ACHENWALL'S OBSERVATIONS

 ON

 NORTH AMERICA

 1767

 TRANSLATED BY

 J. G. ROSENGARTEN

 _Reprinted from the Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, January, 1903_

 PHILADELPHIA 1903

 ACHENWALL'S OBSERVATIONS ON NORTH AMERICA, 1767. 

 [Franklin paid a short visit to Germany in the summer of 1766, and at Göttingen met a number of the professors of the University. One of them, Professor Achenwall, published in the "Hanoverian Magazine, " in the volume beginning 1767, p. 258, etc. , "Some Observations on North America and the British Colonies from verbal information of Dr. Franklin, " and this article was reprinted in Frankfort and Leipsic in 1769. There is a copy of this reprint in the Loganian Library, from which the following translation was made. There is a copy of the Magazine in the Astor Library, New York. It is of interest as showing the impression made by Franklin on his German auditors, although it is clear that Achenwall did not report quite correctly. --J. G. R. ]

The most complete work on the British Colonies in North America is theSummary historical and political by William Douglas, of which the secondimproved edition was published in London, 1760, in two 8vo. Volumes. That doctor collected material for many years and was in America, andgives valuable intelligence, especially of the Colonies he visited, buthis book has no system. Prof. Kalm has much that is good in his travelsin North America, and often cites Franklin, but did not altogetherunderstand what he said, and Franklin never saw Kalm's book until hecame across a German translation in Hanover. 

The east coast of North America, where the British Colonies lie, isgenerally colder than the countries on the same stretch in Europe, norhas it been observed that owing to the decay of forests and cultivationthe climate is becoming noticeably milder. Almost the whole easterncoast of North America is sandy, many little islands along the coast aresand banks, thrown up gradually by the sea. The coast of Florida issandy and unfruitful, but the interior is good land. The native Indiansconsist of many small nations, each with its own language, quitedifferent from that of their neighbors. They are all of one figure as ifdescended from a common ancestor, --all brown in color, with straightblack hair, eyes all of one color, and all beardless, and they callEuropeans the bearded nation. They live in the wilds, except a few thathave been gathered in villages and are partly civilized. They live onplants and by hunting, without farms or cattle, chickens, horses etc. 

Before the arrival of Europeans, their important plants were Turkishcorn or maize; a sort of beans; tobacco. Maize and Tobacco are foundonly in America, and were brought from the new world to the old. Maizeand Beans they cook and use bear fat in place of butter as dressing, butno salt. Smoking tobacco is an old custom, especially at their nationalgatherings. These three plants they look on as a special gift of heaven. According to an old tradition, an American found a handsome young womansitting on a hill, --who in acknowledging a deep bow, said she came fromabove and at the end of a year would come again to the same hill. Shewas there again at that time, on her right hand Maize, on her leftBeans, and on her lap Tobacco, and these three she left as a present forthe American. Before Europeans brought them, there were no other grainor vegetables known than maize and beans, but all like the newcomershave increased wonderfully. The Spanish historian de Solis is altogetherwrong in saying that Mexico at the time of the invasion, was a populousand mighty state. The Mexicans were savages, without art or knowledge, and how could they form a great state? They had neither farming norcattle and could not find food for a large population nor had they anymeans of transportation. The weapons of the savages in North America arebows and arrows, and they shoot with the teeth of wild animals. Theyrecognize some of the principles of natural law and observe them evenwith their enemies. They scalp usually only the dead, --then they cut itoff with a sharp weapon and keep it as a sign of victory. Sometimes thevictim comes to life, --some such are in Pennsylvania, for scalping isnot necessarily mortal. They fight on foot, for they have no horses. Thesavages living in western Pennsylvania were called by the FrenchIroquois. The English call them the Five Nations or the ConfederateIndians, --they are united and were so long before the English settled. The Mohawks first united with another nation and others joined later. Now there are seven altogether so united. They have their regular statedmeetings and their great council considers the general good. The membersare known only by their different languages. They are called subjects ofthe King, but they are not subject to British laws, and pay no taxes, but the Colonists give them a tribute of presents. Their number does notincrease. Those living near the Europeans steadily diminish in numbersand strength. Their two sexes are of a cold nature, --the mothers livealone at and after the birth of children and during the years theysuckle them, --often (owing to the absence of soft food) until theiryoung can eat meat. Small pox and rum have played sad havoc among them. 

The English settlements in North America have grown much more slowlythan those in the West Indies, where they came about 1640, and in twentyyears had flourishing Colonies, such as Barbadoes. In North America theColonists came sixty years before, but at the end of the 17th Centurywere small in number and in exports. This is due to the rich productionof the Sugar Islands, the absence of Indians, and the contraband tradewith Spain. The North American Colonies have in the 18th Century greatlyincreased in population and wealth, far beyond the West India Islands. 

Franklin in a book published in 1751 showed that the native bornforeigners double every 25 years, in addition is the steady emigration, and some Colonies thus double their population in 18, some in 16, andsome in 14 years. This will go on as long as there is plenty of farmland, and this increases largely with the acquisition of Canada andLouisiana. In 1750 there were a million, Douglas in his book estimatedthat in 1760 there were 1, 051, 000, besides blacks and soldiers, --on thatbasis in 1775 there will be 2 millions, and at the close of the 18thCentury, 4 millions. To attract foreigners, an Act of Parliament grantedEnglish citizenship to every Protestant after seven years' residence, aright that in England can only be obtained with great expense andtrouble by a special Act of Parliament. The Certificate of theProvincial authorities costs only a few shillings and is good throughall England. 

Near the coast and some miles beyond, all the Middle Colonies aresettled, and new improvements are extending deeper in the interior. InPennsylvania, where the Penn family own all the land, any one who wantsto improve the land, chooses a piece, pays the landlord for 100 acres 10Pound Sterling local money, and binds himself to pay an annual rent ofhalf a penny for each acre, --he then becomes absolute owner, and thelittle ground rent can never be increased. Sometimes the hunter builds awooden hut, and the nearest neighbors in the wilderness help cut thetimber, build the log hut, fill the crevices with mud, put on the roofand put in windows and doors, and in return the owner pays them with agallon of brandy, and by a like good service in turn. Then he lays outhis garden and pasture and fields, cuts out the underbrush, tops the bigtrees and strips the bark, so that he can sow and reap, the trees dieand hurt neither land nor crops. Many hunters have thus settled thewilderness, --they are soon followed by poor Scotch or Irish who arelooking for homes, --these they find in this half improvedcondition, --they buy from the hunters, get a patent from theProprietors, paying the usual charge. The hunter moves off into thewilderness and goes to work again. The Scotch or Irishman completes thehalf finished task, builds a better house of sawed timber, uses the oldlog hut for a stable, later builds a house of brick and his timber houseis a good barn. Scotch and Irish often sell to the Germans, of whom from90 to 100, 000 live in Pennsylvania, and prefer to put all their earningsinto land and improvements. The Scotch or Irish are satisfied with afair profit, put the capital into another farm, leaving the Germansowners of the old farms. In Pennsylvania there is no law to preventcutting up a farm into very small holdings nor to forbid the purchase ofvery large bodies of land. There is no danger from either course, forthere is land enough for rich and poor, and the former prefer the largerprofits from trade to the small return from land. In New England, unlikePennsylvania, a good deal of land is let to farmers, for there are manyrich owners of large estates, --this is so too in the Carolinas, and inother Colonies where owners of 10 or 20 or more thousands of acres bringsettlers at their own expense to improve their land. Kalm mentionssimilar cases in New York. 

When an owner of land dies intestate, and there are many children toinherit the father's farm, it is generally taken by the eldest son, andthe younger children get in money their share of its appraisedvalue, --the eldest son gets two shares, the other children only oneapiece. The father of a large family takes from the Proprietary a largetract of land, which on his death can be divided among all his children. In New England improvement of the land is made in a more regular waythan in Pennsylvania, --whole towns are laid out, and as soon as sixtyfamilies agree to build a church and support a Minister and aSchoolmaster, the Provincial government gives them the requiredprivilege, carrying with it the right to elect two deputies to theLegislature, from the grant of 6 English square miles. Then the town orvillage is laid out in a square, with the church in the centre. The landis divided and each works his own, leaving however the forest in common, and with the privilege of laying out another village in time. In thisway new settlements grow in New England in regular order andsuccession, --every new village touching on an old one, and all steadilyincreasing in wealth and numbers. Nothing of this kind is done inPennsylvania, where the Proprietor wants only to sell land and as muchas any one wants and wherever he likes. The mistake of this was shownin the Indian wars. On the border were scattered houses and farms, whichcould not help one another, and they were attacked singly, plundered anddestroyed, and the ruined owners with their families took refuge withthe older settlements, which became burthened with their care. 

Blacks are found in Virginia, Maryland and the two Carolinas in largenumbers, but very few in Pennsylvania and further north. InPennsylvania, on principle they were prevented coming as much aspossible, partly because there was no such hard work as they were fittedfor in raising tobacco, rice and indigo. In Pennsylvania, every negromust pay a tax of 10 pounds sterling and this the master who brings himmust pay. These negroes are protected by law in all the Colonies, asmuch as free men. A Colonist, even if he is the owner, who kills ablackman, is instantly sentenced to death, --if he overworks or illtreats his slave, the latter can complain to the judge. Then in theirown interest the masters are obliged not to give their slaves excessivetasks or insufficient food, for their death is a loss. The negro slaveshave all the general rights of humanity except freedom and property, neither of which they possess. 

The free in the Colonies are of two kinds, the one servant and maid, bound for a half or a whole year, and the term ends by mutual agreement. The other class consists of poor Scotch, Irish and Germans, who to getto America come without paying their passage, and the ship captain findsthem a master who pays it and thus secures their service for food andlodging and clothing, without pay, but only for a term of years, neverfor life. Sometimes a father sells the services of his children to amaster, who must teach them some useful trade, farming, carpentering, cooking. This lasts until majority, --with boys at 21, with girls at 18, and in some cases for 8 years, but not longer. Then the children are bylaw free, and their master is bound to give them the needful articlesfor housekeeping, a cow, farming implements, tools etc. In this way allpoor children have the hope of establishing themselves on their majorityin freedom. The poor fathers find their comfort in this expectation, arerelieved of the care of their children in the interval, and know thatthey are learning something useful and will start out in life with moneyin hand without having to pay anything to the master. The masters inturn are satisfied with the cheap service. This law has been introducedto cure the old need of servants and apprentices. 

There is a special class of servants in the Colonies, between peasantsand slaves, those transported from Great Britain for certain crimes forfrom 7 to 14 years. It is an exile from Great Britain under penalty ofprison in case of return. Such an offender is sold by the Courts to aShip's Captain who takes him to the Colonies and sells him as a slavefor a limited period. That over he is free. Formerly such servants werewelcomed on account of the demand for laborers, but now they are nolonger needed in the populous Colonies, they remain worthless and aresoon sent to prison for fresh offences. 

The constitutions of the British Colonies differ according to theoriginal grants, 1st Royal, 2nd Proprietary, 3rd Charter Governments, and the British Parliamentary Statutes call them Plantations underProprietors, under Charters, under his majesty's immediate commission, Stat. 6 Anne, cap. 30, sec. 2. The 1st class are arranged strictlyaccording to the British Constitution, with a Governor, who representsthe King, and two legislative branches, 1st the Council, called theRoyal Council, 2nd Representatives of towns or counties, belonging toone Colony, these two are like the two houses of the British Parliament, and the Council is called the Upper House, and the body ofrepresentatives of the people the Lower House. In these three branchesare vested the law making powers of the Colony, but subject to theCrown, hence united they are called the Assembly, although that ispopularly limited to the two Houses and often to the Lower or popularHouse. The King appoints the Governor and recalls him at pleasure. TheCouncil also consists of royal officials dependent on the King as toterms and nature of appointment, but generally selected from theprincipal persons of the Colony, legal, financial and military officers. Governor and Councillors have fixed salaries and certain fees, theGovernor a large fixed salary, provided in advance by the Colonies, thusthe Governor of Barbadoes has £2000, the Governor of Virginia £1000. Thepopular representatives are elected annually and receive a fixed perdiem allowance. They look after the rights and privileges of the people, just as do the Council and the Governor after those of the Crown. Everymeasure approved by the three bodies becomes a law, but onlyprovisionally, for it must be sent to the King for approval, but if notvetoed within three years, it is final. This is the usual rule forColonial governments, (with some local exceptions) in all the West IndiaIslands, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, both Carolinas, New Georgia, New Scotland, New Hampshire, and I believe Quebec, East and WestFlorida, and the newly acquired Caribbean Islands, and the Englishconsider it the best way of securing the rights of the Mother Country, that is, Great Britain. The 2nd class is that of hereditaryProprietors, such as those of Pennsylvania and Maryland. In the formerthe English family of Penn, in the latter the Irish Lords Baltimore arethe hereditary Proprietors and Governors, as over lords they draw acertain income from all the Colonists in proportion to their land, andall improved land is sold at a fixed price. Both tax and price are low, but the growth of both Colonies has made both families rich. LordBaltimore has the right of patron of all churches in Maryland. Ashereditary Proprietors both appoint their Lieutenant Governors, who areconfirmed by the King, and reside in the Provinces. In both Coloniesthere are Assemblies, --that in Maryland consists of the Council and theHouse of Commons, and subject to the right of the Proprietor, has thesame jurisdiction as that of any other Colony. 

The third kind of government is the Chartered or Free government. Thisis nearest a Democracy, and is less dependent on the Crown. This form ofconstitution exists in the three Colonies of New England, completely inConnecticut and Rhode Island, --in Massachusetts with certainrestrictions. The two first named Colonies have the right to elect alltheir own officers, including the Governor and Council, and to make allneedful laws without royal approval, nor can the decisions of theirCourts be appealed from. In Rhode Island even the ministers of theChurches can be removed at the end of a year, so that they hold officeonly for one year's salary. 

Massachusetts Bay formerly had these popular rights, but owing to abusestheir former privileges and freedom were repealed by the King's Benchunder Charles the Second, and only partly restored by a new Charter fromWilliam the Third. Since then the King appoints the Governor and thechief law and treasury and all military officers. The representativeshave the right to elect Councillors, but subject to a negative veto ofthe Governor. This election in Massachusetts as well as in Connecticutand Rhode Island, is made by both Houses, annually, because the membersof the Council hold office only for a year. 

Laws passed by the Assembly must have royal approval, and in casesinvolving over £300, there is an appeal to the Privy Council in London. 

The Governor of Massachusetts has no fixed salary, but it is fixed everyyear by the Assembly. (Kalm says this is so in New York also. ) He musttherefore be popular with the Assembly or the King will replace him byanother likely to be so. This uncertain tenure is unpopular in Europebecause it affects unfavorably the interests of the Colony and makesthat of Great Britain dependent on the Colony. The Colonists answer thata fixed salary would enable the Governor to live abroad and send only aLieutenant Governor as substitute. 

Pennsylvania has its own Constitution. Penn as Proprietor draws arevenue of a half penny sterling local currency for every acre ofimproved land, and every purchaser of wild land can buy a hundred acresfor £10 and the usual quit rent. As Proprietor he sends a Deputy, whomhe pays, and appoints all Judges, but ministers are chosen by their owncongregations in every County. The meeting of the PennsylvaniaLegislature consists of only one House, (because there is no Council)made up of representatives of the various Counties. These are electedannually October 1, each County holding its own meetings for thepurpose, --every inhabitant worth £50, resident for 12 years, has avote, --these meetings elect 8 Deputies to the Assembly, --every electoris eligible, but mostly well to do citizens are elected. The Countygives its representatives six shillings a day, but the Deputies have tospend more out of their own pockets. There is no bribery. Every voterdeposits a written ballot, and the persons who have the highest numberare declared elected. The purchase of votes would be very unsafe, as thevoter could always write another name on his ballot. This House with theLieutenant Governor is the law making power. The Governor howeverdepends on the Assembly for his salary, as he has no fixed allowance, which is voted only from year to year, and if he displeases theAssembly, it votes him no salary for the next year. The Assembly hasbeen for six years on bad terms with the Proprietor and has made nogrant for the Governor. The Assembly wants the Proprietor to pay tax onhis property especially towards the extraordinary war expenses. Thedecision rests with the King in Council, but if the Assembly appealed, it would be sent to the King's Bench. The fact that all Judges areappointed by the Proprietor, makes difficulties, as he is in his owncases both Judge and Plaintiff. The newer Colonies have institutionsbased on Acts of Parliament for New Georgia, New Scotland, &c. , but theolder Colonies have Charters from the King, and not from Parliament. These Colonies claim to be subject to the King, but not to Parliament, at least not to its arbitrary power, like the newer Colonies, which owetheir existence to Parliament. The latter are called Plantations withinhis Majesty's Dominions, the former his Majesty's Plantations. 

The legal institutions of the Colonies are based on those of England, for these are part of the Englishman's rights. All personal relationsare controlled by Statute Law and Common Law. Roman Law is recognizedonly in Courts of Admiralty. The light of trial by a Jury of twelve menis recognized just as in England. It was one of the grounds of complaintagainst the Stamp Act, that questions arising under it were not tried byJury, but by courts specially created. 

Most of the Colonists of English descent are Presbyterians. There is notone Bishop of the Established Church in America, although there are manyparishes belonging to it. These are all under the Bishop of London, andevery one of their clergymen must be examined and ordained in England, at a cost of at least £40 to £50, but their stay in England helps theireducation. As the Bishops have spiritual jurisdiction, there are noecclesiastical Courts in the Colonies, and matters pertaining to themare settled partly by local Courts, partly by the Assemblies. Thespiritual Lords may have proposed to send a Bishop to America, but sincethe time of Charles the First, that title has been greatly disliked inthe Colonies. Catholic Churches are found in Pennsylvania as well as inMaryland, in the former because freedom of religion is universal, in thelatter because the Baltimore family, the Proprietors, were formerlyCatholics, --none are found in the other Colonies. There are Jews inPennsylvania and New York, --in the latter there is a Synagogue, in theformer only Schools. Pennsylvania is preeminent for the entire religiousequality or toleration, under which it has increased in population andwealth. Roman Catholics are however excluded from all offices and fromthe Assembly, because they cannot take the usual religious oath andsubscribe under the test act. This oath must be taken here as well as inEngland, as well as that against the Pretender. All other Protestantfaiths enable the members to hold office. For education in science therehas long been a high school in Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, andthere is another founded in 1749 in Philadelphia, the capital ofPennsylvania. Franklin proposed and founded it. The money was raisedpartly by subscription, partly by Provincial grants. Most of theendowment consists of land, not very productive, but of value hereafter. This University has a President with £250 salary, and fourProfessors, --two with £200, two with £150, besides fees for privateinstruction. There is no College and therefore no lodging built yet. Ithas the right to confer degrees. In 1764 a Medical School was added, andit will no doubt have the power to confer degrees. There is no LawSchool yet and it is not likely there will ever be one of Theology. TheUniversity was chartered by the Assembly for the good of the Colony, butas there are so many religious faiths all enjoying perfect equality, itis enough if the scholars are taught their religious tenets in their ownschools with those of their own faith, while Theology is excluded. 

Farming, stockraising and fisheries nourish in all the North AmericanColonies, and the forests supply all that is needed for fuel andindustry. Grapes are successfully cultivated in North America and wildgrape vines are found in some forests. The cheap wines from Canaryinterfere with the production. Silk can be cultivated and mulberry treesgrow as far north as New England. Cod fishing is more valuable than asilver mine, for it trains up good sailors and helps many industries. New England, New Scotland and New Foundland are most largely interestedin it. Colonists have the same fishing rights in these waters asEnglishmen. The largest market is Spain and Portugal. These Catholiccountries are large consumers, and the fishermen often bless the Pope. 

The French fisheries since the recent peace have greatly diminished inextent, but the French take a good deal of the trade, as their ownconsumption is supplied by French fishing fleets. The New Englandfishermen supply Portugal, Spain and Italy at a cheaper rate than theFrench. 

Whale fishing is increasing, and the Island of Nantucket owns hundredsof ships in this industry. It stretches from the mouth of the St. Lawrence, on the coast of Greenland, as far south as Florida. Beasts ofprey do little harm, --bears and wolves rarely injure men, and bear meatis much liked. Deer are plentiful and Buffalo are easily found and canbe tamed and used as in Asia Minor, Persia, Egypt, Ethiopia and the EastIndies as draught animals. Kalm praises the Sugar Maple and took some ofthe young trees to Sweden. The sugar can replace that of the WestIndies, although it has not yet done so. The bounty on Pearl andPotashes has made a large industry, --over a thousand tons are annuallyproduced. 

Ship building is growing greatly in the North American Colonies. Shipsare all built of oak, some for use at home, others for sale in England. 

Pennsylvania is mainly farming and cattle growing, just as are most ofthe German countries. It has little Fishery trade, as it has a smallcoast, and it has no products that can be used largely in commerce. 

The growth of the neighboring Colonies is due to their Fisheries, Tobacco, Rice and Indigo. Pennsylvania flourishes on its farming andcattle. Horses are raised in some Colonies, but it is better to raiseoxen, which can be used for twelve years and then killed or sold. 

The farmers are industrious and frugal, educate their families, and aregrowing rich in land if not in money. 

Manufacturing, wool, flax, iron, steel, and copper, is growing, --fieldpieces, rifled guns for hunters, and iron cannon are all made in theColonies. England does not interfere with domestic production, but itprevents exportation, and does not allow hats to be made, lest theEnglish production, although made of American beaver, should be lessenedin demand in the Colonies. There is little ground for fear of Americancompetition, as workmen are few there, and farming is always preferredto trades. Farmers are good fathers, and large families help economicalliving. Even if manufacturing increases, it cannot keep pace with theincrease of population and the demand for goods. In 34 years thepopulation of Pennsylvania increased fourfold at most, but theimportation of English wares increased from £16000 Sterling to£268000, --that is seventeen times greater. In 1725 the value of suchimportations was £16000, in 1757, £268426. Four times the populationuses much more than four times, really seventeen times more goods, because the population grows more rapidly in wealth than in numbers. Manufactures must in time be established in the Colonies, because withtheir prosperity likely to increase for centuries to come, England andIreland cannot supply all the wares needed and the Colonies must providethem for their future necessities. 

The three largest cities are Boston, New York and Philadelphia. In 1720the first was as large as the other two together, but since then theyhave grown faster. In New England there are many sea ports, but the onlyports for New York and Pennsylvania are their two capitals, and they arelikely to be the largest cities in America. Philadelphia has more than3000 houses, and more than 20000 inhabitants. It is regularly laid outat right angles, and the streets extend every year. 

Virginia has the fewest villages and only one little town, Williamsburg, its capital. The population is scattered and every family lives on itsown tobacco plantation. The Chesapeake and its affluents reach everywhere and the Colonists bring their tobacco by water to the Bay where itis loaded on sea going vessels. 

New York has great advantages for trading with the native Indians, bymeans of the Hudson to Albany, and thence by smaller streams to Oswegoand Lake Ontario, where the great fairs for dealing with the Indians areheld. From Lake Ontario there is water way to Lake Superior. The Indiansbring their skins and hides from the west by water to Oswego, and NewYork excludes traders from Pennsylvania. Philadelphia trades with NewJersey over the Delaware River. Salt is imported in 50 or 60 vesselsfrom Spanish South America and the Cape Verde Islands and Senegal, whereit is made from saltwater, by drying in the sun. 

The Colonies are greatly restricted in their export trade, yet they havetheir own vessels, but they are not allowed to export their products, especially those needed for ship building, such as masts, ship timber, iron, copper, hemp, flax, cotton, indigo, tobacco, tar, potash, skinsand furs, --they must all be sent to England and sold there for export inBritish ships with British sailors, and where there are English TradingCompanies, as in the East Indies, the Colonies cannot trade directly. In1765 the trade with the Spanish and French West Indies was forbidden, but the results were so bad that this restriction was removed. TheColonies ship food stuffs to the Portuguese Sugar islands, meal, butter, meat, grain, wood and timber for house building etc. , and bring backMolasses, from which Rum is made. Trade with the Spanish Americas iscontraband, but the Colonists run the risk for the sake of the hardmoney it brings. Great Britain in 1766 established two free ports in theWest Indies, one in Jamaica, the other in Dominica, the French have onein St. Domingo, the Dutch one in St. Eustache, the Danes one in St. Thomas, --the English want to prevent the contraband trade with Spain, but have made the restriction that foreigners can receive all goods freeof duty, but must sell only for cash, and not in exchange for othergoods. 

Colonial shipping is important through the trade with the Spanish andFrench West Indies, the English Sugar islands, and the fisheries. Itdeals with the regions south of Cape Finisterre, with Africa, the Canaryand other islands, and in British ships with Portugal, Cadiz, Malaga, Marseilles, Leghorn and Naples, and it might deal with Turkey. Itcarries the surplus products of the fisheries, grain, flour, timber, sugar and rice. The trade with Portugal is restricted because all itswine must be brought by way of England, so only salt as ballast isbrought back. Sugar is the only cargo which the Colonial shipping cancarry and sell through Europe. England reserves the right to import andreship American products, yet it sells more than three million poundsand Ireland and Scotland two million pounds sterling of products inAmerica. Hard money is rare in the Colonies, and is higher in price thanin England. An English shilling is 18 pence colonial, as against 12pence in sterling. A Guinea is 34 shillings, on account of itsconvenience for exchange for goods. Spanish pieces of eight, worth inEngland 4 shillings 8 pence, are worth in the Colonies 7 shillings 6pence, and gold pistoles have fallen to 27 shillings, because they areso often filled with base metal. A credit on London costs 175 p. C. , that is 1 English pound sterling 1-3/4 in Provincial currency, but theprice rises and falls, par is 133-1/3, but it often goes up to 166-2/3p. C. During the late war par was as low as 125, because England spentso much money and so much was brought over by English soldiers, --and itvaries in different Colonies. The Colonies have Paper-bills, Bills ofCredit and Currency, issued by the authority of the Assemblies whichbind themselves to redeem them, --from £5 down to 1 shilling, but theyare not good outside the Province that issues them. It is used to raiselarge amounts for pressing needs, as in the French War to pay thesoldiers, arm and clothe and feed them in the field. Sometimes the moneyis raised by currency bills which are taken in payment of taxes etc. Andare cancelled on return to the Treasury office. This was copied from theEnglish Exchequer Bills introduced in the reign of William Third by Actof Parliament, but the English bills carry interest, and those of theColonies do not. Another sort of currency is issued to meet the demandfor money on loan at interest, --the current rate is 6 p. C. , but theseloans are made at 5 p. C. , and the borrower must pay one tenth of theprincipal annually. Thus the Colony can supply the means of helpingfarmers to buy cattle, agricultural implements etc. And thus improve theland. The issues were made too freely in some Colonies, and fell 15 to20 p. C. And even more in the market. All the Colonies used papercurrency, until in some the English government restricted its issue bylaw to a fixed amount. The Mother Country did this to protect its tradefrom suffering loss. Pennsylvania restricted and regulated its issuesalso. The question has been much disputed as to whether such issues areadvantageous or injurious, but it is still undecided. The taxes in theColonies are very light, --in Pennsylvania and Virginia there is a taxpayable in rent at a very low rate to the Proprietor in the former, tothe Crown in the latter Colony, all other taxes are assessed byauthority of the Assembly, --generally a land tax, of 6, 12, 18 pence upto 2-1/2 shillings on the pound of rent, and incomes of professions andoffices are taxed. There are no taxes on exports and imports or excise. There is a small light house tax on shipping. The Stamp Tax acts metuniversal opposition, --the Colonies claimed the right to deal with theirown finances, --they had accepted all other Acts of Parliament touchingtheir manufactures and trade, limiting their freedom, but these did notaffect them as much as this direct attack on their purses. The Colonistswould not admit that Parliament had the right to tax them. They claimedto be English citizens, and that no English community could be taxedwithout its own consent, that is through its representatives in theHouse of Commons, but the Colonies have none, --such as the Scotchhave, --but only their own Assemblies, --there only can taxes be legallylevied. Their money should be used to pay their own debts, not thenational debt of Great Britain. The last war put a heavy debt on allthe Colonies, --this ought to be first paid. The Colonies maintained attheir own expense, 25000 men against the French, costing each Colonyyearly 20, 30, 50 and more thousands of pounds, --when this debt is paid, the Crown would have the right to require the Colonial Assemblies toraise a similar loan. All the Colonies were unanimous on this point, andfor the first time met through their delegates in a Congress called toobject to the Stamp Act, and this they did on the right of Englishcitizens to petition against any measure they think wrong, and thisright is ensured to any number, whether it be 2, or 100 or 100000. 

There are few fortified places in America. Philadelphia is quite open toattack, and has only one Battery on the river, to protect the cityagainst invasion. There are a few forts to protect the settlers from theIndians. The Provinces have their own militia, maintained at their owncost, --the King appoints the officers. New England has the largest bodyof militia, and the little forts are manned by these troops under theKing's commanders. There are English regiments in North Americagarrisoning the large forts, --these are paid by the Crown. The Englishlike to serve in America, for they are paid in English sterling and aresupplied by the local authorities with provisions. The conquest ofCanada is advantageous alike to the English nation and to the Colonies, for much of the expense of maintaining troops and forts is no longerrequired. England supported 25000 men in the Colonies, and the Coloniesas many more in the last war. The royal rule in America, when in harmonywith the Colonies, is inexpensive in the older Colonies, for the King'sCabinet rules by a stroke of the pen. The Colonies are well pleased thatFrance handed New Orleans over to the Spanish. The Indians are swornfoes of the Spanish, who are neither so intriguing nor so industrious asthe French, and hence England can keep on better terms with the Indians. 

The general agreement of the Colonies as shown in relation to the StampAct, is the more noteworthy, as the Colonies have generally been jealousof one another. There are many disputes between them as to theirborders, rivers, trade etc. If the Colonies were entirely independent, they would soon be at war with one another. Only the protection of theKing and his authority prevents open outbreaks. This jealousy increaseswith the growth of the Colonies. Pennsylvania gets along best, for itleaves all trade both import and export open to all other Colonies, onlymaking such restriction in its own favor as may be needed to meetrestrictions laid on its trade by other Colonies, but all laws of thiskind require the royal approval. 

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