples of literary usage:--

 Do not the Miss Prys, my neighbors, know the amount of my income, the items of my _son's_, _Captain Scrapegrace's_, tailor's bill--THACKERAY. 

 The world's pomp and power sits there on this hand: on that, stands up for God's truth one man, the _poor miner Hans Luther's_ son. --CARLYLE. 

 They invited me in the _emperor their master's_ name. --SWIFT. 

 I had naturally possessed myself of _Richardson the painter's_ thick octavo volumes of notes on the "Paradise Lost. "--DE QUINCEY. 

 They will go to Sunday schools to teach classes of little children the age of Methuselah or the dimensions of _Og the king of Bashan's_ bedstead. --HOLMES. 

More common still is the practice of turning the possessive into anequivalent phrase; as, _in the name of the emperor their master_, instead of _the emperor their master's name_. 

[Sidenote: _Possessive and no noun limited. _]

67. The possessive is sometimes used without belonging to any nounin the sentence; some such word as _house_, _store_, _church_, _dwelling_, etc. , being understood with it: for example, --

 Here at the _fruiterer's_ the Madonna has a tabernacle of fresh laurel leaves. --RUSKIN. 

 It is very common for people to say that they are disappointed in the first sight of _St. Peter's_. --LOWELL. 

 I remember him in his cradle at _St. James's_. --THACKERAY. 

 Kate saw that; and she walked off from the _don's_. --DE QUINCEY. 

[Sidenote: _The double possessive. _]

68. A peculiar form, a double possessive, has grown up and become afixed idiom in modern English. 

In most cases, a possessive relation was expressed in Old English bythe inflection _-es_, corresponding to _'s_. The same relation wasexpressed in French by a phrase corresponding to _of_ and its object. Both of these are now used side by side; sometimes they are usedtogether, as one modifier, making a double possessive. For this thereare several reasons:--

[Sidenote: _Its advantages: Euphony_. ]

(1) When a word is modified by _a_, _the_, _this_, _that_, _every_, _no_, _any_, _each_, etc. , and at the same time by a possessive noun, it is distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun, and it would also alter the meaning: we place it after the modifiednoun with _of_. 

[Sidenote: _Emphasis. _]

(2) It is more emphatic than the simple possessive, especially whenused with _this_ or _that_, for it brings out the modified word instrong relief. 

[Sidenote: _Clearness. _]

(3) It prevents ambiguity. For example, in such a sentence as, "Thisintroduction _of Atterbury's_ has all these advantages" (Dr. Blair), the statement clearly means only one thing, --the introduction whichAtterbury made. If, however, we use the phrase _of Atterbury_, thesentence _might_ be understood as just explained, or it might meanthis act of introducing Atterbury. (See also Sec. 87. )

The following are some instances of double possessives:--

 This Hall _of Tinville's_ is dark, ill-lighted except where she stands. --CARLYLE. 

 Those lectures _of Lowell's_ had a great influence with me, and I used to like whatever they bade me like. --HOWELLS

 Niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences _of Cæsar's_ can have come down to us. --FROUDE. 

 Besides these famous books _of Scott's and Johnson's_, there is a copious "Life" by Thomas Sheridan. --THACKERAY

 Always afterwards on occasions of ceremony, he wore that quaint old French sword _of the Commodore's_. --E. E. HALE. 

Exercises. 

(_a_) Pick out the possessive nouns, and tell whether each isappositional, objective, or subjective. 

(_b_) Rewrite the sentence, turning the possessives into equivalentphrases. 

1. I don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears. 

2. Shall Rome stand under one man's awe?

3. I must not see thee Osman's bride. 

4. At lovers' perjuries, They say, Jove laughs. 

5. The world has all its eyes on Cato's son. 

6. My quarrel and the English queen's are one. 

7. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, Comes dancing from the East. 

8. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds; therefore, let himseasonably water the one, and destroy the other. 

9. 'Tis all men's office to speak patience To those that wring under the load of sorrow. 

10. A jest's prosperity lies in the ear Of him that hears it, never in the tongue Of him that makes it. 

11. No more the juice of Egypt's grape shall moist his lip. 

12. There Shakespeare's self, with every garland crowned, Flew to those fairy climes his fancy sheen. 

13. What supports me? dost thou ask? The conscience, Friend, to have lost them [his eyes] overplied In liberty's defence. 

14. Or where Campania's plain forsaken lies, A weary waste expanding to the skies. 

15. Nature herself, it seemed, would raise A minster to her Maker's praise!

HOW TO PARSE NOUNS. 

69. Parsing a word is putting together all the facts about itsform and its relations to other words in the sentence. 

In parsing, some idioms--the double possessive, for example--do notcome under regular grammatical rules, and are to be spoken of merelyas idioms. 

70. Hence, in parsing a noun, we state, --

(1) The class to which it belongs, --common, proper, etc. 

(2) Whether a neuter or a gender noun; if the latter, which gender. 

(3) Whether singular or plural number. 

(4) Its office in the sentence, determining its case. 

[Sidenote: _The correct method. _]

71. In parsing any word, the following method should always befollowed: tell the facts about what the word _does_, then make thegrammatical statements as to its class, inflections, and relations. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

"What is bolder than a miller's neckcloth, which takes a thief by thethroat every morning?"

_Miller's_ is a name applied to every individual of its class, henceit is a common noun; it is the name of a male being, hence it is agender noun, masculine; it denotes only one person, thereforesingular number; it expresses possession or ownership, and limits_neckcloth_, therefore possessive case. 

_Neckcloth_, like _miller's_, is a common class noun; it has no sex, therefore neuter; names one thing, therefore singular number; subjectof the verb _is_ understood, and therefore nominative case. 

_Thief_ is a common class noun; the connection shows a male is meant, therefore masculine gender; singular number; object of the verb_takes_, hence objective case. 

_Throat_ is neuter, of the same class and number as the word_neckcloth_; it is the object of the preposition _by_, hence it isobjective case. 

NOTE. --The preposition sometimes takes the possessive case (see Sec. 68). 

_Morning_ is like _throat_ and _neckcloth_ as to class, gender, andnumber; as to case, it expresses time, has no governing word, but isthe adverbial objective. 

Exercise. 

Follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the followingsentences:--

1. To raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate virtue. 

2. The greatest pleasure I know is to do a good action by stealth, andto have it found out by accident. 

3. An old cloak makes a new jerkin; a withered serving man, a freshtapster. 

4. That in the captain's but a choleric word, Which in the soldier is flat blasphemy. 

5. Now, blessings light on him that first invented . .. Sleep!

6. Necker, financial minister to Louis XVI. , and his daughter, Madamede Staël, were natives of Geneva. 

7. He giveth his beloved sleep. 

8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 

9. A few miles from this point, where the Rhone enters the lake, stands the famous Castle of Chillon, connected with the shore by adrawbridge, --palace, castle, and prison, all in one. 

10. Wretches! ye loved her for her wealth, And hated her for her pride. 

11. Mrs. Jarley's back being towards him, the military gentleman shookhis forefinger. 

PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _The need of pronouns. _]

72. When we wish to speak of a name several times in succession, itis clumsy and tiresome to repeat the noun. For instance, instead ofsaying, "_The pupil_ will succeed in _the pupil's_ efforts if _thepupil_ is ambitious, " we improve the sentence by shortening it thus, "The pupil will succeed in _his_ efforts if _he_ is ambitious. "

Again, if we wish to know about the ownership of a house, we evidentlycannot state the owner's name, but by a question we say, "_Whose_house is that?" thus placing a word instead of the name till we learnthe name. 

This is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were _invented_because nouns were tiresome, since history shows that pronouns are asold as nouns and verbs. The use of pronouns must have sprung upnaturally, from a necessity for short, definite, and representativewords. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

A pronoun is a reference word, standing for a name, or for a personor thing, or for a group of persons or things. 

[Sidenote: _Classes of pronouns. _]

73. Pronouns may be grouped in five classes:--

(1) Personal pronouns, which distinguish person by their form (Sec. 76). 

(2) Interrogative pronouns, which are used to ask questions aboutpersons or things. 

(3) Relative pronouns, which relate or refer to a noun, pronoun, orother word or expression, and at the same time connect two statementsThey are also called conjunctive. 

(4) Adjective pronouns, words, primarily adjectives, which areclassed as adjectives when they modify nouns, but as pronouns whenthey stand for nouns. 

(5) Indefinite pronouns, which cannot be used as adjectives, butstand for an indefinite number of persons or things. 

Numerous examples of all these will be given under the separateclasses hereafter treated. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Person in grammar. _]

74. Since pronouns stand for persons as well as names, they mustrepresent the person talking, the person or thing spoken to, and theperson or thing talked about. 

This gives rise to a new term, "the distinction of _person_. "

[Sidenote: Person _of nouns_. ]

75. This distinction was not needed in discussing nouns, as nounshave the _same form_, whether representing persons and things spokento or spoken of. It is evident that a noun could not represent theperson speaking, even if it had a special form. 

From analogy to pronouns, which have _forms_ for person, nouns aresometimes spoken of as first or second person by their _use_; that is, if they are in apposition with a pronoun of the first or secondperson, they are said to have person by agreement. 

But usually nouns represent something spoken of. 

[Sidenote: _Three persons of pronouns. _]

76. Pronouns naturally are of three persons:--

(1) First person, representing the person speaking. 

(2) Second person, representing a person or thing spoken to. 

(3) Third person, standing for a person or thing spoken of. 

FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

77. Personal pronouns are inflected thus:--

 FIRST PERSON. _Singular. __Nom. _ I_Poss. _ mine, my_Obj. _ me

 _Plural. __Nom. _ we_Poss. _ our, ours_Obj. _ us

 SECOND PERSON. _Singular. _ _Old Form_ _Common Form. __Nom. _ thou you_Poss. _ thine, thy your, yours_Obj. _ thee you

 _Plural. __Nom. _ ye you_Poss. _ your, yours your, yours_Obj. _ you you

 THIRD PERSON. _Singular. _ _Masc. _ _Fem. _ _Neut. _. _Nom. _ he she it_Poss. _ his her, hers its_Obj. _ him her it

 _Plur. Of all Three_. _Nom. _ they_Poss. _ their, theirs_Obj. _ them

Remarks on These Forms. 

[Sidenote: _First and second persons without gender. _]

78. It will be noticed that the pronouns of the first and secondpersons have no forms to distinguish gender. The speaker may be eithermale or female, or, by personification, neuter; so also with theperson or thing spoken to. 

[Sidenote: _Third person_ singular _has gender_. ]

But the third person has, in the singular, a separate form for eachgender, and also for the neuter. 

[Sidenote: _Old forms_. ]

In Old English these three were formed from the same root; namely, masculine _hē_, feminine _hēo_, neuter _hit_. 

The form _hit_ (for _it_) is still heard in vulgar English, and _hoo_(for _hēo_) in some dialects of England. 

The plurals were _hī_, _heora_, _heom_, in Old English; the forms_they_, _their_, _them_, perhaps being from the English demonstrative, though influenced by the cognate Norse forms. 

[Sidenote: _Second person always plural in ordinary English. _]

79. _Thou_, _thee_, etc. , are old forms which are now out of use inordinary speech. The consequence is, that we have no singular pronounof the second person in ordinary speech or prose, but make the plural_you_ do duty for the singular. We use it with a plural verb always, even when referring to a single object. 

[Sidenote: _Two uses of the old singulars. _]

80. There are, however, two modern uses of _thou, thy_, etc. :--

(1) _In elevated style_, especially in poetry; as, --

 With _thy_ clear keen joyance Languor cannot be; Shadow of annoyance Never came near _thee_; _Thou_ lovest; but ne'er knew love's sad satiety. --SHELLEY. 

(2) _In addressing the Deity_, as in prayers, etc. ; for example, --

 Oh, _thou_ Shepherd of Israel, that didst comfort _thy_ people of old, to _thy_ care we commit the helpless. --BEECHER. 

[Sidenote: _The form_ its. ]

81. It is worth while to consider the possessive _its_. This is ofcomparatively recent growth. The old form was _his_ (from thenominative _hit_), and this continued in use till the sixteenthcentury. The transition from the old _his_ to the modern _its_ isshown in these sentences:--

 1 He anointed the altar and all _his_ vessels. --_Bible_

Here _his_ refers to _altar_, which is a neuter noun. The quotationrepresents the usage of the early sixteenth century. 

 2 It's had _it_ head bit off by _it_ young--SHAKESPEARE

Shakespeare uses _his_, _it_, and sometimes _its_, as possessive of_it_. 

In Milton's poetry (seventeenth century) _its_ occurs only threetimes. 

 3 See heaven _its_ sparkling portals wide display--POPE

[Sidenote: _A relic of the olden time. _]

82. We have an interesting relic in such sentences as this fromThackeray: "One of the ways to know '_em_ is to watch the scared looksof the ogres' wives and children. "

As shown above, the Old English objective was _hem_ (or _heom_), whichwas often sounded with the _h_ silent, just as we now say, "I saw'_im_ yesterday" when the word _him_ is not emphatic. In spokenEnglish, this form '_em_ has survived side by side with the literary_them_. 

[Sidenote: _Use of the pronouns in personification. _]

83. The pronouns _he_ and _she_ are often used in poetry, andsometimes in ordinary speech, to personify objects (Sec. 34). 

CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

I The Nominative. 

[Sidenote: _Nominative forms. _]

84. The nominative forms of personal pronouns have the same uses asthe nominative of nouns (see Sec. 58). The case of most of thesepronouns can be determined more easily than the case of nouns, for, besides a nominative _use_, they have a nominative form. The words_I_, _thou_, _he_, _she_, _we_, _ye_, _they_, are very rarely anythingbut nominative in literary English, though _ye_ is occasionally usedas objective. 

[Sidenote: _Additional nominatives in spoken English. _]

85. In spoken English, however, there are some others that are addedto the list of nominatives: they are, _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, _them_, when they occur in the _predicate position_. That is, in sucha sentence as, "I am sure it was _him_, " the literary language wouldrequire _he_ after _was_; but colloquial English regularly uses aspredicate nominatives the forms _me_, _him_, _her_, _us_, _them_, though those named in Sec. 84 are always subjects. Yet carefulspeakers avoid this, and follow the usage of literary English. 

II. The Possessive. 

[Sidenote: _Not a separate class. _]

86. The forms _my_, _thy_, _his_, _her_, _its_, _our_, _your_, _their_, are sometimes grouped separately as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS, butit is better to speak of them as the possessive case of personalpronouns, just as we speak of the possessive case of nouns, and notmake more classes. 

[Sidenote: Absolute _personal pronouns. _]

The forms _mine_, _thine_, _yours_, _hers_, _theirs_, sometimes _his_and _its_, have a peculiar use, standing apart from the words theymodify instead of immediately before them. From this use they arecalled ABSOLUTE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, or, some say, ABSOLUTE POSSESSIVES. 

As instances of the use of absolute pronouns, note the following:--

 'Twas _mine_, 'tis _his_, and has been slave to thousands. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 And since thou own'st that praise, I spare thee _mine_. --COWPER. 

 My arm better than _theirs_ can ward it off. --LANDOR. 

 _Thine_ are the city and the people of Granada. --BULWER. 

[Sidenote: _Old use of_ mine _and_ thine. ]

Formerly _mine_ and _thine_ stood before their nouns, if the nounsbegan with a vowel or _h_ silent; thus, --

 Shall I not take _mine_ ease in _mine_ inn?--SHAKESPEARE. 

 Give every man _thine_ ear, but few thy voice. --_Id. _

 If _thine_ eye offend thee, pluck it out. --_Bible. _

 My greatest apprehension was for _mine_ eyes. --SWIFT. 

This usage is still preserved in poetry. 

[Sidenote: _Double and triple possessives. _]

87. The forms _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, are really doublepossessives, since they add the possessive _s_ to what is already aregular possessive inflection. 

Besides this, we have, as in nouns, a possessive phrase made up of thepreposition _of_ with these double possessives, _hers_, _ours_, _yours_, _theirs_, and with _mine_, _thine_, _his_, sometimes _its_. 

[Sidenote: _Their uses. _]

Like the noun possessives, they have several uses:--

(1) _To prevent ambiguity_, as in the following:--

 I have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy friend _of theirs_ with the astounding spirits of Thackeray and Dickens. --J. T. FIELDS. 

 No words _of ours_ can describe the fury of the conflict. --J. F. COOPER. 

(2) _To bring emphasis_, as in these sentences:--

 This thing _of yours_ that you call a Pardon of Sins, it is a bit of rag-paper with ink. --CARLYLE. 

 This ancient silver bowl _of mine_, it tells of good old times. --HOLMES. 

(3) _To express contempt, anger, or satire_; for example, --

 "Do you know the charges that unhappy sister _of mine_ and her family have put me to already?" says the Master. --THACKERAY. 

 He [John Knox] had his pipe of Bordeaux too, we find, in that old Edinburgh house _of his_. --CARLYLE. 

 "Hold thy peace, Long Allen, " said Henry Woodstall, "I tell thee that tongue _of thine_ is not the shortest limb about _thee_. "--SCOTT. 

(4) _To make a noun less limited in application_; thus, --

 A favorite liar and servant _of mine_ was a man I once had to drive a brougham. --THACKERAY. 

 In New York I read a newspaper criticism one day, commenting upon a letter _of mine_. --_Id. _

What would the last two sentences mean if the word _my_ were writteninstead of _of mine_, and preceded the nouns?

[Sidenote: _About the case of absolute pronouns. _]

88. In their function, or use in a sentence, the absolute possessiveforms of the personal pronouns are very much like adjectives used asnouns. 

In such sentences as, "_The good_ alone are great, " "None but _thebrave_ deserves _the fair_, " the words italicized have an adjectiveforce and also a noun force, as shown in Sec. 20. 

So in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in Sec. 86: _mine_stands for _my property_, _his_ for _his property_, in the firstsentence; _mine_ stands for _my praise_ in the second. But the firsttwo have a nominative use, and _mine_ in the second has an objectiveuse. 

They may be spoken of as possessive in form, but nominative orobjective in use, according as the modified word is in the nominativeor the objective. 

III. The Objective. 

[Sidenote: _The old_ dative _case. _]

89. In Old English there was one case which survives in use, but notin form. In such a sentence as this one from Thackeray, "Pick _me_ outa whip-cord thong with some dainty knots in it, " the word _me_ isevidently not the direct object of the verb, but expresses _for whom_, _for whose benefit_, the thing is done. In pronouns, this dativeuse, as it is called, was marked by a separate case. 

[Sidenote: _Now the objective. _]

In Modern English the same _use_ is frequently seen, but the _form_ isthe same as the objective. For this reason a word thus used is calleda dative-objective. 

The following are examples of the dative-objective:--

 Give _me_ neither poverty nor riches. --_Bible. _

 Curse _me_ this people. --_Id. _

 Both joined in making _him_ a present. --MACAULAY

 Is it not enough that you have _burnt me_ down three houses with your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you!--LAMB

 I give _thee_ this to wear at the collar. --SCOTT

[Sidenote: _Other uses of the objective. _]

90. Besides this use of the objective, there are others:--

(1) _As the direct object of a verb. _

 They all handled _it_. --LAMB

(2) _As the object of a preposition. _

 Time is behind _them_ and before _them_. --CARLYLE. 

(3) _In apposition. _

 She sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar, _him_ that so often and so gladly I talked with. --DE QUINCEY. 

SPECIAL USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Indefinite use of_ you _and_ your. ]

91. The word _you_, and its possessive case _yours_ are sometimesused without reference to a particular person spoken to. They approachthe indefinite pronoun in use. 

 _Your_ mere puny stripling, that winced at the least flourish of the rod, was passed by with indulgence. --IRVING

 To empty here, _you_ must condense there. --EMERSON. 

 The peasants take off their hats as _you_ pass; _you_ sneeze, and they cry, "God bless you!" The thrifty housewife shows _you_ into her best chamber. _You_ have oaten cakes baked some months before. --LONGFELLOW

[Sidenote: _Uses of_ it. ]

92. The pronoun _it_ has a number of uses:--

(1) _To refer to some single word preceding_; as, --

 Ferdinand ordered the _army_ to recommence _its_ march. --BULWER. 

 _Society_, in this century, has not made _its_ progress, like Chinese skill, by a greater acuteness of ingenuity in trifles. --D. WEBSTER. 

(2) _To refer to a preceding word group_; thus, --

 If any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature, why, yet _it_ is but like the thorn or brier, which prick and scratch because they can do no other. --BACON. 

Here _it_ refers back to the whole sentence before it, or to the idea, "any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature. "

(3) _As a grammatical subject, to stand for the real, logicalsubject, which follows the verb_; as in the sentences, --

 _It_ is easy in the world _to live after the world's opinion_. --EMERSON. 

 _It_ is this _haziness_ of intellectual vision which is the malady of all classes of men by nature. --NEWMAN. 

 _It_ is a pity _that he has so much learning, or that he has not a great deal more_. --ADDISON. 

(4) _As an impersonal subject in certain expressions which need noother subject_; as, --

 _It_ is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their barreled apples. --THOREAU. 

 And when I awoke, _it_ rained. --COLERIDGE. 

 For when _it_ dawned, they dropped their arms. --_Id. _

 _It_ was late and after midnight. --DE QUINCEY. 

(5) _As an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or apreposition_; as in the following sentences:--

 (_a_) Michael Paw, who _lorded it_ over the fair regions of ancient Pavonia. --IRVING. 

 I made up my mind _to foot it_. --HAWTHORNE. 

 A sturdy lad . .. Who in turn tries all the professions, who _teams it, farms it, peddles it_, keeps a school. --EMERSON. 

 (_b_) "Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life _of it_. "--IRVING. 

 There was nothing _for it_ but to return. --SCOTT. 

 An editor has only to say "respectfully declined, " and there is an end _of it_. --HOLMES. 

 Poor Christian was hard put _to it_. --BUNYAN. 

[Sidenote: _Reflexive use of the personal pronouns. _]

93. The personal pronouns in the objective case are often used_reflexively_; that is, referring to the same person as the subject ofthe accompanying verb. For example, we use such expressions as, "Ifound _me_ a good book, " "He bought _him_ a horse, " etc. Thisreflexive use of the _dative_-objective is very common in spoken andin literary English. 

The personal pronouns are not often used reflexively, however, whenthey are _direct_ objects. This occurs in poetry, but seldom in prose;as, --

 Now I lay _me_ down to sleep. --ANON. 

 I set _me_ down and sigh. --BURNS. 

 And millions in those solitudes, since first The flight of years began, have laid _them_ down In their last sleep. --BRYANT. 

REFLEXIVE OR COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Composed of the personal pronouns with_ -self, -selves. ]

94. The REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS, or COMPOUND PERSONAL, as they are alsocalled, are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the word_self_, and its plural _selves_. 

They are _myself_, (_ourself_), _ourselves_, _yourself_, (_thyself_), _yourselves_, _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _themselves_. 

Of the two forms in parentheses, the second is the old form of thesecond person, used in poetry. 

_Ourself_ is used to follow the word _we_ when this represents asingle person, especially in the speech of rulers; as, --

 Methinks he seems no better than a girl; As girls were once, as we _ourself_ have been. --TENNYSON. 

[Sidenote: _Origin of these reflexives. _]

95. The question might arise, Why are _himself_ and _themselves_ not_hisself_ and _theirselves_, as in vulgar English, after the analogyof _myself_, _ourselves_, etc. ?

The history of these words shows they are made up of thedative-objective forms, not the possessive forms, with _self_. InMiddle English the forms _meself_, _theself_, were changed into thepossessive _myself_, _thyself_, and the others were formed by analogywith these. _Himself_ and _themselves_ are the only ones retaining adistinct objective form. 

In the forms _yourself_ and _yourselves_ we have the possessive _your_marked as singular as well as plural. 

[Sidenote: _Use of the reflexives. _]

96. There are three uses of reflexive pronouns:--

(1) _As object of a verb or preposition, and referring to the sameperson or thing as the subject_; as in these sentences from Emerson:--

 He who offers _himself_ a candidate for that covenant comes up like an Olympian. 

 I should hate _myself_ if then I made my other friends my asylum. 

 We fill _ourselves_ with ancient learning. 

 What do we know of nature or of _ourselves_?

(2) _To emphasize a noun or pronoun_; for example, --

 The great globe _itself_ . .. Shall dissolve. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 Threats to all; To _you yourself_, to us, to every one. --_Id. _

 Who would not sing for Lycidas! he knew _Himself_ to sing, and build the lofty rhyme. --MILTON. 

NOTE. --In such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted, and thereflexive modifies the pronoun understood; for example, --

 Only _itself_ can inspire whom it will. --EMERSON. 

 My hands are full of blossoms plucked before, Held dead within them till _myself_ shall die. --E. B. BROWNING. 

 As if it were _thyself_ that's here, I shrink with pain. --WORDSWORTH. 

(3) _As the precise equivalent of a personal pronoun_; as, --

 Lord Altamont designed to take his son and _myself_. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Victories that neither _myself_ nor my cause always deserved. --B. FRANKLIN. 

 For what else have our forefathers and _ourselves_ been taxed?--LANDOR. 

 Years ago, Arcturus and _myself_ met a gentleman from China who knew the language. --THACKERAY. 

Exercises on Personal Pronouns. 

(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns, some eachof masculine, feminine, and neuter. 

(_b_) Bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns in thepossessive, some of them being double possessives. 

(_c_) Tell which use each _it_ has in the following sentences:--

1. Come and trip it as we go, On the light fantastic toe. 

2. Infancy conforms to nobody; all conform to it. 

3. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 

4. Courage, father, fight it out. 

5. And it grew wondrous cold. 

6. To know what is best to do, and how to do it, is wisdom. 

7. If any phenomenon remains brute and dark, it is because thecorresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active. 

8. But if a man do not speak from within the veil, where the word isone with that it tells of, let him lowly confess it. 

9. It behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils. 

10. Biscuit is about the best thing I know; but it is the soonestspoiled; and one would like to hear counsel on one point, why it isthat a touch of water utterly ruins it. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Three now in use. _]

97. The interrogative pronouns now in use are _who_ (with the forms_whose_ and _whom_), _which_, and _what_. 

[Sidenote: _One obsolete. _]

There is an old word, _whether_, used formerly to mean which of two, but now obsolete. Examples from the Bible:--

 _Whether_ of them twain did the will of his father?

 _Whether_ is greater, the gold, or the temple?

From Steele (eighteenth century):--

 It may be a question _whether_ of these unfortunate persons had the greater soul. 

[Sidenote: _Use of_ who _and its forms. _]

98. The use of _who_, with its possessive and objective, is seen inthese sentences:--

 _Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?--DE QUINCEY. 

 _Whose_ was that gentle voice, that, whispering sweet, Promised, methought, long days of bliss sincere?--BOWLES. 

 What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. 

From these sentences it will be seen that interrogative _who_ refersto _persons only_; that it is not inflected for gender or number, butfor case alone, having three forms; it is always third person, as italways asks _about_ somebody. 

[Sidenote: _Use of_ which. ]

99. Examples of the use of interrogative _which_:--

 _Which_ of these had speed enough to sweep between the question and the answer, and divide the one from the other?--DE QUINCEY. 

 _Which_ of you, shall we say, doth love us most?--SHAKESPEARE. 

 _Which_ of them [the sisters] shall I take?--_Id. _

As shown here, _which_ is not inflected for gender, number, or case;it refers to either persons or things; it is selective, that is, picksout one or more from a number of known persons or objects. 

[Sidenote: _Use of_ what. ]

100. Sentences showing the use of interrogative _what_:--

 Since I from Smaylho'me tower have been, _What_ did thy lady do?--SCOTT. 

 _What_ is so rare as a day in June?--LOWELL. 

 _What_ wouldst thou do, old man?--SHAKESPEARE. 

These show that _what_ is not inflected for case; that it is alwayssingular and neuter, referring to things, ideas, actions, etc. , not topersons. 

DECLENSION OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

101. The following are all the interrogative forms:--

 SING. AND PLUR. SING. AND PLUR. SINGULAR

_Nom. _ who? which? what?_Poss. _ whose? -- --_Obj. _ whom? which? what?

In spoken English, _who_ is used as objective instead of _whom_; as, "_Who_ did you see?" "_Who_ did he speak to?"

[Sidenote: _To tell the case of interrogatives. _]

102. The interrogative _who_ has a separate form for each case, consequently the case can be told by the form of the word; but thecase of _which_ and _what_ must be determined exactly as in nouns, --bythe _use_ of the words. 

For instance, in Sec. 99, _which_ is nominative in the first sentence, since it is subject of the verb _had_; nominative in the second also, subject of _doth love_; objective in the last, being the directobject of the verb _shall take_. 

[Sidenote: _Further treatment of_ who, which _and_ what. ]

103. _Who_, _which_, and _what_ are also relative pronouns; _which_and _what_ are sometimes adjectives; _what_ may be an adverb in someexpressions. 

They will be spoken of again in the proper places, especially in thetreatment of indirect questions (Sec. 127). 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Function of the relative pronoun_. ]

104. Relative pronouns differ from both personal and interrogativepronouns in referring to an antecedent, and also in having aconjunctive use. The advantage in using them is to unite shortstatements into longer sentences, and so to make smoother discourse. Thus we may say, "The last of all the Bards was he. These bards sangof Border chivalry. " Or, it may be shortened into, --

 "The last of all the Bards was he, _Who_ sung of Border chivalry. "

In the latter sentence, _who_ evidently refers to _Bards_, which iscalled the antecedent of the relative. 

[Sidenote: _The antecedent. _]

105. The antecedent of a pronoun is the noun, pronoun, or otherword or expression, for which the pronoun stands. It usually precedesthe pronoun. 

Personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also, asthey take the place usually of a word already used; as, --

 The priest hath _his_ fee who comes and shrives us. --LOWELL

In this, both _his_ and _who_ have the antecedent _priest_. 

The pronoun _which_ may have its antecedent following, and theantecedent may be a word or a group of words, as will be shown in theremarks on _which_ below. 

[Sidenote: _Two kinds. _]

106. Relatives may be SIMPLE or INDEFINITE. 

When the word _relative_ is used, a simple relative is meant. Indefinite relatives, and the indefinite use of simple relatives, willbe discussed further on. 

The SIMPLE RELATIVES are _who_, _which_, _that_, _what_. 

[Sidenote: Who _and its forms. _]

107. Examples of the relative _who_ and its forms:--

 1. Has a man gained anything _who_ has received a hundred favors and rendered none?--EMERSON. 

 2. That man is little to be envied _whose_ patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon. --DR JOHNSON. 

3. For her enchanting son, _Whom_ universal nature did lament. --MILTON. 

 4. The nurse came to us, _who_ were sitting in an adjoining apartment. --THACKERAY. 

5. Ye mariners of England, That guard our native seas; _Whose_ flag has braved, a thousand years, The battle and the breeze!--CAMPBELL. 

 6. The men _whom_ men respect, the women _whom_ women approve, are the men and women _who_ bless their species. --PARTON

[Sidenote: Which _and its forms. _]

108. Examples of the relative _which_ and its forms:--

 1. They had not their own luster, but the look _which_ is not of the earth. --BYRON. 

 2. The embattled portal arch he pass'd, _Whose_ ponderous grate and massy bar Had oft roll'd back the tide of war. --SCOTT. 

 3. Generally speaking, the dogs _which_ stray around the butcher shops restrain their appetites. --COX. 

 4. The origin of language is divine, in the same sense in _which_ man's nature, with all its capabilities . .. , is a divine creation. --W. D. WHITNEY. 

 5. (_a_) This gradation . .. Ought to be kept in view; else this description will seem exaggerated, _which_ it certainly is not. --BURKE. 

 (_b_) The snow was three inches deep and still falling, _which_ prevented him from taking his usual ride. --IRVING. 

[Sidenote: That. ]

109. Examples of the relative _that_:--

 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself, . .. Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. --SHAKESPEARE

 2. The judge . .. Bought up all the pigs _that_ could be had. --LAMB

 3. Nature and books belong to the eyes _that_ see them. --EMERSON. 

 4. For the sake of country a man is told to yield everything _that_ makes the land honorable. --H. W. BEECHER

 5. Reader, _that_ do not pretend to have leisure for very much scholarship, you will not be angry with me for telling you. --DE QUINCEY. 

 6. The Tree Igdrasil, _that_ has its roots down in the kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven!--CARLYLE. 

[Sidenote: What. ]

110. Examples of the use of the relative _what_:--

 1. Its net to entangle the enemy seems to be _what_ it chiefly trusts to, and _what_ it takes most pains to render as complete as possible. --GOLDSMITH. 

 2. For _what_ he sought below is passed above, Already done is all that he would do. --MARGARET FULLER. 

 3. Some of our readers may have seen in India a crowd of crows picking a sick vulture to death, no bad type of _what_ often happens in that country. --MACAULAY

[_To the Teacher. _--If pupils work over the above sentences carefully, and test every remark in the following paragraphs, they will get amuch better understanding of the relatives. ]

REMARKS ON THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: Who. ]

111. By reading carefully the sentences in Sec. 107, the followingfacts will be noticed about the relative _who_:--

(1) It usually refers to persons: thus, in the first sentence, Sec. 107, _a man. .. Who_; in the second, _that man. .. Whose_; in the third, _son_, _whom_; and so on. 

(2) It has three case forms, --_who_, _whose_, _whom_. 

(3) The forms do not change for person or number of the antecedent. Insentence 4, _who_ is first person; in 5, _whose_ is second person; theothers are all third person. In 1, 2, and 3, the relatives aresingular; in 4, 5, and 6, they are plural. 

[Sidenote: Who _referring to animals_. ]

112. Though in most cases _who_ refers to persons there areinstances found where it refers to animals. It has been seen (Sec. 24)that animals are referred to by personal pronouns when theircharacteristics or habits are such as to render them important orinteresting to man. Probably on the same principle the personalrelative _who_ is used not infrequently in literature, referring toanimals. 

Witness the following examples:--

 And you, warm little housekeeper [the cricket], _who_ class With those who think the candles come too soon. --LEIGH HUNT. 

 The robins. .. Have succeeded in driving off the bluejays _who_ used to build in our pines. --LOWELL. 

 The little gorilla, _whose_ wound I had dressed, flung its arms around my neck. --THACKERAY. 

 A lake frequented by every fowl _whom_ Nature has taught to dip the wing in water. --DR. JOHNSON. 

 While we had such plenty of domestic insects _who_ infinitely excelled the former, because they understood how to weave as well as to spin. --SWIFT. 

 My horse, _who_, under his former rider had hunted the buffalo, seemed as much excited as myself. --IRVING. 

Other examples might be quoted from Burke, Kingsley, Smollett, Scott, Cooper, Gibbon, and others. 

[Sidenote: Which. ]

113. The sentences in Sec. 108 show that--

(1) _Which_ refers to animals, things, or ideas, not persons. 

(2) It is not inflected for gender or number. 

(3) It is nearly always third person, rarely second (an example of itsuse as second person is given in sentence 32, p. 96). 

(4) It has two case forms, --_which_ for the nominative and objective, _whose_ for the possessive. 

[Sidenote: _Examples of_ whose, _possessive case of_ which. ]

114. Grammarians sometimes object to the statement that _whose_ isthe possessive of _which_, saying that the phrase _of which_ shouldalways be used instead; yet a search in literature shows that thepossessive form _whose_ is quite common in prose as well as in poetry:for example, --

 I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious elevations, on _whose_ tops the sun kindled all the melodies and harmonies of light. --BEECHER. 

 Men may be ready to fight to the death, and to persecute without pity, for a religion _whose_ creed they do not understand, and _whose_ precepts they habitually disobey. --MACAULAY

 Beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the plain, _whose_ grave was dug by the thunder of the heavens. --SCOTT. 

 Many great and opulent cities _whose_ population now exceeds that of Virginia during the Revolution, and _whose_ names are spoken in the remotest corner of the civilized world. --MCMASTER. 

 Through the heavy door _whose_ bronze network closes the place of his rest, let us enter the church itself. --RUSKIN. 

 This moribund '61, _whose_ career of life is just coming to its terminus. --THACKERAY. 

So in Matthew Arnold, Kingsley, Burke, and numerous others. 

[Sidenote: Which _and its antecedents_. ]

115. The last two sentences in Sec. 108 show that _which_ may haveother antecedents than nouns and pronouns. In 5 (_a_) there is aparticipial adjective used as the antecedent; in 5 (_b_) there is acomplete clause employed as antecedent. This often occurs. 

Sometimes, too, the antecedent follows _which_; thus, --

 And, which is worse, _all you have done Hath been but for a wayward son_. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 Primarily, which is very notable and curious, I observe that _men of business rarely know the meaning of the word "rich_. "--RUSKIN. 

 I demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds, --first, as being one toward which I had no natural aptitudes or predisposing advantages; secondly (which made her stare), _as carrying with it no real or enviable distinction_. --DE QUINCEY. 

[Sidenote: That. ]

116. In the sentences of Sec. 109, we notice that--

(1) _That_ refers to persons, animals, and things. 

(2) It has only one case form, no possessive. 

(3) It is the same form for first, second, and third persons. 

(4) It has the same form for singular and plural. 

It sometimes borrows the possessive _whose_, as in sentence 6, Sec. 109, but this is not sanctioned as good usage. 

[Sidenote: What. ]

117. The sentences of Sec. 110 show that--

(1) _What_ always refers to things; is always neuter. 

(2) It is used almost entirely in the singular. 1. The man _that_ hath no music in himself, . .. Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. --SHAKESPEARE(3) Its antecedent is hardly ever expressed. When expressed, itusually follows, and is emphatic; as, for example, --

 What I would, _that_ do I not; but what I hate, _that_ do I. --_Bible_

 What fates impose, _that_ men must needs abide. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 What a man does, _that_ he has. --EMERSON. 

Compare this:--

 Alas! is _it_ not too true, what we said?--CARLYLE. 

DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

118. These are the forms of the simple relatives:--

 SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

 _Nom. _ who which that what _Poss. _ whose whose -- -- _Obj. _ whom which that what

HOW TO PARSE RELATIVES. 

119. The _gender_, _number_, and _person_ of the relatives _who_, _which_, and _that_ must be determined by those of the antecedent; the_case_ depends upon the function of the relative in its own clause. 

For example, consider the following sentence:

 "He uttered truths _that_ wrought upon and molded the lives of those _who_ heard him. "

Since the relatives hold the sentence together, we can, by taking themout, let the sentence fall apart into three divisions: (1) "He utteredtruths;" (2) "The truths wrought upon and molded the lives of thepeople;" (3) "These people heard him. "

_That_ evidently refers to _truths_, consequently is neuter, thirdperson, plural number. _Who_ plainly stands for _those_ or _thepeople_, either of which would be neuter, third person, plural number. Here the relative agrees with its antecedent. 

We cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in _case_. _Truths_ in sentence (2), above, is subject of _wrought upon andmolded_; in (1), it is object of _uttered_. In (2), _people_ is theobject of the preposition _of_; in (3), it is subject of the verb_heard_. Now, _that_ takes the case of _the truths_ in (2), not of_truths_ which is expressed in the sentence: consequently _that_ is inthe nominative case. In the same way _who_, standing for _the people_understood, subject of _heard_, is in the nominative case. 

Exercise. 

First find the antecedents, then parse the relatives, in the followingsentences:--

1. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose blossomsare neither colored nor fragrant!

2. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by itsfragrance of all the wealth of Pomona. 

3. Perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels forfilling an order. 

4. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. 

5. Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under thisavalanche of earthly impertinences. 

6. This method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking, whichis, after all, the highest result of all education. 

7. I know that there are many excellent people who object to thereading of novels as a waste of time. 

8. I think they are trying to outwit nature, who is sure to becunninger than they. 

[Sidenote: _Parsing_ what, _the simple relative_. ]

120. The relative _what_ is handled differently, because it hasusually no antecedent, but is singular, neuter, third person. Its caseis determined exactly as that of other relatives. In the sentence, "What can't be cured must be endured, " the verb _must be endured_ isthe predicate of something. What must be endured? Answer, _What can'tbe cured_. The whole expression is its subject. The word _what_, however, is subject of the verb _can't be cured_, and hence is in thenominative case. 

"What we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or change. "Here the subject of _is_, etc. , is _what we call nature_; but of this, _we_ is the subject, and _what_ is the direct object of the verb_call_, so is in the objective case. 

[Sidenote: _Another way. _]

Some prefer another method of treatment. As shown by the followingsentences, _what_ is equivalent to _that which_:--

 It has been said that "common souls pay with _what_ they do, nobler souls with _that which_ they are. "--EMERSON. 

 _That which_ is pleasant often appears under the name of evil; and _what_ is disagreeable to nature is called good and virtuous. --BURKE. 

Hence some take _what_ as a double relative, and parse _that_ in thefirst clause, and _which_ in the second clause; that is, "commonsouls pay with _that_ [singular, object of _with_] _which_ [singular, object of _do_] they do. "

INDEFINITE RELATIVES. 

[Sidenote: _List and examples. _]

121. INDEFINITE RELATIVES are, by meaning and use, not as direct asthe simple relatives. 

They are _whoever_, _whichever_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_; less commonare _whoso_, _whosoever_, _whichsoever_, _whatsoever_. The simplerelatives _who_, _which_, and _what_ may also be used as indefiniterelatives. Examples of indefinite relatives (from Emerson):--

 1. _Whoever_ has flattered his friend successfully must at once think himself a knave, and his friend a fool. 

 2. It is no proof of a man's understanding, to be able to affirm _whatever_ he pleases. 

 3. They sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor, or stand on their head, or _what_ else _soever_, in a new and original way. 

 4. _Whoso_ is heroic will always find crises to try his edge. 

 5. Only itself can inspire _whom_ it will. 

 6. God offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose. Take _which_ you please, --you cannot have both. 

 7. Do _what_ we can, summer will have its flies. 

[Sidenote: _Meaning and use. _]

122. The fitness of the term _indefinite_ here cannot be shownbetter than by examining the following sentences:--

 1. There is something so overruling in _whatever_ inspires us with awe, in _all things which_ belong ever so remotely to terror, that nothing else can stand in their presence. --BURKE. 

 2. Death is there associated, not with _everything that_ is most endearing in social and domestic charities, but with _whatever_ is darkest in human nature and in human destiny. --MACAULAY. 

It is clear that in 1, _whatever_ is equivalent to _all thingswhich_, and in 2, to _everything that_; no certain antecedent, noparticular thing, being referred to. So with the other indefinites. 

[Sidenote: What _simple relative and_ what _indefinite relative_. ]

123. The above helps us to discriminate between _what_ as a simpleand _what_ as an indefinite relative. 

As shown in Sec. 120, the simple relative _what_ is equivalent to_that which_ or the _thing which_, --some particular thing; as shown bythe last sentence in Sec. 121, _what_ means _anything that_, _everything that_ (or _everything which_). The difference must be seenby the meaning of the sentence, as _what_ hardly ever has anantecedent. 

The examples in sentences 5 and 6, Sec. 121, show that _who_ and_which_ have no antecedent expressed, but mean _any one whom_, _eitherone that_, etc. 

OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES. 

[Sidenote: But _and_ as. ]

124. Two words, but and as, are used with the force of relativepronouns in some expressions; for example, --

 1. There is not a leaf rotting on the highway _but_ has force in it: how else could it rot?--CARLYLE. 

 2. This, amongst such other troubles _as_ most men meet with in this life, has been my heaviest affliction. --DE QUINCEY. 

[Sidenote: _Proof that they have the force of relatives. _]

Compare with these the two following sentences:--

 3. There is nothing _but_ is related to us, nothing _that_ does _not_ interest us. --EMERSON. 

 4. There were articles of comfort and luxury such _as_ Hester never ceased to use, but _which_ only wealth could have purchased. --HAWTHORNE. 

Sentence 3 shows that _but_ is equivalent to the relative _that_ with_not_, and that _as_ after _such_ is equivalent to _which_. 

For _as_ after _same_ see "Syntax" (Sec. 417). 

[Sidenote: _Former use of_ as. ]

125. In early modern English, _as_ was used just as we use _that_ or_which_, not following the word _such_; thus, --

 I have not from your eyes that gentleness And show of love _as_ I was wont to have. --SHAKESPEARE

This still survives in vulgar English in England; for example, --

 "Don't you mind Lucy Passmore, _as_ charmed your warts for you when you was a boy? "--KINGSLEY

This is frequently illustrated in Dickens's works. 

[Sidenote: _Other substitutes. _]

126. Instead of the phrases _in which_, _upon which_, _by which_, etc. , the conjunctions _wherein_, _whereupon_, _whereby_, etc. , areused. 

 A man is the facade of a temple _wherein_ all wisdom and good abide. --EMERSON. 

 The sovereignty of this nature _whereof_ we speak. --_Id. _

 The dear home faces _whereupon_ That fitful firelight paled and shone. --WHITTIER. 

PRONOUNS IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 

[Sidenote: _Special caution needed here. _]

127. It is sometimes hard for the student to tell a relative from aninterrogative pronoun. In the regular direct question theinterrogative is easily recognized; so is the relative when anantecedent is close by. But compare the following in pairs:--

1. (_a_) Like a gentleman of leisure _who_ is strolling out for pleasure. 

 (_b_) Well we knew _who_ stood behind, though the earthwork hid them. 

2. (_a_) But _what_ you gain in time is perhaps lost in power. 

 (_b_) But _what_ had become of them they knew not. 

3. (_a_) These are the lines _which_ heaven-commanded Toil shows on his deed. 

 (_b_) And since that time I thought it not amiss To judge _which_ were the best of all these three. 

In sentences 1 (_a_), 2 (_a_) and 3 (_a_) the regular relative use isseen; _who_ having the antecedent _gentleman_, _what_ having thedouble use of pronoun and antecedent, _which_ having the antecedent_lines_. 

But in 1 (_b_), 2 (_b_), and 3 (_b_), there are two points ofdifference from the others considered: first, no antecedent isexpressed, which would indicate that they are not relatives; second, aquestion is disguised in each sentence, although each sentence as awhole is declarative in form. Thus, 1 (_b_), if expanded, would be, "Who stood behind? We knew, " etc. , showing that _who_ is plainlyinterrogative. So in 2 (_b_), _what_ is interrogative, the fullexpression being, "But what had become of them? They knew not. "Likewise with _which_ in 3 (_b_). 

[Sidenote: _How to decide. _]

In studying such sentences, (1) see whether there is an antecedent of_who_ or _which_, and whether _what_ = _that_ + _which_ (if so, it isa simple relative; if not, it is either an indefinite relative or aninterrogative pronoun); (2) see if the pronoun introduces an indirectquestion (if it does, it is an interrogative; if not, it is anindefinite relative). 

[Sidenote: _Another caution. _]

128. On the other hand, care must be taken to see whether thepronoun is the word that really _asks the question_ in aninterrogative sentence. Examine the following:--

1. Sweet rose! whence is this hue _Which_ doth all hues excel? --DRUMMOND

2. And then what wonders shall you do _Whose_ dawning beauty warms us so? --WALKER

3. Is this a romance? Or is it a faithful picture of _what_ has lately been in a neighboring land?--MACAULAY

These are interrogative sentences, but in none of them does thepronoun ask the question. In the first, _whence_ is the interrogativeword, _which_ has the antecedent _hue_. In the second, _whose_ has theantecedent _you_, and asks no question. In the third, the question isasked by the verb. 

OMISSION OF THE RELATIVES. 

[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ object. ]

129. The relative is frequently omitted in spoken and in literaryEnglish when it would be the object of a preposition or a verb. Hardlya writer can be found who does not leave out relatives in this waywhen they can be readily supplied in the mind of the reader. Thus, --

 These are the sounds we feed upon. --FLETCHER. 

 I visited many other apartments, but shall not trouble my reader with all the curiosities I observed. --SWIFT. 

Exercise. 

Put in the relatives _who_, _which_, or _that_ where they are omittedfrom the following sentences, and see whether the sentences are anysmoother or clearer:--

 1. The insect I am now describing lived three years, --GOLDSMITH. 

 2. They will go to Sunday schools through storms their brothers are afraid of. --HOLMES. 

 3. He opened the volume he first took from the shelf. --G. ELIOT. 

 4. He could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of to his poor neighbor. --THACKERAY. 

 5. When Goldsmith died, half the unpaid bill he owed to Mr. William Filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew. --FORSTER

 6. The thing I want to see is not Redbook Lists, and Court Calendars, but the life of man in England. --CARLYLE. 

 7. The material they had to work upon was already democratical by instinct and habitude. --LOWELL. 

[Sidenote: _Relative omitted when_ subject. ]

130. We often hear in spoken English expressions like these:--

 There isn't one here ‸ knows how to play ball. 

 There was such a crowd ‸ went, the house was full. 

Here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case. Also inliterary English we find the same omission. It is rare in prose, andcomparatively so in poetry. Examples are, --

 The silent truth that it was she was superior. --THACKERAY

 I have a mind presages me such thrift. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 There is a nun in Dryburgh bower, Ne'er looks upon the sun. --SCOTT. 

 And you may gather garlands there Would grace a summer queen. _Id. _

 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. --CAMPBELL. 

Exercises on the Relative Pronoun. 

(_a_) Bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives_who_, _which_, _that_, and _what_. 

(_b_) Bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives. 

(_c_) Bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced bypronouns. 

(_d_) Tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives, simple relatives, or indefinite relatives:--

1. He ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attendthe Queen's barge, which was already proceeding. 

2. The nobles looked at each other, but more with the purpose to seewhat each thought of the news, than to exchange any remarks on whathad happened. 

3. Gracious Heaven! who was this that knew the word?

4. It needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men;who were to be rulers over whom. 

5. He went on speaking to who would listen to him. 

6. What kept me silent was the thought of my mother. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Function of adjective pronouns. _]

131. Most of the words how to be considered are capable of a doubleuse, --they may be pure modifiers of nouns, or they may stand fornouns. In the first use they are adjectives; in the second they retainan adjective _meaning_, but have lost their adjective _use_. Primarilythey are adjectives, but in this function, or use, they are properlyclassed as adjective pronouns. 

The following are some examples of these:--

 _Some_ say that the place was bewitched. --IRVING. 

 That mysterious realm where _each_ shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT. 

 How happy is he born or taught That serveth not _another's_ will. --WOTTON

 _That_ is more than any martyr can stand. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

[Sidenote: _Adjectives, not pronouns. _]

Hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns, which we haveseen in such expressions as, "_The dead_ are there;" that is, a word, in order to be an adjective pronoun, _must not modify any word, expressed or understood_. It must come under the requirement ofpronouns, and _stand for a noun_. For instance, in the followingsentences--"The cubes are of stainless ivory, and on _each_ iswritten, in letters of gold, '_Truth_;'" "You needs must play suchpranks as _these_;" "They will always have one bank to sun themselvesupon, and _another_ to get cool under;" "Where two men ride on ahorse, _one_ must ride behind"--the words italicized modify nounsunderstood, necessarily thought of: thus, in the first, "each _cube_;"in the second, "these _pranks_, " in the others, "another _bank_, " "one_man_. "

[Sidenote: _Classes of adjective pronouns. _]

132. Adjective pronouns are divided into three classes:--

(1) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, such as _this_, _that_, _the former_, etc. 

(2) DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, such as _each_, _either_, _neither_, etc. 

(3) NUMERAL PRONOUNS, as _some_, _any_, _few_, _many_, _none_, _all_, etc. 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Definition and examples. _]

133. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is one that definitely points out whatpersons or things are alluded to in the sentence. 

The person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in anothersentence, or may be the whole of a sentence. For example, "Be _that_as it may" could refer to a sentiment in a sentence, or an argument ina paragraph; but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing. 

The following are examples of demonstratives:--

 I did not say _this_ in so many words. 

 All _these_ he saw; but what he fain had seen He could not see. 

 Beyond _that_ I seek not to penetrate the veil. 

 How much we forgive in _those_ who yield us the rare spectacle of heroic manners!

 The correspondence of Bonaparte with his brother Joseph, when _the latter_ was the King of Spain. 

 _Such_ are a few isolated instances, accidentally preserved. 

 Even as I have seen, they that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, reap _the same_. 

 They know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its sacred duties. They have not shunned _the one_, and they have well performed _the other_. 

NOTE. --It will be noticed in the first four sentences that _this_ and_that_ are inflected for number. 

Exercises. 

(_a_) Find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns. 

(_b_) In which of the following is _these_ a pronoun?--

 1. Formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as possible from the books, and to hand _these_ over to his successor as little worn as he could. --LOWELL. 

 2. They had fewer books, but _these_ were of the best. --_Id. _

 3. A man inspires affection and honor, because he was not lying in wait for _these_. --EMERSON

 4. Souls such as _these_ treat you as gods would. --_Id. _

 5. _These_ are the first mountains that broke the uniform level of the earth's surface. --AGASSIZ

DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Definition and examples. _]

134. The DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS are those which stand for the namesof persons or things considered singly. 

[Sidenote: _Simple. _]

Some of these are _simple_ pronouns; for example, --

 They stood, or sat, or reclined, as seemed good to _each_. 

 As two yoke devils sworn to _other's_ purpose. 

 Their minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own. 

[Sidenote: _Compound_. ]

Two are compound pronouns, --_each other_, _one another_. They may beseparated into two adjective pronouns; as, We violated our reverence _each_ for _the other's_ soul. --HAWTHORNE. 

More frequently they are considered as one pronoun. 

 They led one another, as it were, into a high pavilion of their thoughts. --HAWTHORNE. 

 Men take each other's measure when they react. --EMERSON. 

Exercise. --Find sentences containing three distributive pronouns. 

NUMERAL PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Definition and examples_. ]

135. The NUMERAL PRONOUNS are those which stand for an uncertainnumber or quantity of persons or things. 

The following sentences contain numeral pronouns:--

 Trusting too much to _others'_ care is the ruin of _many_. 

 'Tis of no importance how large his house, you quickly come to the end of _all_. 

 _Another_ opposes him with sound argument. 

 It is as if _one_ should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as to care nothing for Homer or Milton. 

 There were plenty _more_ for him to fall in company with, as _some_ of the rangers had gone astray. 

 The Soldan, imbued, as _most_ were, with the superstitions of his time, paused over a horoscope. 

 If those [taxes] were the only _ones_ we had to pay, we might the more easily discharge them. 

 _Much_ might be said on both sides. 

 If hand of mine _another's_ task has lightened. It felt the guidance that it does not claim. So perish _all_ whose breast ne'er learned to glow For _others_' good, or melt for _others_' woe. 

 _None_ shall rule but the humble. 

[Sidenote: _Some inflected. _]

It will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case andnumber; such as _one other_, _another_. 

The word _one_ has a reflexive form; for example, --

[Sidenote: One _reflexive_. ]

 The best way to punish _oneself_ for doing ill seems to me to go and do good. --KINGSLEY. 

 The lines sound so prettily to _one's self_. HOLMES. 

Exercise. --Find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns. 

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Definition and examples. _]

136. Indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinitenumber or quantity of persons or things; but, unlike adjectivepronouns, they are never used as adjectives. 

Most of them are compounds of two or more words:--

[Sidenote: _List. _]

_Somebody_, _some one_, _something_; _anybody_, _any one_ (or_anyone_), _anything_; _everybody_, _every one_ (or _everyone_), _everything_; _nobody_, _no one_, _nothing_; _somebody else_, _anyoneelse_, _everybody else_, _every one else_, etc. ; also _aught_, _naught_; and _somewhat_, _what_, and _they_. 

The following sentences contain indefinite pronouns:--

 As he had them of all hues, he hoped to fit _everybody's_ fancy. 

 _Every one_ knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining to arts and sciences. 

 _Nothing_ sheds more honor on our early history than the impression which these measures everywhere produced in America. 

 Let us also perform _something_ worthy to be remembered. 

 William of Orange was more than _anything else_ a religious man. 

 Frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of _everything_ that _nobody else_ would buy. 

 These other souls draw me as _nothing else_ can. 

 The genius that created it now creates _somewhat else_. 

 _Every one else_ stood still at his post. 

 That is perfectly true: I did not want _anybody else's_ authority to write as I did. 

_They_ indefinite means people in general; as, --

 At lovers' perjuries, _they_ say, Jove laughs. --SHAKESPEARE. 

_What_ indefinite is used in the expression "I tell you _what_. " Itmeans _something_, and was indefinite in Old English. 

 Now, in building of chaises, I tell you _what_, There is always somewhere a weakest spot. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with six indefinite pronouns. 

137. Some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case, as shown inthe words _everybody's_, _anybody else's_, etc. 

See also "Syntax" (Sec. 426) as to the possessive case of the formswith _else_. 

HOW TO PARSE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _A reminder. _]

138. In parsing pronouns the student will need particularly toguard against the mistake of parsing words according to _form_ insteadof according to function or use. 

Exercise. 

Parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences:--

 1. She could not help laughing at the vile English into which they were translated. 

 2. Our readers probably remember what Mrs. Hutchinson tells us of herself. 

 3. Whoever deals with M. De Witt must go the plain way that he pretends to, in his negotiations. 

 4. Some of them from whom nothing was to be got, were suffered to depart; but those from whom it was thought that anything could be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty. 

 5. All was now ready for action. 

 6. Scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again. 

 7. He came back determined to put everything to the hazard. 

 8. Nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the servant of his government, and of no other. 

 9. Others did the same thing, but not to quite so enormous an extent. 

 10. On reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful evening in June, I first found myself among the mountains, --a feature of natural scenery for which, from my earliest days, it was not extravagant to say that I hungered and thirsted. 

 11. I speak of that part which chiefly it is that I know. 

 12. A smaller sum I had given to my friend the attorney (who was connected with the money lenders as their lawyer), to which, indeed, he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings. 

 13. Whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost. 

 14. O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers!

 15. But there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in this island of ours. 

 16. But amongst themselves is no voice nor sound. 

 17. For this did God send her a great reward. 

 18. The table was good; but that was exactly what Kate cared little about. 

 19. Who and what was Milton? That is to say, what is the place which he fills in his own vernacular literature?

 20. These hopes are mine as much as theirs. 

 21. What else am I who laughed or wept yesterday, who slept last night like a corpse?

 22. I who alone am, I who see nothing in nature whose existence I can affirm with equal evidence to my own, behold now the semblance of my being, in all its height, variety, and curiosity reiterated in a foreign form. 

 23. What hand but would a garland cull For thee who art so beautiful?

 24. And I had done a hellish thing, And it would work 'em woe. 

 25. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worth doing, that let him communicate. 

 26. Rip Van Winkle was one of those foolish, well-oiled dispositions, who take the world easy, eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got with least thought or trouble. 

 27. And will your mother pity me, Who am a maiden most forlorn?

 28. They know not I knew thee, Who knew thee too well. 

 29. I did remind thee of our own dear Lake, By the old Hall which may be mine no more. 

 30. He sate him down, and seized a pen, and traced Words which I could not guess of. 

 31. Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow: Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now. 

 32. Wild Spirit which art moving everywhere; Destroyer and preserver; hear, oh, hear!

 33. A smile of hers was like an act of grace. 

 34. No man can learn what he has not preparation for learning. 

 35. What can we see or acquire but what we are?

 36. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. 

 37. We are by nature observers; that is our permanent state. 

 38. He knew not what to do, and so he read. 

 39. Who hears me, who understands me, becomes mine. 

 40. The men who carry their points do not need to inquire of their constituents what they should say. 

 41. Higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a certain sleep. 

 42. Those who live to the future must always appear selfish to those who live to the present. 

 43. I am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift comes from such as do not know my spirit. 

 44. Here I began to howl and scream abominably, which was no bad step towards my liberation. 

 45. The only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of the two--which is the master. 

ADJECTIVES. 

[Sidenote: _Office of Adjectives. _]

139. Nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additionalwords joined to them to add to their meaning. For example, if we wishto speak of a friend's house, we cannot guide one to it by merelycalling it _a house_. We need to add some words to tell its color, size, position, etc. , if we are at a distance; and if we are near, weneed some word to point out the house we speak of, so that no otherwill be mistaken for it. So with any object, or with persons. 

As to the kind of words used, we may begin with the common adjectivestelling the _characteristics_ of an object. If a chemist discovers anew substance, he cannot describe it to others without telling itsqualities: he will say it is _solid_, or _liquid_, or _gaseous_;_heavy_ or _light_; _brittle_ or _tough_; _white_ or _red_; etc. 

Again, in _pointing out_ an object, adjectives are used; such as inthe expressions "_this_ man, " "_that_ house, " "_yonder_ hill, " etc. 

Instead of using nouns indefinitely, the _number_ is limited byadjectives; as, "_one_ hat, " "_some_ cities, " "_a hundred_ men. "

The office of an adjective, then, is to narrow down or limit theapplication of a noun. It may have this office alone, or it may at thesame time add to the meaning of the noun. 

[Sidenote: _Substantives. _]

140. Nouns are not, however, the only words limited by adjectives:pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joinedto them. Any word or word group that performs the same office as anoun may be modified by adjectives. 

To make this clear, notice the following sentences:--

[Sidenote: _Pronoun. _]

 If _he_ be _thankful_ for small benefits, it shows that he weighs men's minds, and their trash. --BACON. 

[Sidenote: _Infinitives. _]

 _To err_ is _human_; _to forgive, divine_. --POPE. 

 With exception of the "and then, " the "and there, " and the still less _significant_ "_and so_, " they constitute all his connections. --COLERIDGE. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

141. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantiveword or expression, to describe it or to limit its application. 

[Sidenote: _Classes of adjectives. _]

142. Adjectives are divided into four classes:--

(1) Descriptive adjectives, which describe by expressing qualitiesor attributes of a substantive. 

(2) Adjectives of quantity, used to tell how many things are spokenof, or how much of a thing. 

(3) Demonstrative adjectives, pointing out particular things. 

(4) Pronominal adjectives, words primarily pronouns, but usedadjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them. They include relative and interrogative words. 

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

143. This large class includes several kinds of words:--

(1) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES expressing quality; such as _safe_, _happy_, _deep_, _fair_, _rash_, _beautiful_, _remotest_, _terrible_, etc. 

(2) COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, made up of various words thrown together tomake descriptive epithets. Examples are, "_Heaven-derived_ power, ""this _life-giving_ book, " "his spirit wrapt and _wonder-struck_, ""_ice-cold_ water, " "_half-dead_ traveler, " "_unlooked-for_ burden, ""_next-door_ neighbor, " "_ivory-handled_ pistols, " "the_cold-shudder-inspiring_ Woman in White. "

(3) PROPER ADJECTIVES, derived from proper nouns; such as, "an old_English_ manuscript, " "the _Christian_ pearl of charity, " "thewell-curb had a _Chinese_ roof, " "the _Roman_ writer Palladius. "

(4) PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES, which are either pure participles used todescribe, or participles which have lost all verbal force and have nofunction except to express quality. Examples are, --

_Pure participial adjectives_: "The _healing_ power of the Messiah, ""The _shattering_ sway of one strong arm, " "_trailing_ clouds, " "The_shattered_ squares have opened into line, " "It came on like the_rolling_ simoom, " "God tempers the wind to the _shorn_ lamb. "

_Faded participial adjectives_: "Sleep is a _blessed_ thing;" "One ishungry, and another is _drunken_;" "under the _fitting_ drapery of thejagged and trailing clouds;" "The clearness and quickness are_amazing_;" "an _aged_ man;" "a _charming_ sight. "

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

144. Care is needed, in studying these last-named words, todistinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb, and aparticiple or participial adjective that belongs to a noun. 

For instance: in the sentence, "The work was well and rapidlyaccomplished, " _was accomplished_ is a verb; in this, "No man of hisday was more brilliant or more accomplished, " _was_ is the verb, and_accomplished_ is an adjective. 

Exercises. 

1. Bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives, having someof each subclass named in Sec. 143. 

2. Is the italicized word an adjective in this?--

The old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh_exhausted_. 

ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. 

145. Adjectives of quantity tell _how much_ or _how many_. They havethese three subdivisions:--

[Sidenote: _How much. _]

(1) QUANTITY IN BULK: such words as _little_, _much_, _some_, _no_, _any_, _considerable_, sometimes _small_, joined usually to singularnouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of. 

The following examples are from Kingsley:--

 So he parted with _much_ weeping of the lady. Which we began to do with _great_ labor and _little_ profit. Because I had _some_ knowledge of surgery and blood-letting. But ever she looked on Mr. Oxenham, and seemed to take _no_ care as long as he was by. 

Examples of _small_ an adjective of quantity:--

 "The deil's in it but I bude to anger him!" said the woman, and walked away with a laugh of _small_ satisfaction. --MACDONALD. 

 'Tis midnight, but _small_ thoughts have I of sleep. --COLERIDGE. 

 It gives _small_ idea of Coleridge's way of talking. --CARLYLE. 

When _some_, _any_, _no_, are used with plural nouns, they come underthe next division of adjectives. 

[Sidenote: _How many. _]

(2) QUANTITY IN NUMBER, which may be expressed exactly by numbers orremotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts. Hence thenatural division into--

(_a_) _Definite numerals_; as, "_one_ blaze of musketry;" "He found inthe pathway _fourteen_ Spaniards;" "I have lost _one_ brother, but Ihave gained _fourscore_;" "_a dozen_ volunteers. "

(_b_) _Indefinite numerals_, as the following from Kingsley: "We gave_several_ thousand pounds for it;" "In came some five and twenty more, and with them _a few_ negroes;" "Then we wandered for _many_ days;""Amyas had evidently _more_ schemes in his head;" "He had lived byhunting for _some_ months;" "That light is far too red to be thereflection of _any_ beams of hers. "

[Sidenote: _Single ones of any number of changes. _]

(3) DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS, which occupy a place midway between thelast two subdivisions of numeral adjectives; for they are indefinitein telling how many objects are spoken of, but definite in referringto the objects one at a time. Thus, --

 _Every_ town had its fair; _every_ village, its wake. --THACKERAY. 

 An arrow was quivering in _each_ body. --KINGSLEY. 

 Few on _either_ side but had their shrewd scratch to show. --_Id. _

 Before I taught my tongue to wound My conscience with a sinful sound, Or had the black art to dispense A _several_ sin to _every_ sense. --VAUGHAN. 

Exercise. --Bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity. 

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

[Sidenote: _Not primarily pronouns. _]

146. The words of this list are placed here instead of amongpronominal adjectives, for the reason that they are felt to beprimarily adjectives; their pronominal use being evidently ashortening, by which the words point out but stand for words omitted, instead of modifying them. Their natural and original use is to bejoined to a noun following or in close connection. 

[Sidenote: _The list. _]

The demonstrative adjectives are _this_, _that_, (plural _these_, _those_), _yonder_ (or _yon_), _former_, _latter_; also the pairs_one_ (or _the one_)--_the other_, _the former_--_the latter_, used torefer to two things which have been already named in a sentence. 

[Sidenote: _Examples. _]

The following sentences present some examples:--

 The bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love, The matron's glance that would _those_ looks reprove. --GOLDSMITH. 

 These were thy charms. .. But all _these_ charms are fled. --_Id. _

 About _this_ time I met with an odd volume of the "Spectator. "--B. FRANKLIN. 

 _Yonder_ proud ships are not means of annoyance to you. --D. WEBSTER. 

 _Yon_ cloud with _that_ long purple cleft. --WORDSWORTH. 

 I chose for the students of Kensington two characteristic examples of early art, of equal skill; but in _the one_ case, skill which was progressive--in _the other_, skill which was at pause. --RUSKIN. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives. 

[Sidenote: _Ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives. _]

147. The class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here, as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives. They pointout which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned. Thefollowing are examples:--

 The _first_ regular provincial newspapers appear to have been created in the last decade of the _seventeenth_ century, and by the middle of the _eighteenth_ century almost every important provincial town had its local organ. --BANCROFT. 

These do not, like the other numerals, tell _how many_ things aremeant. When we speak of the seventeenth century, we imply nothing asto how many centuries there may be. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

148. As has been said, pronominal adjectives are primarilypronouns; but, when they _modify_ words instead of referring to themas antecedents, they are changed to adjectives. They are of twokinds, --RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE, --and are used to join sentences orto ask questions, just as the corresponding pronouns do. 

[Sidenote: _Modify names of persons or things. _]

149. The RELATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_; for example, --

 It matters not _what_ rank he has, _what_ revenues or garnitures. --CARLYLE. 

 The silver and laughing Xenil, careless _what_ lord should possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting course. --BULWER. 

 The taking of _which_ bark. I verily believe, was the ruin of every mother's son of us. --KINGSLEY. 

 In _which_ evil strait Mr. Oxenham fought desperately. --_Id. _

[Sidenote: _Indefinite relative adjectives. _]

150. The INDEFINITE RELATIVE adjectives are _what_, _whatever_, _whatsoever_, _whichever_, _whichsoever_. Examples of their use are, --

 He in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make _what_ sour mouths he would for pretense, proved not altogether displeasing to him. --LAMB. 

 _Whatever_ correction of our popular views from insight, nature will be sure to bear us out in. --EMERSON. 

 _Whatsoever_ kind of man he is, you at least give him full authority over your son. --RUSKIN. 

 Was there, as it rather seemed, a circle of ominous shadow moving along with his deformity, _whichever_ way he turned himself?--HAWTHORNE. 

 New torments I behold, and new tormented Around me, _whichsoever_ way I move, And _whichsoever_ way I turn, and gaze. --LONGFELLOW (FROM DANTE). 

151. The INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES are _which_ and _what_. They maybe used in direct and indirect questions. As in the pronouns, _which_is selective among what is known; _what_ inquires about things orpersons not known. 

[Sidenote: _In direct questions. _]

Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in direct questions:--

 _Which_ debt must I pay first, the debt to the rich, or the debt to the poor?--EMERSON. 

 But when the Trojan war comes, _which_ side will you take? --THACKERAY. 

 But _what_ books in the circulating library circulate?--LOWELL. 

 _What_ beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade Invites my steps, and points to yonder glade?--POPE. 

[Sidenote: _In indirect questions. _]

Sentences with _which_ and _what_ in indirect questions:--

 His head. .. Looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tell _which_ way the wind blew. --IRVING. 

 A lady once remarked, he [Coleridge] could never fix _which_ side of the garden walk would suit him best. --CARLYLE. 

 He was turned before long into all the universe, where it was uncertain _what_ game you would catch, or whether any. --_Id. _

 At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed and precipitated in regular strata, it is impossible to determine. --AGASSIZ. 

[Sidenote: _Adjective_ what _in exclamations_. ]

152. In exclamatory expressions, _what_ (or _what a_) has a forcesomewhat like a descriptive adjective. It is neither relative norinterrogative, but might be called an EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE; as, --

 Oh, _what a_ revolution! and _what a_ heart must I have, to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall!--BURKE. 

 _What a_ piece of work is man!--SHAKESPEARE. 

 And yet, alas, the making of it right, _what a_ business for long time to come!--CARLYLE

 Through _what_ hardships it may attain to bear a sweet fruit!--THOREAU. 

Exercise. --Find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives. 

INFLECTIONS OF ADJECTIVES. 

153 . Adjectives have two inflections, --number and comparison. 

NUMBER. --_This_, _That_. 

[Sidenote: _History of_ this--these _and_ that--those. ]

154. The only adjectives having a plural form are _this_ and _that_(plural _these_, _those_). 

_This_ is the old demonstrative; _that_ being borrowed from the formsof the definite article, which was fully inflected in Old English. Thearticle _that_ was used with neuter nouns. 

In Middle English the plural of _this_ was _this_ or _thise_, whichchanged its spelling to the modern form _these_. 

[Sidenote: Those _borrowed from_ this. ]

But _this_ had also another plural, _thās_ (modern _those_). The oldplural of _that_ was _tha_ (Middle English _tho_ or _thow_):consequently _tho_ (plural of _that_) and _those_ (plural of _this_)became confused, and it was forgotten that _those_ was really theplural of _this_; and in Modern English we speak of _these_ as theplural of _this_, and _those_ as the plural of _that_. 

COMPARISON. 

155. Comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns andpronouns: it belongs to adjectives and adverbs. 

[Sidenote: _Meaning of comparison. _]

When we place two objects side by side, we notice some differencesbetween them as to size, weight, color, etc. Thus, it is said that acow is _larger_ than a sheep, gold is _heavier_ than iron, a sapphireis _bluer_ than the sky. All these have certain qualities; and when wecompare the objects, we do so by means of their qualities, --cow andsheep by the quality of largeness, or size; gold and iron by thequality of heaviness, or weight, etc. , --but not the same degree, oramount, of the quality. 

The degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known orconceived of as possessing quality; as, "untamed thought, great, giant-like, enormous;" "the commonest speech;" "It is a nobler valor;""the largest soul. "

Also words of quantity may be compared: for example, "more matter, with less wit;" "no fewer than a hundred. "

[Sidenote: _Words that cannot be compared. _]

156. There are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as notto admit of comparison; for example, --

 His company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of arms, whose _favorite_ pupil he was. --THACKERAY. 

 A _main_ difference betwixt men is, whether they attend their own affair or not. --EMERSON

 It was his business to administer the law in its _final_ and closest application to the offender--HAWTHORNE. 

 Freedom is a _perpetual, organic, universal_ institution, in harmony with the Constitution of the United States. --SEWARD. 

So with the words _sole_, _sufficient_, _infinite_, _immemorial_, _indefatigable_, _indomitable_, _supreme_, and many others. 

It is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them, but, strictly considered, they are not compared. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

157. Comparison means the changes that words undergo to expressdegrees in quality, or amounts in quantity. 

[Sidenote: _The two forms. _]

158. There are two forms for this inflection: the comparative, expressing a greater degree of quality; and the superlative, expressing the greatest degree of quality. 

These are called degrees of comparison. 

These are properly the only degrees, though the simple, uninflectedform is usually called the positive degree. 

159. The comparative is formed by adding _-er_, and the superlativeby adding _-est_, to the simple form; as, _red_, _redder_, _reddest_;_blue_, _bluer_, _bluest_; _easy_, _easier_, _easiest_. 

[Sidenote: _Substitute for inflection in comparison. _]

160. Side by side with these inflected forms are found comparativeand superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more andmost. These are often useful as alternative with the inflectedforms, but in most cases are used before adjectives that are neverinflected. 

They came into use about the thirteenth century, but were not commonuntil a century later. 

[Sidenote: _Which rule_, -- -er _and_ -est _or_ more _and_ most?]

161. The English is somewhat capricious in choosing between theinflected forms and those with _more_ and _most_, so that noinflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparativeand the superlative. 

The general rule is, that monosyllables and easily pronounced words oftwo syllables add _-er_ and _-est_; and other words are preceded by_more_ and _most_. 

But room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and forvariety of expression. 

To see how literary English overrides any rule that could be given, examine the following taken at random:--

From Thackeray: "The _handsomest_ wives;" "the _immensest_ quantity ofthrashing;" "the _wonderfulest_ little shoes;" "_more odd, strange_, and yet familiar;" "_more austere_ and _holy_. "

From Ruskin: "The sharpest, finest chiseling, and _patientest_fusing;" "_distantest_ relationships;" "_sorrowfulest_ spectacles. "

Carlyle uses _beautifulest_, _mournfulest_, _honestest_, _admirablest_, _indisputablest_, _peaceablest_, _most small_, etc. 

These long, harsh forms are usually avoided, but _more_ and _most_ arefrequently used with monosyllables. 

162. Expressions are often met with in which a superlative form doesnot carry the superlative meaning. These are equivalent usually to_very_ with the positive degree; as, --

 To this the Count offers a _most wordy_ declaration of the benefits conferred by Spain. --_The Nation_, No 1507

 In all formulas that Johnson could stand by, there needed to be a _most genuine_ substance. --CARLYLE

 A gentleman, who, though born in no very high degree, was _most finished_, _polished_, _witty_, _easy_, _quiet_. --THACKERAY

 He had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck, which hung behind in the _queerest_ way. --_Id. _

 "So help me God, madam, I will, " said Henry Esmond, falling on his knees, and kissing the hand of his _dearest_ mistress. --_Id. _

[Sidenote: _Adjectives irregularly compared. _]

163. Among the variously derived adjectives now in our languagethere are some which may always be recognized as native English. Theseare adjectives irregularly compared. 

Most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words, butthey are essentially the same forms that have lived for so manycenturies. 

The following lists include the majority of them:--

 LIST I. 

 1. Good or well Better Best 2. Evil, bad, ill Worse Worst 3. Little Less, lesser Least 4. Much or many More Most 5. Old Elder, older Eldest, oldest 6. Nigh Nigher Nighest, next 7. Near Nearer Nearest 8. Far Farther, further Farthest, furthest 9. Late Later, latter Latest, last 10. Hind Hinder Hindmost, hindermost

 LIST II. 

 These have no adjective positive:--

 1. [In] Inner Inmost, innermost 2. [Out] Outer, utter {Outmost, outermost {Utmost, uttermost 3. [Up] Upper Upmost, uppermost

 LIST III. 

 A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--

 After Over Under Nether

Remarks on Irregular Adjectives. 

[Sidenote: _List I. _]

164. (1) The word good has no comparative or superlative, but takesthe place of a positive to _better_ and _best_. There was an oldcomparative _bet_, which has gone out of use; as in the sentence (14thcentury), "Ich singe _bet_ than thu dest" (I sing better than thoudost). The superlative I form was _betst_, which has softened to themodern _best_. 

(2) In Old English, evil was the positive to _worse_, _worst_; butlater _bad_ and _ill_ were borrowed from the Norse, and used aspositives to the same comparative and superlative. _Worser_ was onceused, a double comparative; as in Shakespeare, --

 O, throw away the _worser_ part of it. --HAMLET. 

(3) Little is used as positive to _less_, _least_, though from adifferent root. A double comparative, _lesser_, is often used; as, --

 We have it in a much _lesser_ degree. --MATTHEW ARNOLD. 

 Thrust the _lesser_ half by main force into the fists of Ho-ti. --LAMB. 

(4) The words much and many now express quantity; but in formertimes _much_ was used in the sense of _large_, _great_, and was thesame word that is found in the proverb, "Many a little makes _amickle_. " Its spelling has been _micel_, _muchel_, _moche_, _much_, the parallel form _mickle_ being rarely used. 

The meanings _greater_, _greatest_, are shown in such phrases as, --

 The _more_ part being of one mind, to England we sailed. --KINGSLEY. 

 The _most_ part kept a stolid indifference. --_Id. _

The latter, meaning _the largest part_, is quite common. 

(5) The forms elder, eldest, are earlier than _older_, _oldest_. Afew other words with the vowel _o_ had similar change in thecomparative and superlative, as _long_, _strong_, etc. ; but these havefollowed _old_ by keeping the same vowel _o_ in all the forms, insteadof _lenger_, _strenger_, etc. , the old forms. 

(6) and (7) Both nigh and near seem regular in Modern English, except the form _next_; but originally the comparison was _nigh_, _near_, _next_. In the same way the word high had in Middle Englishthe superlative _hexte_. 

By and by the comparative _near_ was regarded as a positive form, andon it were built a double comparative _nearer_, and the superlative_nearest_, which adds _-est_ to what is really a comparative insteadof a simple adjective. 

(8) These words also show confusion and consequent modification, coming about as follows: further really belongs to anotherseries, --_forth_, _further_, _first_. First became entirelydetached from the series, and _furthest_ began to be used to followthe comparative _further_; then these were used as comparative andsuperlative of _far_. 

The word far had formerly the comparative and superlative _farrer_, _farrest_. In imitation of _further_, _furthest_, _th_ came into theothers, making the modern _farther_, _farthest_. Between the two setsas they now stand, there is scarcely any distinction, except perhaps_further_ is more used than _farther_ in the sense of _additional_;as, for example, --

 When that evil principle was left with no _further_ material to support it. --HAWTHORNE. 

(9) Latter and last are the older forms. Since _later_, _latest_, came into use, a distinction has grown up between the two series. _Later_ and _latest_ have the true comparative and superlative force, and refer to time; _latter_ and _last_ are used in speaking ofsuccession, or series, and are hardly thought of as connected inmeaning with the word _late_. 

(10) Hinder is comparative in form, but not in meaning. The form_hindmost_ is really a double superlative, since the _m_ is for _-ma_, an old superlative ending, to which is added _-ost_, doubling theinflection. _Hind-er-m-ost_ presents the combination comparative +superlative + superlative. 

[Sidenote: _List II. _]

165. In List II. (Sec. 163) the comparatives and superlatives areadjectives, but they have no adjective positives. 

The comparatives are so in form, but not in their meaning. 

The superlatives show examples again of double inflection, and ofcomparative added to double-superlative inflection. 

Examples (from Carlyle) of the use of these adjectives: "revealing the_inner_ splendor to him;" "a mind that has penetrated into the_inmost_ heart of a thing;" "This of painting is one of the_outermost_ developments of a man;" "The _outer_ is of the day;""far-seeing as the sun, the _upper_ light of the world;" "the_innermost_ moral soul;" "their _utmost_ exertion. "

[Sidenote: -Most _added to other words_. ]

166. The ending _-most_ is added to some words that are not usuallyadjectives, or have no comparative forms. 

 There, on the very _topmost_ twig, sits that ridiculous but sweet-singing bobolink. --H. W. BEECHER. 

 Decidedly handsome, having such a skin as became a young woman of family in _northernmost_ Spain. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Highest and _midmost_, was descried The royal banner floating wide. --SCOTT. 

[Sidenote: _List III. _]

167. The adjectives in List III. Are like the comparative forms inList II. In having no adjective positives. They have no superlatives, and have no comparative force, being merely descriptive. 

 Her bows were deep in the water, but her _after_ deck was still dry. --KINGSLEY. 

 Her, by the by, in _after_ years I vainly endeavored to trace. --DE QUINCEY. 

 The upper and the _under_ side of the medal of Jove. --EMERSON. 

 Have you ever considered what a deep _under_ meaning there lies in our custom of strewing flowers?--RUSKIN. 

 Perhaps he rose out of some _nether_ region. --HAWTHORNE. 

_Over_ is rarely used separately as an adjective. 

CAUTION FOR ANALYZING OR PARSING. 

[Sidenote: _Think what each adjective belongs to. _]

168. Some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by anadjective. In a series of adjectives in the same sentence, all maybelong to the same noun, or each may modify a different word or groupof words. 

For example, in this sentence, "The young pastor's voice wastremulously sweet, rich, deep, and broken, " it is clear that all fouradjectives after _was_ modify the noun _voice_. But in this sentence, "She showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision, "_decision_ is modified by the adjective _incomparable_; _usual_modifies _incomparable decision_, not _decision_ alone; and thepronoun _her_ limits _usual incomparable decision_. 

Adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the _same rank_;those modifying different words or word groups are said to beadjectives of _different rank_. This distinction is valuable in astudy of punctuation. 

Exercise. 

In the following quotations, tell what each adjective modifies:--

 1. Whenever that look appeared in her wild, bright, deeply black eyes, it invested them with a strange remoteness and intangibility. --HAWTHORNE. 

 2. It may still be argued, that in the present divided state of Christendom a college which is positively Christian must be controlled by some religious denomination. --NOAH PORTER. 

 3. Every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood backward to her heart. --MRS. STOWE. 

 4. This, our new government, is the first in the history of the world based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth. --A. H. STEPHENS

 5. May we not, therefore, look with confidence to the ultimate universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system rests?--_Id. _

 6. A few improper jests and a volley of good, round, solid, satisfactory, and heaven-defying oaths. --HAWTHORNE. 

 7. It is well known that the announcement at any private rural entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate and profound impression. --HOLMES. 

ADVERBS USED AS ADJECTIVES. 

169. By a convenient brevity, adverbs are sometimes used asadjectives; as, instead of saying, "the one who was then king, " inwhich _then_ is an adverb, we may say "the _then_ king, " making _then_an adjective. Other instances are, --

 My _then_ favorite, in prose, Richard Hooker. --RUSKIN. 

 Our _sometime_ sister, now our queen. --SHAKESPEARE

 Messrs. Bradbury and Evans, the _then_ and _still_ owners. --TROLLOPE. 

 The _seldom_ use of it. --TRENCH. 

 For thy stomach's sake, and thine _often_ infirmities. --_Bible. _

HOW TO PARSE ADJECTIVES. 

[Sidenote: _What to tell in parsing. _]

170. Since adjectives have no gender, person, or case, and very fewhave number, the method of parsing is simple. 

In parsing an adjective, tell--

(1) The class and subclass to which it belongs. 

(2) Its number, if it has number. 

(3) Its degree of comparison, if it can be compared. 

(4) What word or words it modifies. 

MODEL FOR PARSING. 

These truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts. 

_These_ points out _what_ truths, therefore demonstrative; pluralnumber, having a singular, _this_; cannot be compared; modifies theword _truths_. 

_Unfamiliar_ describes _truths_, therefore descriptive; not inflectedfor number; compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_; positive degree;modifies _truths_. 

Exercise. 

Parse in full each adjective in these sentences:--

 1. A thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to Eliza. 

 2. The huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched and creaked. 

 3. I ask nothing of you, then, but that you proceed to your end by a direct, frank, manly way. 

 4. She made no reply, and I waited for none. 

 5. A herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their way, with awkward but rapid pace, across the plain. 

 6. Gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible enemy, whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure, and most astounding were those frightful yells. 

 7. This gave the young people entire freedom, and they enjoyed it to the fullest extent. 

 8. I will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice. 

 9. To every Roman citizen he gives, To every several man, seventy-five drachmas. 

 10. Each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or her birthday, on which occasion the elders of the family were bound to be absent. 

 11. Instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the bridge, yonder oxen in the pasture, those dogs in the yard, are immutably fishes, oxen, and dogs. 

 12. I know not what course others may take. 

 13. With every third step, the tomahawk fell. 

 14. What a ruthless business this war of extermination is!

 15. I was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country. 

 16. On what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed?

 17. The laws and institutions of his country ought to have been more to him than all the men in his country. 

 18. Like most gifted men, he won affections with ease. 

 19. His letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward fortunes of those he loves, yet are remarkably self-forgetful. 

 20. Their name was the last word upon his lips. 

 21. The captain said it was the last stick he had seen. 

 22. Before sunrise the next morning they let us out again. 

 23. He was curious to know to what sect we belonged. 

 24. Two hours elapsed, during which time I waited. 

 25. In music especially, you will soon find what personal benefit there is in being serviceable. 

 26. To say what good of fashion we can, it rests on reality, and hates nothing so much as pretenders. 

 27. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, as for armies that were too many by half. 

 28. On whichever side of the border chance had thrown Joanna, the same love to France would have been nurtured. 

 29. What advantage was open to him above the English boy?

 30. Nearer to our own times, and therefore more interesting to us, is the settlement of our own country. 

 31. Even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all directions, and many poles supported the lower ones. 

 32. Most fruits depend entirely on our care. 

 33. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so noble a fruit. 

 34. Let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like, he is no literary man. 

 35. Through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit!

 36. Whatsoever power exists will have itself organized. 

 37. A hard-struggling, weary-hearted man was he. 

ARTICLES. 

171. There is a class of words having always an adjectival use ingeneral, but with such subtle functions and various meanings that theydeserve separate treatment. In the sentence, "He passes an ordinarybrick house on the road, with an ordinary little garden, " the words_the_ and _an_ belong to nouns, just as adjectives do; but they cannotbe accurately placed under any class of adjectives. They are nearestto demonstrative and numeral adjectives. 

[Sidenote: _Their origin. _]

172. The article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective(_sē_, _sēo_, _ðat_, later _thē_, _thēo_, _that_) which was also anarticle in Old English. In Middle English _the_ became an article, and_that_ remained a demonstrative adjective. 

An or a came from the old numeral _ān_, meaning _one_. 

[Sidenote: _Two relics. _]

Our expressions _the one_, _the other_, were formerly _that one_, _that other_; the latter is still preserved in the expression, invulgar English, _the tother_. Not only this is kept in the Scotchdialect, but the former is used, these occurring as _the tane, thetother_, or _the tane, the tither_; for example, --

 We ca' her sometimes _the tane_, sometimes _the tother_. --SCOTT. 

[Sidenote: An _before vowel sounds_, a _before consonant sounds_. ]

173. Ordinarily _an_ is used before vowel sounds, and _a_ beforeconsonant sounds. Remember that a _vowel sound_ does not necessarilymean beginning with a vowel, nor does _consonant sound_ meanbeginning with a consonant, because English spelling does notcoincide closely with the sound of words. Examples: "_a_ house, " "_an_orange, " "_a_ European, " "_an_ honor, " "_a_ yelling crowd. "

[Sidenote: An _with consonant sounds_. ]

174. Many writers use _an_ before _h_, even when not silent, whenthe word is not accented on the first syllable. 

 _An_ historian, such as we have been attempting to describe, would indeed be an intellectual prodigy. --MACAULAY. 

 The Persians were _an_ heroic people like the Greeks. --BREWER. 

 He [Rip] evinced _an_ hereditary disposition to attend to anything else but his business. --IRVING. 

 _An_ habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and images. --COLERIDGE. 

 _An_ hereditary tenure of these offices. --THOMAS JEFFERSON. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

175. An article is a limiting word, not descriptive, which cannotbe used alone, but always joins to a substantive word to denote aparticular thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual ofa group or class. 

[Sidenote: _Kinds. _]

176. Articles are either definite or indefinite. 

The is the definite article, since it points out a particularindividual, or group, or class. 

An or a is the indefinite article, because it refers to any one ofa group or class of things. 

An and a are different forms of the same word, the older _ān_. 

USES OF THE DEFINITE ARTICLE. 

[Sidenote: _Reference to a known object. _]

177. The most common use of the definite article is to refer to anobject that the listener or reader is already acquainted with; as inthe sentence, --

 Don't you remember how, when _the_ dragon was infesting _the_ neighborhood of Babylon, _the_ citizens used to walk dismally out of evenings, and look at _the_ valleys round about strewed with _the_ bones?--THACKERAY. 

 NOTE. --This use is noticed when, on opening a story, a person is introduced by _a_, and afterwards referred to by _the_:--

 By and by _a_ giant came out of the dark north, and lay down on the ice near Audhumla. .. . _The_ giant frowned when he saw the glitter of the golden hair. --_Heroes of Asgard. _

[Sidenote: _With names of rivers. _]

178. _The_ is often prefixed to the names of rivers; and when theword _river_ is omitted, as "_the_ Mississippi, " "_the_ Ohio, " thearticle indicates clearly that a river, and not a state or othergeographical division, is referred to. 

 No wonder I could face _the_ Mississippi with so much courage supplied to me. --THACKERAY. 

 The Dakota tribes, doubtless, then occupied the country southwest of _the_ Missouri. --G. BANCROFT. 

[Sidenote: _To call attention to attributes. _]

179. When _the_ is prefixed to a proper name, it alters the force ofthe noun by directing attention to _certain qualities_ possessed bythe person or thing spoken of; thus, --

 _The_ Bacon, _the_ Spinoza, _the_ Hume, Schelling, Kant, or whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind, is only a more or less awkward translator of things in your consciousness. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: _With plural of abstract nouns. _]

180. _The_, when placed before the pluralized abstract noun, marksit as half abstract or a common noun. 

[Sidenote: _Common. _]

 His messages to _the_ provincial _authorities_. --MOTLEY. 

[Sidenote: _Half abstract. _]

 He was probably skilled in _the subtleties_ of Italian statesmanship. --_Id. _

[Sidenote: _With adjectives used as nouns. _]

181. When _the_ precedes adjectives of the positive degree usedsubstantively, it marks their use as common and plural nouns when theyrefer to persons, and as singular and abstract when they refer toqualities. 

 1. _The simple_ rise as by specific levity, not into a particular virtue, but into the region of all the virtues. --EMERSON. 

 2. If _the good_ is there, so is _the evil_. --_Id. _

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

NOTE. --This is not to be confused with words that have shifted fromadjectives and become pure nouns; as, --

 As she hesitated to pass on, _the gallant_, throwing his cloak from his shoulders, laid it on the miry spot. --SCOTT. 

 But De Soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish the temerity of _the natives_. --G. BANCROFT. 

[Sidenote: _One thing for its class. _]

182. _The_ before class nouns may mark one thing as a representativeof the class to which it belongs; for example, --

 The faint, silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and moist fields from _the bluebird_, _the song sparrow_, and _the redwing_, as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they fell!--THOREAU. 

 In the sands of Africa and Arabia _the camel_ is a sacred and precious gift. --GIBBON. 

[Sidenote: _For possessive person pronouns. _]

183. _The_ is frequently used instead of the possessive case of thepersonal pronouns _his_, _her_, etc. 

 More than one hinted that a cord twined around _the head_, or a match put between _the fingers_, would speedily extract the required information. --KINGSLEY. 

 _The_ mouth, and the region of the mouth, were about the strongest features in Wordsworth's face. --DE QUINCEY. 

[Sidenote: The _for_ a. ]

184. In England and Scotland _the_ is often used where we use _a_, in speaking of measure and price; as, --

 Wheat, the price of which necessarily varied, averaged in the middle of the fourteenth century tenpence _the bushel_, barley averaging at the same time three shillings _the quarter_. --FROUDE. 

[Sidenote: _A very strong restrictive. _]

185. Sometimes _the_ has a strong force, almost equivalent to adescriptive adjective in emphasizing a word, --

 No doubt but ye are _the_ people, and wisdom shall die with you. --_Bible. _

 As for New Orleans, it seemed to me _the_ city of the world where you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least. --THACKERAY. 

 He was _the_ man in all Europe that could (if any could) have driven six-in-hand full gallop over Al Sirat. --DE QUINCEY. 

[Sidenote: _Mark of a substantive. _]

186. _The_, since it belongs distinctively to substantives, is asure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially, but substantively. 

 In the hills of Sacramento there is gold for _the gathering_. --EMERSON. 

 I thought _the writing_ excellent, and wished, if possible, to imitate it. --FRANKLIN. 

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

187. There is one use of _the_ which is different from all theabove. It is an adverbial use, and is spoken of more fully in Sec. 283. Compare this sentence with those above:--

 There was something ugly and evil in his face, which they had not previously noticed, and which grew still _the more obvious_ to the sight _the oftener_ they looked upon him. --HAWTHORNE. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with five uses of the definite article. 

USES OF THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 

[Sidenote: _Denotes any one of a class. _]

188. The most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denoteany one of a class or group of objects: consequently it belongs tosingular words; as in the sentence, --

 Near the churchyard gate stands _a_ poor-box, fastened to _a_ post by iron bands and secured by _a_ padlock, with _a_ sloping wooden roof to keep off the rain. --LONGFELLOW

[Sidenote: _Widens the scope of proper nouns. _]

189. When the indefinite article precedes proper names, it altersthem to class names. The qualities or attributes of the object aremade prominent, and transferred to any one possessing them; as, --

 The vulgar riot and debauchery, which scarcely disgraced _an Alcibiades_ or _a Cæsar_, have been exchanged for the higher ideals of _a Bayard_ or _a Sydney_. --PEARSON

[Sidenote: _With abstract nouns. _]

190. _An_ or _a_ before abstract nouns often changes them to halfabstract: the idea of quality remains, but the word now denotes onlyone instance or example of things possessing the quality. 

[Sidenote: _Become half abstract. _]

 The simple perception of natural forms is _a delight_. --EMERSON

 If thou hadst _a sorrow_ of thine own, the brook might tell thee of it. --HAWTHORNE

In the first sentence, instead of the general abstract notion ofdelight, which cannot be singular or plural, _a delight_ means onething delightful, and implies others having the same quality. 

So _a sorrow_ means one cause of sorrow, implying that there areother things that bring sorrow. 

[Sidenote: _Become pure class nouns. _]

NOTE. --Some abstract nouns become common class nouns with theindefinite article, referring simply to persons; thus, --

 If the poet of the "Rape of the Lock" be not _a wit_, who deserves to be called so?--THACKERAY. 

 He had a little brother in London with him at this time, --as great _a beauty_, as great a dandy, as great a villain. --_Id. _

 _A youth_ to fortune and to fame unknown. --GRAY. 

[Sidenote: _Changes material to class nouns. _]

191. _An_ or _a_ before a material noun indicates the change to aclass noun, meaning one kind or a detached portion; as, --

 They that dwell up in the steeple, . .. Feel a glory in so rolling On the human heart _a stone_. --POE. 

 When God at first made man, Having _a glass_ of blessings standing by. --HERBERT. 

 The roofs were turned into arches of massy stone, joined by _a cement_ that grew harder by time. --JOHNSON. 

[Sidenote: _Like the numeral adjective_ one. ]

192. In some cases _an_ or _a_ has the full force of the numeraladjective _one_. It is shown in the following:--

 To every room there was _an_ open and _a_ secret passage. --JOHNSON. 

 In a short time these become a small tree, _an_ inverted pyramid resting on the apex of the other. --THOREAU. 

 All men are at last of _a_ size. --EMERSON. 

 At the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house, two at _a_ time. --THOREAU. 

[Sidenote: _Equivalent to the word_ each _or_ every. ]

193. Often, also, the indefinite article has the force of _each_ or_every_, particularly to express measure or frequency. 

 It would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to work eight or ten hours _a day_. --BULWER

[Sidenote: _Compare to Sec. 184. _]

 Strong beer, such as we now buy for eighteenpence _a gallon_, was then a penny _a gallon_. --FROUDE

[Sidenote: _With_ such, many, what. ]

194. _An_ or _a_ is added to the adjectives _such_, _many_, and_what_, and may be considered a part of these in modifyingsubstantives. 

 How was I to pay _such a_ debt?--THACKERAY. 

 _Many a_ one you and I have had here below. --THACKERAY. 

 _What a_ world of merriment then melody foretells!--POE. 

[Sidenote: _With_ not _and_ many. ]

195 LIST III. 

 A few of comparative form but not comparative meaning:--

 After Over Under Nether. 

_Not_ and _never_ with _a_ or _an_ are numeral adjectives, instead of adverbs, which they are in general. 

 _Not a_ drum was heard, _not a_ funeral note. --WOLFE

 My Lord Duke was as hot as a flame at this salute, but said _never a_ word. --THACKERAY. 

NOTE. --All these have the function of adjectives; but in the lastanalysis of the expressions, _such_, _many_, _not_, etc. , might beconsidered as adverbs modifying the article. 

[Sidenote: _With_ few _or_ little. ]

196. The adjectives _few_ and _little_ have the negative meaning of_not much_, _not many_, without the article; but when _a_ is putbefore them, they have the positive meaning of _some_. Notice thecontrast in the following sentences:--

 Of the country beyond the Mississippi _little_ more was known than of the heart of Africa. --MCMASTER

 To both must I of necessity cling, supported always by the hope that when _a little_ time, _a few_ years, shall have tried me more fully in their esteem, I may be able to bring them together. --_Keats's Letters_. 

 _Few_ of the great characters of history have been so differently judged as Alexander. --SMITH, _History of Greece_

[Sidenote: _With adjectives, changed to nouns_. ]

197. When _the_ is used before adjectives with no substantivefollowing (Sec. 181 and note), these words are adjectives used asnouns, or pure nouns; but when _an_ or _a_ precedes such words, theyare always nouns, having the regular use and inflections of nouns; forexample, --

 Such are the words _a brave_ should use. --COOPER. 

 In the great society of wits, John Gay deserves to be _a favorite_, and to have a good place. --THACKERAY

 Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for use in the verses of _a rival_. --PEARSON. 

Exercise. --Bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinitearticle. 

HOW TO PARSE ARTICLES. 

198. In parsing the article, tell--

(1) What word it limits. 

(2) Which of the above uses it has. 

Exercise. 

Parse the articles in the following:--

 1. It is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground, or bottling a little air in a phial, when the whole earth and the whole atmosphere are ours. 

 2. Aristeides landed on the island with a body of Hoplites, defeated the Persians and cut them to pieces to a man. 

 3. The wild fire that lit the eye of an Achilles can gleam no more. 

 4. But it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is mediæval; the whole city is of a piece. 

 5. To the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods, to the craftsman in his rude workshop, to the great and to the little, a new light has arisen. 

 6. When the manners of Loo are heard of, the stupid become intelligent, and the wavering, determined. 

 7. The student is to read history actively, and not passively. 

 8. This resistance was the labor of his life. 

 9. There was always a hope, even in the darkest hour. 

 10. The child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist with faultless beauty. 

 11. I think a mere gent (which I take to be the lowest form of civilization) better than a howling, whistling, clucking, stamping, jumping, tearing savage. 

 12. Every fowl whom Nature has taught to dip the wing in water. 

 13. They seem to be lines pretty much of a length. 

 14. Only yesterday, but what a gulf between now and then!

 15. Not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making of that brick. 

 16. The class of power, the working heroes, the Cortes, the Nelson, the Napoleon, see that this is the festivity and permanent celebration of such as they; that fashion is funded talent. 

VERBS AND VERBALS. . 

VERBS. 

[Sidenote: _Verb, --the word of the sentence. _]

199. The term _verb_ is from the Latin _verbum_ meaning _word_:hence it is _the_ word of a sentence. A thought cannot be expressedwithout a verb. When the child cries, "Apple!" it means, _See_ theapple! or I _have_ an apple! In the mariner's shout, "A sail!" themeaning is, "Yonder _is_ a sail!"

Sentences are in the form of declarations, questions, or commands; andnone of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb. 

[Sidenote: _One group or a group of words. _]

200. The verb may not always be a single word. On account of thelack of inflections, _verb phrases_ are very frequent. Hence the verbmay consist of:

(1) _One word_; as, "The young man _obeyed_. "

(2) _Several words of verbal nature, making one expression_; as, (_a_)"Some day it _may be considered_ reasonable, " (_b_) "Fearing lest he_might have been anticipated_. "

(3) _One or more verbal words united with other words to compose oneverb phrase_: as in the sentences, (_a_) "They knew well that thiswoman _ruled over_ thirty millions of subjects;" (_b_) "If all theflummery and extravagance of an army _were done away with_, the moneycould be made to go much further;" (_c_) "It is idle cant to pretendanxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devisemeans by which this preying upon people of small incomes _can be put astop to_. "

In (_a_), a verb and a preposition are used as one verb; in (_b_), averb, an adverb, and a preposition unite as a verb; in (_c_), anarticle, a noun, a preposition, are united with verbs as one verbphrase. 

[Sidenote: _Definition and caution. _]

201. A verb is a word used as a predicate, to say something to orabout some person or thing. In giving a definition, we consider a verbas one word. 

Now, it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is "a wordused as a predicate. " Examine the sentences in Sec. 200: In (1), _obeyed_ is a predicate; in (2, _a_), _may be considered_ is a unit indoing the work of one predicate; in (2, _b_), _might have beenanticipated_ is also one predicate, but _fearing_ is not a predicate, hence is not a verb; in (3, _b_), _to go_ is no predicate, and not averb; in (3, _c_), _to pretend_ and _preying_ have something ofverbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way, butcannot be predicates. 

In the sentence, "_Put_ money in thy purse, " _put_ is the predicate, with some word understood; as, "Put _thou_ money in thy purse. "

VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING AND USE. 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

[Sidenote: _The nature of the transitive verb. _]

202. By examining a few verbs, it may be seen that not all verbs areused alike. All do not express action: some denote state or condition. Of those expressing action, all do not express it in the same way; forexample, in this sentence from Bulwer, --"The proud lone _took_ care toconceal the anguish she _endured_; and the pride of woman _has_ anhypocrisy which _can deceive_ the most penetrating, and _shame_ themost astute, "--every one of the verbs in Italics has one or more wordsbefore or after it, representing something which it influences orcontrols. In the first, lone _took_ what? answer, _care_; _endured_what? _anguish_; etc. Each influences some object, which may be aperson, or a material thing, or an idea. _Has_ takes the object_hypocrisy_; _can deceive_ has an object, _the most penetrating_;(can) _shame_ also has an object, _the most astute_. 

In each case, the word following, or the object, is necessary to thecompletion of the action expressed in the verb. 

All these are called transitive verbs, from the Latin _transire_, which means _to go over_. Hence

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

203. A transitive verb is one which must have an object to completeits meaning, and to receive the action expressed. 

[Sidenote: _The nature of intransitive verbs. _]

204. Examine the verbs in the following paragraph:--

 She _sprang up_ at that thought, and, taking the staff which always guided her steps, she _hastened_ to the neighboring shrine of Isis. Till she _had been_ under the guardianship of the kindly Greek, that staff _had sufficed_ to conduct the poor blind girl from corner to corner of Pompeii. --BULWER

In this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined. _Sprang_, or _sprang up_, expresses action, but it is complete initself, does not affect an object; _hastened_ is similar in use; _hadbeen_ expresses condition, or state of being, and can have no object;_had sufficed_ means _had been sufficient_, and from its meaningcannot have an object. 

Such verbs are called intransitive (not crossing over). Hence

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

205. An intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself, orwhich is completed by other words without requiring an object. 

[Sidenote: _Study_ use, _not_ form, _of verbs here. _]

206. Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, according totheir use in the sentence, It can be said, "The boy _walked_ for twohours, " or "The boy _walked_ the horse;" "The rains _swelled_ theriver, " or "The river _swelled_ because of the rain;" etc. 

The important thing to observe is, many words must be distinguished astransitive or intransitive by _use_, not by _form_. 

207. Also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions. These may be (1) compounded with the verb; or (2) may follow the verb, and be used as an integral part of it: for example, --

 Asking her pardon for having _withstood_ her. --SCOTT. 

 I can wish myself no worse than to have it all to _undergo_ a second time. --KINGSLEY. 

 A weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes, as of a child that has _outgrown_ its playthings. --HAWTHORNE. 

 It is amusing to walk up and down the pier and _look at_ the countenances passing by. --B. TAYLOR. 

 He was at once so out of the way, and yet so sensible, that I loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him. --GOLDSMITH. 

 My little nurse told me the whole matter, which she had cunningly _picked out_ from her mother. --SWIFT. 

Exercises. 

(_a_) Pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in thefollowing:--

1. The women and children collected together at a distance. 

2. The path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna. 

3. As soon as I recovered my senses and strength from so sudden asurprise, I started back out of his reach where I stood to view him;he lay quiet whilst I surveyed him. 

4. At first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on theground, upon which they deposit a layer of eggs. 

5. I ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places, which was asort of neck or little dock, from which ascended a sloping path orroad up to the edge of the meadow, where their nests were; most ofthem were deserted, and the great thick whitish eggshells lay brokenand scattered upon the ground. 

6. Accordingly I got everything on board, charged my gun, set sailcautiously, along shore. As I passed by Battle Lagoon, I began totremble. 

7. I seized my gun, and went cautiously from my camp: when I hadadvanced about thirty yards, I halted behind a coppice of orangetrees, and soon perceived two very large bears, which had made theirway through the water and had landed in the grove, and were advancingtoward me. 

(_b_) Bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitiveverbs. 

VOICE, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. 

[Sidenote: _Meaning of active voice. _]

208. As has been seen, transitive verbs are the only kind that canexpress action so as to go over to an object. This implies threethings, --the agent, or person or thing acting; the verb representingthe action; the person or object receiving the act. 

In the sentence, "We reached the village of Sorgues by dusk, andaccepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn, " thesethree things are found: the actor, or agent, is expressed by _we_; theaction is asserted by _reached_ and _accepted_; the things acted uponare _village_ and _invitation_. Here the subject is represented asdoing something. The same word is the subject and the agent. This useof a transitive verb is called the active voice. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

209. The active voice is that form of a verb which represents thesubject as acting; or

The active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the_subject_ and the _agent_ the same word. 

[Sidenote: _A question. _]

210. Intransitive verbs are _always active voice_. Let the studentexplain why. 

[Sidenote: _Meaning of passive voice. _]

211. In the assertion of an action, it would be natural to suppose, that, instead of always representing the subject as acting upon someperson or thing, it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as_acted upon_; and the person or thing acting may or may not beexpressed in the sentence: for example, --

 All infractions of love and equity in our social relations are speedily punished. They are punished by fear. --EMERSON. 

Here the subject _infractions_ does nothing: it represents the objecttoward which the action of _are punished_ is directed, yet it is thesubject of the same verb. In the first sentence the agent is notexpressed; in the second, _fear_ is the agent of the same action. 

So that in this case, instead of having the agent and subject the sameword, we have the _object_ and _subject_ the same word, and the agentmay be omitted from the statement of the action. 

_Passive_ is from the Latin word _patior_, meaning _to endure_ or_suffer_; but in ordinary grammatical use _passive_ means _receivingan action_. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

212. The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents thesubject as being acted upon; or--

The passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the_subject_ and the _object_ by the same word. 

Exercises. 

(_a_) Pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice:--

1. In the large room some forty or fifty students were walking aboutwhile the parties were preparing. 

2. This was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a greatthick leather garment on, which reached to the knees. 

3. They then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder, tied a thick cravat around the throat, and drew on a cap with a largevisor. 

4. This done, they were walked about the room a short time; theirfaces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety. 

5. We joined the crowd, and used our lungs as well as any. 

6. The lakes were soon covered with merry skaters, and every afternoonthe banks were crowded with spectators. 

7. People were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which hadbeen already formed. 

8. The water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses, till someofficer came and opened the fire plug. 

9. The exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludeshimself from enjoyment, in the attempt to appropriate it. 

(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in thepassive voice. 

MOOD. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

213. The word _mood_ is from the Latin _modus_, meaning _manner_, _way_, _method_. Hence, when applied to verbs, --

Mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or beingof some subject. 

[Sidenote: _The three ways. _]

214. There are three chief ways of expressing action or being:--

(1) As a fact; this may be a question, statement, or assumption. 

(2) As doubtful, or merely conceived of in the mind. 

(3) As urged or commanded. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

[Sidenote: _Deals with facts. _]

215. The term _indicative_ is from the Latin _indicare_ (to declare, or assert). The indicative represents something as a fact, --

[Sidenote: _Affirms or denies. _]

(1) _By declaring a thing to be true or not to be true_; thus, --

 Distinction _is_ the consequence, never the object, of a great mind. --ALLSTON. 

 I _do not remember_ when or by whom I _was taught_ to read; because I _cannot_ and never _could recollect_ a time when I _could not read_ my Bible. --D. WEBSTER. 

[Sidenote: _Assumed as a fact. _]

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

(2) _By assuming a thing to be true_ without declaring it to be so. This kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by _if_ (meaning_admitting that, granting that_, etc. ), _though, although_, etc. Notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible; it isassumed to be a fact: for example, --

 If the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest; if America was yet in the cradle of her political existence; if her population little exceeded two millions; if she was without government, without fleets or armies, arsenals or magazines, without military knowledge, --still her citizens had a just and elevated sense of her rights. --A. HAMILTON. 

(3) _By asking a question to find out some fact_; as, --

 Is private credit the friend and patron of industry?--HAMILTON. 

 With respect to novels what shall I say?--N. WEBSTER. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

216 . The indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents athing as a fact, or inquires about some fact. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

[Sidenote: _Meaning of the word. _]

217. _Subjunctive_ means _subjoined_, or joined as dependent orsubordinate to something else. 

[Sidenote: _This meaning is misleading. _]

If its original meaning be closely adhered to, we must expect everydependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood, and everyclause _not_ dependent to have its verb in some other mood. 

But this is not the case. In the quotation from Hamilton (Sec. 215, 2)several subjoined clauses introduced by _if_ have the indicative mood, and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in thesubjunctive mood. 

[Sidenote: _Cautions. _]

Three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a studentwho wishes to understand and use the English subjunctive:--

(1) You cannot tell it always by the form of the word. The maindifference is, that the subjunctive has no _-s_ as the ending of thepresent tense, third person singular; as, "If he _come_. "

(2) The fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certainwords will not be a safe rule to guide you. 

(3) The _meaning_ of the verb itself must be keenly studied. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

218. The subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb whichexpresses action or being, not as a fact, but as merely conceived ofin the mind. 

Subjunctive in Independent Clauses. 

I. Expressing a Wish. 

219. The following are examples of this use:--

 Heaven _rest_ her soul!--MOORE. 

 God _grant_ you find one face there You loved when all was young. --KINGSLEY. 

 Now _tremble_ dimples on your cheek, Sweet _be_ your lips to taste and speak. --BEDDOES. 

 Long _die_ thy happy days before thy death. --SHAKESPEARE. 

II. A Contingent Declaration or Question. 

220. This really amounts to the conclusion, or principal clause, ina sentence, of which the condition is omitted. 

 Our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man [if we were to choose one] _would be_ this Goethe. --CARLYLE. 

 I _could lie_ down like a tired child, And _weep_ away the life of care Which I have borne and yet must bear. --SHELLEY. 

 Most excellent stranger, as you come to the lakes simply to see their loveliness, _might_ it not _be_ as well to ask after the most beautiful road, rather than the shortest?--DE QUINCEY. 

Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses. 

I. Condition or Supposition. 

221. The most common way of representing the action or being asmerely thought of, is by putting it into the form of a _supposition_or _condition_; as, --

 Now, if the fire of electricity and that of lightning _be_ the same, this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified clouds. --FRANKLIN. 

Here no assertion is made that the two things _are_ the same; but, ifthe reader merely _conceives_ them for the moment to be the same, thewriter can make the statement following. Again, --

 If it _be_ Sunday [supposing it to be Sunday], the peasants sit on the church steps and con their psalm books. --LONGFELLOW. 

STUDY OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

222. There are three kinds of conditional sentences:--

[Sidenote: _Real or true. _]

(1) Those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before themind in the form of a condition (see Sec. 215, 2); for example, --

 If they _were_ unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God. If their names _were not found_ in the registers of heralds, they were recorded in the Book of Life. --MACAULAY. 

[Sidenote: _Ideal, --may or may not be true. _]

(2) Those in which the condition depends on something uncertain, and_may or may not be regarded true, or be fulfilled_; as, --

 If, in our case, the representative system ultimately _fail_, popular government must be pronounced impossible. --D. WEBSTER. 

 If this _be_ the glory of Julius, the first great founder of the Empire, so it is also the glory of Charlemagne, the second founder. --BRYCE. 

 If any man _consider_ the present aspects of what is called by distinction society, he will see the need of these ethics. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: _Unreal--cannot be true. _]

(3) Suppositions _contrary to fact_, which cannot be true, orconditions that cannot be fulfilled, but are presented only in orderto suggest what _might be_ or _might have been_ true; thus, --

 If these things _were_ true, society could not hold together. --LOWELL. 

 _Did not_ my writings _produce_ me some solid pudding, the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me. --FRANKLIN. 

 _Had_ he for once _cast_ all such feelings aside, and _striven_ energetically to save Ney, it _would have cast_ such an enhancing light over all his glories, that we cannot but regret its absence. --BAYNE. 

 NOTE. --Conditional sentences are usually introduced by _if_, _though_, _except_, _unless_, etc. ; but when the verb precedes the subject, the conjunction is often omitted: for example, "_Were I bidden_ to say how the highest genius could be most advantageously employed, " etc. 

Exercise. 

In the following conditional clauses, tell whether each verb isindicative or subjunctive, and what kind of condition:--

 1. The voice, if he speak to you, is of similar physiognomy, clear, melodious, and sonorous. --CARLYLE. 

 2. Were you so distinguished from your neighbors, would you, do you think, be any the happier?--THACKERAY. 

 3. Epaminondas, if he was the man I take him for, would have sat still with joy and peace, if his lot had been mine. --EMERSON. 

 4. If a damsel had the least smattering of literature, she was regarded as a prodigy. --MACAULAY. 

 5. I told him, although it were the custom of our learned in Europe to steal inventions from each other, . .. Yet I would take such caution that he should have the honor entire. --SWIFT. 

 6. If he had reason to dislike him, he had better not have written, since he [Byron] was dead. --N. P. WILLIS. 

 7. If it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand, what native of the city would not mourn over its fall?--GAYARRE. 

 8. But in no case could it be justified, except it be for a failure of the association or union to effect the object for which it was created. --CALHOUN. 

II. Subjunctive of Purpose. 

223. The subjunctive, especially _be_, _may_, _might_, and _should_, is used to express purpose, the clause being introduced by _that_ or_lest_; as, --

 It was necessary, he supposed, to drink strong beer, that he _might be_ strong to labor. --FRANKLIN. 

 I have been the more particular. .. That you _may compare_ such unlikely beginnings with the figure I have since made there. --_Id. _

 He [Roderick] with sudden impulse that way rode, To tell of what had passed, lest in the strife They _should engage_ with Julian's men. --SOUTHEY. 

III. Subjunctive of Result. 

224. The subjunctive may represent the result toward which an actiontends:--

 So many thoughts move to and fro, That vain it _were_ her eyes to close. --COLERIDGE. 

 So live, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan. .. Thou _go_ not, like the quarry-slave at night. --BRYANT. 

IV. In Temporal Clauses. 

225. The English subjunctive, like the Latin, is sometimes used in aclause to express the time when an action is to take place. 

 Let it rise, till it _meet_ the sun in his coming. --D. WEBSTER. 

 Rise up, before it _be_ too late!--HAWTHORNE. 

 But it will not be long Ere this _be thrown_ aside. --WORDSWORTH. 

V. In Indirect Questions. 

226. The subjunctive is often found in indirect questions, theanswer being regarded as doubtful. 

 Ask the great man if there _be_ none greater. --EMERSON

 What the best arrangement _were_, none of us could say. --CARLYLE. 

 Whether it _were_ morning or whether it _were_ afternoon, in her confusion she had not distinctly known. --DE QUINCEY. 

VI. Expressing a Wish. 

227. After a verb of wishing, the subjunctive is regularly used inthe dependent clause. 

 The transmigiation of souls is no fable. I would it _were_! --EMERSON. 

 Bright star! Would I _were_ steadfast as thou art!--KEATS. 

 I've wished that little isle _had_ wings, And we, within its fairy bowers, _Were wafted_ off to seas unknown. --MOORE. 

VII. In a Noun Clause. 

[Sidenote: _Subject. _]

228. The noun clause, in its various uses as subject, object, inapposition, etc. , often contains a subjunctive. 

 The essence of originality is not that it _be_ new. --CARLYLE

[Sidenote: _Apposition or logical subject. _]

 To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those October fruits, it is necessary that you _be breathing_ the sharp October or November air. --THOREAU. 

[Sidenote: _Complement. _]

 The first merit, that which admits neither substitute nor equivalent, is, that everything _be_ in its place. --COLERIDGE. 

[Sidenote: _Object. _]

 As sure as Heaven shall rescue me, I have no thought what men they _be_. --COLERIDGE. 

 Some might lament that I _were_ cold. --SHELLEY. 

[Sidenote: _After verbs of commanding. _]

This subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of _commanding_. 

 See that there _be_ no traitors in your camp. --TENNYSON. 

 Come, tell me all that thou hast seen, And look thou _tell_ me true. --SCOTT. 

 See that thy scepter _be_ heavy on his head. --DE QUINCEY. 

VIII. Concessive Clauses. 

229. The concession may be expressed--

(1) In the nature of the verb; for example, --

 _Be_ the matter how it may, Gabriel Grub was afflicted with rheumatism to the end of his days. --DICKENS. 

 _Be_ the appeal _made_ to the understanding or the heart, the sentence is the same--that rejects it. --BROUGHAM

(2) By an indefinite relative word, which may be

(_a_) _Pronoun. _

 Whatever _betide_, we'll turn aside, And see the Braes of Yarrow. --WORDSWORTH. 

(_b_) _Adjective. _

 That hunger of applause, of cash, or whatsoever victual it _may be_, is the ultimate fact of man's life. --CARLYLE. 

(_c_) _Adverb. _

 Wherever he _dream_ under mountain or stream, The spirit he loves remains. --SHELLEY. 

Prevalence of the Subjunctive Mood. 

230. As shown by the wide range of literature from which theseexamples are selected, the subjunctive is very much used in literaryEnglish, especially by those who are artistic and exact in theexpression of their thought. 

At the present day, however, the subjunctive is becoming less andless used. Very many of the sentences illustrating the use of thesubjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using theindicative to express the same thoughts. 

The three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are, to express awish, a concession, and condition contrary to fact. 

In spoken English, the subjunctive _were_ is much used in a wish or acondition contrary to fact, but hardly any other subjunctive formsare. 

It must be remembered, though, that many of the verbs in thesubjunctive have the same form as the indicative. Especially is thistrue of unreal conditions in past time; for example, --

 Were we of open sense as the Greeks were, we _had found_ [should have found] a poem here. --CARLYLE. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

231. The imperative mood is the form of the verb used in directcommands, entreaties, or requests. 

[Sidenote: _Usually second person. _]

232. The imperative is naturally used mostly with the secondperson, since commands are directed to a person addressed. 

(1) _Command. _

 _Call up_ the shades of Demosthenes and Cicero to vouch for your words; _point_ to their immortal works. --J. Q. ADAMS. 

 _Honor_ all men; _love_ all men; _fear_ none. --CHANNING. 

(2) _Entreaty. _

 Oh, from these sterner aspects of thy face _Spare_ me and mine, nor _let_ us need the wrath Of the mad unchained elements. --BRYANT. 

(3) _Request. _

 "_Hush_! mother, " whispered Kit. "_Come_ along with me. "--DICKENS

 _Tell_ me, how was it you thought of coming here?--_Id. _

[Sidenote: _Sometimes with_ first person _in the plural_. ]

But the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person. Since the first person plural person is not really I + I, but I + you, or I + they, etc. , we may use the imperative with _we_ in a command, request, etc. , to _you_ implied in it. This is scarcely ever foundoutside of poetry. 

 _Part we_ in friendship from your land, And, noble earl, receive my hand. --SCOTT. 

 Then _seek we_ not their camp--for there The silence dwells of my despair. --CAMPBELL. 

 _Break we_ our watch up. --SHAKESPEARE. 

Usually this is expressed by _let_ with the objective: "_Let_ us go. "And the same with the third person: "_Let_ him be accursed. "

Exercises on the Moods. 

(_a_) Tell the mood of each verb in these sentences, and what specialuse it is of that mood:--

 1. Wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled, there will her heart and her prayers be. 

 2. Mark thou this difference, child of earth! While each performs his part, Not all the lip can speak is worth The silence of the heart. 

 3. Oh, that I might be admitted to thy presence! that mine were the supreme delight of knowing thy will!

 4. 'Twere worth ten years of peaceful life, One glance at their array!

 5. Whatever inconvenience ensue, nothing is to be preferred before justice. 

 6. The vigorous sun would catch it up at eve And use it for an anvil till he had filled The shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts. 

 7. Meet is it changes should control Our being, lest we rust in ease. 

 8. Quoth she, "The Devil take the goose, And God forget the stranger!"

 9. Think not that I speak for your sakes. 

 10. "Now tread we a measure!" said young Lochinvar. 

 11. Were that a just return? Were that Roman magnanimity?

 12. Well; how he may do his work, whether he do it right or wrong, or do it at all, is a point which no man in the world has taken the pains to think of. 

 13. He is, let him live where else he like, in what pomps and prosperities he like, no literary man. 

 14. Could we one day complete the immense figure which these flagrant points compose!

 15. "Oh, then, my dear madam, " cried he, "tell me where I may find my poor, ruined, but repentant child. "

 16. That sheaf of darts, will it not fall unbound, Except, disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt, Thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt?

 17. Forget thyself to marble, till With a sad leaden downward cast Thou fix them on the earth as fast. 

 18. He, as though an instrument, Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls, That they might answer him. 

 19. From the moss violets and jonquils peep, And dart their arrowy odor through the brain, Till you might faint with that delicious pain. 

 20. That a man parade his doubt, and get to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has; alas! this is as if you should overturn the tree. 

 21. The fat earth feed thy branchy root That under deeply strikes! The northern morning o'er thee shoot, High up in silver spikes!

 22. Though abyss open under abyss, and opinion displace opinion, all are at last contained in the Eternal cause. 

 23. God send Rome one such other sight!

 24. "Mr. Marshall, " continued Old Morgan, "see that no one mentions the United States to the prisoner. "

 25. If there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right to vote, she ought to have it. 

 26. Though he were dumb, it would speak. 

 27. Meantime, whatever she did, --whether it were in display of her own matchless talents, or whether it were as one member of a general party, --nothing could exceed the amiable, kind, and unassuming deportment of Mrs. Siddons. 

 28. It makes a great difference to the force of any sentence whether there be a man behind it or no. 

(_b_) Find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood, five inthe subjunctive, five in the imperative. 

TENSE. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

233. _Tense_ means _time_. The tense of a verb is the form or useindicating the time of an action or being. 

[Sidenote: _Tenses in English. _]

Old English had only two tenses, --the present tense, which representedpresent and future time; and the past tense. We still use the presentfor the future in such expressions as, "I _go_ away to-morrow;" "If he_comes_, tell him to wait. "

But English of the present day not only has a tense for each of thenatural time divisions, --present, past, and future, --but has othertenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages, such asLatin and Greek. 

The distinct inflections are found only in the present and pasttenses, however: the others are compounds of verbal forms withvarious helping verbs, called auxiliaries; such as _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_. 

[Sidenote: _The tenses in detail. _]

234. Action or being may be represented as occurring in present, past, or future time, by means of the present, the past, and thefuture tense. It may also be represented as _finished_ in present orpast or future time by means of the present perfect, past perfect, andfuture perfect tenses. 

Not only is this so: there are what are called definite forms ofthese tenses, showing more exactly the time of the action or being. These make the English speech even more exact than other languages, aswill be shown later on, in the conjugations. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

235. The English verb has never had full inflections for number andperson, as the classical languages have. 

When the older pronoun _thou_ was in use, there was a form of the verbto correspond to it, or agree with it, as, "Thou walk_est_, " present;"Thou walked_st_, " past; also, in the third person singular, a formending in -_eth_, as, "It is not in man that walk_eth_, to direct hissteps. "

But in ordinary English of the present day there is practically onlyone ending for person and number. This is the third person, singularnumber; as, "He walk_s_;" and this only in the present tenseindicative. This is important in questions of agreement when we cometo syntax. 

CONJUGATION. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

236. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of theverb in the various voices, moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

In classical languages, conjugation means _joining together_ thenumerous endings to the stem of the verb; but in English, inflectionsare so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the formsand the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice, mood, tense, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Few forms. _]

237. Verbs in modern English have only four or five forms; forexample, _walk_ has _walk_, _walks_, _walked_, _walking_, sometimesadding the old forms _walkest_, _walkedst_, _walketh_. Such verbs as_choose_ have five, --_choose_, _chooses_, _chose_, _choosing_, _chosen_ (old, _choosest_, _chooseth_, _chosest_). 

The verb _be_ has more forms, since it is composed of severaldifferent roots, --_am_, _are_, _is_, _were_, _been_, etc. 

238. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _BE_. 

 Indicative Mood. 

 PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. | _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ |1. I am We are | 1. I was We were2. You are You are | 2. You were You were (thou art) | (thou wast, wert)3. [He] is [They] are | 3. [He] was [They were]

 Subjunctive Mood. 

 PRESENT TENSE. | PAST TENSE. | _Singular_ _Plural_ | _Singular_ _Plural_ |1. I be We be | 1. I were We were2. You (thou) be You be | 2. You were You were | (thou wert)3. [He] be [They] be | 3. [He] were [They] were

 Imperative Mood. 

 PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Be. 

[Sidenote: _Remarks on the verb_ be. ]

239. This conjugation is pieced out with three different roots: (1)_am_, _is_; (2) _was_, _were_; (3) _be_. 

Instead of the plural _are_, Old English had _beoth_ and _sind_ or_sindon_, same as the German _sind_. _Are_ is supposed to have comefrom the Norse language. 

The old indicative third person plural _be_ is sometimes found inliterature, though it is usually a dialect form; for example, --

 Where _be_ the sentries who used to salute as the Royal chariots drove in and out?--THACKERAY

 Where _be_ the gloomy shades, and desolate mountains?--WHITTIER

[Sidenote: _Uses of_ be. ]

240. The forms of the verb _be_ have several uses:--

(1) _As principal verbs. _

 The light that never _was_ on sea and land. --WORDSWORTH. 

(2) _As auxiliary verbs_, in four ways, --

(_a_) With verbal forms in _-ing_ (imperfect participle) to form thedefinite tenses. 

 Broadswords _are maddening_ in the rear, --Each broadsword bright _was brandishing_ like beam of light. --SCOTT. 

(_b_) With the past participle in _-ed_, _-en_, etc. , to form thepassive voice. 

 By solemn vision and bright silver dream, His infancy _was nurtured_. --SHELLEY. 

(_c_) With past participle of intransitive verbs, being equivalent tothe present perfect and past perfect tenses active; as, When we _are gone_ From every object dear to mortal sight. --WORDSWORTH

 We drank tea, which _was_ now _become_ an occasional banquet. --GOLDSMITH. 

(_d_) With the infinitive, to express intention, obligation, condition, etc. ; thus, It _was to have been called_ the Order of Minerva. --THACKERAY. 

 Ingenuity and cleverness _are to be rewarded_ by State prizes. --_Id. _

 If I _were to explain_ the motion of a body falling to the ground. --BURKE

241. INFLECTIONS OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. 

 Indicative Mood. 

 PRESENT TENSE. 

 _Singular. _ _Plural. _

 1. I choose We choose 2. You choose You choose 3. [He] chooses [They] choose

 PAST TENSE. 

 _Singular. _ _Plural. _

 1. I chose We chose 2. You chose You chose 3. [He] chose [They] chose

 Subjunctive Mood. 

 PRESENT TENSE. 

 _Singular. _ _Plural. _

 1. I choose We choose 2. You choose You choose 3. [He] choose [They] choose

 PAST TENSE. 

 _Singular. _ _Plural. _

 1. I chose We chose 2. You chose You chose 3. [He] chose [They] chose

 Imperative Mood. 

 PRESENT TENSE, _Singular and Plural_, Choose. 

FULL CONJUGATION OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. 

[Sidenote: _Machinery of a verb in the voices, tenses, etc. _]

242. In addition to the above _inflected_ forms, there are manyperiphrastic or _compound_ forms, made up of auxiliaries with theinfinitives and participles. Some of these have been indicated inSec. 240, (2). 

The ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows:--

(1) _Future tense_, by using _shall_ and _will_ with the simple orroot form of the verb; as, "I _shall be_, " "He _will choose. _"

(2) _Present perfect_, _past perfect_, _future perfect_, tenses, byplacing _have_, _had_, and _shall_ (or _will_) _have_ before the pastparticiple of any verb; as, "I _have gone_" (present perfect), "I _hadgone_" (past perfect), "I _shall have gone_" (future perfect). 

(3) The _definite form_ of each tense, by using auxiliaries with theimperfect participle active; as, "I _am running_, " "They _had beenrunning_. "

(4) The _passive forms_, by using the forms of the verb _be_ beforethe past participle of verbs; as, "I _was chosen_, " "You _arechosen_. "

243. The following scheme will show how rich our language is in verbphrases to express every variety of meaning. Only the third person, singular number, of each tense, will be given. 

 ACTIVE VOICE. 

 Indicative Mood. 

 _Present. _ He chooses. _Present definite. _ He is choosing. _Past. _ He chose. _Past definite. _ He was choosing. _Future. _ He will choose. _Future definite. _ He will he choosing. _Present perfect. _ He has chosen. _Present perfect definite. _ He has been choosing. _Past perfect. _ He had chosen. _Past perfect definite. _ He had been choosing. _Future perfect. _ He will have chosen. _Future perfect definite. _ He will have been choosing. 

 Subjunctive Mood. 

 _Present. _ [If, though, he choose. _Present definite. _ lest, etc. ] he be choosing. _Past. _ " he chose (or were to choose). _Past definite. _ " he were choosing (or were to be choosing). _Present perfect. _ " he have chosen. _Present perfect definite. _ " he have been choosing. _Past perfect. _ " Same as indicative. _Past perfect definite. _ " " "

 Imperative Mood. 

 _Present. _ (2d per. ) Choose. _Present definite. _ " Be choosing. 

NOTE. --Since participles and infinitives are not really verbs, butverbals, they will be discussed later (Sec. 262). 

 PASSIVE VOICE. 

 Indicative Mood. 

 _Present. _ He is chosen. _Present definite. _ He is being chosen. _Past. _ He was chosen. _Past definite. _ He was being chosen. _Future. _ He will be chosen. _Future definite. _ None. _Present perfect. _ He has been chosen. _Present perfect definite. _ None. _Past perfect. _ He had been chosen. _Past perfect definite. _ None. _Future perfect. _ He will have been chosen. _Future perfect definite. _ None. 

 Subjunctive Mood. 

 _Present. _. [If, though, he be chosen. _Present definite. _ lest, etc. ] None. _Past. _ " he were chosen (or were to be chosen). _Past definite. _ " he were being chosen. _Present perfect. _ " he have been chosen. _Present perfect definite. _ " None. _Past Perfect. _ " he had been chosen. _Past perfect definite. _ " None. 

 Imperative Mood. 

 _Present tense. _ (2d per. ) Be chosen. 

Also, in _affirmative sentences_, the indicative present and pasttenses have emphatic forms made up of _do_ and _did_ with theinfinitive or simple form; as, "He _does strike_, " "He _did strike_. "

[_Note to Teacher_. --This table is not to be learned now; if learnedat all, it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms. Exercises should be given, however, to bring up sentences containingsuch of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily inliterature. ]

VERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO FORM. 

[Sidenote: _Kinds. _]

244. According to form, verbs are strong or weak. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

A strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of thepresent tense form, but adds no ending; as, _run_, _ran_; _drive_, _drove_. 

A weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the pasttense, and _may_ or _may not_ change the vowel: as, _beg_, _begged_;_lay_, _laid_; _sleep_, _slept_; _catch_, _caught_. 

245. TABLE OF STRONG VERBS. 

NOTE. Some of these also have weak forms, which are in parentheses

 _Present Tense. _ _Past Tense. _ _Past Participle. _

 abide abode abode arise arose arisen awake awoke (awaked) awoke (awaked) bear bore {borne (active) {born (passive) begin began begun behold beheld beheld bid bade, bid bidden, bid bind bound {bound, {[_adj. _ bounden] bite bit bitten, bit blow blew blown break broke broken chide chid chidden, chid choose chose chosen cleave clove, clave (cleft) cloven (cleft) climb [clomb] climbed climbed cling clung clung come came come crow crew (crowed) (crowed) dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn drink drank {drunk, drank {[_adj. _ drunken] drive drove driven eat ate, eat eaten, eat fall fell fallen fight fought fought find found found fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen get got got [gotten] give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung (hanged) hung (hanged) hold held held know knew known lie lay lain ride rode ridden ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken shear shore (sheared) shorn (sheared) shine shone shone shoot shot shot shrink shrank or shrunk shrunk shrive shrove shriven sing sang or sung sung sink sank or sunk sunk _[adj. _ sunken] sit sat [sate] sat slay slew slain slide slid slidden, slid sling slung slung slink slunk slunk smite smote smitten speak spoke spoken spin spun spun spring sprang, sprung sprung stand stood stood stave stove (staved) (staved) steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk, stank stunk stride strode stridden strike struck struck, stricken string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn swim swam or swum swum swing swung swung take took taken tear tore torn thrive throve (thrived) thriven (thrived) throw threw thrown tread trod trodden, trod wear wore worn weave wove woven win won won wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote written

Remarks on Certain Verb Forms. 

246. Several of the perfect participles are seldom used except asadjectives: as, "his _bounden_ duty, " "the _cloven_ hoof, " "a_drunken_ wretch, " "a _sunken_ snag. " _Stricken_ is used mostly ofdiseases; as, "_stricken_ with paralysis. "

The verb bear (to bring forth) is peculiar in having one participle(_borne_) for the active, and another (_born_) for the passive. Whenit means _to carry_ or to _endure_, _borne_ is also a passive. 

The form clomb is not used in prose, but is much used in vulgarEnglish, and sometimes occurs in poetry; as, --

 Thou hast _clomb_ aloft. --WORDSWORTH

 Or pine grove whither woodman never _clomb_. --COLERIDGE

The forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs, --one meaning_to adhere_ or _cling_; the other, _to split_. The former used to be_cleave_, _cleaved_, _cleaved_; and the latter, _cleave_, _clave_ or_clove_, _cloven_. But the latter took on the weak form _cleft_ in thepast tense and past participle, --as (from Shakespeare), "O Hamlet!thou hast _cleft_ my heart in twain, "--while _cleave_ (to cling)sometimes has _clove_, as (from Holmes), "The old Latin tutor _clove_to Virgilius Maro. " In this confusion of usage, only one set remainscertain, --_cleave_, _cleft_, _cleft_ (to split). 

Crew is seldom found in present-day English. 

 Not a cock _crew_, nor a dog barked. --IRVING. 

 Our cock, which always _crew_ at eleven, now told us it was time for repose. --GOLDSMITH. 

Historically, drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb_drink_. But _drunk_ is very much used as an adjective, instead of_drunken_ (meaning intoxicated); and, probably to avoid confusion withthis, drank is a good deal used as a past participle: thus, --

 We had each _drank_ three times at the well. --B. TAYLOR. 

 This liquor _was_ generally _drank_ by Wood and Billings. --THACKERAY. 

Sometimes in literary English, especially in that of an earlierperiod, it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and pastparticiple _eat_ (ĕt), instead of _ate_ and _eaten_; as, forexample, --

 It ate the food it ne'er had _eat_. --COLERIDGE. 

 How fairy Mab the junkets _eat_. --MILTON. 

 The island princes overbold Have _eat_ our substance. --TENNYSON. 

This is also very much used in spoken and vulgar English. 

The form gotten is little used, _got_ being the preferred form ofpast participle as well as past tense. One example out of many is, --

 We _had_ all _got_ safe on shore. --DE FOE. 

Hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and pastparticiple of _hang_; but _hanged_ is the preferred form when we speakof execution by hanging; as, The butler _was hanged_. --_Bible. _

The verb sat is sometimes spelled _sate_; for example, --

 Might we have _sate_ and talked where gowans blow. --WORDSWORTH. 

 He _sate_ him down, and seized a pen. --BYRON. 

 "But I _sate_ still and finished my plaiting. "--KINGSLEY. 

Usually shear is a weak verb. _Shorn_ and _shore_ are not commonlyused: indeed, _shore_ is rare, even in poetry. 

 This heard Geraint, and grasping at his sword, _Shore_ thro' the swarthy neck. --TENNYSON. 

_Shorn_ is used sometimes as a participial adjective, as "a _shorn_lamb, " but not much as a participle. We usually say, "The sheep were_sheared_" instead of "The sheep were _shorn_. "

Went is borrowed as the past tense of _go_ from the old verb _wend_, which is seldom used except in poetry; for example, --

 If, maiden, thou would'st _wend_ with me To leave both tower and town. --SCOTT. 

Exercises. 

(_a_) From the table (Sec. 245), make out lists of verbs having thesame vowel changes as each of the following:--

 1. Fall, fell, fallen. 

 2. Begin, began, begun. 

 3. Find, found, found. 

 4. Give, gave, given. 

 5. Drive, drove, driven. 

 6. Throw, threw, thrown. 

 7. Fling, flung, flung. 

 8. Break, broke, broken. 

 9. Shake, shook, shaken. 

 10. Freeze, froze, frozen. 

(_b_) Find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong verbs. 

(_c_) Find sentences using ten past participles of strong verbs. 

[_To the Teacher_, --These exercises should be continued for severallessons, for full drill on the forms. ]

DEFECTIVE STRONG VERBS. 

247. There are several verbs which are lacking in one or moreprincipal parts. They are as follows:--

 PRESENT. PAST. | PRESENT. PAST. | may might | [ought] ought can could | shall should [must] must | will would

248. May is used as either indicative or subjunctive, as it has twomeanings. It is indicative when it expresses _permission_, or, as itsometimes does, _ability_, like the word _can_: it is subjunctive whenit expresses doubt as to the reality of an action, or when itexpresses wish, purpose, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Indicative Use: Permission. Ability. _]

 If I _may_ lightly employ the Miltonic figure, "far off his coming shines. "--WINIER. 

 A stripling arm _might_ sway A mass no host could raise. --SCOTT. 

 His superiority none _might_ question. --CHANNING. 

[Sidenote: _Subjunctive use. _]

 In whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution _may_ be arranged, there is one general principle, etc. --PAINE. 

[Sidenote: (_See also Sec. 223. _)]

 And from her fair and unpolluted flesh _May_ violets spring! --SHAKESPEARE. 

249. Can is used in the indicative only. The _l_ in _could_ didnot belong there originally, but came through analogy with _should_and _would_. _Could_ may be subjunctive, as in Sec. 220. 

250. Must is historically a past-tense form, from the obsoleteverb _motan_, which survives in the sentence, "So _mote_ it be. "_Must_ is present or past tense, according to the infinitive used. 

 All _must concede_ to him a sublime power of action. --CHANNING

 This, of course, _must have been_ an ocular deception. --HAWTHORNE. 

251. The same remarks apply to ought, which is historically thepast tense of the verb _owe_. Like _must_, it is used only in theindicative mood; as, The just imputations on our own faith _ought_ first _to be removed_. .. . Have we valuable territories and important posts. .. Which _ought_ long since _to have been surrendered_?--A. HAMILTON. 

It will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the pureinfinitive without _to_, while _ought_ always has _to_. 

Shall and Will. 

252. The principal trouble in the use of _shall_ and _will_ is thedisposition, especially in the United States, to use _will_ and_would_, to the neglect of _shall_ and _should_, with pronouns of thefirst person; as, "I think I _will_ go. "

[Sidenote: _Uses of_ shall _and_ should. ]

The following distinctions must be observed:--

(1) With the FIRST PERSON, shall and should are used, --

[Sidenote: _Futurity and questions--first person. _]

(_a_) In making simple statements or predictions about future time;as, --

 The time will come full soon, I _shall_ be gone. --L. C. MOULTON. 

(_b_) In questions asking for orders, or implying obligation orauthority resting upon the subject; as, --

 With respect to novels, what _shall_ I say?--N. WEBSTER. 

 How _shall_ I describe the luster which at that moment burst upon my vision?--C. BROCKDEN BROWN. 

[Sidenote: _Second and third persons. _]

(2) With the SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _shall_ and _should_ areused, --

(_a_) To express authority, in the form of command, promise, orconfident prediction. The following are examples:--

 Never mind, my lad, whilst I live thou _shalt_ never want a friend to stand by thee. --IRVING. 

 They _shall_ have venison to eat, and corn to hoe. --COOPER. 

 The sea _shall_ crush thee; yea, the ponderous wave up the loose beach _shall_ grind and scoop thy grave. --THAXTER. 

 She _should_ not walk, he said, through the dust and heat of the noonday; Nay, she _should_ ride like a queen, not plod along like a peasant. --LONGFELLOW. 

(_b_) In _indirect quotations_, to express the same idea that theoriginal speaker put forth (i. E. , future action); for example, --

 He declares that he _shall_ win the purse from you. --BULWER. 

 She rejects his suit with scorn, but assures him that she _shall_ make great use of her power over him. --MACAULAY. 

 Fielding came up more and more bland and smiling, with the conviction that he _should_ win in the end. --A. LARNED. 

 Those who had too presumptuously concluded that they _should_ pass without combat were something disconcerted. --SCOTT. 

(_c_) With _direct questions_ of the second person, when the answerexpected would express simple futurity; thus, --

 "_Should_ you like to go to school at Canterbury?"--DICKENS. 

[Sidenote: _First, second and third persons. _]

(3) With ALL THREE PERSONS, --

(_a_) _Should_ is used with the meaning of obligation, and isequivalent to _ought_. 

 I never was what I _should_ be. --H. JAMES, JR. 

 Milton! thou _should'st_ be living at this hour. --WORDSWORTH. 

 He _should_ not flatter himself with the delusion that he can make or unmake the reputation of other men. --WINTER. 

(_b_) _Shall_ and _should_ are both used in _dependent clauses_ ofcondition, time, purpose, etc. ; for example, --

 When thy mind _Shall_ be a mansion for all stately forms. --WORDSWORTH. 

 Suppose this back-door gossip _should_ be utterly blundering and untrue, would any one wonder?--THACKERAY. 

 Jealous lest the sky _should_ have a listener. --BYRON. 

 If thou _should'st_ ever come by chance or choice to Modena. --ROGERS. 

 If I _should_ be where I no more can hear thy voice. --WORDSWORTH. 

 That accents and looks so winning _should_ disarm me of my resolution, was to be expected. --C. B. BROWN. 

253. Will and would are used as follows:--

[Sidenote: _Authority as to future action--first person. _]

(1) With the FIRST PERSON, _will_ and _would_ are used to expressdetermination as to the future, or a promise; as, for example, --

 I _will_ go myself now, and _will_ not return until all is finished. --CABLE. 

 And promised. .. That I _would_ do him justice, as the sole inventor. --SWIFT. 

[Sidenote: _Disguising a command. _]

(2) With the SECOND PERSON, _will_ is used to express command. Thisputs the order more mildly, as if it were merely expected action;as, --

 Thou _wilt_ take the skiff, Roland, and two of my people, . .. And fetch off certain plate and belongings. --SCOTT. 

 You _will_ proceed to Manassas at as early a moment as practicable, and mark on the grounds the works, etc. --_War Records. _

[Sidenote: _Mere futurity. _]

(3) With both SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS, _will_ and _would_ are used toexpress simple futurity, action merely expected to occur; forexample, --

 All this _will_ sound wild and chimerical. --BURKE. 

 She _would_ tell you that punishment is the reward of the wicked. --LANDOR. 

 When I am in town, _you'll_ always have somebody to sit with you. To be sure, so you _will_. --DICKENS. 

(4) With FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD PERSONS, _would_ is used to expressa _wish_, --the original meaning of the word _will_; for example, --

[Sidenote: _Subject_ I _omitted: often so. _]

 _Would_ that a momentary emanation from thy glory would visit me!--C. B. BROWN. 

 Thine was a dangerous gift, when thou wast born, The gift of Beauty. _Would_ thou hadst it not. --ROGERS

 It shall be gold if thou _wilt_, but thou shalt answer to me for the use of it. --SCOTT. 

 What _wouldst_ thou have a good great man obtain?--COLERIDGE. 

(5) With the THIRD PERSON, _will_ and _would_ often denote an actionas customary, without regard to future time; as, They _will_ go to Sunday schools, through storms their brothers are afraid of. .. . They _will_ stand behind a table at a fair all day. --HOLMES

 On a slight suspicion, they _would_ cut off the hands of numbers of the natives, for punishment or intimidation. --BANCROFT. 

 In this stately chair _would_ he sit, and this magnificent pipe _would_ he smoke, shaking his right knee with a constant motion. --IRVING. 

Conjugation of _Shall_ and _Will_ as Auxiliaries (with _Choose_). 

254. To express simply expected action:--

 ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

 _Singular_. _Singular_. 

 1. I shall choose. I shall be chosen. 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. 3. [He] will choose. [He] will be chosen. 

 _Plural_. _Plural_. 

 1. We shall choose. We shall be chosen. 2. You will choose. You will be chosen. 3. [They] will choose. [They] will be chosen. 

 To express determination, promise, etc. :--

 ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

 _Singular_. _Singular_. 

 1. I will choose. I will be chosen. 2. You shall choose. You shall be chosen. 3. [He] shall choose. [He] shall be chosen. 

 ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

 _Plural_. _Plural_. 

 1. We will choose. 1. We will be chosen. 2. You shall choose. 2. You shall be chosen. 3. [They] shall choose. 3. [They] shall be chosen. 

Exercises on _Shall_ and _Will_. 

(_a_) From Secs. 252 and 253, write out a summary or outline of thevarious uses of _shall_ and _will_. 

(_b_) Examine the following sentences, and justify the use of _shall_and _will_, or correct them if wrongly used:--

1. Thou art what I would be, yet only seem. 

2. We would be greatly mistaken if we thought so. 

3. Thou shalt have a suit, and that of the newest cut; the wardrobekeeper shall have orders to supply you. 

4. "I shall not run, " answered Herbert stubbornly. 

5. He informed us, that in the course of another day's march we wouldreach the prairies on the banks of the Grand Canadian. 

6. What shall we do with him? This is the sphinx-like riddle which wemust solve if we would not be eaten. 

7. Will not our national character be greatly injured? Will we not beclassed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind?

8. Lucy stood still, very anxious, and wondering whether she shouldsee anything alive. 

9. I would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace. 

10. No, my son; whatever cash I send you is yours: you will spend itas you please, and I have nothing to say. 

11. But I will doubtless find some English person of whom to makeinquiries. 

12. Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss tounderstand several passages in the classics. 

13. "I am a wayfarer, " the stranger said, "and would like permissionto remain with you a little while. "

14. The beast made a sluggish movement, then, as if he would have moreof the enchantment, stirred her slightly with his muzzle. 

WEAK VERBS. 

255. Those weak verbs which add _-d_ or _-ed_ to form the past tenseand past participle, and have no change of vowel, are so easilyrecognized as to need no special treatment. Some of them are alreadygiven as secondary forms of the strong verbs. 

But the rest, which may be called irregular weak verbs, need someattention and explanation. 

256. The irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes, --

[Sidenote: _The two classes of irregular weak verbs. _]

(1) Those which retain the _-d_ or _-t_ in the past tense, with somechange of form for the past tense and past participle. 

(2) Those which end in _-d_ or _-t_, and have lost the ending whichformerly was added to this. 

The old ending to verbs of Class II. Was _-de_ or _-te_; as, --

 This worthi man ful wel his wit _bisette_ [used]. --CHAUCER. 

 Of smale houndes _hadde_ she, that sche _fedde_ With rosted flessh, or mylk and wastel breed. --_Id. _

This ending has now dropped off, leaving some weak verbs with the sameform throughout: as set, set, set; put, put, put. 

257. Irregular Weak Verbs. --Class I. 

 _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. 

 bereave bereft, bereave bereft, bereaved beseech besought besought burn burned, burnt burnt buy bought bought catch caught caught creep crept crept deal dealt dealt dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed dwell dwelt dwelt feel felt felt flee fled fled have had had (_once_ haved) hide hid hidden, hid keep kept kept kneel knelt knelt lay laid laid lean leaned, leant leaned, leant leap leaped, leapt leaped, leapt leave left left lose lost lost make made (_once_ maked) made mean meant meant pay paid paid pen [inclose] penned, pen penned, pent say said said seek sought sought sell sold sold shoe shod shod sleep slept slept spell spelled, spelt spelt spill spilt spilt stay staid, stayed staid, stayed sweep swept swept teach taught taught tell told told think thought thought weep wept wept work worked, wrought worked, wrought

258. Irregular Weak Verbs. --Class II. 

 _Present Tense_. _Past Tense_. _Past Participle_. 

 bend bent, bended bent, bended bleed bled bled breed bred bred build built built cast cast cast cost cost cost feed fed fed gild gilded, gilt gilded, gilt gird girt, girded girt, girded hit hit hit hurt hurt hurt knit knit, knitted knit, knitted lead led led let let let light lighted, lit lighted, lit meet met met put put put quit quit, quitted quit, quitted read read read rend rent rent rid rid rid send sent sent set set set shed shed shed shred shred shred shut shut shut slit slit slit speed sped sped spend spent spent spit spit [_obs. _ spat] spit [_obs. _ spat] split split split spread spread spread sweat sweat sweat thrust thrust thrust wed wed, wedded wed, wedded wet wet, wetted wet, wetted

[Sidenote: _Tendency to phonetic spelling. _]

250. There seems to be in Modern English a growing tendency towardphonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs. For example, _-ed_, after the verb _bless_, has the sound of _t_:hence the word is often written _blest_. So with _dipt_, _whipt_, _dropt_, _tost_, _crost_, _drest_, _prest_, etc. This is often seen inpoetry, and is increasing in prose. 

Some Troublesome Verbs. 

[Sidenote: Lie _and_ lay _in use and meaning. _]

260. Some sets of verbs are often confused by young students, weakforms being substituted for correct, strong forms. 

Lie and lay need close attention. These are the forms:--

 _Present Tense. _ _Past Tense. _ _Pres. Participle. _ _Past Participle. _

 1. Lie lay lying lain 2. Lay laid laying laid

The distinctions to be observed are as follows:--

(1) _Lie_, with its forms, is regularly _intransitive_ as to use. Asto meaning, _lie_ means to rest, to recline, to place one's self in arecumbent position; as, "There _lies_ the ruin. "

(2) _Lay_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ as to use. As tomeaning, _lay_ means to put, to place a person or thing in position;as, "Slowly and sadly we _laid_ him down. " Also _lay_ may be usedwithout any object expressed, but there is still a transitive meaning;as in the expressions, "to _lay_ up for future use, " "to _lay_ on withthe rod, " "to _lay_ about him lustily. "

[Sidenote: Sit _and_ set. ]

261. Sit and set have principal parts as follows:--

 _Present Tense. _ _Past Tense. _ _Pres. Participle. _ _Past Participle. _

 1. Sit sat sitting sat 2. Set set setting set

Notice these points of difference between the two verbs:--

(1) _Sit_, with its forms, is always _intransitive_ in use. Inmeaning, _sit_ signifies (_a_) to place one's self on a seat, to rest;(_b_) to be adjusted, to fit; (_c_) to cover and warm eggs forhatching, as, "The hen _sits_. "

(2) _Set_, with its forms, is always _transitive_ in use when it hasthe following meanings: (_a_) to put or place a thing or person inposition, as "He _set_ down the book;" (_b_) to fix or establish, as, "He _sets_ a good example. "

_Set_ is _intransitive_ when it means (_a_) to go down, to decline, as, "The sun has _set_;" (_b_) to become fixed or rigid, as, "His eyes_set_ in his head because of the disease;" (_c_) in certain idiomaticexpressions, as, for example, "to _set_ out, " "to _set_ up inbusiness, " "to _set_ about a thing, " "to _set_ to work, " "to _set_forward, " "the tide _sets_ in, " "a strong wind _set_ in, " etc. 

Exercise. 

Examine the forms of _lie_, _lay_, _sit_ and _set_ in these sentences;give the meaning of each, and correct those used wrongly. 

1. If the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose, all history must be ransacked. 

2. He sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly onHamlet, and with his mouth open. 

3. The days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrowsand chairs, . .. Can never again be the realities they were. 

4. To make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body, it wasgathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt. 

5. He had set up no unattainable standard of perfection. 

6. For more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished. 

7. The author laid the whole fault on the audience. 

8. Dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestridehim. 

9. And send'st him. .. To his gods where happy lies His petty hope in some near port or bay, And dashest him again to earth:--there let him lay. 

10. Achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still. 

11. It may be laid down as a general rule, that history begins innovel, and ends in essay. 

12. I never took off my clothes, but laid down in them. 

VERBALS. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

262. Verbals are words that express action in a general way, without limiting the action to any time, or asserting it of anysubject. 

[Sidenote: _Kinds. _]

Verbals may be participles, infinitives, or gerunds. 

PARTICIPLES. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

263. Participles are _adjectival_ verbals; that is, they eitherbelong to some substantive by expressing action in connection with it, or they express action, and directly modify a substantive, thus havinga descriptive force. Notice these functions. 

[Sidenote: _Pure participle in function. _]

 1. At length, _wearied_ by his cries and agitations, and not _knowing_ how to put an end to them, he addressed the animal as if he had been a rational being. --DWIGHT. 

Here _wearied_ and _knowing_ belong to the subject _he_, and expressaction in connection with it, but do not describe. 

[Sidenote: _Express action and also describe. _]

 2. Another name glided into her petition--it was that of the _wounded_ Christian, whom fate had placed in the hands of bloodthirsty men, his _avowed_ enemies. --SCOTT. 

Here _wounded_ and _avowed_ are participles, but are used with thesame adjectival force that _bloodthirsty_ is (see Sec. 143, 4). 

Participial adjectives have been discussed in Sec. 143 (4), but wegive further examples for the sake of comparison and distinction. 

[Sidenote: _Fossil participles as adjectives. _]

 3. As _learned_ a man may live in a cottage or a college commmon-room. --THACKERAY

 4. Not merely to the soldier are these campaigns _interesting_ --BAYNE. 

 5. How _charming_ is divine philosophy!--MILTON. 

[Sidenote: _Forms of the participle. _]

264. Participles, in expressing action, may be active orpassive, incomplete (or imperfect), complete (perfect or past), and perfect definite. 

They cannot be divided into tenses (present, past, etc. ), because theyhave no tense of their own, but derive their tense from the verb onwhich they depend; for example, --

 1. He walked conscientiously through the services of the day, _fulfilling_ every section the minutest, etc. --DE QUINCEY. 

_Fulfilling_ has the form to denote continuance, but depends on theverb _walked_, which is past tense. 

 2. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, Comes _dancing_ from the East. --MILTON. 

_Dancing_ here depends on a verb in the present tense. 

265. PARTICIPLES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE_. 

 ACTIVE VOICE. 

_Imperfect. _ Choosing. _Perfect. _ Having chosen. _Perfect definite. _ Having been choosing. 

 PASSIVE VOICE. 

_Imperfect. _ None_Perfect. _ Chosen, being chosen, having been chosen. _Perfect definite. _ None. 

Exercise. 

Pick out the participles, and tell whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, or perfect definite. If pure participles, tell towhat word they belong; if adjectives, tell what words they modify. 

1. The change is a large process, accomplished within a large andcorresponding space, having, perhaps, some central or equatorial line, but lying, like that of our earth, between certain tropics, or limitswidely separated. 

2. I had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it ispossible to imagine. 

3. These views, being adopted in a great measure from my mother, werenaturally the same as my mother's. 

4. Endowed with a great command over herself, she soon obtained anuncontrolled ascendency over her people. 

5. No spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder. 

6. Having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect, Ireturned to reflection on my situation. 

7. Three saplings, stripped of their branches and bound together attheir ends, formed a kind of bedstead. 

8. This all-pervading principle is at work in our system, --thecreature warring against the creating power. 

9. Perhaps I was too saucy and provoking. 

10. Nothing of the kind having been done, and the principles of thisunfortunate king having been distorted, . .. Try clemency. 

INFINITIVES. 

266. Infinitives, like participles, have no tense. When active, they have an indefinite, an imperfect, a perfect, and a perfectdefinite form; and when passive, an indefinite and a perfect form, toexpress action unconnected with a subject. 

267. INFINITIVES OF THE VERB _CHOOSE. _

 ACTIVE VOICE. 

_Indefinite. _ [To] choose. _Imperfect. _ [To] be choosing. _Perfect. _ [To] have chosen. _Perfect definite. _ [To] have been choosing. 

 PASSIVE VOICE. 

_Indefinite. _ [To] be chosen. _Perfect. _ [To] have been chosen. 

[Sidenote: To _with the infinitive. _]

268. In Sec. 267 the word _to_ is printed in brackets because it isnot a necessary part of the infinitive. 

It originally belonged only to an inflected form of the infinitive, expressing purpose; as in the Old English, "Ūt ēode se sǣdere his sædtō sāwenne" (Out went the sower his seed _to sow_). 

[Sidenote: _Cases when_ to _is omitted. _]

But later, when inflections became fewer, _to_ was used before theinfinitive generally, except in the following cases:--

(1) After the auxiliaries _shall_, _will_ (with _should_ and _would_). 

(2) After the verbs _may (might), can (could), must_; also _let_, _make_, _do_ (as, "I _do go_" etc. ), _see_, _bid_ (command), _feel_, _hear_, _watch_, _please_; sometimes _need_ (as, "He _need_ not _go_")and _dare_ (to venture). 

(3) After _had_ in the idiomatic use; as, "You _had_ better _go_" "He_had_ rather _walk_ than _ride_. "

(4) In exclamations; as in the following examples:--

 "He _find_ pleasure in doing good!" cried Sir William. --GOLDSMITH. 

 I _urge_ an address to his kinswoman! I _approach_ her when in a base disguise! I _do_ this!--SCOTT. 

 "She _ask_ my pardon, poor woman!" cried Charles. --MACAULAY. 

269. _Shall_ and _will_ are not to be taken as separate verbs, butwith the infinitive as one tense of a verb; as, "He _will choose_, " "I_shall have chosen_, " etc. 

Also _do_ may be considered an auxiliary in the interrogative, negative, and emphatic forms of the present and past, also in theimperative; as, --

 What! _doth_ she, too, as the credulous imagine, _learn_ [_doth learn_ is one verb, present tense] the love of the great stars? --BULWER. 

 _Do_ not _entertain_ so weak an imagination--BURKE. 

 She _did_ not _weep_--she _did_ not _break forth_ into reproaches. --IRVING. 

270. The infinitive is sometimes active in form while it is passivein meaning, as in the expression, "a house _to let_. " Examples are, --

 She was a kind, liberal woman; rich rather more than needed where there were no opera boxes _to rent_. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Tho' it seems my spurs are yet _to win_. --TENNYSON. 

 But there was nothing _to do_. --HOWELLS. 

 They shall have venison _to eat_, and corn _to hoe_. --COOPER. 

 Nolan himself saw that something was _to pay_. --E. E. HALE. 

271. The various offices which the infinitive and the participlehave in the sentence will be treated in Part II. , under "Analysis, " aswe are now learning merely to recognize the forms. 

GERUNDS. 

272. The gerund is like the participle in form, and like a noun inuse. 

The participle has been called an adjectival verbal; the gerund maybe called a _noun verbal_. While the gerund expresses action, it hasseveral attributes of a noun, --it may be governed as a noun; it may bethe subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or a preposition; it isoften preceded by the definite article; it is frequently modified by apossessive noun or pronoun. 

[Sidenote: _Distinguished from participle and verbal noun. _]

273. It differs from the participle in being always used as a noun:it never belongs to or limits a noun. 

It differs from the verbal noun in having the property of governing anoun (which the verbal noun has not) and of expressing action (theverbal noun merely names an action, Sec. II). 

The following are examples of the uses of the gerund:--

(1) _Subject_: "The _taking_ of means not to see another morning hadall day absorbed every energy;" "Certainly _dueling_ is bad, and hasbeen put down. "

(2) _Object_: (_a_) "Our culture therefore must not omit the _arming_of the man. " (_b_) "Nobody cares for _planting_ the poor fungus;" "Iannounce the good of _being interpenetrated_ by the mind that madenature;" "The guilt of _having been cured_ of the palsy by a Jewishmaiden. "

(3) _Governing and Governed_: "We are far from _having exhausted_ thesignificance of the few symbols we use, " also (2, _b_), above; "Hecould embellish the characters with new traits without _violating_probability;" "He could not help _holding_ out his hand in return. "

Exercise. --Find sentences containing five participles, fiveinfinitives, and five gerunds. 

SUMMARY OF WORDS IN _-ING_. 

274. Words in -ing are of six kinds, according to use as well asmeaning. They are as follows:--

(1) _Part of the verb_, making the definite tenses. 

(2) _Pure participles_, which express action, but do not assert. 

(3) _Participial adjectives_, which express action and also modify. 

(4) _Pure adjectives_, which have lost all verbal force. 

(5) _Gerunds_, which express action, may govern and be governed. 

(6) _Verbal nouns, _ which name an action or state, but cannot govern. 

Exercise. 

Tell to which of the above six classes each _-ing_ word in thefollowing sentences belongs:--

1. Here is need of apologies for shortcomings. 

2. Then how pleasing is it, on your leaving the spot, to see thereturning hope of the parents, when, after examining the nest, theyfind the nurslings untouched!

3. The crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the SciotoSalt Creek, in which I had been unhorsed by the breaking of the saddlegirths. 

4. What a vast, brilliant, and wonderful store of learning!

5. He is one of the most charming masters of our language. 

6. In explaining to a child the phenomena of nature, you must, byobject lessons, give reality to your teaching. 

7. I suppose I was dreaming about it. What is dreaming?

8. It is years since I heard the laughter ringing. 

9. Intellect is not speaking and logicizing: it is seeing andascertaining. 

10. We now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which wehave been briefly contemplating. 

11. The second cause of failure was the burning of Moscow. 

12. He spread his blessings all over the land. 

13. The only means of ascending was by my hands. 

14. A marble figure of Mary is stretched upon the tomb, round which isan iron railing, much corroded, bearing her national emblem. 

15. The exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking. 

16. Thackeray did not, like Sir Walter Scott, write twenty pageswithout stopping, but, dictating from his chair, he gave out sentenceby sentence, slowly. 

HOW TO PARSE VERBS AND VERBALS. 

I. VERBS. 

275. In parsing verbs, give the following points:--

(1) Class: (_a_) as to _form_, --strong or weak, giving principalparts; (_b_) as to _use_, --transitive or intransitive. 

(2) Voice, --active or passive. 

(3) Mood, --indicative, subjunctive, or imperative. 

(4) Tense, --which of the tenses given in Sec. 234. 

(5) Person and number, in determining which you must tell--

(6) What the subject is, for the form of the verb may not show theperson and number. 

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

276. It has been intimated in Sec. 235, we must beware of the rule, "A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. " Sometimes itdoes; usually it does not, if _agrees_ means that the verb changes itsform for the different persons and numbers. The verb _be_ has moreforms than other verbs, and may be said to _agree_ with its subject inseveral of its forms. But unless the verb is present, and ends in_-s_, or is an old or poetic form ending in _-st_ or _-eth_, it isbest for the student not to state it as a general rule that "the verbagrees with its subject in person and number, " but merely to _tellwhat the subject of the verb is_. 

II. VERB PHRASES. 

277. Verb phrases are made up of a principal verb followed by aninfinitive, and should always be analyzed as phrases, and not taken assingle verbs. Especially frequent are those made up of _should_, _would_, _may_, _might_, _can_, _could_, _must_, followed by a pureinfinitive without _to_. Take these examples:--

1. Lee _should_ of himself _have replenished_ his stock. 

2. The government _might have been_ strong and prosperous. 

In such sentences as 1, call _should_ a weak verb, intransitive, therefore active; indicative, past tense; has for its subject _Lee_. _Have replenished_ is a perfect active infinitive. 

In 2, call _might_ a weak verb, intransitive, active, indicative (asit means could), past tense; has the subject _government_. _Have been_is a perfect active infinitive. 

For fuller parsing of the infinitive, see Sec. 278(2). 

III. VERBALS. 

278. (1) Participle. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived;(_b_) whether active or passive, imperfect, perfect, etc. ; (_c_) towhat word it belongs. If a participial adjective, give points (_a_)and (_b_), then parse it as an adjective. 

(2) Infinitive. Tell (_a_) from what verb it is derived; (_b_)whether indefinite, perfect, definite, etc. 

(3) Gerund. (_a_) From what verb derived; (_b_) its use (Sec. 273). 

Exercise. 

Parse the verbs, verbals, and verb phrases in the followingsentences:--

1. Byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in nature orhumanity. 

2. The birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts, no sinnor sorrow, in the world. 

3. Let it rise! let it rise, till it meet the sun in his coming; letthe earliest light of the morning gild it, and parting day linger andplay on its summit. 

4. You are gathered to your fathers, and live only to your country inher grateful remembrance. 

5. Read this Declaration at the head of the army. 

6. Right graciously he smiled on us, as rolled from wing to wing, Down all the line, a deafening shout, "God save our Lord the King!"

7. When he arose in the morning, he thought only of her, and wonderedif she were yet awake. 

8. He had lost the quiet of his thoughts, and his agitated soulreflected only broken and distorted images of things. 

9. So, lest I be inclined To render ill for ill, Henceforth in me instill, O God, a sweet good will. 

10. The sun appears to beat in vain at the casements. 

11. Margaret had come into the workshop with her sewing, as usual. 

12. Two things there are with memory will abide-- Whatever else befall--while life flows by. 

13. To the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the hazylines that bounded his oasis of flowers. 

14. With them, morning is not a new issuing of light, a new burstingforth of the sun; a new waking up of all that has life, from a sort oftemporary death. 

15. Whatever ground you sow or plant, see that it is in goodcondition. 

16. However that be, it is certain that he had grown to delight innothing else than this conversation. 

17. The soul having been often born, or, as the Hindoos say, "traveling the path of existence through thousands of births, " thereis nothing of which she has not gained knowledge. 

18. The ancients called it ecstasy or absence, --a getting-out of theirbodies to think. 

19. Such a boy could not whistle or dance. 

20. He had rather stand charged with the imbecility of skepticism thanwith untruth. 

21. He can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the ambitionof man and his power of performance. 

22. He passed across the room to the washstand, leaving me upon thebed, where I afterward found he had replaced me on being awakened byhearing me leap frantically up and down on the floor. 

23. In going for water, he seemed to be traveling over a desert plainto some far-off spring. 

24. Hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which magnifiesthe smallest sensation. 

25. I have always talked to him as I would to a friend. 

26. Over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throwgarlands on my victorious road. 

27. Oh, had we some bright little isle of our own!

28. Better it were, thou sayest, to consent; Feast while we may, and live ere life be spent. 

29. And now wend we to yonder fountain, for the hour of rest is athand. 

ADVERBS. 

[Sidenote: _Adverbs modify. _]

279. The word _adverb_ means _joined to a verb_. The adverb is theonly word that can join to a verb to modify it. 

[Sidenote: _A verb. _]

When action is expressed, an adverb is usually added to define theaction in some way, --time, place, or manner: as, "He began _already_to be proud of being a Rugby boy [time];" "One of the young heroesscrambled up _behind_ [place];" "He was absolute, but _wisely_ and_bravely_ ruling [manner]. "

[Sidenote: _An adjective or an adverb. _]

But this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs _only_: many of themexpress degree, and limit adjectives or adverbs; as, "William'sprivate life was _severely_ pure;" "Principles of English law are putdown _a little_ confusedly. "

[Sidenote: _Sometimes a noun or pronoun. _]

Sometimes an adverb may modify a noun or pronoun; for example, --

 The young man reveres men of genius, because, to speak truly, they are _more_ himself than he is. --EMERSON. 

 Is it _only_ poets, and men of leisure and cultivation, who live with nature?--_Id. _

 To the _almost_ terror of the persons present, Macaulay began with the senior wrangler of 1801-2-3-4, and so on. --THACKERAY. 

 Nor was it _altogether_ nothing. --CARLYLE. 

 Sounds overflow the listener's brain So sweet that joy is _almost_ pain. --SHELLEY. 

 The condition of Kate is _exactly_ that of Coleridge's "Ancient Mariner. "--DE QUINCEY. 

 He was _incidentally_ news dealer. --T. B. ALDRICH. 

NOTE. --These last differ from the words in Sec. 169, being adverbsnaturally and fitly, while those in Sec. 169 are felt to beelliptical, and rather forced into the service of adjectives. 

Also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from thosestanding _after_ a noun by ellipsis, but really modifying, not thenoun, but some verb understood; thus, --

 The gentle winds and waters [that are] near, Make music to the lonely ear. --BYRON. 

 With bowering leaves [that grow] _o'erhead_, to which the eye Looked up half sweetly, and half awfully. --LEIGH HUNT. 

[Sidenote: _A phrase. _]

An adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an adjective oran adverb, as shown in the sentences, --

 They had begun to make their effort much _at the same time_. --TROLLOPE. 

 I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe _nibbled by rabbits and hollowed out by crickets_, and perhaps _with a leaf or two cemented to it_, but still _with a rich bloom to it_. --THOREAU. 

[Sidenote: _A clause or sentence. _]

It may also modify a sentence, emphasizing or qualifying thestatement expressed; as, for example, --

 And _certainly_ no one ever entered upon office with so few resources of power in the past. --LOWELL. 

 _Surely_ happiness is reflective, like the light of heaven. --IRVING. 

 We are offered six months' credit; and that, _perhaps_, has induced some of us to attend it. --FRANKLIN. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

280. An adverb, then, is a modifying word, which may qualify anaction word or a statement, and may add to the meaning of an adjectiveor adverb, or a word group used as such. 

NOTE. --The expression _action word_ is put instead of _verb_, because_any_ verbal word may be limited by an adverb, not simply the formsused in predication. 

281. Adverbs may be classified in two ways: (1) according to themeaning of the words; (2) according to their use in the sentence. 

ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING. 

282. Thus considered, there are six classes:--

(1) Time; as _now_, _to-day_, _ever_, _lately_, _before_, _hitherto_, etc. 

(2) Place. These may be adverbs either of

(_a_) PLACE WHERE; as _here_, _there_, _where_, _near_, _yonder_, _above_, etc. 

(_b_) PLACE TO WHICH; as _hither_, _thither_, _whither_, _whithersoever_, etc. 

(_c_) PLACE FROM WHICH; as _hence_, _thence_, _whence_, _whencesoever_, etc. 

(3) Manner, telling _how_ anything is done; as _well_, _slowly_, _better_, _bravely_, _beautifully_. Action is conceived or performedin so many ways, that these adverbs form a very large class. 

(4) Number, telling _how many times_: _once_, _twice_, _singly_, _two by two_, etc. 

(5) Degree, telling _how much_; as _little_, _slightly_, _too_, _partly_, _enough_, _greatly_, _much_, _very_, _just_, etc. (see alsoSec. 283). 

(6) Assertion, telling the speaker's belief or disbelief in astatement, or how far he believes it to be true; as _perhaps_, _maybe_, _surely_, _possibly_, _probably_, _not_, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Special remarks on adverbs of degree. _]

283. The is an adverb of degree when it limits an adjective or anadverb, especially the comparative of these words; thus, --

 But not _the_ less the blare of the tumultuous organ wrought its own separate creations. --DE QUINCEY. 

 _The_ more they multiply, _the_ more friends you will have; _the_ more evidently they love liberty, _the_ more perfect will be their obedience. --BURKE. 

This and that are very common as adverbs in spoken English, andnot infrequently are found in literary English; for example, --

 The master. .. Was for _this_ once of her opinion. --R. LOUIS STEVENSON. 

 Death! To die! I owe _that_ much To what, at least, I was. --BROWNING. 

 _This_ long's the text. --SHAKESPEARE. 

[Sidenote _The status of such_. ]

Such is frequently used as an equivalent of _so_: _such_ precedes anadjective with its noun, while _so_ precedes only the adjectiveusually. 

 Meekness, . .. Which gained him _such_ universal popularity. --IRVING. 

 _Such_ a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have been able to close his eyes there. --HAWTHORNE. 

 An eye of _such_ piercing brightness and _such_ commanding power that it gave an air of inspiration. --LECKY. 

So also in Grote, Emerson, Thackeray, Motley, White, and others. 

[Sidenote: _Pretty. _]

Pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for. 

 I believe our astonishment is _pretty_ equal. --FIELDING. 

 Hard blows and hard money, the feel of both of which you know _pretty_ well by now. --KINGSLEY. 

 The first of these generals is _pretty_ generally recognized as the greatest military genius that ever lived. --BAYNE. 

 A _pretty_ large experience. --THACKERAY. 

_Pretty_ is also used by Prescott, Franklin, De Quincey, Defoe, Dickens, Kingsley, Burke, Emerson, Aldrich, Holmes, and other writers. 

[Sidenote: Mighty. ]

The adverb mighty is very common in colloquial English; for example, --

 "_Mighty_ well, Deacon Gookin!" replied the solemn tones of the minister. --HAWTHORNE. 

 "Maybe you're wanting to get over?--anybody sick? Ye seem _mighty_ anxious!"--H. B. STOWE. 

It is only occasionally used in literary English; for example, --

 You are _mighty_ courteous. --BULWER. 

 Beau Fielding, a _mighty_ fine gentleman. --THACKERAY. 

 "Peace, Neville, " said the king, "thou think'st thyself _mighty_ wise, and art but a fool. "--SCOTT. 

 I perceived his sisters _mighty_ busy. --GOLDSMITH. 

[Sidenote: _Notice meanings. _]

284. Again, the meaning of words must be noticed rather than theirform; for many words given above may be moved from one class toanother at will: as these examples, --"He walked too _far_ [place];""That were _far_ better [degree];" "He spoke _positively_ [manner];""That is _positively_ untrue [assertion];" "I have seen you _before_[time];" "The house, and its lawn _before_ [place]. "

ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO USE. 

[Sidenote: _Simple. _]

285. All adverbs which have no function in the sentence except tomodify are called simple adverbs. Such are most of those givenalready in Sec. 282. 

[Sidenote: _Interrogative. _]

286. Some adverbs, besides modifying, have the additional functionof asking a question. 

[Sidenote: _Direct questions. _]

These may introduce direct questions of--

(1) Time. 

 _When_ did this humane custom begin?--H. CLAY. 

(2) Place. 

 _Where_ will you have the scene?--LONGFELLOW

(3) Manner. 

 And _how_ looks it now?--HAWTHORNE. 

(4) Degree. 

 "_How_ long have you had this whip?" asked he. --BULWER. 

(5) Reason. 

 _Why_ that wild stare and wilder cry?--WHITTIER

 Now _wherefore_ stopp'st thou me?--COLERIDGE

[Sidenote: _Indirect questions. _]

Or they may introduce indirect questions of--

(1) Time. 

 I do not remember _when_ I was taught to read. --D. WEBSTER. 

(2) Place. 

 I will not ask _where_ thou liest low. --BYRON

(3) Manner. 

 Who set you to cast about what you should say to the select souls, or _how_ to say anything to such?--EMERSON. 

(4) Degree. 

 Being too full of sleep to understand _How_ far the unknown transcends the what we know. --LONGFELLOW

(5) Reason. 

 I hearkened, I know not _why_. --POE. 

287. There is a class of words usually classed as conjunctiveadverbs, as they are said to have the office of conjunctions injoining clauses, while having the office of adverbs in modifying; forexample, --

 _When_ last I saw thy young blue eyes, they smiled. --BYRON. 

But in reality, _when_ does not express time and modify, but the wholeclause, _when_. .. _eyes_; and _when_ has simply the use of aconjunction, not an adverb. For further discussion, see Sec. 299 under"Subordinate Conjunctions. "

Exercise. --Bring up sentences containing twenty adverbs, representing four classes. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

288. Many adverbs are compared, and, when compared, have the sameinflection as adjectives. 

The following, irregularly compared, are often used as adjectives:--

 _Positive. _ _Comparative. _ _Superlative. _

 well better best ill or badly worse worst much more most little less least nigh or near nearer nearest or next far farther, further farthest, furthest late later latest, last (rathe, _obs. _) rather

289. Most monosyllabic adverbs add _-er_ and _-est_ to form thecomparative and superlative, just as adjectives do; as, _high_, _higher_, _highest_; _soon_, _sooner_, _soonest_. 

Adverbs in _-ly_ usually have _more_ and _most_ instead of theinflected form, only occasionally having _-er_ and _-est_. 

 Its strings _boldlier_ swept. --COLERIDGE. 

 None can deem _harshlier_ of me than I deem. --BYRON. 

 Only that we may _wiselier_ see. --EMERSON. 

 Then must she keep it _safelier_. --TENNYSON. 

 I should _freelier_ rejoice in that absence. --SHAKESPEARE. 

[Sidenote: _Form_ vs. _use. _]

290. The fact that a word ends in _-ly_ does not make it an adverb. Many adjectives have the same ending, and must be distinguished bytheir use in the sentence. 

Exercise. 

Tell what each word in _ly_ modifies, then whether it is an adjectiveor an adverb. 

1. It seems certain that the Normans were more cleanly in theirhabits, more courtly in their manners. 

2. It is true he was rarely heard to speak. 

3. He would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly. 

4. The perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth. 

5. The king winced when he saw his homely little bride. 

6. With his proud, quick-flashing eye, And his mien of kingly state. 

7. And all about, a lovely sky of blue Clearly was felt, or down the leaves laughed through. 

8. He is inexpressibly mean, curiously jolly, kindly and good-naturedin secret. 

291. Again, many words without _-ly_ have the same form, whetheradverbs or adjectives. 

The reason is, that in Old and Middle English, adverbs derived fromadjectives had the ending _-e_ as a distinguishing mark; as, --

 If men smoot it with a yerde _smerte_ [If men smote it with a rod smartly]. --CHAUCER. 

This _e_ dropping off left both words having the same form. 

 Weeds were sure to grow _quicker_ in his fields. --IRVING. 

 O _sweet_ and _far_ from cliff and scar The horns of Elfland faintly blowing. --TENNYSON. 

 But he must do his errand _right. _--DRAKE

 _Long_ she looked in his tiny face. --_Id. _

 Not _near_ so black as he was painted. --THACKERAY. 

In some cases adverbs with _-ly_ are used side by side with thosewithout _-ly_, but with a different meaning. Such are _most_, _mostly_; _near_, _nearly_; _even_, _evenly_; _hard_, _hardly_; etc. 

[Sidenote: _Special use of_ there. ]

292. Frequently the word there, instead of being used adverbially, merely introduces a sentence, and inverts the usual order of subjectand predicate. 

This is such a fixed idiom that the sentence, if it has the verb _be_, seems awkward or affected without this "_there_ introductory. " Comparethese:--

 1. _There_ are eyes, to be sure, that give no more admission into the man than blueberries. --EMERSON. 

 2. Time was when field and watery cove With modulated echoes rang. --WORDSWORTH. 

HOW TO PARSE ADVERBS. 

293. In parsing adverbs, give--

(1) The class, according to meaning and also use. 

(2) Degree of comparison, if the word is compared. 

(3) What word or word group it modifies. 

Exercise. 

Parse all the adverbs in the following sentences:--

1. Now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it. 

2. The higher we rise in the scale of being, the more certainly wequit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrastswhich belong to a vulgar greatness. 

3. We sit in the warm shade and feel right well How the sap creeps up and blossoms swell. 

4. Meanwhile the Protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that he wastheirs. 

5. Whence else could arise the bruises which I had received, but frommy fall?

6. We somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the charactersof our friends are chopped up. 

7. How carefully that blessed day is marked in their little calendars!

8. But a few steps farther on, at the regular wine-shop, the Madonnais in great glory. 

9. The foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion. 

10. It is the Cross that is first seen, and always, burning in thecenter of the temple. 

11. For the impracticable, however theoretically enticing, is alwayspolitically unwise. 

12. Whence come you? and whither are you bound?

13. How comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely andlasts so long, whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to takeroot and blossom?

14. At these carousals Alexander drank deep. 

15. Perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the roadfrom Florence. 

16. It is left you to find out why your ears are boxed. 

17. Thither we went, and sate down on the steps of a house. 

18. He could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit himbest, but continually shifted. 

19. But now the wind rose again, and the stern drifted in toward thebank. 

20. He caught the scent of wild thyme in the air, and found room towonder how it could have got there. 

21. They were soon launched on the princely bosom of the Thames, uponwhich the sun now shone forth. 

22. Why should we suppose that conscientious motives, feeble as theyare constantly found to be in a good cause, should be omnipotent forevil?

24. It was pretty bad after that, and but for Polly's outdoorexercise, she would undoubtedly have succumbed. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

294. Unlike adverbs, conjunctions do not modify: they are usedsolely for the purpose of connecting. 

Examples of the use of conjunctions:--

[Sidenote: _They connect_ words. ]

(1) _Connecting words_: "It is the very necessity _and_ condition ofexistence;" "What a simple _but_ exquisite illustration!"

[Sidenote: Word groups: _Phrases. _]

[Sidenote: _Clauses. _]

(2) _Connecting word groups_: "Hitherto the two systems have existedin different States, _but_ side by side within the American Union;""This has happened _because_ the Union is a confederation of States. "

[Sidenote: _Sentences. _]

(3) _Connecting sentences_: "Unanimity in this case can mean only avery large majority. _But_ even unanimity itself is far fromindicating the voice of God. "

[Sidenote: _Paragraphs. _]

(4) _Connecting sentence groups_: Paragraphs would be too long toquote here, but the student will readily find them, in which thewriter connects the divisions of narration or argument by such wordsas _but_, _however_, _hence_, _nor_, _then_, _therefore_, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

295. A conjunction is a linking word, connecting words, wordgroups, sentences, or sentence groups. 

[Sidenote: _Classes of conjunctions. _]

296. Conjunctions have two principal divisions:--

(1) Coördinate, joining words, word groups, etc. , of the _samerank_. 

(2) Subordinate, joining a subordinate or dependent clause to aprincipal or independent clause. 

COÖRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

297. Coördinate conjunctions are of four kinds:

(1) COPULATIVE, coupling or uniting words and expressions in the sameline of thought; as _and_, _also_, _as well as_, _moreover_, etc. 

(2) ADVERSATIVE, connecting words and expressions that are opposite inthought; as _but_, _yet_, _still_, _however_, _while_, _only_, etc. 

(3) CAUSAL, introducing a reason or cause. The chief ones are, _for_, _therefore_, _hence_, _then_. 

(4) ALTERNATIVE, expressing a choice, usually between two things. Theyare _or_, _either_, _else_, _nor_, _neither_, _whether_. 

[Sidenote: _Correlatives. _]

298. Some of these go in pairs, answering to each other in the samesentence; as, _both_. .. _and_; _not only_. .. _but_ (or _but also_);_either_. .. _or_; _whether_. .. _or_; _neither_. .. _nor_; _whether_. .. _orwhether_. 

Some go in threes; as, _not only_. .. _but_. .. _and_;_either_. .. _or_. .. _or_; _neither_. .. _nor_. .. _nor_. 

Further examples of the use of coördinate conjunctions:--

[Sidenote: _Copulative. _]

Your letter, _likewise_, had its weight; the bread was spent, thebutter _too_; the window being open, _as well as_ the room door. 

[Sidenote: _Adversative. _]

The assertion, _however_, serves but to show their ignorance. "Canthis be so?" said Goodman Brown. "_Howbeit_, I have nothing to do withthe governor and council. "

_Nevertheless_, in this mansion of gloom I now proposed to myself asojourn of some weeks. 

[Sidenote: _Alternative. _]

While the earth bears a plant, _or_ the sea rolls its waves. 

 _Nor_ mark'd they less, where in the air A thousand streamers flaunted fair. 

[Sidenote: _Causal. _]

_Therefore_ the poet is not any permissive potentate, but is emperorin his own right. _For_ it is the rule of the universe that corn shallserve man, and not man corn. 

Examples of the use of correlatives:--

 He began to doubt whether _both_ he _and_ the world around him were not bewitched. --IRVING. 

 He is _not only_ bold and vociferous, _but_ possesses a considerable talent for mimicry, _and_ seems to enjoy great satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds. --WILSON. 

 It is. .. The same _whether_ I move my hand along the surface of a body, _or whether_ such a body is moved along my hand. --BURKE. 

 _Neither_ the place in which he found himself, _nor_ the exclusive attention that he attracted, disturbed the self-possession of the young Mohican. --COOPER. 

 _Neither_ was there any phantom memorial of life, _nor_ wing of bird, _nor_ echo, _nor_ green leaf, _nor_ creeping thing, that moved or stirred upon the soundless waste. --DE QUINCEY. 

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 

299. Subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds:--

(1) PLACE: _where_, _wherever_, _whither_, _whereto_, _whithersoever_, _whence_, etc. 

(2) TIME: _when_, _before_, _after_, _since_, _as_, _until_, _whenever_, _while_, _ere_, etc. 

(3) MANNER: _how_, _as_, _however_, _howsoever_. 

(4) CAUSE or REASON: _because_, _since_, _as_, _now_, _whereas_, _that_, _seeing_, etc. 

(5) COMPARISON: _than_ and _as_. 

(6) PURPOSE: _that_, _so_, _so that_, _in order that_, _lest_, _so_. .. _as_. 

(7) RESULT: _that_, _so that_, especially _that_ after _so_. 

(8) CONDITION or CONCESSION: _if_, _unless_, _so_, _except_, _though_, _although_; _even if_, _provided_, _provided that_, _in case_, _oncondition that_, etc. 

(9) SUBSTANTIVE: _that_, _whether_, sometimes _if_, are usedfrequently to introduce noun clauses used as _subject, object, inapposition_, etc. 

Examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions:--

[Sidenote: _Place. _]

 Where the treasure is, there will the heart be also. --_Bible. _

 To lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men _whithersoever_ they will. --J. QUINCY. 

 An artist will delight in excellence _wherever_ he meets it. --ALLSTON. 

[Sidenote: _Time. _]

 I promise to devote myself to your happiness _whenever_ you shall ask it of me. --PAULDING. 

 It is sixteen years _since_ I saw the Queen of France. --BURKE. 

[Sidenote: _Manner. _]

 Let the world go _how_ it will. --CARLYLE

 Events proceed, not _as_ they were expected or intended, but _as_ they are impelled by the irresistible laws. --AMES. 

[Sidenote: _Cause, reason. _]

 I see no reason _why_ I should not have the same thought. --EMERSON. 

 Then Denmark blest our chief, _That_ he gave her wounds repose. --CAMPBELL. 

 _Now_ he is dead, his martyrdom will reap Late harvests of the palms he should have had in life. --H. H. JACKSON

 Sparing neither whip nor spur, _seeing that_ he carried the vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags. --IRVING. 

[Sidenote: _Comparison. _]

 As a soldier, he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes _than_ to perform exploits that are brilliant. --AMES. 

 All the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with as little permanent effect _as_ [_as_ follows the semi-adverbs _as_ and _so_ in expressing comparison] the passing breeze. --HAWTHORNE. 

[Sidenote: _Purpose. _]

 We wish for a thousand heads, a thousand bodies, _that_ we might celebrate its immense beauty. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: _Result. _]

 So many thoughts moved to and fro, _That_ vain it were her eyes to close. --COLERIDGE. 

 I was again covered with water, but not so long _but_ I held it out. --DEFOE. 

[Sidenote: _Condition. _]

 A ridicule which is of no import _unless_ the scholar heed it. --EMERSON. 

 There flowers or weeds at will may grow, _So_ I behold them not. --BYRON. 

[Sidenote: _Concession_. ]

 What _though_ the radiance which was once so bright Be now forever taken from my sight. --WORDSWORTH. 

[Sidenote: _Substantive. _]

 It seems a pity _that_ we can only spend it once. --EMERSON. 

 We do not believe _that_ he left any worthy man his foe who had ever been his friend. --AMES. 

 Let us see _whether_ the greatest, the wisest, the purest-hearted of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point. --RUSKIN. 

 Who can tell _if_ Washington be a great man or no?--EMERSON. 

300. As will have been noticed, some words--for example, _since_, _while_, _as_, _that_, etc. --may belong to several classes ofconjunctions, according to their meaning and connection in thesentence. 

Exercises. 

(_a_) Bring up sentences containing five examples of coördinateconjunctions. 

(_b_) Bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives. 

(_c_) Bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions. 

(_d_) Tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences areconjunctions or adverbs; classify them if conjunctions:--

1. _Yet_ these were often exhibited throughout our city. 

2. No one had _yet_ caught his character. 

3. _After_ he was gone, the lady called her servant. 

4. And they lived happily forever _after_. 

5. They, _however_, hold a subordinate rank. 

6. _However_ ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad, her real merit is known at home. 

7. _Whence_ else could arise the bruises which I had received?

8. He was brought up for the church, _whence_ he was occasionallycalled the Dominie. 

9. And _then_ recovering, she faintly pressed her hand. 

10. In what point of view, _then_, is war not to be regarded withhorror?

11. The moth fly, _as_ he shot in air, Crept under the leaf, and hidher there. 

12. Besides, _as_ the rulers of a nation are _as_ liable _as_ otherpeople to be governed by passion and prejudice, there is littleprospect of justice in permitting war. 

13. _While_ a faction is a minority, it will remain harmless. 

14. _While_ patriotism glowed in his heart, wisdom blended in hisspeech her authority with her charms. 

15. _Hence_ it is highly important that the custom of war should beabolished. 

16. The raft and the money had been thrown near her, none of thelashings having given way; _only_ what is the use of a guinea amongsttangle and sea gulls?

17. _Only_ let his thoughts be of equal scope, and the frame will suitthe picture. 

SPECIAL REMARKS. 

[Sidenote: As if. ]

301. _As if_ is often used as one conjunction of manner, but reallythere is an ellipsis between the two words; thus, --

 But thy soft murmuring Sounds sweet _as if_ a sister's voice reproved. --BYRON. 

If analyzed, the expression would be, "sounds sweet _as_ [the soundwould be] _if_ a sister's voice reproved;" _as_, in this case, expressing degree if taken separately. 

But the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing, asis shown by the use of _as though_. 

[Sidenote: As though. ]

302. In Emerson's sentence, "We meet, and part _as though_ we partednot, " it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis: it cannot mean "wepart _as_ [we should part] _though_" etc. 

Consequently, _as if_ and _as though_ may be taken as doubleconjunctions expressing manner. _As though_ seems to be in as wide useas the conjunction _as if_; for example, --

 Do you know a farmer who acts and lives _as though_ he believed one word of this?--H GREELEY. 

 His voice . .. Sounded _as though_ it came out of a barrel. --IRVING. 

 Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain, _As though_ a rose should shut, and be a bud again. --KEATS

Examples might be quoted from almost all authors. 

[Sidenote: As _for_ as if. ]

303. In poetry, _as_ is often equivalent to _as if_. 

 And their orbs grew strangely dreary, Clouded, even _as_ they would weep. --EMILY BRONTE. 

 So silently we seemed to speak, So slowly moved about, _As_ we had lent her half our powers To eke her living out. --HOOD. 

HOW TO PARSE CONJUNCTIONS. 

304. In parsing conjunctions, tell--

(1) To what class and subclass they belong. 

(2) What words, word groups, etc. , they connect. 

[Sidenote: _Caution_. ]

In classifying them, particular attention must be paid to the_meaning_ of the word. Some conjunctions, such as _nor, and, because, when_, etc. , are regularly of one particular class; others belong toseveral classes. For example, compare the sentences, --

 1. It continued raining, _so_ that I could not stir abroad. --DEFOE

 2. There will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions, _so_ they be each honest and natural in their hour. --EMERSON

 3. It was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye; _so_ they paddled on. --KINGSLEY

In sentence 1, _so that_ expresses result, and its clause depends onthe other, hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result; in 2, _so_means provided, --is subordinate of condition; in 3, _so_ meanstherefore, and its clause is independent, hence it is a coördinateconjunction of reason. 

Exercise. 

Parse all the conjunctions in these sentences:--

1. When the gods come among men, they are not known. 

2. If he could solve the riddle, the Sphinx was slain. 

3. A lady with whom I was riding in the forest said to me that thewoods always seemed to wait, as if the genii who inhabit themsuspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed. 

4. The mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower, with thelightness and delicate finish as well as the aërial proportions andperspective of vegetable scenery. 

5. At sea, or in the forest, or in the snow, he sleeps as warm, dineswith as good an appetite, and associates as happily, as beside his ownchimneys. 

6. Our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old, but ofthe natural. 

7. "Doctor, " said his wife to Martin Luther, "how is it that whilstsubject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor, whilst nowwe pray with the utmost coldness, and very seldom?"

8. All the postulates of elfin annals, --that the fairies do not liketo be named; that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted;and the like, --I find them true in Concord, however they might be inCornwall or Bretagne. 

9. He is the compend of time; he is also the correlative of nature. 

10. He dismisses without notice his thought, because it is his. 

11. The eye was placed where one ray should fall, that it mighttestify of that particular ray. 

12. It may be safely trusted, so it be faithfully imparted. 

13. He knows how to speak to his contemporaries. 

14. Goodness must have some edge to it, --else it is none. 

15. I hope it is somewhat better than whim at last. 

16. Now you have the whip in your hand, won't you lay on?

17. I scowl as I dip my pen into the inkstand. 

18. I speak, therefore, of good novels only. 

19. Let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field. 

20. And whether consciously or not, you must be, in many a heart, enthroned. 

21. It is clear, however, the whole conditions are changed. 

22. I never rested until I had a copy of the book. 

23. For, though there may be little resemblance otherwise, in thisthey agree, that both were wayward. 

24. Still, she might have the family countenance; and Kate thought helooked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for theyoung don. 

25. He follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him. 

26. The manuscript indeed speaks of many more, whose names I omit, seeing that it behooves me to hasten. 

27. God had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter, which hadsuch efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her, save it weresinful like herself. 

28. I rejoice to stand here no longer, to be looked at as though Ihad seven heads and ten horns. 

29. He should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals. 

30. There was no iron to be seen, nor did they appear acquainted withits properties; for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge, when it was presented to them. 

PREPOSITIONS. . 

305. The word _preposition_ implies _place before_: hence it wouldseem that a preposition is always _before_ its object. It may be so inthe majority of cases, but in a considerable proportion of instancesthe preposition is _after_ its object. 

This occurs in such cases as the following:--

[Sidenote: Preposition not before its object. ]

(1) _After a relative pronoun_, a very common occurrence; thus, --

 The most dismal Christmas fun _which_ these eyes ever looked _on_. --THACKERAY. 

 An ancient nation _which_ they know nothing _of_. --EMERSON. 

 A foe, _whom_ a champion has fought _with_ to-day. --SCOTT. 

 Some little toys _that_ girls are fond _of_. --SWIFT. 

 "It's the man _that_ I spoke to you _about_" said Mr. Pickwick. --DICKENS. 

(2) _After an interrogative adverb, adjective, or pronoun_, alsofrequently found:--

 _What_ God doth the wizard pray _to_?--HAWTHORNE. 

 _What_ is the little one thinking about?--J. G. HOLLAND. 

 _Where_ the Devil did it come _from_, I wonder?--DICKENS. 

(3) _With an infinitive_, in such expressions as these:--

 A proper _quarrel_ for a Crusader to do battle _in_. --SCOTT. 

 "You know, General, it was _nothing_ to joke _about_. "--CABLE

 Had no harsh _treatment_ to reproach herself _with_. --BOYESEN

 A _loss of vitality_ scarcely to be accounted _for_. --HOLMES. 

 Places for _horses_ to be hitched _to_. --_Id. _

(4) _After a noun_, --the case in which the preposition is expected tobe, and regularly is, before its object; as, --

 And unseen mermaids' pearly song Comes bubbling up, the weeds _among_. --BEDDOES. 

 Forever panting and forever young, All breathing human passion far _above_. --KEATS. 

306. Since the object of a preposition is most often a noun, thestatement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object; asin the following sentence, "Roused _by_ the shock, he started _from_his trance. "

Here the words _by_ and _from_ are connectives; but they do more thanconnect. _By_ shows the relation in thought between _roused_ and_shock_, expressing means or agency; _from_ shows the relation inthought between _started_ and _trance_, and expresses separation. Bothintroduce phrases. 

[Sidenote: _Definition_. ]

307. A preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent tomake up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase, and to show the relationbetween its object and the word modified. 

[Sidenote: _Objects, nouns and the following_. ]

308. Besides nouns, prepositions may have as objects--

(1) _Pronouns_: "Upon _them_ with the lance;" "With _whom_ I traverseearth. "

(2) _Adjectives_: "On _high_ the winds lift up their voices. "

(3) _Adverbs_: "If I live wholly from _within_;" "Had it not been forthe sea from _aft_. "

(4) _Phrases_: "Everything came to her from _on high_;" "From _of old_they had been zealous worshipers. "

(5) _Infinitives_: "The queen now scarce spoke to him save _to convey_some necessary command for her service. "

(6) _Gerunds_: "They shrink from _inflicting_ what they threaten;" "Heis not content with _shining_ on great occasions. "

(7) _Clauses_:

 "Each soldier eye shall brightly turn To _where thy sky-born glories burn_. "

[Sidenote: _Object usually objective case, if noun or pronoun_. ]

309. The object of a preposition, if a noun or pronoun, is usuallyin the objective case. In pronouns, this is shown by the form of theword, as in Sec. 308 (1). 

[Sidenote: _Often possessive_. ]

In the double-possessive idiom, however, the object is in thepossessive case after _of_; for example, --

 There was also a book _of Defoe's_, . .. And another _of_ _Mather's_. --FRANKLIN. 

See also numerous examples in Secs. 68 and 87. 

[Sidenote: _Sometimes nominative_. ]

And the prepositions _but_ and _save_ are found with the nominativeform of the pronoun following; as, --

 Nobody knows _but_ my mate and _I_ Where our nest and our nestlings lie. --BRYANT. 

USES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

[Sidenote: _Inseparable. _]

310. Prepositions are used in three ways:--

(1) _Compounded with verbs_, _adverbs_, or _conjunctions_; as, forexample, with verbs, _with_draw, _under_stand, _over_look, _over_take, _over_flow, _under_go, _out_stay, _out_number, _over_run, _over_grow, etc. ; with adverbs, there_at_, there_in_, there_from_, there_by_, there_with_, etc. ; with conjunctions, where_at_, where_in_, where_on_, where_through_, where_upon_, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Separable. _]

(2) _Following a verb_, and being really a part of the verb. This useneeds to be watched closely, to see whether the preposition belongs tothe verb or has a separate prepositional function. For example, in thesentences, (_a_) "He broke a pane _from_ the window, " (_b_) "He broke_into_ the bank, " in (_a_), the verb _broke_ is a predicate, modifiedby the phrase introduced by _from_; in (_b_), the predicate is not_broke_, modified by _into the bank_, but _broke into_--the object, _bank_. 

Study carefully the following prepositions with verbs:--

 Considering the space they _took up_. --SWIFT. 

 I loved, _laughed at_, and pitied him. --GOLDSMITH. 

 The sun _breaks through_ the darkest clouds. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 They will _root up_ the whole ground. --SWIFT. 

 A friend _prevailed upon_ one of the interpreters. --ADDISON

 My uncle _approved of_ it. --FRANKLIN. 

 The robber who _broke into_ them. --LANDOR. 

 This period is not obscurely _hinted at_. --LAMB. 

 The judge _winked at_ the iniquity of the decision. --_Id. _

 The pupils' voices, _conning over_ their lessons. --IRVING. 

 To _help out_ his maintenance. --_Id. _

 With such pomp is Merry Christmas _ushered in_. --LONGFELLOW. 

[Sidenote: _Ordinary use as connective, relation words. _]

(3) As _relation words_, introducing phrases, --the most common use, inwhich the words have their own proper function. 

[Sidenote: _Usefulness of prepositions. _]

311. Prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in thelanguage for compressing a clear meaning into few words. Eachpreposition has its proper and general meaning, which, by frequent andexacting use, has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings moreor less close to the original one. 

Take, for example, the word _over_. It expresses place, with motion, as, "The bird flew _over_ the house;" or rest, as, "Silence broods_over_ the earth. " It may also convey the meaning of _about_, _concerning_; as, "They quarreled _over_ the booty. " Or it may expresstime: "Stay _over_ night. "

The language is made richer and more flexible by there being severalmeanings to each of many prepositions, as well as by some of themhaving the same meaning as others. 

CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

312. It would be useless to attempt to classify all theprepositions, since they are so various in meaning. 

The largest groups are those of place, time, and exclusion. 

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE. 

313. The following are the most common to indicate place:--

(1) PLACE WHERE: _abaft_, _about_, _above_, _across_, _amid_(_amidst_), _among_ (_amongst_), _at_, _athwart_, _below_, _beneath_, _beside_, _between_ (_betwixt_), _beyond_, _in_, _on_, _over_, _under_(_underneath_), _upon_, _round_ or _around_, _without_. 

(2) PLACE WHITHER: _into_, _unto_, _up_, _through_, _throughout_, _to_, _towards_. 

(3) PLACE WHENCE: _down_, _from_ (_away from_, _down from_, _fromout_, etc. ), _off_, _out of_. 

Abaft is exclusively a sea term, meaning _back of_. 

Among (or amongst) and between (or betwixt) have a differencein meaning, and usually a difference in use. _Among_ originally meantin the crowd (_on gemong_), referring to several objects; _between_and _betwixt_ were originally made up of the preposition _be_ (meaning_by_) and _twēon_ or _twēonum_ (modern _twain_), _by two_, and _be_with _twīh_ (or _twuh_), having the same meaning, _by two_ objects. 

As to modern use, see "Syntax" (Sec. 459). 

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME. 

314. They are _after_, _during_, _pending_, _till_ or _until_; alsomany of the prepositions of place express time when put before wordsindicating time, such as _at_, _between_, _by_, _about_, _on_, _within_, etc. 

These are all familiar, and need no special remark. 

EXCLUSION OR SEPARATION. 

315. The chief ones are _besides_, _but_, _except_, _save_, _without_. The participle _excepting_ is also used as a preposition. 

MISCELLANEOUS PREPOSITIONS. 

316. Against implies opposition, sometimes place where. Incolloquial English it is sometimes used to express time, now and thenalso in literary English; for example, --

 She contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me _against_ night. --SWIFT

About, and the participial prepositions concerning, respecting, regarding, mean _with reference to_. 

[Sidenote: _Phrase prepositions. _]

317. Many phrases are used as single prepositions: _by means of_, _by virtue of_, _by help of_, _by dint of_, _by force of_; _out of_, _on account of_, _by way of_, _for the sake of_; _in considerationof_, _in spite of_, _in defiance of_, _instead of_, _in view of_, _inplace of_; _with respect to_, _with regard to_, _according to_, _agreeably to_; and some others. 

318. Besides all these, there are some prepositions that have somany meanings that they require separate and careful treatment: _on_(_upon_), _at_, _by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _to_, _with_. 

No attempt will be made to give _all_ the meanings that each one inthis list has: the purpose is to stimulate observation, and to showhow useful prepositions really are. 

At. 

319. The general meaning of at is _near_, _close to_, after a verbor expression implying position; and _towards_ after a verb orexpression indicating motion. It defines position approximately, while_in_ is exact, meaning _within_. 

Its principal uses are as follows:--

(1) _Place where. _

 They who heard it listened with a curling horror _at_ the heart. --J. F. COOPER. 

 There had been a strike _at_ the neighboring manufacturing village, and there was to be a public meeting, _at_ which he was besought to be present. --T. W. HIGGINSON. 

(2) _Time_, more exact, meaning the point of time at which. 

 He wished to attack _at_ daybreak. --PARKMAN. 

 They buried him darkly, _at_ dead of night. --WOLFE

(3) _Direction. _

 The mother stood looking wildly down _at_ the unseemly object. --COOPER. 

 You are next invited. .. To grasp _at_ the opportunity, and take for your subject, "Health. "--HIGGINSON. 

Here belong such expressions as _laugh at_, _look at_, _wink at_, _gaze at_, _stare at_, _peep at_, _scowl at_, _sneer at_, _frown at_, etc. 

 We _laugh at_ the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years. --JOHNSON. 

 "You never mean to say, " pursued Dot, sitting on the floor and _shaking_ her head _at_ him. --DICKENS. 

(4) _Source_ or _cause_, meaning _because of_, _by reason of_. 

 I felt my heart chill _at_ the dismal sound. --T. W. KNOX. 

 Delighted _at_ this outburst against the Spaniards. --PARKMAN. 

(5) Then the idiomatic phrases _at last_, _at length_, _at any rate_, _at the best_, _at the worst_, _at least_, _at most_, _at first_, _atonce_, _at all_, _at one_, _at naught_, _at random_, etc. ; and phrasessignifying state or condition of being, as, _at work_, _at play_, _atpeace_, _at war_, _at rest_, etc. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with three different uses of _at_. 

By. 

320. Like _at_, by means _near_ or _close to_, but has severalother meanings more or less connected with this, --

(1) The general meaning of _place_. 

 Richard was standing _by_ the window. --ALDRICH. 

 Provided always the coach had not shed a wheel _by_ the roadside. --_Id. _

(2) _Time. _

 But _by_ this time the bell of Old Alloway began tolling. --B. TAYLOR

 The angel came _by_ night. --R. H. STODDARD. 

(3) _Agency_ or _means_. 

 Menippus knew which were the kings _by_ their howling louder. --M. D. CONWAY. 

 At St. Helena, the first port made _by_ the ship, he stopped. --PARTON. 

(4) _Measure of excess_, expressing the degree of difference. 

 At that time [the earth] was richer, _by_ many a million of acres. --DE QUINCEY. 

 He was taller _by_ almost the breadth of my nail. --SWIFT. 

(5) It is also used in _oaths and adjurations_. 

 _By_ my faith, that is a very plump hand for a man of eighty-four!--PARTON. 

 They implore us _by_ the long trials of struggling humanity; _by_ the blessed memory of the departed; _by_ the wrecks of time; _by_ the ruins of nations. --EVERETT. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with three different meanings of _by_. 

For. 

321. The chief meanings of for are as follows:--

(1) _Motion towards_ a place, or a tendency or action toward theattainment of any object. 

 Pioneers who were opening the way _for_ the march of the nation. --COOPER. 

 She saw the boat headed _for_ her. --WARNER. 

(2) _In favor of_, _for the benefit of_, _in behalf of_, a person orthing. 

 He and they were _for_ immediate attack. --PARKMAN

 The people were then against us; they are now _for_ us. --W. L. GARRISON. 

(3) _Duration of time_, or _extent of space_. 

 _For_ a long time the disreputable element outshone the virtuous. --H. H. BANCROFT. 

 He could overlook all the country _for_ many a mile of rich woodland. --IRVING. 

(4) _Substitution_ or _exchange_. 

 There are gains _for_ all our losses. --STODDARD. 

 Thus did the Spaniards make bloody atonement _for_ the butchery of Fort Caroline. --PARKMAN. 

(5) _Reference_, meaning _with regard to_, _as to_, _respecting_, etc. 

 _For_ the rest, the Colonna motto would fit you best. --EMERSON. 

 _For_ him, poor fellow, he repented of his folly. --E. E. HALE

This is very common with _as_--_as for_ me, etc. 

(6) Like _as_, meaning _in the character of_, _as being_, etc. 

 "Nay, if your worship can accomplish that, " answered Master Brackett, "I shall own you _for_ a man of skill indeed!" --HAWTHORNE. 

 Wavering whether he should put his son to death _for_ an unnatural monster. --LAMB. 

(7) _Concession_, meaning _although_, _considering that_ etc. 

 "_For_ a fool, " said the Lady of Lochleven, "thou hast counseled wisely. "--SCOTT

 By my faith, that is a very plump hand _for_ a man of eighty-four!--PARTON. 

(8) Meaning _notwithstanding_, or _in spite of_. 

 But the Colonel, _for_ all his title, had a forest of poor relations. --HOLMES. 

 Still, _for_ all slips of hers, One of Eve's family. --HOOD. 

(9) _Motive, cause, reason, incitement to action. _

 The twilight being. .. Hardly more wholesome _for_ its glittering mists of midge companies. --RUSKIN. 

 An Arab woman, but a few sunsets since, ate her child, _for_ famine. --_Id. _

 Here Satouriona forgot his dignity, and leaped _for_ joy. --PARKMAN. 

(10) _For_ with its object preceding the infinitive, and having thesame meaning as a noun clause, as shown by this sentence:--

 It is by no means necessary _that he should devote his whole school existence to physical science_; nay, more, it is not necessary for _him to give up more than a moderate share of his time to such studies_. --HUXLEY. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with five meanings of _for_. 

From. 

322. The general idea in from is separation or source. It may bewith regard to--

(1) _Place. _

 Like boys escaped _from_ school. --H. H. BANCROFT

 Thus they drifted _from_ snow-clad ranges to burning plain. --_Id. _

(2) _Origin. _

 Coming _from_ a race of day-dreamers, Ayrault had inherited the faculty of dreaming also by night. --HIGGINSON. 

 _From_ harmony, _from_ heavenly harmony This universal frame began. --DRYDEN. 

(3) _Time. _

 A distrustful, if not a desperate man, did he become _from_ the night of that fearful dream--HAWTHORNE. 

(4) _Motive_, _cause_, or _reason_. 

 It was _from_ no fault of Nolan's. --HALE. 

 The young cavaliers, _from_ a desire of seeming valiant, ceased to be merciful. --BANCROFT. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with three meanings of _from_. 

Of. 

323. The original meaning of of was separation or source, like_from_. The various uses are shown in the following examples:--

I. The _From_ Relation. 

(1) _Origin or source. _

 The king holds his authority _of_ the people. --MILTON. 

 Thomas à Becket was born _of_ reputable parents in the city of London. --HUME. 

(2) _Separation_: (_a_) After certain verbs, such as _ease_, _demand_, _rob_, _divest_, _free_, _clear_, _purge_, _disarm_, _deprive_, _relieve_, _cure_, _rid_, _beg_, _ask_, etc. 

 Two old Indians cleared the spot _of_ brambles, weeds, and grass. --PARKMAN. 

 Asked no odds _of_, acquitted them _of, _ etc. --ALDRICH. 

(_b_) After some adjectives, --_clear of_, _free of_, _wide of_, _bareof_, etc. ; especially adjectives and adverbs of direction, as _northof_, _south of_, etc. 

 The hills were bare _of_ trees. --BAYARD TAYLOR. 

 Back _of_ that tree, he had raised a little Gothic chapel. --GAVARRE. 

(_c_) After nouns expressing lack, deprivation, etc. 

 A singular want _of_ all human relation. --HIGGINSON. 

_(d)_ With words expressing distance. 

 Until he had come within a staff's length _of_ the old dame. --HAWTHORNE

 Within a few yards _of_ the young man's hiding place. --_Id. _

(3) _With expressions of material_, especially _out of_. 

 White shirt with diamond studs, or breastpin _of_ native gold. --BANCROFT. 

 Sandals, bound with thongs _of_ boar's hide. --SCOTT

 Who formed, _out of_ the most unpromising materials, the finest army that Europe had yet seen. --MACAULAY

(4) _Expressing cause, reason, motive. _

 The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy. --BOSWELL. 

 More than one altar was richer _of_ his vows. --LEW WALLACE. 

 "Good for him!" cried Nolan. "I am glad _of_ that. "--E. E. HALE. 

(5) _Expressing agency. _

 You cannot make a boy know, _of_ his own knowledge, that Cromwell once ruled England. --HUXLEY. 

 He is away _of_ his own free will. --DICKENS

II. Other Relations expressed by _Of_. 

(6) _Partitive_, expressing a part of a number or quantity. 

 _Of_ the Forty, there were only twenty-one members present. --PARTON. 

 He washed out some _of_ the dirt, separating thereby as much of the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold. --BANCROFT. 

[Sidenote: _See also Sec. 309. _]

(7) _Possessive_, standing, with its object, for the possessive, orbeing used with the possessive case to form the double possessive. 

 Not even woman's love, and the dignity _of_ a queen, could give shelter from his contumely. --W. E. CHANNING. 

 And the mighty secret _of_ the Sierra stood revealed. --BANCROFT. 

(8) _Appositional_, which may be in the case of--

(_a_) Nouns. 

 Such a book as that _of_ Job. --FROUDE. 

 The fair city _of_ Mexico. --PRESCOTT. 

 The nation _of_ Lilliput. --SWIFT. 

(_b_) Noun and gerund, being equivalent to an infinitive. 

 In the vain hope _of_ appeasing the savages. --COOPER. 

 Few people take the trouble _of_ finding out what democracy really is. --LOWELL. 

(_c_) Two nouns, when the first is descriptive of the second. 

 This crampfish _of_ a Socrates has so bewitched him. --EMERSON

 A sorry antediluvian makeshift _of_ a building you may think it. --LAMB. 

 An inexhaustible bottle _of_ a shop. --ALDRICH. 

(9) _Of time. _ Besides the phrases _of old_, _of late_, _of a sudden_, etc. , _of_ is used in the sense of _during_. 

 I used often to linger _of_ a morning by the high gate. --ALDRICH

 I delighted to loll over the quarter railing _of_ a calm day. --IRVING. 

(10) _Of reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, _with regard to_. 

 The Turk lay dreaming _of_ the hour. --HALLECK. 

 Boasted _of_ his prowess as a scalp hunter and duelist. --BANCROFT. 

 Sank into reverie _of_ home and boyhood scenes. --_Id. _

[Sidenote: _Idiomatic use with verbs. _]

_Of_ is also used as an appendage of certain verbs, such as _admit_, _accept_, _allow_, _approve_, _disapprove_, _permit_, without addingto their meaning. It also accompanies the verbs _tire_, _complain_, _repent_, _consist_, _avail_ (one's self), and others. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with six uses of _of_. 

On, Upon. 

324. The general meaning of on is position or direction. _On_ and_upon_ are interchangeable in almost all of their applications, asshown by the sentences below:--

(1) _Place_: (_a_) Where. 

 Cannon were heard close _on_ the left. --PARKMAN. 

 The Earl of Huntley ranged his host _Upon_ their native strand. --MRS. SIGOURNEY. 

(_b_) With motion. 

 It was the battery at Samos firing _on_ the boats. --PARKMAN. 

 Thou didst look down _upon_ the naked earth. --BRYANT. 

(2) _Time. _

 The demonstration of joy or sorrow _on_ reading their letters. --BANCROFT. 

 _On_ Monday evening he sent forward the Indians. --PARKMAN. 

Upon is seldom used to express time. 

(3) _Reference_, equal to _about_, _concerning_, etc. 

 I think that one abstains from writing _on_ the immortality of the soul. --EMERSON. 

 He pronounced a very flattering opinion _upon_ my brother's promise of excellence. --DE QUINCEY. 

(4) _In adjurations. _

 _On_ my life, you are eighteen, and not a day more. --ALDRICH. 

 _Upon_ my reputation and credit. --SHAKESPEARE

(5) _Idiomatic phrases_: _on fire_, _on board_, _on high_, _on thewing_, _on the alert_, _on a sudden_, _on view_, _on trial_, etc. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with three uses of _on_ or _upon_. 

To. 

325. Some uses of to are the following:--

(1) _Expressing motion_: (_a_) To a place. 

 Come _to_ the bridal chamber, Death!--HALLECK. 

 Rip had scrambled _to_ one of the highest peaks. --IRVING. 

(_b_) Referring to time. 

 Full of schemes and speculations _to_ the last. --PARTON. 

 Revolutions, whose influence is felt _to_ this hour. --PARKMAN. 

(2) _Expressing result. _

 He usually gave his draft to an aid. .. To be written over, --often _to_ the loss of vigor. --BENTON

 _To_ our great delight, Ben Lomond was unshrouded. --B. TAYLOR

(3) _Expressing comparison. _

 But when, unmasked, gay Comedy appears, 'Tis ten _to_ one you find the girl in tears. --ALDRICH

 They are arrant rogues: Cacus was nothing _to_ them. --BULWER. 

 Bolingbroke and the wicked Lord Littleton were saints _to_ him. --WEBSTER

(4) _Expressing concern, interest. _

 _To_ the few, it may be genuine poetry. --BRYANT. 

 His brother had died, had ceased to be, _to_ him. --HALE. 

 Little mattered _to_ them occasional privations--BANCROFT. 

(5) _Equivalent to_ according to. 

 Nor, _to_ my taste, does the mere music. .. Of your style fall far below the highest efforts of poetry. --LANG. 

 We cook the dish _to_ our own appetite. --GOLDSMITH. 

(6) _With the infinitive_ (see Sec. 268). 

Exercise. --Find sentences containing three uses of _to_. 

With. 

326. With expresses the idea of accompaniment, and hardly any ofits applications vary from this general signification. 

In Old English, _mid_ meant _in company with_, while _wið_ meant_against_: both meanings are included in the modern _with_. 

The following meanings are expressed by _with_:--

(1) _Personal accompaniment. _

 The advance, _with_ Heyward at its head, had already reached the defile. --COOPER. 

 For many weeks I had walked _with_ this poor friendless girl. --DE QUINCEY. 

(2) _Instrumentality. _

 _With_ my crossbow I shot the albatross. --COLERIDGE. 

 Either _with_ the swingle-bar, or _with_ the haunch of our near leader, we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig. --DE QUINCEY. 

(3) _Cause, reason, motive. _

 He was wild _with_ delight about Texas. --HALE. 

 She seemed pleased _with_ the accident. --HOWELLS. 

(4) _Estimation, opinion. _

 How can a writer's verses be numerous if _with_ him, as _with_ you, "poetry is not a pursuit, but a pleasure"?--LANG. 

 It seemed a supreme moment _with_ him. --HOWELLS. 

(5) _Opposition_. 

 After battling _with_ terrific hurricanes and typhoons on every known sea. --ALDRICH. 

 The quarrel of the sentimentalists is not _with_ life, but _with_ you. --LANG. 

(6) _The equivalent of_ notwithstanding, in spite of. 

 _With_ all his sensibility, he gave millions to the sword. --CHANNING. 

 Messala, _with_ all his boldness, felt it unsafe to trifle further. --WALLACE

(7) _Time. _

 He expired _with_ these words. --SCOTT. 

 _With_ each new mind a new secret of nature transpires. --EMERSON. 

Exercise. --Find sentences with four uses of _with_. 

HOW TO PARSE PREPOSITIONS. 

327. Since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relationbetween two things, it is necessary, first of all, to find the objectof the preposition, and then to find what word the prepositionalphrase limits. Take this sentence:--

 The rule adopted on board the ships on which I have met "the man without a country" was, I think, transmitted from the beginning. --E. E. HALE. 

The phrases are (1) _on board the ships_, (2) _on which_, (3) _withouta country_, (4) _from the beginning_. The object of _on board_ is_ships_; of _on_, _which_; of _without_, _country_; of _from_, _beginning_. 

In (1), the phrase answers the question _where_, and has the office ofan adverb in telling _where_ the rule is adopted; hence we say, _onboard_ shows the relation between _ships_ and the participle_adopted_. 

In (2), _on which_ modifies the verb _have met_ by telling where:hence _on_ shows the relation between _which_ (standing for _ships_)and the verb _have met_. 

In (3), _without a country_ modifies _man_, telling what man, or theverb _was_ understood: hence _without_ shows the relation between_country_ and _man_, or _was_. And so on. 

The parsing of prepositions means merely telling between what wordsor word groups they show relation. 

Exercises. 

(_a_) Parse the prepositions in these paragraphs:--

 1. I remember, before the dwarf left the queen, he followed us one day into those gardens. I must needs show my wit by a silly illusion between him and the trees, which happens to hold in their language as it does in ours. Whereupon, the malicious rogue, watching his opportunity when I was walking under one of them, shook it directly over my head, by which a dozen apples, each of them near as large as a Bristol barrel, came tumbling about my ears; one of them hit me on the back as I chanced to stoop, and knocked me down flat on my face; but I received no other hurt, and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire, because I had given the provocation. --SWIFT

 2. Be that as it will, I found myself suddenly awakened with a violent pull upon the ring, which was fastened at the top of my box for the conveniency of carriage. I felt my box raised very high in the air, and then borne forward with prodigious speed. The first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock. I called out several times, but all to no purpose. I looked towards my windows, and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky. I heard a noise just over my head, like the clapping of wings, and then began to perceive the woeful condition I was in; that some eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak, with an intent to let it fall on a rock: for the sagacity and smell of this bird enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance, though better concealed than I could be within a two-inch board. --_Id. _

(_b_) Give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in thefollowing sentences:--

1. The guns were cleared _of_ their lumber. 

2. They then left _for_ a cruise up the Indian Ocean. 

3. I speak these things _from_ a love of justice. 

4. _To_ our general surprise, we met the defaulter here. 

5. There was no one except a little sunbeam _of_ a sister. 

6. The great gathering in the main street was _on_ Sundays, when, after a restful morning, though unbroken _by_ the peal of churchbells, the miners gathered _from_ hills and ravines _for_ miles around_for_ marketing. 

7. The troops waited in their boats _by_ the edge of a strand. 

8. His breeches were _of_ black silk, and his hat was garnished _with_white and sable plumes. 

9. A suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran throughthe crowd _at_ this generous proposition. 

10. They were shriveled and colorless _with_ the cold. 

11. On every solemn occasion he was the striking figure, even _to_ theeclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony. 

12. _On_ all subjects known to man, he favored the world with hisopinions. 

13. Our horses ran _on_ a sandy margin of the road. 

14. The hero of the poem is _of_ a strange land and a strangeparentage. 

15. He locked his door _from_ mere force of habit. 

16. The lady was remarkable _for_ energy and talent. 

17. Roland was acknowledged _for_ the successor and heir. 

18. _For_ my part, I like to see the passing, in town. 

19. A half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered _for_any service. 

20. The mother sank and fell, grasping _at_ the child. 

21. The savage army was in war-paint, plumed _for_ battle. 

22. He had lived in Paris _for_ the last fifty years. 

23. The hill stretched _for_ an immeasurable distance. 

24. The baron of Smaylho'me rose _with_ day, He spurred his courser on, Without stop or stay, down the rocky way That leads _to_ Brotherstone. 

25. _With_ all his learning, Carteret was far from being a pedant. 

26. An immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing, in this respect, _to_ one dark and gloomy. 

27. Wilt thou die _for_ very weakness?

28. The name of Free Joe strikes humorously _upon_ the ear of memory. 

29. The shout I heard was _upon_ the arrival of this engine. 

30. He will raise the price, not merely _by_ the amount of the tax. 

WORDS THAT NEED WATCHING. 

328. If the student has now learned fully that words must be studiedin grammar according to their function or use, and not according toform, he will be able to handle some words that are used as severalparts of speech. A few are discussed below, --a summary of theirtreatment in various places as studied heretofore. 

THAT. 

329. That may be used as follows:

(1) _As a demonstrative adjective. _

 _That_ night was a memorable one. --STOCKTON. 

(2) _As an adjective pronoun. _

 _That_ was a dreadful mistake. --WEBSTER. 

(3) _As a relative pronoun. _

 And now it is like an angel's song, _That_ makes the heavens be mute. --COLERIDGE. 

(4) _As an adverb of degree. _

 _That_ far I hold that the Scriptures teach. --BEECHER. 

(5) _As a conjunction_: (_a_) Of purpose. 

 Has bounteously lengthened out your lives, _that_ you might behold this joyous day. --WEBSTER. 

(_b_) Of result. 

 Gates of iron so massy _that_ no man could without the help of engines open or shut them. --JOHNSON. 

(_c_) Substantive conjunction. 

 We wish _that_ labor may look up here, and be proud in the midst of its toil. --WEBSTER. 

WHAT. 

330. (1) _Relative pronoun. _

 That is _what_ I understand by scientific education. --HUXLEY. 

(_a_) Indefinite relative. 

 Those shadowy recollections, Which be they _what_ they may, Are yet the fountain light of all our day. --WORDSWORTH. 

(2) _Interrogative pronoun_: (_a_) Direct question. 

 _What_ would be an English merchant's character after a few such transactions?--THACKERAY. 

(_b_) Indirect question. 

 I have not allowed myself to look beyond the Union, to see _what_ might be hidden. --WEBSTER. 

(3) _Indefinite pronoun:_ The saying, "I'll tell you _what_. "

(4) _Relative adjective. _

 But woe to _what_ thing or person stood in the way. --EMERSON. 

(_a_) Indefinite relative adjective. 

 To say _what_ good of fashion we can, it rests on reality. --_Id. _

(5) _Interrogative adjective_: (_a_) Direct question. 

 _What_ right have you to infer that this condition was caused by the action of heat?--AGASSIZ. 

(_b_) Indirect question. 

 At _what_ rate these materials would be distributed, . .. It is impossible to determine. --_Id. _

(6) _Exclamatory adjective. _

 Saint Mary! _what_ a scene is here!--SCOTT. 

(7) _Adverb of degree. _

 If he has [been in America], he knows _what_ good people are to be found there. --THACKERAY. 

(8) _Conjunction_, nearly equivalent to _partly_. .. _partly_, or _notonly. .. But_. 

 _What_ with the Maltese goats, who go tinkling by to their pasturage; _what_ with the vocal seller of bread in the early morning;. .. These sounds are only to be heard. .. In Pera. --S. S. Cox. 

(9) _As an exclamation. _

 _What_, silent still, and silent all!--BYRON. 

 _What_, Adam Woodcock at court!--SCOTT. 

BUT. 

331. (1) _Coördinate conjunction_: (_a_) Adversative. 

 His very attack was never the inspiration of courage, _but_ the result of calculation. --EMERSON. 

(_b_) Copulative, after _not only_. 

 Then arose not only tears, _but_ piercing cries, on all sides. --CARLYLE. 

(2) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Result, equivalent to _that_ . .. _not_. 

 Nor is Nature so hard _but_ she gives me this joy several times. --EMERSON. 

(_b_) Substantive, meaning _otherwise_ . .. _than_. 

 Who knows _but_, like the dog, it will at length be no longer traceable to its wild original--THOREAU. 

(3) _Preposition_, meaning _except_. 

 Now there was nothing to be seen _but_ fires in every direction. --LAMB. 

(4) _Relative pronoun_, after a negative, stands for _that_ . .. _not_, or _who_ . .. _not_. 

 There is not a man in them _but_ is impelled withal, at all moments, towards order. --CARLYLE. 

(5) _Adverb_, meaning _only_. 

 The whole twenty years had been to him _but_ as one night. --IRVING. 

 To lead _but_ one measure. --SCOTT. 

AS. 

332. (1) _Subordinate conjunction_: (_a_) Of time. 

 Rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself _as_ he went up the mountain. --IRVING. 

(_b_) Of manner. 

 _As_ orphans yearn on to their mothers, He yearned to our patriot bands. --MRS BROWNING. 

(_c_) Of degree. 

 His wan eyes Gaze on the empty scene _as_ vacantly _As_ ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven. --SHELLEY. 

(_d_) Of reason. 

 I shall see but little of it, _as_ I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage. --FRANKLIN. 

(_e_) Introducing an appositive word. 

 Reverenced _as_ one of the patriarchs of the village. --IRVING. 

 Doing duty _as_ a guard. --HAWTHORNE. 

(2) _Relative pronoun_, after _such_, sometimes _same_. 

 And was there such a resemblance _as_ the crowd had testified?--HAWTHORNE. 

LIKE. 

[Sidenote: _Modifier of a noun or pronoun. _]

333. (1) _An adjective. _

 The aforesaid general had been exceedingly _like_ the majestic image. --HAWTHORNE. 

 They look, indeed, _liker_ a lion's mane than a Christian man's locks. -SCOTT. 

 No Emperor, this, _like_ him awhile ago. --ALDRICH. 

 There is no statue _like_ this living man. --EMERSON. 

 That face, _like_ summer ocean's. --HALLECK. 

In each case, _like_ clearly modifies a noun or pronoun, and isfollowed by a dative-objective. 

[Sidenote: _Introduces a clause, but its verb is omitted. _]

(2) _A subordinate conjunction_ of manner. This follows a verb or averbal, but the verb of the clause introduced by _like_ is _regularlyomitted_. Note the difference between these two uses. In Old English_gelic_ (like) was followed by the dative, and was clearly anadjective. In this second use, _like_ introduces a shortened clausemodifying a verb or a verbal, as shown in the following sentences:--

 Goodman Brown came into the street of Salem village, staring _like_ a bewildered man. --HAWTHORNE. 

 Give Ruskin space enough, and he grows frantic and beats the air _like_ Carlyle. --HIGGINSON. 

 They conducted themselves much _like_ the crew of a man-of-war. --PARKMAN. 

 [The sound] rang in his ears _like_ the iron hoofs of the steeds of Time. --LONGFELLOW. 

 Stirring it vigorously, _like_ a cook beating eggs. --ALDRICH. 

If the verb is expressed, _like_ drops out, and _as_ or _as if_ takesits place. 

 The sturdy English moralist may talk of a Scotch supper _as_ he pleases. --CASS. 

 Mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw, just _as_ they do in Abyssinia to this day. --LAMB. 

 I do with my friends _as_ I do with my books. --EMERSON. 

NOTE. --Very rarely _like_ is found with a verb following, but this isnot considered good usage: for example, --

 A timid, nervous child, _like_ Martin _was_. --MAYHEW. 

 Through which they put their heads, _like_ the Gauchos _do_ through their cloaks. --DARWIN. 

 _Like_ an arrow shot From a well-experienced archer _hits_ the mark. --SHAKESPEARE. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

334. Interjections are exclamations used to express emotion, andare not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we havediscussed; that is, entering into the structure of a sentence. 

Some of these are imitative sounds; as, tut! buzz! etc. 

_Humph_! attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that noletters of our language can really spell. 

[Sidenote: _Not all exclamatory words are interjections. _]

Other interjections are _oh_! _ah_! _alas_! _pshaw_! _hurrah_! etc. But it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as anexclamation, but it still retains its identity as noun, pronoun, verb, etc. : for example, "Books! lighthouses built on the sea of time[noun];" "Halt! the dust-brown ranks stood fast [verb], " "Up! forshame! [adverb], " "Impossible! it cannot be [adjective]. "

PART II. 

_ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. _

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FORM. 

[Sidenote: _What analysis is. _. ]

335. All discourse is made up of sentences: consequently thesentence is the unit with which we must begin. And in order to get aclear and practical idea of the structure of sentences, it isnecessary to become expert in analysis; that is, in separating theminto their component parts. 

A general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts ofspeech, --in determining case, subject and predicate, clausesintroduced by conjunctions, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Value of analysis. _]

A more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject isnecessary for two reasons, --not only for a correct understanding ofthe principles of syntax, but for the study of punctuation and othertopics treated in rhetoric. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

336. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. 

[Sidenote: _Kinds of sentences as to form. _]

337. According to the way in which a thought is put before alistener or reader, sentences may be of three kinds:--

(1) Declarative, which puts the thought in the form of a declarationor assertion. This is the most common one. 

(2) Interrogative, which puts the thought in a question. 

(3) Imperative, which expresses command, entreaty, or request. 

Any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation, but thesentence would still be declarative, interrogative, or imperative;hence, _according to form_, there are only the three kinds ofsentences already named. 

Examples of these three kinds are, declarative, "Old year, you mustnot die!" interrogative, "Hath he not always treasures, alwaysfriends?" imperative, "Come to the bridal chamber, Death!"

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO NUMBER OF STATEMENTS. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

[Sidenote: _Division according to number of statements. _]

338. But the division of sentences most necessary to analysis is thedivision, not according to the form in which a thought is put, butaccording to how many statements there are. 

The one we shall consider first is the simple sentence. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

339. A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question, or command: for example, "The quality of mercy is notstrained;" "What wouldst thou do, old man?" "Be thou familiar, but byno means vulgar. "

340. Every sentence must contain two parts, --a subject and apredicate. 

[Sidenote: _Definition: Predicate. _]

The predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which sayssomething about the subject. 

In order to get a correct definition of the subject, let us examinetwo specimen sentences:--

1. But now all is to be changed. 

2. A rare old plant is the ivy green. 

In the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word _what_before the predicate, --_What_ is to be changed? Answer, _all_. Consequently, we say _all_ is the subject of the sentence. 

But if we try this with the second sentence, we have sometrouble, --_What_ is the ivy green? Answer, _a rare old plant_. But wecannot help seeing that an assertion is made, not of _a rare oldplant_, but about _the ivy green_; and the real subject is the latter. Sentences are frequently in this inverted order, especially in poetry;and our definition must be the following, to suit all cases:--

[Sidenote: _Subject. _]

The subject is that which answers the question _who_ or _what_placed before the predicate, and which at the same time names that ofwhich the predicate says something. 

[Sidenote: _The subject in interrogative and imperative simplesentences. _]

341. In the interrogative sentence, the subject is frequently afterthe verb. Either the verb is the first word of the sentence, or aninterrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb that asks about thesubject. In analyzing such sentences, _always reduce them to the orderof a statement_. Thus, --

(1) "When should this scientific education be commenced?"

(2) "This scientific education should be commenced when?"

(3) "What wouldst thou have a good great man obtain?"

(4) "Thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what?"

In the imperative sentence, the subject (_you_, _thou_, or _ye_) is inmost cases omitted, and is to be supplied; as, "[You] behold hersingle in the field. "

Exercise. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each of the followingsentences:--

1. The shadow of the dome of pleasure Floated midway on the waves. 

2. Hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions. 

3. Nowhere else on the Mount of Olives is there a view like this. 

4. In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is a sacred andprecious gift. 

5. The last of all the Bards was he. 

6. Slavery they can have anywhere. 

7. Listen, on the other hand, to an ignorant man. 

8. What must have been the emotions of the Spaniards!

9. Such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of thegeneral. 

10. What a contrast did these children of southern Europe present tothe Anglo-Saxon races!

ELEMENTS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

342. All the elements of the simple sentence are as follows:--

(1) The subject. 

(2) The predicate. 

(3) The object. 

(4) The complements. 

(5) Modifiers. 

(6) Independent elements. 

The subject and predicate have been discussed. 

343. The object may be of two kinds:--

[Sidenote: _Definitions. Direct Object_. ]

(1) The DIRECT OBJECT is that word or expression which answers thequestion _who_ or _what_ placed after the verb; or the direct objectnames that toward which the action of the predicate is directed. 

It must be remembered that any verbal may have an object; but for thepresent we speak of the object of the verb, and by _object_ we meanthe _direct_ object. 

[Sidenote: _Indirect object_. ]

(2) The INDIRECT OBJECT is a noun or its equivalent used as themodifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whosebenefit an action is performed. 

Examples of direct and indirect objects are, direct, "She seldom sawher _course_ at a glance;" indirect, "I give _thee_ this to wear atthe collar. "

[Sidenote: _Complement_:]

344. A complement is a word added to a verb of incompletepredication to complete its meaning. 

Notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of twokinds, --transitive and intransitive. 

[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_. ]

The _transitive verb_ often requires, in addition to the object, aword to define fully the action that is exerted upon the object; forexample, "Ye call me chief. " Here the verb _call_ has an object _me_(if we leave out _chief_), and means summoned; but _chief_ belongs tothe verb, and _me_ here is not the object simply of _call_, but of_call chief_, just as if to say, "Ye _honor me_. " This word completinga transitive verb is sometimes called a _factitive object_, or _secondobject_, but it is a true complement. 

The fact that this is a complement can be more clearly seen when theverb is in the passive. See sentence 19, in exercise following Sec. 364. 

[Sidenote: _Complement of an intransitive verb_. ]

An _intransitive verb_, especially the forms of _be_, _seem_, _appear_, _taste_, _feel_, _become_, etc. , must often have a word tocomplete the meaning: as, for instance, "Brow and head were _round, and of massive weight_;" "The good man, he was now getting _old_, above sixty;" "Nothing could be _more copious_ than his talk;" "But ingeneral he seemed _deficient in laughter_. "

All these complete intransitive verbs. The following are examples ofcomplements of transitive verbs: "Hope deferred maketh the heart_sick_;" "He was termed _Thomas_, or, more familiarly, _Thom of theGills_;" "A plentiful fortune is reckoned _necessary_, in the popularjudgment, to the completion of this man of the world. "

345. The modifiers and independent elements will be discussed indetail in Secs. 351, 352, 355. 

[Sidenote: _Phrases_. ]

346. A phrase is a group of words, not containing a verb, but usedas a single modifier. 

As to _form_, phrases are of three kinds:--

[Sidenote: _Three kinds_. ]

(1) PREPOSITIONAL, introduced by a preposition: for example, "Such aconvulsion is the struggle _of gradual suffocation_, as _in drowning_;and, _in the original Opium Confessions_, I mentioned a case _of thatnature_. "

(2) PARTICIPIAL, consisting of a participle and the words dependent onit. The following are examples: "Then _retreating into the warmhouse_, and _barring the door_, she sat down to undress the twoyoungest children. "

(3) INFINITIVE, consisting of an infinitive and the words dependentupon it; as in the sentence, "She left her home forever in order _topresent herself at the Dauphin's court_. "

Things used as Subject. 

347. The subject of a simple sentence may be--

(1) _Noun_: "There seems to be no _interval_ between greatness andmeanness. " Also an expression used as a noun; as, "A cheery, '_Ay, ay, sir_!' rang out in response. "

(2) _Pronoun_: "We are fortified by every heroic anecdote. "

(3) _Infinitive phrase_: "_To enumerate and analyze these relations_is to teach the science of method. "

(4) _Gerund_: "There will be _sleeping_ enough in the grave;" "Whatsignifies _wishing_ and _hoping_ for better things?"

(5) _Adjective used as noun_: "_The good_ are befriended even byweakness and defect;" "_The dead_ are there. "

(6) _Adverb_: "_Then_ is the moment for the humming bird to secure theinsects. "

348. The subject is often found _after the verb_--

(1) _By simple inversion_: as, "Therein has been, and ever will be, my_deficiency_, --the talent of starting the game;" "Never, from theirlips, was heard one _syllable_ to justify, " etc. 

(2) _In interrogative sentences_, for which see Sec. 341. 

(3) _After_ "it _introductory_:" "It ought not to need _to print_ ina reading room a caution not to read aloud. "

In this sentence, _it_ stands in the position of a grammaticalsubject; but the real or logical subject is _to print_, etc. _It_merely serves to throw the subject after a verb. 

[Sidenote: _Disguised infinitive subject_. ]

There is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive, thoughdisguised as a prepositional phrase: "It is hard _for honest men toseparate_ their country from their party, or their religion from theirsect. "

The _for_ did not belong there originally, but obscures the realsubject, --the infinitive phrase. Compare Chaucer: "No wonder is alewed man to ruste" (No wonder [it] is [for] a common man to rust). 

(4) _After_ "there _introductory_, " which has the same office as _it_in reversing the order (see Sec. 292): "There was a _description_ ofthe destructive operations of time;" "There are _asking eyes_, _asserting eyes_, _prowling eyes_. "

Things used as Direct Object. 

349. The words used as direct object are mainly the same as thoseused for subject, but they will be given in detail here, for the sakeof presenting examples:--

(1) _Noun_: "Each man has his own _vocation_. " Also expressions usedas nouns: for example, "'_By God, and by Saint George!_' said theKing. "

(2) _Pronoun_: "Memory greets _them_ with the ghost of a smile. "

(3) _Infinitive_: "We like _to see_ everything do its office. "

(4) _Gerund_: "She heard that _sobbing_ of litanies, or the_thundering_ of organs. "

(5) _Adjective used as a noun_: "For seventy leagues through themighty cathedral, I saw _the quick_ and _the dead_. "

Things used as Complement. 

[Sidenote: _Complement: Of an intransitive verb_. ]

350. As complement of an _intransitive_ verb, --

(1) _Noun_: "She had been an ardent _patriot_. "

(2) _Pronoun_: "_Who_ is she in bloody coronation robes from Rheims?""This is _she_, the shepherd girl. "

(3) _Adjective_: "Innocence is ever _simple_ and _credulous_. "

(4) _Infinitive_: "To enumerate and analyze these relations is _toteach_ the science of method. "

(5) _Gerund_: "Life is a _pitching_ of this penny, --heads or tails;""Serving others is _serving_ us. "

(6) _A prepositional phrase_: "His frame is _on a larger scale_;" "Themarks were _of a kind_ not to be mistaken. "

It will be noticed that all these complements have a doubleoffice, --completing the predicate, and explaining or modifying thesubject. 

[Sidenote: _Of a transitive verb_. ]

As complement of a _transitive_ verb, --

(1) _Noun_: "I will not call you _cowards_. "

(2) _Adjective_: "Manners make beauty _superfluous_ and _ugly_;""Their tempers, doubtless, are rendered _pliant_ and _malleable_ inthe fiery furnace of domestic tribulation. " In this last sentence, theobject is made the subject by being passive, and the words italicizedare still complements. Like all the complements in this list, they areadjuncts of the object, and, at the same time, complements of thepredicate. 

(3) _Infinitive_, or _infinitive phrase_: "That cry which made me_look a thousand ways_;" "I hear the echoes _throng_. "

(4) _Participle_, or _participial phrase_: "I can imagine him _pushingfirmly on, trusting the hearts of his countrymen_. "

(5) _Prepositional phrase:_ "My antagonist would render my poniard andmy speed _of no use_ to me. "

Modifiers. 

I. Modifiers of Subject, Object, or Complement. 

351. Since the subject and object are either nouns or someequivalent of a noun, the words modifying them must be adjectives orsome equivalent of an adjective; and whenever the complement is anoun, or the equivalent of the noun, it is modified by the same wordsand word groups that modify the subject and the object. 

These modifiers are as follows:--

(1) _A possessive_: "_My_ memory assures me of this;" "She asked her_father's_ permission. "

(2) _A word in apposition_: "Theodore Wieland, the _prisoner_ at thebar, was now called upon for his defense;" "Him, this young_idolater_, I have seasoned for thee. "

(3) _An adjective_: "_Great_ geniuses have the _shortest_biographies;" "Her father was a prince in Lebanon, --_proud_, _unforgiving_, _austere_. "

(4) _Prepositional phrase_: "Are the opinions _of a man on right andwrong on fate and causation_, at the mercy of a broken sleep or anindigestion?" "The poet needs a ground _in popular tradition_ to workon. "

(5) _Infinitive phrase_: "The way _to know him_ is to compare him, notwith nature, but with other men;" "She has a new and unattemptedproblem _to solve_;" "The simplest utterances are worthiest _to bewritten_. "

(6) _Participial phrase_: "Another reading, _given at the request of aDutch lady_, was the scene from King John;" "This was the hour_already appointed for the baptism_ of the new Christian daughter. "

Exercise. --In each sentence in Sec. 351, tell whether the subject, object, or complement is modified. 

II. Modifiers of the Predicate. 

352. Since the predicate is always a verb, the word modifying itmust be an adverb or its equivalent:--

(1) _Adverb:_ "_Slowly_ and _sadly_ we laid him down. "

(2) _Prepositional phrase_: "The little carriage is creeping on _atone mile an hour_;" "_In the twinkling of an eye_, our horses hadcarried us _to the termination of the umbrageous isle_. "

In such a sentence as, "He died like a God, " the word group _like aGod_ is often taken as a phrase; but it is really a contracted clause, the verb being omitted. 

[Sidenote: _Tells how. _]

(3) _Participial phrase:_ "She comes down from heaven to his help, _interpreting for him the most difficult truths_, and _leading himfrom star to star_. "

(4) _Infinitive phrase:_ "No imprudent, no sociable angel, everdropped an early syllable _to answer his longing_. "

(For participial and infinitive phrases, see further Secs. 357-363. )

(5) _Indirect object:_ "I gave _every man_ a trumpet;" "Give _them_not only noble teachings, but noble teachers. "

These are equivalent to the phrases _to every man_ and _to them_, andmodify the predicate in the same way. 

[Sidenote: _Retained with passive; or_]

When the verb is changed from active to passive, the indirect objectis retained, as in these sentences: "It is left _you_ to find out thereason why;" "All such knowledge should be given _her_. "

[Sidenote: _subject of passive verb and direct object retained. _]

Or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes thesubject of the passive, and the direct object is retained: forexample, "She is to be taught _to extend the limits of her sympathy_;""I was shown an immense _sarcophagus_. "

(6) _Adverbial objective. _ These answer the question _when_, or _howlong_, _how far_, etc. , and are consequently equivalent to adverbs inmodifying a predicate: "We were now running _thirteen miles an hour_;""_One way_ lies hope;" "_Four hours_ before midnight we approached amighty minster. "

Exercises. 

(_a_) Pick out subject, predicate, and (direct) object:--

1. This, and other measures of precaution, I took. 

2. The pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final cause, gives wonderful animation, a sort of personality to the whole writing. 

3. Why does the horizon hold me fast, with my joy and grief, in thiscenter?

4. His books have no melody, no emotion, no humor, no relief to thedead prosaic level. 

5. On the voyage to Egypt, he liked, after dinner, to fix on three orfour persons to support a proposition, and as many to oppose it. 

6. Fashion does not often caress the great, but the children of thegreat. 

7. No rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation. 

8. They do not wish to be lovely, but to be loved. 

(_b_) Pick out the subject, predicate, and complement:

1. Evil, according to old philosophers, is good in the making. 

2. But anger drives a man to say anything. 

3. The teachings of the High Spirit are abstemious, and, in regard toparticulars, negative. 

4. Spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and theslumbers light. 

5. Yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the King of Spain. 

6. A merciless oppressor hast thou been. 

7. To the men of this world, to the animal strength and spirits, theman of ideas appears out of his reason. 

8. I felt myself, for the first time, burthened with the anxieties ofa man, and a member of the world. 

(_c_) Pick out the direct and the indirect object in each:--

1. Not the less I owe thee justice. 

2. Unhorse me, then, this imperial rider. 

3. She told the first lieutenant part of the truth. 

4. I promised her protection against all ghosts. 

5. I gave him an address to my friend, the attorney. 

6. Paint me, then, a room seventeen feet by twelve. 

(_d_) Pick out the words and phrases in apposition:--

1. To suffer and to do, that was thy portion in life. 

2. A river formed the boundary, --the river Meuse. 

3. In one feature, Lamb resembles Sir Walter Scott; viz. , in thedramatic character of his mind and taste. 

4. This view was luminously expounded by Archbishop Whately, thepresent Archbishop of Dublin. 

5. Yes, at length the warrior lady, the blooming cornet, this nun somartial, this dragoon so lovely, must visit again the home of herchildhood. 

(_e_) Pick out the modifiers of the predicate:--

1. It moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light, upwards, downwards, to the right and to the left. 

2. And hark! like the roar of the billows on the shore, The cry of battle rises along their changing line. 

3. Their intention was to have a gay, happy dinner, after their longconfinement to a ship, at the chief hotel. 

4. That night, in little peaceful Easedale, six children sat by a peatfire, expecting the return of their parents. 

Compound Subject, Compound Predicate, etc. 

[Sidenote: _Not compound sentences. _]

353. Frequently in a simple sentence the writer uses two or morepredicates to the same subject, two or more subjects of the samepredicate, several modifiers, complements, etc. ; but it is to benoticed that, in all such sentences as we quote below, the writers ofthem purposely combined them _in single statements_, and they are notto be expanded into compound sentences. In a compound sentence theobject is to make two or more full statements. 

Examples of compound subjects are, "By degrees Rip's _awe_ and_apprehension_ subsided;" "The _name of the child_, _the air of themother_, the _tone of her voice_, --all awakened a train ofrecollections in his mind. "

Sentences with compound predicates are, "The company _broke up_, and_returned_ to the more important concerns of the election;" "He_shook_ his head, _shouldered_ the rusty firelock, and, with a heartfull of trouble and anxiety, _turned_ his steps homeward. "

Sentences with compound objects of the same verb are, "He caught his_daughter_ and her _child_ in his arms;" "_Voyages_ and _travels_ Iwould also have. "

And so with complements, modifiers, etc. 

Logical Subject and Logical Predicate. 

354. The logical subject is the simple or grammatical subject, together with all its modifiers. 

The logical predicate is the simple or grammatical predicate (thatis, the verb), together with its modifiers, and its object orcomplement. 

[Sidenote: _Larger view of a sentence. _]

It is often a help to the student to find the logical subject andpredicate first, then the grammatical subject and predicate. Forexample, in the sentence, "The situation here contemplated exposes adreadful ulcer, lurking far down in the depths of human nature, " thelogical subject is _the situation here contemplated_, and the rest isthe logical predicate. Of this, the simple subject is _situation_; thepredicate, _exposes_; the object, _ulcer_, etc. 

Independent Elements of the Sentence. 

355. The following words and expressions are grammaticallyindependent of the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not anecessary part, do not enter into its structure:--

(1) _Person or thing addressed_: "But you know them, _Bishop_;" "_Yecrags and peaks_, I'm with you once again. "

(2) _Exclamatory expressions_: "But the _lady_--! Oh, _heavens_! willthat spectacle ever depart from my dreams?"

[Sidenote: _Caution. _]

The exclamatory expression, however, may be the person or thingaddressed, same as (1), above: thus, "Ah, _young sir_! what are youabout?" Or it may be an imperative, forming a sentence: "Oh, _hurry, hurry_, my brave young man!"

(3) _Infinitive phrase_ thrown in loosely: "_To make a long storyshort_, the company broke up;" "_Truth to say_, he was a conscientiousman. "

(4) _Prepositional phrase_ not modifying: "Within the railing sat, _tothe best of my remembrance_, six quill-driving gentlemen;" "_At allevents_, the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared. "

(5) _Participial phrase:_ "But, _generally speaking_, he closed hisliterary toils at dinner;" "_Considering the burnish of her Frenchtastes_, her noticing even this is creditable. "

(6) _Single words_: as, "Oh, _yes_! everybody knew them;" "_No_, lethim perish;" "_Well_, he somehow lived along;" "_Why_, grandma, howyou're winking!" "_Now_, this story runs thus. "

[Sidenote: _Another caution. _]

There are some adverbs, such as _perhaps_, _truly_, _really_, _undoubtedly_, _besides_, etc. , and some conjunctions, such as_however_, _then_, _moreover_, _therefore_, _nevertheless_, etc. , thathave an office in the sentence, and should not be confused with thewords spoken of above. The words _well_, _now_, _why_, and so on, areindependent when they merely arrest the attention without beingnecessary. 

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. 

356. In their use, prepositional phrases may be, (1) _Adjectival_, modifying a noun, pronoun, or word used as a noun:for example, "He took the road _to King Richard's pavilion_;" "I bringreports _on that subject_ from Ascalon. "

(2) _Adverbial_, limiting in the same way an adverb limits: as, "Allnature around him slept _in calm moonshine_ or _in deep shadow_;" "Far_from the madding crowd's ignoble strife_. "

(3) _Independent_, not dependent on any word in the sentence (forexamples, see Sec. 355, 4). 

PARTICIPLES AND PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 

357. It will be helpful to sum up here the results of our study ofparticiples and participial phrases, and to set down all the useswhich are of importance in analysis:--

(1) _The adjectival use_, already noticed, as follows:--

(_a_) As a complement of a transitive verb, and at the same time amodifier of the object (for an example, see Sec. 350, 4). 

(_b_) As a modifier of subject, object, or complement (see Sec. 351, 6). 

(2) _The adverbial use_, modifying the predicate, instances of whichwere seen in Sec. 352, 3. In these the participial phrases connectclosely with the verb, and there is no difficulty in seeing that theymodify. 

[Sidenote: _These need close watching. _]

There are other participial phrases which are used adverbially, butrequire somewhat closer attention; thus, "The letter ofintroduction_, containing no matters of business_, was speedily runthrough. "

In this sentence, the expression _containing no matters of business_does not describe _letter_, but it is equivalent to _because itcontained no matters of business_, and hence is adverbial, modifying_was speedily run through_. 

Notice these additional examples:--

_Being a great collector of everything relating to Milton_ [reason, "Because I was, " etc. ], I had naturally possessed myself of Richardsonthe painter's thick octavo volumes. 

Neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public, _bothhaving_ [since they had] _a long warfare to accomplish of contumelyand ridicule_. 

Wilt thou, therefore, _being now wiser_ [as thou art] _in thythoughts_, suffer God to give by seeming to refuse?

(3) _Wholly independent_ in meaning and grammar. See Sec. 355, (5), and these additional examples:--

_Assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of water_, theentire mass of the sun would cool down to 15, 000° Fahrenheit in fivethousand years. 

_This case excepted_, the French have the keenest possible sense ofeverything odious and ludicrous in posing. 

INFINITIVES AND INFINITIVE PHRASES. 

358. The various uses of the infinitive give considerable trouble, and they will be presented here in full, or as nearly so as thestudent will require. 

I. The verbal use. (1) Completing an incomplete verb, but having noother office than a verbal one. 

(_a_) With _may (might)_, _can (could)_, _should_, _would_, _seem_, _ought_, etc. : "My weekly bill used invariably _to be_ about fiftyshillings;" "There, my dear, he should not _have known_ them at all;""He would _instruct_ her in the white man's religion, and _teach_ herhow to be happy and good. "

(_b_) With the forms of _be_, being equivalent to a future withobligation, necessity, etc. : as in the sentences, "Ingenuity andcleverness are _to be rewarded_ by State prizes;" "'The Fair Penitent'was _to be acted_ that evening. "

(_c_) With the definite forms of _go_, equivalent to a future: "I wasgoing _to repeat_ my remonstrances;" "I am not going _to dissert_ onHood's humor. "

(2) Completing an incomplete transitive verb, but also belonging to asubject or an object (see Sec. 344 for explanation of the complementsof transitive verbs): "I am constrained every moment _to acknowledge_a higher origin for events" (retained with passive); "Do they notcause the heart _to beat_, and the eyes _to fill_?"

359. II. The substantive use, already examined; but see thefollowing examples for further illustration:--

(1) _As the subject: "To have_ the wall there, was to have the foe'slife at their mercy;" "_To teach_ is to learn. "

(2) _As the object_: "I like _to hear_ them tell their old stories;""I don't wish _to detract_ from any gentleman's reputation. "

(3) _As complement:_ See examples under (1), above. 

(4) _In apposition_, explanatory of a noun preceding: as, "Sheforwarded to the English leaders a touching invitation _to unite_ withthe French;" "He insisted on his right _to forget_ her. "

360. III. The adjectival use, modifying a noun that may be asubject, object, complement, etc. : for example, "But there was no time_to be lost_;" "And now Amyas had time _to ask_ Ayacanora the meaningof this;" "I have such a desire _to be_ well with my public" (see alsoSec. 351, 5). 

361. IV. The adverbial use, which may be to express--

(1) _Purpose:_ "The governor, Don Guzman, sailed to the eastward onlyyesterday _to look_ for you;" "Isn't it enough to bring us to death, _to please_ that poor young gentleman's fancy?"

(2) _Result:_ "Don Guzman returns to the river mouth _to find_ theship a blackened wreck;" "What heart could be so hard as _not to take_pity on the poor wild thing?"

(3) _Reason:_ "I am quite sorry _to part_ with them;" "Are you mad, _to betray_ yourself by your own cries?" "Marry, hang the idiot, _tobring me_ such stuff!"

(4) _Degree:_ "We have won gold enough _to serve_ us the rest of ourlives;" "But the poor lady was too sad _to talk_ except to the boysnow and again. "

(5) _Condition:_ "You would fancy, _to hear_ McOrator after dinner, the Scotch fighting all the battles;" "_To say_ what good of fashionwe can, it rests on reality" (the last is not a simple sentence, butit furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive). 

362. The fact that the infinitives in Sec. 361 are used adverbially, is evident from the meaning of the sentences. 

Whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has themeaning of purpose, result, etc. , may be found out by turning theinfinitive into an equivalent clause, such as those studied undersubordinate conjunctions. 

To test this, notice the following:--

In (1), _to look_ means _that he might look_; _to please_ isequivalent to _that he may please_, --both purpose clauses. 

In (2), _to find_ shows the result of the return; _not to take pity_is equivalent to _that it would not take pity_. 

In (3), _to part_ means _because I part_, etc. ; and _to betray_ and_to bring_ express the reason, equivalent to _that you betray_, etc. 

In (4), _to serve_ and _to talk_ are equivalent to [_as much gold_]_as will serve us_; and "too sad _to talk_" also shows degree. 

In (5), _to hear_ means _if you should hear_, and _to say_ isequivalent to _if we say_, --both expressing condition. 

363. V. The independent use, which is of two kinds, --

(1) Thrown loosely into the sentence; as in Sec. 355, (3). 

(2) _Exclamatory:_ "I a philosopher! I _advance_ pretensions;" "'He_to die_!' resumed the bishop. " (See also Sec. 268, 4. )

OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS. 

364. In analyzing simple sentences, give--

(1) The predicate. If it is an incomplete verb, give the complement(Secs. 344 and 350) and its modifiers (Sec. 351). 

(2) The object of the verb (Sec. 349). 

(3) Modifiers of the object (Sec. 351). 

(4) Modifiers of the predicate (Sec. 352). 

(5) The subject (Sec. 347). 

(6) Modifiers of the subject (Sec. 351). 

(7) Independent elements (Sec. 355). 

This is not the same order that the parts of the sentence usuallyhave; but it is believed that the student will proceed more easily byfinding the predicate with its modifiers, object, etc. , and thenfinding the subject by placing the question _who_ or _what_ before it. 

Exercise in Analyzing Simple Sentences. 

Analyze the following according to the directions given:--

1. Our life is March weather, savage and serene in one hour. 

2. I will try to keep the balance true. 

3. The questions of Whence? What? and Whither? and the solution ofthese, must be in a life, not in a book. 

4. The ward meetings on election days are not softened by anymisgiving of the value of these ballotings. 

5. Our English Bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and musicof the English language. 

6. Through the years and the centuries, through evil agents, throughtoys and atoms, a great and beneficent tendency irresistibly streams. 

7. To be hurried away by every event, is to have no political systemat all. 

8. This mysticism the ancients called ecstasy, --a getting-out of theirbodies to think. 

9. He risked everything, and spared nothing, neither ammunition, normoney, nor troops, nor generals, nor himself. 

10. We are always in peril, always in a bad plight, just on the edgeof destruction, and only to be saved by invention and courage. 

11. His opinion is always original, and to the purpose. 

12. To these gifts of nature, Napoleon added the advantage of havingbeen born to a private and humble fortune. 

13. The water, like a witch's oils, Burnt green and blue and white. 

14. We one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance. 

15. Old Adam, the carrion crow, The old crow of Cairo; He sat in the shower, and let it flow Under his tail and over his crest. 

16. It costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to othermen. 

17. It is easy to sugar to be sweet. 

18. At times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent asunderby flashes of lightning. 

19. The whole figure and air, good and amiable otherwise, might becalled flabby and irresolute. 

20. I have heard Coleridge talk, with eager energy, two strickenhours, and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual. 

21. The word _conscience_ has become almost confined, in popular use, to the moral sphere. 

22. You may ramble a whole day together, and every moment discoversomething new. 

23. She had grown up amidst the liberal culture of Henry's court abold horsewoman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, a skilled musician, an accomplished scholar. 

24. Her aims were simple and obvious, --to preserve her throne, to keepEngland out of war, to restore civil and religious order. 

25. Fair name might he have handed down, Effacing many a stain of former crime. 

26. Of the same grandeur, in less heroic and poetic form, was thepatriotism of Peel in recent history. 

27. Oxford, ancient mother! hoary with ancestral honors, time-honored, and, haply, time-shattered power--I owe thee nothing!

28. The villain, I hate him and myself, to be a reproach to suchgoodness. 

29. I dare this, upon my own ground, and in my own garden, to bid youleave the place now and forever. 

30. Upon this shore stood, ready to receive her, in front of all thismighty crowd, the prime minister of Spain, the same Condé Olivarez. 

31. Great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniformstretched within the bushes upon the ground. 

32. She had made a two days' march, baggage far in the rear, and noprovisions but wild berries. 

33. This amiable relative, an elderly man, had but one foible, orperhaps one virtue, in this world. 

34. Now, it would not have been filial or ladylike. 

35. Supposing this computation to be correct, it must have been in thelatitude of Boston, the present capital of New England. 

36. The cry, "A strange vessel close aboard the frigate!" havingalready flown down the hatches, the ship was in an uproar. 

37. But yield, proud foe, thy fleet With the crews at England's feet. 

38. Few in number, and that number rapidly perishing away throughsickness and hardships; surrounded by a howling wilderness and savagetribes; exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic winter, --their mindswere filled with doleful forebodings. 

39. List to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of theforest. 

40. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pré Lay in the fruitful valley. 

41. Must we in all things look for the how, and the why, and thewherefore?

CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 

[Sidenote: _Words left out after_ than _or_ as. ]

365. Some sentences look like simple ones in form, but have anessential part omitted that is so readily supplied by the mind as notto need expressing. Such are the following:--

 "There is no country more worthy of our study than England [is worthy of our study]. "

 "The distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as [they are marked] in the cities. "

To show that these words are really omitted, compare with them the twofollowing:--

 "The nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior orders than _they are_ in any other country. "

 "This is not so universally the case at present as _it was_ formerly. "

[Sidenote: _Sentences with_ like. ]

366. As shown in Part I. (Sec. 333). The expressions _of manner_introduced by _like_, though often treated as phrases, are reallycontracted clauses; but, if they were expanded, _as_ would be theconnective instead of _like_; thus, --

 "They'll shine o'er her sleep, like [as] a smile from the west [would shine]. From her own loved island of sorrow. "

This must, however, be carefully discriminated from cases where _like_is an adjective complement; as, --

 "She is _like_ some tender tree, the pride and beauty of the grove;" "The ruby seemed _like_ a spark of fire burning upon her white bosom. "

Such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our study ofsimple and complex sentences. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

[Sidenote: _The simple sentence the basis. _]

367. Our investigations have now included all the machinery of thesimple sentence, which is the _unit of speech_. 

Our further study will be in sentences which are combinations ofsimple sentences, made merely for convenience and smoothness, to avoidthe tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous similarity. 

Next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence. The basis ofit is two or more simple sentences, which are so united that onemember is the main one, --the backbone, --the other members subordinateto it, or dependent on it; as in this sentence, --

 "When such a spirit breaks forth into complaint, we are aware how great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur. "

The relation of the parts is as follows:--

 we are aware _______ _____ | | __| _when such a spirit breaks_ | _forth into complaint_, | _how great must be the suffering_ | that extorts the murmur. 

This arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence formsin the mind, --how the first clause is held in suspense by the mindtill the second, we are aware, is taken in; then we recognize thisas the main statement; and the next one, _how great . .. Suffering_, drops into its place as subordinate to _we are aware_; and the last, _that . .. Murmur_, logically depends on _suffering_. 

Hence the following definition:--

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

368. A complex sentence is one containing one main or independentclause (also called the principal proposition or clause), and _one ormore_ subordinate or dependent clauses. 

369. The elements of a complex sentence are the same as those ofthe simple sentence; that is, each clause has its subject, predicate, object, complements, modifiers, etc. 

But there is this difference: whereas the simple sentence always has aword or a phrase for subject, object, complement, and modifier, thecomplex sentence has _statements_ or _clauses_ for these places. 

CLAUSES. 

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

370. A clause is a division of a sentence, containing a verb withits subject. 

Hence the term _clause_ may refer to the main division of the complexsentence, or it may be applied to the others, --the dependent orsubordinate clauses. 

[Sidenote: _Independent clause. _]

371. A principal, main, or independent clause is one making astatement without the help of any other clause. 

[Sidenote: _Dependent clause. _]

A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statementdepending upon or modifying some word in the principal clause. 

[Sidenote: _Kinds. _]

372. As to their office in the sentence, clauses are divided intoNOUN, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERB clauses, according as they are equivalentin use to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. 

Noun Clauses. 

373. Noun clauses have the following uses:--

(1) _Subject_: "_That such men should give prejudiced views ofAmerica_ is not a matter of surprise. "

(2) _Object of a verb_, _verbal_, _or the equivalent of a verb_: (_a_)"I confess _these stories, for a time, put an end to my fancies_;"(_b_) "I am aware [I know] _that a skillful illustrator of theimmortal bard would have swelled the materials_. "

Just as the object noun, pronoun, infinitive, etc. , is retained aftera passive verb (Sec. 352, 5), so the object clause is retained, andshould not be called an adjunct of the subject; for example, "We arepersuaded _that a thread runs through all things_;" "I was told _thatthe house had not been shut, night or day, for a hundred years_. "

(3) _Complement_: "The terms of admission to this spectacle are, _thathe have a certain solid and intelligible way of living_. "

(4) _Apposition_. (_a_) Ordinary apposition, explanatory of some nounor its equivalent: "Cecil's saying of Sir Walter Raleigh, '_I knowthat he can toil terribly_, ' is an electric touch. "

(_b_) After "it _introductory_" (logically this is a subject clause, but it is often treated as in apposition with _it_): "_It_ was theopinion of some, _that this might be the wild huntsman famous inGerman legend_. "

(5) _Object of a preposition_: "At length he reached to _where theravine had opened through the cliffs_. "

Notice that frequently only the introductory word is the object ofthe preposition, and the whole clause is not; thus, "The rockspresented a high impenetrable wall, _over which_ the torrent cametumbling. "

374. Here are to be noticed certain sentences seemingly complex, with a noun clause in apposition with _it_; but logically they arenothing but simple sentences. But since they are _complex in form_, attention is called to them here; for example, --

 "Alas! it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this avalanche of earthly impertinences. "

To divide this into two clauses--(_a_) _It is we ourselves_, (_b_)_that are . .. Impertinences_--would be grammatical; but logically thesentence is, _We ourselves are getting . .. Impertinences_, and _it is. .. That_ is merely a framework used to effect emphasis. The sentenceshows how _it_ may lose its pronominal force. 

Other examples of this construction are, --

 "It is on the understanding, and not on the sentiment, of a nation, that all safe legislation must be based. "

 "Then it is that deliberative Eloquence lays aside the plain attire of her daily occupation. "

Exercise. 

Tell how each noun clause is used in these sentences:--

1. I felt that I breathed an atmosphere of sorrow. 

2. But the fact is, I was napping. 

3. Shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream, I scannedmore narrowly the aspect of the building. 

4. Except by what he could see for himself, he could know nothing. 

5. Whatever he looks upon discloses a second sense. 

6. It will not be pretended that a success in either of these kinds isquite coincident with what is best and inmost in his mind. 

7. The reply of Socrates, to him who asked whether he should choose awife, still remains reasonable, that, whether he should choose one ornot, he would repent it. 

8. What history it had, how it changed from shape to shape, no manwill ever know. 

9. Such a man is what we call an original man. 

10. Our current hypothesis about Mohammed, that he was a schemingimpostor, a falsehood incarnate, that his religion is a mere mass ofquackery and fatuity, begins really to be no longer tenable to anyone. 

Adjective Clauses. 

375. As the office of an adjective is to modify, the only use of anadjective clause is to limit or describe some noun, or equivalent of anoun: consequently the adjective may modify _any_ noun, or equivalentof a noun, in the sentence. 

The adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns _who_, _which_, _that_, _but_, _as_; sometimes by the conjunctions _when_, _where_, _whither_, _whence_, _wherein_, _whereby_, etc. 

Frequently there is no connecting word, a relative pronoun beingunderstood. 

[Sidenote: _Examples of adjective clauses_. ]

376. Adjective clauses may modify--

(1) _The subject_: "The themes _it offers for contemplation_ are toovast for their capacities;" "Those _who see the Englishman only intown_, are apt to form an unfavorable opinion of his socialcharacter. "

(2) _The object_: "From this piazza Ichabod entered the hall, _whichformed the center of the mansion_. "

(3) _The complement_: "The animal he bestrode was a broken-downplow-horse, _that had outlived almost everything but his usefulness_;""It was such an apparition _as is seldom to be met with in broaddaylight_. "

(4) _Other words_: "He rode with short stirrups, _which brought hisknees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle_;" "No whit anticipatingthe oblivion _which awaited their names and feats_, the championsadvanced through the lists;" "Charity covereth a multitude of sins, inanother sense than that _in which it is said to do so in Scripture_. "

Exercise. 

Pick out the adjective clauses, and tell what each one modifies; i. E. , whether subject, object, etc. 

1. There were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of Massillon. 

2. I walked home with Calhoun, who said that the principles which Ihad avowed were just and noble. 

3. Other men are lenses through which we read our own minds. 

4. In one of those celestial days when heaven and earth meet and adorneach other, it seems a pity that we can only spend it once. 

5. One of the maidens presented a silver cup, containing a richmixture of wine and spice, which Rowena tasted. 

6. No man is reason or illumination, or that essence we were lookingfor. 

7. In the moment when he ceases to help us as a cause, he begins tohelp us more as an effect. 

8. Socrates took away all ignominy from the place, which could not bea prison whilst he was there. 

9. This is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear ghosts except inour long-established Dutch settlements. 

10. From the moment you lose sight of the land you have left, all isvacancy. 

11. Nature waited tranquilly for the hour to be struck when man shouldarrive. 

Adverbial Clauses. 

377. The adverb clause takes the place of an adverb in modifying averb, a verbal, an adjective, or an adverb. The student has met withmany adverb clauses in his study of the subjunctive mood and ofsubordinate conjunctions; but they require careful study, and will begiven in detail, with examples. 

378. Adverb clauses are of the following kinds:

(1) TIME: "_As we go_, the milestones are grave-stones;" "He had gonebut a little way _before he espied a foul fiend coming_;" "_When hewas come up to Christian_, he beheld him with a disdainfulcountenance. "

(2) PLACE: "_Wherever the sentiment of right comes in_, it takesprecedence of everything else;" "He went several times to England, _where he does not seem to have attracted any attention_. "

(3) REASON, or CAUSE: "His English editor lays no stress on hisdiscoveries, _since he was too great to care to be original_;" "I giveyou joy _that truth is altogether wholesome_. "

(4) MANNER: "The knowledge of the past is valuable only _as it leadsus to form just calculations with respect to the future_;" "Afterleaving the whole party under the table, he goes away _as if nothinghad happened_. "

(5) DEGREE, or COMPARISON: "They all become wiser _than they were_;""The right conclusion is, that we should try, so far _as we can_, tomake up our shortcomings;" "Master Simon was in as chirping a humor_as a grasshopper filled with dew_ [is];" "_The broader theireducation is_, the wider is the horizon of their thought. " The firstclause in the last sentence is dependent, expressing the degree inwhich the horizon, etc. , is wider. 

(6) PURPOSE: "Nature took us in hand, shaping our actions, _so that wemight not be ended untimely by too gross disobedience_. "

(7) RESULT, or CONSEQUENCE: "He wrote on the scale of the mind itself, _so that all things have symmetry in his tablet_;" "The window was sofar superior to every other in the church, _that the vanquished artistkilled himself from mortification_. "

(8) CONDITION: "_If we tire of the saints_, Shakespeare is our city ofrefuge;" "Who cares for that, _so thou gain aught wider and nobler_?""You can die grandly, and as goddesses would die _were goddessesmortal_. "

(9) CONCESSION, introduced by indefinite relatives, adverbs, andadverbial conjunctions, --_whoever_, _whatever_, _however_, etc. : "Butstill, _however good she may be as a witness_, Joanna is better;""_Whatever there may remain of illiberal in discussion_, there isalways something illiberal in the severer aspects of study. "

These mean _no matter how good, no matter what remains_, etc. 

Exercise. 

Pick out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences; tell whatkind each is, and what it modifies:--

1. As I was clearing away the weeds from this epitaph, the littlesexton drew me on one side with a mysterious air, and informed me in alow voice that once upon a time, on a dark wintry night, when the windwas unruly, howling and whistling, banging about doors and windows, and twirling weathercocks, so that the living were frightened out oftheir beds, and even the dead could not sleep quietly in their graves, the ghost of honest Preston was attracted by the well-known call of"waiter, " and made its sudden appearance just as the parish clerk wassinging a stave from the "mirrie garland of Captain Death. "

2. If the children gathered about her, as they sometimes did, Pearlwould grow positively terrible in her puny wrath, snatching up stonesto fling at them, with shrill, incoherent exclamations, that made hermother tremble because they had so much the sound of a witch'sanathemas. 

3. The spell of life went forth from her ever-creative spirit, andcommunicated itself to a thousand objects, as a torch kindles a flamewherever it may be applied. 

ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

379. These suggestions will be found helpful:--

(1) See that the sentence and all its parts are placed in the naturalorder of subject, predicate, object, and modifiers. 

(2) First take the sentence _as a whole_; find the principal subjectand principal predicate; then treat noun clauses as nouns, adjectiveclauses as adjectives modifying certain words, and adverb clauses assingle modifying adverbs. 

(3) Analyze each clause as a simple sentence. For example, in thesentence, "Cannot we conceive that Odin was a reality?" _we_ is theprincipal subject; _cannot conceive_ is the principal predicate; itsobject is _that Odin was a reality_, of which clause _Odin_ is thesubject, etc. 

380. It is sometimes of great advantage to map out a sentence afteranalyzing it, so as to picture the parts and their relations. To takea sentence:--

 "I cannot help thinking that the fault is in themselves, and that if the church and the cataract were in the habit of giving away their thoughts with that rash generosity which characterizes tourists, they might perhaps say of their visitors, 'Well, if you are those men of whom we have heard so much, we are a little disappointed, to tell the truth. '"

This may be represented as follows:--

 I cannot help thinking ____________________ | _______________________| | | (_a_) THAT THE FAULT IS IN THEMSELVES, AND | | (_b_) [THAT] THEY MIGHT (PERHAPS) SAY OF THEIR VISITORS | ___________________ | | | _____________________________|_________________________________ | | | | | (_a_) We are (a little) disappointed | | O| ___________________________ | O| b| ________________________| | b| j| M| | j| e| o| (_b_) If you are those men | e| c| d| ___ | c| t| i| _________________________| | t| | f| M| | | | i| o| Of whom we have heard so much. | | | e| d. | | \ r\ \ | | _____________________________________________________| | M| | o| (_a_) If the church and . .. That rash generosity | d| __________ | i| | | f| _______________________________________________| | i| | | e| | (_b_) Which characterizes tourists. | r| | \ \ \

OUTLINE

381. (1) Find the principal clause. 

(2) Analyze it according to Sec. 364. 

(3) Analyze the dependent clauses according to Sec. 364. This ofcourse includes dependent clauses that depend on other dependentclauses, as seen in the "map" (Sec. 380). 107 |

Exercises. 

(_a_) Analyze the following complex sentences:--

1. Take the place and attitude which belong to you. 

2. That mood into which a friend brings us is his dominion over us. 

3. True art is only possible on the condition that every talent hasits apotheosis somewhere. 

4. The deep eyes, of a light hazel, were as full of sorrow as ofinspiration. 

5. She is the only church that has been loyal to the heart and soul ofman, that has clung to her faith in the imagination. 

6. She has never lost sight of the truth that the product human natureis composed of the sum of flesh and spirit. 

7. But now that she has become an establishment, she begins toperceive that she made a blunder in trusting herself to the intellectalone. 

8. Before long his talk would wander into all the universe, where itwas uncertain what game you would catch, or whether any. 

9. The night proved unusually dark, so that the two principals had totie white handkerchiefs round their elbows in order to descry eachother. 

10. Whether she would ever awake seemed to depend upon an accident. 

11. Here lay two great roads, not so much for travelers that were few, as for armies that were too many by half. 

12. It was haunted to that degree by fairies, that the parish priestwas obliged to read mass there once a year. 

13. More than one military plan was entered upon which she did notapprove. 

14. As surely as the wolf retires before cities, does the fairysequester herself from the haunts of the licensed victualer. 

15. M. Michelet is anxious to keep us in mind that this bishop was butan agent of the English. 

16. Next came a wretched Dominican, that pressed her with anobjection, which, if applied to the Bible, would tax every miraclewith unsoundness. 

17. The reader ought to be reminded that Joanna D'Arc was subject toan unusually unfair trial. 

18. Now, had she really testified this willingness on the scaffold, itwould have argued nothing at all but the weakness of a genial nature. 

19. And those will often pity that weakness most, who would yield toit least. 

20. Whether she said the word is uncertain. 

21. This is she, the shepherd girl, counselor that had none forherself, whom I choose, bishop, for yours. 

22. Had _they_ been better chemists, had _we_ been worse, the mixedresult, namely, that, dying for _them_, th107 |e flower should revive for_us_, could not have been effected. 

23. I like that representation they have of the tree. 

24. He was what our country people call _an old one_. 

25. He thought not any evil happened to men of such magnitude as falseopinion. 107 |26. These things we are forced to say, if we must consider the effortof Plato to dispose of Nature, --which will not be disposed of. 

27. He showed one who was afraid to go on foot to Olympia, that it wasno more than his daily walk, if continuously extended, would easilyreach. 

28. What can we see or acquire but what we are?

29. Our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in theface, until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened. 

30. There is good reason why we should prize this liberation. 

_(b)_ First analyze, then map out as in Sec. 380, the followingcomplex sentences:--

1. The way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion, is tospeak and write sincerely. 

2. The writer who takes his subject from his ear, and not from hisheart, should know that he has lost as much as he has gained. 

3. "No book, " said Bentley, "was ever written down by any but itself. "

4. That which we do not believe, we cannot adequately say, though wemay repeat the words never so often. 

5. We say so because we feel that what we love is not in your will, but above it. 

6. It makes no difference how many friends I have, and what content Ican find in conversing with each, if there be one to whom I am notequal. 

7. In every troop of boys that whoop and run in each yard and square, a new-comer is as well and accurately weighed in the course of a fewdays, and stamped with his right number, as if he had undergone aformal trial of his strength, speed, and temper. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

[Sidenote: _How formed. _]

382. The compound sentence is a combination of two or more simpleor complex sentences. While the complex sentence has only _one_ mainclause, the compound has _two or more_ independent clauses makingstatements, questions, or commands. Hence the definition, --

[Sidenote: _Definition. _]

383. A compound sentence is one which contains two or moreindependent clauses. 

This leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a compoundsentence: the requirement is simply that it have at least twoindependent clauses. 

Examples of compound sentences:--

[Sidenote: _Examples. _]

(1) _Simple sentences united:_ "He is a palace of sweet sounds andsights; he dilates; he is twice a man; he walks with arms akimbo; hesoliloquizes. "

(2) _Simple with complex:_ "The trees of the forest, the waving grass, and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent; and he almost fears totrust them with the secret which they seem to invite. "

(3) _Complex with complex:_ "The power which resides in him is new innature, and none but he knows what that is which he can do, nor doeshe know until he has tried. "

384. From this it is evident that nothing new is added to the workof analysis already done. 

The same analysis of simple sentences is repeated in (1) and (2)above, and what was done in complex sentences is repeated in (2) and(3). 

The division into members will be easier, for the coördinateindependent statements are readily taken apart with the subordinateclauses attached, if there are any. 

Thus in (1), the semicolons cut apart the independent members, whichare simple statements; in (2), the semicolon separates the first, asimple member, from the second, a complex member; in (3), _and_connects the first and second complex members, and _nor_ the secondand third complex members. 

[Sidenote: _Connectives. _]

385. The coördinate conjunctions _and_, _nor_, _or_ _but_, etc. , introduce independent clauses (see Sec. 297). 

But the conjunction is often omitted in copulative and adversativeclauses, as in Sec. 383 (1). Another example is, "Only the stardazzles; the planet has a faint, moon-like ray" (adversative). 

[Sidenote: _Study the thought. _]

386. The one point that will give trouble is the variable use ofsome connectives; as _but_, _for_, _yet_, _while_ (_whilst_), _however_, _whereas_, etc. Some of these are now conjunctions, nowadverbs or prepositions; others sometimes coördinate, sometimessubordinate conjunctions. 

The student must watch _the logical connection_ of the members of thesentence, and not the form of the connective. 

Exercise. 

Of the following illustrative sentences, tell which are compound, andwhich complex:--

1. Speak your latent conviction, and it shall be the universal sense;for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost. 

2. I no longer wish to meet a good I do not earn, for example, to finda pot of buried gold. 

3. Your goodness must have some edge to it--else it is none. 

4. Man does not stand in awe of man, nor is his genius admonished tostay at home, but it goes abroad to beg a cup of water of the urns ofother men. 

5. A man cannot speak but he judges himself. 

6. In your metaphysics you have denied personality to the Deity, yetwhen the devout motions of the soul come, yield to them heart andlife. 

7. I thought that it was a Sunday morning in May; that it was EasterSunday, and as yet very early in the morning. 

8. We denote the primary wisdom as intuition, whilst all laterteachings are tuitions. 

9. Whilst the world is thus dual, so is every one of its parts. 

10. They measure the esteem of each other by what each has, and not bywhat each is. 

11. For everything you have missed, you have gained something else;and for everything you gain, you lose something. 

12. I sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred yearsin one night; nay, I sometimes had feelings representative of amillennium, passed in that time, or, however, of a duration far beyondthe limits of experience. 

13. However some may think him wanting in zeal, the most fanaticalcan find no taint of apostasy in any measure of his. 

14. In this manner, from a happy yet often pensive child, he grew upto be a mild, quiet, unobtrusive boy, and sun-browned with labor inthe fields, but with more intelligence than is seen in many lads fromthe schools. 

OUTLINE FOR ANALYZING COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

387. (i) Separate it into its main members. (2) Analyze each complexmember as in Sec. 381. (3) Analyze each simple member as in Sec. 364. 

Exercise. 

Analyze the following compound sentences:--

1. The gain is apparent; the tax is certain. 

2. If I feel overshadowed and outdone by great neighbors, I can yetlove; I can still receive; and he that loveth maketh his own thegrandeur that he loves. 

3. Love, and thou shalt be loved. 

4. All loss, all pain, is particular; the universe remains to theheart unhurt. 

5. Place yourself in the middle of the stream of power and wisdomwhich animates all whom it floats, and you are without effort impelledto truth. 

6. He teaches who gives, and he learns who receives. 

7. Whatever he knows and thinks, whatever in his apprehension is worthdoing, that let him communicate, or men will never know and honor himaright. 

8. Stand aside; give those merits room; let them mount and expand. 

9. We see the noble afar off, and they repel us; why should weintrude?

10. We go to Europe, or we pursue persons, or we read books, in theinstinctive faith that these will call it out and reveal us toourselves. 

11. A gay and pleasant sound is the whetting of the scythe in themornings of June, yet what is more lonesome and sad than the sound ofa whetstone or mower's rifle when it is too late in the season to makehay?

12. "Strike, " says the smith, "the iron is white;" "keep the rake, "says the haymaker, "as nigh the scythe as you can, and the cart asnigh the rake. "

13. Trust men, and they will be true to you; treat them greatly, andthey will show themselves great, though they make an exception in yourfavor to all their rules of trade. 

14. On the most profitable lie the course of events presently lays adestructive tax; whilst frankness invites frankness, puts the partieson a convenient footing, and makes their business a friendship. 

15. The sturdiest offender of your peace and of the neighborhood, ifyou rip up his claims, is as thin and timid as any; and the peace ofsociety is often kept, because, as children, one is afraid, and theother dares not. 

16. They will shuffle and crow, crook and hide, feign to confess here, only that they may brag and conquer there, and not a thought hasenriched either party, and not an emotion of bravery, modesty, orhope. 

17. The magic they used was the ideal tendencies, which always makethe Actual ridiculous; but the tough world had its revenge the momentthey put their horses of the sun to plow in its furrow. 

18. Come into port greatly, or sail with God the seas. 

19. When you have chosen your part, abide by it, and do not weakly tryto reconcile yourself with the world. 

20. Times of heroism are generally times of terror, but the day nevershines in which this element may not work. 

21. Life is a train of moods like a string of beads, and as we passthrough them they prove to be many-colored lenses which paint theworld their own hue, and each shows only what lies at its focus. 

22. We see young men who owe us a new world, so readily and lavishlythey promise, but they never acquit the debt; they die young, anddodge the account; or, if they live, they lose themselves in thecrowd. 

23. So does culture with us; it ends in headache. 

24. Do not craze yourself with thinking, but go about your businessanywhere. 

25. Thus journeys the mighty Ideal before us; it never was known tofall into the rear. 

PART III. 

_SYNTAX_. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

[Sidenote: _By way of introduction. _]

388. Syntax is from a Greek word meaning _order_ or _arrangement_. 

Syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as componentparts of a sentence, and with their proper arrangement to expressclearly the intended meaning. 

[Sidenote: _Ground covered by syntax. _]

380. Following the Latin method, writers on English grammar usuallydivide syntax into the two general heads, --agreement andgovernment. 

Agreement is concerned with the following relations of words: wordsin apposition, verb and subject, pronoun and antecedent, adjective andnoun. 

Government has to do with verbs and prepositions, both of which aresaid to govern words by having them in the objective case. 

390. Considering the scarcity of inflections in English, it is clearthat if we merely follow the Latin treatment, the department of syntaxwill be a small affair. But there is a good deal else to watch inaddition to the few forms; for there is an important and markeddifference between Latin and English syntax. It is this:--

Latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflectedforms: hence the _position_ of words in a sentence is of littlegrammatical importance. 

[Sidenote: _Essential point in English syntax. _]

English syntax follows the Latin to a limited extent; but its leadingcharacteristic is, that English syntax is founded upon _the meaning_and _the logical connection_ of words rather than upon their form:consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly, and tothink clearly of the meaning of words, as to study inflected forms. 

For example, the sentence, "The savage here the settler slew, " isambiguous. _Savage_ may be the subject, following the regular order ofsubject; or _settler_ may be the subject, the order being inverted. InLatin, distinct forms would be used, and it would not matter which onestood first. 

[Sidenote: _Why study syntax?_]

391. There is, then, a double reason for not omitting syntax as adepartment of grammar, --

_First_, To study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms, someof which conform to classical grammar, while some are idiomatic(peculiar to our own language). 

_Second_, To find out the _logical methods_ which control us in thearrangement of words; and particularly when the grammatical and thelogical conception of a sentence do not agree, or when they exist sideby side in good usage. 

As an illustration of the last remark, take the sentence, "Besidesthese famous books of Scott's and Johnson's, there is a copious 'Life'by Sheridan. " In this there is a possessive form, and added to it thepreposition _of_, also expressing a possessive relation. This is notlogical; it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar: butnone the less it is good English. 

Also in the sentence, "None remained but he, " grammatical rules wouldrequire _him_ instead of _he_ after the preposition; yet theexpression is sustained by good authority. 

[Sidenote: _Some rules not rigid. _]

392. In some cases, authorities--that is, standard writers--differas to which of two constructions should be used, or the same writerwill use both indifferently. Instances will be found in treating ofthe pronoun or noun with a gerund, pronoun and antecedent, sometimesverb and subject, etc. 

When usage varies as to a given construction, both forms will be givenin the following pages. 

[Sidenote: _The basis of syntax. _]

393. Our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the bestusage of the present time on important points; and nothing butimportant points will be considered, for it is easy to confuse astudent with too many obtrusive _don'ts_. 

The constructions presented as general will be justified by quotationsfrom _modern writers of English_ who are regarded as "standard;" thatis, writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior, andwhose judgment, therefore, will be accepted by those in quest ofauthoritative opinion. 

Reference will also be made to spoken English when its constructionsdiffer from those of the literary language, and to vulgar English whenit preserves forms which were once, but are not now, good English. 

It may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquirecorrectness is to watch good usage _everywhere_, and imitate it. 

NOUNS. 

394. Nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objectivecases: hence no mistake can be made in using them. But some remarksare required concerning the use of the possessive case. 

[Sidenote: _Use of the possessive. Joint possession. _]

395. When two or more possessives modify the same noun, or indicatejoint ownership or possession, the possessive sign is added to thelast noun only; for example, --

 Live your _king and country's_ best support. --ROWE. 

 Woman, _sense and nature's_ easy fool. --BYRON. 

 _Oliver and Boyd's_ printing office. --MCCULLOCH. 

 _Adam and Eve's_ morning hymn. --MILTON. 

 In _Beaumont and Fletcher's_ "Sea Voyage, " Juletta tells, etc. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: _Separate possession. _]

396. When two or more possessives stand before the same noun, butimply separate possession or ownership, the possessive sign is usedwith each noun; as, --

 He lands us on a grassy stage, Safe from the _storm's_ and _prelate's_ rage. --MARVELL

 Where were the sons of Peers and Members of Parliament in _Anne's_ and _George's_ time?--THACKERAY. 

 _Levi's_ station in life was the receipt of custom; and _Peter's_, the shore of Galilee; and _Paul's_, the antechamber of the High Priest. --RUSKIN. 

 Swift did not keep _Stella's_ letters. He kept _Bolingbroke's, _ and _Pope's_, and _Harley's_, and _Peterborough's_. --THACKERAY. 

 An actor in one of _Morton's_ or _Kotzebue's_ plays. --MACAULAY. 

 Putting _Mr. Mill's_ and _Mr. Bentham's_ principles together. --_Id. _

397. The possessive preceding the gerund will be considered underthe possessive of pronouns (Sec. 408). 

PRONOUNS. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

I. NOMINATIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS. 

398. Since most of the personal pronouns, together with the relative_who_, have separate forms for nominative and objective use, there aretwo general rules that require attention. 

[Sidenote: _General rules. _]

(1) The _nominative use_ is usually marked by the nominative form ofthe pronoun. 

(2) The _objective use_ is usually marked by the objective form of thepronoun. 

These simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literaryEnglish. Some of the violations are universally condemned; others aregenerally, if not universally, sanctioned. 

[Sidenote: _Objective for the nominative. _]

399. The objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative inthe following instances:--

(1) By a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness, no notice istaken of the proper form to be used as subject; as, --

 He and _me_ once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay out to Boonville. --WHITCHER, _Bedott Papers. _

 It seems strange to me that _them_ that preach up the doctrine don't admire one who carrys it out. --_Josiah Allens Wife. _

(2) By faulty analysis of the sentence, the true relation of the wordsis misunderstood; for example, "_Whom_ think ye that I am?" (In this, _whom_ is the complement after the verb _am_, and should be thenominative form, _who_. ) "The young Harper, _whom_ they agree wasrather nice-looking" (_whom_ is the subject of the verb _was_). 

Especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with _than_or _as_, the real thought being forgotten; thus, --

 But the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such a one as _her_. --TROLLOPE. 

This should be "as _she_, " because the full expression would be "sucha one as _she is_. "

400. Still, the last expression has the support of many goodwriters, as shown in the following examples:--

 She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or _me_. --THACKERAY. 

 No mightier than thyself or _me_. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 Lin'd with Giants deadlier than _'em_ all. --POPE. 

 But he must be a stronger than _thee_. --SOUTHEY. 

 Not to render up my soul to such as _thee_. --BYRON. 

 I shall not learn my duty from such as _thee_. --FIELDING. 

[Sidenote: _A safe rule. _]

It will be safer for the student to follow the general rule, asillustrated in the following sentences:--

 If so, they are yet holier than _we_. --RUSKIN. 

 Who would suppose it is the game of such as _he_?--DICKENS. 

 Do we see The robber and the murd'rer weak as _we_? --MILTON. 

 I have no other saint than _thou_ to pray to. --LONGFELLOW. 

[Sidenote: "_Than_ whom. "]

401. One exception is to be noted. The expression than whom seemsto be used universally instead of "than _who_. " There is no specialreason for this, but such is the fact; for example, --

 One I remember especially, --one _than whom_ I never met a bandit more gallant. --THACKERAY. 

 The camp of Richard of England, _than whom_ none knows better how to do honor to a noble foe. --SCOTT. 

 She had a companion who had been ever agreeable, and her estate a steward _than whom_ no one living was supposed to be more competent. --PARTON. 

[Sidenote: "_It was_ he" _or_ "_It was_ him"?]

402. And there is one question about which grammarians are notagreed, namely, whether the nominative or the objective form should beused in the predicate after _was_, _is_, _are_, and the other forms ofthe verb _be_. 

It may be stated with assurance that the literary language _prefersthe nominative_ in this instance, as, --

 For there was little doubt that it was _he_. --KINGSLEY. 

 But still it is not _she_. --MACAULAY. 

 And it was _he_ That made the ship to go. --COLERIDGE. 

In spoken English, on the other hand, both in England and America, theobjective form is regularly found, unless a special, careful effort ismade to adopt the standard usage. The following are examples of spokenEnglish from conversations:--

 "Rose Satterne, the mayor's daughter?"--"That's _her_. "--KINGSLEY. 

 "Who's there?"--"_Me_, Patrick the Porter. "--WINTHROP. 

 "If there is any one embarrassed, it will not be _me_. "--WM. BLACK. 

The usage is too common to need further examples. 

Exercise. 

Correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences, givingreasons from the analysis of the sentence:--

1. _Whom_ they were I really cannot specify. 

2. Truth is mightier than _us_ all. 

3. If there ever was a rogue in the world, it is _me_. 

4. They were the very two individuals _whom_ we thought were far away. 

5. "Seems to me as if _them_ as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it, now. "

6. The sign of the Good Samaritan is written on the face of_whomsoever_ opens to the stranger. 

7. It is not _me_ you are in love with. 

8. You know _whom_ it is that you thus charge. 

9. The same affinity will exert its influence on _whomsoever_ is asnoble as these men and women. 

10. It was _him_ that Horace Walpole called a man who never made a badfigure but as an author. 

11. We shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or_me_. 

[Sidenote: Me _in exclamations_. ]

403. It is to be remembered that the objective form is used inexclamations which turn the attention upon a person; as, --

 Unhappy _me!_ That I cannot risk my own worthless life. --KINGSLEY

 Alas! miserable _me_! Alas! unhappy Señors!--_Id. _

 Ay _me_! I fondly dream--had ye been there. --MILTON. 

[Sidenote: Nominative for the objective. ]

404. The rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from--

(1) When the object is far removed from the verb, verbal, orpreposition which governs it; as, "_He_ that can doubt whether he beanything or no, I speak not to" (_he_ should be _him_, the object of_to_); "I saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned, butnot _he_" (_he_ should be _him_, object of _saw_). 

(2) In the case of certain pairs of pronouns, used after verbs, verbals, and prepositions, as this from Shakespeare, "All debts arecleared between you and I" (for _you_ and _me_); or this, "Let _thou_and _I_ the battle try" (for _thee_ and _me_, or _us_). 

(3) By forgetting the construction, in the case of words used inapposition with the object; as, "Ask the murderer, _he_ who hassteeped his hands in the blood of another" (instead of "_him_ who, "the word being in apposition with _murderer_). 

[Sidenote: _Exception 1_, who _interrogative_. ]

405. The interrogative pronoun who may be said to have noobjective form in spoken English. We regularly say, "_Who_ did yousee?" or, "_Who_ were they talking to?" etc. The more formal "To_whom_ were they talking?" sounds stilted in conversation, and isusually avoided. 

In literary English the objective form _whom_ is _preferred_ forobjective use; as, --

 Knows he now to _whom_ he lies under obligation?--SCOTT. 

 What doth she look on? _Whom_ doth she behold?--WORDSWORTH. 

Yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the workof the objective use; for example, --

 My son is going to be married to I don't know _who_. --GOLDSMITH. 

 _Who_ have we here?--_Id. _

 _Who_ should I meet the other day but my old friend. --STEELE. 

 He hath given away half his fortune to the Lord knows _who_. --KINGSLEY. 

 _Who_ have we got here?--SMOLLETT. 

 _Who_ should we find there but Eustache?--MARRVAT. 

 _Who_ the devil is he talking to?--SHERIDAN. 

[Sidenote: _Exception 2, but_ he, _etc. _]

406. It is a well-established usage to put the nominative form, aswell as the objective, after the preposition _but_ (sometimes _save_);as, --

 All were knocked down but _us_ two. --KINGSLEY. 

 Thy shores are empires, changed in all save _thee. _--BYRON. 

 Rich are the sea gods:--who gives gifts but _they?_--EMERSON. 

 The Chieftains then Returned rejoicing, all but _he_. --SOUTHEY

 No man strikes him but _I_. --KINGSLEY. 

 None, save _thou_ and thine, I've sworn, Shall be left upon the morn. 

BYRON. 

Exercise. 

Correct the italicized pronouns in the following, giving reasons fromthe analysis of the quotation:--

1. _Thou_, Nature, partial Nature, I arraign. 

2. Let you and _I_ look at these, for they say there are none such inthe world. 

3. "Nonsense!" said Amyas, "we could kill every soul of them in halfan hour, and they know that as well as _me_. "

4. Markland, _who_, with Jortin and Thirlby, Johnson calls threecontemporaries of great eminence. 

5. They are coming for a visit to _she_ and _I_. 

6. They crowned him long ago; But _who_ they got to put it on Nobody seems to know. 

7. I experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among thepedestrians _they_ who had business with St. Bartholomew. 

8. The great difference lies between the laborer who moves toYorkshire and _he_ who moves to Canada. 

9. Besides my father and Uncle Haddock--_he_ of the silver plates. 

10. _Ye_ against whose familiar names not yet The fatal asterisk of death is set, _Ye_ I salute. 

11. It can't be worth much to _they_ that hasn't larning. 

12. To send me away for a whole year--_I_ who had never crept fromunder the parental wing--was a startling idea. 

II. POSSESSIVE FORMS. 

[Sidenote: _As antecedent of a relative. _]

407. The possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns aresometimes found as antecedents of relatives. This usage is notfrequent. The antecedent is usually nominative or objective, as theuse of the possessive is less likely to be clear. 

 We should augur ill of any _gentleman's_ property to whom this happened every other day in his drawing room. --RUSKIN. 

 For _their_ sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing me. --C. B. BROWN. 

 Now by _His_ name that I most reverence in Heaven, and by _hers_ whom I most worship on earth. --SCOTT. 

 He saw her smile and slip money into the _man's_ hand who was ordered to ride behind the coach. --THACKERAY. 

 He doubted whether _his_ signature whose expectations were so much more bounded would avail. --DE QUINCEY. 

 For boys with hearts as bold As _his_ who kept the bridge so well. --MACAULAY. 

[Sidenote: _Preceding a gerund, --possessive, or objective?_]

408. Another point on which there is some variance in usage is sucha construction as this: "We heard of _Brown_ studying law, " or "Weheard of _Brown's_ studying law. "

That is, should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always beused with the gerund to indicate the active agent? Closelyscrutinizing these two sentences quoted, we might find a differencebetween them: saying that in the first one _studying_ is a participle, and the meaning is, _We heard of Brown_, [who was] _studying law_; andthat in the second, _studying_ is a gerund, object of _heard of_, andmodified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be. 

[Sidenote: _Why both are found. _]

But in common use there is no such distinction. Both types ofsentences are found; both are gerunds; sometimes the gerund has thepossessive form before it, sometimes it has the objective. The use ofthe objective is older, and in keeping with the old way of regardingthe _person_ as the chief object before the mind: the possessive useis more modern, in keeping with the disposition to proceed from thematerial thing to the _abstract idea_, and to make the actionsubstantive the chief idea before the mind. 

In the examples quoted, it will be noticed that the possessive of thepronoun is more common than that of the noun. 

[Sidenote: _Objective_. ]

 The last incident which I recollect, was my learned and worthy _patron_ falling from a chair. --SCOTT. 

 He spoke of _some one_ coming to drink tea with him, and asked why it was not made. --THACKERAY. 

 The old sexton even expressed a doubt as to _Shakespeare_ having been born in her house. --IRVING. 

 The fact of the _Romans_ not burying their dead within the city walls proper is a strong reason, etc. --BREWER. 

 I remember _Wordsworth_ once laughingly reporting to me a little personal anecdote. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Here I state them only in brief, to prevent the _reader_ casting about in alarm for my ultimate meaning. --RUSKIN. 

 We think with far less pleasure of _Cato_ tearing out his entrails than of _Russell_ saying, as he turned away from his wife, that the bitterness of death was past. --MACAULAY. 

 There is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a _man_ being sent into this earth. --CARLYLE. 

[Sidenote: _Possessive_. ]

 There is no use for any _man's_ taking up his abode in a house built of glass. --CARLYLE. 

 As to _his_ having good grounds on which to rest an action for life. --DICKENS. 

 The case was made known to me by a _man's_ holding out the little creature dead. --DE QUINCEY. 

 There may be reason for a _savage's_ preferring many kinds of food which the civilized man rejects. --THOREAU. 

 It informs me of the previous circumstances of _my_ laying aside my clothes. --C. BROCKDEN BROWN. 

 The two strangers gave me an account of _their_ once having been themselves in a somewhat similar condition. --AUDUBON. 

 There was a chance of _their_ being sent to a new school, where there were examinations. --RUSKIN

 This can only be by _his_ preferring truth to his past apprehension of truth. --EMERSON

III. PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND THEIR ANTECEDENTS. 

409. The pronouns of the third person usually refer back to somepreceding noun or pronoun, and ought to agree with them in person, number, and gender. 

[Sidenote: _Watch for the real antecedent. _]

There are two constructions in which the student will need to watchthe pronoun, --when the antecedent, in one person, is followed by aphrase containing a pronoun of a different person; and when theantecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannotindicate exactly the gender. Examples of these constructions are, --

 _Those_ of us who can only maintain _themselves_ by continuing in some business or salaried office. --RUSKIN. 

 Suppose the life and fortune of _every one_ of us would depend on _his_ winning or losing a game of chess. --HUXLEY. 

 If _any one_ did not know it, it was _his_ own fault. --CABLE. 

 _Everybody_ had _his_ own life to think of. --DEFOE. 

410. In such a case as the last three sentences, --when theantecedent includes both masculine and feminine, or is a distributiveword, taking in each of many persons, --the preferred method is to putthe pronoun following in the masculine singular; if the antecedent isneuter, preceded by a distributive, the pronoun will be neutersingular. 

The following are additional examples:--

 The next _correspondent_ wants you to mark out a whole course of life for _him_. --HOLMES. 

 Every _city_ threw open _its_ gates. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Every _person_ who turns this page has _his_ own little diary. --THACKERAY. 

 The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT. 

[Sidenote: _Avoided: By using both pronouns. _]

Sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the femininepronoun; for example, --

 Not the feeblest _grandame_, not a mowing _idiot_, but uses what spark of perception and faculty is left, to chuckle and triumph in _his or her_ opinion. --EMERSON. 

 It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every _man_ and _woman_ of us being one of the two players in a game of _his or her_ own. --HUXLEY. 

_By using the plural pronoun. _

411. Another way of referring to an antecedent which is adistributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective, is to use the plural of the pronoun following. This is not consideredthe best usage, the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun ineach case; but the construction is frequently found _when theantecedent includes or implies both genders_. The masculine does notreally represent a feminine antecedent, and the expression _his orher_ is avoided as being cumbrous. 

Notice the following examples of the plural:--

 _Neither_ of the sisters _were_ very much deceived. --THACKERAY. 

 _Every one_ must judge of _their_ own feelings. --BYRON. 

 Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables, as _anybody_ in _their_ senses would have done. --AUSTEN. 

 If the part deserve any comment, every considering _Christian_ will make it _themselves_ as they go. --DEFOE. 

 _Every person's_ happiness depends in part upon the respect _they_ meet in the world. --PALEY. 

 _Every nation_ have _their_ refinements--STERNE. 

 _Neither_ gave vent to _their_ feelings in words. --SCOTT. 

 _Each_ of the nations acted according to _their_ national custom. --PALGRAVE. 

 The sun, which pleases _everybody_ with it and with _themselves_. --RUSKIN. 

 Urging _every one_ within reach of your influence to be neat, and giving _them_ means of being so. --_Id. _

 _Everybody_ will become of use in _their_ own fittest way. --_Id. _

 _Everybody_ said _they_ thought it was the newest thing there. --WENDELL PHILLIPS. 

 Struggling for life, _each_ almost bursting _their_ sinews to force the other off. --PAULDING. 

 _Whosoever_ hath any gold, let _them_ break it off. --_Bible. _

 _Nobody_ knows what it is to lose a friend, till _they_ have lost him. --FIELDING. 

 Where she was gone, or what was become of her, _no one_ could take upon _them_ to say. --SHERIDAN. 

 I do not mean that I think _any one_ to blame for taking due care of _their_ health. --ADDISON. 

Exercise. --In the above sentences, _unless both genders areimplied_, change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

I. RESTRICTIVE AND UNRESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. 

[Sidenote: _What these terms mean. _]

412. As to their conjunctive use, the definite relatives who, which, and that may be coördinating or restrictive. 

A relative, when coördinating, or unrestrictive, is equivalent to aconjunction (_and_, _but_, _because_, etc. ) and a personal pronoun. It adds a new statement to what precedes, that being consideredalready clear; as, "I gave it to the beggar, _who_ went away. " Thismeans, "I gave it to the beggar [we know which one], _and he_ wentaway. "

A relative, when restrictive, introduces a clause to limit and makeclear some preceding word. The clause is restricted to the antecedent, and does not add a new statement; it merely couples a thoughtnecessary to define the antecedent: as, "I gave it to a beggar _who_stood at the gate. " It defines _beggar_. 

413. It is sometimes contended that who and which should alwaysbe coördinating, and that always restrictive; but, according to thepractice of every modern writer, the usage must be stated asfollows:--

[Sidenote: _A loose rule the only one to be formulated. _]

Who and which are either coördinating or restrictive, the taste ofthe writer and regard for euphony being the guide. 

That is in most cases restrictive, the coördinating use not beingoften found among careful writers. 

Exercise. 

In the following examples, tell whether _who_, _which_, and _that_ arerestrictive or not, in each instance:--

[Sidenote: Who. ]

 1. "Here he is now!" cried those who stood near Ernest. --HAWTHORNE. 

 2. He could overhear the remarks of various individuals, who were comparing the features with the face on the mountain side. --_Id. _

 3. The particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to understand, or it might have gone hard with the tutor. --HOLMES. 

 4. Yet how many are there who up, down, and over England are saying, etc. --H. W. BEECHER

 5. A grizzly-looking man appeared, whom we took to be sixty or seventy years old. --THOREAU. 

[Sidenote: Which. ]

 6. The volume which I am just about terminating is almost as much English history as Dutch. --MOTLEY. 

 7. On hearing their plan, which was to go over the Cordilleras, she agreed to join the party. --DE QUINCEY. 

 8. Even the wild story of the incident which had immediately occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the universal prostration of mind. --_Id. _

 9. Their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first, which Mr. Hare has printed. --CARLYLE. 

 10. There is a particular science which takes these matters in hand, and it is called logic. --NEWMAN. 

[Sidenote: That. ]

 11. So different from the wild, hard-mouthed horses at Westport, that were often vicious. --DE QUINCEY. 

 12. He was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose everywhere about him in the greatest variety. --ADDISON. 

 13. He felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him, that grew stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced. --_Id. _

 14. With narrow shoulders, long arms and legs, hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves. --IRVING. 

II. RELATIVE AND ANTECEDENT. 

[Sidenote: _The rule. _]

414. The general rule is, that the relative pronoun agrees with itsantecedent in person and number. 

[Sidenote: _In what sense true. _]

This cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun, as that does notvary for person or number. We say _I_, _you_, _he_, _they_, etc. , _who_; _these_ or _that_ _which_, etc. However, the relative _carriesover_ the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following, so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive. For example, in the sentence, "He that writes to himself writes to aneternal public, " _that_ is invariable as to person and number, but, because of its antecedent, it makes the verb third person singular. 

Notice the agreement in the following sentences:--

 There is not _one_ of the company, but _myself_, who rarely _speak_ at all, but _speaks_ of him as that sort, etc. --ADDISON. 

 O _Time!_ who _know'st_ a lenient hand to lay Softest on sorrow's wound. --BOWLES. 

 Let us be of good cheer, remembering that the misfortunes hardest to bear are _those_ which never _come. _--LOWELL. 

[Sidenote: _A disputed point. _]

415. This prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexedquestions, --whether we should say, "one of the finest books that _has_been published, " or, "one of the finest books that _have_ beenpublished. "

[Sidenote: One of . .. [_plural_] that who, _or_ which . .. [_singularor plural_. ]]

 The pale realms of shade, where _each_ shall take _His_ chamber in the silent halls of death. --BRYANT. 

Both constructions are frequently found, the reason being a differenceof opinion as to the antecedent. Some consider it to be _one_ [book]_of the finest books_, with _one_ as the principal word, the trueantecedent; others regard _books_ as the antecedent, and write theverb in the plural. The latter is rather more frequent, but the formerhas good authority. 

The following quotations show both sides:--

[Sidenote: _Plural. _]

 He was one of the very few commanders who _appear_ to have shown equal skill in directing a campaign, in winning a battle, and in improving a victory. --LECKY. 

 He was one of the most distinguished scientists who _have_ ever lived. --J. T. MORSE, Jr. , _Franklin. _

 It is one of those periods which _shine_ with an unnatural and delusive splendor. --MACAULAY. 

 A very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows which _make_ one more ashamed, etc. --HOLMES. 

 I am one of those who _believe_ that the real will never find an irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal. --LOWELL. 

 French literature of the eighteenth century, one of the most powerful agencies that _have_ ever existed. --M. ARNOLD. 

 What man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those tornadoes that _send_ us out of our course?--THACKERAY. 

 He is one of those that _deserve_ very well. --ADDISON. 

[Sidenote: _Singular. _]

 The fiery youth . .. Struck down one of those who _was_ pressing hardest. --SCOTT. 

 He appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever _was_, when he derided the shams of society. --HOWELLS. 

 A rare Roundabout performance, --one of the very best that _has_ ever appeared in this series. --THACKERAY. 

 Valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which ever _was_ published in this country. --_Id. _

 It is one of the errors which _has_ been diligently propagated by designing writers. --IRVING. 

 "I am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who _is_ at the Piazza Hotel. "--DICKENS. 

 The "Economy of the Animal Kingdom" is one of those books which _is_ an honor to the human race. --EMERSON. 

 Tom Puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that _has_ fallen under my observation. --ADDISON. 

 The richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls that ever gave _itself_ to the arts. --RUSKIN. 

III. OMISSION OF THE RELATIVE. 

416. Although the omission of the relative is common when it wouldbe the object of the verb or preposition _expressed_, there is anomission which is not frequently found in careful writers; that is, when the relative word is a pronoun, object of a preposition_understood_, or is equivalent to the conjunction _when_, _where_, _whence_, and such like: as, "He returned by the same route [by which]he came;" "India is the place [in which, or where] he died. " Noticethese sentences:--

 In the posture I lay, I could see nothing except the sky. --SWIFT. 

 This is he that should marshal us the way we were going. --EMERSON. 

 But I by backward steps would move; And, when this dust falls to the urn, In that same state I came, return. --VAUGHAN. 

 Welcome the hour my aged limbs Are laid with thee to rest. --BURNS. 

 The night was concluded in the manner we began the morning. --GOLDSMITH. 

 The same day I went aboard we set sail. --DEFOE. 

 The vulgar historian of a Cromwell fancies that he had determined on being Protector of England, at the time he was plowing the marsh lands of Cambridgeshire. --CARLYLE. 

 To pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required time and attention. --SCOTT. 

Exercise. --In the above sentences, insert the omitted conjunction orphrase, and see if the sentence is made clearer. 

IV. THE RELATIVE _AS_ AFTER _SAME_. 

417. It is very rarely that we find such sentences as, --

 He considered. .. Me as his apprentice, and accordingly expected the same service from me _as_ he would from another. --FRANKLIN. 

 This has the same effect in natural faults _as_ maiming and mutilation produce from accidents. --BURKE. 

[Sidenote: _The regular construction_. ]

[Sidenote: _Caution_. ]

The usual way is to use the relative _as_ after _same_ if no verbfollows _as;_ but, if _same_ is followed by a complete clause, _as_ isnot used, but we find the relative _who, which, _ or _that_. Rememberthis applies only to _as_ when used as a relative. 

Examples of the use of _as_ in a contracted clause:--

 Looking to the same end _as_ Turner, and working in the same spirit, he, with Turner, was a discoverer, etc. --R. W. CHURCH. 

 They believe the same of all the works of art, _as_ of knives, boats, looking-glasses. --ADDISON. 

Examples of relatives following _same_ in full clauses:--

[Sidenote: Who. ]

 This is the very same rogue _who_ sold us the spectacles. --GOLDSMITH. 

 The same person _who_ had clapped his thrilling hands at the first representation of the Tempest. --MACAULAY. 

[Sidenote: That. ]

 I rubbed on some of the same ointment _that_ was given me at my first arrival. --SWIFT. 

[Sidenote: Which. ]

 For the same sound is in my ears _Which_ in those days I heard. --WORDSWORTH. 

 With the same minuteness _which_ her predecessor had exhibited, she passed the lamp over her face and person. --SCOTT. 

V. MISUSE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: _Anacoluthic use of_ which. ]

418. There is now and then found in the pages of literature aconstruction which imitates the Latin, but which is usually carefullyavoided. It is a use of the relative _which_ so as to make ananacoluthon, or lack of proper connection between the clauses; forexample, --

 _Which_, if I had resolved to go on with, I might as well have staid at home. --DEFOE

 _Which_ if he attempted to do, Mr. Billings vowed that he would follow him to Jerusalem. --THACKERAY. 

 We know not the incantation of the heart that would wake them;--_which_ if they once heard, they would start up to meet us in the power of long ago. --RUSKIN. 

 He delivered the letter, _which_ when Mr. Thornhill had read, he said that all submission was now too late. --GOLDSMITH. 

 But still the house affairs would draw her thence; _Which_ ever as she could with haste dispatch, She'd come again. --SHAKESPEARE. 

As the sentences stand, _which_ really has no office in the sentence:it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun, andthis be placed in the proper clause. 

Exercise. --Rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the propergrammatical connection in each. 

[Sidenote: And who, and which, _etc. _]

419. There is another kind of expression which slips into the linesof even standard authors, but which is always regarded as an oversightand a blemish. 

The following sentence affords an example: "The rich are now engagedin distributing what remains among the poorer sort, _and who_ are nowthrown upon their compassion. " The trouble is that such conjunctionsas _and_, _but_, _or_, etc. , should connect expressions of the samekind: _and who_ makes us look for a preceding _who_, but none isexpressed. There are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted: thus, (1) "Among those _who_ are poor, _and who_ are now, " etc. ; (2) "Amongthe poorer sort, _who_ are now thrown, " etc. ; (3) "Among the poorersort, now thrown upon their, " etc. That is, --

[Sidenote: _Direction for rewriting. _]

Express both relatives, or omit the conjunction, or leave out bothconnective and relative. 

Exercise. 

Rewrite the following examples according to the direction justgiven:--

[Sidenote: And who. ]

 1. Hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than herself, and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed them. --HAWTHORNE. 

 2. With an albatross perched on his shoulder, and who might be introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his conversion. --DE QUINCEY. 

 3. After this came Elizabeth herself, then in the full glow of what in a sovereign was called beauty, and who would in the lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble figure. --SCOTT. 

 4. This was a gentleman, once a great favorite of M. Le Conte, and in whom I myself was not a little interested. --THACKERAY. 

[Sidenote: But who. ]

 5. Yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man, English by name, but who had long dwelt in Amsterdam. --HAWTHORNE. 

 6. Dr. Ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity, but whose mind was thrown off its just bias. --SCOTT. 

[Sidenote: Or who. ]

 7. "What knight so craven, then, " exclaims the chivalrous Venetian, "that he would not have been more than a match for the stoutest adversary; or who would not have lost his life a thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his love?"--PRESCOTT. 

[Sidenote: And which. ]

 8. There are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church, and which may even be heard a mile off. --IRVING. 

 9. The old British tongue was replaced by a debased Latin, like that spoken in the towns, and in which inscriptions are found in the western counties. --PEARSON. 

 10. I shall have complete copies, one of signal interest, and which has never been described. --MOTLEY. 

[Sidenote: But which. ]

 11. "A mockery, indeed, but in which the soul trifled with itself!"--HAWTHORNE. 

 12. I saw upon the left a scene far different, but which yet the power of dreams had reconciled into harmony. --DE QUINCEY. 

[Sidenote: Or which. ]

 13. He accounted the fair-spoken courtesy, which the Scotch had learned, either from imitation of their frequent allies, the French, or which might have arisen from their own proud and reserved character, as a false and astucious mark, etc. --SCOTT. 

[Sidenote: That . .. And which, _etc. _]

420. Akin to the above is another fault, which is likewise avariation from the best usage. Two different relatives are sometimesfound referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence; whereasthe better practice is to choose one relative, and repeat this for anyfurther reference. 

Exercise. 

Rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead ofusing two for the same antecedent:--

[Sidenote: That . .. Who. ]

 1. Still in the confidence of children that tread without fear every chamber in their father's house, and to whom no door is closed. --DE QUINCEY. 

 2. Those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours, and whose examples and principles we inherit. --BEECHER. 

 3. The Tree Igdrasil, that has its roots down in the kingdoms of Hela and Death, and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven!--CARLYLE. 

[Sidenote: That . .. Which. ]

 4. Christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of God's infinite love, and which commends him to the unbounded love of his brethren. --W. E. CHANNING. 

 5. He flung into literature, in his Mephistopheles, the first organic figure that has been added for some ages, and which will remain as long as the Prometheus. --EMERSON. 

 6. Gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did not require any extraordinary ingenuity, and which left the most important difficulties to be surmounted. --HALLAM. 

 7. Do me the justice to tell me what I have a title to be acquainted with, and which I am certain to know more truly from you than from others. --SCOTT. 

 8. He will do this amiable little service out of what one may say old civilization has established in place of goodness of heart, but which is perhaps not so different from it. --HOWELLS. 

 9. In my native town of Salem, at the head of what, half a century ago, was a bustling wharf, --but which is now burdened with decayed wooden warehouses. --HAWTHORNE. 

 10. His recollection of what he considered as extreme presumption in the Knight of the Leopard, even when he stood high in the roles of chivalry, but which, in his present condition, appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a frenzy of passion. --SCOTT

[Sidenote: That which . .. What. ]

 11. He, now without any effort but that which he derived from the sill, and what little his feet could secure the irregular crevices, was hung in air. --W. G. SIMMS. 

[Sidenote: Such as . .. Which. ]

 12. It rose into a thrilling passion, such as my heart had always dimly craved and hungered after, but which now first interpreted itself to my ear. --DE QUINCEY. 

 13. I recommend some honest manual calling, such as they have very probably been bred to, and which will at least give them a chance of becoming President. --HOLMES. 

[Sidenote: Such as . .. Whom. ]

 14. I grudge the dollar, the dime, the cent, I give to such men as do not belong to me, and to whom I do not belong. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: Which . .. That . .. That. ]

 15. That evil influence which carried me first away from my father's house, that hurried me into the wild and undigested notion of making my fortune, and that impressed these conceits so forcibly upon me. --DEFOE. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

[Sidenote: Each other, one another. ]

421. The student is sometimes troubled whether to use each otheror one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action. Whethereither one refers to a certain number of persons or objects, whetheror not the two are equivalent, may be gathered from a study of thefollowing sentences:--

 They [Ernest and the poet] led _one another_, as it were, into the high pavilion of their thoughts. --HAWTHORNE. 

 Men take _each other's_ measure when they meet for the first time. --EMERSON. 

 You ruffian! do you fancy I forget that we were fond of _each other_?--THACKERAY. 

 England was then divided between kings and Druids, always at war with _one another_, carrying off _each other's_ cattle and wives. --BREWER

 The topics follow _each other_ in the happiest order. --MACAULAY. 

 The Peers at a conference begin to pommel _each other_. --_Id. _

 We call ourselves a rich nation, and we are filthy and foolish enough to thumb _each other's_ books out of circulating libraries. --RUSKIN. 

 The real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us; let us not increase them by dissension among _each other_. --GOLDSMITH. 

 In a moment we were all shaking hands with _one another_. --DICKENS. 

 The unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against _each other. _--RUSKIN. 

[Sidenote: _Distributives_ either _and_ neither. ]

422. By their original meaning, either and neither refer to onlytwo persons or objects; as, for example, --

 Some one must be poor, and in want of his gold--or his corn. Assume that no one is in want of _either_. --RUSKIN

 Their [Ernest's and the poet's] minds accorded into one strain, and made delightful music which _neither_ could have claimed as all his own. --HAWTHORNE. 

[Sidenote: _Use of_ any. ]

Sometimes these are made to refer to several objects, in which caseany should be used instead; as, --

 Was it the winter's storm? was it hard labor and spare meals? was it disease? was it the tomahawk? Is it possible that _neither_ of these causes, that not all combined, were able to blast this bud of hope?--EVERETT. 

 Once I took such delight in Montaigne . .. ; before that, in Shakespeare; then in Plutarch; then in Plotinus; at one time in Bacon; afterwards in Goethe; even in Bettine; but now I turn the pages of _either_ of them languidly, whilst I still cherish their genius. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: Any _usually plural_. ]

423. The adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded asplural, as shown in the following sentences:--

 If _any_ of you _have_ been accustomed to look upon these hours as mere visionary hours, I beseech you, etc. --BEECHER

 Whenever, during his stay at Yuste, _any_ of his friends had died, he had been punctual in doing honor to _their_ memory. --STIRLING. 

 But I enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants, when _any_ of them _are_ so good as to visit me. --FRANKLIN. 

 Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's children, I mean that _any_ of them _are_ dead?--THACKERAY. 

In earlier Modern English, _any_ was often singular; as, --

 If _any_, speak; for _him_ have I offended. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 If _any_ of you lack wisdom, let _him_ ask of God. --_Bible_. 

Very rarely the singular is met with in later times; as, --

 Here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions as _any_ that _reads_ them can be. --BURKE. 

[Sidenote: _Caution_. ]

The above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective _any_, which is plural as often as singular. 

[Sidenote: None _usually plural_. ]

424. The adjective pronoun none is, in the prose of the presentday, usually plural, although it is historically a contraction of _neān_ (not one). Examples of its use are, --

 In earnest, if ever man was; as _none_ of the French philosophers _were_. --CARLYLE. 

 _None_ of Nature's powers _do_ better service. --PROF. DANA

 One man answers some question which _none_ of his contemporaries _put_, and is isolated. --EMERSON. 

 _None obey_ the command of duty so well as those who are free from the observance of slavish bondage. --SCOTT. 

 Do you think, when I spoke anon of the ghosts of Pryor's children, I mean that any of them are dead? _None are_, that I know of. --THACKERAY. 

 Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I think _none_ of them _are_ so good to eat as some to smell. --THOREAU. 

The singular use of _none_ is often found in the Bible; as, --

 _None_ of them _was_ cleansed, saving Naaman the Syrian. --LUKE iv 27

Also the singular is sometimes found in present-day English in prose, and less rarely in poetry; for example, --

 Perhaps _none_ of our Presidents since Washington _has_ stood so firm in the confidence of the people. --LOWELL

 In signal _none his_ steed should spare. --SCOTT

Like the use of _any_, the pronoun _none_ should be distinguished fromthe adjective _none_, which is used absolutely, and hence is morelikely to confuse the student. 

Compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective_none_:--

 Reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom, though _none_ [no sky] was visible overhead. --THOREAU

 The holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples, and _none_ [no fires] were lighted in their own dwellings. --PRESCOTT

[Sidenote: All _singular and plural_. ]

425. The pronoun all has the singular construction when it means_everything_; the plural, when it means _all persons_: for example, --

[Sidenote: _Singular_. ]

 The light troops thought . .. That _all was_ lost. --PALGRAVE

 _All was_ won on the one side, and _all was_ lost on the other. --BAYNE

 Having done _all_ that _was_ just toward others. --NAPIER

[Sidenote: _Plural_. ]

 But the King's treatment of the great lords will be judged leniently by _all_ who _remember_, etc. --PEARSON. 

 When _all were_ gone, fixing his eyes on the mace, etc. --LINGARD

 _All_ who did not understand French _were_ compelled, etc. --McMASTER. 

[Sidenote: Somebody's else, _or_ somebody else's?]

426. The compounds somebody else, any one else, nobody else, etc. , are treated as units, and the apostrophe is regularly added to thefinal word _else_ instead of the first. Thackeray has the expression_somebody's else_, and Ford has _nobody's else_, but the regular usageis shown in the following selections:--

 A boy who is fond of _somebody else's_ pencil case. --G. ELIOT. 

 A suit of clothes like _somebody else's_. --THACKERAY. 

 Drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as benevolently as if they were _somebody else's_. --DICKENS. 

 Certainly not! nor _any one else's_ ropes. --RUSKIN. 

 Again, my pronunciation--like _everyone else's_--is in some cases more archaic. --SWEET. 

 Then everybody wanted some of _somebody else's_. --RUSKIN. 

 His hair. .. Curled once all over it in long tendrils, unlike _anybody else's_ in the world. --N. P. WILLIS. 

 "Ye see, there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like _somebody else's_ wantin' what you've got. "--MRS. STOWE. 

ADJECTIVES. 

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES WITH NOUNS. 

[Sidenote: These sort, all manner of, _etc. _]

427. The statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in numberis restricted to the words this and that (with these andthose), as these are the only adjectives that have separate formsfor singular and plural; and it is only in one set of expressions thatthe concord seems to be violated, --in such as "_these sort_ of books, ""_those kind_ of trees, " "_all manner_ of men;" the nouns beingsingular, the adjectives plural. These expressions are all butuniversal in spoken English, and may be found not infrequently inliterary English; for example, --

 _These kind_ of knaves I know, which in this plainness Harbor more craft, etc. --SHAKESPEARE

 All _these sort_ of things. --SHERIDAN. 

 I hoped we had done with _those sort_ of things. --MULOCH. 

 You have been so used to _those sort_ of impertinences. --SYDNEY SMITH. 

 Whitefield or Wesley, or some other such great man as a bishop, or _those sort_ of people. --FIELDING. 

 I always delight in overthrowing _those kind_ of schemes. --AUSTEN. 

 There are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy _those sort_ of romantic spots. --_Saturday Review_, London. 

 The library was open, with _all manner_ of amusing books. --RUSKIN. 

According to the approved usage of Modern English, each one of theabove adjectives would have to be changed to the singular, or thenouns to the plural. 

[Sidenote: _History of this construction. _]

The reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought inthe history of the language: it cannot be found in the statement thatthe adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following. 

[Sidenote: _At the source. _]

In Old and Middle English, in keeping with the custom of looking atthings concretely rather than in the abstract, they said, not "all_kinds_ of wild animals, " but "alles cunnes wilde deor" (wild animalsof-every-kind). This the modern expression reverses. 

[Sidenote: _Later form. _]

But in early Middle English the modern way of regarding suchexpressions also appeared, gradually displacing the old. 

[Sidenote: _The result. _]

Consequently we have a confused expression. We keep the form oflogical agreement in standard English, such as, "_This sort_ of treesshould be planted;" but at the same time the noun following _kind of_is felt to be the real subject, and the adjective is, in spokenEnglish, made to agree with it, which accounts for the construction, "_These kind of_ trees are best. "

[Sidenote: _A question. _]

The inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish touse a predicate with number forms. Should we say, "This kind of rules_are_ the best, " or "This kind of rules _is_ the best?" _Kind_ or_sort_ may be treated as a collective noun, and in this way may take aplural verb; for example, Burke's sentence, "A _sort_ of uncertainsounds _are_, when the necessary dispositions concur, more alarmingthan a total silence. "

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS. 

[Sidenote: _Use of the comparative degree. _]

428. The comparative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is usedwhen we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects, or one objectwith a class of objects, to express a higher degree of quality; as, --

 Which is _the better_ able to defend himself, --a strong man with nothing but his fists, or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a sword which he cannot lift?--MACAULAY. 

 Of two such lessons, why forget The _nobler_ and the _manlier_ one? --BYRON. 

 We may well doubt which has the _stronger_ claim to civilization, the victor or the vanquished. --PRESCOTT. 

 A _braver_ ne'er to battle rode. --SCOTT. 

 He is _taller, _ by almost the breadth of my nail, than any of his court. --SWIFT. 

[Sidenote: Other _after the comparative form. _]

429. When an object is compared with the class to which it belongs, it is regularly excluded from that class by the word _other_; if not, the object would really be compared with itself: thus, --

 The character of Lady Castlewood has required more delicacy in its manipulation than perhaps any _other_ which Thackeray has drawn. --TROLLOPE. 

 I used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier curiosity than any _other_ form of humanity. --HAWTHORNE. 

Exercise. 

See if the word _other_ should be inserted in the followingsentences:--

 1. There was no man who could make a more graceful bow than Mr. Henry. --WIRT. 

 2. I am concerned to see that Mr. Gary, to whom Dante owes more than ever poet owed to translator, has sanctioned, etc. --MACAULAY. 

 3. There is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its obligations as our own. --LOWELL. 

 4. This is more sincerely done in the Scandinavian than in any mythology I know. --CARLYLE. 

 5. In "Thaddeus of Warsaw" there is more crying than in any novel I remember to have read. --THACKERAY. 

 6. The heroes of another writer [Cooper] are quite the equals of Scott's men; perhaps Leather-stocking is better than any one in "Scott's lot. "--_Id. _

[Sidenote: _Use of the superlative degree. _]

430. The superlative degree of the adjective (or adverb) is usedregularly in comparing more than two things, but is also frequentlyused in comparing only two things. 

Examples of superlative with several objects:--

 It is a case of which the _simplest_ statement is the _strongest_. --MACAULAY. 

 Even Dodd himself, who was one of the _greatest_ humbugs who ever lived, would not have had the face. --THACKERAY. 

 To the man who plays well, the _highest_ stakes are paid. --HUXLEY. 

[Sidenote: _Superlative with two objects. _]

Compare the first three sentences in Sec. 428 with the following:--

 Which do you love _best_ to behold, the lamb or the lion? --THACKERAY. 

 Which of these methods has the _best_ effect? Both of them are the same to the sense, and differ only in form. --DR BLAIR. 

 Rip was one of those . .. Who eat white bread or brown, whichever can be got _easiest_. --IRVING. 

 It is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly contributed _most_ to the amusement of the party. --SCOTT. 

 There was an interval of three years between Mary and Anne. The _eldest_, Mary, was like the Stuarts--the _younger_ was a fair English child. --MRS. OLIPHANT. 

 Of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the nation between them, I should say that one has the _best_ cause, and the other contains the _best_ men. --EMERSON. 

 In all disputes between States, though the _strongest_ is nearly always mainly in the wrong, the _weaker_ is often so in a minor degree. --RUSKIN. 

 She thought him and Olivia extremely of a size, and would bid both to stand up to see which was the _tallest_. --GOLDSMITH. 

 These two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the _last_ of them. --ADDISON. 

 "Ha, ha, ha!" roared Goodman Brown when the wind laughed at him. "Let us see which will laugh _loudest_. "--HAWTHORNE. 

[Sidenote: _Double comparative and superlative. _]

431. In Shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a doublecomparative and superlative by using _more_ or _most_ before the wordalready having _-er_ or _-est_. Examples from Shakespeare are, --

 How much _more elder_ art thou than thy looks!--_Merchant of Venice. _

 Nor that I am _more better_ than Prospero. --_Tempest. _

 Come you _more nearer_. --_Hamlet. _

 With the _most boldest_ and best hearts of Rome. --_J. Cæsar. _

Also from the same period, --

 Imitating the manner of the _most ancientest_ and _finest_ Grecians. --BEN JONSON. 

 After the _most straitest_ sect of our religion. --_Bible_, 1611. 

Such expressions are now heard only in vulgar English. The followingexamples are used purposely, to represent the characters as ignorantpersons:--

 The artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at "the _most convenientest_ and _handsomest_ saddle that ever was seen. "--BULWER. 

 "There's nothing comes out but the _most lowest_ stuff in nature; not a bit of high life among them. "--GOLDSMITH. 

_THREE FIRST_ OR _FIRST THREE_?

432. As to these two expressions, over which a little war has solong been buzzing, we think it not necessary to say more than thatboth are in good use; not only so in popular speech, but in literaryEnglish. Instances of both are given below. 

The meaning intended is the same, and the reader gets the same ideafrom both: hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use ofeither or both. 

[Sidenote: First three, _etc. _]

 For Carlyle, and Secretary Walsingham also, have been helping them heart and soul for the _last two_ years. --KINGSLEY. 

 The delay in the _first three_ lines, and conceit in the last, jar upon us constantly. --RUSKIN. 

 The _last dozen_ miles before you reach the suburbs. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Mankind for the _first seventy thousand_ ages ate their meat raw. --LAMB. 

 The _first twenty_ numbers were expressed by a corresponding number of dots. The _first five_ had specific names. --PRESCOTT. 

[Sidenote: Three first, _etc. _]

 These are the _three first_ needs of civilized life. --RUSKIN. 

 He has already finished the _three first_ sticks of it. --ADDISON. 

 In my _two last_ you had so much of Lismahago that I suppose you are glad he is gone. --SMOLLETT. 

 I have not numbered the lines except of the _four first_ books. --COWPER. 

 The _seven first_ centuries were filled with a succession of triumphs. --GIBBON. 

ARTICLES. 

[Sidenote: _Definite article_. ]

433. The definite article is repeated before each of two modifiersof the same noun, when the purpose is to call attention to the nounexpressed and the one understood. In such a case two or more separateobjects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers. Examples of this construction are, --

[Sidenote: _With a singular noun_. ]

 The merit of _the Barb_, _the Spanish_, and _the English_ breed is derived from a mixture of Arabian blood. --GIBBON. 

 _The righteous_ man is distinguished from _the unrighteous_ by his desire and hope of justice. --RUSKIN. 

 He seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either on _the sunny_ or _the stormy_ side. --CARLYLE. 

 It is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between _the first_ and _the second_ part of the volume. --_The Nation_, No. 1508. 

[Sidenote: _With a plural noun_. ]

 There was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether the earliest cleavage was between _the Northern_ and _the Southern_ languages. --TAYLOR, _Origin of the Aryans_. 

434. The same repetition of the article is sometimes found beforenouns alone, to distinguish clearly, or to emphasize the meaning;as, --

 In every line of _the Philip_ and _the Saul_, the greatest poems, I think, of the eighteenth century. --MACAULAY. 

 He is master of the two-fold Logos, _the thought_ and _the word_, distinct, but inseparable from each other. --NEWMAN. 

 _The flowers_, and _the presents_, and _the trunks and bonnet boxes_ . .. Having been arranged, the hour of parting came. --THACKERAY. 

[Sidenote: The _not repeated. One object and several modifiers, with asingular noun_. ]

435. Frequently, however, the article is not repeated before each oftwo or more adjectives, as in Sec. 433, but is used with one only;as, --

 Or fanciest thou _the red and yellow_ Clothes-screen yonder is but of To-day, without a Yesterday or a To-morrow?--CARLYLE. 

 _The lofty_, _melodious_, _and flexible_ language. --SCOTT. 

 _The fairest and most loving_ wife in Greece. --TENNYSON. 

[Sidenote: _Meaning same as in Sec. 433, with a plural noun_. ]

 Neither can there be a much greater resemblance between _the ancient and modern_ general views of the town. --HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS. 

 At Talavera _the English and French_ troops for a moment suspended their conflict. --MACAULAY. 

 The Crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of _the Adriatic and Tyrrhene_ seas a large increase of wealth. --_Id. _

 Here the youth of both sexes, of _the higher and middling_ orders, were placed at a very tender age. --PRESCOTT. 

[Sidenote: _Indefinite article_. ]

436. The indefinite article is used, like the definite article, tolimit two or more modified nouns, only one of which is expressed. Thearticle is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing themodified nouns. Examples of this use are, --

 We shall live _a better_ and _a higher_ and _a nobler_ life. --BEECHER. 

 The difference between the products of _a well-disciplined_ and those of _an uncultivated_ understanding is often and admirably exhibited by our great dramatist. --S. T. COLERIDGE. 

 Let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other, _a round_ and _a square_ one alternately. --BURKE. 

 As if the difference between _an accurate_ and _an inaccurate_ statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of reference. --MACAULAY. 

 To every room there was _an open_ and _a secret_ passage. --JOHNSON. 

Notice that in the above sentences (except the first) the nounexpressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted. 

[Sidenote: _One article with several adjectives. _]

437. Usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectivesunite in describing one and the same noun. In the sentences of Secs. 433 and 436, one noun is expressed; yet the same word understood withthe other adjectives has a different meaning (except in the firstsentence of Sec. 436). But in the following sentences, as in the firstthree of Sec. 435, the adjectives assist each other in describing thesame noun. It is easy to see the difference between the expressions"_a red-and-white_ geranium, " and "_a red and a white_ geranium. "

Examples of several adjectives describing the same object:--

 To inspire us with _a free and quiet_ mind. --B. JONSON. 

 Here and there _a desolate and uninhabited_ house. --DICKENS. 

 James was declared _a mortal and bloody_ enemy. --MACAULAY. 

 So wert thou born into a tuneful strain, _An early, rich, and inexhausted_ vein. --DRYDEN. 

[Sidenote: _For rhetorical effect. _]

438. The indefinite article (compare Sec. 434) is used to lendspecial emphasis, interest, or clearness to each of several nouns;as, --

 James was declared _a_ mortal and bloody _enemy, a tyrant, a murderer_, and _a usurper_. --MACAULAY. 

 Thou hast spoken as _a patriot_ and _a Christian_. --BULWER. 

 He saw him in his mind's eye, _a collegian, a parliament man--a Baronet_ perhaps. --THACKERAY. 

VERBS. 

CONCORD OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN NUMBER. 

[Sidenote: _A broad and loose rule. _]

439. In English, the number of the verb follows the meaning ratherthan the form of its subject. 

It will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees withits subject in person and number. This was spoken of in Part I. , Sec. 276, and the following illustrations prove it. 

The statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as haveseparate forms for singular and plural number. 

[Sidenote: _Singular verb. _]

440. The singular form of the verb is used--

[Sidenote: _Subject of singular form. _]

(1) When the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning. 

 Such, then, _was_ the earliest American _land_. --AGASSIZ. 

 _He was_ certainly a happy fellow at this time. --G. ELIOT. 

 _He sees_ that it is better to live in peace. --COOPER. 

[Sidenote: _Collective noun of singular meaning. _]

(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ which represents a numberof persons or things _taken as one unit_; as, --

 The larger _breed_ [of camels] _is_ capable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds. --GIBBON. 

 Another _school professes_ entirely opposite principles. --_The Nation. _

 In this work there _was_ grouped around him _a score_ of men. --W. PHILLIPS

 A _number_ of jeweled paternosters _was_ attached to her girdle. --FROUDE. 

 _Something like a horse load_ of books _has_ been written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby. --CARLYLE

This usage, like some others in this series, depends mostly on thewriter's own judgment. Another writer might, for example, prefer aplural verb after _number_ in Froude's sentence above. 

[Sidenote: _Singulars connected by_ or _or_ nor. ]

(3) When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connectedby _or_ or _nor_; as, --

 It is by no means sure that either our _literature_, or the great intellectual _life_ of our nation, _has_ got already, without academies, all that academies can give. --M. ARNOLD. 

 _Jesus is_ not dead, nor _John_, nor _Paul_, nor _Mahomet_. --EMERSON. 

[Sidenote: _Plural form and singular meaning. _]

(4) When the subject is _plural in form_, but represents a number ofthings to be taken together as _forming one unit_; for example, --

 Thirty-four years _affects_ one's remembrance of some circumstances. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Between ourselves, three pounds five shillings and two pence _is_ no bad day's work. --GOLDSMITH. 

 Every twenty paces _gives_ you the prospect of some villa; and every four hours, that of a large town. --MONTAGUE

 Two thirds of this _is_ mine by right. --SHERIDAN

 The singular form is also used with book titles, other names, and other singulars of plural form; as, --

 Politics _is_ the only field now open for me. --WHITTIER. 

 "Sesame and Lilies" _is_ Ruskin's creed for young girls. --_Critic_, No. 674

 The Three Pigeons _expects_ me down every moment. --GOLDSMITH. 

[Sidenote: _Several singular subjects to one singular verb. _]

(5) With _several singular subjects not_ disjoined by _or_ or _nor_, in the following cases:--

(_a_) Joined by _and_, but considered as meaning about the same thing, or as making up one general idea; as, --

 In a word, all his conversation and knowledge _has been_ in the female world--ADDISON. 

 The strength and glare of each [color] _is_ considerably abated. --BURKE

 To imagine that debating and logic _is_ the triumph. --CARLYLE

 In a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly _is_ not the least of accomplishments. --DE QUINCEY

 The genius and merit of a rising poet _was_ celebrated. --GIBBON. 

 When the cause of ages and the fate of nations _hangs_ upon the thread of a debate. --J. Q. ADAMS. 

(_b_) Not joined by a conjunction, but each one emphatic, orconsidered as appositional; for example, --

 The unbought grace of life, the cheap defense of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise, _is_ gone. --BURKE. 

 A fever, a mutilation, a cruel disappointment, a loss of wealth, a loss of friends, _seems_ at the moment unpaid loss. --EMERSON

 The author, the wit, the partisan, the fine gentleman, _does_ not take the place of the man. --_Id. _

 To receive presents or a bribe, to be guilty of collusion in any way with a suitor, _was_ punished, in a judge, with death. --PRESCOTT. 

[Sidenote: _Subjects after the verb. _]

This use of several subjects with a singular verb is especiallyfrequent when the subjects are after the verb; as, --

 There _is_ a right and a wrong in them. --M ARNOLD. 

 There _is_ a moving tone of voice, an impassioned countenance, an agitated gesture. --BURKE

 There _was_ a steel headpiece, a cuirass, a gorget, and greaves, with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath. --HAWTHORNE. 

 Then _comes_ the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the "No, sir!"--MACAULAY. 

 For wide _is_ heard the thundering fray, The rout, the ruin, the dismay. --SCOTT. 

(_c_) Joined by _as well as_ (in this case the verb agrees with thefirst of the two, no matter if the second is plural); thus, --

 Asia, as well as Europe, _was_ dazzled. --MACAULAY. 

 The oldest, as well as the newest, wine _Begins_ to stir itself. --LONGFELLOW. 

 Her back, as well as sides, _was_ like to crack. --BUTLER. 

 The Epic, as well as the Drama, _is_ divided into tragedy and Comedy. --FIELDING

(_d_) When each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by_every_, _each_, _no_, _many a_, and such like adjectives. 

 Every fop, every boor, every valet, _is_ a man of wit. --MACAULAY. 

 Every sound, every echo, _was_ listened to for five hours. --DE QUINCEY

 Every dome and hollow _has_ the figure of Christ. --RUSKIN. 

 Each particular hue and tint _stands_ by itself. --NEWMAN. 

 Every law and usage _was_ a man's expedient. --EMERSON. 

 Here _is_ no ruin, no discontinuity, no spent ball. --_Id. _

 Every week, nay, almost every day, _was_ set down in their calendar for some appropriate celebration. --PRESCOTT. 

[Sidenote: _Plural verb. _]

441. The plural form of the verb is used--

(1) When the subject is plural _in form and in meaning_; as, --

 These _bits_ of wood _were_ covered on every square. --SWIFT. 

 Far, far away thy children _leave_ the land. --GOLDSMITH. 

 The Arabian poets _were_ the historians and moralists. --GIBBON. 

(2) When the subject is a _collective noun_ in which _the individuals_of the collection are thought of; as, --

 A multitude _go_ mad about it. --EMERSON. 

 A great number of people _were_ collected at a vendue. --FRANKLIN. 

 All our household _are_ at rest. --COLERIDGE. 

 A party of workmen _were_ removing the horses. --LEW WALLACE

 The fraternity _were_ inclined to claim for him the honors of canonization. --SCOTT. 

 The travelers, of whom there _were_ a number. --B. TAYLOR. 

 (3) When the subject consists of _several singulars connected by and_, making up a plural subject, for example, --

 Only Vice and Misery _are_ abroad. --CARLYLE

 But its authorship, its date, and its history _are_ alike a mystery to us. --FROUDE. 

 His clothes, shirt, and skin _were_ all of the same color--SWIFT. 

 Aristotle and Longinus _are_ better understood by him than Littleton or Coke. --ADDISON. 

[Sidenote: _Conjunction omitted. _]

The conjunction may be omitted, as in Sec. 440 (5, _b_), but the verbis plural, as with a subject of plural form. 

 A shady grove, a green pasture, a stream of fresh water, _are_ sufficient to attract a colony. --GIBBON. 

 The Dauphin, the Duke of Berri, Philip of Anjou, _were_ men of insignificant characters. --MACAULAY

 (4) When a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive word, the verb agrees with the one nearest it; as, --

 One or two of these perhaps _survive_. --THOREAU. 

 One or two persons in the crowd _were_ insolent. --FROUDE. 

 One or two of the ladies _were_ going to leave. --ADDISON

 One or two of these old Cromwellian soldiers _were_ still alive in the village. --THACKERAY

 One or two of whom _were_ more entertaining. --DE QUINCEY. 

 But notice the construction of this, --

 A ray or two _wanders_ into the darkness. --RUSKIN. 

AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT IN PERSON. 

[Sidenote: _General usage_. ]

442. If there is only one person in the subject, the ending of theverb indicates the person of its subject; that is, in those few caseswhere there are forms for different persons: as, --

 Never once _didst_ thou revel in the vision. --DE QUINCEY. 

 Romanism wisely _provides_ for the childish in men. --LOWELL. 

 It _hath_ been said my Lord would never take the oath. --THACKERAY. 

[Sidenote: _Second or third and first person in the subject_. ]

443. If the subject is made up of the first person joined with thesecond or third by _and_, the verb takes the construction of the firstperson, the subject being really equivalent to _we_; as, --

 I flatter myself you and I _shall_ meet again. --SMOLLETT. 

 You and I _are_ farmers; we never talk politics. --D WEBSTER. 

 Ah, brother! only I and thou _Are_ left of all that circle now. --WHITTIER. 

 You and I _are_ tolerably modest people. --THACKERAY. 

 Cocke and I _have_ felt it in our bones--_Gammer Gurton's Needle_

[Sidenote: _With adversative or disjunctive connectives_. ]

444. When the subjects, of different persons, are connected byadversative or disjunctive conjunctions, the verb usually agrees withthe pronoun nearest to it; for example, --

 Neither you nor I _should_ be a bit the better or wiser. --RUSKIN. 

 If she or you _are_ resolved to be miserable. --GOLDSMITH. 

 Nothing which Mr. Pattison or I _have_ said. --M. ARNOLD. 

 Not Altamont, but thou, _hadst_ been my lord. --ROWE. 

 Not I, but thou, his blood _dost_ shed. --BYRON. 

This construction is at the best a little awkward. It is avoidedeither by using a verb which has no forms for person (as, "He or I_can_ go, " "She or you _may_ be sure, " etc. ), or by rearranging thesentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form(as, "You _would_ not be wiser, nor _should_ I;" or, "I _have_ neversaid so, nor _has_ she"). 

[Sidenote: _Exceptional examples_. ]

445. The following illustrate exceptional usage, which it is properto mention; but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usagerather than the unusual and irregular. 

Exercise. 

Change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage, as illustrated above (Secs. 440-444):--

 1. And sharp Adversity will teach at last Man, --and, as we would hope, --perhaps the devil, That neither of their intellects are vast. --BYRON. 

 2. Neither of them, in my opinion, give so accurate an idea of the man as a statuette in bronze. --TROLLOPE. 

 3. How each of these professions are crowded. --ADDISON. 

 4. Neither of their counselors were to be present. --_Id. _

 5. Either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are significant. --EMERSON. 

 6. Neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring. --BURKE. 

 7. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. --ADDISON. 

 8. Neither of the sisters were very much deceived. --THACKERAY. 

 9. Nor wood, nor tree, nor bush are there, Her course to intercept. --SCOTT. 

 10. Both death and I am found eternal. --MILTON. 

 11. In ascending the Mississippi the party was often obliged to wade through morasses; at last they came upon the district of Little Prairie. --G. BANCROFT. 

 12. In a word, the whole nation seems to be running out of their wits. --SMOLLETT. 

SEQUENCE OF TENSES (VERBS AND VERBALS). 

[Sidenote: _Lack of logical sequence in verbs_. ]

446. If one or more verbs depend on some leading verb, each shouldbe in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer. 

In this sentence from Defoe, "I expected every wave would haveswallowed us up, " the verb _expected_ looks forward to something inthe future, while _would have swallowed_ represents somethingcompleted in past time: hence the meaning intended was, "I expectedevery wave _would swallow_" etc. 

[Sidenote: _Also in verbals_. ]

In the following sentence, the infinitive also fails to express theexact thought:--

 I had hoped never to have seen the statues again. --MACAULAY. 

The trouble is the same as in the previous sentence; _to have seen_should be changed to _to see_, for exact connection. Of course, if thepurpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action, theperfect infinitive would be the very thing. 

It should be remarked, however, that such sentences as those justquoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of thesentence. The present rule is recent. 

Exercise. 

Explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentencesconvey the right meaning; if not, change them to a better form:--

 1. I gave one quarter to Ann, meaning, on my return, to have divided with her whatever might remain. --DE QUINCEY

 2. I can't sketch "The Five Drapers, " . .. But can look and be thankful to have seen such a masterpiece. --THACKERAY. 

 3. He would have done more wisely to have left them to find their own apology than to have given reasons which seemed paradoxes. --R. W. CHURCH. 

 4. The propositions of William are stated to have contained a proposition for a compromise. --PALGRAVE

 5. But I found I wanted a stock of words, which I thought I should have acquired before that time. --FRANKLIN

 6. I could even have suffered them to have broken Everet Ducking's head. --IRVING. 

INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 

[Sidenote: _Definitions_. ]

_447_. Direct discourse--that is, a direct quotation or a directquestion--means the identical words the writer or speaker used; as, --

 "I hope you have not killed him?" said Amyas. --KINGSLEY. 

Indirect discourse means reported speech, --the thoughts of a writeror speaker put in the words of the one reporting them. 

[Sidenote: _Two samples of indirect discourse_. ]

448. Indirect discourse may be of two kinds:--

(1) Following the thoughts and also the exact words as far asconsistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs. 

(2) Merely a concise representation of the original words, notattempting to follow the entire quotation. 

The following examples of both are from De Quincey:--

[Sidenote: _Indirect_. ]

1. Reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk asto that, but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat. 

[Sidenote: _Direct_. ]

His exact words were, "I _cannot_ oblige _you_ . .. , but I _can_ oblige_you_ by cutting _your_ throat. "

[Sidenote: _Indirect_. ]

Her prudence whispered eternally, that safety there was none for heruntil she had laid the Atlantic between herself and St. Sebastian's. 

[Sidenote: _Direct_. ]

She thought to herself, "Safety there _is_ none for _me_ until _I_have laid, " etc. 

[Sidenote: _Summary of the expressions_. ]

2. Then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step. Oh, the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl! Oh, the untoldsums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation!

[Sidenote: _Direct synopsis_. ]

The substance of his lamentation was, "Oh, unseen treasure _has_ beenspent upon that girl! Untold sums of money _have I_ sunk, " etc. 

449. From these illustrations will be readily seen the grammaticalchanges made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse. Remember the following facts:--

(1) Usually the main, introductory verb is in the past tense. 

(2) The indirect quotation is usually introduced by _that_, and theindirect question by _whether_ or _if_, or regular interrogatives. 

(3) Verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tenseform. This includes the auxiliaries _be_, _have_, _will_, etc. Thepast tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect. 

(4) The pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed tothe third person. Sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedentof the pronoun instead. 

Other examples of indirect discourse have been given in Part I. , under interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, and thesubjunctive mood of verbs. 

Exercise. 

Rewrite the following extract from Irving's "Sketch Book, " and changeit to a direct quotation:--

He assured the company that it was a fact, handed down from hisancestor the historian, that the Catskill Mountains had always beenhaunted by strange beings; that it was affirmed that the greatHendrick Hudson, the first discoverer of the river and country, kept akind of vigil there every twenty years, with his crew of theHalf-moon, being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of hisenterprise, and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great citycalled by his name; that his father had once seen them in their oldDutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain; andthat he himself had heard, one summer afternoon, the sound of theirballs, like distant peals of thunder. 

VERBALS. 

PARTICIPLES. 

[Sidenote: _Careless use of the participial phrase. _]

450. The following sentences illustrate a misuse of the participialphrase:--

 Pleased with the "Pilgrim's Progress, " my first collection was of John Bunyan's works. --B. FRANKLIN. 

 My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land, having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill. --GOLDSMITH. 

 Upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so suddenly, he assured me that nothing was more easy. --_Id. _

 Having thus run through the causes of the sublime, my first observation will be found nearly true. --BURKE

 He therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster, being the course which his confessor had enjoined. --SCOTT

Compare with these the following:--

[Sidenote: _A correct example. _]

 Going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance, I had the misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected. --ADDISON. 

[Sidenote: _Notice this. _]

The trouble is, in the sentences first quoted, that the main subjectof the sentence is not the same word that would be the subject of theparticiple, if this were expanded into a verb. 

[Sidenote: _Correction. _]

Consequently one of two courses must be taken, --either change theparticiple to a verb with its appropriate subject, leaving theprincipal statement as it is; or change the principal proposition soit shall make logical connection with the participial phrase. 

For example, the first sentence would be, either "_As I was_ pleased, . .. My first collection was, " etc. , or "Pleased with the 'Pilgrim'sProgress, ' I made my first collection John Bunyan's works. "

Exercise. --Rewrite the other four sentences so as to correct thecareless use of the participial phrase. 

INFINITIVES. 

[Sidenote: _Adverb between_ to _and the infinitive. _]

451. There is a construction which is becoming more and more commonamong good writers, --the placing an adverb between _to_ of theinfinitive and the infinitive itself. The practice is condemned bymany grammarians, while defended or excused by others. Standardwriters often use it, and often, purposely or not, avoid it. 

The following two examples show the adverb before the infinitive:--

[Sidenote: _The more common usage. _]

 He handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently _to show_ that he fully understood the business. --SCOTT. 

 It is a solemn, universal assertion, deeply _to be kept_ in mind by all sects. --RUSKIN. 

This is the more common arrangement; yet frequently the desire seemsto be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive, to modify it asclosely and clearly as possible. 

Exercise. 

In the following citations, see if the adverbs can be placed before orafter the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as they now do:--

 1. There are, then, many things _to be_ carefully _considered_, if a strike is to succeed. --LAUGHLIN. 

 2. That the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in order _to_ rightly _connect_ them. --HERBERT SPENCER. 

 3. It may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an idea . .. Than _to_ first imperfectly _conceive_ such idea. --_id. _

 4. In works of art, this kind of grandeur, which consists in multitude, is _to be_ very cautiously _admitted_. --BURKE. 

 5. That virtue which requires _to be_ ever _guarded_ is scarcely worth the sentinel. --GOLDSMITH. 

 6. Burke said that such "little arts and devices" were not _to be_ wholly _condemned_. --_The Nation_, No. 1533. 

 7. I wish the reader _to_ clearly _understand_. --RUSKIN. 

 8. Transactions which seem _to be_ most widely _separated_ from one another. --DR. BLAIR. 

 9. Would earnestly advise them for their good to order this paper _to be_ punctually _served up_. --ADDISON. 

 10. A little sketch of his, in which a cannon ball is supposed _to have_ just _carried off_ the head of an aide-de-camp. --TROLLOPE. 

 11. The ladies seem _to have been_ expressly _created_ to form helps meet for such gentlemen. --MACAULAY. 

 12. Sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning _to be_ strongly _tinctured_ with austerity. --_Id. _

 13. The spirits, therefore, of those opposed to them seemed _to be_ considerably _damped_ by their continued success. --SCOTT. 

ADVERBS. 

[Sidenote: _Position of_ only, even, _etc. _]

A very careful writer will so place the modifiers of a verb that thereader will not mistake the meaning. 

The rigid rule in such a case would be, to put the modifier in such aposition that the reader not only can understand the meaning intended, but _cannot misunderstand_ the thought. Now, when such adverbs as_only_, _even_, etc. , are used, they are usually placed in a strictlycorrect position, if they modify single words; but they are oftenremoved from the exact position, if they modify phrases or clauses:for example, from Irving, "The site is _only_ to be traced byfragments of bricks, china, and earthenware. " Here _only_ modifies thephrase _by fragments of bricks_, etc. , but it is placed before theinfinitive. This misplacement of the adverb can be detected only byanalysis of the sentence. 

Exercise. 

Tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation, and see if it isplaced in the proper position:--

 1. Only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for us in the verses of his rival. --PALGRAVE. 

 2. Do you remember pea shooters? I think we only had them on going home for holidays. --THACKERAY. 

 3. Irving could only live very modestly. He could only afford to keep one old horse. --_Id. _

 4. The arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted for by supposing the motive power to have been steam. --WENDELL PHILLIPS. 

 5. Such disputes can only be settled by arms. --_Id. _

 6. I have only noted one or two topics which I thought most likely to interest an American reader. --N. P. WILLIS. 

 7. The silence of the first night at the farmhouse, --stillness broken only by two whippoorwills. --HIGGINSON. 

 8. My master, to avoid a crowd, would suffer only thirty people at a time to see me. --SWIFT. 

 9. In relating these and the following laws, I would only be understood to mean the original institutions. --_Id. _

 10. The perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of happy and useful years. --RUSKIN. 

 11. In one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we can only spend it once. --EMERSON. 

 12. My lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face or behavior seemed to upbraid him. --THACKERAY. 

 13. He shouted in those clear, piercing tones that could be even heard among the roaring of the cannon. --COOPER. 

 14. His suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of Gérard. --MOTLEY. 

 15. During the whole course of his administration, he scarcely befriended a single man of genius. --MACAULAY. 

 16. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his death. --SYDNEY SMITH. 

 17. His last journey to Cannes, whence he was never destined to return. --MRS. GROTE. 

USE OF DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 

[Sidenote: _The old usage. _]

453. In Old and Middle English, two negatives strengthened anegative idea; for example, --

 He _nevere_ yet _no_ vileineye _ne_ sayde, In al his lyf unto _no_ maner wight. --CHAUCER. 

 _No_ sonne, were he never so old of yeares, might _not_ marry. --ASCHAM. 

The first of these is equivalent to "He didn't never say no villainyin all his life to no manner of man, "--four negatives. 

This idiom was common in the older stages of the language, and isstill kept in vulgar English; as, --

 I tell you she _ain'_ been _nowhar_ ef she don' know we all. --PAGE, in _Ole Virginia_. 

 There _weren't no_ pies to equal hers. --MRS. STOWE. 

[Sidenote: _Exceptional use. _]

There are sometimes found two negatives in modern English with anegative effect, when one of the negatives is a connective. This, however, is not common. 

 I never did see him again, _nor never_ shall. --DE QUINCEY. 

 However, I did _not_ act so hastily, _neither_. --DEFOE. 

 The prosperity of no empire, _nor_ the grandeur of _no_ king, can so agreeably affect, etc. --BURKE. 

[Sidenote: _Regular law of negative in modern English. _]

But, under the influence of Latin syntax, the usual way of regardingthe question now is, that _two negatives are equivalent to anaffirmative_, denying each other. 

Therefore, if two negatives are found together, it is a sign ofignorance or carelessness, or else a purpose to make an affirmativeeffect. In the latter case, one of the negatives is often a prefix; as_in_frequent, _un_common. 

Exercise. 

Tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each ofthe following sentences, and why:--

 1. The red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English settlements. --HAWTHORNE. 

 2. "Huldy was so up to everything about the house, that the doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way. "--MRS. STOWE. 

 3. Her younger sister was a wide-awake girl, who hadn't been to school for nothing. --HOLMES. 

 4. You will find no battle which does not exhibit the most cautious circumspection. --BAYNE. 

 5. Not only could man not acquire such information, but ought not to labor after it. --GROTE. 

 6. There is no thoughtful man in America who would not consider a war with England the greatest of calamities. --LOWELL. 

 7. In the execution of this task, there is no man who would not find it an arduous effort. --HAMILTON. 

 8. "A weapon, " said the King, "well worthy to confer honor, nor has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder. "--SCOTT. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

[Sidenote: And who, and which. ]

454. The sentences given in Secs. 419 and 420 on the connecting ofpronouns with different expressions may again be referred to here, asthe use of the conjunction, as well as of the pronoun, should bescrutinized. 

[Sidenote: _Choice and proper position of correlatives. _]

455. The most frequent mistakes in using conjunctions are inhandling correlatives, especially _both_ . .. _and, neither_ . .. _nor, either_ . .. _or, not_ _only_ . .. _but, not merely_ . .. _but_ (_also_). 

The following examples illustrate the correct use of correlatives asto both choice of words and position:--

 _Whether_ at war _or_ at peace, there we were, a standing menace to all earthly paradises of that kind. --LOWELL. 

 These idols of wood can _neither_ hear _nor_ feel. --PRESCOTT. 

 _Both_ the common soldiery _and_ their leaders and commanders lowered on each other as if their union had not been more essential than ever, _not only_ to the success of their common cause, _but_ to their own safety. --SCOTT. 

[Sidenote: _Things to be watched. _]

In these examples it will be noticed that _nor_, not _or_ is theproper correlative of _neither_; and that all correlatives in asentence ought to have corresponding positions: that is, if the lastprecedes a verb, the first ought to be placed before a verb; if thesecond precedes a phrase, the first should also. This is necessary tomake the sentence clear and symmetrical. 

[Sidenote: _Correction. _]

In the sentence, "I am _neither_ in spirits to enjoy it, _or_ to replyto it, " both of the above requirements are violated. The word_neither_ in such a case had better be changed to _not_ . .. _either_, --"I am not in spirits _either_ to enjoy it, _or_ to reply toit. "

Besides _neither . .. Or_, even _neither . .. Nor_ is often changed to_not_--_either . .. Or_ with advantage, as the negation is sometimestoo far from the verb to which it belongs. 

A noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives, and an equivalentpronoun by the other. The sentence, "This loose and inaccurate mannerof speaking has misled us _both_ in the theory of taste _and_ ofmorals, " may be changed to "This loose . .. Misled us _both_ in thetheory of taste _and_ in _that_ of morals. "

Exercise. 

Correct the following sentences:--

 1. An ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of succoring Essex, nor the disgrace of assailing him. --MACAULAY. 

 2. Those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers, but they will outrage, murder, and chop up their own kin. --THACKERAY. 

 3. In the course of his reading (which was neither pursued with that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires) the youth found himself, etc. --_Id. _

 4. I could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over its pebbled streets. --FRANKLIN. 

 5. Some exceptions, that can neither be dissembled nor eluded, render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is superfluous. --GIBBON. 

 6. They will, too, not merely interest children, but grown-up persons. --_Westminster Review. _

 7. I had even the satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks upon my unfortunate son, which the other could neither extort by his fortune nor assiduity. --GOLDSMITH. 

 8. This was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of his name or family. --ADDISON. 

[Sidenote: Try and _for_ try to. ]

456. Occasionally there is found the expression _try and_ instead ofthe better authorized _try to_; as, --

 We will try _and_ avoid personalities altogether. --THACKERAY. 

 Did any of you ever try _and_ read "Blackmore's Poems"?--_Id. _

 Try _and_ avoid the pronoun. --BAIN. 

 We will try _and_ get a clearer notion of them. --RUSKIN. 

[Sidenote: But what. ]

457. Instead of the subordinate conjunction _that_, _but_, or _butthat_, or the negative relative _but_, we sometimes find the bulky andneedless _but what_. Now, it is possible to use _but what_ when _what_is a relative pronoun, as, "He never had any money _but what_ heabsolutely needed;" but in the following sentences _what_ usurps theplace of a conjunction. 

Exercise. 

In the following sentences, substitute _that_, _but_, or _but that_for the words _but what_:--

 1. The doctor used to say 'twas her young heart, and I don't know _but what_ he was right. --S. O. JEWETT. 

 2. At the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one _but what_ you are taken up for a trespass. --BULWER. 

 3. There are few persons of distinction _but what_ can hold conversation in both languages. --SWIFT. 

 4. Who knows _but what_ there might be English among those sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches?--KINGSLEY. 

 5. No little wound of the kind ever came to him _but what_ he disclosed it at once. --TROLLOPE. 

 6. They are not so distant from the camp of Saladin _but what_ they might be in a moment surprised. --SCOTT. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

458. As to the placing of a preposition after its object in certaincases, see Sec. 305. 

[Sidenote: Between _and_ among. ]

459. In the primary meaning of between and among there is asharp distinction, as already seen in Sec. 313; but in Modern Englishthe difference is not so marked. 

Between is used most often with two things only, but still it isfrequently used in speaking of several objects, some relation orconnection between two at a time being implied. 

Among is used in the same way as _amid_ (though not with exactly thesame meaning), several objects being spoken of in the aggregate, noseparation or division by twos being implied. 

Examples of the distinctive use of the two words:--

[Sidenote: _Two things. _]

 The contentions that arise _between_ the parson and the squire. --ADDISON. 

 We reckoned the improvements of the art of war _among_ the triumphs of science. --EMERSON. 

Examples of the looser use of _between_:--

[Sidenote: _A number of things. _]

 Natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which Providence has established _between_ certain motions of bodies. --BURKE. 

 Hence the differences _between_ men in natural endowment are insignificant in comparison with their common wealth. --EMERSON. 

 They maintain a good correspondence _between_ those wealthy societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and oceans. --ADDISON. 

 Looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places _between_ their pillars where there were statues once. --RUSKIN

 What have I, a soldier of the Cross, to do with recollections of war _betwixt_ Christian nations?--SCOTT. 

[Sidenote: _Two groups or one and a group. _]

Also _between_ may express relation or connection in speaking of twogroups of objects, or one object and a group; as, --

 A council of war is going on beside the watch fire, _between_ the three adventurers and the faithful Yeo. --KINGSLEY. 

 The great distinction _between_ teachers sacred or literary, --_between_ poets like Herbert and poets like Pope, --_between_ philosophers like Spinoza, Kant, and Coleridge, and philosophers like Locke, Paley, Mackintosh, and Stewart, etc. --EMERSON. 

460. Certain words are followed by particular prepositions. 

Some of these words show by their composition what preposition shouldfollow. Such are _absolve_, _involve_, _different_. 

Some of them have, by custom, come to take prepositions not in keepingwith the original meaning of the words. Such are _derogatory_, _averse_. 

Many words take one preposition to express one meaning, and another toconvey a different meaning; as, _correspond_, _confer_. 

And yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to expressthe same meaning. 

[Sidenote: _List I_. : _Words with particular prepositions_. ]

461. LIST I. 

 Absolve _from_. Conversant _with_. Abhorrent _to_. Dependent _on_ (_upon_). Accord _with_. Different _from_. Acquit _of_. Dissent _from_. Affinity _between_. Derogatory _to_. Averse _to_. Deprive _of_. Bestow _on_ (_upon_). Independent _of_. Conform _to_. Involve _in_. Comply _with_. 

"Different _to_" is frequently heard in spoken English in England, and sometimes creeps into standard books, but it is not good usage. 

[Sidenote: _List II_. : _Words taking different prepositions fordifferent meanings. _]

462. LIST II. 

 Agree _with_ (a person). Differ _from_ (note below). Agree _to_ (a proposal). Differ _with_ (note below). Change_ for_ (a thing). Disappointed _in_ (a thing Change _with_ (a person). Obtained). Change _to_ (become). Disappointed _of_ (a thing not Confer _with_ (talk with). Obtained). Confer _on_ (_upon_) (give to). Reconcile _to_ (note below). Confide _in_ (trust in). Reconcile _with_ (note below). Confide _to_ (intrust to). A taste _of_ (food). Correspond _with_ (write to). A taste _for_ (art, etc. ). Correspond _to_ (a thing). 

"Correspond _with_" is sometimes used of things, as meaning _to be inkeeping with_. 

"Differ _from_" is used in speaking of unlikeness between things orpersons; "differ _from_" and "differ _with_" are both used in speakingof persons disagreeing as to opinions. 

"Reconcile _to_" is used with the meaning of _resigned to_, as, "Theexile became reconciled _to_ his fate;" also of persons, in the senseof making friends with, as, "The king is reconciled _to_ hisminister. " "Reconcile _with_" is used with the meaning of _make toagree with_, as, "The statement must be reconciled _with_ his previousconduct. "

[Sidenote: _List III_. : _Words taking anyone of several prepositionsfor the same meaning_. ]

463. LIST III. 

 Die _by_, die _for_, die _from_, die _of_, die _with_. Expect _of_, expect _from_. Part _from_, part _with_. 

Illustrations of "die _of_, " "die _from_, " etc. :--

[Sidenote: "_Die_ of. "]

 The author died _of_ a fit of apoplexy. --BOSWELL. 

 People do not die _of_ trifling little colds. --AUSTEN

 Fifteen officers died _of_ fever in a day. --MACAULAY. 

 It would take me long to die _of_ hunger. --G. ELIOT. 

 She died _of_ hard work, privation, and ill treatment. --BURNETT. 

[Sidenote: "_Die_ from. "]

 She saw her husband at last literally die _from_ hunger. --BULWER. 

 He died at last without disease, simply _from_ old age. --_Athenæum. _

 No one _died from_ want at Longfeld. --_Chambers' Journal. _

[Sidenote: "_Die_ with. "]

 She would have been ready to die _with_ shame. --G. ELIOT. 

 I am positively dying _with_ hunger. --SCOTT. 

 I thought the two Miss Flamboroughs would have died _with_ laughing. --GOLDSMITH. 

 I wish that the happiest here may not die _with_ envy. --POPE. 

[Sidenote: "_Die_ for. " (_in behalf of_). ]

 Take thought and die _for_ Cæsar. --SHAKESPEARE. 

 One of them said he would die _for_ her. --GOLDSMITH. 

 It is a man of quality who dies _for_ her. --ADDISON. 

[Sidenote: "_Die_ for. " (_because of_). ]

 Who, as Cervantes informs us, died _for_ love of the fair Marcella. --FIELDING. 

 Some officers had died _for_ want of a morsel of bread. --MACAULAY. 

[Sidenote: "_Die_ by. " (_material cause, instrument_). ]

 If I meet with any of 'em, they shall die _by_ this hand. --THACKERAY. 

 He must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal or die _by_ fire. --MACAULAY. 

 He died _by_ suicide before he completed his eighteenth year. --SHAW. 

464. Illustrations of "expect _of_, " "expect _from:_"--

[Sidenote: "_Expect_ of. "]

 What do I expect _of_ Dublin?--_Punch. _

 That is more than I expected _of_ you. --SCOTT. 

 _Of_ Doctor P. Nothing better was to be expected. --POE. 

 Not knowing what might be expected _of_ men in general. --G. ELIOT. 

[Sidenote: "_Expect_ from. "]

 She will expect more attention _from_ you, as my friend. --WALPOLE. 

 There was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected _from_ a man. --MACAULAY. 

 I have long expected something remarkable _from_ you. --G. ELIOT. 

465. "Part _with_" is used with both persons and things, but "part_from_" is less often found in speaking of things. 

Illustrations of "part _with_, " "part _from_:"--

[Sidenote: "_Part_ with. "]

 He was fond of everybody that he was used to, and hated to part _with_ them. --AUSTEN. 

 Cleveland was sorry to part _with_ him. --BULWER. 

 I can part _with_ my children for their good. --DICKENS. 

 I part _with_ all that grew so near my heart. --WALLER. 

[Sidenote: "_Part_ from. "]

 To part _from_ you would be misery. --MARRYAT. 

 I have just seen her, just parted _from_ her. --BULWER. 

 Burke parted _from_ him with deep emotion. --MACAULAY. 

 His precious bag, which he would by no means part _from_. --G. ELIOT. 

[Sidenote: _Kind_ in _you_, _kind_ of _you_. ]

466. With words implying behavior or disposition, either _of_ or_in_ is used indifferently, as shown in the following quotations:--

[Sidenote: Of. ]

 It was a little bad _of_ you. --TROLLOPE. 

 How cruel _of_ me!--COLLINS. 

 He did not think it handsome _of_ you. --BULWER. 

 But this is idle _of_ you. --TENNYSON. 

[Sidenote: In. ]

 Very natural _in_ Mr. Hampden. --CARLYLE. 

 It will be anything but shrewd _in_ you. --DICKENS. 

 That is very unreasonable _in_ a person so young. --BEACONSFIELD. 

 I am wasting your whole morning--too bad _in_ me. --BULWER. 

Miscellaneous Examples for Correction. 

1. Can you imagine Indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on awork like the canal connecting the Mediterranean and the Red seas?

2. In the friction between an employer and workman, it is commonlysaid that his profits are high. 

3. None of them are in any wise willing to give his life for the lifeof his chief. 

4. That which can be done with perfect convenience and without loss, is not always the thing that most needs to be done, or which we aremost imperatively required to do. 

5. Art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking, nor explainedby accuracy of speaking. 

6. To such as thee the fathers owe their fame. 

7. We tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the watersinto a northern and southern ocean. 

8. Thou tread'st, with seraphims, the vast abyss. 

9. Eustace had slipped off his long cloak, thrown it over Amyas'shead, and ran up the alley. 

10. This narrative, tedious perhaps, but which the story rendersnecessary, may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt thelovers. 

11. To the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn back fromthe plow on which he hath laid his hand!

12. The noise of vast cataracts, raging storms, thunder, or artillery, awake a great and awful sensation in the mind. 

13. The materials and ornaments ought neither to be white, nor green, nor yellow, nor blue, nor of a pale red. 

14. This does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the samething, or that they are any way dependent on each other. 

15. And were I anything but what I am, I would wish me only he. 

16. But every man may know, and most of us do know, what is a just andunjust act. 

17. You have seen Cassio and she together. 

18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you orme. 

19. Richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an enemy, and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled. 

20. It comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and proud. 

21. The difference between the just and unjust procedure does not liein the number of men hired, but in the price paid to them. 

22. The effect of proportion and fitness, so far at least as theyproceed from a mere consideration of the work itself, produceapprobation, the acquiescence of the understanding. 

23. When the glass or liquor are transparent, the light is sometimessoftened in the passage. 

24. For there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom. 

25. Every one of these letters are in my name. 

26. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. 

27. Squares, triangles, and other angular figures, are neitherbeautiful to the sight nor feeling. 

28. There is not one in a thousand of these human souls that cares tothink where this estate is, or how beautiful it is, or what kind oflife they are to lead in it. 

29. Dryden and Rowe's manner are quite out of fashion. 

30. We were only permitted to stop for refreshment once. 

31. The sight of the manner in which the meals were served were enoughto turn our stomach. 

32. The moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambitious manare admirably drawn. 

33. Surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know someman or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will aboutwith them. (Sec. 411. )

34. Friday, whom he thinks would be better than a dog, and almost asgood as a pony. 

35. That night every man of the boat's crew, save Amyas, were downwith raging fever. 

36. These kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history withlittle bits of detail which give human interest to it. 

37. I never remember the heather so rich and abundant. 

38. These are scattered along the coast for several hundred miles, inconditions of life that seem forbidding enough, but which are acceptedwithout complaint by the inhabitants themselves. 

39. Between each was an interval where lay a musket. 

40. He had four children, and it was confidently expected that theywould receive a fortune of at least $200, 000 between them. 

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: More for convenience than for absolute accuracy, thestages of our language have been roughly divided into three:--

(1) Old English (with Anglo-Saxon) down to the twelfth century. 

(2) Middle English, from about the twelfth century to the sixteenthcentury. 

(3) Modern English, from about 1500 to the present time. ]

INDEX. 

THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES. 

 A, origin of, 119. Syntax of, 310. Uses of, 124. 

 Absolute, nominative, 47. 

 Abstract nouns, 20. With article, 25, 124. 

 Active voice, 133. 

 Address, nominative of, 47. 

 Adjective clauses, 260. 

 Adjective pronouns, demonstrative, 90. Distinguished from adjectives, 89. Distributive, 91. Numeral, 92. 

 Adjectives, adverbs used as, 116. As complements, 239. Comparison of, 107. Definition of, 98. Demonstrative, 102. From nouns, used as nouns, 27. Function of, 97. How to parse, 115, 116. In predicate, 239. Not compared, 109. Of quality, 99. Of quantity, 101. Ordinal, 103. Plural of, 106. Pronominal, 104. Syntax of, 303. 

 Adverbial clauses, 262. 

 Adverbial objective, 48, 242. 

 Adverbs, between _to_ and infinitive, 323. Classes of, 185, 187. Definition of, 184. Distinguished from adjectives, 190. How to parse, 191. Position of, in sentence, 325. Same form as adjectives, 190. Syntax of, 325. Used as adjectives, 116. Used as nouns, 27. What they modify, 183. 

 Adversative conjunction, 194. 

 _After_, uses of, 114, 195, 207. 

 _Against_, uses of, 207. 

 Agreement, kinds of, 275. Of adjective with noun, 303. Of personal pronoun with antecedent, 287. Of relative pronoun with antecedent, 291. Of verb with subject, 148, 316. 

 _All_, syntax of, 302. 

 _Alms_, 42. 

 Alternative conjunctions, 194, 328. 

 _Among, between_, 207, 331. 

 _An_. See _A_. 

 Anacoluthon with _which_, 295. 

 Analysis, definition of, 231. Of complex sentences, 264. Of compound sentences, 271. Of simple sentences, 252. 

 _And who_, _and which_, 296. 

 Antecedent, agreement of pronoun and. See _Agreement_. Definition of, 74. Of _it_, 67. Of personal pronouns, 74, 287. Of _which_, 79. 

 _Any_, as adjective, 101. As pronoun, 90. Syntax of, 300. 

 Apostrophe in possessive, 51. 

 Apposition, words in, 47, 49, 67, 240. 

 _Are_, derivation of, 150. 

 Arrangement in syntax, 275. 

 Articles, definite, 120. Definition of, 120. How to parse, 127. Indefinite, 124. Syntax of, 309. 

 _As_, after _same_, 294. Uses of, 84, 225. 

 _As if_, _as though_, 198. 

 _At_, uses of, 208. 

 Auxiliary verbs, 148. 

 _Bad_, comparison of, 110. 

 _Be_, conjugation of, 149. Uses of, 150. 

 _Better_, _best_, 110, 111. 

 _Between. _ See _Among_. 

 _Brethren_, 39. 

 _Bridegroom_, 37. 

 _But_, uses of, 84, 224. With nominative of pronoun, 283. 

 _But what_, 330. 

 _By_, uses of, 210. 

 _Can_, _could_, 161. 

 Case, definition of, 46. 

 Case, double possessive, of nouns, 54. Of pronouns, 64. Forms, number of, in Old and Modern English, 46. Nominative, of nouns, 47. Of pronouns, 62, 279. Objective, of nouns, 48. Of pronouns, 66, 279. Possessive, of nouns, 49, 278. Of pronouns, 63. Syntax of, 278. 

 Cause, clauses of, 262. Conjunctions of, 194, 195. 

 _Cherub_, plurals of, 45. 

 _Children_, 39. 

 Clause, adjective, 260. Adverb, 262. Definition of, 257. Kinds of, 257. Noun, 258. 

 _Cleave_, forms of, 158. 

 _Clomb_, 157. 

 _Cloths_, _clothes_, 43. 

 Collective nouns, 18. Syntax of, and verb, 312, 315. 

 Colloquial English, 12. 

 Common nouns, 18. Derived from material, 24. Derived from proper, 23. 

 Comparative and superlative, double, 113, 307. Syntax of, 307. 

 Comparison, defective, 111. Definition of, 108. Degrees of, 108. Irregular, 110. Of adjectives, 107. Of adverbs, 189. Syntax of, 305. 

 Complement of predicate, 239. 

 Complementary infinitive, 248. 

 Complex sentence, analysis of, 264. Definition of, 257. 

 Compound nouns, plural of, 43. Possessive of, 53. 

 Compound predicate and subject, 244. 

 Compound sentence, 268. Analysis of, 271. 

 Concessive clause, in analysis, 263. With subjunctive, 143. 

 Concord. See _Agreement_. 

 Conditional clause, in analysis, 263. With subjunctive, 138. 

 Conditional conjunctions, 196. 

 Conditional sentences, 139. 

 Conjugation, definition of, 149. Of _be_, 149. Of other verbs, 151. 

 Conjunctions, and other parts of speech, same words, 195, 207. Coördinate, 194. Correlative, 194. Definition of, 193. How to parse, 199. Subordinate, 195. Syntax of, 328. 

 Conjunctive adverbs, 188. 

 Conjunctive pronoun. See _Relative pronoun_. 

 Contracted sentences, analysis of, 255. 

 Coördinate clauses, 269. 

 Coördinate conjunctions. See _Conjunctions_. 

 Coördinating _vs. _ restrictive use of relative pronouns, 289. 

 Copulative conjunction, 194. 

 _Could. _ See _Can_. 

 Dative case, in Old English, replaced by objective, 66. 

 Declarative sentence, 231. 

 Declension of interrogative pronouns, 73. 

 Declension, of nouns, 51. Of personal pronouns, 60. Of relative pronouns, 80. 

 Defective verbs, 160. 

 Definite article. See _Articles_. 

 Definite tenses, 148, 152. 

 Degree, adverbs of, 185. 

 Degrees. See _Comparison_. 

 Demonstrative adjectives, 102. Syntax of, 303. 

 Demonstrative pronouns, 90. 

 Dependent clause. See _Subordinate clause_. 

 Descriptive adjectives, 99. 

 Descriptive use of nouns, 26. 

 _Dice_, _dies_, 43. 

 _Die by_, _for_, _from_, _of_, _with_, 333. 

 Direct discourse, 320. 

 Direct object, _vs. _ indirect, 48, 242. Retained with passive verb, 242. 

 Distributive adjectives, 102. Syntax of, 287, 315. 

 Distributive pronouns, 91. Syntax of, 288, 300. 

 Double comparative. See _Comparative_. 

 Double possessive. See _Case_. 

 _Drake_, _duck_, 35. 

 _Drank_, _drunk_, 158. 

 _Each_, adjective, 102. Pronoun, 90, 92. Syntax of, 287. 

 _Each other_, _one another_, 92, 299. 

 _Eat_ (ĕt), 158. 

 _Eaves_, 42. 

 _Either_, as adjective, 102. Syntax of, 287. As conjunction, 194. Syntax of, 328. As pronoun, 90, 92. Syntax of, 300. 

 _Elder_, _older_, 110, 112. 

 Elements of the sentence, 234, 257. 

 Ellipsis, a source of error in pronouns, 280. In complex sentence, 255. 

 _'Em_, origin of, 62. 

 _Empress_, 34. 

 _-En_, added to plural, 39. Feminine suffix, 32. Plural suffix, original, 38. 

 English, literary, spoken, vulgar, 12. Periods of, 33. 

 Enlargement of predicate, 241. Of subject, object, complement, 240. 

 _-Es_ original of possessive ending, 51. Plural suffix, 40. 

 _-Ess_, feminine suffix, 33. 

 _Every_, adjective, 102. Syntax of, 287. 

 _Expect of_, _expect from_, 334. 

 _Expected to have gone_, etc. , 319. 

 Factitive object, 48, 235. 

 _Farther, further_, 110, 112, 189. 

 Feminine, 30. 

 _Few, a few_, 126. 

 _First_, 103, 112. 

 _First two_, _two first_, etc. , 308. 

 _Fish_, _fishes_, 43. 

 _For_, redundant, with infinitive, used as a noun, 212, 238. Uses of, 211. 

 Foreign plurals, 45. 

 _Former, the_, adjective, 102. Pronoun, 91. 

 _From_, uses of, 212. 

 _Further. _ See _Farther_. 

 Future tense, 147, 152. 

 Future perfect, 148, 152. 

 _Gander_, _goose_, 36. 

 _Gender_, "common gender, " 31. Definition of, 30. Distinguished from sex, 30. In English, as compared with other languages, 29. Modes of marking, in nouns, 32. Of personal pronouns, 60. Of relative pronouns, 80. 

 _Genii_, _geniuses_, 43. 

 Gerund, distinguished from participle and verbal noun, 177. Forms of, 176. In syntax, possessive case with, 285. 

 _Girl_, 35. 

 _Got_, 159. 

 Government, definition of, kinds of, 275. 

 Grammar, basis of, 12. Definition of, 12. Divisions of, 13. Opinions on, 9. Province of, 10. 

 H, _an_ before, 120. 

 _Had better_, _had rather_, 175. 

 _Hanged_, _hung_, 159. 

 _He_, _she_, _it_, 61. 

 _His_ for _its_, 61. 

 _Husband_, 36. 

 _I_, personal pronoun, 60. 

 Imperative mood, 144. Of first person, 145. 

 Imperative sentence, 231. 

 Imperfect participle, 173. 

 Indefinite adjective, 101. 

 Indefinite article. See _Articles_. 

 Indefinite pronoun, 93. 

 Indefinite use of _you_, _your_, 67. 

 Independent clause, 257. 

 Independent elements, 245. 

 _Indexes_, _indices_, 43. 

 Indicative mood, uses of, 136. 

 Indirect discourse, 320. 

 Indirect object. See _Direct object_. 

 Indirect questions. See _Questions_. 

 Infinitive, active, with passive meaning, 176. Not a mood, 153. Syntax of, 319, 323. Uses of, 248. 

 _-Ing_ words, summary of, 178. 

 Interjections, 227. 

 Interrogative adjectives, 105. 

 Interrogative adverbs, 188. 

 Interrogative pronouns, 72. Declension of, 73. In indirect questions, 85. Syntax of, 283. 

 Interrogative sentence, 231, 233. 

 Intransitive verbs, 131. Made transitive, 131. 

 Irregularities in syntax, 276. 

 Irregularly compared adjectives, 110. Adverbs, 189. 

 _It_, uses of, 67. 

 "It was _me_, " etc. , 63, 281. 

 _Its_, history of, 61. 

 _Kind_, _these kind_, etc. , 303. 

 _Kine_, double plural, 39. 

 _King_, _queen_, 36. 

 _Lady_, _lord_, 36. 

 _Last_, _latest_, 110, 113. 

 _Latter, the_, adjective, 102, 113. Pronoun, 91. 

 _Lay_, _lie_, 170. 

 _Less_, _lesser_, 110. 

 _Lie_. See _Lay_. 

 _Like_, syntax of, 227. Uses of, 226. 

 Literary English, 12. 

 _Little_, _a little_, 126. 

 Logic _vs. _ form, in syntax, 276. 

 Logical subject and predicate, 245. 

 _Lord. _ See _Lady_. 

 _-Ly_, words in, 190. 

 _Madam_, 36. 

 Manner, adverbs of, 185, 188. Conjunctions of, 195. 

 _Many_, comparison of, 110, 112. 

 _Many a_, 126. 

 Mapping out sentences, 256, 265. 

 _Mare_, 36. 

 _Master_, _mistress_, 34. 

 _May_, _might_, 160. 

 _Means_, construction of, 41. 

 _Mighty_ as adverb, 187. 

 _Mine_, of _mine_, 64. 

 Modifier, adverb, position of, 325. 

 Modifiers. See _Enlargement_. 

 _Mood_, definition of, 135. Imperative, 144. Indicative, 136, 137. Subjunctive, 137-144. 

 _-Most_, in superlatives, 113, 114, 189. 

 _Much_, comparison of, 110, 112, 189. 

 _Must_, 161. 

 _Near_, _nearer_, _nigh_, etc. , 110, 112. 

 Negative, double, 326. 

 _Neither_, adjective, 102. Syntax of, 287. Conjunction, 194. Syntax of, 328. Pronoun, 90, 92. Syntax of, 300. 

 Neuter nouns, definition of, 30. Or gender nouns, according to use, 30. Two kinds of, 32. 

 _News_, 41. 

 _No_ in analysis, 246. 

 Nominative. See _Case_. 

 _None_, syntax of, 301. 

 _Nor_, 194, 328. 

 _Not a_, etc. 126. 

 Noun clause, 258. 

 Nouns, 17. Abstract, 20. Become half abstract, 25, 124. Become proper, 25. Formation of, 21. Case of, 46. Collective, 19. Common, 18. Definition of, 17. Descriptive, 26. Gender of, 29. How to parse, 56. Kinds of, 17 material, 19. Become class nouns, 24, 125. Neuter, used as gender nouns, 30. Number in, 38. Once singular, now plural, 42. Other words used as, 27. Plural, how formed, 38-41. Of abstract, 41 of compound, etc. 43. Of foreign, 45. Of letters and figures, 46. Of material, 41. Of proper, 41. Same as singular, 39. Two forms of, 42 with titles, 44. Proper, 18. Become common, 23. Syntax of, 278. Use of possessive form of, 278, 285. With definite article, 121. With different meaning in plural, 42. With indefinite article, 124. 

 Nouns, with no singular, 42. With one plural, two meanings, 43. With plural form, singular meaning, 41. With singular or plural construction, plural form, 41. 

 _Now_ as conjunction, 195, 196. 

 _Number_, definition of, etc. , in nouns. See _Nouns_. In adjectives, 106. In pronouns, personal, 60. In verbs, 148. 

 Numeral adjectives, definite, 101. Distributive, 102. Indefinite, 101. 

 Numeral pronouns, 92. 

 Object, adverbial, 48. Definition of, 48. Direct and indirect, 48. In analysis, 235. Of preposition. See _Preposition_. Modifiers of, 240. Retained with passive verb, 242. 

 Objective case, adverbial, dative, 48, 242. In spoken English, 281. Instead of nominative, 279. Nominative instead of, 282. Of nouns, 48. Of pronouns, 66. Syntax of, 279. 

 _Of_, uses of, 213. 

 _Older. _ See _Elder_. 

 Omission of relative pronoun, 87, 293. 

 _On_, _upon_, uses of, 216. 

 _One_, definite numeral adjective, 101. Indefinite pronoun, 94. Possessive of, 93

 _One another. _ See _Each other_. 

 _One_ (_the_), the other, as adjective, 103. As pronoun, 91. 

 _Only_, as conjunction, 194. Position of, as adverb, 325

 Order, a part of syntax, 275. Inverted, in analysis, 233, 237. 

 Ordinal adjectives, treatment of, 103. 

 _Other_ with comparatives, 306. 

 _Ought_, 161. 

 _Our_, _ours_, 64. 

 _Ourself_, 69. 

 _Oxen_, 38. 

 _Pains_, 41. 

 Parsing, models for, 56, 117. Of adjectives, 115, 116. Of adverbs, 191. Of articles, 127. Of conjunctions, 199. Of nouns, 56. Of prepositions, 219. Of pronouns, 95. Of relatives, 80. Of verb phrases, 180. Of verbals, 181. Of verbs, 179. Some idioms not parsed, 56. What it is, 56. 

 _Part from_, _part with_, 335. 

 Participial adjective, 100. 

 Participial phrase, 247. 

 Participle, definition of, 172. Distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 177. Forms of, 174. Kinds of, 173. Syntax of, 322. Uses of, 150, 172. 

 Parts of speech, article included in, 119. Words used as various, 27, 28. 

 Passive voice, 134. 

 _Peas_, _pease_, 43. 

 _Pence_, _pennies_, 43. 

 Person, agreement of verb and subject in, 317. Of nouns, 59. Of pronouns, 59. Of verbs, 148. 

 Personal pronoun, absolute use of, 63. Agreement of, with antecedent, 287. As predicate nominative, 281. Case of, 62. Compound, or reflexive, 69. Uses of, 70. Definition of, 59. Double possessive of, 64. _'em_ and _them_, 62. History of, 61. Objective of, for nominative in spoken English, 63, 281. Syntax of, 281. Table of, 60. Triple possessive of, 64. Uses of _it_, 67. 

 Personification, of abstract nouns, 25. Of other nouns, 37. 

 Phrase, definition of, 236. Kinds of, 236. Infinitive, 248. Participial, 247. Prepositional, 247. 

 Place, adverbs of, 185, 188. Conjunctions of, 195. Prepositions of, 206. 

 Plural, of adjectives, 106. Syntax of, 303. Of nouns. See _Nouns_. Of pronouns, 60, 61. 

 _Politics_, singular or plural, 41. 

 Positive degree. See _Comparison_. 

 Possessive, appositional, of nouns, 49. As antecedent of relative, 285. Double, of nouns, 54. Double, of pronouns. See _Personal pronoun_. Objective and subjective, 50. Of compound nouns, 53. Of indefinite pronoun, 303. Omission of _s_ in singular, 52. Origin of _'s_, 51. Syntax of, 278. With modified noun omitted, 53. With two objects, 278. 

 Predicate, complement of, 235. Complete, 245. Definition of, 232. Logical _vs. _ simple, 245. Modifiers of, 241. 

 Prefixes, gender shown by, 32. 

 Prepositions, certain, with certain words, 332. Classification of, 206. Definition of, 203. Followed by possessive case, 54, 64. By nominative case, 283. How to parse, 219. Objects of, 203. Position of, 202. Relations expressed by certain, 208. Same words as other parts of speech, 187, 195, 207. Syntax of, 331. Uses of, 129, 132, 205. Various, with same meaning, 333. 

 Present tense used as future, 147. 

 _Pretty_ as adverb, 186. 

 Pronominal adjectives, interrogative, 105. Relative, 104. _what_, exclamatory, 105. 

 Pronouns, 58. Adjective, 89. _all_, singular and plural, 302. _any_, usually plural, 300. _each other_, _one another_, 299. _either_, _neither_, with verbs, 300. _none_, usually plural, 301. _somebody else's_, 303. Definition of, 58. How to parse, 95. Indefinite, 93. Interrogative, 72. _who_ as objective, 283. Personal, 59. After _than_, _as_, 280. Antecedents of, 287. Nominative and objective, forms of, 279. Nominative form of, after _but_, 284. Objective form of, for predicate nominative, 281. Objective form of, in exclamations, 282. Possessive form of, as antecedent of relative, 285. Possessive form of, with gerund, 286. Relative, 74. Agreement of, with antecedent, 291. Anacoluthon with _which_, 295. _and who_, _and which_, 296. _as_, _that_, _who_, and _which_ after _same_, 295. How to parse, 80. Omission of, 87, 293. Restrictive and unrestrictive, 289. Two relatives, same antecedent, 297. Syntax of, 279. Usefulness of, 58. 

 Proper nouns. See _Nouns_. 

 Purpose, clauses of, 263. Conjunctions of, 195. 

 Quality, adjectives of, 99. 

 Quantity, adjectives of, 101. 

 Questions, direct and indirect, adverbs in, 188. Pronominal adjectives in, 105. Pronouns in, 85. Indirect, subjunctive in, 142. 

 Quotations. See _Direct discourse_. 

 Rank, adjectives of same and different, 115. 

 _Rather_, 189. 

 Reflexive pronouns, history of, 69. How formed, 69. 

 Reflexive use of personal pronoun, 68. 

 Relative pronoun, 74. _but_ and _as_, 84. Distinguished from interrogative, in indirect questions, 85. Function of, 74. Indefinite or compound, 83. Omission of, 87, 293. Restrictive use of, 289. Syntax of, 289. Use of, 74. 

 Result, clauses of, 263. Conjunctions of, 196. 

 Retained object, 242. 

 _Riches_, 42. 

 _S_, plural suffix, 40. 

 _'S_, possessive ending, 51. 

 _Same as_, _that_, _who_, _which_, 294. 

 _Sat_, _sate_, 159. 

 _Seeing_, conjunction, 195, 196. 

 _Self_ in reflexive pronoun, 69. 

 Sentences, analysis of complex, 26 of compound, 271. Of elliptical, 255. Of simple, 252. Complex in form, simple in effect, 259. 

 Sentences, definition of, 231. Kinds of, 231. 

 Sequence of tenses, 319. 

 _Set_, _sit_, 170. 

 Sex and gender, 29. 

 _Shall_, _should_, _will_, _would_, 162. 

 _Shear_, forms of, 159. 

 _Shot_, _shots_, 43. 

 Simple sentence. See _Sentences_. 

 Singular number, 38. 

 _Sir_, 36. 

 _Somebody else's_, etc. , 303. 

 _Sort_, _these sort_, 303. 

 Spelling becoming phonetic in verbs, 169. 

 _Spinster_, 33. 

 Split infinitive, 323. 

 Spoken English, 12. 

 -Ster, feminine suffix, use of, in Middle English, 32. In Modern English, 33. 

 Subject, complete, 245. Definition of, 233. Grammatical _vs. _ logical, 67, 245, 258. Modifiers of, 240. Things used as, 237, 258. 

 Subjunctive mood, definition of, 137. Gradual disuse of, 144. Uses of, in literary English, 138. In spoken English, 144. 

 Subordinate clause, 257. Adjective, 260. Adverb, 262. Definition of, 257. How to distinguish, 270. Kinds of, 257. Noun, 258. Other names for, 257. 

 _Such_ as adverb, 186. 

 _Such a_, 126. 

 Suffix _-en_. See _-En_. _-s_, _-es_, 38. 

 Suffixes, foreign, 33. 

 Superlative degree, double, 307. In meaning, not in form, 107. Not suggesting comparison, 109. Of adjectives, 108. Of adverbs, 189. Syntax of, 306. With two objects, 306. 

 Syntax, basis of, 277. Definition of, 275. In English not same as in classical languages, 275. 

 Tense, definition of, 147. 

 Tenses, definite, meaning of, 148. In Modern English, made up of auxiliaries, 147. Number of, in Old English, 147. Sequence of, 319. Table of, 152. 

 _Than me_, _than whom_, 280. 

 _That_, omission of, when subject, 88. When object, 87. Relative, restrictive, and coördinating, 289, 290. _that . .. And which_, 297. Uses of, 222. 

 _That_, _this_, as adjectives, 106. As adverbs, 186. History of plural of, 106. 

 _The_, as article, 120. As adverb, 123, 186. History of, 119. Syntax of, 309. 

 _Their_, _they_, 61. 

 _Then_, "the _then_ king, " etc. , 116. 

 _There_ introductory, 191. 

 _These kind_, syntax of. See _Kind_. 

 _These_, _this_, _those_. See _That_, history of. 

 _Thou_, _thy_, _thee_, uses of, 61. 

 _Time_, adverbs of, 185, 188. Conjunctions of, 195. Prepositions of, 207. 

 _To_, before infinitive, 175. In exclamations, 175. Omitted with certain verbs, 175. Uses of, as preposition, 217. 

 _T'other_, _the tother_, 119. 

 _-Trix_, feminine suffix, 33. 

 _Try and_, _try to_, 330. 

 _Two first_, _first two_, etc. , 308. 

 _Under_, adjective, 114. 

 _Upon_, uses of. See _On_. 

 _Upper_, 114. 

 _Utter_, _uttermost_, 111, 114. 

 Verb phrases, 128. Parsing of, 180. 

 Verbal noun, 20. Distinguished from other _-ing_ words, 21, 173. 

 Verbals, cleft infinitive, 323. Gerund, 176. How to parse, 181. Infinitive, 174, 248. Kinds of, 172. Participle, 172. Carelessly used, 322. Uses of, in analysis, 247. Syntax of, 322. 

 Verbs, agreement of, with subject in number, 312-316. In person, 317. Auxiliary, 148. Conjugation of, 149. Defective, 160. Definition of, 129. How to parse, 179. In indirect discourse, 320. Intransitive, made transitive, 131. Mood of, 135. Of incomplete predication, 150, 236. Passive form, active meaning, 151. Person and number of, 148. Retained object with passive, 242. Strong, definition of, 154. Remarks on certain, 157. Table of, 155. Syntax of, 312. Tense of, 147. Sequence of, 319. Transitive and intransitive, 130. Voice of, 133. Weak, definition of, 154. Spelling of, 169. Table of irregular, 167. 

 _Vixen_, 33. 

 Vocative nominative, 47. In analysis, 245. 

 Voice, active, 133. Passive, 134. 

 Vowel change, past tense of verbs formed by, 154. Plural formed by, 39. 

 Vulgar English, 12. 

 Weak verbs, regular, irregular, 167. Spelling of, becoming phonetic, 169. 

 _Went_, 159. 

 _What_, uses of, 223. _but what_, 330. _what a_, 105. 126. 

 _Whereby_, _whereto_, etc. , 85. 

 _Whether_, conjunction, 194. Interrogative pronoun, 72. 

 _Which_, antecedent of, 79. As adjective, 104, 105. As relative pronoun, 75. In indirect questions, 85. Indefinite relative, 83. Interrogative pronoun in direct questions, 72. Syntax of, 295-299. _whose_, possessive of, 78. 

 _Who_, as relative, 75. In direct questions, 72. In indirect questions, 85. Indefinite relative, 83. Objective, in spoken English, 73. Referring to animals, 77. Syntax of, 296, 299. 

 _Widower_, 37. 

 _Wife_, 36. 

 _Will_, _would_. See _Shall_. 

 _Witch_, _wizard_, 36. 

 _With_, uses of, 218. 

 _Woman_, 32. 

 Words in _-ing_, 178. In _-ly_, 190. 

 _Worse_, _worser_, 111. 

 _Y_, plural of nouns ending in. 40. 

 _Yes_ in analysis, 246. 

 _Yon_, _yonder_, 103. 

 _You_, singular and plural, 61. 

 _Yours_, _of yours_, 64. 

 _Yourself_, _yourselves_, 70.