A STUDY OF FAIRY TALES

by

LAURA F. KREADY, B. S. 

With an Introduction by Henry Suzzallo, Ph. D. President of the University of Washington, Seattle

TO THE CHILDREN WHO, BECAUSE OF IT, MAY RECEIVE ANY GOOD. 

PREFACE

One of the problems of present-day education is to secure for theentire school system, from the kindergarten to the university, acurriculum which shall have a proved and permanent value. In thiscurriculum literature has established itself as a subject ofunquestioned worth. But children's literature, as that distinctportion of the subject literature written especially for children orespecially suited to them, is only beginning to take shape and form. It seems necessary at this time to work upon the content of children'sliterature to see what is worthy of a permanent place in the child'sEnglish, and to dwell upon its possibilities. A consideration of thissubject has convinced me of three points:

 (1) that literature in the kindergarten and elementary school should be taught as a distinct subject, accessory neither to reading nor to any other subject of the curriculum, though intimately related to them;

 (2) that it takes training in the subject to teach literature to little children;

 (3) that the field of children's literature is largely untilled, inviting laborers, embracing literature which should be selected from past ages down to the present. 

A single _motif_ of this children's literature, _Fairy Tales_, is herepresented, with the aim of organizing this small portion of thecurriculum for the child of five, six, or seven years, in thekindergarten and the first grade. The purpose has been to show thisunit of literature in its varied connection with those subjects whichbear an essential relation to it. This presentation incidentally mayserve as an example of one method of giving to teachers a course inliterature by showing what training may be given in a single _motif, Fairy Tales_. Incidentally also it may set forth a few theories ofeducation, not isolated from practice, but united to the everydayproblems where the teacher will recognize them with greatestimpression. In the selection of the subject no undue prominence ishereby advocated for fairy tales. We know fairy tales about which wecould agree with Maria Edgeworth when she said: "Even if children doprefer fairy tales, is this a reason why their minds should be filledwith fantastic visions instead of useful knowledge?" However, there isno danger that fairy tales will occupy more than a fair share of thechild's interest, much as he enjoys a tale; for the little child'smain interest is centered in the actual things of everyday life andhis direct contact with them. Yet there is a part of him untouched bythese practical activities of his real and immediate life; and it isthis which gives to literature its unique function, to minister to thespirit. Fairy tales, in contributing in their small way to this highservice, while they occupy a position of no undue prominence, nevertheless hold a place of no mean value in education. 

In the study of fairy tales, as of any portion of the curriculum or asin any presentation of subject-matter, three main elements must uniteto form one combined whole: the child, the subject, and the teachingof the subject. In behalf of the child I want to show how fairy talescontain his interests and how they are means for the expression of hisinstincts and for his development in purpose, in initiative, injudgment, in organization of ideas, and in the creative returnpossible to him. In behalf of the subject I want to show what fairytales must possess as classics, as literature and composition, and asshort-stories; to trace their history, to classify the types, and tosupply the sources of material. In behalf of the teaching of fairytales I want to describe the telling of the tale: the preparation itinvolves, the art required in its presentation, and the creativereturn to be expected from the child. 

In the consideration of the subject the main purpose has been torelate fairy tales to the large subjects, literature and composition. From the past those tales have come down to us which inherentlypossessed the qualities of true classics. In modern times so fewchildren's tales have survived because they have been written mainlyfrom the point of view of the subject and of the child without regardto the standards of literary criticism. In the school the teaching ofliterature in the kindergarten and elementary grades has beenconducted largely also from the point of view of the child and of thesubject without regard to the arts of literature and composition. Inbookshops counters are filled with many books that lack literary valueor artistic merit. The object in this book has been to preserve thepoint of view of the child and of the subject and yet at the same timerelate the tale to the standards of literature and of composition. Theobject has been to get the teacher, every time she selects or tells atale, to apply practically the great underlying principles ofliterature, of composition, and of the short-story, as well as thoseof child-psychology and of pedagogy. 

This relating of the tale to literary standards will give to theteacher a greater respect for the material she is handling and aconsequent further understanding of its possibilities. It will revealwhat there is in the tale to teach and also how to teach it. Inteaching literature as also other art subject-matter in thekindergarten and first grade, the problem is to hold fast to theprinciples of the art and yet select, or let the child choose, material adapted to his simplicity. As the little child uses analysisbut slightly, his best method of possessing a piece of literature isto do something with it. 

The fairy tale is also related to life standards, for it presents tothe child a criticism of life. By bringing forward in high light thecharacter of the fairy, the fairy tale furnishes a unique contributionto life. Through its repeated impression of the idea of fairyhood itmay implant in the child a desire which may fructify into that pure, generous, disinterested kindness and love of the grown-up, which aimsto play fairy to another, with sincere altruism to make appear beforehis eyes his heart's desire, or in a twinkling to cause what hithertoseemed impossible. Fairy tales thus are harbingers of that helpfulnesswhich would make a new earth, and as such afford a contribution to thereligion of life. 

In stressing the history of fairy tales the purpose has been topresent fairy tales as an evolution. The kindergarten and first-gradeteacher must therefore look to find her material anywhere in the wholefield and intimately related with the whole. Special attention hasbeen placed upon the English fairy tale as the tale of our language. As we claim an American literature since the days of WashingtonIrving, the gradual growth of the American fairy tale has beenincluded, for which we gratefully acknowledge the courtesy of theLibrarian of the United States Bureau of Education and theBibliographer of the Library of Congress. A particular treatment ofsome North American Indian folk-tales would also be desirable. But astudy of these tales reveals but one unimportant _pourquois_ tale, ofsufficient simplicity. This study of the natural history of the fairytale as an art form is not necessary for the child. But for theteacher it reveals the nature of fairy tales and their meaning. It isan aid to that scholarly command of subject-matter which is the firstessential for expertness in teaching. Only when we view the Americanfairy tale of to-day in the light of its past history can we obtain acorrect standard by which to judge of its excellence or of its worth. 

In the classification of fairy tales the purpose has been to organizethe entire field so that any tale may be studied through the typewhich emphasizes its distinguishing features. The source materialendeavors to furnish a comprehensive treatment of fairy tales for thekindergarten and elementary school. 

In the preparation of this book the author takes pleasure inexpressing an appreciation of the criticism and helpful suggestionsgiven by the Editor, Dr. Henry Suzzallo, under whose counsel, cooperation, and incentive the work grew. The author wishes also tomake a general acknowledgment for the use of many books which ofnecessity would be consulted in organizing and standardizing any unitof literature. Special acknowledgment should be made for the use of_Grimm's Household Tales_, edited by Margaret Hunt, containingvaluable notes and an introduction by Andrew Lang of _English FairyTales_, _More English Fairy Tales_, _Indian Fairy Tales_, and _Reynardthe Fox_, and their scholarly introductions and notes, by JosephJacobs; of _Norse Tales_ and its full introduction, by Sir George W. Dasent; of _Tales of the Punjab_ and its Appendix, by Mrs. F. A. Steel;of the _Uncle Remus Books_, by J. C. Harris; of _Fairy Tales_, by HansC. Andersen; of _Fairy Mythology_ and _Tales and Popular Fictions_, byThomas Keightley; of _Principles of Literary Criticism_, by ProfessorC. T. Winchester, for its standards of literature; of _EnglishComposition_, by Professor Barrett Wendell, for its standards ofcomposition; of Professor John Dewey's classification of the child'sinstincts; and of the _Kindergarten Review_, containing many articlesof current practice illustrating standards emphasized here. 

Recognition is gratefully given for the use of various collections offairy tales and for the use of any particular fairy tale that has beenpresented in outline, descriptive narrative, criticism, ordramatization. Among collections special mention should be made of_The Fairy Library_, by Kate D. Wiggin and Nora A. Smith; the _FairyBooks_, by Clifton Johnson; and the _Fairy Books_, by Andrew Lang. Among tales, particular mention should be made for the use, inadaptation, made of _Oeyvind and Marit_, given in Whittier's _ChildLife in Prose_; of _The Foolish Timid Rabbit_, given in _The JatakaTales_, by Ellen C. Babbit; of _The Sheep and the Pig_, in MissBailey's _For the Children's Hour_; of _Drakesbill_, in _The FairyRing_, by Wiggin and Smith; of _The Magpie's Nest_, in _English FairyTales_, by Joseph Jacobs; of _How the Evergreen Trees Lose theirLeaves_, in _The Book of Nature Myths_, by Miss Holbrook; of _TheGood-Natured Bear_, described by Thackeray in "On Some IllustratedChristmas Books"; and of _The Hop-About-Man_, by Agnes Herbertson, given in _The Story-Teller's Book_, by Alice O'Grady (Moulton) andFrances Throop. 

The author wishes also to express thanks to the many teachers andchildren whose work has in any way contributed to _A Study of FairyTales_. 

LAURA F. KREADYLANCASTER, PENNSYLVANIAAugust, 1916

CONTENTS

 CHAPTER PAGE

 INTRODUCTION BY HENRY SUZZALLO xv

 I. THE WORTH OF FAIRY TALES 1

 II. PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION FOR FAIRY TALES 13

III. THE TELLING OF FAIRY TALES 90

 IV. THE HISTORY OF FAIRY TALES 158

 V. CLASSES OF FAIRY TALES 204

 VI. SOURCES OF MATERIAL FOR FAIRY TALES 245

 APPENDIX 265

 OUTLINE 291

 INDEX 305

INTRODUCTION

The fairy tale has a place in the training of children which commonsense and a sympathetic attitude toward childhood will not deny. Somerigid philosophers, who see no more of life than is to be found inlogical science, condemn the imaginative tale. They regard theteaching of myths and stories as the telling of pleasant lies, which, if harmless, are wasteful. What the child acquires through them, hemust sooner or later forget or unlearn. 

Such arguments carry conviction until one perceives that their authorsare measuring the worth of all teaching in terms of strictlyintellectual products. Life is more than precise information; it isimpulse and action. The fairy tale is a literary rather than ascientific achievement. Its realities are matters of feeling, in whichthought is a mere skeleton to support the adventure. It matters littlethat the facts alleged in the story never were and never can be. Thevalues and ideals which enlist the child's sympathy are morallyworthy, affording a practice to those fundamental prejudices towardright and wrong which are the earliest acquisitions of a young soul. The other characteristics of the tale--the rhythmic, the grotesque, the weird, and the droll--are mere recreation, the abundantplayfulness which children require to rest them from the dangers andterrors which fascinate them. 

The fairy tale, like every other literary production, must be judgedby the fitness of its emotional effects. Fairyland is the stage-worldof childhood, a realm of vicarious living, more elemental and morefancy-free than the perfected dramas of sophisticated adults whoseingrained acceptance of binding realities demands sterner stuff. Thetales are classics of a particular kind; they are children's classics, artful adaptations of life and form which grip the imaginations oflittle folks. 

The diet of babes cannot be determined by the needs of grown-ups. Aspiritual malnutrition which starves would soon set in if adult wisdomwere imposed on children for their sustenance. The truth is amplyillustrated by those pathetic objects of our acquaintance, the men andwomen who have never been boys and girls. 

To cast out the fairy tale is to rob human beings of their childhood, that transition period in which breadth and richness are given tohuman life so that it may be full and plastic enough to permit thecreation of those exacting efficiencies which increasing knowledge andresponsibility compel. We cannot omit the adventures of fairyland fromour educational program. They are too well adapted to the restless, active, and unrestrained life of childhood. They take the objectswhich little boys and girls know vividly and personify them so thatinstinctive hopes and fears may play and be disciplined. 

While the fairy tales have no immediate purpose other than to amuse, they leave a substantial by-product which has a moral significance. Inevery reaction which the child has for distress or humor in the tale, he deposits another layer of vicarious experience which sets hischaracter more firmly in the mould of right or wrong attitude. Everysympathy, every aversion helps to set the impulsive currents of hislife, and to give direction to his personality. 

Because of the important aesthetic and ethical bearings of this formof literary experience, the fairy stories must be rightly chosen andartfully told. In no other way can their full worth in education berealized. They are tools which require discrimination and skill. Outof the wisdom of one who knows both tales and children, and who holdsa thoughtful grasp on educational purpose, we offer this volume ofunusually helpful counsel. --HENRY SUZZALLO. 

CHAPTER I

THE WORTH OF FAIRY TALES

 In olde dayes of the kyng Arthour, Of which that Britouns speken gret honour, Al was this lond fulfilled of fayrie; The elf-queen, with hir joly compaignye, Daunced ful oft in many a grene mede. --CHAUCER. 

I. TWO PUBLIC TRIBUTES

Only a few years ago, in the gardens of the Tuileries, in Paris, astatue was erected in memory of Charles Perrault, to be placed thereamong the sculptures of the never-to-be-forgotten fairy tales he hadcreated, --_Red Riding Hood_, _Sleeping Beauty_, _Puss-in-Boots_, _Hop-o'-my-Thumb_, _Bluebeard_, and the rest, --so that the childrenwho roamed the gardens, and in their play gathered about the statuesof their beloved fairy friends, might have with them also a reminderof the giver of all this joy, their friend Perrault. Two hundred yearsbefore, Perrault truly had been their friend, not only in making forthem fairy tales, but in successfully pleading in their behalf when hesaid, "I am persuaded that the gardens of the King were made so greatand spacious that all the children may walk in them. "

Only in December, 1913, in Berlin, was completed the _MärchenBrunnen_, or "Fairy-Tale Fountain, " at the entrance to FriedrichshainPark, in which the idea of the architect, Stadt-Baurat LudwigHoffmann, wholly in harmony with the social spirit of the times, wasto erect an artistic monument to give joy to multitudes of children. This fairy entrance to the park is a decorative lay-out, a centralground surrounded by a high, thick lodge of beeches. Toward thiscentral ground--which has been transformed into a joyous fairyworld--many hedge walks lead; while in the sidewalks, to warn naughtychildren, are concealed fantastic figures. There is the huge_Menschen-fresser_, who grasps a tender infant in each Titan hand andbears on his head a huge basket of children too young to have knownmuch wrong. A humorous touch, giving distinct charm to the wholecreation, pervades all. From lions' heads and vases, distributed atregular intervals in the semicircular arcade in the background, watergushes forth; while in the central basin, nine small wateranimals--seven frogs and two larger animals--appear spouting greatjets of water. Clustered about the central fountain are the nine fairycharacters of Professor Ignatius Taschner, among whom are Red RidingHood, Hansel and Grethel each riding a duck, Puss-in-Boots, Cinderella, and Lucky Hans; and looking down upon them from thesurrounding balustrade are the animal figures by Joseph Rauch. Inthese simple natural classic groups, fancy with what pleasure thechildren may look to find the friendly beasts and the favorite talesthey love!

Such is the tribute to fairy tales rendered by two great nations whohave recognized fairy tales as the joyous right of children. Anyeducation which claims to relate itself to present child life canhardly afford to omit what is acknowledged as part of the child'severyday life; nor can it afford to omit to hand on to the child thosefairy tales which are a portion of his literary heritage. 

II. THE VALUE OF FAIRY TALES IN EDUCATION

In considering fairy tales for the little child, the first questionwhich presents itself is, "Why are fairy stories suited to the littlechild, and what is their value for him?"

Fairy tales bring joy into child life. The mission of joy has not beenfully preached, but we know that joy works toward physical health, mental brightness, and moral virtue. In the education of the future, happiness together with freedom will be recognized as the largestbeneficent powers that will permit the individual of four, from hispristine, inexperienced self-activity, to become that final, matured, self-expressed, self-sufficient, social development--the educated man. Joy is the mission of art and fairy tales are art products. As suchPater would say, "For Art comes to you, proposing to give nothing butthe highest quality to your moments as they pass, and simply for thosemoments' sake. Not the fruit of experience, but experience, is theend. " Such quality came from the art of the fairy tale into the walkof a little girl, for whom even the much-tabooed topic of the weathertook on a new, fresh charm. In answer to a remark concerning the dayshe replied, "Yes, it's not too hot, and not too cold, but justright. " All art, being a product of the creative imagination, has thepower to stimulate the creative faculties. "For Art, like Genius, "says Professor Woodberry, "is common to all men, it is the stamp ofthe soul in them. " All are creatures of imitation and combination; andthe little child, in handling an art product, puts his thought throughthe artist's mould and gains a touch of the artist's joy. 

Fairy tales satisfy the play spirit of childhood. Folk-tales are theproduct of a people in a primitive stage when all the world is awonder-sphere. Most of our popular tales date from days when theprimitive Aryan took his evening meal of yava and fermented mead, andthe dusky Sudra roamed the Punjab. "All these fancies are pervadedwith that purity by which children seem to us so wonderful, " saidWilliam Grimm. "They have the same blue-white, immaculate brighteyes. " Little children are in this same wonder-stage. They believethat the world about throbs with life and is peopled with all mannerof beautiful, powerful folk. All children are poets, and fairy talesare the poetic recording of the facts of life. In this day ofcommercial enterprise, if we would fit children for life we must seeto it that we do not blight the poets in them. In this day of emphasison vocational training we must remember there is a part of life unfed, unnurtured, and unexercised by industrial education. Moreover, whatever will be accomplished in life will be the achievement of afree and vigorous life of the imagination. Before it was realized, everything new had existed in some trained imagination, fertile withideas. The tale feeds the imagination, for the soul of it is a bit ofplay. It suits the child because in it he is not bound by the law ofcause and effect, nor by the necessary relations of actual life. He isentirely in sympathy with a world where events follow as one maychoose. He likes the mastership of the universe. And fairyland--wherethere is no time; where troubles fade; where youth abides; wherethings come out all right--is a pleasant place. 

Furthermore, fairy tales are play forms. "Play, " Bichter says, "is thefirst creative utterance of man. " "It is the highest form in which thenative activity of childhood expresses itself, " says Miss Blow. Fairytales offer to the little child an opportunity for the exercise ofthat self-active inner impulse which seeks expression in two kinds ofplay, the symbolic activity of free play and the concrete presentationof types. The play, _The Light Bird_, and the tale, _The Bremen_ _TownMusicians_, both offer an opportunity for the child to express thatpursuit of a light afar off, a theme which appeals to childhood. Thefairy tale, because it presents an organized form of human experience, helps to organize the mind and gives to play the values of human life. By contributing so largely to the play spirit, fairy tales contributeto that joy of activity, of achievement, of coöperation, and ofjudgment, which is the joy of all work. This habit of kindergartenplay, with its joy and freedom and initiative, is the highest goal tobe attained in the method of university work. 

Fairy tales give the child a power of accurate observation. The habitof re-experiencing, of visualization, which they exercise, increasesthe ability to see, and is the contribution literature offers tonature study. In childhood acquaintance with the natural objects ofeveryday life is the central interest; and in its turn it furnishesthose elements of experience upon which imagination builds. For thisreason it is rather remarkable that the story, which is omitted fromthe Montessori system of education, is perhaps the most valuable meansof effecting that sense-training, freedom, self-initiated play, repose, poise, and power of reflection, which are foundation stones ofits structure. 

Fairy tales strengthen the power of emotion, develop the power ofimagination, train the memory, and exercise the reason. As emotion andimagination are considered in Chapter 11, in the section, "The FairyTale as Literature, " and the training of the memory and the exerciseof the reason in connection with the treatment of various other topicslater on, these subjects will be passed by for the present. Every daythe formation of habits of mind during the process of education isbeing looked upon with a higher estimate. The formation of habits ofmind through the use of fairy tales will become evident duringfollowing chapters. 

Fairy tales extend and intensify the child's social relations. Theyappeal to the child by presenting aspects of family life. Through themhe realizes his relations to his own parents: their care, theirguardianship, and their love. Through this he realizes differentsituations and social relations, and gains clear, simple notions ofright and wrong. His sympathies are active for kindness and fairness, especially for the defenseless, and he feels deeply the calamity ofthe poor or the suffering and hardship of the ill-treated. He is insympathy with that poetic justice which desires immediate punishmentof wrong, unfairness, injustice, cruelty, or deceit. Through fairytales he gains a many-sided view of life. Through his dramas, with apower of sympathy which has seemed universal, Shakespeare has giventhe adult world many types of character and conduct that are noble. But fairy tales place in the hands of childhood all that the thousandsand thousands of the universe for ages have found excellent incharacter and conduct. They hold up for imitation all those cardinalvirtues of love and self-sacrifice, --which is the ultimate criterionof character, --of courage, loyalty, kindness, gentleness, fairness, pity, endurance, bravery, industry, perseverance, and thrift. Thusfairy tales build up concepts of family life and of ethical standards, broaden a child's social sense of duty, and teach him to reflect. Besides developing his feelings and judgments, they also enlarge hisworld of experience. 

In the school, the fairy tale as one form of the story is one part ofthe largest means to unify the entire work or play of the child. Inproportion as the work of art, nature-study, game, occupation, etc. , is fine, it will deal with some part of the child's everyday life. Thegood tale parallels life. It is a record of a portion of the racereaction to its environment; and being a permanent record ofliterature, it records experience which is universal and presentssituations most human. It is therefore material best suited to furnishthe child with real problems. As little children have their thoughtsand observations directed mainly toward people and centered about thehome, the fairy tale rests secure as the intellectual counterpart tothose thoughts. As self-expression and self-activity are the greatnatural instincts of the child, in giving opportunity to make a crownfor a princess, mould a clay bowl, decorate a tree, play a game, paintthe wood, cut paper animals, sing a lullaby, or trip a dance, the taleaffords many problems exercising all the child's accomplishments inthe variety of his work. This does not make the story the centralinterest, for actual contact with nature is the child's chiefinterest. But it makes the story, because it is an organizedexperience marked by the values of human life, the unity of thechild's return or reaction to his environment. The tale thus may bringabout that "living union of thought and expression which dispels theisolation of studies and makes the child live in varied, concrete, active relation to a common world. "

In the home fairy tales employ leisure hours in a way that buildscharacter. Critical moments of decision will come into the lives ofall when no amount of reason will be a sufficient guide. Mothers whocannot follow their sons to college, and fathers who cannot choose fortheir daughters, can help their children best to fortify their spiritsfor such crises by feeding them with good literature. This, when theyare yet little, will begin the rearing of a fortress of ideals whichwill support true feeling and lead constantly to noble action. Then, too, in the home, the illustration of his tale may give the child muchpleasure. For this is the day of fairy-tale art; and the child'ssatisfaction in the illustration of the well-known tale is limitless. It will increase as he grows older, as he understands art better, andas he becomes familiar with the wealth of beautiful editions which areat his command. 

And finally, though not of least moment, fairy tales afford a vitalbasis for language training and thereby take on a new importance inthe child's English. Through the fairy tale he learns the names ofthings and the meanings of words. One English fairy tale, _The Masterof all Masters_, is a ludicrous example of the tale built on this verytheme of names and meanings. Especially in the case of foreignchildren, in a tale of repetition, such as _The Cat and the Mouse_, _Teeny Tiny_, or _The Old Woman and Her Pig_, will the repetitivepassages be an aid to verbal expression. The child learns to followthe sequence of a story and gains a sense of order. He catches thenote of definiteness from the tale, which thereby clarifies histhinking. He gains the habit of reasoning to consequences, which isone form of a perception of that universal law which rules the world, and which is one of the biggest things he will ever come upon in life. Never can he meet any critical situation where this habit of reasoningto consequences will not be his surest guide in a decision. Thus fairytales, by their direct influence upon habits of thinking, effectlanguage training. 

Fairy tales contribute to language training also by providing anotherform of that basic content which is furnished for reading. In thefuture the child will spend more time in the kindergarten and earlyfirst grade in acquiring this content, so that having enjoyed the realliterature, when he reads later on he will be eager to satisfy his owndesires. Then reading will take purpose for him and be accomplishedalmost without drill and practically with no effort. The reading bookwill gradually disappear as a portion of his literary heritage. In thekindergarten the child will learn the play forms, and in the firstgrade the real beginnings, of phonics and of the form of words in theapplied science of spelling. In music he will learn the beginnings ofthe use of the voice. This will leave him free, when he begins readinglater, to give attention to the thought reality back of the symbols. When the elements combining to produce good oral reading are cared forin the kindergarten and in the first grade, in the subjects of whichthey properly form a part, the child, when beginning to read, nolonger will be needlessly diverted, his literature will contribute tohis reading without interference, and his growth in language willbecome an improved, steady accomplishment. 

REFERENCES

 Allison, Samuel; and Perdue, Avis: _The Story in Primary Instruction_. Flanagan. 

 Blow, Susan; Hill, Patty; and Harrison, Elizabeth: _The Kindergarten_. Houghton. 

 Blow, Susan: _Symbolic Education_. Appleton. 

 Chamberlain, Alexander: "Folk-Lore in the Schools, " _Pedagogical Seminary_, vol. Vii, pp. 347-56. 

 Chubb, Percival: "Value and Place of Fairy Stories, " _National Education Association Report_, 1905. 

 Dewey, John: _The School and the Child_. Blackie & Sons. 

 _Ibid. : The School and Society_. University of Chicago Press. 

 "Fairy Tales, " _Public Libraries_, 1906, vol. 11, pp. 175-78. 

 Palmer, Luella: "Standard for Kindergarten Training, " _Kindergarten Review_, June, 1914. 

 Welsh, Charles: _Right Reading for Children_. Heath. 

CHAPTER II

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION FOR FAIRY TALES

 All our troubles come from doing that in which we have no interest. --EPICTETUS. 

 That is useful for every man which is conformable to his own constitution and nature. --MARCUS AURELIUS. 

 Genuine interest means that a person has identified himself with, or found himself in, a certain course of activity. It is obtained not by thinking about it and consciously aiming at it, but by considering and aiming at the conditions that lie back of it, and compel it. --JOHN DEWEY. 

I. THE INTERESTS OF CHILDREN

Now that the value of fairy tales in education has been made clear, let us consider some of those principles of selection which shouldguide the teacher, the mother, the father, and the librarian, inchoosing the tale for the little child. 

Fairy tales must contain what interests children. It is a well-knownprinciple that selective interest precedes voluntary attention;therefore interest is fundamental. All that is accomplished ofpermanent good is a by-product of the enjoyment of the tale. The talewill go home only as it brings joy, and it will bring joy when itsecures the child's interest. Now interest is the condition whichrequires least mental effort. And fairy tales for little children mustfollow that great law of composition pointed out by Herbert Spencer, which makes all language consider the audience and the economy of thehearer's attention. The first step, then, is to study the interests ofthe child. We do not wish to give him just what he likes, but we wantto give him a chance to choose from among those things which he oughtto have and, as good and wise guardians, see that we offer what is inharmony with his interests. Any observation of the child's interestwill show that he loves the things he finds in his fairy tales. Heenjoys--

 _A sense of life_. This is the biggest thing in the fairy tales, and the basis for their universal appeal. The little child who is just entering life can no more escape its attraction than can the aged veteran about to leave the pathway. The little pig, Whitie, who with his briskly curling tail goes eagerly down the road to secure, from the man who carried a load of straw, a bit with which to build his easily destructible house; Red Riding Hood taking a pot of jam to her sick grandmother; Henny Penny starting out on a walk, to meet with the surprise of a nut falling on her head--the biggest charm of all this is that it is life. 

 _The familiar_. The child, limited in experience, loves to come in touch with the things he knows about. It soothes his tenderness, allays his fears, makes him feel at home in the world, --and he hates to feel strange, --it calms his timidity, and satisfies his heart. The home and the people who live in it; the food, the clothing, and shelter of everyday life; the garden, the plant in it, or the live ant or toad; the friendly dog and cat, the road or street near by, the brook, the hill, the sky--these are a part of his world, and he feels them his own even in a story. The presents which the Rabbit went to town to buy for the little Rabbits, in _How Brother Rabbit Frightens his Neighbors_; the distinct names, Miss Janey and Billy Malone, given to the animals of _In Some Lady's Garden_, just as a child would name her dolls; and the new shoes of the Dog which the Rabbit managed to get in _Why Mr. Dog Runs after Brother Rabbit_--these all bring up in the child's experience delightful familiar associations. The tale which takes a familiar experience, gives it more meaning, and organizes it, such as _The Little Red Hen_, broadens, deepens, and enriches the child's present life. 

 _The surprise_. While he loves the familiar, nothing more quickly brings a smile than the surprise. Perhaps the most essential of the fairy traits is the combination of the familiar and the unfamiliar. The desire for the unknown, that curiosity which brings upon itself surprise, is the charm of childhood as well as the divine fire of the scientist. The naughty little Elephant who asked "a new, fine question he had never asked before, " and who went to answer his own question of "what the crocodile has for dinner, " met with many surprises which were spankings; and as a result, he returned home with a trunk and experience. He is a very good example of how delightful to the child this surprise can be. The essence of the fairy tale is natural life in a spiritual world, the usual child in the unusual environment, or the unusual child in the natural environment. This combination of the usual and unusual is the chief charm of _Alice in Wonderland_, where a natural child wanders through a changing environment that is unusual. For an idle moment enjoy the task of seeing how many ideas it contains which are the familiar ideas of children, and how they all have been "made different. " All children love a tea-party, but what child would not be caught by having a tea-party with a Mad Hatter, a March Hare, and a sleepy Dormouse, with nothing to eat and no tea! Red Riding Hood was a dear little girl who set out to take a basket to her grandmother. But in the wood, after she had been gathering a nosegay and chasing butterflies, "just as I might do, " any child might say, she met a wolf! And what child's ears would not rise with curiosity? "Now something's going to happen!" The Three Bears kept house. That was usual enough; but everything was different, and the charm is in giving the child a real surprise at every step. The house was not like an ordinary house; it was in the wood, and more like a play-house than a real one. There was a room, but not much in it; a table, but there was not on it what is on your table--only three bowls. What they contained was usual, but unusually one bowl of porridge was big and hot, one was less big and cold, and one was little and just right. There were usual chairs, unusual in size and very unusual when Goldilocks sat in them. Upstairs the bedroom was usual, but the beds were unusual when Goldilocks lay upon them. The Bears themselves were usual, but their talk and action was a delightful mixture of the surprising and the comical. Perhaps this love of surprise accounts for the perfect leap of interest with which a child will follow the Cock in _The Bremen Town Musicians_, as he saw from the top of the tree on which he perched, a light, afar off through the wood. Certainly the theme of a light in the distance has a charm for children as it must have had for man long ago. 

 _Sense impression_. Good things to eat, beautiful flowers, jewels, the beauties of sight, color, and sound, of odor and of taste, all gratify a child's craving for sense impression. This, in its height, is the charm of the _Arabian Nights_. But in a lesser degree it appears in all fairy tales. Cinderella's beautiful gowns at the ball and the fine supper stimulate the sense of color, beauty, and taste. The sugar-panes and gingerbread roof of the Witch's House, in _Hansel and Grethel_, stir the child's kindred taste for sweets and cookies. The Gingerbread Boy, with his chocolate jacket, his cinnamon buttons, currant eyes, rose-sugar mouth, orange-candy cap, and gingerbread shoes, makes the same strong sense appeal. There is a natural attraction for the child in the beautiful interior of Sleeping Beauty's Castle, in the lovely perfume of roses in the Beast's Rose-Garden, in the dance and song of the Elves, and in the dance of the Goat and her seven Kids about the well. 

 _The beautiful_. Closely related to this love of the material is the sense of the beautiful. "Beauty is pleasure regarded as the quality of a thing, " says Santayana. Pleasures of the eye and ear, of the imagination and memory, are those most easily objectified, and form the groundwork on which all higher beauty rests. The green of the spring, the odor of Red Riding Hood's flowers, the splendor of the Prince's ball in _Cinderella_--these when perceived distinctly are intelligible, and when perceived delightfully are beautiful. Language is a kind of music, too; the mode of speaking, the sound of letters, the inflection of the voice--all are elements of beauty. But this material beauty is tied up in close association with things "eye hath not seen nor ear heard, " the moral beauty of the good and the message of the true. The industry of the little Elves reflects the worth of honest effort of the two aged peasants, and the dance of the Goat and seven Kids reflects the triumph of mother wit and the sharpness of love. The good, the true, and the beautiful are inseparably linked in the tale, just as they forever grow together in the life of the child. The tales differ largely in the element of beauty they present. Among those conspicuous for beauty may be mentioned Andersen's _Thumbelina_; the Indian _How the Sun, the Moon, and West Wind Went Out to Dinner_; the Japanese _Mezumi, the Beautiful_; and the English _Robin's Christmas Song. Little Two-Eyes_ stands out as one containing a large element of beauty, and _Oeyvind and Marit_ represents in an ideal way the possible union of the good, the true, and the beautiful. This union of the good, the true, and the beautiful has been expressed by an old Persian legend: "In the midst of the light is the beautiful, in the midst of the beautiful is the good, in the midst of the good is God, the Eternal One. "

 _Wonder, mystery, magic_. The spirit of wonder, like a will-o'-the-wisp, leads on through a fairy tale, enticing the child who follows, knowing that something will happen, and wondering what. When magic comes in he is gratified because some one becomes master of the universe--Cinderella, when she plants the hazel bough, and later goes to the wishing-tree; the fairy godmother, when with her wand she transforms a pumpkin to a gilded coach and six mice to beautiful gray horses; Little Two-Eyes, when she says, --

 Little kid, bleat, I wish to eat!

 and immediately her little table set with food so marvelously appears; or Hop-o'-my-Thumb when he steps into his Seven-League Boots and goes like the wind. 

 _Adventure_. This is a form of curiosity. In the old tale, as the wood was the place outside the usual habitation, naturally it was the place where things happened. Often there was a house in the wood, like the one "amidst the forest darkly green, " where Snow White lived with the Dwarfs. This adventure the little child loves for its own sake. Later, when he is about eleven or twelve, he loves it for its motive. This love of adventure is part of the charm of _Red Riding Hood_, of the _Three Bears_, of the _Three Pigs_, or of any good tale you might mention. 

 _Success_. The child likes the fairy tale to tell him of some one who succeeds. He admires the little pig Speckle who outwitted the Wolf in getting to the field of turnips first, or in going to the apple tree at Merry-Garden, or to the fair at Shanklin; who built his house of brick which would defy assault; and whose cleverness ended the Wolf's life. This observation of success teaches the child to admire masterliness, to get the motto, _Age quod agis_, stamped into his child life from the beginning. It influences character to follow such conduct as that of the Little Red Hen, who took a grain of wheat, --her little mite, --who planted it, reaped it, made it into bread, and then ate it; who, in spite of the Goose and the Duck, secured to herself the reward of her labors. 

 _Action_. Akin to his love of running, skipping, and jumping, to his enjoyment in making things go and in seeing others make things go, is the child's desire for action in his fairy tales; and this is just another way of saying he wants his fairy tales to parallel life. Action is the special charm of the Gingerbread Boy, who opened the oven door and so marvelously ran along, outrunning an old Man, an old Woman, a little Boy, two Well-Diggers, two Ditch-Diggers, a Bear, and a Wolf, until he met the Fox waiting by the corner of the fence. _Dame Wiggins of Lee and Her Seven Wonderful Cats_--a humorous tale written by Mrs. Sharp, a lady of ninety, edited by John Ruskin, who added the third, fourth, eighth, and ninth stanzas, and illustrated by Kate Greenaway--has this pleasing trait of action to a unique degree. So also has _The Cock, the Mouse, and the Little Red Hen_, a modern tale by Félicité Lefèvre. This very popular tale among children is a retelling of two old tales combined, _The Little Red Hen_ and the Irish _Little Rid Hin_. 

 _Humor_. The child loves a joke, and the tale that is humorous is his special delight. Humor is the source of pleasure in _Billy Bobtail_, where the number of animals and the noises they make fill the tale with hilarious fun. There is most pleasing humor in _Lambikin_. Here the reckless hero frolicked about on his little tottery legs. On his way to Granny's house, as he met the Jackal, the Vulture, the Tiger, and the Wolf, giving a little frisk, he said, --

 To Granny's house I go, Where I shall fatter grow, Then you can eat me so!

 Later, on returning, when the animals asked, "Have you seen Lambikin?" cozily settled within his Drumikin, laughing and singing to himself, he called out slyly--

 Lost in the forest, and so are you, On, little Drumikin! Tum-pa, turn-too!

 Humor is the charm, too, of Andersen's _Snow Man_. Here the child can identify himself with the Dog and thereby join in the sport which the Dog makes at the Snow Man's expense, just as if he himself were enlightening the Snow Man about the Sun, the Moon, and the Stove. There is most delightful humor in _The Cat and the Mouse in Partnership_, where the Cat has the face to play upon the credulity of the poor housekeeper Mouse, who always "stayed at home and did not go out into the daytime. " Returning home from his ventures abroad he named the first kitten Top-Off, the second one Half-Out, and the third one All-Out; while instead of having attended the christening of each, as he pretended, he secretly had been visiting the jar of fat he had placed for safe-keeping in the church. 

 _Poetic justice_. Emotional satisfaction and moral satisfaction based on emotional instinct appeal to the child. He pities the plight of the animals in the _Bremen Town Musicians_, and he wants them to find a refuge, a safe home. He is glad that the robbers are chased out, his sense of right and wrong is satisfied. Poetic justice suits him. This is one reason why fairy tales make a more definite impression often than life--because in the tale the retribution follows the act so swiftly that the child may see it, while in life "the mills of the gods grind slowly, " and even the adult who looks cannot see them grind. The child wants Cinderella to gain the reward for her goodness; and he wishes the worthy Shoemaker and his Wife, in the _Elves and the Shoemaker_, to get the riches their industry deserves. 

 _The imaginative_. Fairy tales satisfy the activity of the child's imagination and stimulate his fancy. Some beautiful spring day, perhaps, after he has enjoyed an excursion to a field or meadow or wood, he will want to follow Andersen's Thumbelina in her travels. He will follow her as she floats on a lily pad, escapes a frog of a husband, rides on a butterfly, lives in the house of a field-mouse, escapes a mole of a husband, and then rides on the back of a friendly swallow to reach the south land and to become queen of the flowers. Here there is much play of fancy. But even when the episodes are homely and the situations familiar, as in _Little Red Hen_, the act of seeing them as distinct images and of following them with interest feeds the imagination. For while the elements are familiar, the combination is unusual; and this nourishes the child's ability to remove from the usual situation, which is the essential element in all originality. By entering into the life of the characters and identifying himself with them, he develops a large sympathy and a sense of power, he gains insight into life, and a care for the interests of the world. Thus imagination grows "in flexibility, in scope, and in sympathy, till the life which the individual lives is informed with the life of nature and of society, " and acquires what Professor John Dewey calls Culture. 

 _Animals_. Very few of the child's fairy tales contain no animals. Southey said of a home: "A house is never perfectly furnished for enjoyment unless there is in it a child rising three years old and a kitten rising six weeks; kitten is in the animal world what a rose-bud is in a garden. " In the same way it might be said of fairy tales: No tale is quite suited to the little child unless in it there is at least one animal. Such animal tales are _The Bremen Town Musicians, Henny Penny, Ludwig and Marleen_ and _The Elephant's Child_. The episode of the hero or heroine and the friendly animal, as we find it retained in Two-Eyes and her little Goat, was probably a folk-lore convention--since dropped--common to the beginning of many of the old tales. It indicates how largely the friendly animal entered into the old stories. 

 _A portrayal of human relations, especially with children_. In _Cinderella_ the child is held by the unkind treatment inflicted upon Cinderella by her Stepmother and the two haughty Sisters. He notes the solicitude of the Mother of the Seven Kids in guarding them from the Wolf. In the _Three Bears_ he observes a picture of family life. A little child, on listening to _The Three Pigs_ for the first time, was overwhelmed by one thought and cried out, "And didn't the Mother come home any more?" Naturally the child would be interested especially in children, for he is like the older boy, who, when looking at a picture-book, gleefully exclaimed, "That's me!" He likes to put himself in the place of others. He can do it most readily if the character is a small individual like Red Riding Hood who should obey her mother; or like Goldilocks who must not wander in the wood; or like Henny Penny who went to take a walk and was accosted by, "Where are you going?" In _Brother Rabbit and the Little Girl_ the Little Girl takes the keenest enjoyment in putting herself in the customary grown-up's place of granting permission, while the Rabbit takes the usual child's place of mentioning a request with much persuasion. The child is interested, too, in the strange people he meets in the fairy tales: the clever little elves who lived in the groves and danced on the grass; the dwarfs who inhabited the earth-rocks and the hills; the trolls who dwelt in the wild pine forest or the rocky spurs, who ate men or porridge, and who fled at the noise of bells; the fairies who pleased with their red caps, green jackets, and sprightly ways; the beautiful fairy godmother who waved her wonderful wand; or those lovely fairy spirits who appeared at the moment when most needed--just as all best friends do--and who could grant, in a twinkling, the wish that was most desired. 

 _The diminutive_. This pleasure in the diminutive is found in the interest in the fairy characters, Baby Bear, Little Billy-Goat, Little Pig, the Little Elves, Teeny Tiny, Thumbelina, and Tom Thumb, as well as in tiny objects. In the _Tale of Tom Thumb_ the child is captivated by the miniature chariot drawn by six small mice, the tiny butterfly-wing shirt and chicken-skin boots worn by Tom, and the small speech produced by him at court, when asked his name:--

 My name is Tom Thumb, From the Fairies I come; When King Arthur shone, This court was my home. In me he delighted, By him I was knighted. Did you never hear of Sir Thomas Thumb?

 _Doll i' the Grass_ contains a tiny chariot made from a silver spoon and drawn by two white mice, and _Little Two-Eyes_ gives a magic table. The child takes keen delight in the fairy ship which could be folded up and put into a pocket, and in the wonderful nut-shell that could bring forth beautiful silver and gold dresses. The little wagon of Chanticleer and Partlet that took them a trip up to the hill, and the tiny mugs and beds, table and plates, of Snow White's cottage in the wood--such as these all meet the approval of child-nature. 

 _Rhythm and repetition_. The child at first loves sound; later he loves sound and sense, or meaning. Repetition pleases him because he has limited experience and is glad to come upon something he has known before. He observes and he wants to compare, but it is a job. Repetition saves him a task and boldly proclaims, "We are the same. " Such is the effect of the repetitive expressions which we find in _Teeny Tiny_: as, "Now when the teeny-tiny woman got home to her teeny-tiny house, she was a teeny-tiny bit tired"; or, in _Little Jack Rollaround_, who cried out with such vigorous persistence, "Roll me around!" and called to the moon, "I want the people to see me!" In _The Little Rabbit Who Wanted Red Wings_, one of the pleasantest tales for little children, the White Rabbit said to his Mammy, "Oh, Mammy, I wish I had a long gray tail like Bushy Tail's; I wish I had a back full of bristles like Mr. Porcupine's; I wish I had a pair of red rubbers like Miss Puddleduck's. " At last, when he beheld the tiny red-bird at the Wishing-Pond, he said, "Oh, I wish I had a pair of little red wings!" Then, after getting his wings, when he came home at night and his Mammy no longer knew him, he repeated to Mr. Bushy Tail, Miss Puddleduck, and old Mr. Ground Hog, the same petition to sleep all night, "Please, kind Mr. Bushy Tail, may I sleep in your house all night?" etc. Repetition here aids the child in following the characters, the story, and its meaning. It is a distinct help to unity and to clearness. 

 _The Elephant's Child_ is an example of how the literary artist has used this element of repetition, and used it so wonderfully that the form is the matter and the tale cannot be told without the artist's words. "'Satiable curtiosity, " "the banks of the great, grey-green, greasy, Limpopo River, all set about with fever-trees, " and "'Scuse me, " are but a few of those expressions for which the child will watch as eagerly as one does for a signal light known to be due. The repetition of the one word, "curtiosity, " throughout the tale, simply makes the point of the whole story and makes that point delightfully impressive. 

 Rhythm and repetition also make a bodily appeal, they appeal to the child's motor sense and instinctively get into his muscles. This is very evident in _Brother Rabbit's Riddle_:--

 De big bird bob en little bird sing; De big bee zoon en little bee sting, De little man lead en big hoss foller-- Kin you tell wat 's good fer a head in a holler?

 The song in _Brother Rabbit and the Little Girl_ appeals also to the child's sense of sound:--

 De jay-bird hunt de sparrer-nes; De bee-martin sail all 'roun'; De squer'l, he holler from de top er de tree, Mr. Mole, he stay in de ground; He hide en he stay twel de dark drap down-- Mr. Mole, he hide in de groun'. 

 _The simple and the sincere_. The child's taste for the simple and the sincere is one reason for the appeal which Andersen's tales make. In using his stories it is to be remembered that, although Andersen lacked manliness in being sentimental, he preserved the child's point of view and gave his thought in the true nursery story's mode of expression. Since real sentiment places the emphasis on the object which arouses feeling and the sentimental places the emphasis on the feeling, sincerity demands that in using Andersen's tales, one lessen the sentimental when it occurs by omitting to give prominence to the feeling. Andersen's tales reflect what is elementary in human nature, childlike fancy, and emotion. His speech is characterized by the simplest words and conceptions, an avoidance of the abstract, the use of direct language, and a naïve poetic expression adapted to general comprehension. He is not to be equaled in child conversations. The world of the fairy tale must be simple like the world Andersen has given us. It must be a world of genuine people and honest occupations in order to form a suitable background for the supernatural. Only fairy tales possessing simplicity are suited to the oldest kindergarten child of five or six years. To the degree that the child is younger than five years, he should be given fewer and fewer fairy tales. Those given should be largely realistic stories of extreme simplicity. 

 _Unity of effect_. The little child likes the short tale, for it is a unity he can grasp. If you have ever listened to a child of five spontaneously attempting to tell you a long tale he has not grasped, and have observed how the units of the tale have become confused in the mind that has not held the central theme, you then realize how harmful it is to give a child too long a story. Unity demands that there be no heaping up of sensations, but neat, orderly, essential incidents, held together by one central idea. The tale must go to the climax directly. It must close according to Uncle Remus's idea when he says, "De tale ain't persoon atter em no furder don de place whar dey [the characters] make der disappear'nce. " It will say what it has to say and lose no time in saying it; and often it will attempt to say only one thing. It will be remarkable as well for what it omits as for what it tells. The Norse _Doll i' the Grass_ well illustrates this unity. Boots set out to find a wife and found a charming little lassie who could spin and weave a shirt in one day, though of course the shirt was tiny. He took her home and then celebrated his wedding with the pleasure of the king. This unity, which is violated in Grimm's complicated _Golden Bird_, appears pleasantly in _The Little Pine Tree that Wished for New Leaves_. Here one feeling dominates the tale, the Pine Tree was no longer contented. So she wished, first for gold leaves, next for glass leaves, and then for leaves like those of the oaks and maples. But the robber who stole her gold leaves, the storm that shattered her glass leaves, and the goat that ate her broad green leaves, changed her feeling of discontent, until she wished at last to have back her slender needles, green and fair, and awoke next morning, happy and contented. 

Fairy tales for little children must avoid certain elements opposed tothe interests of the very young child. Temperaments vary and one mustbe guided by the characteristics of the individual child. But whilethe little girl with unusual power of visualization, who weeps onhearing of Thumbling's travels down the cow's mouth in company withthe hay, may be the exception, she proves the rule: the little childgenerally should not have the tale that creates an emotion of horroror deep feeling of pain. This standard would determine what talesshould not be given to the child of kindergarten age:--

 _The tale of the witch_. The witch is too strange and too fearful for the child who has not learned to distinguish the true from the imaginative. This would move _Hansel and Grethel_ into the second-grade work and _Sleeping Beauty_ preferably into the work of the first grade. The child soon gains sufficient experience so that later the story impresses, not the strangeness. 

 _The tale of the dragon_. This would eliminate _Siegfried and the Dragon_. A dragon is too fearful a beast and produces terror in the heart of the child. Tales of heroic adventure with the sword are not suited to his strength. He has not yet entered the realm of bold adventure where Perseus and Theseus and Hercules display their powers. The fact that hero-tales abound in delightful literature is not adequate reason for crowding the _Rhinegold Legends, Wagner Stories_, and _Tales of King Arthur_, into the kindergarten. Their beauty and charm do not make it less criminal to present to little children such a variety of images as knighthood carries with it. These tales are not sufficiently simple for the little child, and must produce a mental confusion and the crudest of returns. 

 _Giant tales_. This would omit _Jack and the Beanstalk, Jack the Giant-Killer_, and _Tom Hickathrift_, moving them up into the primary field. A little girl, when eating tongue, confidingly asked, "Whose tongue?" and when told, "A cow's, " immediately questioned with tenderness, "Don't he feel it?" Thereafter she insisted that she didn't like tongue. To a child of such sensibilities the cutting off of heads is savage and gruesome and should not be given a chance to impress so prominently. Life cannot be without its strife and struggle, but the little child need not meet everything in life at once. This does not mean that absolutely no giant tale would be used at this time. The tale of _Mr. Miacca_, in which "little Tommy couldn't always be good and one day went round the corner, " is a giant tale which could be used with young children because it is full of delightful humor. Because of the simplicity of Tommy's language and his sweet childishness it appeals to the child's desire to identify himself with the character. Tommy is so clever and inventive and his lively surprises so brimful of fun that the final effect is entirely pleasing. 

 _Some tales of transformation_. The little child is not pleased but shocked by the transformation of men into animals. A little girl, on looking at an illustration of _Little Brother and Sister_, remarked, "If my Sister would turn into a fawn I would cry. " When the animals are terrifying, the transformation contains horror for the child. This, together with the length and complexity of the story, would move _Beauty and the Beast_ up into the second grade where the same transformation becomes an element of pleasure. A simple tale of transformation, such as _The Little Lamb and the Little Fish_, in which Gretchen becomes a lamb and Peterkin a little fish, is interesting but not horrible, and could be used. So also could a tale such as Grimm's _Fundevogel_, in which the brother and sister escape the pursuit of the witch by becoming, one a rosebush and the other a rose; later, one a church and the other a steeple; and a third time, one a pond and the other a duck. In both these tales we have the witch and transformation, but the effect contains no horror. 

 _The tale of strange animal relations and strange creatures. Tom Tit Tot_, which Jacobs considers the most delightful of all fairy tales, is brimful of humor for the older child, but here the tailed man is not suited to the faith and understanding of six years. _Rumpelstiltskin_, its parallel, must also be excluded. _The House in the Wood_, and its Norse parallel, _The Two Step-Sisters_, are both very beautiful, but are more suited to the second grade. In the kindergarten it is much better to present the tale which emphasizes goodness, rather than the two just mentioned, which present the good and the bad and show what happens to both. Besides there is a certain elation resulting from the superior reward won by the good child which crowds out any pity for the erring child. Such elation is a form of selfishness and ought not to be emphasized. _Snow White and Rose Red_ contains the strange dwarf, but it is a tale so full of love and goodness and home life that in spite of its length it could be used in the first grade. 

 _Unhappy tales_. The very little child pities, and its tender heart must be protected from depressing sadness as unrelieved as we find it in _The Little Match Girl_. The image of suffering impressed on a child, who cannot forget the sight of a cripple for days, is too intense to be healthful. The sorrow of the poor is one of the elements of life that even the very little child meets, and it is legitimate that his literature should include tales that call for compassion. But in a year or two, when he develops less impressionability and more poise, he is better prepared to meet such situations, as he must meet them in life. 

 _The tale of capture_. This would eliminate _Proserpine_. No more beautiful myth exists than this one of the springtime, but its beauty and its symbolism do not make it suitable for the kindergarten. It is more suited to the elementary child of the fourth grade. In fact, very few myths of any sort find a legitimate place in the kindergarten, perhaps only a few of the simpler _pourquois_ tales. _The Legend of the Pied Piper of Hamelin_, which is very beautiful, and appeals to little children because of the piping and of the children following after, should be omitted from the kindergarten because the capture at the close--the disappearance of the children in the hill--is tragic in pathos. It is better to leave the literature as it is and offer it later when the child reaches the second grade. The effect of this tragic end has been realized by Josephine Scribner Gates, who (_St. Nicholas_, November, 1914) has given to the children, "And Piped Those Children Back Again. " This is a modern completion of _The Pied Piper_. It most happily makes the little lame boy who was left in Hamelin when the Piper closed the door of the mountain, the means of the restoration of the other children to their parents. 

 _The very long tale_. This would omit _The Ugly Duckling. The Ugly Duckling_ is a most artistic tale and one that is very true to life. Its characters are the animals of the barn-yard, the hens and ducks familiar to the little child's experience. But the theme and emotional interest working out at length through varied scenes, make it much better adapted to the capacities of a third-grade child. _The White Cat_, a feminine counterpart of _Puss-in-Boots_--which gives a most charming picture of how a White Cat, a transformed princess, helped a youth, and re-transformed became his bride--because of its length, is better used in the first grade at the same time with _Puss-in-Boots_. The same holds true of _Peter, Paul, and Espen_, or its parallel, Laboulaye's _Poucinet_. This is a fine tale telling how the youngest of three sons succeeded in winning the king's favor and finally the princess and half the kingdom. First, Espen had to cut down the giant oak that shadowed the palace and dig a well in the courtyard of the castle deep enough to furnish water the entire year. But after winning in these tests, he is required to conquer a great Ogre who dwells in the forest, and later to prove himself cleverer in intellect than the princess by telling the greater falsehood. It is evident that not only the subject-matter but the working out of the long plot are much beyond kindergarten children. 

 _The complicated or the insincere tale_. This would eliminate a tale of complicated structure, such as Grimm's _Golden Bird_; and many of the modern fairy tales, which will be dealt with later on. 

The fairy tales mentioned above are all important tales which thechild should receive at a later time when he is ready for them. Theyare mentioned because they all have been suggested for kindergartenuse. The whole field of children's literature is largely unclassifiedand ungraded as yet, and such arrangements as we possess show slightrespect for standards. There is abundant material for the youngest, and much will be gained by omitting to give the very young what theywill enjoy a little later, much better and with freshness. It is truethat a few classics are well-suited to the child at any age, such as_Alice in Wonderland_, _The Jungle Books_, and _Uncle Remus Tales_. Inregard to this grading of the classics, Lamb in _Mackery End_, speaking of his sister's education, said, "She was tumbled early, byaccident or design, into a spacious closet of good old Englishreading, without much selection or prohibition, and browsed at willupon that fair and wholesome pasturage. Had I twenty girls they shouldbe brought up exactly in this fashion. " Lamb would have argued: Setthe child free in the library and let him choose for himself, and feedon great literature, those stories which give general types ofsituation and character, which give the simplest pictures of a peopleat different epochs. But with all due respect to Lamb it must be saidthat Lamb is not living in this scientific day of discovery of thechild's personality and of accurate attention to the child's needs. Because the _Odyssey_ is a great book and will give much to any childdoes not prove at all that the same child would not be better off byreading it when his interests reach its life. This outlook on theproblem would eliminate the necessity of having the classics rewrittenfrom a new moral viewpoint, which is becoming a custom now-a-days, andwhich is to be frowned upon, for it deprives the literature of much ofits vigor and force. 

II. THE FAIRY TALE AS LITERATURE

From the point of view of the child, we have seen that in a subjectivesense, fairy tales must contain the interests of children. In anobjective sense, rather from the point of view of literature, let usnow consider what fairy tales must contain, what are the mainstandards which determine the value of fairy tales as literature, andas such, subject-matter of real worth to the child. 

The old tale will not always be perfect literature; often it will beimperfect, especially in form. Yet the tale should be selected withthe standards of literature guiding in the estimate of its worth andin the emphasis to be placed upon its content. Such relating of thetale to literary standards would make it quite impossible later in theprimary grades when teaching the reading of _Three Pigs_, to put themain stress on a mere external like the expression of the voice. Astudy of the story as literature would have centered the attention onthe situation, the characters, and the plot. If the voice is receivingtraining in music and in the phonics of spelling, then when thereading of the tale is undertaken it will be a willing servant to themind which is concentrating on the reality, and will express what thethought compels. 

The fairy tale first must be a classic in reality even if it lacks thecrowning touch of perfect form given through the re-treatment of aliterary artist. In _Reynard the Fox_ we have an exact example of thefolk-tale that has been elevated into literature. But this waspossible only because the tales originally possessed the qualities ofa true classic. "A true classic, " Sainte-Beuve has said, "is one whichenriches the human mind, has increased its treasure and caused it toadvance a step, which has discovered some moral and unequivocal truthor revealed some eternal passion in that heart where all seemed knownand discovered; which is an expression of thought, observation, orinvention, in no matter what form, only provided it be broad andgreat, refined and sensible, sane and beautiful in itself; whichspeaks in its own peculiar style which is found to be also that of thewhole world, a style new and old, easily contemporary with all time. "Immediately some of the great fairy tales stand out as answering tothis test--_Red Riding Hood, Sleeping Beauty, Jack and the Beanstalk, Cinderella, Jack the Giant-Killer_, --which has been said to be theepitome of the whole life of man--_Beauty and the Beast_, and a crowdof others. Any fairy tale which answers to the test of a real classicmust, like these, show itself to contain for the child a permanentenrichment of the mind. 

Fairy tales must have certain qualities which belong to all literatureas a fine art, whether it is the literature of knowledge or theliterature of power. Literature is not the book nor is it life; butliterature is the sense of life, whose artist is the author, and themedium he uses is words, language. It is good art when his sense oflife is truth, and fine art when there is beauty in that truth. Theone essential beauty of literature is in its essence and does notdepend upon any decoration. As words are the medium, literature willdistinguish carefully among them and use them as the painter, forparticular lights and shades. According to Pater literature must havetwo qualities, mind and soul. Literature will have mind when it hasthat architectural sense of structure which foresees the end in thebeginning and keeps all the parts related in a harmonious unity. Itwill have soul when it has that "vagrant sympathy" which makes it comehome to us and which makes it suggest what it does not say. Test the_Tale of Cinderella_ by this standard. As to mind, it makes one thinkof a bridge in which the very keystone of the structure is thecondition that Cinderella return from the ball by the stroke oftwelve. And its "vagrant sympathy" is quite definite enough to reach amaid of five, who remarked: "If I'd have been Cinderella, I wouldn'thave helped those ugly sisters, would you?"

If the fairy tale stands the test of literature it must have proveditself, not only a genuine classic according to Sainte-Beuve'sstandard, and a tale possessing qualities of mind and soul accordingto Pater's _Style_, but it must have shown itself also a work owningcertain features distinguishing it as literature. These particularliterary marks which differentiate the literary tale from the ordinaryprose tale have been pointed out by Professor Winchester in his_Principles of Literary Criticism_. They apply to the old tale ofprimitive peoples just as well as to the modern tale of to-day. Asliterature the tale must have:

 (1) a power to appeal to the emotions;

 (2) a power to appeal to the imagination;

 (3) a basis of truth; and

 (4) a form more or less perfect. 

(1) A power to appeal to the emotions. This appeal to the emotions isits unique distinguishing literary trait. Literature appeals, not tothe personal emotions but to the universal ones. For this reason, through literature the child may come in time to develop a power ofuniversal sympathy, which is not the least value literature has tobestow upon him, for this sympathy will become a benediction to allthose with whom he may have to deal. In order that emotion in thetales may be literary--make a permanent appeal--according to ProfessorWinchester's standards, it must have justness given by a deep andworthy cause; vividness so that it may enlarge and thrill; a certainsteadiness produced by everything in the tale contributing to the mainemotion; a variety resulting from contrasts of character; and a highquality obtained through its sympathy with life and its relation tothe conduct of life, so that the feeling for the material beauty ofmere sights and sounds is closely related to the deepest suggestionsof moral beauty. The best literary tales will possess emotion havingall five characteristics. Many tales will exhibit one or more of thesetraits conspicuously. No tale that is literature will be found whichdoes not lay claim to some one of these qualities which appeal to thebroadly human emotions. 

Applying the test of emotion to fairy tales, _Cinderella_ possesses ajust emotion, Cinderella's cause is the cause of goodness and kindnessand love, and deserves a just reward. _The Town Musicians of Bremen_exhibits vivid emotion, for all four characters are in the samedesperate danger of losing life, all four unite to save it, and tofind a home. Andersen's _Steadfast Tin Soldier_ is a good example ofsteadiness of emotion, as it maintains throughout its message ofcourage. The Tin Soldier remained steadfast, whether on the table justescaped from the toy-box, or in the street after a frightful fall fromthe window, or spinning in a paper boat that bobbed, or sailing underthe crossing, or lying at full length within the fish that swallowedhim, or at last melting in the full glare of the hearth fire. It is avery good example, too, of vividness of emotion. _The Little Elves_illustrates steadiness of emotion, it is pervaded by the one feeling, that industry deserves reward. The French tale, _Drakesbill_, isespecially delightful and humorous because "Bill Drake" perseveres inhis happy, fresh vivacity, at the end of every rebuff of fortune, andtriumphantly continues his one cry of, "Quack, quack, quack! Whenshall I get my money back?" _Lambikin_ leaves the one distinctimpression of light gaiety and happy-heartedness; and _The Foolish, Timid Rabbit_ preserves steadily the one effect of the credulity ofthe animals, made all the more prominent by contrast to the wisdom ofthe Lion. Variety of emotion appears in tales such as _Cinderella, Little Two-Eyes, Sleeping Beauty_, and _Three Pigs_, where the variouscharacters are drawn distinctly and their contrasting traits producevaried emotional effects. All the great fairy tales appeal to emotionof a high moral quality and it is this which is the source of theiruniversal appeal. It is this high moral quality of the spiritualtruth, which is the center of the tale's unity, holding together allthe parts under one emotional theme. This is the source of theperennial freshness of the old tale; for while the immortal truth itpresents is old, the personality of the child that meets it is new. For the child, the tale is new because he discovers in it a bit ofhimself he had not known before, and it retains for him a lastingcharm so that he longs to hear it again and again. The beauty oftruth, the reward of goodness, and the duty of fairness, give a highemotional quality to _Little Two-Eyes_; and _Sleeping Beauty_illustrates the blighting power of hatred to impose a curse and thesaving power of love to overcome the works of hatred. 

Considering folk-tales from the standpoint of emotion, if asked tosuggest what author's work would rank in the same class, one is rathersurprised to find, that for high moral quality, variety, and worthycause, the author who comes to mind is none other than Shakespeare. Perhaps, with all due respect to literature's idol, one might evenventure to question which receives honor by the comparison, Shakespeare or the folk-tales? It might be rather a pleasant task todiscover who is the Cordelia, the Othello, the Rosalind, and thePortia of the folk-tales; or who the Beauty, the Bluebeard, theCinderella, the Puss-in-Boots, and the Hop-o'-my-Thumb, ofShakespeare. 

The little child is open to emotional appeal, his heart is tender andhe is impressionable. If he feels with the characters in his tales hedevelops a power of emotion. In Andersen's _Snow Man_ it is hard tosay which seems more human to him or which makes more of an emotionalappeal, the Snow Man or the Dog. He is sorry for the poor Shoemaker in_The Little Elves_, glad when he grows rich, delighted for the Elveswhen they receive their presents, and satisfied at the happy end. Since literature depicts life and character in order to awaken nobleemotions, it follows that one must omit to present what awakensrepulsive or degrading emotions. And it is for this reason, as hasbeen mentioned under the heading "Elements to be avoided, " that thetales of the witch and the dragon must be excluded, not for all time, but for the earliest years, when they awaken horror. 

Through fairy tales we have seen that the emotional power of the childis strengthened. This has been effected because, in the tale just astruly as in life, action is presented in real situations; and back ofevery action is the motive force of emotion. This cumulative power ofemotion, secured by the child through the handling of tales, willserve daily a present need. It will be the dynamic force which he willrequire for anything he wishes to accomplish in life. It will give thechild the ability to use it in any situation similar to that in whichit was acquired. It will make a difference in his speech; he will nothave to say so much, for what he does say will produce results. Thisgrowing power of emotion will carry over into feelings of relation andthus lead to judgment of values. This evaluation is the basis ofreasoning and answers to the child's daily call to think from causesto consequences. This increasing power of emotion develops into theæsthetic sensibilities and so results in a cultivation of taste and anunderstanding of life. Emotion therefore leads to appreciation, which, when logically developed, becomes expression. Fairy tales, thus, inconducting emotional capacity through this varied growth and towardthis high development, hold an educational value of no mean order. 

(2) The power to appeal to the imagination. Emotion can be aroused byshowing the objects which excite emotion. Imagination is this power tosee and show things in the concrete. Curry says, "Whenever the soulcomes vividly in contact with any fact, truth, etc. , whenever it takesthem home to itself with more than common intensity, out of thatmeeting of the soul and its object there arises a thrill of joy, aglow of feeling. It is the faculty that can create ideal presence. "When through imagination we select spontaneously from the elements ofexperience and combine into new wholes, we call it creativeimagination. --The creative imagination will be viewed here as itappears in action in the creative return given by the child to hisfairy tales. --When we emphasize a similarity seen in mere external oraccidental relations or follow suggestions not of an essential naturein the object, we call it fancy. Ruskin, in his _Modern Painters_, vol. I, part III, _Of the Imaginative Faculty_, would distinguishthree classes of the imagination:--

(a) _The associative imagination_. This is the power of imagination bywhich we call into association other images that tend to produce thesame or allied emotion. When this association has no common ground ofemotion it is fancy. The test for the associative imagination, whichhas the power to combine ideas to form a conception, is that if onepart is taken away the rest of the combination goes to pieces. Itrequires intense simplicity, harmony, and absolute truth. Andersen's_Fairy Tales_ are a perfect drill for the associative imagination. Literature parallels life and what is presented calls up individualexperience. Any child will feel a thrill of kinship with theexperiences given in _The Tin Soldier_--a little boy's birthday, theopening of the box, the counting of the soldiers, and the setting ofthem upon the table. And because here Andersen has transformed thisusual experience with a vivacity and charm, the tale ranks high as atale of imagination. _Little Ida's Flowers_ and _Thumbelina_ are talesof pure fancy. Grimm's _The Straw, the Coal, and the Bean_ and _TheSpindle, the Shuttle, and the Needle_ rank in the same class, as alsodo the Norse _The Doll i' the Grass_ and the English _Tom Thumb_. 

(b) _The penetrative imagination_. This power of imagination shows thereal character of a thing and describes it by its spiritual effects. It sees the heart and inner nature of things. Through fancy the childcannot reach this central viewpoint since fancy deals only withexternals. Through the exercise of this power the child developsinsight, intuition, and a perception of spiritual values, and gains alove of the ideal truth and a perpetual thirst for it. He developsgenuineness, one of the chief virtues of originality. He will tend notto have respect for sayings or opinions but will seek the truth, begoverned by its laws, and hold a passion for perfection. This power ofimagination makes of him a continual seeker, "a pilgrim upon earth. "Through the penetrative imagination the child forgets himself andenters into the things about him, into the doings of Three Pigs or theadventures of Henny Penny. 

(c) _The contemplative imagination_. This is that special phase of theimagination that gives to abstract being consistency and reality. Through the contemplative imagination the child gains the significanceof meaning and discerns the true message of the tale. When merelyexternal resemblance is caught, when the likeness is forced, and theimage created believed in, we have fancy. The contemplativeimagination interprets the past in the tale and relates it to thefuture. It shows what is felt by indicating some aspect of what isseen. Through the exercise of this power the child develops thecapacity to see. This capacity has received a high estimate fromRuskin, who said, "Hundreds of people can talk for one who can think, thousands can think for one who can see. " For language-training thecapacity to see gives that ability to image words which results inmental growth. 

The labor of the spirit seeking the full message of the fairy tale, often is rewarded with bits of philosophy which are the essence of itspersonal wisdom. Even the Woman Suffragists of our day might be amusedto find, in _The Cat and Mouse in Partnership_, this side-light on oneof their claims. The Mouse said she did not know what to think of thecurious names, Top-off, Half-Out, and All-Out, which the Cat hadchosen. To which the Cat replied, "That is because you always stay athome. You sit here in your soft gray coat and long tail, and thesefoolish whims get into your head. It is always the way when one doesnot go out in the daytime. " Sometimes the philosophy of the tale isexpressed not at all directly. This is the case in Andersen's _TheEmperor's New Suit_, a gem in story-telling art--more suited to thesecond grade--where the purpose of the story is veiled, and the satireor humor is conveyed through a very telling word or two. --"'I willsend my _old, honest_ minister to the weavers, ' thought the Emperor. And the old, honest minister went to the room where the two swindlerssat working at empty looms. 'Heaven preserve me!' thought the oldminister, opening his eyes wide. 'Why, I cannot see anything!'--But hedid not say so. " The entire tale is a concrete representation of onepoint; and the concreteness is so explicit that at the close of thestory its philosophy easily forms itself into the implied message ofworldly wisdom: People are afraid to speak truth concerning muchthrough cowardice or through fear of acting otherwise than all theworld. The philosophy underlying _The Steadfast Tin Soldier_ is evenfiner as a bit of truth than the perfect art of the literary story:That what happens in life does not matter so much as the way you takeit. The Tin Soldier always remained steadfast, no matter whathappened. Kipling's _Elephant's Child_ is more charming than ever whenlooked at from the standpoint of its philosophy. It might beinterpreted as an allegory answering the question, "How should one getexperience?" a theme which cannot be said to lack universal appeal. _The Ugly Duckling_ is full of sayings of philosophy that contributeto its complete message. The Cat and the Hen to whom the ducklingcrept for refuge said, "We and the world, " and could not bear adifference of opinion. "You may believe me, " said the Hen, "because Itell you the truth. That is the way to tell your friends. " Theirtreatment of the Duckling expressed the philosophy: "If you can't dowhat I can you're no good. " The Hen said to him, "You have nothing todo, that's why you have such strange ideas. " The Duckling expressedhis philosophy by saying quietly, "You don't understand me. "

These bits of philosophy often become compressed into expressionswhich to-day we recognize as proverbs. The words of the Mother Duck, "Into the water he goes if I have to kick him in, " became aScandinavian proverb. "A little bird told it, " a common saying ofto-day, appears in Andersen's _Nightingale_ and in _Thumbelina_. Butthis saying is traceable at least to the third story of the fourthnight in Straparola, translated by Keightley, _The Dancing Water, theSinging Apple, and the Beautiful Green Bird_, in which the bird tellsthe King that his three guests are his own children. "Even a cat maylook at a king, " is probably traceable to some fairy tale if not to_Puss-in-Boots_. The philosophy in the fairy tales and the proverbsthat have arisen in them, are subjects which offer to the adult muchpleasure and fruitfulness. 

But one must ask, "Does this philosophy appeal to the child? Is it notadult wisdom foreign to his immaturity?" The old folk-tales are theproducts of adult minds; but the adults were grown-ups that lookedupon the world with the eyes of children, and their philosophy oftenwas the philosophy of childhood. For childhood has its philosophy; butbecause it meets with repression on so many sides it usually keeps itto itself. When given freedom and self-activity and self-expression, the child's philosophy appears also. And it is the inner truth of thetale rather than the outer forms of sense and shapes of beauty which, when suited to the little child, appeals to this child-philosophy andmakes the deepest impression upon him. 

In the literary fairy tale there often appears a philosophy which isdidactic and above and beyond the child's knowledge of the world. Itremains a question how much this adult philosophy appeals to him. Although his tales were written for his grandchildren, so finished atelling of the tale as we find in Laboulaye, with its delightful hitsof satire, appeals more to the grown-up versed in the ways of theworld. But the sage remarks of worldly wisdom of Uncle Remus could notfail to impress a little boy: "Go where you will and when you may, andstay long ez you choosen ter stay, en right dar en den you'll sholyfin' dat folks what git full er consate en proudness is gwine ter gitit tuck out 'm um. "--Uncle Remus treated the little boy as if he was"pestered with sense, like grown-ups, " and surely the little boygained much amusement from sayings such as these: "If you know the manthab would refuse to take care of himself, I'd like mighty well ifyou'd point him out. "--"Well, well, " said Uncle Remus soothingly, "indeze low groun's er sorrer, you des got to lean back en makeallowances fer all sorts er folks. You got ter low fer dem dat knowstoo much same ez dem what knows too little. A heap er sayin's en aheap er doin's in dis roun' worl' got ter be tuck on trus'. "--Thechild does not get the full force of the philosophy but he gets whathe can and that much sinks in. 

It is through the contemplative imagination that the child realizesthe meaning of particular tales. He learns: that _Cinderella_ meansthat goodness brings its own reward; that _Three Pigs_ means that thewise build with care and caution, with foresight; that _Star Dollars_means compassion for others and kindness to them; and that _Red RidingHood_ means obedience. 

The power of the contemplative imagination is based on theindistinctness of the image. It suggests, too, the relation betweencause and effect, which reason afterwards proves; and therefore it isa direct aid to science. In the tales there are expressed facts oftruth symbolically clothed which science since then has discovered. And now that folk-lore is being studied seriously to unfold all itgives of an earlier life, perhaps this new study may reveal some newtruths of science hidden in its depths. The marvels of modern shoemanufacture were prophesied in _The Little Elves_, and the power ofelectricity to hold fast was foretold in _Dummling and his GoldenGoose_. The wonders of modern machinery appeared in the magic axe ofEspen that hit at every stroke; and the miracle of modern canals seesa counterpart in the spring which Espen brought to the giant'sboiling-pot in the wood. The magic sleep from which there was anawakening, even after a hundred years, may have typified hypnotism andits strange power upon man. These are realizations of some of thewonders of fairyland. But there may be found lurking in its depthsmany truths as yet undiscovered by science. Perhaps the dreams ofprimitive man may suggest to the present-day scientist newpossibilities. --What primitive man has done in fancy present-day mancan do in reality. 

(3) A basis of truth. All fine emotional effects arise from truth. Thetale must hold the mirror and show an image of life. It must selectand combine facts which will suggest emotion but the facts must be atrue expression of human nature. The tale, whether it is realistic inemphasizing the familiar, the commonplace, and the present, orromantic in emphasizing the strange, the heroic, and the remote, mustbe idealistic to interpret truly the facts of life by high ideals. Ifthe tale has this basis of truth the child will gain, through hishandling of it, a body of facts. This increases his knowledge andstrengthens his intellect. And it is to be remembered that, for thechild's all-round development, the appeal of literature to theintellect is a value to be emphasized equally with the appeal to theemotions and to the imagination. Speaking of the nature of theintellect in his essay on _Intellect_, Emerson has said: "We do notdetermine what we will think. We only open our senses, clear away aswe can all obstruction from the fact, and suffer the intellect tosee. " Attention to the intellectual element in literature gives apower of thought. The consideration of the truth of the fairy taleaids the child to clear, definite thinking because the experience ofthe tale is ordered from a beginning, through a development, to aclimax, and to a conclusion. It assists him to form conclusionsbecause it presents results of circumstances and consequences ofconduct. Continued attention to the facts, knowledge, and truthpresented in the tales, helps the child to grow a sincerity of spirit. This leads to that love of actual truth, which is one of the armors ofmiddle life, against which false opinion falls harmless. 

(4) A form, more or less perfect. Form is the union of all the meanswhich the writer employs to convey his thought and emotion to thereader. Flaubert has said, "Among all the expressions of the worldthere is but _one_, one form, one mode, to express what I want tosay. "--"Say what you have to say, what you have a will to say, in thesimplest, the most direct and exact manner possible, with nosurplusage, " Walter Pater has spoken. Then the form and the matterwill fit each other so perfectly there will be no unnecessaryadornment. 

In regard to form it is to be remembered that feeling is best awakenedincidentally by suggestion. Words are the instruments, the medium ofthe writer. Words have two powers: the power to name what they mean, or denotation; and the power to suggest what they imply, orconnotation. Words have the power of connotation in two ways: They maymean more than they say or they may produce emotional effect not onlyfrom meaning but also from sound. To make these two suggestive powersof words work together is the perfect art of Milton. Pope describesfor us the relation of sound to sense in a few lines which themselvesillustrate the point:--

 Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows. But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, The hoarse, rough verse, should like the torrent roar. When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw. The line too labors, and the words move slow: Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, Flies o'er the unbending corn and skims along the main. 

When a kindergarten child, the most timid one of a group, on listeningto the telling of _The Bremen Town Musicians_, at the description ofthe Donkey and the Dog coming to the Cat, sitting in the road with aface "dismal as three rainy Sundays, " chuckled with humor at the word"dismal, " it was not because she knew the meaning of the word or thesignificance of "three rainy Sundays, " but because the sounds of thewords and the facial expression of the story-teller conveyed theemotional effect, which she sensed. 

The connection between sound and action appears in _Little Spider'sFirst Web_: The Fly said, "Then I will _buzz_"; the Bee said, "Then Iwill _hum_"; the Cricket said, "Then I will _chirp_"; the Ant said, "Then I will _run_ to and fro"; the Butterfly said, "Then I will_fly_"; and the Bird said, "Then I will _sing_. " The effect isproduced here because the words selected are concrete ones whichvisualize. Repetitive passages in the tales often contribute thiseffect of sound upon meaning, as we find in _The Three Billy-GoatsGruff_: "Trip, trap; trip, trap! went the bridge as the youngestBilly-Goat Gruff came to cross the bridge. " The sound of the words inthis entire tale contributes largely to the meaning. The Troll roaredand said, "Now I'm coming to gobble you up!" Usually the bits of rhymeinterspersed throughout the tales, illustrate this contribution ofsound to meaning; as in the _Three Pigs_:--

 Then I'll huff, And I'll puff, And I'll blow your house in!

Especially is this the case in tales dignified by the cante-fableform; such as Grimm's _Cinderella_:--

 Rustle and shake yourself, dear tree, And silver and gold throw down to me!

Or in _Little Two-Eyes_:--

 Little kid, bleat, I wish to eat!

Or in _The Little Lamb and the Little Fish_:--

 Ah, my brother, in the wood A Iamb, now I must search for food!

The suggestive power of words to convey more than they mean, isproduced, not only by the sounds contained in the words themselves, but also largely by the arrangement of the words and by thespeech-tunes of the voice in speaking them. Kipling's _Elephant'sChild_ is a living example of the suggestive power of words. The "new, fine question" suggests that the Elephant's Child had a habit ofasking questions which had not been received as if they were fine. "Wait-a-bit thorn-bush, " suggests the Kolokolo Bird sitting alone onthe bush in placid quiet. "And _still_ I want to know what thecrocodile has for dinner" implies that there had been enough spankingsto have killed the curiosity, but contrary to what one would expect, it was living and active. When Kolokolo Bird said with a _mournful_cry, "Go to the banks of the great, grey-green, greasy Limpopo River, "etc. , the implication of _mournful_ is, that there the Elephant'sChild would have a sorry time of it. The expression, "dear families, "which occurs so often, is full of delightful irony and suggests thevigorous treatment, anything but dear, which had come to theElephant's Child from them. 

Perfect form consists in the "ability to convey thought and emotionwith perfect fidelity. " The general qualities characteristic ofperfect form, which have been outlined by Professor Winchester, in his_Principles of Literary Criticism_, are: (1) precision or clearness;(2) energy or force; (3) delicacy or emotional harmony; and (4)personality. Precision or clearness demands the precise value andmeaning of words. It requires that words have the power of denotation. It appeals to the intellect of the reader or listener and demands thatlanguage be neither vague nor ambiguous nor obscure. Energy or forcedemands that perfect form have the quality of emotion. It requiresthat words have especially the power of connotation. It appeals to theemotions of the reader or listener and has the power to hold theattention. It demands of language that sympathy which will imply whatit would suggest. Delicacy or emotional harmony demands that perfectform please the taste. It requires that an emotional harmony besecured by a selection and arrangement of the melody of words and ofthe emotional associations which, together with the meanings, are tiedup in words. It demands that words have the power of perfectadaptation to the thought and feeling they express, that words haveboth the power of denotation and of connotation. It appeals to theæsthetic sense of the reader or listener, it gives to form beauty andcharm. Personality is the influence of the author, the charm ofindividuality, and suggests the character of the writer. 

At the same time that perfect form is characterized by the generalqualities of precision, energy, delicacy, and personality, ascomposition consisting of words, sentences, paragraphs, or largewholes, its elements must be controlled by certain main principles, which have been presented by Professor Barrett Wendell in _EnglishComposition_. Perfect form cannot possess the four general qualitiesabove mentioned unless its elements are controlled by these mainprinciples. These are: (1) the principle of sincerity; (2) theprinciple of unity; (3) the principle of mass; and (4) the principleof coherence. Sincerity demands of perfect form that it be a justexpression. Unity demands that every composition should group itselfabout a central idea. There must be one story, all incidentssubordinated, one main course of action, one main group of characters, and one tone of feeling to produce an emotional effect. Variety ofaction must lead to one definite result and variety of feeling to onetotal impression. Unity demands that the tale must have a plan that iscomplete, with no irrelevant material, and that there must be alogical order and a climax. Mass demands that the chief parts of everycomposition should readily catch the eye. It maintains a harmoniousproportion of all the parts. Coherence demands of any composition thatthe relation of each part to its neighbors should be unmistakable, andthat the order, forms, and connections of the parts preserve thisrelation. 

When form secures a perfect adaptation of the language to the thoughtand feeling expressed, it may be said to possess style, in a broadsense of the word. In a more detailed sense, when form ischaracterized by precision, energy, delicacy, and personality, and atthe same time has the elements of its composition controlled by theprinciples of sincerity, unity, mass, and coherence, it is said topossess style. The fairy tale which is a classic characterized by thatperfect form called style, will possess the general qualities ofprecision, energy, delicacy, and personality; and the elements of itsstructure, its words, its sentences, its paragraphs, will display acontrol of the principles of sincerity, unity, mass, and coherence. 

A tale which well illustrates the literary form possible to thechild's tale, which may be said to possess that perfection of form wecall style, and which may be used with the distinct aim to improve thechild's English and perfect his language expression, is the modernrealistic fairy tale, _Oeyvind and Marit_. 

_Oeyvind and Marit_ is so entirely realistic as to be excluded here, but the talking rhymes which the Mother sings to Oeyvind bring in thefairy element of the talking animals. In the form of this tale, theperfect fidelity with which the words fit the meaning isapparent--nothing seems superfluous. When Oeyvind asked Marit who shewas, she replied:--

"I am Marit, mother's little one, father's fiddle, the elf in thehouse, granddaughter of Ole Nordistuen of the Heidi farms, four yearsold in the autumn, two days after the frost nights, I!"

And Oeyvind replied:--

 "Are you really?"--and drew a long breath which he had not dared to do so long as she was speaking. 

The story is full of instances illustrating precision, energy, anddelicacy. In fact, almost any passage exemplifies the generalqualities of form and the qualities of composition. The personality ofthe writer has given to the tale a poetic and dramatic charm ofsimplicity. Note the precision and delicacy displayed in the openingparagraph:--

 Oeyvind was his name. A low barren cliff overhung the house in which he was born; fir and birch looked down on the roof, and wild cherry strewed flowers over it. Upon this roof there walked about a little goat, which belonged to Oeyvind. He was kept there that he might not go astray; and Oeyvind carried leaves and grass up to him. One fine day the goat leaped down, and away to the cliff; he went straight up and came where he never had been before. 

Energy is apparent in the following passage:--

 "Is it yours, this goat?" asked the girl again. 

 "Yes, " he said, and looked up. 

 "I have taken such a fancy to the goat. You will not give it to me?"

 "No, that I won't. "

 She lay kicking her legs and looking down at him, and then she said, "But if I give you a butter-cake for the goat, can I have him then?"

The justness of expression, the sincerity, is especially impressivewhen Oeyvind's Mother came out and sat down by his side when the goatno longer satisfied him and he wanted to hear stories of what was faraway. There is emotional harmony too, because the words suggest thefree freshness of the mountain air and the landscape which rose roundabout the Boy and his Mother. 

 So she told him how once everything could talk: "The mountain talked to the stream, and the stream to the river, the river to the sea, and the sea to the sky. "--But then he asked if the sky did not talk to any one: "And the sky talked to the clouds, the clouds to the trees, the trees to the grass, the grass to the flies, the flies to the animals, the animals to the children, the children to the grown-up people. .. . " Oeyvind looked at the mountain, the trees, and the sky and had never seen them before. 

There is delicacy or emotional harmony also in the Mother's song. WhenOeyvind asked, "What does the Cat say?" his Mother sang:--

 At evening softly shines the sun. The cat lies lazy on the stone. Two small mice, Cream, thick and nice, Four bits of fish, 1 stole behind a dish, And am so lazy and tired, Because so well I have fared. 

The unity is maintained through the central interest of the twoChildren and the goat. 

The tale is characterized by fairly good mass. As the story aims toportray a natural picture of child life, obviously it could notmaintain a style of too great solidity and force, but rather wouldseek one of ease and naturalness. Mass, as shown in _Oeyvind andMarit_, appears in the following description of Oeyvind's play withthe goat, after he first realized its return:--

 He jumped up, took it by the two fore-legs, and danced with it as if it were a brother; he pulled its beard, and he was just going in to his mother with it, when he heard someone behind him; and looking, saw the girl sitting on the greensward by his side. Now he understood it all, and let go the goat. 

The story of child-friendship is told in distinct little episodeswhich naturally connect. That unmistakable relation of the parts whichis essential to coherence, appears in the following outline of thestory:--

 1. A new acquaintance; Oeyvind and Marit meet. The exchange of a goat for a cake. The departure of the goat. Marit sings to the goat. The return of the goat. Marit accompanies the goat. 

 2. New interests. The stories of what the animals say, told to Oeyvind by his Mother. The first day of school. 

 3. An old acquaintance renewed: Oeyvind again meets Marit at School. 

The Children's love of the goat, the comradeship of Oeyvind and Marit, of Oeyvind and his Mother, and of Marit and her Grandfather, areelements which assist in producing coherence. The songs of Marit, andthe songs and stories of Oeyvind's Mother, especially preserve therelation of parts. In the following paragraphs, which give distinctpictures, note the coherence secured internally largely by thesuccession of verbs denoting action and also by the denotation of thewords. 

 When he came in, there sat as many children round a table as he had ever seen at church; others were sitting on their luncheon-boxes, which were ranged round the walls; some stood in small groups round a large printed card; the school-master, an old gray-haired man, was sitting on a stool by the chimney-corner, filling his pipe. They all looked up as Oeyvind and his mother entered, and the mill-hum ceased as if the water had suddenly been turned off. .. . 

 As he was going to find his seat, they all wanted to make room for him. He looked round a long time, while they whispered and pointed; he turned round on all sides, with his cap in his hand and his book under his arm. .. . 

 Just as the boy is going to turn round to the school-master, he sees close beside him, sitting down by the hearthstone on a little red painted tub, Marit, of the many names; she had covered her face with both hands, and sat peeping at him through her fingers. 

The imagination is appealed to continually through the simple concreteexpressions which present an image; as, "He grew hot all over, lookedaround about, and called, 'Killy-killy-killy-goat!'"

The emotional element is distinct and pleasing and contributes to thetotal impression of admiration for the characters. We admire Oeyvindfor his fondness for the goat and for his pain at losing it; for hisdissatisfaction in keeping it after Marit returned it, though shewanted it; for his delight in his Mother's stories; and for hispleasure in Marit's friendship at school. We admire Marit for herappreciation of the beautiful goat; for her obedience to herGrandfather; for her sorrow at giving up the goat; for her generosityin giving the neck-chain with it; and for the childish comradeship shegave to Oeyvind. We admire the goat for his loyalty to his littlemaster. We trust the Grandfather who trained Marit to be fair andcourteous; who guarded her from the cliff; and who bought for heranother goat. We have faith in the Mother who had feeling for thelittle goat her son bartered for a cake; and who had the wisdom tosing for her little boy and tell him stories when he was sorrowful andneeded new interests. 

Undoubtedly _Oeyvind and Marit_ is a tale which conveys its thoughtclearly and makes you feel its feeling, and therefore may be said topossess style in a broad sense. In a particular sense, because itsform is marked by the four general qualities: precision, energy, delicacy, and personality; and its elements are controlled by theprinciples of composition: sincerity, unity, mass, and coherence, ittherefore may be said to possess style. 

An old tale which has a literary form unusual in its approach to theperfect literary form, is the Norse, _The Three Billy-Goats Gruff_, told by Dasent in _Tales from the Norse_. Indeed after lookingcarefully at this tale one is tempted to say that, for perfection ofstyle, some of the old folk-tales are not to be equaled. Note thesimple precision shown in the very first paragraph:--

 Once on a time there were three Billy-Goats, who were to go up to the hill-side to make themselves fat, and the name of all three was "Gruff. "

Energy or force appeals to the emotions in the words of the tinyBilly-Goat Gruff to the Troll:--

 "Oh, no! pray don't take me. I'm too little, that I am, " said the Billy-Goat; "wait a bit till the second Billy-Goat Gruff comes, he's much bigger. "

There is emotional harmony displayed in the second paragraph; thewords used fit the ideas:--

 On the way up was a bridge over a burn they had to cross; and under the bridge lived a great ugly Troll, with eyes as big as saucers, and a nose as long as a poker. 

The quality of personality is best described, perhaps, by saying thatthe tale seems to have impersonality. Any charm of the story-tellersof the ages has entered into the body of the tale, which has become anobjective presentment of a reality that concentrates on itself andkeeps personality out of sight. The character of the tellers is shownhowever in the qualities of the tale. The charm of the primitivestory-tellers has given the tale inimitable morning-dew freshness. This seems to result from a fine simplicity, a sprightlyvisualization, a quaint picturesqueness, a pleasing terseness, and anAnglo-Saxon vigor. 

Sincerity is displayed in the words of the Troll and of the threeBilly-Goats. Note the sincerity of little Billy-Goat Gruff:--

 "Oh! it is only I, the tiniest Billy-Goat Gruff; and I'm going up to the hillside to make myself fat, " said the Billy-Goat, with such a small voice. 

The unity in this tale is unusually good. The central idea whichgroups all the happenings in the tale is: Three Billy-Goats arecrossing a bridge to go up to the hillside to make themselves fat. There are four characters, three Goats and the Troll. All that happensin the tale contributes to the one effect of a bridge going trip, trap! as a Goat crossed it on his way up the hillside; of a Trollroaring: "Who's that tripping over my bridge?" of the explanation ofthe Billy-Goat; of the answer of the Troll, "Now I'm coming to gobbleyou up"; and of the Billy-Goat's final petition. Unity is emphasizedby the repetition in the tale, as the three Billy-Goats successivelycross the bridge and reply to the Troll. The climax is the bigBilly-Goat Gruff's tramp across the bridge. 

This tale is characterized by perfect mass, the paragraphs always endwith words that deserve distinction, and the sentences have theirstrongest words at the points where the eye would most readily seethem; as, "But just then up came the big Billy-Goat Gruff. " Thecoherence is fine, and is secured largely by the cumulative plan in athreefold sense. The relation of the parts is unmistakable. Thesimilarity and contrast evident in the episodes of the threeBilly-Goats makes this relation very clearly defined. To make doublysure the end has been reached the tale concludes:--

 Snip, snap, snout, This tale's told out. 

Let us examine the folk-tale generally as to its literary form. Thefolk-tale originally did not come from the people in literary form. The tale was first told by some nameless primitive man, who, returningfrom some adventure of everyday life, would narrate it to a group ofhis comrades. First told to astonish and interest, or to give awarning of the penalty of breaking Nature's laws, or to teach a morallesson, or to raise a laugh, later it became worked up into thefabulous stories of gods and heroes. These fabulous stories developedinto myth-systems, and these again into household tales. By constantrepetition from one generation to another, incidents likely to happenin everyday life, which represented universal experiences andsatisfied common needs of childhood, were selected and combined. Thesegradually assumed a form of simplicity and literary charm, partlybecause, just as a child insists on accuracy, savage people adheredstrictly to form in repeating the tale, and because it is a law ofpermanence that what meets the universal need will survive. The greatold folk-tales have acquired in their form a clearness and precision;for in the process of telling and re-telling through the ages all theepisodes became clearly defined. And as irrelevant details droppedout, there developed that unity produced by one dominant theme and onedominant mood. The great old folk-tales, then, naturally acquired agood classic literary form through social selection and survival. Butmany of the tales as we know them have suffered either throughtranslation or through careless modern retelling. Many of thefolk-tales take on real literary form only through the re-treatment ofa literary artist. Mrs. Steel, who has collected the _Tales of thePunjab_, tells how the little boys of India who seek to hold theirlistening groups will vary the incidents in a tale in differenttellings, proving that the complete tale was not the original unit, but that single incidents are much more apt to retain their stockforms than plots. The combination we now have in a given tale wasprobably a good form once hit upon and thereafter transmitted. 

Jacob (1785-1863) and William (1786-1859) Grimm, both fine scholars, incapable of any but good work, did not undertake to put the tale intoliterary form suited to children. They were interested in preservingfolk-lore records for scientific purposes. And we must distinguishbetween the tale as a means of reflecting the ideals of social andreligious life, of displaying all the genius of primitive man forscience to interpret, and the tale as a means of pleasing andeducating the child. The Grimms obtained most of their tales from thelips of people in Hesse and Hanau, Germany. They were very fortunatein securing many of the tales they were thirteen years in collecting, from an old nurse, Frau Vichmannin, the wife of a cowherd, who livedat Niederzwehrn, near Cassel, who told her story with exactness andnever changed anything in repeating. Grimm himself said, "Our firstcare was faithfulness to the truth. We strove to penetrate into thewild forests of our ancestors, listening to their noble language, watching their pure customs, recognizing their ancient freedom andhearty faith. " The Grimms sought the purity of a straightforwardnarration. They were against reconstruction to beautify and poetizethe legends. They were not opposed to a free appropriation for modernand individual purposes. They kept close to the original, addingnothing of circumstance or trait, but rendering the stories in a styleand language and development of detail which was their own literaryGerman. 

Perrault (1628-1703) had taken the old tales as his son, Charles, alad of ten or twelve, told them. The father had told them to the sonas he had gathered them up, intending to put them into verse after themanner of La Fontaine. The lad loved the stories and re-wrote themfrom memory for his father with such charming naïveté that the fatherchose the son's version in preference to his own, and published it. But the tales of Perrault, nevertheless, show the embellishment of themature master-Academician's touch in subduing the too marvelous tone, or adding a bit of court manners, or a satirical hit at the vanity andfailings of man. 

Dasent (1820-96) has translated the Norse tales from the originalcollection of Asbjörnsen and Moe. Comrades from boyhood to manhood, scholar and naturalist, these two together had taken long walks intothe secluded peasant districts and had secured the tales from thepeople of the dales and fells, careful to retain the folk-expressions. Dasent, with the instinct, taste, and skill of a true scholar, haspreserved these tales of an honest manly race, a race of simple menand women, free and unsubdued. He has preserved them in theirfolk-language and in their true Norse setting. Harris (1848-1908) hasgiven his tales in the dialect of Uncle Remus. Jacobs (1854-) hasaimed to give the folk-tales in the language of the folk, retainingnurses' expressions, giving a colloquial and romantic tone which oftencontains what is archaic and crude. He has displayed freedom with thetext, invented whole incidents, or completed incidents, or changedthem. His object has been to fill children's imaginations with brightimages. Andrew Lang (1844-1912) has given the tale mainly to entertainchildren. He has accepted translations from many sources and has givena straightforward narration. He has collected fairy talesindefatigably in his rainbow _Fairy Books_, but they are not always tobe recommended for children. 

Andersen (1805-75), like Perrault, made his tale for the child as anaudience, and he too has put the tale into literary form. Andersen'stale is not the old tale, but an original creation, a number of whichare based on old folk-material. Preserving the child's point of view, Andersen has enriched his language with a mastery of perfection andliterary style. And the "mantle of Andersen" has, so far, fallen on noone. 

To-day it is to be questioned if the child should be given the tale innurses' talk. To-day children are best cared for by mothers who feelignorant if they cannot tell their children stories, and who, havingan appreciation of their mother English, want their children to hearstories, not only told by themselves rather than by their servants, but also told in the best literary form possible. They recognize thatthese earliest years, when the child is first learning his language, are the years for a perfection of form to become indelibly impressed. The fairy tale, like every piece of literature, is an organism and"should be put before the youngest child with its head on, andstanding on both feet. " The wholesale re-telling of every tale is tobe deplored. And stories which have proved themselves genuineclassics, which have a right to live, which have been handed down bytradition, which have been preserved by folk-lore records, and whichhave been rescued from oblivion, --in this age of books should have aliterary form, which is part of their message, settled upon them. TheGrimm tales await their literary master. 

III. THE FAIRY TALE AS A SHORT-STORY

The fairy tale, then, which in an objective sense, from the standpointof literature, has proved itself subject-matter of real worth, must bea classic, must have the qualities of mind and soul, must possess thepower to appeal to the emotions, a power to appeal to the imagination, and it must have a basis of truth and a perfection of form. But inaddition to possessing these characteristics, because the fairy taleis a special literary form, --the short-story, --as literature it muststand the test of the short-story. 

The three main characteristics of the short-story, as given byProfessor Brander Matthews in his _Philosophy of the Short-Story_, areoriginality of theme, ingenuity of invention, and brevity, orcompression. A single effect must be conceived, and no more writtenthan contributes to that effect. The story depends for its power andcharm on (1) characters; (2) plot; and (3) setting. In _The Life andLetters of Robert Louis Stevenson_, by Graham Balfour, Stevenson hassaid, concerning the short-story:--

 "There are, so far as I know, three ways, and three ways only, of writing a story. You may take a plot and fit characters to it, or you may take a character and choose incidents and situations to develop it, or lastly--you must bear with me while I try to make this clear. .. . You may take a certain atmosphere and get action and persons to express and realize it. I'll give you an example--_The Merry Men_. There I began with the feeling of one of those islands on the west coast of Scotland, and I gradually developed the story to express the sentiment with which the coast affected me. "

According to the method by which the story was made, the emphasis willbe on character, plot, or setting. Sometimes you may have a perfectblending of all three. 

(1) Characters. The characters must be unique and original, so thatthey catch the eye at once. They dare not be colorless, they must havestriking experiences. The Elephant's Child, Henny Penny, MedioPollito, Jack of the Beanstalk, the Three Pigs, the Three Bears, andDrakesbill--the characters of the fairy tales have no equal inliterature for freshness and vivacity. The very mention of the thoughtbrings a smile of recognition; and it is for this reason, no doubt, that leading men in large universities turn aside from their highscholarly labors, to work or play with fairy tales. Besides theinteresting chief characters, moreover, there are many moresubordinate characters that are especially unique: the fairies, thefairy godmothers and wise women, the elves of the trees, the dwarfs ofthe ground, the trolls of the rocks and hills, and the giants andwitches. Then that great company of toilers in every occupation oflife bring the child in touch with many novel phases of life. At bestwe are all limited by circumstances to a somewhat narrow sphere andlike to enter into all that we are not. The child, meeting in his talethe shoemaker, the woodcutter, the soldier, the fisherman, the hunter, the poor traveler, the carpenter, the prince, the princess, and a hostof others, gets a view of the industrial and social conditions thatman in simple life had to face. This could not fail to interest; andit not only broadens his experience and deepens his sympathy, but isthe best means for acquiring a foundation upon which to build his ownvocational training. This acquisition is one contribution ofliterature to industrial work. Those characters will appeal to thechild which present what the child has noticed or can notice. Theyshould appear as they do in life, by what they say and by what theydo. This, in harmony with the needs of the young child, makes thetales which answer to the test of suitability, largely dramatic. 

(2) Plot. The characters of the tales can be observed only in action. Plot is the synthesis of the actions, all the incidents which happento the characters. The plot gives the picture of experience and allowsus to see others through the events which come to them. According toProfessor Bliss Perry, the plot should be entertaining, comical, novel, or thrilling. It should present images that are clear-cut andnot of too great variety. It should easily separate itself into large, leading episodes that stand out distinctly. The sequence of eventsshould be orderly and proceed without interruption. The generalstructure should easily be discerned into the beginning, the middle, and the end. Various writers of tales have their particular ways ofbeginning. Andersen loses no time in getting started, while Kiplingbegins by stating his theme. The old tales frequently began with thewords, "Once upon a time, " which Kipling modified to "In the High andFar-Off times, O Best Beloved, " etc. Hawthorne begins variously with"Once upon a time", or, "Long, long ago"; or, "Did you ever hear ofthe golden apples?" etc. --Hawthorne has been omitted in this bookbecause, so far as I can discover, he furnishes no tale for thekindergarten or first grade. His simplest tale, _Midas and the Golden__Touch_, properly belongs in the second grade when told; when read, inthe fourth grade. --The introduction, in whatever form, should besimple and to the point. It should give the time and place and presentthe characters; and if good art it will be impatient of muchpreliminary delay. The great stories all show a rise of interestculminating in one central climax; and after that, sometimes followingon its very heels, the conclusion where poetic justice is meted out. This climax is a very important feature in the tale, so important thatit has been said, "The climax is the tale. " It is the point whereinterest focuses. It makes the story because it is where the point ofthe story is made. In a good story this point always is madeimpressive and often is made so by means of surprise. The conclusionmust show that the tale has arrived at a stopping place and in a moraltale it must leave one satisfied, at rest. 

If the folk-tale is good narration, in answer to the question, "What?"it will tell what happened; in answer to the question, "Who?" it willtell to whom it happened; in answer to the question, "Where?" it willtell the place where, and the time when, it happened; and in answer tothe question, "Why?" it will give the reason for telling the story, itwill give the message, and the truth embodied in its form. Asnarration the tale must have truth, interest, and consistency. Itstypical mood must be action and its language the language ofsuggestion. This language of suggestion appears when it shows anobject by indicating how it is like something else; by telling what wefeel when we see the object; and by telling what actions of the personor object make it hateful or charming. We learn to know Andersen'sSnow Man through what the Dog says of him. 

Description, in the sense of a static, detailed delineation of variousqualities of objects, has no place in the child's story, for it boresthe child, who is very persistent in wanting the main themeuninterrupted. But description that has touches of movement and actionor that lays emphasis on a single effect and has point, distinctlyaids visualization, and produces a pleasing result, as we have seen inKipling's _Elephant's Child_. The young child of to-day, trained innature study to look upon bird, tree, and flower with vital interest, to observe the color and the form of these, gains a love of thebeautiful that makes him exclaim over the plumage of a bird or tint ofa flower. To him beauty in the tale must make a direct appeal whichthe child unfamiliar with these things might not feel. _The WonderfulAdventures of Nils_ makes an appeal to the modern child which couldnot possibly have been felt by the child living before 1850. Themodern child brought up on phonics is sensitive to sound also, andopen to an appreciation of the beauty of the individual word used indescription. This description, when it occurs, should be characterizedmainly by aptness and concreteness. 

Having observed the general characteristics of the narrative containedin the plot, let us examine the structure of a few tales to see: Whatis the main theme of the plot and how it works itself out; what arethe large, leading episodes, and how they culminate in the climax; andwhat is the conclusion, and how closely it follows the climax. 

_The Story of Three Pigs_

 I. _Introduction_. Time. Place. Characters: Mother and Three Pigs. Mother gone. 

 II. _Rise_. 

 1. First Pig's venture with a man with a load of straw. Builds a straw house. (Wolf enters. ) Wolf comes and destroys him. 

 2. Second Pig's venture with a man with a load of furze. Builds a furze house. Wolf comes and destroys him. 

 3. Third Pig's venture with a man with a load of bricks. Builds a brick house. Wolf comes. (Climax. )

 III. _Conclusion_. Third Pig outwits the Wolf. At the turnip-field in Mr. Smith's home-field. At the apple tree in Merry-Garden. At the fair at Shanklin. At his own brick house. 

Evidently the climax here is when the Wolf comes to the third Pig'sbrick house. After that things take a turn; and the final test ofstrength and cleverness comes at the very end of the tale, at LittlePig's brick house. 

Grimm's _Briar Rose_ is a model of structure and easily separatesitself into ten large episodes. 

_Briar Rose_

 1. _The Introduction_. 

 2. The Christening Feast. (a) The Fairies and their gifts. (b) The wicked Fairy and her curse. 

 3. The King's decree. 

 4. Princess Rose's birthday. (a) Princess Rose's visit to the old tower. (b) Princess Rose and the wicked Fairy spinning. (c) The magic sleep. 

 5. The hedge of briars. 

 6. The Prince and the old Man. 

 7. The Prince and the opening hedge. 

 8. The Prince in the castle. (Climax. )

 9. The awakening. 

 10. The wedding. (Conclusion. )

The climax here is the Prince's awakening kiss. The blossoming of thehedge into roses prepares for the climax; and the conclusion--theawakening of all the life of the castle and the wedding--followimmediately after. 

(3) Setting. The third element of the short-story that is essential toits power and charm is setting. The setting is the circumstances orevents which surround the characters and action. The setting occupiesa much more important place in the tale than we realize, for it is thesource of a variety of sensations and feelings which it may arouse. Itgives the poetic or artistic touch to a tale. In the old tale thesetting is given often in a word or two which act like magic, to opento our eyes a whole vision of associations. The road in the _ThreePigs_, the wood in _Red Riding Hood_, the castle in the _SleepingBeauty_--these add charm. Often the transformation in setting aidsgreatly in producing effect. In _Cinderella_ the scene shifts from thehearth to the palace ballroom; in the _Princess and the Pea_, from thecomfortable castle of the Queen to the raging storm, and then backagain to the castle, to the breakfast-room on the following morning. In _Snow White and Rose Red_ the scene changes from the cheery, beautiful interior of the cottage, to the snowstorm from which theBear emerged. In accumulative tales, such as _The Old Woman and herPig_, _Medio Pollito_, and _The Robin's Christmas Song_, the sequenceof the story itself is preserved mainly by the change of setting. Thisappears in the following outline of _The Robin's Christmas Song_, anEnglish tale which is the same as the Scotch _Robin's Yule-Song_, which has been attributed to Robert Burns. This tale illustrates onemain line of sequence:--

_The Robin's Christmas Song_

 1. _Introduction_. A sunny morning. Waterside. A Gray Pussy. A Robin came along. 

 2. _Rise_. 

 Pussy said, . .. "See my white fur. "

 Robin replied, . .. "You ate the wee mousie. "

 _Change in setting_. Stone wall on border of the wood. A greedy Hawk, sitting. 

 Hawk said, . .. "See the speckled feather in my wing. "

 Robin replied, . .. "You pecked the sparrow, " etc. 

 _Change in setting_. Great rock. A sly Fox. 

 Fox said, "See the spot on my tail. "

 Robin replied, "You bit the wee lambie. "

 _Change in setting_. Banks of a rivulet. A small Boy. 

 Boy said, "See the crumbs in my pocket. "

 Robin replied, "You caught the goldfinch. "

 _Change in setting_. King's palace. The window sill. The King at the window. 

 Robin sang, "A song for the King. "

 King replied, "What shall we give Robin?"

 3. _Conclusion_. 

 _No change in setting_. King's palace. The window sill. The King at the window. 

 King Filled a plate and set it on the window sill. 

 Robin Ate, sang a song again, and flew away. 

Here, not only the sequence of the tale is held largely by the changein setting, but also the pleasure in the tale is due largely to thesetting, the pictures of landscape beauty it presents, and thefeelings arising from these images. 

A Japanese tale, in which the setting is a large part of the tale, anda large element of beauty, is _Mezumi, the Beautiful_, or _The RatPrincess_. 

A Grimm tale in which the setting is a very large element of pleasureand in which it preserves the sequence of the tale, is _The Spider andthe Flea_, a lively accumulative tale that deserves attention forseveral reasons. --A Spider and a Flea dwelt together. One day a numberof unusual occurrences happened, so that finally a little Girl with awater-pitcher broke it, and then the Streamlet from which she drew thewater asked, "Why do you break your pitcher, little Girl?" And shereplied:--

 The little Spider's burned herself. And the Flea weeps; The little Door creaks with the pain, And the Broom sweeps; The little Cart runs on so fast, And the Ashes burn; The little Tree shakes down its leaves. Now it is my turn!

And then the Streamlet said, "Now I must flow. "

And it flowed on and on, getting bigger and bigger, until it swallowedup the little Girl, the little Tree, the Ashes, the Cart, the Broom, the Door, the Flea, and at last, the Spider--all together. 

Here we have a tale, which, in its language, well illustratesStevenson's "pattern of style, " especially as regards the harmonyproduced by the arrangement of letters. From the standpoint of style, this tale might be named, _The Adventure of the Letter E_; itillustrates the part the phonics of the tale may contribute to theeffect of the setting. Follow the letter _e_ in the opening of thetale, both as to the eye and the ear:--

 A Spid_e_r and a Fl_e_a dw_e_lt tog_e_th_e_r in on_e_ hous_e_ and br_e_w_e_d th_e_ir b_ee_r in an _e_gg-shell. On_e_ day wh_e_n th_e_ Spid_e_r was stirring it up sh_e_ f_e_ll in and burn_e_d h_e_rs_e_lf. Th_e_r_e_upon th_e_ Fl_e_a b_e_gan to scr_e_am. And th_e_n th_e_ Door ask_e_d, "Why ar_e_ you scr_e_aming, littl_e_ Fl_e_a?"

If we follow the _e_ sound through the tale, we find it in _Flea, beer, scream, creak, weeps, sweep, reason, heap_, _Tree, leaves_, and_Streamlet_. This repetition of the one sound puts music into the taleand creates a center of the harmony of sound. But if we examine thenext part of the tale we find a variety of sounds of _o_ in_thereupon, Door, Broom, stood_, and _corner_. Later, in connectionwith _Cart_, we have _began, fast, past_, and _Ashes_. Other phoniceffects are crowded into the tale; such as the sound of _l_ in_violently, till, all, leaves_, and _fell_; the sound of _i_ in_little_ and _Girl_; of _p_ in _pitcher_ and _passing_; of _t_ in_little_ and _pitcher_; and of _ew_ in _threw_ and _drew_. Altogetherthis very effective use of sound is a fine employment of concretelanguage, words which present images that are clear-cut as a cameo. Italso gives to the tale a poetical touch. 

_Titty Mouse and Tatty Mouse_, an English tale, and a parallel of _TheSpider and the Flea_, preserves the same beauty and sequence by meansof its setting and illustrates the same very unusual contribution ofthe sounds of particular letters combined in the harmony of the whole. _The Phonics of the Fairy Tales_ is a subject which yields muchinterest and, as yet, has been almost untouched. 

In _The Adventures of Chanticleer and Partlet_, in part I, _The Tripto the Nut-Hill_, taken from Arthur Rackham's _Grimm Tales_, thesetting contributes largely to the attractiveness of the tale, as isshown in Rackham's beautiful illustration. The setting is giventhroughout the tale often in a telling word or two. Chanticleer andPartlet went up the _nut-hill_ to gather nuts before the _squirrel_carried them all away. The _day_ was _bright_ and they stayed till_evening_. The _carriage_ of _nut-shells_; the _Duck_ they met; the_dirty road_ they traveled in the _pitch dark_; the _Inn_ they arrivedat; the _night_ at the Inn; the early _dawn_; the _hearth_ where theythrew the egg-shells; the Landlord's _chair_ whose _cushion_ receivedthe Needle; the _towel_ which received the Pin; the _heath_ over whichthey hurried away; the _yard_ of the Inn where the Duck slept and the_stream_ he escaped by; the Landlord's _room_ where he gainedexperience with his towel; the _kitchen_ where the egg-shells from the_hearth_ flew into his face; and the _arm-chair_ which received himwith a Needle--these are all elements of setting which contributelargely to the humor and the beauty of the tale. 

A blending of the three elements, characters, plot, and setting, appears in the following outline of _The Elves and the Shoemaker_:--

_The Elves and the Shoemaker_

 1. _Introduction_. A poor Shoemaker. A poor room containing a bed and a shoemaker's board. Leather for one pair of shoes. 

 2. _Development_. 

 First night . .. Cut out shoes. Went to bed. Shoes ready next morning. Sold them. Bought leather for two pairs. 

 Second night . .. Cut out shoes. Went to bed. Shoes ready next morning. Sold them. Bought leather for four pairs. 

 One night . .. Conversation of Shoemaker and his wife: "I should like to sit up to-night to see who it is that makes the shoes. " They sat up. Two Elves ran in, sewed, rapped, and tapped, and ran away when the shoes were made. 

 Day after . .. Conversation. "These Elves made us rich. I should like to do something for them. You make each of them a little pair of shoes, and I will make them each a little shirt, a coat, a waistcoat, trousers, and a pair of stockings. "

 Christmas Eve . .. Finished shoes and clothes put on the table. Shoemaker and Wife hid in the corner of the room behind clothes, and watched. (Climax. )

 Elves came in and put on clothes. 

 3. _Conclusion_. 

 Happy end. Elves danced and sang, --

 "Smart and natty boys are we, Cobblers we'll no longer be. "

 Shoemaker and Wife became happy and prosperous. 

The characters of this tale are usual, a poor Shoemaker and his Wife;and unusual, the dainty Elves who made shoes in a twinkling. But thecommonplace peasants become interesting through their generosity, kindness, and service to the Elves; and the Elves become human intheir joy at receiving gifts. The structure of the tale is so distinctas to be seen a thing itself, apart from the story. The framework isbuilt on what happens on two nights and following nights, theconversation of the next day, and what happens on Christmas Eve. Theclimax evidently is what the Shoemaker and his Wife hid in the cornerto see--the entrance of the Elves on Christmas Eve--which episode hasbeen interpreted charmingly by the English illustrator, Cruikshank. The joy of the Elves and of the two aged people, the gifts received bythe one and the riches won by the other, form the conclusion, whichfollows very closely upon the climax. The commonplace setting, thepoor room with its simple bed and table, becomes transformed by theunusual happenings in the place. If we should take away this setting, we see how much the tale would suffer. Also without the characters thetale would be empty. And without the interesting, human, humorous, andpleasing plot, characters and setting would be insufficient. Eachelement of the short-story contributes its fair share to the tale, andblends harmoniously in the whole. 

Various standards for testing the folk-tale have been given bywriters. One might refer to the standards given by Wilman in his_Pedagogische Vorträge_ and those mentioned by William Rein in _DasErste Schuljahr_. We have seen here that the fairy tale must containthe child's interests and it must be able to stand the test of a trueclassic. It must stand the test of literature in its appeal to emotionand to imagination, in its appeal to the intellect through its basisof truth, and to the language-sense through its perfection of form; itmust stand the test of the short-story and of good narration and ofdescription. Let us now examine a few of the old tales to see how theystand the complete test:--

_How the Sun, Moon, and West Wind went out to Dinner_

 _This story of How the Sun, Moon, and West Wind Went out to Dinner_ appeals to the children's interest in a family dinner--they went to dine with their Uncle and Aunt, Thunder and Lightning. The characters are interesting to the child, for they are the inhabitants of his sky that cause him much wonder: the star, the sun, the moon, the thunder, and the lightning. To the little child, who as she watched a grown-up drying her hands, remarked, "I wouldn't like to be a towel, would you?" the idea of the moon, sun, and wind possessing personality and going to a dinner-party will amuse and please. The theme of the story finds a place in the experience of children who go to a party; and secretly they will enjoy making comparisons. When they go to a party they too like to bring something home; but they wouldn't think of hiding goodies in their hands. They are fortunate enough to have their hostess give them a toy animal or a box of sweetmeats, a tiny dolly or a gay balloon, as a souvenir. The greediness and selfishness of the Sun and Wind impress little children, for these are perhaps the two sins possible to childhood; and all children will fully appreciate why the Sun and the Wind received so swiftly the punishment they deserved. The thoughtfulness of the loving gentle Moon to remember her Mother the Star, appeals to them. The rapid punishment, well-deserved, and the simplicity of the story with its one point, make it a very good tale for little children. The whole effect is pleasing. What children recall is the motherly Star; and the beautiful Moon, who was cool and calm and bright as a reward for being good. 

 The structure of the tale is neat and orderly, dominated by a single theme. The form of the tale, as given in Jacobs's _Indian Tales_, shows a good use of telling expressions; such as, "the Mother waited _alone_ for her children's return, " "Kept watch with her _little bright eye_, " "the Moon, _shaking_ her hands _showered_ down such a _choice_ dinner, " etc. Here we have too, the use of concrete, visualized expressions and direct language. There is also a good use of repetition, which aids the child in following the plot and which clarifies the meaning. The Mother Star, when pronouncing a punishment upon Sun, repeated his own words as he had spoken when returning from the dinner: "I went out to enjoy myself with my friends. " In her speech to Wind she included his own remark: "I merely went for my own pleasure. "--The examination of this tale shows that it stands well the complete test applied here to the fairy tale. 

_The Straw Ox_

 _The Straw Ox_ is an accumulative tale which has sufficient plot to illustrate the fine points of the old tale completely. A poor woman who could barely earn a living had an idea and carried it out successfully. --Her need immediately wins sympathy in her behalf. --She asked her husband to make her a straw ox and smear it with tar. Then placing it in the field where she spun, she called out, "Graze away, little Ox, graze away, while I spin my flax!" First a Bear came out of the Wood and got caught by the tar so that the Straw Ox dragged him home. The old Man then put the Bear in the cellar. Then a Wolf, a Fox, and a Hare got caught in the same way and also were consigned to the cellar. --The plot has so far built itself up by an orderly succession of incidents. --But just when the Man is preparing to kill the animals, they save their lives by promising vicarious offerings: The Bear promises honey; the Wolf a flock of sheep; the Fox a flock of geese; and the Hare kale and cauliflower. --Then the plot, having tied itself into a knot, unties itself as the animals return, each with the gift he promised. 

 The setting is the field where the old Woman placed the Ox and where she spun, the wood from which the animals came, and the peasant home. The characters are two poor people who need food and clothing and seek to secure both; and the animals of the forest. The peasants need the Bear for a coat, the Wolf for a fur cap, the Fox for a fur collar, and the Hare for mittens. This human need produces an emotional appeal so that we wish to see the animals caught. But when the plot unties itself, the plight of the animals appeals to us equally and we want just as much to see them win their freedom. Each animal works out his own salvation by offering the old people a worthy substitute. Each animal is true to his nature in the substitute he offers, he promises what is only natural for him to procure, and what he himself likes best. The conclusion is satisfying because in the end everybody is happy: the old people who have all they need; and the animals who have life and freedom. The distinct pictures offered to the imagination are the capture of the four animals and their return with their life-substitutes. The form of the tale is a good example of folk-story style, with its vivid words, direct language, and repetition. This is one of the tales which is finer than at first appears because it has a strong sense of life. It touches the present-day problem: "How can the inhuman slaughter of animals for man's use be avoided?" Its underlying message is: Self-help is a good way out of a difficulty. --_The Straw Ox_ also answers the complete test of the tale with much satisfaction. 

REFERENCES:

The Child:

 Barnes, Earl: _Study of Children's Stories_. ("Children's Interests. ")

 Dewey, John: _Interest and Effort in Education_. Houghton. 

 King, Irving: _Psychology of Child Development_. University of Chicago Press. 

 Lawrence, Isabel: "Children's Interests in Literature. " _N. E. A. Report_, 1899, p. 1044. 

 McCracken, Elizabeth: "What Children Like to Read. " _Outlook_, Dec, 1904, vol. 78. 

 Tyler, John M. : _Growth in Education_. Houghton. 

 Vostrovsky, Clara: "A Study of Children's Own Stories. " _Studies in Education_, vol. I, pp. 15-17. 

Literature:

 Baldwin, Charles S. : _Specimens of Prose Description_. Holt. 

 Brewster, William T. : _English Composition and Style_. Century. 

 _Ibid. : Specimens of Prose Narration_. Holt. 

 Gardiner, John H. : _Forms of Prose Literature_. Scribner. 

 Matthews, Brander: _The Philosophy of the Short-Story_. Longmans. Pater, Walter: _Appreciations. (Essay on Style_). Macmillan. 

 Perry, Bliss: _A Study of Prose Fiction_. ("The Short Story. ") Houghton. 

 Sainte-Beuve, Charles A. : _Essays_. ("What is a Classic?") Dutton. 

 Santayana, George: _The Sense of Beauty_. Scribner. 

 Wendell, Barrett: _English Composition_. Scribner. 

 Winchester, Caleb T. : _Principles of Literary Criticism_. Macmillan. 

Emotion:

 Bain, Alexander: _The Emotions and the Will_. Appleton. 

 Darwin, Charles: _Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals_. Appleton. 

Imagination:

 Colvin, Stephen: _The Learning Process_. Macmillan. 

 Curry, S. S. : _Imagination and the Dramatic Instinct_. Expression Co. 

 Ruskin, John: _Modern Painters_, vol. R. ("Of the Imagination. ")

Children's Literature:

 Baker, Franklin T. : _Bibliography of Children's Reading. (Introduction. )_ Teachers College, Columbia University. 

 Day, Mary B. , and Wilson, Elisabeth: _Suggestive Outlines on Children's Literature_. S. Illinois Normal, Carbondale. 

 Dodd, C. F. : "Fairy Tales in the Schoolroom. " _Living Age_, Nov. 8, 1902, vol. 235, pp. 369-75. 

 Fay, Lucy, and Eaton, Anne: _Instruction in the Use of Books and Libraries_. (Chap, xv, "Fairy Tales. ") Boston Book Co. 

 Field, Mrs. E. M. : _The Child and His Book_. Wells Gardner, Darton & Co. 

 Field, Walter T. : _Finger-Posts to Children's Reading_. A. C. McClurg. 

 Harron, Julia; Bacon, Corinne; and Dana, J. C. : _A Course of Study on Literature for Children_. Newark Public Library. 

 Hosic, James F. : "The Conduct of a Course in Literature for Children. " _N. E. A. Report_, 1913. 

 _Ibid. : The Elementary Course in English_. University of Chicago. 

 Hunt, Clara: _What shall we Read to the Children?_ Houghton. 

 Kready, Laura F. : "Picture-Books for Little Children. " _Kindergarten Review_, Sept. , 1914. 

 Lowe, Orton: _Literature for Children_. Macmillan. 

 MacClintock, Porter L. : _Literature in the Elementary School_. University of Chicago. 

 Moore, Annie E. : "Principles in the Selection of Stories for the Kindergarten. " _I. K. U. Report_, 1913. Moses, Montrose: _Children's Books and Reading_. M. Kennerley. 

 Olcott, Frances J. : _The Children's Reading_. Houghton. 

CHAPTER III

THE TELLING OF FAIRY TALES

 The telling of stories refreshes the mind as a bath refreshes the body. It gives exercise to the intellect and its powers. It tests the judgments and feelings. The story-teller must wholly take into himself the life of which he speaks, must let it live and operate in himself freely. He must reproduce it whole and undiminished, yet stand superior to life as it actually is. --FROEBEL. 

 The purpose of the story. --To look out with new eyes upon the many-featured, habitable world; to be thrilled by the pity and the beauty of this life of ours, itself brief as a tale that is told; to learn to know men and women better, and to love them more. --BLISS PERRY. 

 Expertness in teaching consists in a scholarly command of subject-matter, in a better organization of character, in a larger and more versatile command of conscious modes of transmitting facts and ideals, and in a more potent and winsome, forceful and sympathetic manner of personal contact with other human beings. --HENRY SUZZALLO. 

Story-telling as an art. No matter how perfectly the tale, in asubjective sense, may contain the interests of the child, or howcarefully it may avoid what repels him; though in an objective senseit may stand the test of a true classic in offering a permanentenrichment of the mind and the test of literature in appealing to theemotions and the imagination, in giving a contribution of truth and anembodiment of good form; though it may stand the test of theshort-story--furnishing interesting characters, definite plot, andeffective setting; though its sequence be orderly and its climaxpointed, its narration consistent and its description apt--the taleyet remains to be told. The telling of the tale is a distinct artgoverned by distinct principles because the life of the story must betransmitted and rendered into voice. 

Story-telling is one of the most ancient and universal of arts. Concerning this art Thackeray has said:--

 Stories exist everywhere: there is no calculating the distance through which stories have come to us, the number of languages through which they have been filtered, or the centuries during which they have been told. Many of them have been narrated almost in their present shape for thousands of years to the little copper-colored Sanskrit children, listening to their mothers under the palm-trees by the banks of the yellow Jumna--their Brahmin mother, who softly narrated them through the ring in her nose. The very same tale has been heard by the northern Vikings as they lay on their shields on deck; and the Arabs couched under the stars on the Syrian plains when their flocks were gathered in, and their mares were picketed by the tents. 

In his _Roundabout Papers_, Thackeray gives a picture of a score ofwhite-bearded, white-robed warriors or grave seniors of the city, seated at the gate of Jaffa or Beyrout, listening to the story-tellerreciting his marvels out of _Arabian Nights_. "A Reading from Homer, "by Alma Tadema, is a well-known picture which portrays the Greekslistening to the _Tales of Homer_. In the _Lysistrata_ ofAristophanes, the chorus of old men begins with, "I will tell ye astory!" Plutarch, in his _Theseus_ says, "All kinds of stories weretold at the festival Oschophoria, as the mothers related such thingsto their children before their departure, to give them courage. " Inhis _Symposium_ he mentions a child's story containing the proverb, "No man can make a gown for the moon. "--

 The Moon begged her Mother to weave her a little frock which would fit her. 

 The Mother said, "How can I make it fit thee, when thou art sometimes a Full Moon, and then a Half Moon, and then a New Moon?"--

In the works of the German, Schuppius (1677), appeared this:--

 Your old folks can remember how, in the olden times, it was customary at vespers on Easter day, to tell some Easter tidings from the pulpit. These were foolish fables and stories such as are told to children in the spinning-room. They were intended to make people merry. 

In England, _Chaucer's Tales_ reflect the common custom of the timesfor the pilgrim, the traveler, the lawyer, the doctor, the monk, andthe nun, to relate a tale. _The Wife of Bathes Tale_ is evidently afairy tale. In Peele's _Old Wives' Tale_ we learn how the smith'sgoodwife related some nursery tales of Old England to the twotravelers her husband brought to the cottage for the night. InAkenside's _Pleasures of Imagination_ we find:--

 Hence, finally by night, The village matres, round the blazing hearth Suspend the infant audience with their tales, Breathing astonishment. 

The custom of Florentine mothers has been described by the poet, Dante, when he says:--

 Another, drawing tresses from her distaff. Told o'er among her family the tales Of Trojans, and of Fesole and Rome. 

The French troubadours and the Italian counts of Boccaccio's time toldtales. It is recorded of the French Galland, the first translator of_The Arabian Nights_, how the young men of his day would gather underhis windows at night and shout for him until he showed himself andtold them stories. The German Luther paid a high tribute to stories;and Goethe's mother, in giving her experience in telling stories toher children, has shown how the German mother valued the story in thehome. To-day, savage children, when the day of toil is ended with thesetting sun, gather in groups to listen to the never-dying charm ofthe tale; and the most learned of men, meeting in the great centers ofcivilization to work out weighty problems, find relief and pleasurewhen wit and culture tell the tale. 

In the home the tale is the mother's power to build in her littlechildren ideals of life which will tower as a fortress when there comecritical moments of decision for which no amount of reasoning will bea sufficient guide, but for which true feeling, a kind of unconscioushigher reasoning, will be the safest guide. In the library the storyis the greatest social asset of the librarian, it is her best means ofreaching the obscure child who seeks there some food for his spirit, it is her best opportunity to lead and direct his tastes. In theschool it is the teacher's strongest personal ally. It is herwishing-ring, with which she may play fairy to herself inaccomplishing a great variety of aims, and incidentally be a fairygodmother to the child. 

Story-telling is an art handling an art and therefore must be pursuedin accordance with certain principles. These principles govern: (1)the teacher's preparation; (2) the presentation of the tale; and (3)the return from the child. 

I. THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION

1. The teacher's preparation must be concerned with a variety ofsubjects. The first rule to be observed is: _Select the tale for somepurpose, to meet a situation_. This purpose may be any one of theelements of value which have been presented here under "The Worth ofFairy Tales. " The teacher must consider, not only the possibilities ofher subject-matter and what she wishes to accomplish through thetelling of the tale, but also what the child's purpose will be inlistening. She may select her tale specifically, not just because itcontains certain interests, but because through those interests shecan direct the child's activity toward higher interests. She mustconsider what problems the tale can suggest to the child. She mayselect her tale to develop habits in the child, to clarify histhinking, to give a habit of memory or to develop emotion orimagination. She may select her tale "just for fun, " to give pure joy, or to teach a definite moral lesson, to make a selfish child see thebeauty of unselfishness or to impress an idea. The _Story of LazyJack_, like the realistic _Epaminondas_, will impress more deeply thanany word of exhortation, the necessity for a little child to use "thesense he was born with. "

In the selection of the tale the teacher is up against the problem ofwhether she shall choose her tale psychologically or logically. Asthis is the day of the psychologic point of view in education, theteacher realizing this feels that she must select a tale for aparticular purpose, according to the child's interests, his needs, andthe possibilities it offers for his self-activity and self-expression. Looking freely over the field she may choose any tale which satisfiesher purposes. This is psychologic. But in a year's work this choice ofa tale for a particular purpose is followed by successive choicesuntil she has selected a wide variety of tales giving exercise to manyforms of activity, establishing various habits of growth. This methodof choice is the psychologic built up until, in the hands of theteacher who knows the subject, it becomes somewhat logical. It is themethod which uses the ability of the individual teacher, alone andunaided. There is another method. The teacher may be furnished with acourse of tales arranged by expert study of the full subject outlinedin large units of a year's work, offering the literary heritagepossible to the child of a given age. This is logical. From thislogical course of tales she may select one which answers to themomentary need, she may use it according to its nature, to develophabits, to give opportunity for self-activity and self-expression, andto enter into the child's daily life. This method of choice is thelogical, which through use and adaptation has become psychologized. Ituses the ability of the individual teacher in adaptation, not unaidedand alone, but assisted by the concentrated knowledge and practice ofthe expert. Such a logical course, seeking uniformity only by what itrequires at the close of a year's work, would give to the individualteacher a large freedom of choice and would bring into kindergartenand elementary literature a basis of content demanding as much respectas high school or college literature. It is in no way opposed tomaintaining the child as the center of interest. The teacher's problemis to see that she uses the logical course psychologically. 

2. Having selected the tale then, from a logical course, andpsychologically for a present particular purpose, the next step is:_Know the tale_. Know the tale historically, if possible. Know itfirst as folk-lore and then as literature. Read several versions ofthe tale, the original if possible, selecting that version which seemsmost perfectly fitted to express what there is in the tale. Asfolk-lore, study its variants and note its individual motifs. Notewhat glimpses it gives of the social life and customs of a primitivepeople. The best way to dwell on the life of the story, to realize it, is to compare these motifs with similar motifs in other tales. It hasbeen said that we do not see anything clearly until we compare it withanother; and associating individual motifs of the tales makes theincidents stand out most clearly. Henny Penny's walk appears moredistinctly in association with that of Medio Pollito or that ofDrakesbill or of the Foolish Timid Rabbit; the fairy words in_Sleeping Beauty_ and the good things they bestowed upon Briar Rose inassociation with the fairy wand in _Cinderella_ and the good things itbrought her; the visit of the Wolf in _The Wolf and Seven Kids_ withthe visit of the Wolf in _Three Pigs_ and of the Fox in _The LittleRid Hin_. It is interesting to note that a clog motif, similar to themotif of shoes in _The Elves and the Shoemaker_, occurs in the Hindu_Panch-Rhul Ranee_, told in _Old Deccan Days_. 

All the common motifs which occur in the fairy tales have beenclassified by Andrew Lang under these heads:--

 (1) Bride or bridegroom who transgresses a mystic command. 

 (2) Penelope formula; one leaves the other and returns later. 

 (3) Attempt to avoid Fate. 

 (4) Slaughter of monster. 

 (5) Flight, by aid of animal. 

 (6) Flight from giant or wizard. 

 (7) Success of youngest. 

 (8) Marriage test, to perform tasks. 

 (9) Grateful beasts. 

 (10) Strong man and his comrades. 

 (11) Adventure with Ogre, and trick. 

 (12) Descent to Hades. 

 (13) False bride. 

 (14) Bride with animal children. 

From a less scientific view some of the common motifs noticeable inthe fairy tales, which however would generally fall under one of theheads given by Lang, might be listed:--

 (1) Child wandering into a home; as in _Three Bears_ and _Snow White_. 

 (2) Transformation; simple, as in _Puss-in-Boots_; by love, as in _Beauty and the Beast_, by sprinkling with water, as in _Beauty and the Beast_ or by bathing, as in _Catskin_; by violence, as in _Frog Prince_ and _White Cat_. 

 (3) Tasks as marriage tests; as in _Cinderella_. 

 (4) Riddle test; as in _Peter, Paul, and Espen_; questions asked, as in _Red Riding Hood_. 

 (5) Magic sleep; as in _Sleeping Beauty_. 

 (6) Magic touch; as in _Golden Goose_. 

 (7) Stupid person causing royalty to laugh; as in _Lazy Jack_. 

 (8) Exchange; as in _Jack and the Beanstalk_. 

 (9) Curiosity punished; as in _Bluebeard_ and _Three Bears_. 

 (10) Kindness to persons rewarded; as in _Cinderella, Little Two-Eyes_, and _The House in the Wood_. 

 (11) Kindness to animals repaid; as in _Thumbelina, Cinderella_, and _White Cat_. 

 (12) Industry rewarded; as in _Elves and the Shoemaker_. 

 (13) Hospitality rewarded; as in _Tom Thumb_. 

 (14) Success of a venture; as in _Dick Whittington_. 

After studying the tale as folk-lore, know it as literature. Master itas a classic, test it as literature, to see wherein lies its appeal tothe emotions, its power of imagination, its basis of truth, and itsquality of form; study it as a short-story and view it as a piece ofnarration. It is rather interesting to note that you can get all thereis in a tale from any one point of view. If you follow the sequence assetting, through association you get the whole, as may be seen byreferring to _Chanticleer and Partlet_ under the heading, "Setting, "in the chapter on the "Short-Story. " Or, if you follow the successivedoings of the characters you get the whole, as may be observed in thestory of _Medio Pollito_, described later in the "Animal Tale" in thechapter, "Classes of Tales. " Or if you follow the successivehappenings to the characters, the plot, you get the whole, as mayappear in the outline of _Three Pigs_ given in the chapter whichhandles "Plot. " Note the beauty of detail and the quality ofatmosphere with which the setting surrounds the tale; note theindividual traits of the characters and their contrasts; observe howwhat each one does causes what happens to him. Realize your story fromthe three points of view to enter into the author's fullness. Get agood general notion of the story first. 

3. The next step is: _Master the complete structure of the tale_. Thisis the most important step in the particular study of the tale, for itis the unity about which any perfection in the art of telling mustcenter. To discern that repose of centrality which the main theme ofthe tale gives, to follow it to its climax and to its conclusion, where poetic justice leaves the listener satisfied--this is the mostfundamental work of the story-teller. The teacher must analyze thestructure of her tale into its leading episodes, as has beenillustrated in the handling of structure, under the subject, "Plot, "in the chapter on the "Short-Story. "

4. The next step is: _Secure the message of the tale_. The message iswhat we wish to transmit, it is the explicit reason for telling thetale. And one evidently must possess a message before one can give it. As the message is the chief worth of the tale, the message shoulddominate the telling and pervade its life. A complete realization ofthe message of the tale will affect the minutest details giving colorand tone to the telling, and resulting so that what the child doeswith the story will deepen the impression of the message he receives. 

5. The next step is: _Master the tale as form_. This means that if thetale is in classic form, not only the message and the structure mustbe transmitted, but the actual words. Words are the artist's medium, Stevenson includes them in his pattern of style, and how can weexclude them if we wish to express what they have expressed? A talelike Kipling's _The Elephant's Child_ would be ruined without thoseclinging epithets, such as "the wait-a-bit thorn-bush, " "mere-smearnose, " "slushy squshy mud-cap, " "Bi-Colored-Python-Rock-Snake, " and"satiable curtiosity. " No one could substitute other words in thistale; for contrasts of feeling and humor are so tied up with the wordsthat other words would fail to tell the real story. If an interjectionhas seemed an insignificant part of speech, note the vision oftropical setting opened up by the exclamation, "O Bananas! Where didyou learn that trick?" This is indeed a tale where the form is thematter, the form and the message are one complete whole that cannot beseparated. But it is a proof that where any form is of sufficientperfection to be a classic form, you may give a modified tale bychanging it, but you do not give the real complete tale. You cannottell Andersen's _Tin Soldier_ in your own words; for its sentences, its phrases, its sounds, its suggestive language, its humor, itsimagination, its emotion, and its message, are so intricately woventogether that you could not duplicate them. 

When the fairy tale does not possess a settled classic form, select, as was mentioned, that version in which the language best conveys thelife of the story, improving it yourself, if you can, in harmony withthe standards of literature, until the day in the future when the talemay be fortunate enough to receive a settled form at the hands of aliterary artist. Sometimes a slight change may improve greatly an oldtale. In Grimm's _Briar Rose_[1] the episode of the Prince and the oldMan contains irrelevant material. The two paragraphs following, "afterthe lapse of many years there came a king's son into the country, "easily may be re-written to preserve the same unity and simplicitywhich mark the rest of the tale. This individual retelling of an oldtale demands a careful distinction between what is essential andinternal and what may have been added, what is accidental andexternal. The clock-case in _The Wolf and Seven Kids_ evidently is nota part of the original story, which arose before clocks were in use, and is a feature added in some German telling of the tale. It may beretained but it is not essential to the tale that it should be. Exactconversations and bits of dialogue, repetitive phrases, rhymes, concrete words which visualize, brief expressions, and Anglo-Saxonwords--these are all bits of detail which need to be mastered in acomplete acquirement of the story's form, because these arecharacteristics of the form which time has settled upon the old tales. Any literary form bestowed upon the tales worthy of the nameliterature, will have to preserve these essentials. 

II. THE PRESENTATION OF THE TALE

In the oral presentation of the tale new elements of the teacher'spreparation enter, for here the voice is the medium and the teachermust use the voice as the organist his keys. The aim of the oralpresentation is to give the spiritual effect. This requires certainconditions of effectiveness--to speak with distinctness, to give thesense, and to cause to understand; and certain intellectualrequirements--to articulate with perfection, to present successivethoughts in clear outline, and to preserve relative values ofimportance. 

The production of the proper effect necessitates placing in theforeground, with full expression, what needs emphasis, and throwingback with monotony or acceleration parts that do not need emphasis. Itrequires slighting subordinate, unimportant parts, so that one pointis made and one total impression given. This results in thatflexibility and lightsomeness of the voice, which is one of the mostimportant features in the telling of the tale. The study of technique, when controlled by these principles of vocal expression, is notopposed to the art of story-telling any more than the painter'sknowledge of color is opposed to his art of painting. To obtaincomplete control of the voice as an instrument of the mind, there isnecessary: (1) training of the voice; (2) exercises in breathing; (3)a knowledge of gesture; and (4) a power of personality. 

(1) Training of the voice. This training aims to secure freedom oftone, purity of tone, fullness of tone, variety of volume, andtone-color. It will include a study of phonetics to give correctpronunciation of sounds and a knowledge of their formation; freeingexercises to produce a jaw which is not set, an open throat, a mobilelip, and nimble tongue; and exercises to get rid of nasality orthroatiness. The art of articulation adds to the richness of meaning, it is the connection between sound and sense. Open sounds are inharmony with joy, and very distinct emotional effects are produced byarrangements of consonants. The effect created by the use of thevowels and consonants in _The Spider and the Flea_ has already beenreferred to under "Setting. " The open vowels of "Ón, little Drumikin!Tum-pä, tum-t[=oo]!" help to convey the impression of lightsome gaietyin _Lambikin_. The effect of power displayed by "Then I'll huff andI'll puff, and I'll blow your house in, " is made largely by the soundof the consonants _ff_ and the _n_ in the concluding _in_, the forceof the rough _u_ of _huff_ and _puff_, and the prolonged _o_ in_blow_. The effect of walking is produced by the _p_ of "_Trip, trap_, " and of varied walking by the change of vowel from _[ui]_ to_[ua]_. The action of "I have come to gobble you up, " is emphasizedand made realistic by the _bb_ of _gobble_ and the _p_ of _up_. Attention to the power of phonics to contribute to the emotional forceand to the strength of meaning in the tale, will reveal to thestory-teller many new beauties. 

(2) Exercises in breathing. Training in breathing includes exercisesto secure the regulation of proper breathing during speech and topoint out the relation between breathing and voice expression. Thecorrect use of the voice includes also ability to place tone. --Find outyour natural tone and tell the story in that tone. --Many of theeffects of the voice need to be dealt with from the inside, notexternally. The use of the pause in story-telling is one of thesubtlest and most important elements that contribute to the finaleffect. The proper placing of the pause will follow unconsciously as aconsequence when the structure of the story is realized in distinctepisodes and the proper emphasis given mentally to the most importantdetails of action, while less emphasis in thought is given tosubordinate parts. Therefore, the study of the pause must be made, notartificially and externally, but internally through the elements ofthe story which produce the pause. Tone-color, which is to ordinaryspeech what melody is to music--those varied effects of intonation, inflection, and modulation--is to be sought, not as a result from anisolated study of technique, but from attention to those elements inassociation with the complete realization of the life of the story. Genuine feeling is worth more than mere isolated exercises to securemodulation, and complete realization eliminates the necessity of"pretending to be. " The study of the fairy tale as literature, as hasbeen indicated in the chapter on "Principles of Selection, " willtherefore be fundamental to the presentation of the tale. Enteringinto the motives of the story gives action, entering into the thoughtgives form, and entering into the feeling gives tone-color to thevoice. The sincere desire to share the thought will be the best aid tobring expression. 

(3) A knowledge of gesture. The teacher must understand the laws ofgesture. The body is one means of the mind's expression. There is theeloquence of gesture and of pose. The simplest laws of gesture may bestated:--

 (a) All gesture precedes speech in proportion to the intense realization of emotion. 

 (b) All expression begins in the face and passes to some other agent of the body in proportion to the quality Of the emotion. The eye leads in pointing. 

 (c) Hands and arms remain close to the body in gesture when intensity of emotion is controlled. 

In regard to gesture, a Children's Library pamphlet, dealing with thepurpose of story-telling, has said, "The object of the story-teller isto present the story, not in the way advocated usually in the schools, but to present it with as little dramatic excitement and foreigngesture as possible, keeping one's personality in the background andgiving all prominence to the story itself, relying for interest in thestory alone. " The schools have perhaps been misinterpreted. It isclear that only that personality is allowable which interprets trulythe story's life. The listening child must be interested in the lifeof the story, not in the story-teller; and therefore gesture, tone, orsentiment that is individual variation and addition to the storyitself, detracts from the story, is foreign to its thought, andoccupies a wrong place of prominence. It is possible to tell a story, however, just as the author tells it, and yet give it naturally byrealizing it imaginatively and by using the voice and the bodyartistically, as means of expression. 

(4) A power of personality. What rules shall be given for the makingof that personality which is to bring with it force in the telling ofthe tale and which must override phonetics, inflection, and gesture?

The very best help towards acquiring that personality which is thepower of story-telling, is to have a power of life gained through theexperience of having lived; to have a power of emotion acquiredthrough the exercise of daily affairs; a power of imagination won fromhaving dwelt upon the things of life with intentness, a power ofsympathy obtained from seeing the things of others as you meet themday by day; and a first-hand knowledge of the sights and sounds andbeauties of Nature, a knowledge of bird and flower, tree and rock, their names and some of their secrets--knowledge accumulated fromactual contact with the real physical world. This power of life willenable the story-teller to enter, at the same time, into the life ofthe story she tells, and the life of those listening, to see the giftof the one and the need of the other. 

The ideal position for the story-teller is to be seated opposite thecenter of the semicircle of listeners, facing them. The extremenearness of the group, when the teller seeks the fingers of thelisteners to add force to the telling, seems an infringement upon thechild's personal rights. A strong personality will make the story gohome without too great nearness and will want to give the children alittle room so that their thoughts may meet hers out in the story. 

Suggestions for telling. Now that the teacher is ready to speak, herfirst step in the art of story-telling, which is the first step in theart of any teaching, which lies at the very foundation of teaching, which is the most important step, and which is the step that often isneglected, is the _establishing of the personal relation betweenherself and the listener_. This is one of those subtleties whichevades measuring, but its influence is most lasting. It is the settingto the whole story of teaching. It must play so important a partbecause, as teacher and listener are both human beings, there must bebetween them a common bond of humanity. How do you wish to appear tothis group of listeners? As a friend to be trusted, a brother orsister to give help, or as a good comrade to be played with; as"master, expert, leader, or servant"? If you wish to be as real andforceful as the characters in your story, you must do something whichwill cause the personal relation you desire, to be established; andmoreover, having established it, you must live up to it, and prove nofriend without faith. You must do this before you presume to teach orto tell a story. You need not do it before each individual story youpresent to a group you meet often; you may do it so effectively, witha master-stroke, at the beginning when you first meet your class, thatall you need do at successive meetings will be but to add point toyour first establishment. 

A student-teacher, in telling a story to a group of kindergartenchildren who were complete strangers, and telling it to them as theysat in a semicircle in front of her comrades, adult students, established this personal relation by beginning to tell the littlechildren her experience with the first telling of _Three Bears_ to alittle girl of four:--Seated before a sand-box in the yard, afterhearing the story of _Three Bears_, M---- had been asked, "Wouldn'tthis be a good time for you to tell me the story?" In reply, shepaused, and while the story-teller was expecting her to begin, suddenly said, "Do you think M----'s big enough for all that?" andrefused to tell a word. Then turning to the group before her, thestudent-teacher made the direct appeal. "But you are the biggestlittle people in the kindergarten, and you wouldn't treat a story likethat, would you?" The children, through the personal picture offriendly story-telling with a little child, that paralleled their ownsituation somewhat, immediately felt at home with the teller; it wasjust as if they were the same intimate friends with her that thelittle girl portrayed to them was. The human bond of good comradeshipand intimacy was established. In the direct appeal at the end, thechildren were held up to an ideal they dare not disappoint, they mustlive up to their size, be able to get the story, and be the biggestlittle people in the kindergarten by showing what they could do withit. Again there was an undefined problem thrown at them, as itwere--an element of wonder. They did not know just what was coming andthey were mentally alert, waiting, on the lookout. The way for thestory was open. --This is what you want, for no matter how perfect agem of folk-lore you tell, it will fall heedless if the children donot listen to it. 

The second step in the art of story-telling is one which growsnaturally out of this first step. This second step, _to put the storyin a concrete situation for the child_, to make the connection betweenthe child and the literature you present, is the one which displaysyour unique power as an artist. It is the step which often is omittedand is the one which exercises all your individual ability andcleverness. It is the step which should speak comfort to the eagerteacher of to-day, who is compelled to stand by, Montessori fashion, while many changing conceptions say to her: "Hands off! It is not whatyou do that helps the child develop; it is what he himself does!" Hereat least is one of the teacher's chances to act. This step is theopening of the gateway so that the story you are about to tell mayenter into the thoughts of your listeners. It is your means toorganize the tale in the child's life. If in the school program youpermit nature study, representing the central interest, to occupy theplace of main emphasis, and if the game, occupation, and song work isrelated to the child's life, this organization of the child's tale inhis life will be accomplished naturally. 

In the example cited above, both the establishment of the personalrelation and the placing of the story in a concrete situation, weremanaged partly at the one stroke. Your best help to furnish a concretesituation will be to preserve at the one end a sympathy for the lifeof your story and at the other to perceive the experience of thechildren in the listening group. Seeing both at once will result in aknowledge of what the children need most to make the story go home. Ifyour children are good enough, and you and they sufficiently goodfriends to bear the fun of pantomime and the gaiety of hilarity, asking several boys, as they walk across the room before the children, to imitate some animals they had seen at a circus, and getting thechildren to guess the animal represented until they hit upon theelephant, would put certain children in a spirit of fun that would beexactly the wide-awake brightness and good humor needed to receive thestory of _The Elephant's Child_. You can get children best into thestory-telling mood by calling up ideas in line with the story. In thecase of the story cited above, under the establishment of the personalrelation, the story, _The Bremen Town Musicians_, was related to thechild's experience by a few questions concerning kinds of music heknew, and what musician and kind of music the kindergarten had. Intelling Andersen's _Tin Soldier_ you must call up experienceconcerning a soldier, not only because of the relation of the toy tothe real soldier, but because the underlying meaning of the tale iscourage, and the emotional theme is steadfastness. And to preserve theproper unity between the tale and the telling of it, the telling mustcenter itself in harmony with the message of the tale, its onedominant impression and its one dominant mood. 

Every story told results in some return from the child. The teacher, in her presentation, must _conceive the child's aim in listening_. This does not mean that she forces her aim upon him. But it does meanthat she makes a mental list of the child's own possible problems thatthe tale is best suited to originate, one of which the child himselfwill suggest. For the return should originate, not in imitation ofwhat the teller plans, but spontaneously, as the child's own plan, answering to some felt need of his. But that does not prevent thestory-teller from using her own imagination, and through it, fromrealizing what opportunities for growth the story presents, and whatpossible activities ought to be stimulated. A good guide will keepahead of the children, know the possibilities of the material, and byknowledge and suggestion lead them to realize and accomplish the plansthey crudely conceive. A consideration of these plans will modify thetelling of the tale, and should be definitely thought about before thetelling of the tale. A story told definitely to stimulate in thechildren dramatization, will emphasize action and dialogue; while onetold to stimulate the painting of a water-color sketch, will emphasizethe setting of the tale. 

The telling of the tale. With this preparation, directions seemfutile. The tale should tell itself naturally. You must begin at thebeginning, as your tale will if you have selected a good one. You musttell it simply, as your tale will have simplicity if it is a good one, and your telling must be in harmony with the tale you tell. You willtell it with joy; of course, if there is joy in it, or beauty, whichis a "joy forever, " or if you are giving joy to your listeners. Tellit, if possible, with a sense of bestowing a blessing, and a delicateperception of the reception it meets in the group before you, and thepleasure and interest it arouses in them, so that in the telling thereis that human setting which is a quickening of the spirit and a unionof ideas, which is something quite new and different from the story, yet born of the story. 

The re-creative method of story-telling. This preparation for tellinghere described will result in a fundamental imitation of the author ofthe story. By participating in the life of the story; by realizing itas folklore; by realizing it as literature--its emotion, itsimagination, its basis of truth, its message, its form; by payingconscious attention to the large units of the structure, the exactsequence of the plot, the characters, and the setting, the particulardetails of description, and the unique word--the story-tellerreproduces the author's mode of thinking. She does with her mind whatshe wishes the child to do with his. With the very little child in thekindergarten and early first grade, who analyzes but slightly, thisresults consciously in a clear notion of the story, which shows itselfin the child's free re-telling of the story as a whole. He may want totell the story or he may not. Usually he enjoys re-telling it aftersome lapse of time; perhaps he tells it to himself, meanwhile. Withthe older child, who analyzes more definitely, this results in aretelling which actually reproduces the teller's mode of thinking. Ifpersisted in, it gives to one's mode of thinking, the _story-mode_, just as nature study gives to life the nature point of view. This modeof thinking is the _mode of re-creation_, of realization. Itre-experiences the life, it reaches the processes of the mind, anddevelops free mind movement. It is a habit of thinking, and is at thebasis of reading, which is thinking through symbols; at the basis ofthe memorization of poetry, which must first see the pictures the poethas portrayed; it is the best help toward the adult study ofliterature, and the narration of history and geography. It is thepower to conceive a situation, which is most useful in science, mathematics, and the reasoning of logic. "For, " says Professor JohnDewey, "the mind which can make independent judgments, look at factswith fresh vision, and reach conclusions with simplicity, is theperennial power in the world. "

This re-creative method of fundamental imitation was illustrated in thetelling of Andersen's _Princess and the Pea_, in a student-teacher'sclass:

 The story was told by the Professor. After the telling of the story it was decided to have the story told again, but this time in parts and by those who had listened, in such a way that it would seem as if one person were telling the whole story. 

 The Professor named the first part of the story. A student was asked to tell the story from _the beginning_ to the end of _the Prince's coming home again, sad at heart_. Another student told the second part, beginning with _the storm_ and ending with _what the old Queen thought_. A third student told the third part, beginning with _the next morning_ and ending with the close of the story, _Now this is a true story_. 

 The Professor next asked students to think over the entire story, to see if each student could find any weak places in the remembering of the story. Several students reported difficulty--one failed to remember the exact description of the storm. A number of details were thus filled in, in the exact words of the author. After this intimate handling of the separate parts of the story, a final re-telling by one student--omitted in this case because of lack of time--would bring together what had been contributed by individual students, and would represent the final re-creation of the entire story. 

The simplicity of this selection, the simplicity of the plot, the fewcharacters, the literary art of the story, the skillful use of theunique word, the art of presenting distinct pictures by means of vividwords, through suggestion rather than through illustration, togetherwith the delicate humor that hovered about the tale, and the art ofthe Professor's telling--all combined in the final effect. There-telling of the story in parts accomplished the analysis of thestory into three big heads:

 (1) From _The Prince who wanted a real Princess_ . .. To _his return home_. 

 (2) From _The storm, one dark evening_ . .. To _what the old Queen thought_. 

 (3) From _What the Queen did next morning_ . .. To _the end of the story_. 

In the analysis of the story into parts, telling exactly what happenedgave the framework of the story, gave its basis of meaning. Telling itin three steps gave a strong sense of sequence and a vivid conceptionof climax. --If the division into parts for re-telling corresponds withthe natural divisions of the plot into its main episodes, this tellingin steps impresses the structure of the tale and is in harmony withthe real literary mastery of the story. --The re-telling of each partdrew attention to the visualization of that part. Each hesitation onbehalf of a student telling a part, led the class to fill in thedetails for themselves, and impressed the remembrance of the exactwords of the author. This resulted in the mastery of each part througha visualization of it. Hand in hand with the visualization came thefeeling aroused by the realization. This was more easily masteredbecause changes of feeling were noticeable in passing from one part ofthe story to another. 

After a mastery of the structure of the story through analysis, aftera mastery of the thought, imagination, and feeling of the story, aftera mastery of the form, and the exact words of the author in thedescription of details embodied in that form, the story is possessedas the teller's own, ready to be given, not only to bestow pleasure, as in this case, but often to transmit a message of worth and topreserve a classic form. 

_The Foolish Timid Rabbit_, a Jataka tale, might be prepared fortelling by this same re-creative method of story-telling. Itmust be remembered--and because of its importance it will bearrepetition, --that the separation of the story-structure into parts forseparate telling should always be in harmony with the divisions of theplot so that there may be no departure from the author's original modeof thinking, and no break in the natural movement of sequence. Aseparation of the tale into parts for re-telling would result in thefollowing analysis:--

 (1) _Rabbit asleep under a palm tree_ . .. To _his meeting hundreds of Rabbits_. 

 (2) _Rabbits met a Deer_ . .. To _when the Elephant joined them_. 

 (3) _Lion saw the animals running_ . .. To _when he came to the Rabbit who first had said the earth was all breaking up_. 

 (4) _Lion asked the Foolish Rabbit, 'Is it true the earth is all breaking up_, ' . .. To _end of the story, 'And they all stopped running_. '

After the re-telling of these parts, each part should be filled inwith the exact details so that in the final re-telling practically thewhole tale is reproduced. This is a very good tale to tell by thismethod because the theme is attractive, the plot is simple, thesequence a very evident movement, the characters distinctive, thesetting pleasing and rather prominent, and the details sufficientlyfew and separate to be grasped completely. The final re-tellingtherefore may be accomplished readily as a perfected result of thismethod of telling a tale. 

During the telling, the charm here is in preserving the typical bitsof dialogue, giving to the Lion's words that force and strength andsagacity which rank him the King of the Beasts. One must feel clearlythe message and make this message enter into every part of thetelling: That the Lion showed his superior wisdom by making a standand asking for facts, by accepting only what he tested; while theRabbit showed his credulity by foolishly accepting what he heardwithout testing it. 

Adaptation of the fairy tale. Sometimes, in telling a story one cannottell it exactly as it is. This may be the case when the story is toolong for a purpose, or if it contains matter which had better beomitted, or if it needs to be amplified. In any case one must followthese general rules:--

 (1) Preserve the essential story from a single point of view. 

 (2) Preserve a clear sequence with a distinct climax. 

 (3) Preserve a simplicity of plot and simple language. 

In shortening a long story one may:

 (1) Eliminate secondary themes. 

 (2) Eliminate extra personages. 

 (3) Eliminate passages of description. 

 (4) Eliminate irrelevant events. 

It has been the practice to adapt such stories as Andersen's _UglyDuckling_ and Ruskin's _King of the Golden River_. In the _King of theGolden River_ the description of Treasure Valley could be condensedinto a few sentences and the character of South West Wind omitted; andin _The Ugly Duckling_, passages of description and bits of philosophymight be left out. But there is no reason why literature in theelementary school should be treated with mutilation. These stories arenot suited to the kindergarten or first grade and may be reserved forthe third and fourth grades where they may be used and enjoyed by thechildren as they are. Andersen's _Thumbelina_ might be adapted forkindergarten children because it is suitable for them yet it is verylong. It could easily be analyzed into its leading episodes, eachepisode making a complete tale, and one or more episodes be told atone time. This would have the added attraction for the child of havingone day's story follow naturally the preceding story. Adapted thus, the episodes would be:--

 (1) Thumbelina in her Cradle. 

 (2) Thumbelina and the Toad. 

 (3) Thumbelina and the Fishes. 

 (4) Thumbelina and the Cockchafer in the tree. 

 (5) Thumbelina and the Field-Mouse. 

 (6) Thumbelina and the Mole. 

 (7) Thumbelina and the Swallow. 

 (8) Thumbelina as Queen of the Flowers. 

Andersen's _Snow Man_ as adapted for the kindergarten would requirethe episode of the lover omitted. It is irrelevant, not essential tothe story, and is an illustration of the sentimental, which must beomitted when we use Andersen. To omit this episode one would cut outfrom "'That is wonderfully beautiful, ' said a young girl, " to the endof "'Why, they belong to the Master, ' retorted the Yard Dog. "

III. THE RETURN FROM THE CHILD[2]

The telling of the fairy tale is one phase of the teacher's art. Andit is maintained that fairy tales are one portion of subject-mattersuited to accomplish the highest greatness of the teaching art. Forteaching is an art, an art of giving suggestions, of bearinginfluences, of securing adjustments, an art of knowing the best and ofmaking it known. The material the artist works upon is the livingchild. The medium the artist uses is subject-matter. In the processthe artist must ask, "What new connections or associations am Iestablishing in the child?" "To what power of curiosity and ofproblem-solving do these connections and associations lead?" The idealwhich guides the teacher is the child's best self as she can interprethim. This ideal will be higher and larger than the child himself canknow. In the manipulation of subject-matter, through the practicalapplication of principles, the artist aims to have the child awake, inquire, plan, and act, so that under her influences he grows by whathe thinks, by what he feels, by what he chooses, and by what heachieves. 

Teaching will be good art when the child's growth is a perfect fit tothe uses of his life, when subject-matter brings to him influences heneeds and can use. Teaching will be good art when it breaks up oldhabits, starts new ones, strengthens good traits, and weakens badones; when it gives a new attitude of cheerfulness in life or ofthoughtfulness for others or of reason in all things. It will be goodart when under it the child wants to do something and learns _how_ todo it. Teaching will be great art when under it the child continuallyattains self-activity, self-development, and self-consciousness, whenhe continually grows so that he may finally contribute his utmostportion to the highest evolution of the race. Teaching will be greatart when it touches the emotions of the child, --when history callsforth a warm indignation against wrong, when mathematics strengthens anoble love of truth or literature creates a strong satisfaction injustice. This is the poetry of teaching, because mere subject-matterbecomes a criticism of life. Teaching will be great art when you, theteacher, through the humble means of your presentation ofsubject-matter, furnish the child at the same time with ideas, perceptions, and opinions which are your personal criticism of life. Teaching will be great art when you, the teacher, have worked up intoyour own character a portion of life which is of value, so that thechild coming in touch with you knows an influence more powerful thananything you can do or say. Teaching will then awaken in the child asocial relation of abiding confidence, of secure trust, of faithunshakable. And this relation will then create for the teacher theobligation to keep this trust inviolable, to practice daily, _noblesseoblige_. Teaching will be great art when with the subject-matter theartist gives love, a great universal kindness that thinks not ofitself but, being no respecter of persons, looks upon each child inthe light of that child's own best realization. This penetratingsympathy, this great understanding, will call forth from the child ananswering love, which grows daily into a larger humanity of soul untilthe child, in time too, comes to have a universal sympathy. This isthe true greatness of teaching. This it is which brings the child intoharmony with the Divine love which speaks in all God's handiwork andbrings him into that unity with God which is the mystery of Froebel'steaching. 

During the story-telling one must ask, "In all this what is the partthe child has to play?" In the telling the teacher has aimed to givewhat there is in the tale. The child's part is to receive what thereis in the tale, the emotion, the imagination, the truth, and the formembodied in the tale. The content of feeling, of portrayal, of truth, and of language he receives, he will in some way transmit before theschool day is ended, even if in forms obscure and hidden. Long yearsafterwards, he may exhibit this same emotion, imagination, truth andform, in deeds that proclaim loudly the return from his fairy tales. However, if the child is being surrounded by pragmatic influencesthrough his teachers he will soon become aware that his feelings areuseless unless he does something because of them; that what he sees isworthless unless he sees to some purpose; that it is somewhatfruitless to know the truth and not use it; and if words have in theirform expressed the life of the tale, he is more dead than words not toexpress the life that teems within his own soul. The little childgrows gradually into the responsibility for action, for expression, into a consciousness of purpose and a knowledge of his own problems. But each opportunity he is given to announce his own initiative breaksdown the inhibition of inaction and aids him to become a freeachieving spirit. As the child listens to the tale he is a thinkinghuman creature; but in the return which he makes to his tale hebecomes a quickened creator. The use which he makes of the ideas hehas gained through his fairy tales, will be the work of his creativeimagination. 

Fairy tales, though perfectly ordinary subject-matter, may become themeans of the greatest end in education, the development in the childof the power of consciousness. The special appeal to the variouspowers and capacities of the child mind, such as emotion, imagination, memory, and reason, here have been viewed separately. But in lifeaction the mind is a unit. Thinking is therefore best developedthrough subject-matter which focuses the various powers of the child. The one element which makes the child manipulate his emotion, imagination, memory, and reason, is the presence of a problem. Theproblem is the best chance for the child to secure the adjustment ofmeans to ends. This adjustment of means to ends in a problemsituation, is real thinking and is the use of the highest power ofwhich man is capable, that of functional consciousness. The real needof doing things is the best element essential to the problem. Througha problem which expresses such a genuine need, to learn to knowhimself, to realize his capacities and his limitations, and to securefor himself the evolution of his own character until it adapts, notitself to its environment, but its environment to its own uses andmasters circumstances for its own purposes--this is the high hill towhich education must look, "from which cometh its strength. " Thelittle child, in listening to a fairy tale, in seeing in it a problemof real need, and in working it out, may win some of this strength. Wehave previously seen that fairy tales, because of their universalelements, are subject-matter rich in possible problems. 

During the story-telling what is the part the child has to play? Thepart of the child in all this may be to listen to the story because hehas some problem of his own to work out through the literature, because he has some purpose of his own in listening, because he enjoysthe story and wishes to find out what there is in it, or because heexpects it to show him what he may afterwards wish to do with it. Inany case the child's part is to see the characters and what they do, to follow the sequence of the tale, and to realize the life of thestory through the telling. He may have something to say about thestory at the close of the telling, he may wish to compare its motifswith similar motifs in other tales, or he may wish to talk about thelife exhibited by the story. The various studies of the curriculumevery day are following more closely the Greek ideal and giving thechild daily exercise to keep the channels of expression free and open. And when the well-selected fairy tale which is art is told, throughimitation and invention it awakens in the child the art-impulse andtends to carry him from appreciation to expression. If before thetelling the story-teller has asked herself, "What variety of creativereaction will this tale arouse in the child?" and if she has told thestory in the way to bring forward the best possibility for creativereaction the nature of the tale affords, she will help to make clearto the child what he himself will want to do with the story. She willhelp him to see a way to use the story to enter into his everydaylife. The return of creative reaction possible to the child will bethat in harmony with his natural instincts or large general interests. These instincts, as indicated by Professor John Dewey, in _The Schooland Society_, are:--

 (1) the instinct of conversation or communication;

 (2) the instinct of inquiry or finding out things;

 (3) the instinct of construction or making things; and

 (4) the instinct of artistic expression or [of imitating and combining things]. 

(1) The instinct of conversation. The little child likes to talk. Ifyou have ever listened to a little girl of five artlessly proceedingto tell a story, such as _Little Black Sambo_, which she had gatheredfrom looking at a neighbor's book, but which she had not yet masteredsufficiently to grasp its central theme, reiterating the particularincidents with the enthusiasm and joy and narrative tone of thestory-teller, you realized how the child likes to talk. For thereappeared the charm of the story-telling mode distinct from the storyit told. 

Because of this instinct of conversation one form of creative reactionmay be _language expression_. The oral reproduction of the storyre-experiences the story anew. The teacher may help here by creating asituation for the re-telling. A teacher might put a little foreign boythrough rapid paces in learning English by selecting a story like _TheSparrow and the Crow_ and by managing that in the re-telling thelittle foreigner would be the Crow who makes the repetitive speeches, who must go to the Pond and say:--

 Your name, sir, is Pond And my name is Crow, Please give me some water, For if you do so I can wash and be neat, And the nice soup can eat, Though I really don't know What the sparrow can mean, I'm quite sure, as crows go, I'm remarkably clean. 

As the Crow must go to the Deer, the Cow, the Grass, and theBlacksmith, and each time varies the beginning of his speech, fourother children could represent the Crow successively, thus bringing ina social element which would relieve any one child's timidity. By thattime any group of children would realize the fun they could get byplaying out the simple tale; and there would be petitions to be theDeer, the Cow, etc. If the teacher sees that the characters placethemselves as they should, carry out the parts naturally, and that theCrow begs with the correct rhyme, she is performing her legitimatetask of suggestion and criticism that works toward developing from thefirst attempts of children, a good form in harmony with the story. Here, while there is free play, the emphasis is on the speeches ofrhyme, so that the reaction is largely a language expression. Thelanguage expression is intimately related to all varieties ofexpression of which the child is capable, and may be made to dominateand use any of them, or be subordinated to them. 

A most delightful form of creative reaction possible to the child inlanguage expression, is the _formation of original little stories_similar to the "Toy Stories" written by Carolyn Bailey for the_Kindergarten Review_ during 1915. A story similar to "The LittleWoolly Dog" might be originated by the little child about any one ofhis toys. This would be related to his work with fairy tales becausein such a story the child would be imitating his accumulative tales;and the adventures given the toy would be patterned after the familiaradventures of his tales. 

A form of creative reaction, which will be a part of the languagereturn given by the first-grade child from the telling of the tale, will be his _reading of the tale_. When the child re-experiences thelife of the story as has been described, his mental realization of itwill be re-creative, and his reading the tale aloud afterwards will bejust as much a form of re-creative activity as his re-telling of thetale. The only difference is, that in one case the re-creativeactivity is exercised by thinking through symbols, while in the othercase it is employed without the use of a book. This concentration onthe reality brings about the proper relation of reading to literature. It frees literature from the slavery to reading which it has been madeto serve, yet it makes literature contribute more effectively towardgood reading than it has done in the past. 

(2) The instinct of inquiry. No more predominating trait proclaimsitself in the child than the instinct of inquiry. Every grown-uprealizes his habit of asking questions, which trait Kipling hasidealized delightfully in _The Elephant's Child_. We know also thatthe folk-tale in its earliest beginnings was the result of primitiveman's curiosity toward the actual physical world about him, its sunand sky, its mountain and its sea. The folk-tale therefore is theliving embodiment of the child's instinct of inquiry permanentlyrecorded in the adventures and surprises of the folk-tale characters. And because the folk-tale is so pervaded with this quest of the agesin search of truth, and because the child by nature is so deeplyimitative, the folk-tale inherently possesses an educational value tostir and feed original impulses of investigation and experiment. Thisis a value which is above and beyond its more apparent uses. 

In the creative reaction to be expected from the child's use of fairytales the expression of this instinct of investigation unites with theinstinct of conversation, the instinct of construction, and theinstinct of artistic expression. In fact, it is the essence ofcreative reaction in any form, whether in the domain of the IndustrialShop, the Domestic Science Kitchen, the Household Arts' Sewing-Room, or the Fine Arts' Studio. To do things and then see what happens, isboth the expression of this instinct and the basis of any creativereturn the child makes through his handling of the fairy tale. In theformation of a little play such as is given on page 149, the instinctof conversation is expressed in the talk of the Trees to the littleBird. But this talk of the Trees also expresses _doing things to seewhat happens_; each happening to the Bird, each reply of a Tree to theBird, influences each successive doing of the Bird. After the Story of_Medio Pollito_ all the child's efforts of making Little Half-Chickinto a weathervane and of fixing the directions to his upright shaft, will be expressions of the search for the unknown, of the instinct ofexperiment. After the story of _The Little Elves_, the dance of theElves to the accompaniment of music will represent an expression ofthe artistic instinct; but it also represents expression of theinstinct for the new and the untried. After the dance is finished thechild has seen himself do something he had not done before. This unionof the instinct of inquiry with that of artistic expression showsitself most completely in the entire dramatization of a fairy tale. 

(3) The instinct of construction. In his industrial work the veryyoungest child is daily exercising his active tendency to makethings. In the kindergarten he may make the toy with which he plays, the doll-house and its furnishings, small clay dishes, etc. Inthe first grade he may make small toy animals, baskets, paper hats, card-board doll-furniture, little houses, book-covers, toys, etc. Self-expression, self-activity, and constructive activity would allbe utilized, and the work would have more meaning to the child, if it_expressed some idea_, if after the story of _Three Bears_ the childwould make the Bears' kitchen, the table of wood, and the threeporridge bowls of clay, or the Bears' hall with the three chairs. Inthe Grimm tale, _Sweet Rice Porridge_, after the story has been toldand before the re-telling, children would like to make a clayporridge-pot, which could be there before them in the re-telling. Perhaps they would make the rice porridge also, and put some in thepot, for little children are very fond of making things to eat, anddomestic science has descended even into the kindergarten. After thestory of _Chanticleer and Partlet_, children would enjoy making alittle wagon and harnessing to it a Duck, and putting in it the Cockand the Hen, little animals they have made. In the first grade, afterthe story of _Sleeping Beauty_, children would naturally take greatpleasure in making things needed to play the story: the paper silverand gold crowns of the maids and Princess and the Prince's sword. After the story of _Medio Pollito_, we have noted with what specialinterest children might make a weathervane, with Little Half-Chickupon it!

(4) The instinct of artistic expression. This is the instinct ofdrawing, painting, paper-cutting, and crayon-sketching, the instinctof song, rhythm, dance, and game, of free play and dramatization. 

(a) One form of artistic creative reaction will be _the cutting offree silhouette pictures_. The child should attempt this with thesimplest of the stories which are suited for drawing, painting, orcrayon-sketching. He loves to represent the animals he sees every day;and the art work should direct this impulse and show him how to do itso that he may draw or cut out a dog, a cat, a sheep, or a goat; orsimple objects, as a broom, a barrel, a box, a table, and a chair. _The Bremen Town_ _Musicians_, while offering a fine opportunity fordramatization, also might stimulate the child to cut out thesilhouettes of the Donkey, the Dog, the Cat, and the Cock, to draw thewindow of the cottage and to place the animals one on top of another, looking in the window. The beautiful picture-books illustrating hisfairy tales, which the child may see, will give him many ideas ofdrawing and sketching, and help him to arrange his silhouettes. Arecent primer, _The Pantomime Primer_, will give the child new ideasin silhouettes. Recent articles in the _Kindergarten Review_ will givethe teacher many helpful suggestions along the line of expression. Inthe May number, 1915, in _Illustrated Stories_, the story of "Ludwigand Marleen, " by Jane Hoxie, is shown as a child might illustrate itwith paper-cutting. --A class of children were seen very pleasantlyintent on cutting out of paper a basket filled with lovely tintedflowers. But how attractive that same work would have become if thebasket had been Red Riding Hood's basket and they were being helped byan art-teacher to show peeping out of her basket the cake and pot ofbutter, with the nosegay tucked in one end. A very practical problemin paper-cutting would arise in any room when children desire to makea frieze to decorate the front wall. _The Old Woman and her Pig, TheCountry Mouse and the City Mouse, The Little Red Hen, The Story ofThree Pigs, The Story of Three Bears_, and _Little Top-Knot_, would beadmirably adapted for simple work. 

(b) _The Straw, the Coal, and the Bean_ is most likely to stir thechild's impulse to _draw_. Leslie Brooke's illustration in _The Housein the Wood_ might aid a child who wanted to put some fun into hisrepresentation. _Birdie and Lena_ or _Fundevogel_, is a story thatnaturally would seek illustration. Three _crayon-sketches_, one of arosebush and a rose, a second of a church and a steeple, and a thirdof a pond and a duck, would be enough to suggest the tale. 

(c) The Story of _The Wolf and Seven Kids_, if told with the properemphasis on the climax of triumph and conclusion of joy, would leadthe child to react with a _water-color sketch_ of the dance of theGoat and her Kids about the well. For here you have all the elementsneeded for a simple picture--the sky, the full moon, the hill-top, thewell, and the animals dancing in a ring. After finishing theirsketches the children would enjoy comparing them with the illustrationof _Der Wolf und die Sieben Geislein_ in _Das Deutsche Bilderbüch_, and perhaps they might try making a second sketch. This same talewould afford the children a chance to compose a simple tune and asimple song, such as the well-taught kindergarten child to-day knows. Such are songs which express a single theme and a single mood; as, _The Muffin Man_ and _To the Great Brown House_; or _There was a SmallBoy with a Toot_ and _Dapple Gray_ in _St. Nicholas Songs_. In thistale of _The Wolf and Seven Kids_, the conclusion impresses a singlemood of joy and the single theme of freedom because the Wolf is dead. The child could produce a very simple song of perhaps two lines, suchas, --

 Let's sing and dance! Hurrah, hurrah! The Wolf is dead! Hurrah!

(d) It is a little difficult to get down to the simplicity of thelittle girl who will play her own tune upon the piano and sing to itjust the number of the house in which she lives, repeating it againand again. But the child can _compose little songs_ that will pleasehim, and he can use, too, in connection with the tales, some of thesongs that he knows. The first-grade child could work into _Snow Whiteand Rose Red_, "Good morrow, little rosebush, " and into _LittleTwo-Eyes_ a lullaby such as "Sleep, baby, sleep. " Later in _Hansel andGrethel_ he may learn some of the simple songs that have been writtenfor Hansel and Grethel to sing to the birds when they spend the nightin the wood. In _Snow White_ he may learn some of the songs writtenfor the children's play, _Snow White_. In connection with music, thekindergarten child learns to imitate the sounds of animals, the soundof bells, whistles, the wind, etc. All this will cause him to react, so that when these occur in his stories he will want to make them. 

(e) One of the forms of creative reaction possible to the child as avariety of expression, which has received attention most recently, hasbeen handled by Miss Caroline Crawford in _Rhythm Plays of Childhood_;and by Miss Carol Oppenheimer in "Suggestions Concerning RhythmPlays, " in the _Kindergarten Review_, April and May, 1915. Here againthe fairy tales cannot be excelled in abundant situations for rhythmplays. The sea, the wind, the clouds, the sun, the moon, thestars--all nature is rich in suggestion of rhythms. The socialsituations furnish the rhythm of simple housekeeping tasks. In _SnowWhite and Rose Red_ there are the rhythms of fishing and of chasinganimals. In _The Elves_ we have the rhythm of shoe-making and in _TheStraw Ox_, the rhythm of spinning. The story of _Thumbelina_, afterits eight episodes have been re-told by the children, might veryattractively be re-told in eight rhythms, each rhythm expressing asingle episode. And for the oldest children, a union of the oralre-telling by individual children with the retelling in rhythms by allthe children, would give much pleasure and social exhilaration. Thumbelina in her Cradle, Thumbelina and the Toad, Thumbelina and theSwallow and Thumbelina as Queen of the Flowers--these at once suggesta cradle rhythm, a toad rhythm, the flight of birds, and a butterflydance. Because the rhythm is a lyric form it must be remembered thatthe part of a story suited to a rhythm play is always a partcharacterized by a distinct emotional element. In the performance ofrhythm plays the point is to secure the adjustment of music, motion, and idea. 

(f) Many of the fairy tales might arouse in the child a desire _tooriginate a game_, especially if he were accustomed to originate gamesin the regular game work. A modification of the game of tag might growfrom _Red Riding Hood_ and a pleasant ring game easily might developfrom _Sleeping Beauty_. In fact there is a traditional English gamecalled "Sleeping Beauty. " An informal ring game which would besomewhat of a joke, and would have the virtue of developing attention, might grow from _The Tin Soldier_. The Tin Soldier stands in thecenter while the circle is formed of Jack-in-the-boxes, with lidsclosed. The Tin Soldier turns round and round slowly, and when hestops looks steadily at a certain Jack-in-the-box, whereupon the Jackmust bob up and retort, "Keep your eyes to yourself, Tin Soldier!" TheJack and Soldier then change places. Any Jack failing to open whenlooked at forfeits his place in the ring. Some games derived fromfolk-tales were given in the _Delineator_, November, 1914. These couldnot be used by the youngest without adaptation; they suggest a form offun that so far as I know has been undeveloped. 

(g) The artistic creative return of the child may sometimes take theform of _objectification or representation_. _The Steadfast TinSoldier_ is a model of the literary fairy tale which gives a stimulusto the child to represent his fairy tale objectively. Asstraightforward narrative it ranks high. Its very first clause is thechild's point of view: "There were five and twenty tin soldiers"; forthe child counts his soldiers. Certainly the theme is unique and theimages clear-cut. 

It makes one total impression and it has one emotional tone to whicheverything is made to contribute. Its message of courage and itsphilosophy of life, which have been mentioned previously, are not soinsignificant even if the story does savor of the sentimental. Itsstructure is one single line of sequence, from the time this marveloussoldier was stood up on the table, until he, like many another toy, was thrown into the fire. The vivid language used gives vitality tothe story, the words suit the ideas, and often the words recall apicture or suggestion; as, "The Soldier _fell headlong, "_ "_trod_, ""came down in _torrents_, " "boat _bobbed_, " "_spun_ round, " "_clasped_his gun, " "boat _shot_ along, " "_blinked_ his eyes, " etc. The methodof suggestion by which an object is described through its effect onsome one else, produces a very pleasing result here. You see thesteadfast look of the Tin Soldier's eyes when the Jack-in-the-boxsays, "Keep your eyes to yourself, Tin Soldier!" The position of theSoldier in the street is given through the exclamation of the littleboys who see him--"Look! there lies a Tin Soldier, let us give him asail in the gutter!"

The setting in this story is a table in a sitting-room and theplaythings on the table. The characters are two playthings. After thefirst telling of this story the child naturally would like torepresent it. The story has made his playthings come alive and so hewould like to make them appear also. This is a tale in whichrepresentation, after the first telling, will give to the child muchpleasure and will give him a chance to do something with itcooperatively. He can reproduce the setting of this tale upon a tablein a schoolroom. Each child could decide what is needed to representthe story and offer what he can. One child could make the yard outsidethe castle of green blotting-paper. Another child could furnish amirror for the lake, another two toy green trees, one two wax swans, one a box of tin soldiers, another a jack-in-the-box, while the girlsmight dress a paper doll for a tinsel maid. The teacher, instructed bythe class, might make a castle of heavy gray cardboard, fastening ittogether with heavy brass paper-fasteners and cutting out the door, windows, and tower. It is natural for children to handle playthings;and when a story like this is furnished the teacher should not be toowork-a-day to enter into its play-spirit. After the representationobjectively, the re-telling of the tale might be enjoyed. The childwho likes to draw might tell this story also in a number of littlesketches: _The Jack-in-the-box, The Window, The Boat, The Rat, TheFish_, and _The Fire_. Or a very simple little dramatic dance and songmight be invented, characterized by a single mood and a single form ofmotion, something like this, sung to the tune of "Here we go round themulberry bush, etc":--

 Here we come marching, soldiers tin, soldiers tin, soldiers tin, Here we come marching, soldiers tin, On one leg steady we stand. (Circle march on one leg). 

This could easily be concluded with a game if the child who first wascompelled to march on two legs had to pay some penalty, stand in thecenter of the ring, or march at the end of the line. 

(h) Creative reaction as a result of listening to the telling of fairytales, appears in its most varied form of artistic expression in _freeplay and dramatization_. It is here that the child finds a need forthe expression of all his skill in song and dance, construction, language, and art, for here he finds a use for these things. 

In free play the child represents the characters and acts out thestory. His desire to play will lead to a keenness of attention to thestory-telling, which is the best aid to re-experiencing, and the playwill react upon his mind and give greater power to visualize. Nothingis better for the child than the freedom and initiative used indramatization, and nothing gives more self-reliance and poise than toact, to do something. --We must remember that in the history of thechild's literature it was education that freed his spirit from thedeadening weight of didacticism in the days of the _New EnglandPrimer_. And we must now have a care that education never may becomeguilty of crushing the spirit of his freedom, spontaneity, andimagination, by a dead formalism in its teaching method. --The playdevelops the voice, and it gives freedom and grace to bodilymovements. It fixes in the child mind the details of the story andimpresses effectively many a good piece of literature; it combinesintellectual, emotional, artistic, and physical action. The simplestkindergarten plays, such as _The Farmer, The Blacksmith_, and _LittleTravelers_, naturally lead into playing a story such as _The Sheep andthe Pig_ or _The Gingerbread Man_. _The Mouse that Lost Her Tail_ and_The Old Woman and Her Pig_ are delightful simple plays given in_Chain Stories and Playlets_ by Mara Chadwick and E. Gray Freeman, suited to the kindergarten to play or the first grade to read andplay. Working out a complete dramatization of a folk-tale such as_Sleeping Beauty_, in the first grade, and having the children comeinto the kindergarten and there play it for them, will be a greatincentive toward catching the spirit of imaginatively entering into asituation which you are not. This is the essential for dramatization. _Johnny Cake_ is a good tale to be played in the kindergarten becauseit uses a great number of children. As the kindergarten room generallyis large, it enables the children who represent the man, the woman, the little boy, etc. , to station themselves at some distance. 

There are some dangers in dramatization which are to be avoided:--

(1) _Dramatization often is in very poor form_. The result is not theimportant thing, but the process. And sometimes teachers haveunderstood this to mean, "Hands off!" and left the children to theircrude impulses, unaided and unimproved. When the child shows _what_ heis trying to do the teacher may show him _how_ he can do what he wantsto do. By suggestion and criticism she may get him to improve hisfirst effort, provided she permits him to be absolutely free when heacts. --The place of this absolute freedom in the child's growth hasbeen emblazoned to the kindergarten by the Montessori System. --Also byparticipating in the play as one of the characters, the teacher mayhelp to a better form. Literature will be less distorted bydramatization when teachers are better trained to see thepossibilities of the material, when through training they appreciatethe tale as one of the higher forms of literature, and respect itaccordingly. Also it will be less distorted by dramatization when thetales selected for use are those containing the little child'sinterests, when he will have something to express which he reallyknows about. Moreover, as children gain greater skill in expression inconstruction, in the game, in song, in dance, and in speech, the partsthese contribute to the play will show a more perfected form. Eachexpression by the child grows new impressions, gives him new sensoryexperiences. Perhaps if the high school would realize thepossibilities in a fairy tale such as _Beauty and the Beast_, work itup into really good artistic form, and play it for the littlechildren, much would be gained not only towards good form indramatics, in both the elementary school and the high school, buttowards unifying the entire course of literature from the kindergartento the university. Using Crane's picture-book as a help, they mightbring into the play the beauty of costume and scenery, thecourt-jester, and Beauty's pages. Into the Rose-Garden they mightbring a dance of Moon Fairies, Dawn Fairies, Noon, and Night who, intheir symbolic gauzy attire, dance to persuade Beauty to remain in theBeast's castle. There might be singing fairies who decorate the busheswith fairy roses, and others who set the table with fairy dishes, singing as they work:--

 See the trees with roses gay. Fairy roses, fairy roses, etc. 

Elves and Goblins might surround the Beast when dying. The change ofscene from the simple home of Beauty to the rich castle of the Beast, and the change of costume, would furnish ample opportunity fororiginal artistic work from older students. For the little child it isgood to see the familiar dignified with art and beauty; and for theolder student the imagination works more freely when dealing withrather simple and familiar elements such as the folk-tale offers. _Cinderella_, like _Beauty and the Beast_, offers abundant opportunityto the high school student for a play or pantomime which it would begood for the little people to see. The stately minuet and folk-dancesof different peoples may be worked into the ball-scene. And here, too, the beautiful picture-books will suggest features of costume andscenery. 

(2) _Dramatization may develop boldness in a child_. The tendency is touse children with good dramatic ability continually for leading parts, even when the children choose the parts. This fault may becounteracted by distinguishing between work for growth and one or tworather carefully prepared plays to be given on special occasions. Itis also counteracted by looking well to the social aspect of the play, by introducing features such as the song, dance, or game, where allhave a part, or by adding attractive touches to less important parts, so that while a character may still be leading it will have no reasonto feel over-important. This danger is not prominent until after thefirst grade. 

(3) _Dramatization may spoil some selections_. Beautiful descriptionswhich make a tale poetic are not to be represented, and without them atale is cheapened. Such is the case with _The King of the GoldenRiver_ and _The Ugly Duckling_. Care should be exercised to choose fordramatization only what is essentially dramatic and what is of a gradesuited to the child. Tales suited to the little child are largelysuited for dramatization. 

(4) _Dramatization has omitted to preserve a sequence in theselections used from year to year_. A sequence in dramatization willfollow naturally as the tales offered from year to year show asequence in the variety of interests they present and theopportunities for growth and activity they offer. Plays most suited tothe kindergarten are those which do not require a complete re-tellingof the story in the acting, so that the child need not say so much. Such are stories like _The Old Woman and Her Pig, Henny Penny, TheFoolish Timid Rabbit, Little Tuppen, Three Billy-Goats_, _JohnnyCake_, and _Billy Bobtail_. When the course of literature in theelementary school gets its content organized, the sequence ofdramatization will take care of itself. 

Dramatization has one rather unusual virtue:--

(1) _Dramatization may be used to establish a good habit_. An indolentchild may be given the part of the industrious child in the play. Atfirst the incongruity will amuse him, then it will support hisself-respect or please his vanity, then it will prove to him thepleasure of being industrious, and finally stimulate the desire to bethat which before he was not. It may build a habit and, if repeated, fortify one. This is the true "Direct Moral Method. " The so-called"Direct Moral Method, " advocated by Dr. Gould, an English educator, which in telling a story separates the moral from the tale toemphasize it and talk about it, leaves the child a passive listenerwith only a chance to say "Yes" or "No" or a single word in answer tothe moral questions. It is unnatural because it directs the child'sattention away from the situation, action, and people which interesthim. It does not parallel life in which morals are tied up withconduct. One must ask, "According to this method what will the childrecall if his mind reverts to the story--courage, or the variety ofimages from the number of short-stories told to impress the abstractmoral idea of courage?" Dramatization like life represents characterin the making and therefore helps to make character. 

Illustrations of creative return. Let us look now at a few talesillustrating the creative return possible to the child. _The CountryMouse and the City Mouse_ is an animal tale that offers to thekindergarten child a chance to prove how intensely he enters into thesituation by the number of details he will improvise and put into hisdramatization in representing life in the country and life in thecity. The good feast atmosphere in this tale pleases little childrenand suits it to their powers. It is a fine tale to _unite the languageexpression and dramatization_. It is especially suited to call forthreaction from the child also in the form of _drawing or crayonsketching_. Here it is best for the child to attempt typical bits. Complete representation tires him and it is not the method of art, which is selective. The field of corn and two mice may be shown in thecountry scene; and a table with cheese, some plates filled withdainties, and two mice in the city scene. Here again this returnrelates itself to the presentation of the tale as literature. For ifthe story has been presented so as to make the characters, the plot, and the setting stand out, the child naturally will select these toportray in a sketch. In his expression the child will represent whathe chooses, but the teacher by selecting from among the results theone which is of most value, leads him to a better result in afollowing attempt. It is the _teacher's selection among the results ofactivity_ that brings about development. Freedom with guidance is noless free, but it is freedom under that stimulation which helps thechild to make more of himself than he knew was possible. --Thekindergarten would proclaim to the Montessori System the place of_guidance of freedom_ in the child's growth. 

_The Elves and the Shoemaker_ offers to a first grade a pleasingopportunity for the _fairy tale to unite with the dramatic game_. Onechild may act as narrator, standing to tell the story from thebeginning to the end of the evening's conversation, "I should like tosit up tonight and see who it is that makes the shoes. " At this point, noiselessly a dozen or more Elves may troop in, and seating themselvessing and act the first part of the _Dramatic Game of Little Elves_, one form of which is given by Miss Crawford. After they have stitched, rapped, and tapped quickly, and the shoes are made, they departhurriedly. The narrator now continues the story, telling how theShoemaker and his wife made little clothes for the Elves, ending withwhat happened on Christmas Eve, when they put the gay jackets and capson the table and hid in the corner to watch. At this point the Elvescome in a second time, donning their new clothes; and sing and dancethe second part of the dramatic game. As they dance out of sight thenarrator concludes the story. If the primary children made theseclothes or if the kindergarten children bought them at Christmas timeto give to the poor, the play[3] would take on a real human value. 

_Sleeping Beauty_, another tale suited to the first grade, isadmirably adapted for dramatization. --In all this work the children dothe planning but the teacher directs their impulses, criticizes theirplans, and shows them what they have done. She leads them to see thetale in the correct acts and scenes, to put together what belongstogether. _Sleeping Beauty_ naturally outlines itself into the tenmain incidents we have noted before. If the story has been presentedaccording to the standards given here, the children will see the storyin those main incidents. In the dramatization they might work togethernarration of the story and the dramatic game, _Dornröschen_. A widecircle of children might be the chorus while the players take theirplaces in the center of the circle. The narrator, one of the circle, stands apart from it as he narrates. The version here used is theMcLoughlin one, illustrated by Johann and Leinweber. 

_Sleeping Beauty_

 _Place: Castle_. King, Queen, and courtiers take their places within the circle. The circle moves to waltz step, singing stanza I, of the dramatic game:--

 The Princess was so beautiful, beautiful, beautiful, etc. 

 At the conclusion of stanza I, the circle stops, the narrator steps forth and tells the story to the end of the words, "one had to stay at home. "

 _Scene i. The Feast_. Twelve fairies enter, each presenting her gift and making a speech. The wicked thirteenth comes in and pronounces her curse, and the twelfth fairy softens it to sleep. The King proclaims his decree, that all spindles in the land be destroyed. 

 _Scene ii. The Attic_. Princess goes to the attic. Old lady sits spinning. Princess pricks herself and falls asleep. Narration begins with "The King and Queen who had just come in fell asleep, " and ends with "not a leaf rustled on the trees around the castle. " At the close of the narration, the circle moves, singing stanza _5_ of the dramatic game:--

 A great hedge grew up giant high, giant high, giant high, etc. 

 _Scene ii. The Castle Grounds_. The Prince talks to an old Man outside the castle. The Prince comes to the hedge, which parts, and he enters. The Prince wakens the Princess and the rest of the castle. The narrator then closes with "By and by the wedding of the Prince . .. To the end of their lives they lived happy and contented. " The courtiers then form into couples, and the circle, in couples, follow the courtiers. The Prince and Princess lead in a slow waltz while all sing stanza 10 of the dramatic game:

 And all the people made merry then, merry then, merry then, etc. 

Here we do not have complete dramatization, narration, or dramaticgame. Only three short parts are narrated, only three leading scenesare represented, and only three high points of narrative are depictedin the dramatic game. The music, which the specialist in physicaleducation can furnish, might be:--

 Galloping. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Wild Horseman. Fairy Run. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Chalef Book, p. 18. Climbing to Tower. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Chaly, p. 10. Guy Walk Music. Phyllis. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Seymour Smith. Bleking. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . Folk-Dance Book. 

In connection with the _dramatic game_, there is only one tale inGrimm which contains a folk-game. This tale is somewhat incomplete asit stands in Grimm. It could become a tale suited for dramatization inthe first grade, beginning the play with the folk-game. An original, amplified version of this tale, _The Little Lamb and the Little Fish_is given in the _Appendix_. 

An original little play similar to one which the kindergarten childrencould work out is given below. This play is based on the _pourquois_tale, _Why the Evergreen Trees Never Lose Their Leaves_. [4] It affordsmuch play of originality because familiar trees may be used; and thetalk of the Trees to the Bird may have some relation to thecharacteristics of the Trees. It could be used by children of six, seven, or eight years of age. It could serve as a Christmas playbecause of its spirit of kindness. North Wind might wear a wig and theFrost King wear a crown and carry a wand. Little Bird could havewings, one of which is broken, or simply carry one arm sleeveless. 

The play might open with a rhythmic flight of the birds to the musicof "The Swallow's Plight, " in _Kindergarten Review_, May, 1915. Therhythm play of the birds would be especially pleasing becausedifferent birds would be represented by different children. The playwould furnish a fine opportunity also for a rhythmic dance of thewind, which could form a distinct interlude later on in the play. Inconnection with the wind the beautiful picture-book, _Windschen_, byElsa Beskow, might be referred to. Here the wind is personified as theplaymate of Hans Georg. Its refined art, lovely color, and imaginativeillustration, would stimulate the child's artistic representation ofthe wind. 

_The Bird and the Trees: A Play_

 _Time_ . . . . Daytime, in late autumn. _Place_ . . . The Forest. _Characters_: Poplar, Oak, Maple, Willow, Spruce, Pine, Juniper, the Bird, North Wind, and the Frost King. 

 _Trees of the forest_. "See that great crowd of birds flying away! They must be going South where the air is warm, and where they can find berries to eat. There is one left behind. Why, he is coming this way. What can he want?"

 _The Bird_. "Oh, I can fly no farther! My wing hurts and I cannot hold it up. I am tired and cold and hungry. I must rest in this forest. Maybe some good kind tree will help me. Dear friend Poplar, my wing is broken and my friends have all gone South. Will you let me live in your branches until they come back again?"

 _Poplar_. "I am sorry but do you not see how my leaves are all a-tremble at the thought of taking in a strange bird? Ask some other tree!"

 _The Bird_. "It might not be very warm there at any rate. And the wind might blow me off the branches. I will try the Oak, he is so big and mighty. Dear old Oak-tree, you are so big and strong, will you let me rest in your branches to-night among your thick warm leaves? I am a poor little Bird with a broken wing and I cannot fly!"

 _Oak_. "Oh, you must not ask me, little Bird, for all day long my little friends, the squirrels, have been jumping across my branches, gathering nuts and seeking holes to store their acorns in. I have no room for a stranger. "

 _The Bird_. "Ah! I did not think the Oak could be so cruel. Perhaps Maple will help me, she always seemed kind like a Mother. Dear, beautiful Maple, I am tired. May I rest among your lovely red leaves until my broken wing is mended and my friends come back to me?"

 _Maple_. "Oh, no, I could not think of it! I have just dressed my leaves all in red and you might spoil their lovely clothes. Do go away. There are other trees in the forest not so gay as I. "

 _The Bird_. "What should I do? No one wants to help me. Can I not find one kind tree? Dear kind Willow, your branches bend almost to the ground. Could I live in them until the spring-time?"

 _Willow_. "Really, little Bird with the broken wing, you are a stranger. You should have gone with the other birds. Maybe some other tree can help you but we willows are particular. "

 _The Bird_. "I do not know where to go and I'm so cold! I wonder if the other birds have reached the beautiful warm South. "

 _Spruce_. "Little Bird, little Bird, where are you going?"

 _The Bird_. "I do not know. I am very cold. "

 _Spruce_. "Come, make a big hop and rest in this snug corner of my branches. You can stay with me all winter if you like. "

 _The Bird_. "You are so good, dear Spruce-tree. Will you really let me?"

 _Spruce_. "If your friends the birds have left you, your other friends, the trees, will surely help you. Ho, Pine-tree, you would help a little Bird with a broken wing, wouldn't you?"

 _Pine_. "Oh, yes, dear Bird! My branches are not wide but I am tall and thick, and I will keep the cold North Wind from you. "

 _Juniper_. "And maybe I can help. Are you hungry, little Bird? You can eat my nice little berries whenever you like. "

 _The Bird_. "Thank you, kind friends! I will go to sleep now on this nice branch of the Spruce-tree, Good-night, dear Trees. "

 _Spruce, Pine, and Juniper_. "Good-night, little Bird. "

 _North Wind. "Oo_, --_Oo_!--Now I must run in and out among all the trees of the forest. --But who comes here?"

 _Frost King_. "Stop, North Wind! I have just gone before you, as King Winter said, and touched the trees of the forest. But the trees that have been kind to the Bird with the broken wing, those I did not touch. They shall keep their leaves. Do not you harm them!"

 _North Wind_. "Very well, King Frost. Good-bye! _Oo_!--Oo!--" (The Wind frolics among the Trees, bending branches, careering wildly, shaking leaves. ) "Little Spruce-tree, you have been kind to the Bird, I will not blow on you! Dear Pine-tree, you are tall and keep the Bird warm, I will not blow on you! Little Juniper, you gave the Bird your berries, I will not blow on you!"

 _(The following morning_. )

 _The Bird_. "Good-morning, dear Spruce-tree, your branch was warm and safe. --Why, what has happened to the other Trees? Look at the big Oak and the lovely Maple and all the rest! See how bare their branches are; and on the ground their shining leaves lie in red and yellow and brown heaps! O, how glad I am that your leaves have not fallen; they are bright and green! And so are Pine-tree's and Juniper's. I will call you my Evergreen Trees, and I will stay with you until the Spring!"

The English fairy tale, _The Magpie's Nest_, told by Joseph Jacobs, might be dramatized by first-grade children. This tale might offer theproblem of observing how different birds make their nests and how theyvary their calls. It also might offer the language problem of makingsuitable rhymes. An original dramatization of the _pourquois_ tale isgiven in the _Appendix_. 

Andersen's _Fir Tree_ would offer a fine opportunity for a first gradeat Christmas time. The fir tree has become vitally interesting throughnature study at this time of the year. The children love to makethings to decorate a tree. They have a short list of stories they cantell by this time. All this can be utilized in a Christmas treeplay. --For the play use the original story, not a weakened version. --Apleasant Christmas play could end most happily with the story-tellingunder the tree. For the play an actual small fir tree may be in theroom placed so that it may be moved easily. A child standing closelybehind it may represent it and speak for it through its branches. Theair and the sun, ordinarily not to be represented, in this case maybe, as they come up to the Tree and talk to it. Much freedom oforiginality may be displayed through the children's entering into thecharacter of the Fir Tree and improvising speeches. 

_The Fir Tree_

 _Time_. .. .. .. Spring. _Place_. .. .. .. Forest. _Characters_: Sun, Air, Hare, Woodmen, Swallow, Stork, Sparrows, Children, Servants, and Fir Tree. 

 _Act I, Scene i_. A Fir Tree in the forest. Sun and Air talk to it. Children sit under its branches. A Hare comes and jumps over it. Woodcutters come. A Swallow comes and talks to it. A Stork comes and talks to it. Sparrows talk to it. 

 (Have the Tree removed. Apparently from a cart outside the door, a larger Christmas Tree may be brought in and planted in a sand-box by two servants, students from grammar grades. The same child now grown older, represents the Tree. )

 _Act II, Scene i_. The Fir Tree brought into the room. The decorating of the Tree by the Children and Teacher. Talk of the Children about the Tree when decorating it. Singing of Christmas carols; dancing of folk-dances; or recitation of Christmas poems, after the decoration of the Tree. 

 The distribution of gifts by the Children. An audience to whom the Children wanted to give presents, could be invited. 

 The Story-telling under the Tree. 

The presence of visiting children would create an audience for thestory-telling. The selection of the story-teller and the story orstories might be the result of a previous story contest. The contestand the story-telling under the Tree would be ideal drill situations. The entire play would serve as a fine unification of the child's workin nature, in construction, in physical education, in music, incomposition, and in literature. Everything he does in the play will befull of vital interest to him; and his daily tasks will seem of moreworth to him when he sees how he can use them with so much pleasure tohimself and to others. This play is an example of the organizing ofideas which a good tale may exercise in the mind of the child and thepart the tale as an organized experience may play in his development. 

The creative return desired by the teacher, as well as the choice oftales for particular purposes, will depend largely on the controllingideas in the program. It must be remembered that the child of to-dayis not bookish nor especially literary; and he has increasing lifeinterests. In the ordinary school year, work naturally divides itselfinto the main season festivals. While story work is here presented inits separate elements, any teacher realizes the possibility of makingthe story work lead up to and culminate in the Thanksgiving, Christmas, Easter, or May Festival. Because the good story bears aclose relation to nature and to human life, any good course of storieswill offer to the teacher ample freedom of choice for any naturalschool purpose. The good tale always gains by being placed in asituation where it assists in carrying out a larger idea. When thetale is one unit of a festival program it appeals to the child as aunit in his everyday life, it becomes socially organized for him. 

REFERENCES:

English:

 Baker, F. T. ; Carpenter, G. ; and Scott, F. N. : _The Teaching of English_. Longmans. 

 Chubb, Percival: _The Teaching of English_. Macmillan. 

Story-Telling:

 Bailey, Carolyn: _For the Story Teller_. Bradley. 

 Bryant, Sara C. : _How to Tell Stories to Children_. Houghton. 

 _Ibid. : Stories to Tell_. Houghton. 

 Buckland, Anna: _Use of Stories in the Kindergarten_. Steiger. 

 Coe, F. E. : _First Book of Stories for the Story-teller_. Houghton. 

 Hotchkiss, Mary T. : "Story-telling in the Kindergarten. " _N. E. A. Report_, 1893. 

 Keyes, Angela: _Stories and Story-Telling_. Appleton. 

 Lyman, Edna: _Story-Telling_. McClurg. 

 McMurry, Charles: _Special Method in Primary Reading_. Macmillan. 

 O'Grady, Alice (Moulton), and Throop, Frances: _The Story-Teller's Book_. Rand. 

 Olcott, F. J. : "Story-Telling as a Means of Teaching Literature. " _N. Y. Libraries_; vol. 4, pp. 38-43. Feb. , 1914. 

 Olcott, Frances, and Pendleton, Amena: _The Jolly Book for Boys and Girls_. Houghton. 

 Partridge, E. N. , and Partridge, G. E. : _Story-Telling in School and Home_. Sturgis. 

 St. John, Edward: _Stories and Story-Telling_. Westminster Press, Phila. 

 Shedlock, Marie: _Art of the Story Teller_. Appleton. 

 Speare, Georgina: "Story-Telling as an Art. " _Kindergarten Review_, Dec. , 1913, to May, 1914. 

 The Storyteller's Company: _The Storyteller's Magazine_. New York. 

The Voice:

 Corson, Hiram: _Voice and Spiritual Education_. Macmillan. 

 Curry, Samuel S. : _Foundations of Expression_. Expression Co. 

 _Ibid. _: _Province of Expression_: Expression Co. 

 Rush, James: _The Philosophy of the Human Voice_. Lippincott. 

 Quintilian, Marcus F. : _Institutes of Oratory_. Macmillan. 

Gesture and Phonetics:

 Chamberlain, W. B. , and Clark, S. H. : _Principles of Vocal Expression_. Scott. 

 Jespersen, Otto: _Growth and Structure of the English Language_. Stechert. 

 Jones, Daniel: _Pronunciation of English; Phonetics and Phonetic Transcriptions_. Putnam. 

 _Ibid. _: _Chart of English Speech Sounds_. Oxford. 

 Rippman, Walter: _Elements of Phonetics, English, French, and German_. Dent. 

 _Ibid. _: _The Sounds of Spoken English_. Dent. 

 Sweet, Henry: _Primer of Phonetics_. Oxford. 

The Kindergarten:

 Blow, Susan; Hill, Patty; and Harrison, Elizabeth: _The Kindergarten_. Houghton. 

 Blow, Susan: "The Kindergarten and the Primary Grade. " _Kindergarten Review_, June, 1915. 

 Crawford, Caroline: "The Teaching of Dramatic Arts in the Kindergarten and the Elementary School. " _Teachers College Record_, Sept. , 1915. 

 McMurry, Frank M. : "Principles Underlying the Making of School Curricula. " _Teachers College Record_, Sept. , 1915. 

 Palmer, Luella: "Montessori Suggestions for Kindergartners. " _Kindergarten Review_, Feb. 1915. 

 _Ibid_. : "Problems vs. Subject Matter as a Basis for Kindergarten Curriculum. " _Kindergarten Review_, Nov. , 1914. 

 Teachers College Record: "Experimental Studies in Kindergarten Education. " _Teachers College Record_, Jan. , 1914. 

 Thorndike, Edward L. : "Foundations of Educational Achievement. " _N. E. A. Report_, 1914. 

The Return:

 Archer, William: _Play-Making_. Small. 

 Bailey, Carolyn: "Toy Stories. " "The Story of the Woolly Dog. " _Kindergarten Review_, Feb. , 1915. 

 Baker, Franklin T. , and Thorndike, Ashley H. : _Everyday English. Book One_. Macmillan. 

 Barnes, Earl: _Studies in Education_. Drawing. Barnes. 

 Buffum, Katherine: _Silhouettes to Cut in School_. Bradley. 

 Crawford, Caroline: _Dramatic Games and Dances_. Barnes. _Folk Dances and Games_. Barnes. _The Rhythms of Childhood_. Barnes. 

 Curry, S. S. : _Imagination and the Dramatic Instinct_. Expression Co. 

 Dewey, John: _The Child and the Curriculum_. University of Chicago. 

 _Ibid_. : "Imagination and Expression. " _Kindergarten Magazine_, Sept. , 1896. 

 Dow, Arthur: "Color in the Kindergarten. " _Kindergarten Review_, June, 1914. 

 _Ibid. : Composition_. Doubleday. 

 Harvey, Nellie: "Japanese Art in the Kindergarten. " _Kindergarten Review_, Dec. , 1914. 

 Hervey, Walter: _Picture Work_. Revell. 

 Laurie, S. S. : _Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the School_. Macmillan. 

 Macintosh, C. : "Toys Made by Little Children. " _Kindergarten Review_, Jan. , and Feb. , 1914. 

 Maxwell, W. H. ; Johnston, E. L. ; and Barnum, M. : _Speaking and Writing_. American Book Co. 

 Oppenheimer, Carol: Drawing. _Kindergarten Review_, March, 1914. 

 _Ibid_. : "Scissors and Paper. " _Kindergarten Review_, Jan. , 1914. 

 _Ibid_. : "Suggestions Concerning Rhythm Plays. " _Kindergarten Review_, April and May, 1915. 

 _Ibid_. : "The Use of the Song Exercise. " _Kindergarten Review_, May, 1914. 

 Parker School: _Francis W. Parker Year-Book_, vol. III, June, 1914. ("Expression as a Means of Developing Motives. ") Francis Parker School, Chicago. 

 Psychological Review: Monograph--"Development of Imagination in School Children. " _Suppl. Psych. Review_, vol. XI, no. 1, 1909. 

 Wagner, Carrie: "Furniture for the Doll House. " _Kindergarten Review_, Dec. , 1914. 

 Worst, E. F. ; Barber, H. ; and Seymour, M. : _Constructive Work_. Mumford. 

 Zook, Mabel; and Maloy, Regina: "Illustrated Stories. " _Kindergarten Review_, May, 1915. 

CHAPTER IV

THE HISTORY OF FAIRY TALES

 The gods of ancient mythology were changed into the demi-gods and heroes of ancient poetry, and these demi-gods again became, at a later age, the principal characters of our nursery tales. --MAX MÜLLER

 Stories originally told about the characters of savage tales, were finally attracted into the legends of the gods of ancient mythology, or were attributed to demi-gods and heroes. --ANDREW LANG. 

I. THE ORIGIN OF FAIRY TALES

Now that we have indicated the worth of fairy tales, have observedthose principles which should guide the teacher in choosing and ininterpreting a tale, and have stated those rules which should governthe story-teller in the telling of the tale, we may well ask a fewfurther questions concerning the nature of these fairy tales. What isa fairy tale and whence did it come, and how are we to find itsbeginning? Having found it, how are we to follow it down through theages? How shall it be classed, what are the available types which seekto include it and show its nature? And lastly, what are the bookswhich are to be the main practical sources of fairy tales for theteacher of little children? The remaining pages attempt to give somehelp to the teacher who wishes to increase her resources with anintelligent knowledge of the material she is handling. 

Many times the question, "What is a fairy tale?" has been asked. Onehas said: "The fairy tale is a poetic presentation of a spiritualtruth. " George MacDonald has answered: "_Undine_ is a fairy tale. " Mr. G. K. Chesterton has said: "A fairy tale is a tale told in a morbid ageto the only remaining sane person, a child. A legend is a fairy taletold to men when men were sane. " Some, scorning to reply, have treatedthe question as one similar to, "What poem do you consider best in theEnglish language?" As there are many tales included here which do notcontain a fairy, fairy tales here are taken to include tales whichcontain something fairy or extraordinary, the magic or themarvelous--fairies, elves, or trolls, speaking animals, trees, or atalkative Tin Soldier. The Myth proper and the Fable are both excludedhere, while the _pourquois_ tale, a myth development, and the Beasttale, a short-story fable development, are both included. 

The origin of the word "fairy, " as given by Thomas Keightley in his_Fairy Mythology_, and later in the Appendix of his _Tales and PopularFictions_, is the Latin _fatum_, "to enchant. " The word was deriveddirectly from the French form of the root. The various forms of theroot were:--

 Latin _fatum_, "to enchant. " French _fee, feerie_, "illusion. " Italian _fata_. Provençal _fada_. 

In old French romance, _fee_ was a "woman skilled in magic. " "Allthose women were called Fays who had to do with enchantment and charmsand knew the power and virtue of words, of stones, and of herbs, bywhich they were kept in youth and in great beauty and in greatriches. " This was true also of the Italian _fata_. 

The word "fairy" was used in four senses. _Fairy_ represented:--

 (1) Illusion, or enchantment. 

 (2) Abode of the Faes, the country of the Fays. 

 (3) Inhabitants collectively, the people of Fairyland. 

 (4) The individual in Fairyland, the fairy Knight, or Elf. 

The word was used in the fourth sense before the time of Chaucer. After the appearance of Spenser's _Faerie Queene_ distinctions becameconfused, and the name of the real fairies was transferred to "thelittle beings who made the green, sour ringlets whereof the ewe notbites. " The change adopted by the poets gained currency among thepeople. Fairies were identified with nymphs and elves. Shakespeare wasthe principal means of effecting this revolution, and in his_Midsummer Night's Dream_ he has incorporated most of the fairy loreknown in England at his time. But the tales are older than their name. 

The origin of fairy tales is a question which has kept many very ablescholars busy and which has not yet been settled to the satisfactionof many. What has been discovered resolves itself mainly into fourdifferent origins of fairy tales:--

I. Fairy tales are detritus of myth, surviving echoes of gods andheroes. Against this theory it may be said that, when popular taleshave incidents similar to Greek heroic myths, the tales are notdetritus of myth, but both have a more ancient tale as their originalsource. There was:--

 (1) A popular tale which reflected the condition of a rude people, a tale full of the monstrous and the miraculous. 

 (2) The same tale, a series of incidents and plot, with the monstrous element modified, which survived in the oral traditions of illiterate peasantry. 

 (3) The same plot and incidents, as they existed in heroic epics of cultivated people. A local and historical character was given by the introduction of known places and native heroes. Tone and manners were refined by literary workmanship, in the _Rig Veda_, the Persian _King-book_, the _Homeric Epics_, etc. 

The Grimms noted that the evolution of the tale was from a stronglymarked, even ugly, but highly expressive form of its earlier stages, to that which possessed external beauty of mold. The origin is in thefancy of a primitive people, the survival is through _Märchen_ ofpeasantry, and the transfiguration into epics is by literary artists. Therefore, one and the same tale may be the source of Perrault's_Sleeping Beauty_, also of a _Greek myth_, and also of an _old tale ofilliterate peasantry_. This was the opinion held by Lang, who said, "For the roots of stories, we must look, not in the clouds but uponthe earth, not in the various aspects of nature but in the dailyoccurrences and surroundings, in the current opinions and ideas ofsavage life. "

In the savage _Märchen_ of to-day, the ideas and incidents are theinevitable result of the mental habits and beliefs of savages. We gainan idea of the savage mind through Leviticus, in the Bible, throughHerodotus, Greek and Roman geographers, Aristotle, Plutarch, Pliny, etc. , through voyagers, missionaries, and travelers, and throughpresent savage peoples. Savage existence is based on two greatinstitutions:--

(a) The division of society into clans. --Marriage laws depend on theconception that these clans descend from certain plants, animals, orinorganic objects. There was the belief in human descent from animalsand kinship and personal intercourse with them. 

(b) Belief in magic and medicine-men, which resulted in powers ofmetamorphosis, the effect of incantation, and communion with thedead. --To the savage all nature was animated, all things were persons. The leading ideas of savage peoples have already been referred to inthe list of motifs which appear in the different fairy tales, as givenby Lang, mentioned under the "Preparation of the Teacher, " in _TheTelling of the Tale_. 

II. Fairy tales are myths of Sun, Dawn, Thunder, Rain, etc. 

This is sometimes called the Sun-Myth Theory or the Aryan Theory, andit is the one advocated by Max Müller and by Grimm. 

The fairy tales were primitive man's experience with nature in dayswhen he could not distinguish between nature and his own personality, when there was no supernatural because everything was endowed with apersonal life. They were the poetic fancies of light and dark, cloudand rain, day and night; and underneath them were the same fancifulmeanings. These became changed by time, circumstances in differentcountries, and the fancy of the tellers, so that they became sunny andmany-colored in the South, sterner and wilder in the North, and morehome-like in the Middle and West. To the Bushmen the wind was a bird, and to the Egyptian fire was a living beast. Even _The Song ofSix-Pence_ has been explained as a nature-myth, the pie being theearth and sky, the birds the twenty-four hours, the king the sun, thequeen the moon, and the opening of the pie, day-break. 

Every word or phrase became a new story as soon as the first meaningof the original name was lost. Andrew Lang tells how Kephalos the sunloved Prokris the dew, and slew her by his arrows. Then when the firstmeaning of the names for sun, dew, and rays was lost, Kephalos, ashepherd, loved Prokris, a nymph, and we have a second tale which, bya folk-etymology, became the _Story of Apollo, the Wolf_. Tales weretold of the sun under his frog name; later people forgot that _frog_meant "sun, " and the result was the popular tale, _A Frog, He WouldA-Wooing Go_. 

In regard to this theory, "It is well to remember, " says Tylor in his_Primitive Culture_, "that rash inferences which, on the strength ofmere resemblances, derive episodes of myth from episodes of nature, must be regarded with utter distrust; for the student who has no morestringent criterion than this for his myths of sun and sky and dawnwill find them wherever it pleases him to seek them. " There is adanger of being carried away by false analogies. But all scholarsagree that some tales are evidently myths of sun and dawn. If weexamine the natural history of savages, we do find summer feasts, winter feasts, rituals of sorrow for the going of summer and ofrejoicing for its return, anxious interest in the sun, interest in themotion of the heavenly bodies, the custom of naming men and women fromthe phenomena of nature, and interest in making love, making war, making fun, and making dinner. 

III. Fairy tales all arose in India, they are part of the common Aryanheritage and are to be traced by the remains of their language. 

They were first written in the _Vedas_, the sacred Sanskrit books ofBuddhism. This theory is somewhat allied to the Sun-Myth Theory. Thistheory was followed by Max Müller and by Sir George Cox. 

The theory of a common source in India will not answer entirely forthe origin of tales because many similar tales have existed innon-Aryan countries. Old tales were current in Egypt, 2000 B. C. , andwere brought from there by Crusaders, Mongol missionaries, theHebrews, and Gypsies. 

The idea of connecting a number of disconnected stories, as we find in_Arabian Nights_, _The Canterbury Tales_, and the _Decameron_, istraced to the idea of making Buddha the central figure in thefolk-literature of India. And Jacobs says that at least one-third ofall the stories common to the children of Europe are derived fromIndia, and by far the majority of the drolls. He also says thatgenerally, so far as incidents are marvelous and of true fairy-likecharacter, India is the probable source, because of the vitality ofanimism and transformation in India in all time. Moreover, as apeople, the Hindus had spread among their numbers enough literarytraining and mental grip to invent plots. 

And again, there is an accepted connection in myth and languagebetween all Aryan languages and Sanskrit. According to Sir GeorgeDasent, "The whole human race has sprung from one stock planted in theEast, which has stretched its boughs and branches laden with the fruitof language and bright with the bloom of song and story, by successiveoffshoots to the utmost parts of the earth. " Dasent tells how theAryans who went west, who went out to _do_, were distinguished fromthe nations of the world by their common sense, by their power ofadapting themselves to circumstances, by making the best of theirposition, by being ready to receive impressions, and by being able todevelop impressions. They became the Greeks, the Latins, the Teutons, the Celts, and the Slavonians. The Aryans who stayed at home, remainedto _reflect_, and were distinguished by their power of thought. Theybecame a nation of philosophers and gave to the world the Sanskritlanguage as the basis of comparative philology. Dasent shows howlegends, such as the _Story of William Tell_ and _Dog Gellert_, whichhave appeared in many Aryan peoples were common in germ to the Aryantribes before migration. Joseph Jacobs has more recently settled thetravels of _Gellert_, tracing its literary route from the Indian_Vinaya Pitaka_, through the _Fables of Bidpai, Sindibad, Seven Sagesof Rome, Gesta Romanorum_, and the Welsh _Fables of Cottwg_, until thelegend became localized in Wales. 

IV. Fairy tales owe their origin to the identity of early fancy. 

Just as an individual, after thinking along certain lines, issurprised to come upon the exact sequence of his thought in a book hehad never seen, so primitive peoples in remote parts of the world, upagainst similar situations, would express experience in talescontaining similar motifs. A limited set of experiences was presentedto the inventive faculty, and the limited combinations possible wouldresult in similar combinations. The Aryan Jackal, the MediaevalReynard, the Southern Brer Rabbit, and the Weasel of Africa, are nearrelations. Dasent said, "In all mythology and tradition there arenatural resemblances, parallelisms, suggested to the senses of eachrace by natural objects and everyday events; and these might spring upspontaneously all over the earth as home-growths, neither derived byimitation from other tribes, nor from the tradition of a commonstock. "

It is probable that all four theories of the origin of fairy tales arecorrect and that fairy tales owe their origin not to any one cause butto all four. 

II. THE TRANSMISSION OF FAIRY TALES

Oral transmission. The tale, having originated, may have beentransmitted in many ways: by women compelled to marry into alientribes; by slaves from Africa to America; by soldiers returning fromthe Crusades; by pilgrims returning from the Holy Land or from Mecca;by knights gathering at tournaments; by sailors and travelers; and bycommercial exchange between southern Europe and the East--Venicetrading with Egypt and Spain with Syria. Ancient tales of Persiaspread along the Mediterranean shores. In this way the Moors of Spainlearned many a tale which they transmitted to the French. _Jack theGiant-Killer_ and _Thomas Thumb_, according to Sir Walter Scott, landed in England from the very same keels and warships which conveyedHengist and Horsa and Ebba the Saxon. A recent report of the Bureau ofEthnology of the Smithsonian Institution of the United Statesexpressed the opinion that the _Uncle Remus Tales_ have an Indianorigin. Slaves had associated with Indian tribes such as theCherokees, and had heard the story of the Rabbit who was so cleverthat no one could fool him. Gradually the Southern negroes had adoptedthe Indian tales and changed them. Joseph Jacobs claims to have foundthe original of the "Tar Baby" in the _Jataka Tales_. A tale, oncehaving originated, could travel as easily as the wind. Certainly agood type when once hit upon was diffused widely. Sir Walter Scott hassaid: "A work of great interest might be compiled from the origin ofpopular fiction and the transmission of similar tales from age to ageand from country to country. The mythology of one period would thenappear to pass into the romance of the next century, and that into thenursery tales of subsequent ages. Such an investigation would showthat these fictions, however wild and childish, possess such charmsfor the populace as to enable them to penetrate into countriesunconnected by manners and language, and having no apparentintercourse to afford the means of transmission. "

Thomas Keightley, in _Tales and Popular Fictions_, has giveninteresting examples of the transmission of tales. Selecting _Jack theGiant-Killer_, he has shown that it is the same tale as Grimm's _TheBrave Tailor_, and _Thor's Journey to Utgard_ in the Scandinavian_Edda_. Similar motifs occur also in a Persian tale, _Ameen of Isfahanand the Ghool_, and in the _Goat and the Lion_, a tale from the_Panchatantra_. Selecting the _Story of Dick Whittington_ he has shownthat in England it was current in the reign of Elizabeth; that twosimilar tales, Danish legends, were told by Thiele; that a similarItalian tale existed at the time of Amerigo Vespucci, which was alegend told by Arlotto in 1396-1483; that another similar Italian talewas connected with the origin of Venice, in 1175; and that a similartale existed in Persia in 1300, before 1360, when Whittington ofEngland was born. He also pointed out that the _Odyssey_ must havetraveled east as well as west, from Greece, for Sindbad's adventurewith the Black Giant is similar to that of Ulysses with the Cyclops. 

Another interesting set of parallels shown by him is connected withthe _Pentamerone_ tale, _Peruonto_. This is the Straparola _Peter theFool_, the Russian _Emelyan the Fool_, the Esthonian tale byLaboulaye, _The Fairy Craw-Fish_, and the Grimm _The Fisherman and hisWife_. The theme of a peasant being rewarded by the fish he had thrownback into the water takes on a delightful varied form in the tale ofdifferent countries. The magic words of Emelyan, "Up and away! At thepike's command, and at my request, go home, sledge!" in each varianttake an interesting new form. 

Literary transmission. The travels of a tale through oral traditionare to be attempted with great difficulty and by only the most carefulscholarship. One may follow the transmission of tales through literarycollections with somewhat greater ease and exactness. Popular taleshave a literature of their own. The following list seeks to mentionthe most noteworthy collections:--

 No date. _Vedas_. Sanskrit. 

 No date. _Zend Avesta_. Persian. 

 Fifth century, B. C. _Jatakas_. Probably the oldest literature. It was written at Ceylon and has been translated into 38 languages, in 112 editions. Recently the Cambridge edition has been translated from the Pali, edited by E. B. Cowell, published by Putnam, New York, 1895-1907. 

 4000 B. C. _Tales of Ancient Egypt_. These were the tales of magicians, recorded on papyrus. 

 600 B. C. (about). _Homeric Legends_. 

 200 B. C. (about). _Book of Esther_. 

 Second century, A. D. _The Golden Ass, Metamorphoses of Apuleius_. 

 550 A. D. _Panchatantra_, the _Five Books_. This was a Sanskrit collection of fables, the probable source of the _Fables of Bidpai_. 

 Second century, A. D. _The Hitopadesa_, or _Wholesome Instruction_. A selection from the _Panchatantra_, first edited by Carey, in 1804; by Max Müller, in 1844. 

 550 A. D. _Panchatantra_. Pehlevi version. 

 Tenth century, A. D. _Panchatantra_. Arabic version. 

 Eleventh century, A. D. _Panchatantra_. Greek version. 

 Twelfth century, A. D. _Panchatantra_. Persian version. 

 1200 A. D. _Sanskrit Tales_. These tales were collected by Somadeva Bhatta, of Cashmere, and were published to amuse the Queen of Cashmere. They have been translated by Brockhaus, 1844. Somadeva's _Ocean of the Streams of Story_ has been translated by Mr. Tawney, of Calcutta, 1880. 

Tales of the West came from the East in two sources:--

 1262-78. (1) _Directorium Humanæ Vitæ_, of John of Capua. This was translated from the _Hebrew_, from the _Arabic_ of the eighth century, from the _Pehlevi_ of Persia of the sixth century, from the _Panchatantra_, from the _Sanskrit original_. This is the same as the famous Persian version, _The Book of Calila and Dimna_, attributed to Bidpai, of India. There was a late Persian version, in 1494, and one in Paris in 1644, which was the source of La Fontaine. 

 Thirteenth century. (2) _The Story of the Seven Sages of Rome_, or _The Book of Sindibad_. This appeared in Europe as the Latin _History of the Seven Sages of Rome_, by Dame Jehans, a monk in the Abbey of Haute Selve. There is a Hebrew, an Arabic, and a Persian version. It is believed the Persian version came from Sanskrit but the Sanskrit original has not yet been found. 

 Tenth century. _Reynard the Fox_. This was first found as a Latin product of the monks, in a cloister by the banks of the Mosel and Mass. _Reynard the Fox_ shares with _Æsop's Fables_ the distinction of being folk-lore raised into literature. It is a series of short stories of adventure forming a romance. These versions are known:--

 1180. German-_Reinhart_, an epic of twelve adventures by Heinrich Glichesäre. 

 1230. French-_Roman de Renard_, with its twenty-seven branches. 

 1250. Flemish-_Reinaert_, part of which was composed by Willem, near Ghent. 

 1148. _Ysengrimus_, a Latin poem written at Ghent. 

 Thirteenth century. _Of the Vox and of the Wolf_, an English poem. 

 Later date. _Rainardo_, Italian. 

 Later date. Greek _mediaeval version_. 

 _Reynard the Fox_[5] was first printed in England by Caxton in 1481, translated from a Dutch copy. A copy of Caxton's book is in the British Museum. Caxton's edition was adapted by "Felix Summerley"; and Felix Summerley's edition, with slight changes, was used by Joseph Jacobs in his Cranford edition. 

 A Dutch prose romance, _Historie von Reynaert de Vos_ was published in 1485. A German copy, written in Lower Saxony was published in 1498. A chap-book, somewhat condensed, but giving a very good account of the romance, was published in London in 1780, printed and sold in Aldermary Churchyard, Bow Lane. This chap-book is very much finer in language than many of the others in Ashton's collection. Its structure is good, arranged in nine chapters. It shows itself a real classic and would be read with pleasure to-day. Goethe's poem, _Reineke Fuchs_, was published in 1794. This version was more refined than previous ones but it lost in simplicity. Monographs have been written on _Reynard_ by Grimm, Voigt, Martin, and Sudre. 

 Raginhard was a man's name, meaning "strong in counsel, " and was common in Germany which bordered on France. This name naturally was given to the beast who lived by his wits. Grimm considered _Reynard_ the result of a Teutonic Beast Epic of primitive origin. Later research has exploded this theory and has decided that all versions are descended from an original French one existing between 1150 and 1170. Modern editions have come from the Flemish version. The literary artist who compiled _Reynard_ took a nucleus of fables and added to it folk-tales which are known to have existed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and which exist to-day as tradition among some folk. The folk-tales included in _Reynard_ are: _Reynard and Dame Wolf_; _The Iced Wolf's Tail_; _The Fishes in the Car_; _The Bear in the Cleft_; _The Wolf as Bell-Ringer_; and _The Dyed Fox_. The method of giving individual names to the animals such as Reynard, Bruin, and Tibert, was current among the Folk before a literary form was given to _Reynard_. As this was the custom in the province of Lorraine it is supposed that the origin of these names was in Lorraine. Other names, such as Chanticleer, the Cock, and Noble, the Lion, were given because of a quality, and indicate a tendency to allegory. These names increase in the later development of the romance. In the beginning when the beasts had only personal adventures, these were told by the Folk to raise a laugh. Later there was a meaning underneath the laugh and the Beast Epic Comedy of the Folk grew into the world Beast Satire of the literary artist. 

 _Reynard_ exhibits the bare struggle for existence which was generally characteristic of Feudal life. Cunning opposes force and triumphs over it. The adventurous hero appeals because of his faculty of _adjustment_, his power to adapt himself to circumstances and to master them. He also appeals because of his small size when compared with the other animals. In the Middle Ages _Reynard_ appealed because it was a satire upon the monks. Of _Reynard_ Carlyle has said, "It comes before us with a character such as can belong only to very few; that of being a true World's Book which through centuries was everywhere at home, the spirit of which diffused itself into all languages and all minds. "

 * * * * *

 About one tenth of European folk-lore is traced to collections used in the Middle Ages: _Fables of Bidpai_, _Seven Wise Masters_, _Gesta Romanorum_, and _Barlaam and Josophat_. These tales became diffused through the _Exempla_ of the monks, used in their sermons, through the _Novelle_ of Italy, the _Decameron_ of Boccaccio, the _Tales of Chaucer_, Painter's _Palace of Pleasure_, and the _Elizabethan Drama_ of England. One half of La Fontaine's _Fables_ are of Indian sources. 

 1326. The _Gesta Romanorum_, written in Latin. This was a compilation, by the monks, of stories with a moral appended to each. It was the most popular story-book before the invention of printing. In England it was printed by Wynkyn de Worde, of which edition the only known copy is at St. John's College, Cambridge. The earliest manuscript of the collection is dated 1326. Between 1600 and 1703 fifteen editions of the book prove its popularity. One English version is by Sir Frederick Madden, who lived 1801-73. The author of the _Gesta Romanorum_ is unknown, but was likely a German. The stories included are miscellaneous and vary in different editions. Among its stories are Oriental tales, tales of the deeds of Roman Emperors, an early form of _Guy of Warwick_, the casket episode of _The Merchant of Venice_, a story of the Jew's bond, a tale of the Emperor Theodosius, being a version of _King Lear_, the story of the Hermit, and a tale of Aglas, the daughter of the Roman Emperor Pompey, being a version of _Atalanta and her Race_. 

 1000 A. D. (about). _Shah-Nameh_, or _King-book of Persia_, by Ferdousee, born about 940 A. D. This book is the pride and glory of Persian literature. It was written by the Persian poet at the command of the king, who wished to have preserved the old traditions and heroic glories of Persians before the Arabian conquest. Ferdousee declared that he invented none of his material, but took it from the _Bostan-Nameh_ or _Old-Book_. 

 The _King-Book_ is very ancient, it is the Persian Homer. It was the labor of thirty years. It consisted of 56, 000 distichs or couplets, for every thousand of which the Sultan had promised the poet one thousand pieces of gold. Instead of the elephant-load of gold promised, the Sultan sent in payment 60, 000 small silver coins. This so enraged the poet that he gave away one third to the man who brought them, one third to a seller of refreshments, and one third to the keeper of the bath where the messenger found him. After the poet's death the insult was retrieved by proper payment. This was refused by his one daughter, but accepted by the other and used to erect a public dike the poet had always desired to build to protect his native town from the river. The fine character of the tales of the _King-Book_ is shown in the tale of _Roostem and Soohrab_, taken from this book, which Keightley has translated in _Tales and Popular Fictions_. Keightley considered it superior to any Greek or Latin tale. Modern literature knows this tale through Matthew Arnold's poem. 

 1548 (not later than). _The Thousand and One Nights_, Arabian. 12 volumes. Galland's French translation appeared in 1704. This was supplemented by Chavis and Cazotte, and by Caussin de Percival. Monsieur Galland was Professor of Arabic in the Royal College of Paris. He was a master of French and a fairly good scholar of Arabic. He brought his manuscript, dated 1548, to Paris from Constantinople. He severely abbreviated the original, cutting out poetical extracts and improving the somewhat slovenly style. In his translation he gave to English the new words, _genie, ogre_, and _vizier_. His work was very popular. 

 Boulak and Calcutta texts are better than the Galland. They contain about two hundred and fifty stories. The Cairo edition has been admirably translated by Edward W. Lane, in 3 volumes (1839-41) published in London. This is probably the best edition. It also omits many poetical quotations. A recent edition using Lane's translation is by Frances Olcott, published by Holt in 1913. Editions which attempt to be complete versions are by John Payne (13 volumes, 1882-84), and by Sir Richard Burton (16 volumes, 1885-88). Lane and Burton give copious notes of value. The recent edition by Wiggin and Smith used the editions of Scott and Lane. 

 The stories in _Arabian Nights_ are Indian, Egyptian, Arabian, and Persian. Scenes are laid principally in Bagdad and Cairo. Lane considered that the one hundred and fifteen stories, which are common to all manuscripts, are based on the Pehlevi original. The idea of the frame of the story came from India. This was the birth of the serial story. There is authority for considering the final collection to have been made in Egypt. Cairo is described most minutely and the customs are of Egypt of the thirteenth century and later. The stories must have been popular in Egypt as they were mentioned by an historian, 1400-70. Lane considered that the final Arabic collection bears to Persian tales the same relation that the _Æneid_ does to the _Odyssey_. Life depicted is Arabic, and there is an absence of the great Persian heroes. Internal evidence assists in dating the work. Coffee is mentioned only three times. As its use became popular in the East in the fourteenth century this indicates the date of the work to be earlier than the very common use of coffee. Cannon, which are mentioned, were known in Egypt in 1383. Additions to the original were probably made as late as the sixteenth century. _The Arabian Nights_ has been the model for many literary attempts to produce the Oriental tale, of which the tales of George Meredith are notable examples. 

 Thomas Keightley, in _Tales and Popular Fictions_, considered Persia the original country of _The Thousand and One Nights_, and _The Voyages of Sinbad_, originally a separate work. He showed how some of these tales bear marks of Persian extraction and how some had made their way to Europe through oral transmission before the time of Galland's translation. He selected the tale, "Cleomedes and Claremond, " and proved that it must have been learned by a certain Princess Blanche, of Castile, and transmitted by her to France about 1275. This romance must have traveled to Spain from the East. It is the same as "The Enchanted Horse" in _The Thousand and One Nights_, and through Keightley's proof, is originally Persian. Keightley also selected the Straparola tale, _The Dancing Water, the Singing Apple, and the Beautiful Green Bird_, and proved it to be the same as Grimm's _Three Little Birds_, as a Persian _Arabian Night's_ tale, and also as _La Princesse Belle Etoile_, of D'Aulnoy. But as Galland's translation appeared only the year after Madame D'Aulnoy's death, Madame D'Aulnoy must have obtained the tale elsewhere than from the first printed version of _Arabian Nights_. 

 No date. _The Thousand and One Days_. This is a Persian collection containing the "History of Calaf. "

 1550. _Straparola's Nights_, by Straparola. This collection of jests, riddles, and twenty-one stories was published in Venice. The stories were taken from oral tradition, from the lips of ten young women. Some were agreeable, some unfit, so that the book was forbidden in Rome, in 1605, and an abridged edition prepared. There was a complete Venetian edition in 1573, a German translation in 1679, a French one in 1611, and a good German one with valuable notes, by Schmidt, in 1817. Straparola's _Nights_ contained stories similar to the German _The Master Thief, The Little Peasant, Hans and the Hedge-Hog, Iron Hans, The Four Brothers, The Two Brothers_, and _Dr. Know-all_. 

 1637. _The Pentamerone_, by Basile. Basile spent his early youth in Candia or Crete, which was owned by Venice. He traveled much in Italy, following his sister, who was a noted singer, to Mantua. He probably died in 1637. There may have been an earlier edition of _The Pentamerone_, which sold out. It was republished in Naples in 1645, 1674, 1714, 1722, 1728, 1749, 1788, and in Rome in 1679. This was the best collection of tales formed by a nation for a long time. The traditions were complete, and the author had a special talent for collecting them, and an intimate knowledge of dialect. This collection of fifty stories may be looked upon as the basis of many others. Basile wrote independently of Straparola, though a few tales are common to both. He was very careful not to alter the tale as he took it down from the people. He told his stories with allusions to manners and customs, to old stories and mythology. He abounds in picturesque, proverbial expressions, with turns and many similes, and displays a delightful exuberance of fancy. A valuable translation, with notes, was written by Felix Liebrecht, in 1842, and an English one by John Edward Taylor, in 1848. Keightley, in _Fairy Mythology_, has translated three of these tales and in _Tales and Popular Fictions_, two tales. Keightley's were the first translations of these tales into any language other than Italian. Among the stories of Basile are the German _Cinderella, How Six got on in the World, Rapunzel, Snow White, Dame Holle, Briar Rose_, and _Hansel and Grethel_. 

 1697. _The Tales of Mother Goose_, by Charles Perrault. In France the collecting of fairy tales began in the seventeenth century. French, German, and Italian tales were all derived independently by oral tradition. In 1696, in _Recueil_, a magazine published by Moetjens, at The Hague, appeared _The Story of Sleeping Beauty_, by Perrault. In 1697 appeared seven other tales by Perrault. Eight stories were published in 12mo, under a title borrowed from a _fabliau_, _Contes de ma Mere l'Oye_. In a later edition three stories were added, _The Ass's Skin_, _The Clever Princess_, and _The Foolish Wishes_. The tales of Perrault were:--

 1. The Fairies. 2. The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood. 3. Bluebeard. 4. Little Red Riding Hood. 5. Puss-in-Boots. 6. Cinderella. 7. Rique with the Tuft. 8. Little Thumb. 9. The Ass's Skin. 10. The Clever Princess. 11. The Foolish Wishes. 

 Immediately afterwards the tales appeared published at Paris in a volume entitled, _Histoires ou Contes du Temps Passe, avec des Moralites--Contes de ma Mère l'Oye_. The earliest translation into English was in a book containing French and English, _Tales of Passed Times, by Mother Goose, with Morals. Written in French by M. Charles Perrault and Englished by R. S. , Gent_. An English translation by Mr. Samber was advertised in the English _Monthly Chronicle_, March, 1729. Andrew Lang, with an introduction, has edited these tales from the original edition, published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1888. These tales made their way slowly in England, but gradually eclipsed the native English tales and legends which had been discouraged by Puritan influence. In Perrault's time, when this influence was beginning to decline, they superseded the English tales, crowding out all but _Jack the Giant-Killer, Tom Hickathrift, Jack and the Beanstalk, Tom Thumb_, and _Childe Rowland_. 

 1650-1705. _Fairy Tales_, by Madame D'Aulnoy. In France there were many followers of Perrault. The most important of these was Madame D'Aulnoy. She did not copy Perrault. She was a brilliant, witty countess, and brought into her tales, entitled _Contes de Fées_, the graces of the court. She adhered less strictly to tradition than Perrault, and handled her material freely, making additions, amplifications, and moral reflections, to the original tale. Her weaving together of incidents is artistic and her style graceful and not unpleasing. It is marked by ornamentation, sumptuousness, and French sentimentality. It shows a lack of naïveté resulting from the palace setting given to her tales, making them adapted only to children of high rank. Often her tale is founded on a beautiful tradition. _The Blue-Bird_, one of the finest of her tales, was found in the poems of Marie de France, in the thirteenth century. Three of her tales were borrowed from Straparola. Among her tales the most important are:--

 _Graciosa and Percinet_. (Basile. )

 _The Blue-Bird_. (Contains a motif similar to one in _The Singing, Soaring Lark_. )

 _The White Cat_. (Similar to _Three Feathers_ and _The Miller's Boy and the Cat_. )

 _The Hind in the Wood_. (Similar to _Rumpelstiltskin_. )

 _The Good Little Mouse_. (Basile. )

 _The Fair One with the Golden Locks. (Ferdinand the Faithful. )_

 _The Yellow Dwarf_. 

 _Princess Belle Etoile_. (Straparola. )

 The careful translation of Madame D'Aulnoy's tales by Mr. Planché faithfully preserves the spirit of the original. 

 There were many imitators of Countess D'Aulnoy, in France, in the eighteenth century. Their work was on a much lower level and became published in the _Cabinet des Fées_, a collection of stories including in its forty volumes the work of many authors, of which the greater part is of little value. Of those following D'Aulnoy three deserve mention:--

 1711-1780. _Moral Tales_, by Madame de Beaumont. These were collected while the author was in England. Of these we use _Prince Cherry_. Madame de Beaumont wrote a children's book in which is found a tale similar to _The Singing, Soaring Lark_, entitled _The Maiden and the Beast_. She also wrote 69 volumes of romance. 

 1765. _Tales_, by Madame Villeneuve. Of these we use _Beauty and the Beast_. 

 1692-1765. _Tales_, by Comte de Caylus. The author was an antiquarian and scholar. Of his tales we use _Sylvain and Yocosa_. 

 Very little attempt has been made in modern times to include in our children's literature the best of foreign literature for children, for there has been very little study of foreign books for children. Certainly the field of children's literature would be enriched to receive translations of any books worthy of the name classic. A partial list of French fairy tales is here given, indicating to children's librarians how little has been done to open up this field, and inviting their labor:--

 _Bibliothèque Rose_, a collection. (What should be included?)

 _Bibliothèque des Petits Enfants_, a collection. (What should be included?)

 1799-1874. _Fairy Tales from the French_, by Madame de Ségur. These tales are published by Winston. We also use her _Story of a Donkey_, written in 1860 and published by Heath in 1901. 

 1866. _Fairy Tales of all Nations_, by Edouard Laboulaye. 

 1902. _Last Fairy Tales_, also by Laboulaye. 

 _Tales_, by Zenaide Fleuriot. (What should be included?)

 1910. _Chantecler_, by Edmund Rostand. Translated by Gertrude Hall, published by Duffield. 

 1911. _The Honey Bee_, by Anatole France; translated by Mrs. Lane; published by Lane. 

 1911. _The Blue-Bird_, by Maurice Maeterlinck; published by Dodd. 

In Great Britain many old tales taken from tradition were included inthe Welsh Mabinogion, Irish sagas, and Cornish Mabinogion. Legends ofBrittany were made known by the poems of Marie de France, who lived inthe thirteenth century. These were published in Paris, in 1820. Infact, most of the early publications of fairy tales were taken fromthe French. 

Celtic tales have been collected in modern times in a greater numberthan those of any nation. This has been due largely to the work ofJ. F. Campbell. Celtic tales are unusual in that they have beencollected while the custom of story-telling is yet flourishing amongthe Folk. They are therefore of great literary and imaginativeinterest. They are especially valuable as the oldest of the Europeantales. The Irish tale of _Connla and the Fairy Maiden_ has been tracedto a date earlier than the fifth century and therefore ranks as theoldest tale of modern Europe. The principal Celtic collections are:--

 _Iolo M. S_. , published by the Welsh M. S. Society. 

 _Mabinogion_, translated by Lady Guest. (Contains tales that trace back to the twelfth century. )

 _Y Cymrodor_, by Professor Rhys. 

 1825. _Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland_, by T. Crofton Croker. 

 1842. _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_. Chambers. 

 1860-62. _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, by J. F. Campbell. 

 _Tales_, collected and published with notes, by Mr. Alfred Nutt. 

 1866. By Patrick Kennedy, the Irish Grimm. _Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts; Fireside Stories of Ireland_ (1870); and _Bardic Stories of Ireland_ (1871). 

In England the publication of fairy tales may be followed more readilybecause the language proves no hindrance and the literature givesassistance. In England the principal publications of fairy taleswere:--

 1604. _Pasquil's Jests_. Contained a tale similar to one of Grimm's. 

 1635. _A Tract, A Descryption of the Kynge and Quene of Fairies, their habit, fare, abode, pomp, and state_. 

 Eighteenth century (early). _Madame D'Aulnoy's Tales_, a translation. 

 1667-1745. _Gulliver's Travels_, by Dean Swift. (One modern edition, with introduction by W. D. Howells, and more than one hundred illustrations by Louis Rhead, is published by Harpers. Another edition, illustrated by Arthur Rackham, is published by Dutton. )

 1700-1800. _Chap-Books_. Very many of these books, especially the best ones, were published by William and Cluer Dicey, in Aldermary Church Yard, Bow Lane, London. Rival publishers, whose editions were rougher in engraving, type, and paper, labored in Newcastle. 

 The chap-books were little paper books hawked by chap-men, or traveling peddlers, who went from village to village with "Almanacks, Bookes of Newes, or other trifling wares. " These little books were usually from sixteen to twenty-four pages in bulk and in size from two and one half inches by three and one half inches to five and one half inches by four and one quarter inches. They sold for a penny or six-pence and became the very popular literature of the middle and lower classes of their time. After the nineteenth century they became widely published, deteriorated, and gradually were crowded out by the _Penny Magazine_ and _Chambers's Penny Tracts and Miscellanies_. For many years before the Victorian period, folk-lore was left to the peasants and kept out of reach of the children of the higher classes. This was the reign of the moral tale, of Thomas Bewick's _Looking Glass of the Mind_ and Mrs. Sherwood's _Henry and His Bearer_. Among the chap-books published by William and Cluer Dicey, may be mentioned: _The Pleasant and Delightful History of Jack and the Giants_ (part second was printed and sold by J. White); _Guy, Earl of Warwick; Bevis of Hampton; The History of Reynard the Fox_, dated 1780; _The History of Fortunatus_, condensed from an edition of 1682; _The Fryer and the Boy; A True Tale of Robin Hood_ (Robin Hood Garland Blocks, from 1680, were used in the London Bridge Chap-Book edition); _The Famous History of Thomas Thumb; The History of Sir Richard Whittington_; and _The Life and Death of St. George. Tom Hickathrift_ was printed by and for M. Angus and Son, at Newcastle-in-the-Side: _Valentine and Orson_ was printed at Lyons, France, in 1489; and in England by Wynkyn de Worde. Among the chap-books many tales not fairy tales were included. With the popularity of _Goody Two Shoes_ and the fifty little books issued by Newbery, the realistic tale of modern times made a sturdy beginning. Of these realistic chap-books one of the most popular was _The History of Little Tom Trip_, probably by Goldsmith, engraved by the famous Thomas Bewick, published by T. Saint, of Newcastle. This was reprinted by Ed. Pearson in 1867. 

 Of _Jack the Giant-Killer_, in Skinner's _Folk-Lore_, David Masson has said: "Our _Jack the Giant-Killer_ is clearly the last modern transmutation of the old British legend, told in Geoffrey of Monmouth, of Corineüs the Trojan, the companion of the Trojan Brutus when he first settled in Britain; which Corineüs, being a very strong man, and particularly good-humored, is satisfied with being King of Cornwall, and killing out all the aboriginal giants there, leaving to Brutus all the rest of the island, and only stipulating that, whenever there is a peculiarly difficult giant in any part of Brutus' dominions, he shall be sent for to finish the fellow. "

 _Tom Hickathrift_, whose history is given in an old number of _Fraser's Magazine_, is described by Thackeray as one of the publisher Cundall's books, bound in blue and gold, illustrated by Frederick Taylor in 1847. According to Thackeray this chap-book tale was written by Fielding. Speaking of the passage, "The giant roared hideously but Tom had no more mercy on him than a bear upon a dog, " he said: "No one but Fielding could have described battle so. " Of the passage, "Having increased his strength by good living and improved his courage by drinking strong ale, " he remarked: "No one but Fielding could have given such an expression. " The quality of the English of this chap-book is apparent in the following sentence, taken from Ashton's version: "So Tom stepped to a gate and took a rail for a staff. "

 In regard to their literary merit the chap-books vary greatly. Some evidently are works of scholars who omitted to sign their names. In the collection by Ashton those deserving mention for their literary merit are: _Patient Grissel_, by Boccaccio; _Fortunatus_; _Valentine and Orson_; _Joseph and His Brethren_; _The Friar and the Boy_; _Reynard the Fox_, from Caxton's translation; _Tom Hickathrift_, probably by Fielding; and _The Foreign Travels of Sir John Mandeville_. 

 1708-90. Chap-Books. Printed by J. White, of York, established at Newcastle, 1708. These included: _Tom Hickathrift; Jack the Giant-Killer_; and _Cock Robin_. 

 1750. _A New Collection of Fairy Tales_. 2 vols. 

 1760. _Mother Goose's Melodies_. A collection of many nursery rhymes, songs, and a few old ballads and tales, published by John Newbery. The editor is unknown, but most likely was Oliver Goldsmith. The title of the collection may have been borrowed from Perrault's _Contes de ma Mère l'Oye_, of which an English version appeared in 1729. The title itself has an interesting history dating hundreds of years before Perrault's time. By 1777 _Mother Goose's Melodies_ had passed the seventh edition. In 1780 they were published by Carnan, Newbery's stepson, under the title _Sonnets for the Cradle_. In 1810 _Gammer Gurton's Garland_, a collection, was edited by Joseph Ritson, an English scholar. In 1842 J. O. Halliwell issued, for the Percy Society, _The Nursery Rhymes of England_. The standard modern text should consist of Newbery's book with such additions from Ritson and Halliwell as bear internal evidence of antiquity and are true nursery rhymes. 

 1770. _Queen Mab, A Collection of Entertaining Tales of Fairies_. 

 1783. _The Lilliputian Magazine_. Illustrated by Thomas Bewick, published by Carnan. 

 1788. _The Pleasing Companion, A Collection of Fairy Tales_. 

 1788. _Fairy Tales Selected from the Best Authors_, 2 vols. 

 1770-91. Books published by John Evans, of Long Lane. Printed on coarse sugar paper. They included: _Cock Robin_, 1791; _Mother Hubbard; Cinderella_; and _The Tragical Death of an Apple Pye_. 

 1809. _A Collection of Popular Stories for the Nursery_, translated from French, Italian, and Old English, by Benjamin Tabart, in 4 volumes. 

 1810 (about). _Lilliputian Library_, by J. G. Rusher, of Bridge St. , Banbury. The Halfpenny Series included:

 _Mother Hubbard and Her Dog; Jack The Giant-Killer; Dick Whittington and His Cat; The History of Tom Thumb_ (Middlesex); _Death and Burial of Cock Robin; and Cinderella and Her Glass Slipper_. 

 The Penny Series included:--

 _History of a Banbury Cake, and Jack the Giant-Killer_, designed by Craig, engraved by Lee. 

 Of Rusher's books those engraved by the Bewick School were:

 _Cock Robin; The History of Tom Thumb_; and _Children in the Wood_. 

 Rusher's books also included:

 _Mother Hubbard and Her Dog, Cinderella and Her Glass Slipper_, and _Dick Whittington and His Cat_, all designed by Cruikshank, engraved by Branstone. 

 1818. _Fairy Tales, or the Lilliputian Cabinet_, collected by Benj. Tabart, London. This was a new edition of the collection of 1809, and contained twenty-four stories. A full review of it may be seen in the _Quarterly Review_, 1819, No. 41, pp. 91-112. The tales included translations from Perrault, Madame D'Aulnoy, Madame de Beaumont, tales from _The Thousand and One Nights_, and from _Robin Hood_; and the single tales of _Jack the Giant-Killer, Tom Thumb_, and _Jack and the Bean-Stalk_. 

 1824, 1826. _German Popular Stories_, translated by Edgar Taylor, with illustrations by Cruikshank, published by Charles Tilt, London. A new edition, introduction by Ruskin, was published by Chatto & Windus, 1880. 

The above are the main collections of fairy tales in England. Manyindividual publications show the gradual development of fairy taleillustration in England:[6]--

 1713-1767. John Newbery's _Books for Children_. Among these were _Beauty and the Beast_, by Charles Lamb, 1765, and _Sinbad the Sailor_, 1798. 

 1778. _Fabulous Histories of the Robins_. Mrs. Sarah Trimmer. Cuts designed by Thomas Bewick, engraved by John Thompson, Whittingham's Chiswick Press. 

 1755-1886. _Life and Perambulations of a Mouse_; and _Adventures of a Pin-Cushion_. Dorothy Kilner. 

 1785. Baron Munchausen's _Narratives of His Famous Travels and Campaigns in Russia_. Rudolf Raspe. 

 1788. _Little Thumb and the Ogre_. Illustrated by William Blake; published by Dutton. 

 1790. _The Death and Burial of Cock Robin_. Illustrated by Thomas Bewick. Catnach. 

 1807. _Tales from Shakespeare_. Charles and Mary Lamb. W. J. Godwin and Co. William Blake illustrated an edition of these tales, probably the original edition. 

 1813. Reprints of forgotten books, by Andrew Tuer: _Dame Wiggins of Lee; The Gaping Wide-Mouthed Waddling Frog: The House that Jack Built. Dame Wiggins of Lee_ was first printed by A. K. Newman and Co. , Minerva Press. Original cuts by Stennet or Sinnet. Reprinted by Allen, 1885, with illustrations added by Kate Greenaway. 

 1841. _King of the Golden River_. John Ruskin. Illustrated by Richard Doyle, 1884. 

 1844. _Home Treasury_, by "Felix Summerley" (Sir Henry Cole). "Felix Summerley" was a reformer in children's books. He secured the assistance of many of the first artists of his time: Mulready, Cope, Horsley, Redgrave, Webster, all of the Royal Academy, Linnell and his three sons, Townsend, and others. These little books were published by Joseph Cundall and have become celebrated through Thackeray's mention of them. They aimed to cultivate the affections, fancy, imagination, and taste of children, they were a distinct contrast to the Peter Parley books. They were new books, new combinations of old materials, and reprints, purified but not weakened. Their literature possessed brightness. The books were printed in the best style of the Chiswick Press, with bindings and end papers especially designed. They included these tales: _Puck's Reports to Oberon; Four New Fairy Tales; The Sisters; Golden Locks; Grumble and Cherry; Little Red Riding Hood_, with four colored illustrations by Webster; _Beauty and the Beast_, with four colored illustrations by Horsley; _Jack and the Bean-Stalk_, with four colored illustrations by Cope; _Jack the Giant-Killer_, also illustrated by Cope; and _The Pleasant History of Reynard, the Fox_, with forty of the fifty-seven etchings made by Everdingen, in 1752. 

 1824-1883. Publications by Richard Doyle. These included _The Fairy Ring_, 1845; _Snow White and Rosy Red_, 1871; _Jack the Giant-Killer_, 1888, etc. 

 1846. _Undine_, by De La Motté Fouque, illustrated by John Tenniel, published by James Burns. 

 1846. _The Good-Natured Bear_, by Richard Hengist Home, the English critic. This was illustrated by Frederick Taylor, published probably by Cundall. The book is now out of print, but deserves to be reprinted. 

 1847-1864. _Cruikshank Fairy Library_. A series of small books in paper wrappers. Not equal to the German popular stories in illustration. It included _Tom Thumb_, 1830; _John Gilpin_, 1828 (realistic); and _The Brownies_, 1870. 

 1847. _Bob and Dog Quiz_. Author unknown. Revived by E. V. Lucas in _Old-fashioned Tales_. Illustrated by F. D. Bedford; published by Stokes, 1905. 

 1850. _The Child's Own Book_. Published in London. There was an earlier edition, not before 1830. The introduction, which in the 1850 edition was copied from the original, indicates by its style that the book was written early in the nineteenth century. The book was the delight of generations of children. It was a collection containing tales from _Arabian Nights_, Perrault's tales of _Cinderella, Puss-in-Boots, Hop-o'-my-Thumb, Bluebeard_, etc. , D'Aulnoy's _Valentine and Orson_, chap-book stories of _Dick Whittinqton, Fortunatus, Griselda, Robinson Crusoe, The Children in the Wood, Little Jack_, and others. A recent edition of this book is in the _Young Folks' library_, vol. 1, published by Hall & Locke, Boston, 1901. 

 1850 (about). _The Three Bears_. Illustrated by Absalon and Harrison Weir. Addy and Co. 

 1824-1889. Work by Mrs. Mary Whateley. She had a Moslem school in Cairo and exerted a fairy tale influence. 

 1826-1887. _The Little Lame Prince; Adventures of a_ _Brownie_; and _The Fairy Book_. Produced by Mrs. Dinah Muloch Craik. 

 1854. _The Rose and the Ring_, by William M. Thackeray. A modern edition contains the original illustrations with additions by Monsell. Crowell. 

 1855. _Granny's Story Box_. A collection. Illustrated by J. Knight; published by Piper, Stephenson, and Spence. 

 1856. _Granny's Wonderful Chair_, containing _Prince Fairy-foot_. Written by Frances Browne, a blind Irish poetess. 

 1863. _Water Babies_. Charles Kingsley. Sir Noel Patton. The Macmillan Company. 

 1865. _Stories Told to a Child, including Fairy Tales; Mopsa the Fairy_, 1869. By Jean Ingelow. 

 1865. _Alice's Adventures in Wonderland_, by Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson), with 42 illustrations by John Tenniel, published by Macmillan Company, Oxford. First edition recalled. Later editions were published by Richard Clay, London. 

 1869. _At the Back of the North Wind_; _The Princess and the Goblin_, 1871. By George MacDonald. Arthur Hughes. Strahan. Reprinted by Blackie. 

 1870. _The Brownies_; 1882, _Old-fashioned Fairy Tales_. By Juliana Ewing. 

 1873. _A Series of Toy-Books for Children_, by Walter Crane (1845-1914). Published by Routledge and printed in colors by Edmund Evans. Twenty-seven of these stories in nine volumes are published by John Lane, Bodley Head. _Princess Fioromonde_, 1880, _Grimm's Household Stories_, 1882, and _The Cuckoo Clock_, 1887, all by Mrs. Molesworth, were also illustrated by Crane. 

 1878-. _Picture-Books_, by Randolph Caldecott (1846-1886). These were sixteen in number. They are published by F. Warne. 

 1875-. _Stories from the Eddas; Dame Wiggins of Lee (Allen)_; and _The Pied Piper of Hamelin_. These delightful books by Kate Greenaway (1846-1901) were published by Routledge and engraved by Edmund Evans. They are now published by F. Warne. 

This brings the English side of the subject down tothe present time. Present editions of fairy tales aregiven in Chapter VI. 

In Germany there were also many translations from the French ofPerrault and D'Aulnoy. There were editions in 1764, 1770, etc. Most ofthose before the _Grimms' Tales_ were not important. One mightmention:--

 1782. _Popular German Stories_, by Musäus. 

 1818. _Fables, Stories, and Tales for Children_, by Caroline Stahl. 

 1819. _Bohemian Folk-Tales_, by Wolfgang Gerle. 

 1812-1814. _Kinder und Haus-Märchen_, by Jacob and William Grimm. The second edition was published in 3 volumes in Berlin, by Reiner, in 1822. This latter work formed an era in popular literature and has been adopted as a model by all true collectors since. 

Concerning the modern German fairy tale, the Germans have paid suchspecial attention to the selection and grading of children'sliterature that their library lists are to be recommended. Wolgast, the author of _Vom Kinderbuch_, is an authority on the child's book. The fairy tale received a high estimate in Germany and no nation hasattained a higher achievement in the art of the fairy tale book. Thepartial list simply indicates the slight knowledge of availablematerial and would suggest an inviting field to librarians. A greatstimulus to children's literature would be given by a knowledge ofwhat the Germans have already accomplished in this particular. InGermany a child's book, before it enters the market, must first beaccepted by a committee who test the book according to a standard ofexcellence. Any book not coming up to the standard is rejected. A fewof the German editions in use are given:--

 _Bilderbücher_, by Löwensohn. 

 _Bilderbücher_, by Scholz. 

 _Liebe Märchen_. One form of the above, giving three tales in one volume. 

 _Märchen_, by W. Hauff, published by Lowe. One edition, illustrated by Arthur Rackham, is published by Dutton. _The Caravan Tales_ is an edition published by Stokes. 

 _Märchen_, by Musaus, published by Von K. A. Müller. 

 1777-1843. _Undine_, by La Motte Fouqué. A recent edition, illustrated by Rackham, is published by Doubleday. 

 1817-77. _Books_ by Otillie Wildermuth. (What of hers should be translated and included?)

 _Hanschen im Blaubeerenwald; Hanschens Skifart Märchen_, both by Elsa Beskow, published by Carl. 

 _Windchen_; and _Wurzelkindern_, both by Sybille von Olfers, published by Schreiber. 

 _Das Märchen von den Sandmannlein_, by Riemann, published by Schreiber. 

 _Der Froschkönig_, by Liebermann, published by Scholz. 

 _Weisst du weviel Sternlein stehen_, by Lewinski, published by Schreiber. 

In Sweden there appeared translations of Perrault and D'Aulnoy. _TheBlue-Bird_ was oftenest printed as a chap-book. Folk-tales werecollected in:--

 _Swedish Tales_, a collection. H. Von Schroter. 

 1844. _Folk-Tales_. George Stevens and Hylten Cavallius. 

Sweden has given us the modern fairy tale, _The Wonderful Adventuresof Nils_ (2 volumes). This delightful tale by Selma Lagerlöf, born1858, and a winner of the Nobel prize, has established itself as achild's classic. It has been translated by V. S. Howard, published byDoubleday, 1907. 

In Norway we have:--

 1851. _Norske Folkeeventyr_, collected by Asbjörnsen and Moe. 

 1862. _Norse Tales_. The above tales translated by Sir George W. Dasent. 

In Denmark we have:--

 _Sagas of Bodvar Biarke_. 

 _Danske Folkeeventyr_, by M. Winther, Copenhagen, 1823. 

 1843-60. _Danmarks Folkesagn_, 3 vols. , by J. M. Thiele. 

 1805-1875. _Fairy Tales_, by Hans Christian Andersen. These tales are important as marking the beginning of the modern fairy tale. They are important also as literary fairy tales and have not been equaled in modern times. 

In Slavonia we have:--

 _Wochentliche Nachrichten_, by Busching, published by Schottky. 

In Hungary we have:--

 1822. _Marchen der Magyaren_, by George von Gaal. 

In Greece and Russia no popular tales were collected before the timeof the Grimms. 

In Italy the two great collections of the world of fairy tales havebeen mentioned. Italy has also given the modern fairy tale which hasbeen accepted as a classic: _Pinocchio_, by C. Collodi (CarloLorenzini). This has been illustrated by Copeland, published by Ginn;and illustrated by Folkhard, published by Dutton. 

In America the publication of fairy tales was at first a reprinting ofEnglish editions. In colonial times, previous to the revolution, booksellers imported largely from England. After the revolution a newhome-growth in literature gradually developed. At first this waslargely in imitation of literature in England. After the time ofWashington Irving a distinct American adult literature establisheditself. The little child's toy-book followed in the wake of thegrown-up's fiction. The following list[7] shows the growth of theAmerican fairy tale, previous to 1870. Recent editions are given inChapter VI. 

 1747-1840. _Forgotten Books of the American Nursery, A History of the Development of the American Story-Book_. Halsey, Rosalie V. Boston, C. E. Goodspeed & Co. , 1911. 244 pp. 

 1785-1788. _Isaiah Thomas, Printer, Writer, and Collector. Nichols, Charles L_. A paper read April 12, 1911, before the Club of Odd Volumes. .. . Boston. Printed for the Club of Odd Volumes, 1912. 144 pp. List of juveniles 1787-88: pp. 132-33. 

 1785. _Mother Goose_. The original Mother Goose's melody, as first issued by John Newbery, of London, about A. D. 1760. Reproduced in facsimile from the edition as reprinted by Isaiah Thomas, of Worcester, Mass. , A. D. 1785 (about) . .. Albany, J. Munsell's Sons, 1889. 28 pp. 

 1787. _Banbury Chap-Books and Nursery Toy-Book Literature_ (of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries) . .. Pearson, Edwin. With very much that is interesting and valuable appertaining to the early typography of children's books relating to Great Britain and America. .. . London, A. Reader, 1890: 116 pp. Impressions from wood-cut blocks by T. And J. Bewick, Cruikshank, Craig, Lee, Austin, and others. 

 1789. _The Olden Time Series_. Gleanings chiefly from old newspapers of Boston and Salem, Mass. Brooks, Henry M. , _comp_. Boston, Ticknor & Co. , 1886. 6 vols. _The Books that Children Read in 1798_ . .. By T. C. Cushing: vol. 6, pp. 62-63. 

 1800-1825. Goodrich, S. G. _Recollections of a Lifetime_. New York, Miller, Orton, and Mulligan, 1856. 2 vols. Children's books (1800-1825): vol. 1, pp. 164-74. 

 1686. _The History of Tom Thumb_. John Dunton, Boston. 

 1728. _Chap-Books_. Benjamin Franklin, Philadelphia. 

 1730. _Small Histories_. Andrew Bradford, Philadelphia. These included _Tom Thumb_, _Tom Hickathrift_, and _Dick Whittington_. 

 1744. _The Child's New Plaything_. Draper & Edwards, Boston. Reprint. Contained alphabet in rhyme, proverbs, fables, and stories: _St. George and the Dragon_; _Fortunatus_; _Guy of Warwick_; _Brother and Sister_; _Reynard the Fox_; and _The Wolf and the Kids_. 

 1750. John Newbery's books. Advertised in Philadelphia _Gazette_. The _Pretty Book for Children_ probably included _Cinderella_, _Tom Thumb_, etc. 

 1760. All juvenile publications for sale in England. Imported and sold by Hugh Gaine, New York. 

 1766. _Children's books_. Imported and sold by John Mein, a London bookseller who had a shop in Boston. Included _The Famous Tommy Thumb's Story Book_; _Leo the Great Giant_; _Urax, or the Fair Wanderer_; and _The Cruel Giant, Barbarico_. 

 1787. All Newbery's publications. Reprinted by Isaiah Thomas, Worcester, Mass. 

 1794. _Arabian Nights. The Arabian Nights Entertainments_ . .. . The first American edition. .. . Philadelphia, H. & P. Rice; Baltimore, J. Rice & Co. , 1794. 2 vols. 

 1804. _Blue Beard. A New History of Blue Beard, written by Gaffer Black Beard, for the Amusement of Little Jack Black and his Pretty Sisters_. Philadelphia, J. Adams, 1804. 31 pp. 

 1819. _Rip Van Winkle_. A legend included in the works of Washington Irving, published in London, 1819. 

 1823. _A Visit from St. Nicholas_. Clement Clark Moore, in Troy _Sentinel_, Dec. 23, 1823. Written the year before for his own family. The first really good American juvenile story, though in verse. 

 1825. _Babes in the Wood_. The history of the children of the wood. .. . To which is added an interesting account of the Captive Boy. New York, N. B. Holmes. 36 pp. Plates. 

 1833. _Mother Goose_. The only true Mother Goose Melodies; an exact reproduction of the text and illustrations of the original edition, published and copyrighted in Boston in 1833 by Munroe & Francis. .. . Boston, Lee & Shepard, 1905. 103 pp. 

 1836. _The Fairy Book_. With eighty-one engravings on wood, by Joseph A. Adams. New York, Harper & Bros. 1836. 301 pp. Introduction by "John Smith. " Edited by C. G. Verplanck, probably. 

 1844. _Fairy Land, and Other Sketches for Youths_, by the author of _Peter Parley's Tales_ (Samuel G. Goodrich). Boston, J. Munroe & Co. 167 pp. Plates, Cromo. Lith. Of Bouvé & Sharp, Boston. 

 1848. _Rainbows for Children_, by L. Maria Child, _ed_. New York, C. S. Francis & Co. 170 pp. 28 original sketches . .. By S. Wallin. .. . B. F. Childs, wood engraver: p. 8. Advertising pages: New books published by C. S. Francis & Co. , N. Y. .. . _The Fairy Gift and the Fairy Gem_. Four volumes of choice fairy tales. Each illustrated with 200 fine engravings by French artists: p. 2. 

 1851. _Wonder Book_, by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Illustrated by W. Crane, 60 designs, published by Houghton, 1910. 

 1852. _Legends of the Flowers_, by Susan Pindar. New York, D. Appleton & Co. , 178 pp. 

 1853. _Fairy Tales and Legends of Many Nations_, by Charles B. Burkhardt. New York, Chas. Scribner. 277 pp. Illustrated by W. Walcutt and J. H. Cafferty. 

 1854. _The Little Glass Shoe, and Other Stories for Children_. Philadelphia, Charles H. Davis. 128 pp. Advertising pages: A description of illustrated juvenile books, published by Charles H. Davis: 16 pp. _A Book of Fairy Stories_: p. 9. 

 1854. _The History of Whittington and His Cat_. Miss Corner and Alfred Crowquill. _Dick Whittington_ is said to have been the best seller among juvenile publications for five hundred years. 

 1855. _Flower Fables_, by Louisa May Alcott. Boston, G. W. Briggs & Co. 182 pp. 

 1855. _The Song of Hiawatha_, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. Published now by Houghton, illustrated by Frederick Remington. 

 1864. _Seaside and Fireside Fairies_, by George Blum. Translated from the German of Georg Blum and Louis Wahl. By A. L. Wister. Philadelphia, Ashmead & Evans, 292 pp. 

 1867. _Grimm's Goblins_, selected from the _Household Stories_ of the Brothers Grimm. Jacob L. K. Grimm. Boston, Ticknor & Fields. 111 pp. 

 1867. _Fairy Book. Fairy Tales of All Nations_, by Edouard Laboulaye. Translated by Mary Booth. New York, Harper & Bros. , 363 pp. Engravings. 

 1867. _The Wonderful Stories of Fuz-buz the Fly and Mother Grabem the Spider_. By S. Weir Mitchell. Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co. 79 pp. 

 1868. _Folks and Fairies_. Stories for little children. Lucy Comfort. New York, Harpers, 259 pp. Engravings. Advertising pages: Six fairy tales published by Harper & Bros. 

 1870. _Cinderella, or The Little Glass Slipper_. Boston, Fields, Osgood & Co. 1871. 8 pp. Colored plates by Alfred Fredericks. 

 1873. _Mother Goose_. Illustrations of Mother Goose's Melodies. By Alexander Anderson. New York. Privately printed by C. L. Moreau (Analectic Press), 1873, 36 1. 10 numb. 1. (Designed and engraved on wood. )

 1870. _Beauty and the Beast_, by Albert Smith. New York, Manhattan Pub. Co. , 1870. 64 pp. With illustrations by Alfred Crowquill. 

This brings the American child's fairy tale up to recent publicationsof the present day which are given in the chapter, "Sources ofMaterial. " An attempt has been made here to give a glimpse of folk andfairy tales up to the time of the Grimms, and a view of modernpublications in France, Germany, England, and America. The Grimmsstarted a revolution in folk-lore and in their lifetime took part inthe collection of many tales of tradition and influenced many othersin the same line of work. An enumeration of what was accomplished intheir lifetime appears in the notes of _Grimm's Household Tales_, edited by Margaret Hunt, published by Bonn's Libraries, vol. II, pp. 531. Etc. 

In modern times the Folk-Lore Society of England and America has beenestablished. Now almost every nation has its folk-lore society andfolk-tales are being collected all over the world. Altogether probablyRussia has collected fifteen hundred such tales, Germany twelvehundred, Italy and France each one thousand, and India seven hundred. The work of the Grimms, ended in 1859, was continued by EmanuelCosquin, who, in his _Popular Tales of Lorraine_, has made the mostimportant recent contribution to folklore, --important for the Europeantale and important as showing the relation of the European tale tothat of India. 

The principal recent collections of folk-lore are:--

 _Legends and Fairy Tales of Ireland_. Croker. 1825. _Welsh and Manx Tales_. Sir John Rhys. 1840-. _Popular Rhymes of Scotland_. Chambers. 1847. _Tales of the West Highlands_. Campbell. 1860. _Popular Tales from the Norse_. Dasent. 1862. _Zulu Nursery Tales_. Callaway. 1866. _Old Deccan Days_. Frere. 1868. _Fireside Tales of Ireland_. Kennedy. 1870. _Indian Fairy Tales_. Miss Stokes. 1880. _Buddhist Birth Stories_. Rhys Davids. 1880. _Kaffir Folk-Lore_. Theal. 1882. _Folk-Tales of Bengal_. Day. 1883. _Wide Awake Stories_. Steel and Temple. 1884. _Italian Popular Tales_. Crane. 1885. _Popular Tales of Lorraine_. Cosquin. 1886. _Popular Tales and Fictions_. Clouston. 1887. _Folk-Tales of Kashmir_. Knowles. 1887. _Tales of Ancient Egypt_. Maspero. 1889. _Tales of the Sun_. Mrs. Kingscote. 1890. _Tales of the Punjab_. Steel. 1894. _Jataka Tales_. Cowell. 1895. _Russian Folk-Tales_. Bain. 1895. _Cossack Fairy Tales_. Bain. 1899. _New World Fairy Book_. Kennedy. 1906. _Fairy Tales, English, Celtic, and Indian_. Joseph Jacobs. 1910-11. 

This brings the subject down to the present time. The present-daycontributions to folk-lore are found best in the records of theFolk-lore Society, published since its founding in London, in 1878;and daily additions, in the folk-lore journals of the variouscountries. 

REFERENCES

 Adams, Oscar Fay: _The Dear Old Story-Tellers_. Lothrop. 

 Ashton, John: _Chap-Books of the 18th Century_. Chatto & Windus. London, 1882. 

 Bunce, John T. : _Fairy Tales, Origin and Meaning_. Macmillan, 1878. 

 Chamberlain, A. F. : _The Child and Childhood in Folk-Thought_. Macmillan. 

 Clouston, W. A. : _Popular Tales and Fictions_. Edinburgh, Blackwoods, 1887. 

 Cyclopædia: "Mythology. " _Encyclopædia Britannica_. 

 Cox, Miss Roalfe: _Cinderella_. Introduction by Lang. Nutt, 1892. 

 Dasent, George W. : _Popular Tales from the Norse_. Introduction. Routledge. 

 Fiske, John: _Myth and Myth-Makers_. Houghton. 

 Field, Mrs. E. M. : _The Child and His Book_. Gardner, Darton & Co. 

 Frazer, J. G. : _The Golden Bough_. (Spring ceremonies and primitive view of the soul. ) Macmillan. 

 Frere, Miss: _Old Deccan Days_. Introduction. McDonough. 

 Godfrey, Elizabeth: _English Children in the Olden Time_. Dutton, 1907. 

 Grimm, William and Jacob: _Household Tales_. Edited with valuable notes, by Margaret Hunt. Introduction by Lang. Bell & Sons, Bohn's Libraries. 

 Guerber, Hélène A. : _Legends of the Middle Ages_. (Reynard the Fox) American Book Co. 

 Halliwell, J. O. : _Nursery Rhymes of England_. 

 _Ibid. : Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales_. Smith, 1849. 

 Halsey, Rosalie: _Forgotten Books of the American Nursery_. Goodspeed, Boston, 1911. 

 Hartland, E. S. : _Science of Fairy Tales_. Preface. Scribner, 1891. 

 _Ibid. : English Folk and Fairy Tales_. Camelot series, Scott, London. 

 Hartland, Sidney: _Legend of Perseus_ (origin of a tale). 

 Hewins, Caroline M. : _The History of Children's Books_. _Atlantic_, 61: 112 (Jan. , 1888). 

 Jacobs, Joseph: _Reynard the Fox_. Cranford Series. Macmillan. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. Introduction, Notes and Appendix. Putnam. 

 Keightley, Thomas: _Fairy Mythology_. Macmillan. 

 _Ibid. : Tales and Popular Fictions_. Whittaker & Co. , London, 1834. 

 Lang, Andrew: _Custom and Myth_. Longmans, London, 1893. 

 Mabie, Hamilton: _Fairy Tales Every Child Should Know_. Introduction. Doubleday. 

 MacDonald, George: _The Light Princess_. Introduction. Putnam. 

 Magazine: "Myths and Fairy Tales. " _Fortnightly Review_, May, 1872. 

 Mitchell, Donald G. : _About Old Story-Tellers_. Scribners. 1877. 

 Moses, Montrose: _Children's Books and Reading_. Kennerley. 

 Mulock, Miss: _Fairy Book_. Preface. Crowell. 

 Pearson, Edwin. _Banbury Chap-Books and Nursery Toy-Book Literature_ (18th and early 19th centuries). London. A. Reader, 1890. 

 Perrault, Charles: _Popular Tales_. Edited by A. Lang. Introduction. Oxford, 1888. 

 Ritson, J. : _Fairy Tales_. Pearson, London, 1831. 

 Scott, Sir Walter: _Minstrelsy of Scottish Border_. Preface to Tamlane, "Dissertation on Fairies, " p. 108. 

 Skinner, H. M. : _Readings in Folk-Lore_. American Book Co. 

 Steel, Flora A. : _Tales of the Punjab_. Introduction and Appendix. Macmillan. 

 Tabart, Benj. : _Fairy Tales, or the Lilliputian Cabinet_. London, 1818. Review: _The Quarterly Review_, 1819, No. 41, pp. 91-112. 

 Tappan, Eva M. : _The Children's Hour_. Introduction to "Folk-Stories and Fables. " Houghton. 

 Taylor, Edgar: _German Popular Stories_. Introduction by Ruskin. Chatto & Windus. 

 Tylor, E. B. : _Primitive Culture_. Holt, 1889. 

 Warner: _Fairy Tales. Library of the World's Best Literature_, vol. 30. 

 Welsh, Charles: _Fairy Tales Children Love_. Introduction. Dodge. 

 _Ibid. :_ "The Early History of Children's Books in New England. " _New England Magazine_, n. S. 20: 147-60 (April, 1899). 

 _Ibid. : A Chap-Book_. Facsimile Edition. 1915. World Book Co. 

 _Ibid. : Mother Goose_. Facsimile Edition. 1915. World Book Co. 

 White, Gleeson: "Children's Books and Their Illustrators. " _International Studio_, Special Winter Number, 1897-98. 

CHAPTER V

CLASSES OF FAIRY TALES

 But the fact that after having been repeated for two thousand years, a story still possesses a perfectly fresh attraction for a child of to-day, does indeed prove that there is in it something of imperishable worth. --Felix Adler. 

 Whatever has, at any time, appealed to the best emotions and moved the heart of a people, must have for their children's children, political, historical, and cultural value. This is especially true of folk-tales and folk-songs. --P. P. Claxton, _United States Commissioner of Education_. 

I. AVAILABLE TYPES OF TALES

From all this wealth of accumulated folk-material which has come downto us through the ages, we must select, for we cannot crowd the childwith all the folk-stuff that folk-lore scientists are striving topreserve for scientific purposes. Moreover, naturally much of itcontains the crudities, the coarseness, and the cruelties of primitivecivilization; and it is not necessary that the child be burdened withthis natural history of a past society. We must select from the past. In this selection of what shall be presented to the child we must beguided by two standards: First, we owe it to the child to hand on tohim his literary heritage; and secondly, we must help him to make ofhimself the ideal man of the future. Therefore the tales we offer mustcontribute to these two standards. The tales selected will be thosewhich the ages have found interesting; for the fact that they havelived proves their fitness, they have lived because there wassomething in them that appealed to the universal heart. And because ofthis fact they will be those which in the frequent re-tellings of ageshave acquired a classic form and therefore have within themselves thepossibility of taking upon them a perfect literary form. The talesselected will be those tales which, as we have pointed out, containthe interests of children; for only through his interests does thechild rise to higher interests and finally develop to the ideal man. They will be those tales which stand also the test of a classic, thetest of literature, the test of the short-story, and the test ofnarration and of description. The child would be handicapped in lifeto be ignorant of these tales. 

Tales suitable for the little child may be viewed under these sevenclasses of available types: (1) the accumulative, or clock story; (2)the animal tale; (3) the humorous tale; (4) the realistic tale; (5)the romantic tale; (6) the old tale; and (7) the modern tale. 

I. The Accumulative Tale. 

The accumulative tale is the simplest form of the tale. It may be:--

 (1) A tale of simple repetition. 

 (2) A tale of repetition with an addition, incremental iteration. 

 (3) A tale of repetition, with variation. 

Repetition and rhythm have grown out of communal conditions. The oldstories are measured utterances. At first there was the spontaneousexpression of a little community, with its gesture, action, sound, anddance, and the word, the shout, to help out. There was the group whichrepeated, which acted as a chorus, and the leader who added hisindividual variation. From these developed the folk-tale with thedialogue in place of the chorus. 

Of the accumulative tales, _The House that Jack Built_ illustrates thefirst class of tales of simple repetition. This tale takes on a newinterest as a remarkable study of phonics. If any one were so happy asto discover the phonic law which governs the euphony produced by thesuccession of vowels in the lines of Milton's poetry, he would enjoythe same law worked out in _The House that Jack Built_. The original, as given by Halliwell in his _Nursery Rhymes of England_, is said tobe a Hebrew hymn, at first written in Chaldaic. To the Hebrews of theMiddle Ages it was called the _Haggadah_, and was sung to a rude chantas part of the Passover service. It first appeared in print in 1590, at Prague. Later, in Leipzig, it was published by the German scholar, Liebrecht. It begins:--

 A kid, a kid, my father bought For two pieces of money: A kid, a kid, Then came the cat and ate the kid, etc. 

Then follow the various repetitive stanzas, the last one turning backand reacting on all the others:--

 Then came the Holy One, blessed be He, And killed the angel of death, That killed the butcher, That slew the ox, That drank the water, That quenched the fire, That burned the staff, That beat the dog, That bit the cat, That ate the kid, That my father bought For two pieces of money: A kid, a kid. 

The remarkable similarity to _The Old Woman, and Her Pig_[8] at onceproclaims the origin of that tale also. The interpretation of thistale is as follows: The kid is the Hebrews; the father by whom it waspurchased, is Jehovah; the two pieces of money are Aaron and Moses;the cat is the Assyrians; the dog is the Babylonians; the staff is thePersians; the fire is the Greek Empire and Alexander; the water is theRomans; the ox is the Saracens; the butcher is the Crusaders; and theangel of death is the Turkish Power. The message of this tale is thatGod will take vengeance over the Turks and the Hebrews will berestored to their own land. 

Another tale of simple repetition, whose fairy element is the magickey, is _The Key of the Kingdom_, also found in Halliwell's _NurseryRhymes of England_:--

 This is the key of the kingdom. In that kingdom there is a city, In that city there is a town, In that town there is a street, In that street there is a lane, In that lane there is a yard, In that yard there is a house, In that house there is a room, In that room there is a bed, On that bed there is a basket, In that basket there are some flowers. Flowers in the basket, basket on the bed, bed in the room, etc. 

_The Old Woman and Her Pig_ illustrates the second class ofaccumulative tale, where there is an addition, and like _Titty Mouseand Tatty Mouse_, where the end turns back on the beginning andchanges all that precedes. Here there is a more marked plot. This sametale occurs in Shropshire Folk-Lore, in the _Scotch Wife and Her Bushof Berries_, in _Club-Fist_, an American folk-game described byNewell, in Cossack fairy tales, and in the Danish, Spanish, andItalian. In the Scandinavian, it is _Nanny, Who Wouldn't Go Home toSupper_, and in the Punjab, _The Grain of Corn_, also given in _Talesof Laughter_. I have never seen a child who did not like it or who wasnot pleased with himself for accomplishing its telling. It lendsitself most happily to illustration. _Titty Mouse and Tatty Mouse_pleases because of the liveliness of its images, and because of thecatastrophe at the end, which affects the child just as the tumble ofhis huge pile of blocks--the crash and general upheaval delight him. This tale has so many variants that it illustrates well the diffusionof fairy tales. It is Grimm's _The Spider and the Flea_, which as wehave seen, is appealing in its simplicity; the Norse _The Cock WhoFell into the Brewing Vat_; and the Indian _The Death and Burial ofPoor Hen_. The curious succession of incidents may have been inventedonce for all at some definite time, and from thence spread to all theworld. 

_Johnny Cake_ and _The Gingerbread Man_ also represent the secondclass of accumulative tale, but show a more definite plot; there ismore story-stuff and a more decided introduction and conclusion. _HowJack Went to Seek His Fortune_ also shows more plot. It contains atheme similar to that of _The Bremen Town Musicians_, which isdistinctly a beast tale where the element of repetition remains tosustain the interest and to preserve unity, but where a full-fledgedshort-story which is structurally complete, has developed. A fineaccumulative tale belonging to this second class is the Cossack _StrawOx_, which has been described under "The Short-Story. " Here we have asingle line of sequence which gets wound up to a climax and thenunwinds itself to the conclusion, giving the child, in the plot, something of that pleasure which he feels in winding up his toyanimals to watch them perform in the unwinding. 

_The Three Bears_ illustrates the third class of repetitive story, where there is repetition and variation. Here the iteration andparallelism have interest like the refrain of a song, and thetechnique of the story is like that of _The Merchant of Venice_. Thisis the ideal fairy story for the little child. It is unique in that itis the only instance in which a tale written by an author has become afolk-tale. It was written by Southey, and appeared in _The Doctor_, inLondon, in 1837. Southey may have used as his source, _Scrapefoot_, which Joseph Jacobs has discovered for us, or he may have used _SnowWhite_, which contains the episode of the chairs. Southey has given tothe world a nursery classic which should be retained in its purity ofform. The manner of the Folk, in substituting for the little old womanof Southey's tale, Goldilocks, and the difference that it effects inthe tale, proves the greater interest children naturally feel in thetale with a child. Similarly, in telling _The Story of Midas_ to anaudience of eager little people, one naturally takes the fine old mythfrom Ovid as Bulfinch gives it, and puts into it the Marigold ofHawthorne's creation. And after knowing Marigold, no child likes thestory without her. Silver hair is another substitute for the littleOld Woman in _The Three Bears_. The very little child's reception to_Three Bears_ will depend largely on the previous experience withbears and on the attitude of the person telling the story. A littlegirl who was listening to _The Three Bears_ for the first time, as sheheard how the Three Bears stood looking out of their upstairs windowafter Goldilocks running across the wood, said, "Why didn't Goldilockslie down beside the Baby Bear?" To her the Bear was associated withthe friendly Teddy Bear she took with her to bed at night, and thestory had absolutely no thrill of fear because it had been told withan emphasis on the comical rather than on the fearful. Similar instructure to _The Three Bears_ is the Norse _Three Billy-Goats_, whichbelongs to the same class of delightful repetitive tales and in whichthe sequence of the tale is in the same three distinct steps. 

II. The Animal Tale

The animal tale includes many of the most pleasing children's tales. Indeed some authorities would go so far as to trace all fairy talesback to some ancestor of an animal tale; and in many cases thiscertainly can be done just as we trace _Three Bears_ back to_Scrapefoot_. The animal tale is either an old beast tale, such as_Scrapefoot_ or _Old Sultan_; or a fairy tale which is an elaborateddevelopment of a fable, such as _The Country Mouse and the City Mouse_or the tales of _Reynard the Fox_ or Grimm's _The King of the Birds_, and _The Sparrow and His Four Children_; or it is a purely imaginarycreation, such as Kipling's _The Elephant's Child_ or Andersen's _TheBronze Pig_. 

The beast tale is a very old form which was a story of some successfulprimitive hunt or of some primitive man's experience with animals inwhich he looked up to the beast as a brother superior to himself instrength, courage, endurance, swiftness, keen scent, vision, orcunning. Later, in more civilized society, when men became interestedin problems of conduct, animals were introduced to point the moral ofthe tale, and we have the fable. The fable resulted when a truth wasstated in concrete story form. When this truth was in gnomic form, stated in general terms, it became compressed into the proverb. Thefable was brief, intense, and concerned with the distinguishingcharacteristics of the animal characters, who were endowed with humantraits. Such were the _Fables of Æsop_. Then followed the beast epic, such as _Reynard the Fox_, in which the personality of the animalsbecame less prominent and the animal characters became types ofhumanity. Later, the beast tale took the form of narratives ofhunters, where the interest centered in the excitement of the hunt andin the victory of the hunter. With the thirst for universal knowledgein the days following Bacon there gradually grew a desire to learnalso about animals. Then followed animal anecdotes, the result ofobservation and imagination, often regarding the mental processes ofanimals. With the growth of the scientific spirit the interest innatural history developed. The modern animal story since 1850 has abasis of natural science, but it also seeks to search the motive backof the action, it is a psychological romance. The early modern animaltales such as _Black Beauty_ show sympathy with animals, but theirpsychology is human. In Seton Thompson's _Krag_, which is amasterpiece, the interest centers about the personality and thementality of the animal and his purely physical characteristics. Perhaps it is true that these physical characteristics are somewhatimaginary and over-drawn and that overmuch freedom has been used ininterpreting these physical signs. In Kipling's tales we have a laterevolution of the animal tale. His animals possess personality inemotion and thought. In the forest-friends of Mowgli we have humanizedanimals possessing human power of thinking and of expressing. In reallife animal motives seem simple, one dominant motive crowds out allothers. But Kipling's animals show very complex motives, they reasonand judge more than our knowledge of animal life justifies. In the_Just-So Stories_ Kipling has given us the animal _pourquois_ talewith a basis of scientific truth. Of these delightful fairy tales, _The Elephant's Child_ and _How the Camel Got His Hump_ may be used inthe kindergarten. Perhaps the latest evolution of the animal tale isby Charles G. D. Roberts. The animal characters in his _Kindred of theWild_ are given animal characteristics. They have become interestingas exhibiting these traits and not as typifying human motives; theyshow an animal psychology. The tales have a scientific basis, and theinterest is centered in this and not in an exaggeration of it. 

Having viewed the animal tale as a growth let us look now at a fewindividual tales:--

One of the most pleasing animal tales is _Henny_ _Penny_, or _ChickenLichen_, as it is sometimes called, told by Jacobs in _English FairyTales_. Here the enterprising little hen, new to the ways of theworld, ventures to take a walk. Because a grain of corn falls on hertop-knot, she believes the sky is falling, her walk takes direction, and thereafter she proceeds to tell the king. She takes with her allshe meets, who, like her, are credulous, --Cocky Locky, Ducky Daddies, Goosey Poosey, and Turky Lurky, --until they meet Foxy Woxy, who leadsthem into his cave, never to come out again. This is similar to thedelightful Jataka tale of _The Foolish Timid Rabbit_, which before hasbeen outlined for telling, which has been re-told by Ellen C. Babbit. In this tale a Rabbit, asleep under a palm tree, heard a noise, andthought "the earth was all breaking up. " So he ran until he metanother Rabbit, and then a hundred other Rabbits, a Deer, a Fox, anElephant, and at last a Lion. All the animals except the Lion acceptedthe Rabbit's news and followed. But the Lion made a stand and askedfor facts. He ran to the hill in front of the animals and roared threetimes. He traced the tale back to the first Rabbit, and taking him onhis back, ran with him to the foot of the hill where the palm treegrew. There, under the tree, lay a cocoanut. The Lion explained thesound the Rabbit had heard, then ran back and told the other animals, and they all stopped running. _Brother Rabbit Takes Some Exercise_, atale from _Nights with Uncle Remus_ is very similar to _Henny_ _Penny_and could be used at the same time. It is also similar to Grimm's_Wolf and Seven Kids_, the English _Story of Three Pigs_, the Irish_The End of the World_, and an Italian popular tale. 

_The Sheep and the Pig_, adapted from the Scandinavian by Miss Baileyin _For the Children's Hour_, given also in Dasent's _Tales from theField_, is a delightfully vivacious and humorous tale which remindsone of _Henny Penny_. A Sheep and Pig started out to find a home, tolive together. They traveled until they met a Rabbit and then followedthis dialogue:

 _R_. "Where are you going?"

 _S. And P_. "We are going to build us a house. "

 _R_. "May I live with you?"

 _S. And P_. "What can you do to help?"

The Rabbit scratched his leg with his left hind foot for a minute andsaid, "I can gnaw pegs with my sharp teeth and I can put them in withmy paws. " "Good, " said the Sheep and the Pig, "you may come with us!"Then they met a gray Goose who could pull moss and stuff it in cracks, and a Cock who could crow early and waken all. So they all found ahouse and lived in it happily. 

The Spanish _Media Pollito_, or _Little Half-Chick_, is anotheraccumulative animal tale similar to _Henny Penny_, and one which isworthy of university study. The disobedient but energetic hero whowent off to Madrid is very appealing and constantly amusing, and thetale possesses unusual beauty. The interest centers in the character. The beauty lies in the setting of the adventures, as Medio Pollitocame to a stream, to a large chestnut tree, to the wind, to thesoldiers outside the city gates, to the King's Palace at Madrid, andto the King's cook, until in the end he reached the high point ofimmortalization as the weather-vane of a church steeple. 

_The Story of Three Pigs_ could contend with _The Three Bears_ for theposition of ideal story for little people. It suits them even betterthan _The Three Bears_, perhaps because they can identify themselvesmore easily with the hero, who is a most winning, clever individual, though a Pig. The children know nothing of the standards of the Greekdrama, but they recognize a good thing; and when the actors in theirstory are great in interest and in liveliness, they respond with acorresponding appreciation. The dramatic element in _The Three Pigs_is strong and all children love to dramatize it. The story is theItalian _Three Goslings_, the Negro _Tiny Pig_, the Indian _Lambikin_, and the German _The Wolf and Seven Kids_. This tale is given by AndrewLang in his _Green Fairy Book_. The most satisfactory presentation ofthe story is given by Leslie Brooke in his _Golden Goose Book_. TheGerman version occurred in an old poem, _Reinhart Fuchs_, in which theKid sees the Wolf through a chink. Originally the characters must havebeen Kids, for little pigs do not have hair on their "chinny chinchins. "

One of the earliest modern animal tales is _The Good-Natured Bear_, [9]by Richard Hengist Horne, the English critic. This tale was written in1846, just when men were beginning to gain a greater knowledge ofanimal life. It is both psychological and imaginative. It was broughtto the attention of the English public in a criticism, _On SomeIllustrated Christmas Books_, [10] by Thackeray, who considered it oneof the "wittiest, pleasantest, and kindest of books, and an admirablestory. " It is now out of print, but it seems to be worthy of beingpreserved and reprinted. The story is the autobiography of a Bear, whofirst tells about his interesting experiences as a Baby Bear. He firstgives to Gretchen and the children gathered about him an account ofhis experience when his Mother first taught him to walk alone. 

III. The Humorous Tale

The humorous tale is one of the most pleasing to the little child. Itpleases everybody, but it suits him especially because the essence ofhumor is a mixture of love and surprise, and both appeal to the childcompletely. Humor brings joy into the world, so does the little child, their very existence is a harmony. Humor sees contrasts, shows goodsense, and feels compassion. It stimulates curiosity. Its laughter isimpersonal and has a social and spiritual effect. It acts like freshair, it clarifies the atmosphere of the mind and it enables one to seethings in a sharply defined light. It reveals character; it breaks upa situation, reconstructs it, and so views life, interprets it. Itplays with life, it frees the spirit, and it invigorates the soul. 

Speaking of humor, Thackeray, in "A Grumble About Christmas Books, "1847, considered that the motto for humor should be the same as thetalisman worn by the Prioress in Chaucer:--

 About hire arm a broche of gold ful shene, On which was first ywritten a crowned _A_, And after, _Amor vincit omnia_. 

He continued: "The works of the real humorist always have this sacredpress-mark, I think. Try Shakespeare, first of all, Cervantes, Addison, poor Dick Steele, and dear Harry Fielding, the tender anddelightful Jean Paul, Sterne, and Scott, --and Love is the humorist'sbest characteristic and gives that charming ring to their laughter inwhich all the good-natured world joins in chorus. "

The humorous element for children appears in the repetition of phrasessuch as we find in _Three Bears_, _Three Pigs_, and _ThreeBilly-Goats_; in the contrast in the change of voice so noticeablealso in these three tales; in the contrast of ideas so conspicuous inKipling's _Elephant's Child_; and in the element of surprise soevident when Johnny Cake is eaten by the Fox, or when Little Hen eatsthe bread, or when Little Pig outwits the Wolf. The humorous elementfor children also lies in the incongruous, the exaggerated, or in thegrotesque, so well displayed in Lear's _Nonsense Rhymes_, and much ofthe charm of _Alice in Wonderland_. The humorous element must changeaccordingly for older children, who become surprised less easily, andwhose tales therefore, in order to surprise, must have more cleverideas and more subtle fancy. 

_The Musicians of Bremen_ is a good type of humorous tale. It showsall the elements of true humor. Its philosophy is healthy; it viewslife as a whole and escapes tragedy by seeing the comic situation inthe midst of trouble. It is full of the social good-comradeship whichis a condition of humor. It possesses a suspense that is unusual, andis a series of surprises with one grand surprise to the robbers attheir feast as its climax. The Donkey is a noble hero who breathes aspirit of courage like that of the fine Homeric heroes. Hisachievement of a home is a mastery that pleases children. And themessage of the tale, which after all, is its chief worth--that thereought to be room in the world for the aged and the worn out, and that"The guilty flee when no man pursueth"--appeals to their compassionand their good sense. The variety of noises furnished by the differentcharacters is a pleasing repetition with variation that is a specialelement of humor; and the grand chorus of music leaves no doubt as tothe climax. We must view life with these four who are up against thefacts of life, and whose lot presents a variety of contrast. TheDonkey, incapacitated because of old age, had the courage to set outon a quest. He met the Dog who could hunt no longer, stopping in themiddle of the road, panting for breath; the Cat who had only stumpsfor teeth, sitting in the middle of the road, wearing an unhappy heartbehind a face dismal as three rainy Sundays; and the Rooster who justoverheard the cook say he was to be made into soup next Sunday, sitting on the top of the gate crowing his last as loud as he couldcrow. The Donkey, to these musicians he collected, spoke as a leaderand as a true humorist. 

In a simple tale like _The Bremen Town Musicians_ it is surprising howmuch of interest can develop: the adventure in the wood; the motif ofsome one going to a tree-top and seeing from there a light afar off, which appears in _Hop-o'-my-Thumb_ and in many other tales; theexample of coöperation, where all had a unity of purpose; an exampleof a good complete short-story form which illustrates introduction, setting, characters and dialogue--all these proclaim this one of thefine old stories. In its most dramatic form, and to Jacobs its mostimpressive one, it appears in the Celtic tales as _Jack and HisComrades_. It may have been derived from _Old Sultan_, a Grimm talewhich is somewhat similar to _The Wolf and the Hungry Dog_, inSteinhowel, 1487. _How Jack Sought His Fortune_ is an English tale ofcoöperation which is similar but not nearly so pleasing. A Danish taleof cooperation, _Pleiades_, is found in Lansing's _Fairy Tales_. _HowSix Traveled Through the World_ is a Grimm tale which, though suitedto older children, contains the same general theme. 

Very many of the tales suited to kindergarten children which have beenmentioned in various chapters, contain a large element of humor. Thenonsense drolls are a type distinct from the humorous tale proper, yetdistinctly humorous. Such are the realistic _Lazy Jack_, _HennyPenny_, and _Billy Bobtail_. Then since repetition is an element ofhumor, many accumulative tales rank as humorous: such as _Lambikin_, _The Old Woman and Her Pig_, _Medio Pollito_, _The Straw Ox_, _JohnnyCake_, and _Three Billy-Goats_. Among the humorous tales proper areAndersen's _Snow Man_; _The Cat and the Mouse in Partnership_; _TheRabbit Who Wanted Red Wings_; _The Elephant's Child_; and very many ofthe Uncle Remus Tales, such as _Why the Hawk Catches Chickens_, _Brother Rabbit and Brother Tiger_, and _Heyo, House_! all in _UncleRemus and the Little Boy_. _The Story of Little Black Mingo_ in _Talesof Laughter_, is a very attractive humorous tale, but it is moresuited to the child of the second grade. 

_Drakesbill_ is a French humorous accumulative tale with a plotconstructed similarly to that of the Cossack _Straw Ox_. Drakesbill, who was so tiny they called him Bill Drake, was a great worker andsoon saved a hundred dollars in gold which he lent to the King. But asthe King never offered to pay, one morning Drakesbill set out, singingas he went, "Quack, quack, quack, when shall I get my money back?" Toall the objects he met and to their questions he replied, "I am goingto the King to ask him to pay me what he owes me. " When they begged, "Take me with you!" he was willing, but he said, "You must makeyourself small, get into my mouth, and creep under my tongue!" Hearrived at the palace with his companions concealed in his mouth: aFox, a Ladder, Laughing River, and Wasp-Nest. On asking to see theKing, he was not escorted with dignity but sent to the poultry-yard, to the turkeys and chickens who fought him. Then he surprised them bycalling forth the Fox who killed the fowls. When he was thrown into awell, he called out the Ladder to help him. When about to be throwninto the fire, he called out the River who overwhelmed the rest andleft him serenely swimming. When surrounded by the King's men andtheir swords he called out the Wasp-Nest who drove away all butDrakesbill, leaving him free to look for his money. But he found noneas the King had spent all. So he seated himself upon the throne andbecame King. The element of humor here, as has been mentionedpreviously, is that Drakesbill, after every rebuff of fortunemaintained his happy, fresh vivacity, and triumphantly repeated hisone cry, "Quack, quack, quack, when shall I get my money back?" Thereis humor, too, in the repetition of dialogue, as on his way to theKing he met the various characters and talked to them. Humor lies alsoin the real lively surprises which Drakesbill so effectively gaveduring his visit to the King. One can see how this tale might havebeen a satire reflecting upon a spendthrift King. 

IV. The Realistic Tale

The realistic fairy tale has a great sympathy with humble life anddesires to reproduce faithfully all life worth while. The spirit of ithas been expressed by Kipling--

 each in his separate star, Shall draw the Thing as he sees It, for the God of Things as They are. 

Sometimes the realistic story has a scientific spirit and interest. Arealistic tale that is good will present not only what is true butwhat is possible, probable, or inevitable, making its truthimpressive. Very often it does not reach this ideal. A transcript ofactual life may be selected, but that is a photograph and not apicture with a strong purpose to make one point, and with artisticdesign. The characters, though true to life, may be lifeless andcolorless, and their doings and what happens to them uninteresting. For this reason, many modern writers of tales for children, respectingthe worth of the realistic, neglect to comply with what the realisticdemands, and produce insipid, unconvincing tales. The realistic taleshould deal with the simple and the ordinary rather than with theexceptional; and the test is not how much, but how little, credulityit arouses. 

Grimm's _Hans in Luck_ is a perfect realistic tale, as are Grimm's_Clever Elsa_ and the Norse _Three Sillies_, although these tales aresuited to slightly older children. The drolls often appear among therealistic tales, as if genuine humor were more fresh when related tothe things of actual life. The English _Lazy Jack_ is a delightfulrealistic droll which contains motifs that appear frequently among thetales. The Touchstone motif of a humble individual causing nobility tolaugh appears in Grimm's _Dummling and His Golden Goose_. It appearsalso in _Zerbino the Savage_, a most elaborated Neapolitan tale retoldby Laboulaye in his _Last Fairy Tales_; a tale full of humor, wit, andsatire that would delight the cultured man of the world. 

In _Lazy Jack_ the setting is in humble life. A poor mother lived onthe common with her indolent son and managed to earn a livelihood byspinning. One day the mother lost patience and threatened to send fromhome this idle son if he did not get work. So he set out. Each day hereturned to his mother with his day's earnings. The humor lies in whathe brought, in how he brought it, and in what happened to it; in theadmonition of his mother, "You should have done so and so, " and Jack'sone reply, "I'll do so another time"; in Jack's literal use of hismother's admonition, and the catastrophe it brought him on thefollowing day, and on each successive day, as he brought home a pieceof money, a jar of milk, a cream cheese, a tom-cat, a shoulder ofmutton, and at last a donkey. The humor lies in the contrast betweenwhat Jack did and what anybody "with sense" knows he ought to havedone, until when royalty beheld him carrying the donkey on hisshoulders, with legs sticking up in the air, it could bear no more, and burst into laughter. This is a good realistic droll to use becauseit impresses the truth, that even a little child must reason and judgeand use his own common sense. 

_The Story of the Little Red Hen_ is a realistic tale which presents asimple picture of humble thrift. Andersen's _Tin Soldier_ is arealistic tale which gives an adventure that might happen to a realtin soldier. _The Old Woman and her Pig_, whose history has been givenunder _The Accumulative Tale_, is realistic. Its theme is the simpleexperience of an aged peasant who swept her house, who had the unusualmuch-coveted pleasure of finding a dime, who went to market and boughta Pig for so small a sum. But on the way home, as the Pig becamecontrary when reaching a stile, and refused to go, the Old Woman hadto seek aid. So she asked the Dog, the Stick, the Fire, etc. She askedaid first from the nearest at hand; and each object asked, in its turnsought help from the next higher power. One great source of pleasurein this tale is that each object whose aid is sought is asked to dothe thing its nature would compel it to do--the Dog to bite, the Stickto beat, etc. ; and each successive object chosen is the one which, bythe law of its nature, is a master to the preceding one. The Dog, byvirtue of ability to bite, has power over the Pig; the Stick hasability to master the Dog; and Water in its power to quench is masterover Fire. Because of this intimate connection of cause and effect, this tale contributes in an unusual degree to the development of thechild's reason and memory. He may remember the sequence of the plot orremake the tale if he forgets, by reasoning out the associationbetween the successive objects from whom aid was asked. It is throughthis association that the memory is exercised. 

_How Two Beetles Took Lodgings_, in _Tales of Laughter_, is arealistic story which has a scientific spirit and interest. Its basisof truth belongs to the realm of nature study. Its narration of howtwo Beetles set up housekeeping by visiting an ant-hill and helpingthemselves to the home and furnishings of the Ants, would be very wellsuited either to precede or to follow the actual study of an ant-hillby the children. The story gives a good glimpse of the home of theAnts, of their manner of living, and of the characteristics of theAnts and Beetles. It is not science mollified, but a good story fullof life and humor, with a basis of scientific truth. 

Many tales not realistic contain a large realistic element. The fineold romantic tales, such as _Cinderella_, _Sleeping Beauty_, and_Bremen Town Musicians_, have a large realistic element. In _TheLittle Elves_ we have the realistic picture of a simple German home. In _Beauty and the Beast_ we have a realistic glimpse of the threevarious ways the wealthy merchant's daughters accommodated themselvesto their father's loss of fortune, which reminds us of a paralleltheme in Shakespeare's _King Lear_. In _Red Riding Hood_ we have therealistic starting out of a little girl to visit her grandmother. Thisrealistic element appeals to the child because, as we have noted, itaccords with his experience, and it therefore seems less strange. 

In _Titty Mouse and Tatty Mouse_ the setting is realistic but becomestransformed into the romantic when natural doings of everyday lifetake on meaning from the unusual happening in the tale. It isrealistic for Titty Mouse and Tatty Mouse to live in a little house, to get some corn, to make a pudding, and to put it on to boil. Butwhen the pot tumbled over and scalded Titty, the romantic began. Thestool which was real and common and stood by the door becametransformed with animation, it talked: "Titty's dead, and so I weep";and it hopped! Then a broom caught the same animation from the sametheme, and swept; a door jarred; a window creaked; an old form ranround the house; a walnut tree shed its leaves; a little bird moultedhis pretty feathers; a little girl spilled her milk; a man tumbled offhis ladder; and the walnut tree fell with a crash, upsettingeverything and burying Titty in the ruins. They all learned to conveythe same message. The common and customary became uncommon and unusualwith extraordinary life, feeling, and lively movement. 

Other romantic tales with a large realistic element are _The ThreeBears_, _The Three Pigs_, and _The Three Billy-Goats_, animal taleswhich of necessity must be largely realistic, for their foundation isin the facts of the nature, habits, and traits of the animalcharacters they portray. 

V. The Romantic Tale

The romantic tale reflects emotion and it contains adventure and thepicturesque; it deals with dreams, distant places, the sea, the sky, and objects of wonder touched with beauty and strangeness. The purposeof the romantic is to arouse emotion, pity, or the sense of theheroic; and it often exaggerates character and incidents beyond thenormal. The test of the romantic tale as well as of the realistic taleis in the reality it possesses. This reality it will possess, not onlybecause it is true, but because it is also true to life. And it is tobe remembered that because of the unusual setting in a romantic talethe truth it presents stands out very clearly with muchimpressiveness. _Red Riding Hood_ is a more impressive tale than _TheThree Bears_. 

_Cinderella_ is a good type of the old romantic tale. It has anever-ending attraction for children just as it has had for allpeoples of the world; for this tale has as many as three hundred andforty-five variants, which have been examined by Miss Cox. In thesevariants there are many common incidents, such as the hearth abode, the helpful animal, the heroine disguise, the ill-treated heroine, thelost shoe, the love-sick prince, magic dresses, the magic tree, thethreefold flight, the false bride, and many others. But the oneincident which claims the tale as a Cinderella tale proper, is therecognition of the heroine by means of her shoe. In the Greek_Rhodope_, the slipper is carried off by an eagle and dropped into thelap of the King of Egypt, who seeks and marries the owner. In theHindu tale the Rajah's daughter loses her slipper in the forest whereit is found by the Prince. The interpretation of _Cinderella_ is thatthe Maiden, the Dawn, is dull and gray away from the brightness of thesun. The Sisters are the Clouds that shadow the Dawn, and theStepmother is Night. The Dawn hurries away from the pursuing Prince, the Sun, who, after a long search, overtakes her in her glorious robesof sunset. 

This tale is the Hindu _Sodewa Bai_, the Zuni _Poor Turkey Girl_, andthe English _Rushen Coatie, Cap-o'-Rushes_, and _Catskin_. _Catskin_, which Mr. Burchell told to the children of the Vicar of Wakefield, isconsidered by Newell as the oldest of the Cinderella types, appearingin Straparola in 1550, while _Cinderella_ appeared first in Basile in1637. _Catskin_, in ballad form as given by Halliwell, was printed inAldermary Churchyard, England, in 1720; and the form as given byJacobs well illustrates how the prose tale developed from the oldballad. The two most common forms of _Cinderella_ are Perrault's andGrimm's, either of which is suited to the very little child. Perrault's _Cinderella_ shows about twenty distinct differences fromthe Grimm tale:--

 (1) It omits the Mother's death-bed injunction to Cinderella. 

 (2) It omits the wooden shoes and the cloak. 

 (3) The Stepmother assigns more modern tasks. It omits the pease-and-beans task. 

 (4) It shows Cinderella sleeping in a garret instead of on the hearth. 

 (5) It omits the Father. 

 (6) It omits the hazel bough. 

 (7) It omits the three wishes. 

 (8) It substitutes the fairy Godmother for the hazel tree and the friendly doves. 

 (9) It substitutes transformation for tree-shaking. 

 (10) It omits the episode of the pear tree and of the pigeon-house. 

 (11) It omits the use of pitch and axe-cutting. 

 (12) It omits the false bride and the two doves. 

 (13) It substitutes two nights at the ball for three nights. 

 (14) It makes C. Forgiving and generous at the end. The Sisters are not punished. 

 (15) It contains slippers of glass instead of slippers of gold. 

 (16) It simplifies the narrative, improves the structure, and puts in the condition, which is a keystone to the structure. 

 (17) It has no poetical refrain. 

 (18) It is more direct and dramatic. 

 (19) It draws the characters more clearly. 

 (20) Is it not more artificial and conventional?

This contrast shows the Grimm tale to be the more poetical, while itis the more complex, and contains more barbarous and gruesome elementsunsuited to the child of to-day. Of the two forms, the Grimm taleseems the superior tale, however, and if rewritten in a literary formsuited to the child, might become even preferable. 

_Sleeping Beauty_, which is another romantic tale that might claim tobe the most popular fairy tale, has for its theme the long sleep ofwinter and the awakening of spring. The Earth goddess, pricked bywinter's dart, falls into a deep sleep from which she is awakened bythe Sun who searches far for her. This tale is similar to the Norse_Balder_ and the Greek _Persephone_. Some of its incidents appear alsoin _The Two Brothers_, an Egyptian tale of the Nineteenth Dynasty ofSeti II, in which the Hathors who pronounce the fate of the Princecorrespond to the wicked old Fairy. The spindle whose prick causedslumber is the arrow that wounded Achilles, the thorn which prickedSiegfried, the mistle-toe which wounded Balder, and the poisoned nailof the demon in _Surya Bai_. In the northern form of the story we findthe ivy, which is the one plant that can endure winter's touch. Thetheme of the long sleep occurs in the mediæval legend of _The SevenSleepers of Ephesus_, in the English _The King of England and HisThree Sons_, poetically as Tennyson has given it in his _Day-Dream_, and in the _Story of Brunhilde_, in _Siegfried_. Here a hedge offlames encircles Brunhilde who is awakened at the touch of Siegfried'smagic sword, just as Sleeping Beauty is awakened by the Prince's kiss. The kiss may be a survival of an ancient form of worship of some localgoddess. In the Hindu _Panch-Rhul Ranee_, seven ditches surmounted byseven hedges of spears, surround the heroine. Of the Perrault andGrimm versions of _Sleeping Beauty_, the Perrault version is long andcomplex because it contains the minor tale of the cruel stepmotheradded to the main tale, while the Grimm _Briar Rose_ is a model ofstructure easily separated into ten leading episodes. _SleepingBeauty_ appeared in Basile's _Pentamerone_ where there is given thebeautiful incident of the baby sucking the spike of flax out of itssleeping mother's fingers. The Perrault version agrees with that ofBasile in naming the twins, who are Sun and Moon in the _Pentamerone_, Day and Dawn. 

_Red Riding Hood_ is another romantic tale[11] that could claim to bethe one most popular fairy tale of all fairy tales. Similar talesoccur in the story of the Greek Kronos swallowing his children, in theAlgonquin legend repeated in _Hiawatha_, and in an Aryan story of aDragon swallowing the sun and being killed by the sun-god, Indra. _RedRiding Hood_ appeals to a child's sense of fear, it gives a thrillwhich if not too intense, is distinctly pleasing. But it pleases lessnoticeably perhaps because of its atmosphere of love and service, andbecause it presents a picture of a dear little maid. The Grandmother'sgift of love to the child, the bright red hood, the mother's partinginjunction, the Wolf's change of aspect and voice to suit thechild--all these directly and indirectly emphasize love, tenderness, and appreciation of simple childhood. The child's errand of gratitudeand love, the play in the wood, the faith in the woodcutter'spresence--all are characteristic of a typical little maid and one tobe loved. There is in the tale too, the beauty of the wood--flowers, birds, and the freshness of the open air. The ending of the tale isvaried. In Perrault the Wolf ate Grandmother and then ate Red RidingHood. In Grimm one version gives it that the Hunter, hearing snoring, went to see what the old lady needed. He cut open the Wolf, andGrandmother and Red Riding Hood became alive. He filled the Wolf withstones. When the Wolf awoke, he tried to run, and died. All three werehappy; the Hunter took the skin, Grandmother had her cake and wine, and Red Riding Hood was safe and had her little girl's lesson ofobedience. Another Grimm ending is that Little Red-Cap reached theGrandmother before the Wolf, and after telling her that she had methim, they both locked the door. Then they filled a trough with waterin which the sausages had been boiled. When the Wolf tried to get inand got up on the roof, he was enticed by the odor, and fell into thetrough. A great deal of freedom has been used in re-telling the endingof this tale, usually with the purpose of preventing the Wolf fromeating Red Riding Hood. In regard to the conclusion of _Red RidingHood_, Thackeray said: "I am reconciled to the Wolf eating Red RidingHood because I have given up believing this is a moral tale altogetherand am content to receive it as a wild, odd, surprising, and notunkindly fairy story. "

The interpretation of _Red Riding Hood_--which the children need notknow--is that the evening Sun goes to see her Grandmother, the Earth, who is the first to be swallowed up by the Wolf of Night and Darkness. The red cloak is the twilight glow. The Hunter may be the rising Sunthat rescues all from Night. _Red Riding Hood_ has been charminglyelaborated in Tieck's _Romantic Poems_, and a similar story appears ina Swedish popular song, _Jungfrun i'Blaskagen_, in _Folkviser_ 3; 68, 69. 

VI, VII. The Old Tale and the Modern Tale. 

The old fairy tale is to be distinguished from the modern fairy tale. Most of the tales selected have been old tales because they possessthe characteristics suited to the little child. The modern fairy talemay be said to begin with Andersen's _Fairy Tales_. --Since Andersenhas been referred to frequently and as a study of _The Tin Soldier_has already been given, Andersen's work can receive no more detailedtreatment here. --The modern fairy tale, since the time of Andersen, has yet to learn simplicity and sincerity. It often is long andinvolved and presents a multiplicity of images that is confusing. Itlacks the great art qualities of the old tale, the central unity andharmony of character and plot. The _idea_ must be the soul of thenarrative, and the problem is to make happen to the characters thingsthat are expressive of the idea. The story must hold by its interest, and must be sincere and inevitable to be convincing. It mustunderstand that the method of expression must be the method ofsuggestion and not that of detail. The old tale set no boundaries toits suggestion. It used concrete artistry; but because the symbolexpressed less it implied more. The modern tale is more definitelyintentional and it often sets boundaries to its suggestion because thesymbol expresses so much. Frequently it emphasizes the satiric andcritical element, and its humor often is heavy and clumsy. To beliterature, as has been pointed out, besides characters, plot, setting, and dialogue, a classic must present truth; it must haveemotion and imagination molded with beauty into the form of language;and it must have the power of a classic to bestow upon the mind apermanent enrichment. Any examination of the modern fairy tale veryfrequently shows a failure to meet these requirements. 

The modern tale is not so poor, however, when we mention such tales asLewis Carroll's _Alice in Wonderland_, Oscar Wilde's _Happy Prince_, Alice Brown's _Gradual Fairy_, Frances Browne's _Prince Fairyfoot_, Miss Mulock's _Little Lame Prince_, Barrie's _Peter Pan_, JeanIngelow's _Mopsa, the Fairy_ and _The Ouphe in the Wood_, Field's _TheStory of Claus_, Stockton's _Old Pipes and the Dryad_, Kingsley's_Water Babies_, Ruskin's _King of the Golden River_, Collodi's_Pinocchio_, Maeterlinck's _Blue-Bird_, Kipling's _Just-So Stories_and the tales of the _Jungle Books_, Selma Lagerlöf's _WonderfulAdventures of Nils_, the _Uncle Remus Tales_ of Harris, etc. But theseclassics are, with a few exceptions, the richness of the primary andelementary literature. The modern fairy tale suited to thekindergarten child, is at a disadvantage, for most likely it is hiddenaway in some magazine, waiting for appreciation to bring someattention to it. And in these complex modern days it is difficult tosecure a tale whose simplicity suits the little child. 

Among the best tales for little people are Miss Harrison's _Hans andthe Four Giants_ and _Little Beta and the Lame Giant_. In _Little Betaand the Lame Giant_ a natural child is placed in unusual surroundings, where the gentleness of the giant and the strength of love in thelittle girl present strong contrasts that please and satisfy. _The SeaFairy and the Land Fairy_ in _Some Fairies I have Met_, by Mrs. Stawell, though possessing much charm and beauty, is too complicatedfor the little people. It is a quarrel of a Sea Fairy and a LandFairy. It is marked by good structure, it presents a problem in theintroduction, has light fancy suited to its characters, piquantdialogue, good description, visualized expressions, and it presentsdistinct pictures. Its method is direct and it gets immediately intothe story. Its method of personification, which in this, perhaps thebest story of the collection, is rather delightful, in some of theothers is less happy and is open to question. _How Double Darling'sOld Shoes Became Lady Slippers_, by Candace Wheeler, in _St. Nicholas_, is a really delightful modern fairy story suited to be readto the little child. It is the experience of a little girl with newshoes and her dream about her old shoes. But the story lacks instructure, there is not the steady rise to one great action, theepisode of the Santa Claus tree is somewhat foreign and unnecessary, and the conclusion falls flat because the end seems to continue afterthe problem has been worked out. 

In _The Dwarf's Tailor_, by Underhill, there is much conversationabout things and an indirect use of language, such as "arouse them toreply" and "continued to question, " which is tedious. The humor is attimes heavy, quoting proverbs, such as "The pitcher that goes toooften to the well is broken at last. " The climax is without interest. The scene of the Dwarfs around the fire--in which the chief element ofhumor seems to be that the Tailor gives the Dwarf a slap--is ratherfoolish than funny. The details are trite and the transformationmisses being pleasing. Again there is not much plot and the story doesnot hold by its interest. In _The Golden Egg and the Cock of Gold_, byScudder, the conversation is not always to the point, is somewhat onthe gossipy order, is trite, and the suspense is not held because theclimax is told beforehand. Mrs. Burton Harrison's _Old Fashioned FairyBook_ is very pleasing, but it was written for her two sons, who wereolder children. It has the fault of presenting too great a variety ofimages and it lacks simplicity of structure. Its _Juliet_, or _TheLittle White Mouse_, which seems to be a re-telling of D'Aulnoy's_Good Little Mouse_, contains a good description of the old-time fairydress. _Deep Sea Violets_, perhaps the best-written story in the book, gives a good picture of a maiden taken to a Merman's realm. _Rosy'sStay-at-Home Parties_ has delightful imagination similar to that ofAndersen. 

_Five Little Pigs_, by Katherine Pyle, is a delightful little modernstory, which could be used with interest by the child who knows _TheStory of Three Little Pigs_. _The Little Rooster_, by Southey, is avery pleasing realistic tale of utmost simplicity which, because ofits talking animals, might be included here. A criticism of this tale, together with a list of realistic stories containing some realisticfairy tales suited to the kindergarten, may be read in _EducationalFoundations_, October, 1914. _The Hen That Hatched Ducks_, by HarrietBeecher Stowe, is a pleasing and sprightly humorous tale of MadamFeathertop and her surprising family of eight ducks, and of MasterGray Cock, Dame Scratchard and Dr. Peppercorn. A modern tale that isvery acceptable to the children is _The Cock, the Mouse, and theLittle Red Hen_, by Félicité Lefèvre, which is a re-telling of the_Story of the Little Red Hen_ combined with the story of _The LittleRid Hin_. In this tale the two old classic stories are preserved butre-experienced, with such details improvised as a clever child wouldhimself naturally make. These additional details appeal to hisimagination and give life-likeness and freshness to the tale, but theydo not detract from the impression of the original or confuse theidentity of the characters in the old tales. 

One must not forget _Peter Rabbit_--that captivating, realistic fairytale by Beatrix Potter--and his companions, _Benjamin Bunny, PiglingBland, Tom Kitten_, and the rest, of which children never tire. _PeterRabbit_ undoubtedly holds a place as a kindergarten classic. Insomewhat the same class of merry animal tales is _Tommy and theWishing Stone_, a series of tales by Thornton Burgess, in _St. Nicholas_, 1915. Here the child enjoys the novel transformation ofbecoming a Musk-rat, a Ruffed Grouse, a Toad, Honker the Goose, andother interesting personages. A modern fairy tale which is receivedgladly by children is _Ludwig and Marleen_, by Jane Hoxie. Here wehave the friendly Fox who grants to Ludwig the wishes he asks forMarleen. The theme parallels for the little people the charm of _TheFisherman and His Wife_, a Grimm tale suited to the second grade. Among modern animal tales _The Elephant's Child_[12], one of the_Just-So Stories_ by Rudyard Kipling, ranks high as a fairy taleproduced for little children by one of the great literary masters ofthe short-story. 

A modern tale that is a bit of pure imagination and seems an attemptto follow Grimm and Andersen, is _A Quick-Running Squash_, inAspinwall's _Short Stories for Short People_. It uses the little boy'sinterest in a garden--his garden. --Interest centers about the fairy, the magic seed, the wonderful ride, and the happy ending. It uses thesimple, everyday life and puts into it the unusual and the wonderfulwhere nothing is impossible. It blends the realistic and the romanticin a way that is most pleasing. _The Rich Goose_, by Leora Robinson, in the _Outlook_, is an accumulative tale with an interesting endingand surprise. _Why the Morning Glory Climbs_, by Elizabeth McCracken, in Miss Bryant's _How to Tell Stories_, is a simple fanciful tale. _The Discontented Pendulum_, by Jane Taylor, in Poulssen's _In theChild's World_, is a good illustration of the modern purely fancifultale. _What Bunch and Joker saw in the Moon_, in _Wide-AwakeChatterbox_, about 1887, is a most delightful modern fanciful tale, although it is best suited to the child of nine or ten. _Greencap_, byRuth Hays, in _St. Nicholas_, June, 1915, appeals to the child throughthe experience of Sarah Jane, whose Mother and Father traveled toIndia. Sarah went to live with Aunt Jane and there met Greencap whogranted the proverbial "three wishes. " _Alice in Wonderland_ ranks ina class by itself among modern fanciful tales but it is better suitedto the child of the third and fourth grades. 

A modern fairy tale which is suited to the child's simplicity andwhich will stimulate his own desire to make a tale, is _The Doll WhoWas Sister to a Princess_, one of the _Toy Stories_ by Carolyn Baileywhich have been published by the _Kindergarten Review_ during 1914-15. Among modern tales selected from _Fairy Stories Re-told from St. Nicholas_, appear some interesting ones which might be read to thelittle child, or told in the primary grades. Among these might bementioned:--

 _The Ballad of the Blacksmith's Sons_, a modern tale in verse by Mary E. Wilkins. 

 _Casperl_, by H. C. Bunner, a modern Sleeping Beauty tale. This tale has the virtue of not being complex and elaborate. It has the underlying idea that "People who are helping others have a strength beyond their own. "

 _Ten Little Dwarfs_, by Sophie Dorsey, from the French of Emile Souvestre. It tells of the ten little Dwarfs who lived in the Good-wife's fingers. 

 _Wondering Tom_, by Mary Mapes Dodge. This is a bright story of a boy who Hamlet-like, hesitated to act. Tom was always wondering. The story contains a fairy, Kumtoo-thepoynt, who sat on a toadstool and looked profound. It is realistic and romantic and has fine touches of humor. It tells how Wondering Tom became transformed into a Royal Ship-Builder. 

 _How An Elf Set Up Housekeeping_, by Anne Cleve. This is a good tale of fancy. An Elf set up housekeeping in a lily and obtained a curtain from a spider, down from a thistle, a stool from a toad who lived in a green house in the wood, etc. 

 _The Wish-Ring_, translated from the German by Anne Eichberg. This is a tale with the implied message that "The best way to secure one's best wish is to work for it. "

 _The Hop-About Man_, by Agnes Herbertson, in _Little Folks Magazine_, is a very pleasing modern romantic fairy tale for little children. Wee Wun was a gnome who lived in the Bye-Bye meadow in a fine new house which he loved. As he flew across the Meadow he had his pockets full of blue blow-away seeds. In the Meadow he found a pair of shoes, of blue and silver, and of course he took them home to his new house. But first he scattered the blue blow-away seeds over the garden wall in the Stir-About-Wife's garden where golden dandelions grew. And the seeds grew and crowded out the dandelions. Next day Wee Wun found a large blue seed which he planted outside his house; and on the following morning a great blue blow-away which had grown in a night, made his house dark. So he went to the Green Ogre to get him to take it away. When he came home he found, sitting in his chair, the Hop-About-Man, who had come to live with him. He had been forewarned of this coming by the little blue shoes when they hopped round the room singing:--

 Ring-a-ding-dill, ring-a-ding-dill, The Hop-About-Man comes over the hill. Why is he coming, and what will he see? Rickety, rackety, --one, two, three. 

The story then describes Wee Wun's troubles with the Hop-About-Man, who remained an unwelcome inhabitant of the house where Wee Wun likedto sit all alone. The Hop-About-Man made everything keep hopping aboutuntil Wee Wun would put all careless things straight, and until hewould give back to him his blue-and-silver shoes. One day, Wee Wunbecame a careful housekeeper and weeded out of the dandelion gardenall the blue blow-away plants that grew from the seeds he hadscattered there in the Stir-About-Wife's garden, and when he came homehis troubles were over, and the Hop-About-Man was gone. 

Perhaps one reason for the frequent failure of the modern fairy taleis that it fails to keep in harmony with the times. Just as the modernnovel has progressed from the romanticism of Hawthorne, the realism ofThackeray, through the psychology of George Eliot, and the philosophyof George Meredith, so the little child's story--which like the adultstory is an expression of the spirit of the times--must recognizethese modern tendencies. It must learn, from _Alice in Wonderland_ andfrom _A Child's Garden of Verses_, that the modern fairy tale is not a_Cinderella_ or _Sleeping Beauty_, but the modern fairy tale is thechild's mind. The real fairy world is the strangeness and beauty ofthe child mind's point of view. It is the duty and privilege of themodern fairy tale to interpret the child's psychology and to presentthe child's philosophy of life. 

REFERENCES

 Century Co. : _St. Nicholas Magazine_, 1915; _St. Nicholas Fairy Stories Re-told_. 

 Gates, Josephine: "And Piped Those Children Back Again, " (Pied Piper) _St. Nicholas_, Nov. , 1914. 

 Hays, Ruth: "Greencap, " _St. Nicholas_, June, 1915. 

 Hazlitt, William; _Essays_. ("Wit and Humor. ") Camelot Series. Scott. 

 Hooker, B. : "Narrative and the Fairy Tale, " _Bookman_, 33: June and July, 1911, pp. 389-93, pp. 501-05. 

 _Ibid_: "Types of Fairy Tales, " _Forum_, 40: Oct. , 1908, pp. 375-84. 

 Martin, John: _John Martin's Book_ (Magazine), 1915

 Meredith, George: _The Comic Spirit_. Scribners. 

 Moulton, Alice O'Grady, and Literature Committee: "Humorous Tales" _Kindergarten Review_, Dec, 1914. 

 Perry, Bliss: _A Study of Prose Fiction_. ("The Romantic" and "The Realistic") Houghton. 

CHAPTER VI

SOURCES OF MATERIAL FOR FAIRY TALES: A LIST OF FAIRY TALES, PICTURES, PICTURE-BOOKS, POEMS, AND BOOKS

 Shall we permit our children, without scruple, to hear any fables composed by any authors indifferently, and so to receive into their minds opinions generally the reverse of those which, when they are grown to manhood, we shall think they ought to entertain?--PLATO, in _The Republic_. 

Any list of fairy tales for little children must be selected fromthose books which, as we have noted, contain the best collections offolk-lore, and from books which contain tales that rank as classics. An examination of the tales of Perrault, of Grimm, of Dasent, ofAndersen, of Jacobs, of Harris, and of miscellaneous tales, to seewhat are suited to the little child, would result in the followinglists of tales. Those most worthy of study for the kindergarten aremarked with an asterisk and those suited to the first grade are marked"1. " No attempt has been made to mention all the varied sources of atale or its best version. The Boston Public Library issues a _FindingList of Fairy Tales and Folk Stories_, which may be procured easily, and the Carnegie Library at Pittsburg issues in its monthly bulletinfor December, 1913, vol. 18, no. 10, a _List of Folk-Tales_, and otherstories which may be dramatized. The Baker, Taylor Company, in 1914, issued a _Graded Guide to Supplementary Reading_, which contains alist of many of the best editions of folk and fairy tales suited toprimary grades. A list of school editions is included in this book. But one cannot fail to be impressed with the general low literarystandard of many school editions of fairy tales when judged by thestandards here applied to the tales themselves. --

 I. A List of Fairy Tales and Folk Tales

 Tales of Perrault:

 * CINDERELLA. 1 LITTLE THUMB. 1 PUSS-IN BOOTS. * RED RIDING HOOD. 1 SLEEPING BEAUTY. 1 THE THREE WISHES. 

 Tales of the Grimms:

 1 BIRDIE AND LENA. 1 BRIAR ROSE. * THE CAT AND THE MOUSE IN PARTNERSHIP. 1 CHANTICLEER AND PARTLET. 1. HOW THEY WENT TO THE HILLS TO EAT NUTS. 2. THE VISIT TO M KORBES. 3. THE DEATH OF PARTLETT. * CINDERELLA. * THE ELVES AND THE SHOEMAKER. THE FOX AND THE GEESE. 1 THE HARE AND THE HEDGEHOG. 1 THE HOUSE IN THE WOOD. * THE KING OF THE BIRDS. 1 LITTLE BROTHER AND SISTER 1 THE LITTLE LAMB AND THE LITTLE FISH. * LITTLE RED-CAP. 1 LITTLE SNOW WHITE. 1 LITTLE TWO-EYES. MOTHER HOLLE. 1 THE NOSE. 1 SNOW WHITE AND ROSE RED. * THE SPARROW AND HIS FOUR CHILDREN. STAR DOLLARS. * THE SPIDER AND THE FLEA. * THE STRAW, THE COAL, AND THE BEAN. * THE TOWN MUSICIANS OF BREMEN. THE WILLOW WREN AND THE BEAR. * THE WOLF AND THE SEVEN KIDS. * THE WONDERFUL PORRIDGE POT. 

 Norse Tales:

 COCK AND HEN. THE COCK AND HEN A-NUTTING. THE COCK AND HEN THAT WENT TO THE DOVREFELL. COCK, CUCKOO, AND BLACK COCK. * DOLL I' THE GRASS. 1 GERTRUDE'S BIRD. 1 KATIE WOODENCLOAK (read). 1 THE LAD WHO WENT TO THE NORTH WIND. 1 LORD PETER (read). ONE'S OWN CHILDREN ABE ALWAYS PRETTIEST. * THREE BILLY GOATS. 1 THUMBIKIN (read). * WHY THE BEAR IS STUMPY-TAILED (pourquois). 

 English Tales, by Jacobs:

 * THE CAT AND THE MOUSE. * HENNY PENNY. 1 THE HISTORY OF TOM THUMB. * HOW JACK WENT TO SEEK HIS FORTUNE. 1 JACK AND THE BEAN-STALK. * JOHNNY CAKE. * LAZY JACK. * THE MAGPIE'S NEST. 1 MASTER OF ALL MASTERS. * M MIACCA. 1 M VINEGAR. * THE OLD WOMAN AND HER PIG. * PUDDOCK, MOUSIE, AND RATTON. 1 SCRAPEFOOT. * THE STORY OF THREE BEARS. * THE STORY OF THREE LITTLE PIGS. * TEENY TINY. * TITTY MOUSE AND TATTY MOUSE. 

 Modern Fairy Tales, by Andersen:

 * THE FIR TREE. * FIVE PEAS IN A POD. 1 THE HAPPY FAMILY (retold in _Tales of Laughter_). LITTLE IDA'S FLOWERS (read). * OLE-LUK-OLE (read to end of Thursday). THURSDAY, WEDDING OF A MOUSE. * THE PRINCESS AND THE PEA. * THE SNOW MAN. 1 THE STEADFAST TIN SOLDIER. THE TOP AND THE BALL. * THUMBELINA. WHAT THE MOON SAW: * LITTLE GIRL AND CHICKENS. * THE NEW FROCK (realistic). * LITTLE CHIMNEY SWEEP. * BEAR WHO PLAYED "SOLDIERS. " * BREAD AND BUTTER. 

 Uncle Remus Tales, by Harris, in _Nights with Uncle Remus_:

 * BRER RABBIT AND THE LITTLE TAR BABY. * BROTHER RABBIT AND THE LITTLE GIRL. * BROTHER RABBIT TAKES A WALK. * BROTHER RABBIT TAKES SOME EXERCISE. * CUTTA CORD-LA (similar to Wolf and Seven Kids). * How BROTHER RABBIT BROKE UP A PARTY. * How BROTHER RABBIT FRIGHTENS HIS NEIGHBORS. * How M ROOSTER LOST HIS DINNER (read). * IN SOME LADY'S GARDEN. * M BENJAMIN RAM (Brother Rabbit's Riddle). * THE MOON IN THE MILL-POND (pourquois). * WHY BROTHER BEAK HAS NO TAIL (pourquois). * WHY M DOG RUNS AFTER BROTHER RABBIT. * WHY GUINEA FOWLS ARE SPECKLED (pourquois). 

 Uncle Remus Tales, by Harris, in _Uncle Remus and the Little Boy_:

 * BROTHER BILLY GOAT'S DINNER. BROTHER FOX SMELLS SMOKE. * BROTHER RABBIT AND BROTHER TIGER. * BROTHER RABBIT AND BROTHER LION (similar to _The Dog and His Shadow_). * BROTHER MUD-TURTLE'S TRICKERY. * BROTHER RABBIT'S MONEY MINT. 1 BROTHER WOLF SAYS GRACE. 1 THE FIRE TEST (Use with _Three Pigs_). FUN AT THE FERRY. * HEYO, HOUSE. THE LITTLE RABBITS. MRS. PARTRIDGE HAS A FIT. WHY BROTHER FOX'S LEGS ARE BLACK. * WHY THE HAWK CATCHES CHICKENS. 

 Tale, by Harris, in _Little Mr. Thimblefinger_:

 * WHY BILLY-GOAT'S TAIL IS SHORT. 

 Miscellaneous Tales:

 * THE ADVENTURES OF LITTLE FIELD MOUSE, _Stories to Tell_, Bryant. * BETA AND THE LAME GIANT, Miss Harrison, _In Storyland_. * BILLY BOBTAIL, Jane Hoxie, _Kindergarten Stories; Child-Lore Dramatic Reader_, Scribners. * BLUNDER AND THE WISHING GATE, Louise Chollet, in _Child Life in Prose_, Whittier. * THE BOY AND THE GOAT, OR THE GOAT IN THE TURNIP FIELD (Norwegian), _Primer_, Free and Treadwell; _Child-Lore Dramatic Reader_, Scribners. * THE CAP THAT MOTHER MADE OR ANDER'S NEW CAP (Swedish), _Swedish Fairy Tales_, McClurg; _For the Story-Teller_, Bailey. 1 THE CAT AND THE PARROT OR THE GREEDY CAT, _HOW to Tell Stories_, Bryant; _Tales of Laughter_, Wiggin and Smith. 1 THE CAT THAT WAITED, _Classics in Dramatic Form_, vol. I, Stevenson. * THE CAT, THE COCK, AND THE FOX, _Tales of Laughter_, Wiggin and Smith. 1 CLYTIE, _Nature Myths_, Flora Cooke. 1 THE COCK, THE MOUSE, AND THE LITTLE RED HEN, Félicité Lefèvre, Jacobs. * THE COUNTRY MOUSE AND THE CITY MOUSE, _Æsop's Fables_, Joseph Jacobs. * DAME WIGGINS AND HER CATS, Mrs. Sharp, in _Six Nursery Classics_, Heath. * THE DISCONTENTED PENDULUM, Jane Taylor, in _In the Child's World_, Poulsson. * THE DOLL WHO WAS SISTER TO A PRINCESS, THE TOY STORIES, Carolyn Bailey, _Kindergarten Review_, Dec. , 1914. * DRAKESBILL, _The Story-Teller's Book_, O'Grady and Throop; _The Fairy Ring_, Wiggin and Smith; _Firelight Stories_, Bailey. * THE ELEPHANT'S CHILD, _Just-So Stories_, Kipling. 1 THE FIRST CHRISTMAS TREE, _A Little Book of Profitable Tales_, Eugene Field. 1 THE FIVE LITTLE PIGS, Katherine Pyle, in _Wide Awake Second Reader_, Little. * THE FOOLISH TIMID RABBIT, _Jataka Tales Retold_, Babbit. THE GOLDEN COCK, _That's Why Stories_, Bryce. 1 GOLDEN ROD AND ASTER, _Nature Myths_, Cooke. THE GRAIN OF CORN _(Old Woman and Her Pig), Tales of the Punjab_, Steel. 1 GREENCAP, Ruth Hays, in _St. Nicholas_, June, 1915. 1 HANS AND THE FOUR BIG GIANTS, Miss Harrison, _In Storyland_. 1 THE HEN THAT HATCHED DUCKS, Harriet Beecher Stowe, in _Child Life in Prose_, Whittier. * THE HOP-ABOUT-MAN, Agnes Herbertson, in _The Story-Teller's Book_, O'Grady and Throop; in _Little Folks' Magazine_. * THE HOUSE THAT JACK BUILT, _Six Nursery Classics_, D. C. Heath. 1 HOW BROTHER RABBIT FOOLED THE WHALE, _Stories to Tell_, Bryant. * HOW THE CAMEL GOT HIS HUMP, _Just-So Stories_, Kipling. 1 HOW THE CHIPMUNK GOT THE STRIPES ON ITS BACK, _Nature Myths_, Cooke. * HOW DOUBLE DARLING'S OLD SHOES BECAME LADY SLIPPERS, Candace Wheeler, in _St. Nicholas_, March, 1887; vol. 14, pp. 342-47. * HOW FIRE WAS BROUGHT TO THE INDIANS, _The Book of Nature Myths_, Holbrook. * HOW SUN, MOON, AND WEST WIND WENT OUT TO DINNER, _Old Deccan Days_, Frère. 1 THE JACKAL AND THE ALLIGATOR, _Stories to Tell_, Bryant. 1 THE JACKALS AND THE LION, _Stories to Tell_, Bryant. 1 KING SOLOMON AND THE ANTS, _Nature Myths_, Cooke. * THE LAMBIKIN, _Tales of the Punjab_, Steel; _Indian Tales_, Jacobs. * LITTLE JACK ROLLAROUND, _Stories to Tell_, Bryant. * THE LITTLE RABBIT WHO WANTED RED WINGS, _For the Story-Teller_, Bailey. * THE LITTLE RED HEN, _Stories to Tell_, Bryant. * THE LITTLE RED HIN (Irish dialect verse), _Stories to Tell_, Bryant. * THE LITTLE ROOSTER, Robert Southey, in _Boston Collection of Kindergarten Stories_, Hammett & Co. * LITTLE SPIDER'S FIRST WEB, _Primer_, Free and Treadwell. * LITTLE TOP-KNOT (Swedish), _First Reader_, Free and Treadwell. * LITTLE TUPPEN, _Fairy Stories and Fables_, Baldwin; _Primer_, Free and Treadwell. * LUDWIG AND MARLEEN, Jane Hoxie, in _Kindergarten Review_, vol. Xi, no. 5. * MEDIO POLLITO, THE LITTLE HALF-CHICK (Spanish), _The Green Fairy Book_, Lang. * MEZUMI, THE BEAUTIFUL, OR THE RAT PRINCESS (Japanese), _Birch-Tree Fairy Book_, Johnson; _Tales of Laughter_, Wiggin and Smith. 1 M ELEPHANT AND M FROG, _Firelight Stories_, Bailey. 1 THE MOON'S SILVER CLOAK, _Classics in Dramatic Form_, Stevenson, vol. I. 1 THE MOUSE AND THE SAUSAGE, _Stories and Story-Telling_, Angela Keyes. * OEYVIND AND MARIT, from _The Happy Boy_, Björnstjerne Björnson, in _The Story-Teller's Book_, O'Grady and Throop; in _Child-Life in Prose_, Whittier. * PETER RABBIT, _Peter Rabbit_, Beatrix Potter. 1 THE PIGS AND THE GIANT, Pyle, in _Child-Lore Dramatic Reader_, Scribners. * THE QUICK-RUNNING SQUASH, _Short Stories for Short People_, Aspinwall. 1 THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER, _Nature Myths_, Cooke. * THE RICH GOOSE, Leora Robinson, in _The Outlook_. * THE ROBIN'S CHRISTMAS SONG, _Birch-Tree Fairy Book_, Johnson. * (WEE) ROBIN'S YULE SONG. _Tales of Laughter_, Wiggin and Smith. * THE SHEEP AND THE PIG (Scandinavian), _For the Children's Hour_, Bailey. * THE SPARROW AND THE CROW, _Tales of the Punjab_, Steel; _Birch-Tree Fairy Book_, Johnson. * THE STRAW OX, _Cossack Fairy Tales_, Bain. * STORY OF THE MORNING-GLORY SEED, M. Eytinge, _Boston Kindergarten Stories_. 1 THE TALE OF A BLACK CAT, _Oak-Tree Fairy Book_, Johnson. 1 TOMMY AND THE WISHING-STONE, a series, by T. Burgess, in _St. Nicholas_, 1915. 1 TRAVELS OF A FOX, _Oak-Tree Fairy Book_, Johnson. 1 THE TURTLE WHO COULDN'T STOP TALKING, _Jataka Tales Retold_, Babbit. * THE UNHAPPY PINE TREE, _Classic Stories_, McMurry. 1 What Bunch And Joker Saw In The Moon, _Wide Awake Chatterbox_, about 1887. 1 The White Cat, _Fairy Tales_, D'Aulnoy; _Fairy Tales_, Vol. II, Lansing. * Why The Evergreen Trees Never Lose Their Leaves, _The Book Of Nature Myths_, Holbrook. * Why The Juniper Has Berries, _The Book Of Nature Myths_, Holbrook. 

 * Why The Morning Glory Climbs, _How to Tell Stories_, Bryant. 

 1 The Wish Bird, _Classics In Dramatic Form_, Vol. II, Stevenson. 

 II. Bibliography Of Fairy Tales

 Baker, Franklin T. : _Bibliography Of Children's Reading_. Introduction and lists. Teachers College, Columbia University. 

 Baker Taylor Company, The: _Graded Guide to Supplementary Reading_. 1914. 

 Boston Public Library: _Finding List of Fairy Tales_. 

 Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh. _List of Folk Tales_. Bulletin, Dec, 1913, Vol. 18, No. 10. 

 _Ibid_. : _Illustrated Editions of Children's Books_. 1915. 

 Harron, Julia; Bacon, Corinne; and Dana, John: _American Library Economy_. Newark Free Library, Newark, New Jersey. 

 Haight, Rachel Webb: "Fairy Tales. " _Bulletin of Bibliography_, 1912. Boston Book Co. 

 Hewins, Caroline: _A. L. A. List. Books for Boys and Girls_. Third Edition, 1913. A. L. A. Pub. Board, Chicago. 

 Kready, Laura F. : "Picture-Books For Little Children. " _Kindergarten Review_, Sept. , 1914. 

 Moulton, Alice O'Grady, and Literature Com. Of I. K. U. : "Humorous Stories for Children. " _Kindergarten Review_, Dec, 1914. 

 Salisbury, G. E. , and Beckwith, M. E. : _Index to Short Stories_. St. Louis Public Library. _Lists of Stories and Programs for Story Hours_. Give best versions. 

 Widdemer, Margaret: "A Bibliography of Books and Articles Relating to Children's Reading. Part I, Children's Reading in general. Part II, History of Children's Literature, etc. Part III, Guidance of Children's Reading. " _Bulletin of Bibliography_, July, 1911, Oct. , 1911, and Jan. , 1912. Boston Book Co. 

III. A List of Picture-Books[13]

 Beskow, Elsa: _Hanschen im Blaubeerenwald_. Stuttgart. 

 Brooke, Leslie: _The Golden Goose Book_. F. Warne. 

 _Ibid. _: The _House in the Wood_. F. Warne. 

 _Ibid. _: _The Truth About Old King Cole_. F. Warne. 

 Browning, Robert: _The Pied Piper_, Kate Greenaway, F. Warne; Hope Dunlap, Rand; T. Butler Stoney, Dutton. 

 Caldecott, Randolph: _Picture-Books:_ 2. _The House that Jack Built_. F. Warne. 3. _Hey Diddle Diddle Book_. F. Warne. 

 Coussens, P. W. : _A Child's Book of Stories_. Jessie W. Smith. Duffield. 

 Crane, Walter: _Picture-Books:_ _Cinderella_. John Lane. _Mother Hubbard_. John Lane. _Red Riding Hood_. John Lane. _This Little Pig_. John Lane. 

 Grimm, Jacob and William: _Cruikshank Fairy Book_. Cruikshank, Putnam. 

 _Ibid. _: _Das Deutsche Bilderbuch_. Jos. Scholz. 1. _Dörnroschen_. 2. _Aschenputtel_. 7. _Frau Holle_. 10. _Der Wolf und Sieben Geislein_. 

 _Ibid. _: _Liebe Märchen_. 10, 11, 12. Jos. Scholz. 

 _Ibid. _: _Cherry Blossom_. Helen Stratton. Blackie and Sons. 

 Jerrold, Walter: _The Big Book of Fairy Tales_. Robinson. Blackie. 

 Olfers, Sibylle: _Windschen_. J. F. Schreiber. 

 _Ibid. : Wurzelkindern_. J. F. Schreiber. 

 Sharp, Mrs. : _Dame Wiggins of Lee_. Introduction by Ruskin. Kate Greenaway. George Allen. 

 IV. A LIST OF PICTURES

 Cinderella. 227, Meinhold. Dresden. 724, Meinhold. Dresden. 366, Teubner. Leipzig. 

 _Canadian Magazine_, Dec. , 1911, by Val Prinsep, A. Elves. Arthur Rackham. _St. Nicholas_, Nov. , 1914. 

 _Ibid. : Book of Pictures_. Century. 

 Hop-o'-my-Thumb. _A Child's Own Book of Fairy Tales_. Dore. H. Pisan, engraver. Elizabeth S. Forbes. _Canadian Magazine_, Dec. , 1911. 

 Little Brother and Sister. Tempera Painting, Marianna Stokes. _Illustrated London News_, Dec. , 1907. 

 Perrault's Tales. Kay Nielsen. _Illustrated London News_, Dec. , 1913. 

 Red Riding Hood. Poster, Mary Stokes. _Ladies' Home Journal_. 230, Meinhold. Dresden. 77, Teubner. Leipzig and Berlin. G. Ferrier. Engraved for _St. Nicholas_, Braun, Clement, & Co. Supplement to _American Primary Teacher_, May, 1908. Picture, 2 ft. By 1 ft. , New Specialty Shop, Phila. , Pa. 

 Sleeping Beauty. Mouat, London. _Canadian Magazine_, Dec. , 1911. _Illustrated London News_, Dec. , 1907. 

 Snow White. A series. Maxfield Parrish. Picture by Elizabeth Shippen Green. 

 Two Series. Five pictures in each. Jessie Willcox Smith. P. F. Collier & Sons. 

 V. A LIST OF FAIRY POEMS

 Allingham, William: _The Fairy Folk_. The Posy Ring. Bangs, John Kendrick: _The Little Elf_. The Posy Ring. 

 Bird, Robert: _The Fairy Folk_. A Child's Book of Old Verses. 

 Dodsley, R. : _Red Caps of Fairies. Fuimus Troes_, Old Plays. 

 Drayton, Michael: _Nymphal III_, Poets' Elysium. 

 Herford, Oliver: _The Elf and the Dormouse_. The Posy Ring. 

 Hood, Thomas: _A Plain Direction_. Heart of Oak Books, III. 

 _Ibid. _: _Queen Mab_. A Child's Book of Old Verses. 

 Howitt, Mary: _The Fairies of the Caldon-Low_. The Posy Ring. 

 _Ibid. _: _Mabel on Midsummer Day_. The Story-Teller's Book, O'Grady and Throop. 

 Lyly, John: _The Urchin's Dance and Song. Song of the First Fairy_. _Song of the Second Fairy_. Maydes Metamorphosis. 

 McDermot, Jessie: _A Fairy Tale_. Fairy Tales. Rolfe. Amer. Book Co. 

 Noyes, Alfred: _The Magic Casement_. An anthology of fairy poetry, with an introduction. Dutton. 

 Percy, Bishop: _The Fairy Queen_. Reliques of Ancient Poetry; from The Mysteries of Love and Eloquence, London, 1658. 

 Shakespeare, William: _Ariel's Song_; _A Fairy Song_; "_I know a bank_"; _The Song of the Fairies_. Shakespeare's Dramas. 

 Stevenson, Robert L. _Fairy Bread_; _The Little Land_. A Child's Garden of Verses. 

 Unknown Author: _The Fairy_. "_Oh, who is so merry_. " A Child's Book of Old Verses. Duffield. 

 Wilkins, Mary E. : _The Ballad of the Blacksmith's Sons_. Fairy Stories Retold from _St. Nicholas_. Century. 

 VI. MAIN STANDARD FAIRY TALE BOOKS

 Andersen, Hans Christian: _Fairy Tales_. 2 vols. Pedersen & Stone. Houghton. 

 _Ibid. _: _Fairy Tales_. Edited by W. A. And J. K. Craigie. Oxford University Press. 

 _Ibid. _: _Fairy Stories for Youngest Children_. Lucas. Stratton. Blackie. (English edition. )

 _Ibid. _: _Fairy Tales_. Mrs. Lucas. T. C. And W. Robinson. Dutton. 

 _Ibid. _: _Fairy Tales_. Mrs. Lucas. Helen Stratton. Dodge. 

 _Ibid. _: _Fairy Tales_. Maria L. Kirk. Lippincott. 

 Andersen, Hans Christian: _Fairy Tales_. Edmund Dulac. Hodder & Stoughton. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. W. H. Robinson. Holt. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. Braekstad. Tegner. Introd. By Gosse. Century. 

 Asbjörnsen, P. C. : _Fairy Tales from the Far North_. Burt. 

 _Ibid. : Round the Yule Log_. Introd. By Gosse. Braekstad. Lippincott. 

 Dasent, Sir George W. : _Popular Tales from the North_. Routledge. Dutton. 

 _Ibid. : Popular Tales from the North_. Putnam. 

 _Ibid. : Tales from the Field_. Putnam. 

 Grimm, Jacob and William: _Household Tales_. Margaret Hunt. Bonn's Libraries, Bell & Co. 

 _Ibid. : Household Tales_. Lucy Crane. Walter Crane. Macmillan. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. Helen Stratton. Dodge. 

 _Ibid. : German Popular Stories_. Tr. Edgar Taylor. Introd. By Ruskin. 22 illustrations by Cruikshank. Chatto & Windus. 

 _Ibid_. : _Fairy Tales_. Johann & Leinweber. McLoughlin. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. Arthur Rackham. Doubleday. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. Hope Dunlap. Rand. 

 Harris, Joel Chandler: _Uncle Remus, His Songs and Sayings_. Appleton. 

 _Ibid. : Nights With Uncle Remus_. Church. Houghton. 

 _Ibid_. : _Uncle Remus and His Friends_. Frost. Houghton. 

 _Ibid. : Uncle Remus and the Little Boy_. J. M. Comte. Small. 

 Jacobs, Joseph: _English Fairy Tales_. 2 vols. Batten. Putnam. 

 _Ibid. : Celtic Fairy Tales_. 2 vols. Batten. Putnam. 

 _Ibid. : Indian Fairy Tales_. Batten. Putnam. 

 _Ibid. : The Most Delectable History of Reynard the Fox_. 

 Frank Calderon. Macmillan. 

 _Ibid. : Europa's Fairy Tales_. Batten. Putnam. 

 O'Shea, M. V. : _Old World Wonder Stories_. Heath. 

 Perrault, Charles: _Tales of Mother Goose_. Welsh. Heath. 

 _Ibid_. : _Fairy Tales_. Appleton. Estes. 

 Perrault, Charles: _Tales of Passed Times_. Temple Classics. C. Robinson. Dutton. 

 _Ibid. : Popular Tales_. Edited by Andrew Lang. French; and English translation of original edition. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 

VII. FAIRY TALES OF ALL NATIONS

 Celtic. Jacobs. 1911. Putnam. 

 Chinese. Pitnam. 1910. Crowell. 

 Cossack. Bain. 1899. Burt. 

 Danish. Bay. 1899. Harper. 

 Donegal. McManus. 1900. Doubleday. 

 English. Jacobs. 1904. Putnam. 

 _Ibid_. : Folk and Fairy Stories. Hartland, born 1848. Camelot series. 

 French. DeSegur. 1799-1874. Winston. 

 German. Grimm. 1812, 1822. Bonn's Libraries. 

 Hungarian. Pogany. 1914. Stokes. 

 Indian. _Old Deccan Days_. Frère. 1868. McDonough. 

 _Ibid. : Tales of the Sun_. Mrs. Kingscote. 1890. W. H. Allen. 

 _Ibid. : Buddhist Birth Stories_. Rhys Davids. 1880. Trubner. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. Stokes. 1880. Ellis & White. 

 _Ibid. : Folk Tales of Bengal_. Day. 1883. Macmillan. 

 _Ibid. : Wide Awake Stories_. Steel and Temple. 1884. Trubner. 

 _Ibid. : Folk-Tales of Kashmir_. Knowles. 1887. Trubner. 

 _Ibid. : Tales of the Punjab_. Steel. 1894. Macmillan. 

 Irish. Yeats. 1902. Burt. 

 Italian. Macdonell. 1911. Stokes. 

 _Ibid_. : Crane. 1885. Macmillan. 

 Japanese. Ozaki. 1909. Dutton. 

 Manx. Morrison. 1899. Nutt. 

 New World. Kennedy. 1904. Dutton. 

 Norse. Dasent. 1820-1896. Lippincott. 

 _Ibid_. : Mabie. 1846-. Dodd. 

 Papuan. Kerr. 1910. Macmillan. 

 Persian. Stephen. 1892. Dutton. 

 _Ibid_. : Clouston. 1907. Stokes. 

 Russian. Dole. 1907. Crowell. 

 _Ibid_. : Bain. Bilibin. 1914. Century. 

 Scottish. Grierson. 1910. Stokes. 

 South African. Honey. 1910. Baker & Taylor. 

 Welsh. Thomas. 1908. Stokes. 

VIII. MISCELLANEOUS EDITIONS OF FAIRY TALES

 D'Aulnoy, Madame: _Fairy Tales_. Trans, by Planché. Gordon Browne. McKay. 

 _Ibid. : Fairy Tales_. Introd. By Anne T. Ritchie. Scribners. 

 Austin, M. H. : _Basket Woman_. Houghton. 

 Babbit, Ellen: _Jataka Tales Retold_. Century. 

 Bailey, Carolyn: _Firelight Stories_. Bradley. 

 Bailey and Lewis: _For the Children's Hour_. Bradley. 

 Baldwin, James: _Fairy Stories and Fables_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Barrie, J. M. : _Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens_. Rackham. Scribners. 

 Baumbach, Rudolf: _Tales from Wonderland_. Simmons. 

 Bertelli, Luigi: _The Prince and His Ants_. Holt. 

 Bryant, Sara C. : _Best Stories to Tell to Children_. Houghton. 

 Burgess, Thornton: _Old Mother West Wind_. Little. 

 _Ibid. : The Adventures of Reddy Fox_. Little. 

 _Ibid. : The Adventures of Johnny Chuck_. Little. 

 _Ibid. : Tommy and the Wishing-stone_. Animal Tales. _St. Nicholas_, 1915. 

 Chapin, Anna: _The Now-a-Days Fairy Book_. Jessie W. Smith. Dodd. 

 Chisholm, Louey: _In Fairyland_. Katherine Cameron. Putnam. 

 _Ibid. : Little Red Riding Hood; Cinderella_; (I Read Them Myself series). Dodge. 

 Collection: _Half a Hundred Stories for Little People_. Bradley. 

 Cooke, Flora J. : _Nature Myths and Stories_. Flanagan. 

 Cowell, E. B. : _The Jatakas or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births_. Tr. From the Pali. 6 vols. Cambridge University Press. Putnam. 1895-1907. 

 Crothers, Samuel McChord: _Miss Muffet's Christmas Party_. Houghton. 

 Emerson, Ellen: _Indian Myths_. Houghton. 

 Everyman Series: _157; 365; and 541_. Dutton. 

 France, Anatole: _The Honey Bee_. John Lane. 

 Grover, Eulalie O. , editor: _Mother Goose_. F. Richardson. Volland. 

 Harris, Joel C. : _Little Mr. Thimblefinger_. Houghton. 

 Harrison, Miss: In Storyland. Central Pub. Co. , Chicago. Holbrook, Florence: _The Book of Nature Myths_. Houghton. 

 James, Grace: _The Green Willow_: Japanese. Goble. Macmillan. 

 Jerrold, Walter: _The Reign of King Oberon_. Robinson. Dent. Little. 

 Johnson, Clifton: _Fairy Books: Oak-Tree; Birch-Tree; and Elm-Tree_. Little. 

 _Ibid. _: _Book of Fairy Tale Bears_. Houghton. 

 _Ibid. _: _Book of Fairy Tale Foxes_. Houghton. 

 Kingsley, Charles: _Water-Babies_. Warwick Goble. Macmillan. 

 _Ibid_. : _Water-Babies_. Introd, by Rose Kingsley. Margaret Tarrant. Dutton. 

 Kipling, Rudyard: _Jungle Books_. 2 vols. Original edition. Century. 

 _Ibid. _: _Jungle Books_. M. And E. Detmold. Century. 

 _Ibid. _: _Jungle Books_. A. Rackham. Doubleday. 

 _Ibid. _: _Just-So Stories_. Doubleday. 

 _Ibid. _: _Puck of Pook's Hill_. Doubleday. 

 _Ibid. _: _Rewards and Fairies_. Doubleday. 

 Laboulaye, Edouard: _Fairy Book_. Harper. 

 _Ibid. _: _Last Fairy Tales_. Harper. 

 Lang, Andrew: _Fairy Books: Red; Orange; Yellow; Green_; _Blue; Violet; Gray; Crimson; Brown; Pink_. Longmans. 

 Lansing, Marion: _Rhymes and Stories_. Ginn. 

 _Ibid. _: _Fairy Tales_. 2 vols. Ginn. 

 Leamy, Edward: Golden Spears. FitzGerald. 

 Lefèvré, Felicité: _The Cock, the Mouse, and the Little Red Hen_. Tony Sarg. Jacobs, Phila. 

 Lindsay, Maud: _Mother Stories; More Mother Stories_. Bradley. 

 Maeterlinck, Madam: _The Children's Bluebird_. Dodd. 

 Molesworth, Mary Louise: _The Cuckoo Clock_. Maria Kirk. Lippincott. 

 Mulock, Miss: _The Fairy Book_. Boyd Smith. Crowell. 

 _Ibid. _: _Fairy Book_. 32 illus. By W. Goble. Macmillan. 

 _Ibid. _: _Little Lame Prince_. Hope Dunlap. Rand. 

 Musset, Paul de: _Mr. Wind and Madam Rain_. Bennett. Putnam. 

 Nyblom, Helena: _Jolly Cable and other Swedish Fairy Tales_. Folknin. Dutton. 

 Olcott, Frances J. : _Arabian Nights_. Tr. By Lane. Cairo text. Selections. Holt. 

 Perrault, Charles: _The Story of Bluebeard_. Stone & Kimball, Chicago. 

 Poulsson, E. : _In the Child's World_. Bradley. 

 Pyle, Howard: _The Garden Behind the Moon_. Scribners. 

 _Ibid. _: _Wonder-Clock_. Harper. 

 Pyle, Katherine: _Fairy Tales from Many Lands_. Dutton. 

 Rackham, Arthur: _Mother Goose_. Century. 

 Ramé, Louise de la (Ouida): _Nürnberg Stove: Bimbi Stories for Children_. Page. 

 Rhys, Ernest: _Fairy Gold_. Herbert Cole. Dutton. 

 Rolfe, William: _Fairy Tales in Prose and Verse_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Shakespeare, William: _Midsummer Night's Dream_. With forty illustrations in color by Arthur Rackham. Doubleday. 

 Shedlock, Marie: _A Collection of Eastern Stories and Legends_. Foreword by T. Rhys Davids. Dutton. 

 Smith, Jessie Willcox: _Mother Goose_. Dodd. 

 Stephen, A. : _Fairy Tales of a Parrot_. Ellis. Nister. Dutton. 

 Stockton, F. : _The Queen's Museum_. F. Richardson. Scribners. 

 Tappan, Eva March: _The Children's Hour: Folk Stories and Fables_. Houghton. 

 Thorne-Thomson: _East o' the Sun and West o' the Moon_. Row. 

 Underhill, Zoe D. : _The Dwarf's Tailor_. Harper. 

 Valentine, Mrs. Laura: _Old, Old Fairy Tales_. F. Warne. 

 Welsh, Charles: _Fairy Tales Children Love_. Dodge. 

 Wheeler, W. A. : _Mother Goose Melodies_. Houghton. 

 Wiggin, Kate; and Smith, Nora: _The Fairy Ring: Tales of Laughter: Magic Casements_: and _Tales of Wonder_. Doubleday. 

IX. SCHOOL EDITIONS OF FAIRY TALES

 Alderman, E. A. : _Classics Old and New_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Alexander, G. : _Child Classics_. Bobbs. 

 Baker, F. T. , and Carpenter, G. : _Language Readers_. Macmillan. 

 Baldwin, James: _The Fairy Reader_, I and II. Amer. Book Co. 

 Blaisdell, Etta (MacDonald): _Child Life in Tale and Fable_. Macmillan. 

 Blumenthal, Verra: _Fairy Tales from the Russian_. Rand. 

 Brooks, Dorothy: _Stories of Red Children_. Educational. 

 Bryce, Catherine: _Child-Lore Dramatic Reader_. Scribners. 

 Burchill, Ettinger: _Progressive Road to Reading_, Readers. Silver. 

 Chadwick, Mara P. : _Three Bears Story Primer_. Educational. 

 Chadwick, M. P. And Freeman, E. G. : _Chain Stories and Playlets: The Cat That Was Lonesome: The Mouse That Lost Her Tail_; and _The Woman and Her Pig_. World Book Co. 

 Coe and Christie: _Story Hour Readers_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Craik, Georgiana: _So Fat and Mew Mew_. Heath. 

 Davis, M. H. And Leung, Chow: _Chinese Fables and Folk Stories_. Amer. Book. Co. 

 Dole, C. F. : _Crib and Fly_. Heath. 

 Free and Treadwell: _Reading Literature Series_. Row, Peterson. 

 Grover, Eulalie O. : _Folk Lore Primer_. Atkinson. 

 Hale, E. E. : _Arabian Nights_. Selections. Ginn. 

 Heath, D. C. : _Dramatic Reader_. Heath. 

 Henderson, Alice: _Andersen's Best Fairy Tales_. Rand. 

 Hix, Melvin: _Once Upon a Time Stories_. Longmans. 

 Holbrook, Florence: _Dramatic Reader for the Lower Grades_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Howard, F. W. : _The Banbury Cross Stories: The Fairy Gift and Tom Hickathrift_. Merrill. 

 Johnston, E. ; and Barnum, M. : _Book of Plays for Little Actors_. Amer. Book. Co. 

 Kennerley: _The Kipling Reader_. 2 vols. Appleton. 

 Ketchum and Rice: _Our First Story Reader_. Scribners. 

 Lang, Andrew: _Fairy Readers_. Longmans. 

 Lansing, M. : _Tales of Old England_. Ginn. 

 Mabie, H. : _Fairy Tales Every Child Should Know_. Doubleday. 

 McMahon, H. , M. , and A. : _Rhyme and Story Primer_. Heath. 

 McMurry, Mrs. Lida B. : _Classic Stories_. Public School Pub. Co. 

 Norton, Charles E. : _Heart of Oak Books_. Heath. 

 Norvell, F. T. , and Haliburton, M. W. : _Graded Classics_. Johnson. 

 Perkins, F. O. : _The Bluebird Arranged for Schools_. Silver. 

 Pratt, Mara L. : _Legends of Red Children_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Roulet, Mary Nixon: _Japanese Folk-Stories and Fairy Tales_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Scudder, H. : _Andersen's Fairy Tales: Grimm's Fairy Tales; Fables and Folk Stories; The Children's Book_. Houghton. 

 Smythe, Louise: _Reynard the Fox_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Spaulding and Bryce: _Aldine Readers_. Newson. 

 Stevenson, Augusta: _Children's Classics in Dramatic Form_. 5 vols. Houghton. 

 Stickney, J. H. : _Andersen's Fairy Tales_. 2 series. Ginn. 

 Summers, Maud: _The Summers Readers_. Beattys. 

 Turpin, E. H. : _Andersen's Fairy Tales_. Merrill. 

 Underwood, Kate: _Fairy Tale Plays_ (For Infants and Juniors). Macmillan. 

 University Pub. Co. : _Fairy Tales_. Standard Literature Series; Hans Andersen's Best Stories; Grimm's Best Stories. Newson and Co. 

 Van Sickle, J. H. , etc. : _The Riverside Readers_. Houghton. 

 Varney, Alice: _Story Plays Old and New_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Villee: _Little Folk Dialog Reader_. Sower. 

 Wade, Mary H. : _Indian Fairy Tales_. Wilde. 

 Washburne, Mrs. M. : _Old-Fashioned Fairy Tales_ (Retold from poetic versions of Thomas Hood). Rand. 

 White, Emma G. : _Pantomime Primer_. Amer. Book Co. 

 Williston, P. : _Japanese Fairy Tales_. 2 series. Rand. 

 Wiltse, Sara E. : _Folk Lore Stories and Proverbs_. Ginn. 

 Wohlfarth, J. , and McMurry, Frank: _Little Folk-Tales_. 2 vols. 

 Zitkala-sa: _Old Indian Legends_. Ginn. 

APPENDIX

ILLUSTRATIONS OF CREATIVE RETURN[14]

Tales suited for dramatization

_Little Two-Eyes_

_Little Two-Eyes_, which is suited to the first-grade child, is one ofthe most attractive of folk-tales and contains blended within itselfthe varied beauties of the tales. It is in _cante-fable_ form, whichgives it the poetic touch so appealing to children. It contains themagic rhymes, --

 Little kid, bleat, I wish to eat!

 Little kid, bleat, Clear it off, neat!

the fairy wise woman, and the friendly goat. It contains the fairyhousekeeping in the forest which combines tea-party, picnic, and magicfood--all of which could not fail to delight children. The lullaby toput Two-Eyes to sleep suits little children who know all there is toknow about "going to sleep. " The magic tree, the silver leaves, thegolden fruit, the knight and his fine steed, and the climax of thetale when the golden apple rolls from under the cask--all possessunusual interest. There is exceptional beauty in the setting of thistale; and its message of the worth of goodness places it in line with_Cinderella_. It should be dramatized as two complete episodes, eachof three acts:--

_The Goat Episode_

 _Place_ The home and the forest. 

 _Time_ Summer. 

 _Act I, Scene i_. A home scene showing how the Mother and Sisters despised Two-Eyes. 

 _Scene ii_. Two-Eyes and the Fairy. 

 _Scene iii_. Two-Eyes and the Goat. Evening of the first day. 

 _Act II, Scene i_. One-Eye went with Two-Eyes. Third morning. Song . .. Feast . .. Return home. 

 _Act III, Scene i_. Three-Eyes went with Two-Eyes. Fourth morning. Song . .. Feast . .. Return home. 

_The Story of Two-Eyes_

 _Place_ The forest; and the magic tree before the house. 

 _Time_ Summer. 

 _Act I, Scene i_. Two-Eyes and the Fairy. 

 _Act II, Scene i_. The magic tree. Mother and Sisters attempt to pluck the fruit. 

 _Act III, Scene i_. The Knight. Second attempt to pluck fruit. Conclusion. The happy marriage. 

_Snow White_

_The Story of Snow White_ is one of the romantic fairy tales which hasbeen re-written and staged as a play for children, and now may beprocured in book form. It was produced by Winthrop Ames at the LittleTheatre in New York City. The dramatization by Jessie Braham Whitefollowed closely the original tale. The entire music was composed byEdmond Rickett, who wrote melodies for a number of London Christmaspantomimes. The scenery, by Maxfield Parrish, was composed of sixstage pictures, simple, harmonious, and beautiful, with tense blueskies, a dim suggestion of the forest, and the quaint architecture ofthe House of the Seven Dwarfs. Pictures in old nursery books were themodels for the scenes. Because of the simplicity of the plot and thefew characters, _Snow White_ could be played very simply in fourscenes, by the children of the second and third grades for thekindergarten and first grade. 

_Snow White_

 _Scene i_. A Festival on the occasion of Snow White's sixteenth birthday. 

 _Scene ii_. In the Forest. 

 _Scene iii_. A Room in the House of the Seven Dwarfs. 

 _Scene iv_. The Reception to Snow White as Queen, on the grounds near the young King's Palace. 

The beautiful character of Snow White; the glimpse of Dwarf life--thekindly little men with their unique tasks and their novel way ofliving; the beauty and cheer of Snow White which her housekeepingbrought into their home; their devotion to her; the adventure in thewood; the faithful Huntsman; the magic mirror; the wicked Queen; andthe Prince seeking the Princess--all contribute to the charm of thetale. The songs written for the play may be learned by the children, who will love to work them into their simple play: _Snow White, asfair as a lily, as sweet as a rose_; the song of the forest fairies, _Welcome, Snow White_; and their second song which they sing as theytroop about Snow White lying asleep on the Dwarf's bed, _Here you'llfind a happy home, softly sleep!_ or the song of Snow White to theDwarfs, _I can brew, I can bake_. 

_The Little Lamb and the Little Fish_

Once upon a time there lived a sister and a brother who loved eachother very much. They were named Gretchen and Peterkin. One day theirfather who was King of the country, left them and brought home withhim a new Queen who was not kind to the children. She banished themfrom the castle and told the King bad tales about them. So they madefriends with the Cook and ate in the kitchen. Peterkin would bringwater and Gretchen could carry plates and cups and saucers. 

One beautiful spring day when all the children were out-of-doorsplaying games, Gretchen and Peterkin went to play with them, by thepond, on the meadow, beyond the castle wall. Around this pond thechildren would run, joining hands and singing:--

 "Eneke, Beneke, let me live, And I to you my bird will give; The bird shall fetch of straw a bunch, And that the cow shall have to munch; The cow shall give me milk so sweet, And that I'll to the baker take, Who with it shall a small cake bake; The cake the cat shall have to eat, And for it catch a mouse for me, * * * * * "And this is the end of the tale. "

Round and round the pond the children ran singing; and as the word"tale" fell on Peterkin he had to run away over the meadow and all therest ran after to catch him. 

But just then the wicked Queen from her window in the castle spied thehappy children. She did not look pleased and she muttered words whichyou may be sure were not very pleasant words. 

The children had been racing across the meadow after Peterkin. Now onecalled, "Where is Peterkin? I saw him near that tree, but now I cannotsee him. Gretchen, can you see Peterkin?--Why, where's Gretchen?"

Peterkin and Gretchen were nowhere to be seen. Suddenly a little boysaid, "Where did that lamb come from over there? It must have beenbehind the linden tree!"

The children drew near the lamb, when what was their surprise to hearit call out to them, "Run children, run quick or the Queen will harmyou! I am Gretchen! Run, and never come near the pond again!" And atthe little Lamb's words the children fled. 

But the little Lamb ran all about the meadow, calling, "Peterkin, Peterkin!" and would not touch a blade of grass. Sadly she walked tothe edge of the pond and slowly walked round and round it calling, "Peterkin, where are you?"

Suddenly the water bubbled and a weak voice cried, "Here, Gretchen, inthe pond, --

 "Here Gretchen, here swim I in the pond, Nor may I ever come near castle ground. "

And the Lamb replied:--

 "Ah, my brother! In the wood, A lamb, now I must search for food. "

Then Peterkin comforted Gretchen and promised early every morning tocome up to the water to talk with her; and Gretchen promised to comeearly from the wood, before the sun was up, to be with Peterkin. AndPeterkin said, "I will never forsake you, Gretchen, if you will neverforsake me!" And Gretchen said, "I will never forsake you, Peterkin, if you will never forsake me!"

Then the little Lamb fled sadly to the wood to look for food and thelittle Fish swam round the pond. But the children did not forget theirplaymates. Every day they saved their goodies and secretly laid themat the edge of the wood where the Lamb could get them. And the Lambalways saved some to throw the crumbs to the little Fish in themorning. 

Many days passed by. One day visitors were coming to the castle. "Nowis my chance, " thought the wicked Queen. So she said to the Cook, "Go, fetch me the lamb out of the meadow, for there is nothing else for thestrangers!"

Now the Lamb had lingered by the pond longer than usual that morningso that the Cook easily caught her; and taking her with him tied herto the tree just outside the kitchen. But when the Cook was gone tothe kitchen, the little Fish swam up from the pond into the littlebrook that ran by the tree and said--

 "Ah, my sister, sad am I, That so great harm to you is nigh! And far from you I love must be, A-swimming in the deep, deep sea!"

And the Lamb replied:--

 "Ah, my brother in the pond, Sad must I leave you, though I'm fond; The cook has come to take my life, Swim off to sea, --Beware!"

Just then the Cook came back and hearing the Lamb speak becamefrightened. Thinking it could not be a real lamb, he said, "Be still, I will not harm you. Run, hide in the wood, and when it is evening, come to the edge of the wood and I will help you!"

Then the Cook caught another lamb and dressed it for the guests. Andbefore evening he went to a wise woman who happened to be the oldNurse who had taken care of Peterkin and Gretchen. She loved thechildren and she soon saw what the wicked Queen had done. She told theCook what the Lamb and Fish must do to regain their natural forms. 

As soon as it was dark the little Lamb came to the edge of the woodand the Cook said, "Little Lamb, I will tell you what you must do tobe a maid again!" So the Cook whispered what the wise Woman had said. The little Lamb thanked the Cook and promised to do as he said. 

Next morning very early before the break of day, the little Lambhurried from the wood across the meadow. Not taking time to go nearthe pond she hastily pushed against the castle gate which the kindCook had left unfastened for her. She ran up the path, and there underthe Queen's window stood the beautiful rose-tree with only two redroses on it--just as the Cook had said. Not even glancing at theQueen's window, the little Lamb began nibbling the lowest one. Andbehold, there in the path stood Gretchen again! Then hastening toseize the other rose before the sun's first ray might touch it, sheran lightly down the path, away from castle ground, across the meadowto the pond. Calling little Fish to the water's edge--for he hadlingered in the pond--she sprinkled over him the drops of dew in theheart of the rose. And there stood little Peterkin beside Gretchen!

Then hand in hand, Gretchen and Peterkin hurried from the pond andfled into the wood just as the sun began to show beyond the trees. There they built themselves a cottage and lived in it happily everafterwards. The kind Cook and the wise Nurse found them and visitedthem. But Gretchen and Peterkin never went near castle ground untilthe Cook told them the Queen was no more. --_Laura F. Kready_. 

_How the Birds came to Have Different Nests Time. .. _. 

_Once upon a time when pigs spoke rhyme, And monkeys chewed tobacco. And hens took snuff to make them tough, And ducks went quack, quack, quack, O!_

_Place_. . .. Madge Magpie's Nest up in a Tree-top. 

_Characters_: Madge Magpie, the Teacher; Thrush, Blackbird, Owl, Sparrow, Starling, and Turtle-Dove. 

_All the Birds_. "We have come to you, Madge Magpie, to ask you toteach us how to build nests. All the Birds tell how clever you are atbuilding nests. "

_Magpie_. "Make a circle round about the foot of this old pear-tree. Iwill sit upon this limb near my nest and show you how to do it. FirstI take some mud and make a fine round cake with it. "

_Thrush_. "Oh, that's how it's done, is it? I'll hurry home! Goodbye, Birds, I can't stay another minute!

 "Mud in a cake, mud in a cake, To-whit, to-whee, a nest I'll make!"

_Magpie_. "Next I take some twigs and arrange them about the mud. "

_Blackbird_. "Now I know all about it. Here I go, I'm off to make mynest in the cherry-tree in Mr. Smith's cornfield!

 "Sticks upon mud, mud upon sticks, Caw, caw! I'll make a nest for six!"

_Magpie_. "See, here I put another layer of mud over the twigs. "

_Wise Owl_. "Oh! That's quite obvious. Strange I never thought of thatbefore. Farewell, come to see me at the old elm-tree beside the graychurch!

 "Mud over twigs! To-whit, to-whoo! No better nest than that ever grew!"

_Magpie_. "See these long twigs. I just twine them round the outside. "

_Sparrow_. "The very thing. I'll do it this very day. I can pick someup on my way home. I'll choose the spout that looks down over theschool-yard; then I can see the children at play. They must like mefor they never chase me away or hit me. 

 "A nest with twigs twined round and round, Chip, chip! No fear that would fall to the ground!"

_Magpie_. "And see these little feathers and soft stuff. What acomfortable, cosy lining for the nest they make!"

_Starling_. "That suits me! Off I go, I like a cosy warm nest. Itshall be in that old plum-tree in the orchard, on the side of the hill. 

 "Feathers and down to make cosy and warm, That's the nest to keep us from harm!"

_Magpie_. "Well, Birds, have you seen how I made my nest? Do you thinkyou know how?--Why, where are all the Birds? They couldn't wait untilI'd finished. Only you, Turtle-Dove, left!"

_Turtle-Dove_. "Take two, Taffy, take two--o--o--o!"

_Magpie_. "Here I put a twig across. But not two--one'senough!"

_Turtle-Dove_. "Take two, Taffy, take two--o--o--o!"

_Magpie_. "One's enough I tell you, do you not see how Ilay it across?"

_Turtle-Dove_. "Take two, Taffy, take two--o--o--o!"

_Magpie_. "Here I fly away from my nest for awhile! I will teach nomore Birds to build nests. I cannot teach a silly Turtle-Dove who willnot learn. I heard him sing just now as I turned around, "

_Turtle-Dove_. "Take two, Taffy, take two--o--o--o, Take two, Taffy, take two--o--o--o!"

_Laura F. Kready_. 

TYPES OF TALES

An Animal Tale[15]

_The Good-Natured Bear_

"I shall never forget the patience, the gentleness, the skill, and thefirmness with which she first taught me to walk alone. I mean to walkon all fours, of course; the upright manner of my present walking wasonly learned afterwards. As this infant effort, however, is one of myearliest recollections, I have mentioned it before all the rest, andif you please, I will give you a little account of it. "

"Oh! do, Mr. Bear, " cried Gretchen; and no sooner had she uttered thewords than all the children cried out at the same time, "Oh, pleasedo, sir!"

The Bear took several long whiffs at his pipe, and thus continued, --

"My Mother took me to a retired part of the forest (of Towskipowski, Poland) where few animals ever came; and telling me that I must nowstand alone, extended both paws, and slowly lowered me towards theearth. The height as I looked down, seemed terrible, and I felt mylegs kick in the air, with fear of I did not know what, till suddenlyI felt four hard things and no motion. It was the fixed earth beneathmy four infant legs. 'Now, ' said my Mother, 'you are what is calledstanding alone!' But what she said I heard as in a dream. With my backin the air as though it rested on a wooden trussel, with my nosepoking out straight snuffing the fresh breeze and the many secrets ofthe woods, my ears pricking and shooting with all sorts of new soundsto wonder at, to want to have, to love, or to tumble down at, --and myeyes staring before me full of light and confused gold and dancingthings, I seemed to be in a condition over which I had no power toeffect the least change, and in which I must remain fixed till somewonderful thing happened. But the firm voice of my Mother came to myassistance and I heard her tell me to look upon the earth beneath meand see where I was. First I looked up among the boughs, thenside-ways at my shoulder, then I squinted at the tip of my nose--allby mistake and innocence--at last I bent my nose in despair and saw myforepaws standing, and this of course was right. The first thing thatcaught my attention, being the first thing I saw distinctly, was alittle blue flower with a bright jewel in the middle, which Iafterwards found was a drop of dew. Sometimes I thought this littleblue darling was so close that it almost touched my eyes and certainlythe color of it was up in my head; sometimes I thought it was deepdown, a long way off. When I bent my face towards it to give it a kissit seemed just where it was though I had not done what I had thoughtto do. 

"The next thing I saw upon the ground was a soft-looking littlecreature that crawled along with a round ball upon the middle of itsback, of a beautiful white color, with brown and red curling stripes. The creature moved very, very slowly, and appeared always to followthe opinion and advice of two long horns on its head, that wentfeeling about on all sides. Presently it slowly approached my rightforepaw and I wondered how I should feel or smell or hear it as itwent over my toes; but the instant one of the horns touched the hairof my paw, both horns shrunk into nothing and presently came outagain, and the creature slowly moved away in another direction. WhileI was wondering at this strange proceeding--for I never thought ofhurting the creature, not knowing how to hurt anything, and whatshould have made the horns think otherwise?--while then I waswondering at this, my attention was suddenly drawn to a tuft of mosson my right near a hollow tree trunk. Out of this green tuft looked apair of very bright round small eyes, which were staring up at me. 

"If I had known how to walk I should have stepped back a few stepswhen I saw those bright little eyes, but I never ventured to lift apaw from the earth since my Mother had first set me down, nor did Iknow how to do so, or what were the proper thoughts or motions tobegin with. So I stood looking at the eyes and presently I saw thatthe head was yellow and that it had a large mouth. 'What you have justseen, ' said my Mother, 'we call a snail; and what you now see is afrog. ' The names however did not help me at all to understand. Why thefirst should have turned from my paw so suddenly and why this creatureshould continue to stare up at me in such a manner I could notconceive. I expected however that it would soon come slowly crawlingforth and then I should see whether it would also avoid me in the samemanner. I now observed that its body and breast were double some-how, and that its paws were very large for its size, but had no hair uponthem, which I thought was probably occasioned by its slow crawlinghaving rubbed it all off. I had scarcely made these observations andreflections, when a beam of bright light breaking through the trees, the creature suddenly gave a great hop right up under my nose; and I, thinking the world was at an end, instantly fell flat down on one sideand lay there waiting!"--

With this glimpse of an old-time modern animal tale we shall have tosay with "Mr. Titmarsh, " "Those who wish to know more about him mustbuy the book for themselves, "--and add: Or they must get someenterprising publisher to reprint it. 

A Few Romantic Tales[16]

_Puss-in-Boots and Lord Peter_

_Puss-in-Boots_, a romantic tale suited to the first grade, delightswith its strong sense of adventure and of the heroic. Puss is aMaster-Cat, a hero clever and quick, and with fine imagination to seewhat would happen and prepare for it. He is successful, combininginitiative and motivation delightfully. His devotion to his masterseems like disinterested loyalty, love, and sacrifice. While it istrue the plot is based on a lie, the moral effect is not bad becausewe recognize Puss as a match-making character similar to thematchmaking Jackal of India; and in love "all is fair. " MoreoverPuss-in-Boots was only true to his cat-nature in playing a trick, andwe admire the cleverness of his trick in behalf of a master reallydeserving. The underlying philosophy of the tale, "That there is apower in making the best with what you possess, " appeals to all, andhas the ability to lend dignity and force to the light intrigue of thetale. 

The setting in _Puss-in-Boots_ gives a touch of nature beauty. Firstwe have the Miller's poor home, and from there we are led insuccession to the brambles through which Puss scampered; the rabbits'warren where he lay in waiting to bag the heedless rabbits; the palaceto which he took the rabbits caught by the Marquis of Carabas; thecornfield where he bagged the partridges; the river-side where theMarquis bathed; the meadow where the countrymen were mowing; thecornfields where the good people were reaping; until at last we areescorted to the stately castle where the Ogre dwelt. 

The plot of the tale is very pleasing as it easily arranges itselfinto a simple drama of three acts:--

 Act I, Scene i. Revery of the Master. The Cat's promise to help. Scene ii. Puss in the rabbits' warren with his bag. Scene iii. Puss takes the rabbits to the King in his palace. 

 Act II, Scene i. Puss with his bag in the cornfield. Scene ii. Puss takes partridges to the King. Scene iii. Puss and his Master. Puss gives advice. 

 Act III, Scene i. The Marquis bathing and Puss by the river-side. Scene ii. The Drive. Puss runs before and meets the mowers. Scene iii. The Ogre's Castle. Puss's reception of the coach. Marriage of the Marquis of Carabas. Puss becomes a Lord. 

The tale possesses an appeal to the emotions, we want Puss-in-Boots toaccomplish whatever scheme he invents, and we want the Miller's son towin the Princess. Its appeal to the imagination is an orderlysuccession of images, varied and pleasing. The invention of Puss andhis successful adventures make the tale one of unusual interest, vivacity, and force. The transformation of the Ogre into a Lion andagain into a Mouse, and the consequent climax of Puss's management ofthe Mouse, bring in the touch of the miraculous. A similartransformation occurs in Hesiod, where the transformed Metis isswallowed by Zeus. This transformation may be produced by a witch, when the help of another is needed, as in _Beauty and the Beast_ andin _Hansel and Grethel_; or the transformation may come from within, as in this case when the Ogre changes himself into a Mouse, or when aman changes himself into a Wolf. A situation which parallels the themeof Puss-in-Boots occurs in _The Golden Goose_ where Dummling gets ashis share only a goose, but having the best disposition makes hisfortune out of his goose. Grimm's _Three Feathers_ also contains asimilar motif. D'Aulnoy's _White Cat_, the feminine counterpart of_Puss-in-Boots_, is a tale of pleasing fancy in which the hero winsthe White Cat, a transformed Princess, who managed to secure for him, the youngest son, the performance of all the tasks his father had setfor him. 

But the most interesting parallel of _Puss-in-Boots_ is the Norse_Lord Peter_ told by Dasent in _Norse Tales_. Here the helpful Catdoes not use a bag, but in true Norse fashion catches game in the woodby sitting on the head of the reindeer and threatening, "If you don'tgo straight to the King's palace, I'll claw your eyes out!" The Norsetale omits the bathing episode. The King wants to visit Lord Peter butthe Cat manages that Lord Peter shall visit the King. The Cat promisesto supply coach, horses and clothes, not by craft--their source is notgiven--but they are furnished on the condition that Peter must obey tosay always, when he sees fine things in the Castle, that he has farfiner things of his own. In the Norse tale Peter and the Cat worktogether, Peter is in the secret; while in the Perrault tale Puss doesall the managing, Carabas is simply being entertained by the King. Inthe Norse tale, on the way home the coach meets a flock of sheep, aherd of fine kine, and a drove of horses. The Cat does not threatenthat the caretakers shall be "chopped as fine as herbs for the pot, "if they do not say all belongs to Lord Peter, but he cunningly bribesthe shepherd with a silver spoon, the neat-herd with a silver ladle, and the drover with a silver stoop. In place of the Ogre's Castle, there is a Troll's Castle with three gates--one of tin, one of silver, and one of gold. The Norse Cat wins the victory by craftily playingupon the troll-nature. He gains the Troll's attention by meeting himat the gate and telling him about the secrets of agriculture, one ofthe secrets of men the trolls wanted to learn. Then at the height ofinterest, he plays upon his curiosity by getting him to look round. Whereupon, the Troll, meeting the glare of the full sun, burst; fortrolls cannot bear the sight of the sun, and live. In the Norse tale, the Cat, after Lord Peter at her request cuts off her head, becomesthe Princess and marries Lord Peter. In Perrault's tale, the King, with French etiquette and diplomacy, invites the Marquis to be hisson-in-law. 

The _Story of Puss-in-Boots_ appeared in _Straparola_, 11, 1, and in_Basile_, 2, 4. Laboulaye, in his _Last Fairy Tales_, has retold thePentamerone tale, _Gagliuso_, in which the Cat is a crafty advocate ofhis Master's interests, but the Master is ungrateful and forgets theCat. The effect of the tale is not pleasing, it is a satire ongratitude. 

The _Story of Puss-in-Boots_ is also told by Ludwig Tieck, with twelveetchings by Otto Speckter, published in Leipzig, in 1843. A critic, writing for the Quarterly Review in 1844, "An Article on Children'sBooks, "[17] recommended this edition of _Puss-in-Boots_ as the beauideal of nursery books. _Puss-in-Boots_ appeared also in the Swedishof Cavallius. A monograph on the Carabas tale has been written byAndrew Lang. 

_Tom Thumb and Little Thumb_

_Tom Thumb_, another romantic tale suited to the first grade, is oneof the most entertaining of tales. The germ of _Tom Thumb_ exists invarious forms in the books of the far East, among American Indians, and among the Zulus of South Africa. Tom Thumb is one of the oldestcharacters in English nursery literature. In 1611, the ancient talesof Tom Thumb were said to have been "in the olde time the onlysurvivors of drouzy age at midnight. Old and young, with his taleschim'd mattens till the cock's crow in the morning. Batchelors andmaids have with his tales compassed the Christmas fireblocke till thecurfew bell rings candle out. The old shepheard and the young plowboy, after a days' labour, have carol'ed out a _Tale of Tom Thumb_ to makethem merry with, and who but little Tom hath made long nights seemshort and heavy toyles easie. "

_Tom Thumb_, as has been previously mentioned, most probably wastransmitted to England by the early Norsemen. _The Tale of Tom Thumb_, as told by Jacobs, was taken from the chap-book version in_Halliwell_. The first mention of Tom is in Scot's _Discoverie ofWitchcraft_, in 1584. Tradition says that Tom died at Lincoln, whichwas one of the five Danish towns of England. A little blue flagstonein the cathedral, said to be his tombstone, was lost and has neverbeen replaced during recent repairs early in the nineteenth century. _Tom Thumb_ was first written in prose by Richard Johnson, in 1621. InAshton's _Chap-Books of the Eighteenth Century_ we have a facsimile ofthe chap-book, _The Famous History of Tom Thumb_. The tale is in threeparts. The first part, which is much superior to the rest of the tale, was taken from a copy printed for John Wright, in 1630. The second andthird parts were written about 1700. The first part closes with thedeath of Tom from knightly feats. He was buried in great pomp, but thefairies carried him to Fairy Land. The first part closed with apromise of the second:--

 The Fairy Queen, she lov'd him so As you shall understand, That once again she let him go Down to the Fairy Land. 

 The very time that he return'd Unto the court again, It was as we are well inform'd In good King Arthur's reign. 

 When in the presence of the King, He many wonders wrought, Recited in the Second Part Which now is to be bought

 In Bow Church Yard, where is sold Diverting Histories many; And pleasant tales as e'er was told For purchase of One Penny. 

The second part opens with Tom's return to Fairy Land. His seconddeath is caused by a combat with a cat. Again he is taken to FairyLand. In the third part the Fairy Queen sends Tom to earth in KingThunston's reign. His final death occurred from the bite of a spider. 

_The Life and Adventures of Tom Thumb_ appeared in the _TabartCollection of Fairy Tales_, noted before, and a version entirely inverse was included in _Halliwell_. A monograph on _Tom Thumb_ waswritten by M. Gaston Paris. _Little Thumb_ as it appeared in_Perrault_ and in _Basile_, was a tale similar to the German _Hanseland Grethel_. _Thumbling_, and _Thumbling as Journeyman_ are Germanvariants. Andersen's _Thumbelina_ is a feminine counterpart to _TomThumb_, and in Laboulaye's _Poucinet_ we have a tale of the successfulyounger brother, similarly diminutive. 

There were current many old stories of characters similar to TomThumb. A certain man was so thin that he could jump through the eye ofa needle. Another crept nimbly to a spider's web which was hanging inthe air, and danced skillfully upon it until a spider came, which spuna thread round his neck and throttled him. A third was able to piercea sunmote with his head and pass his whole body through it. A fourthwas in the habit of riding an ant, but the ant threw him off andtrampled him. In a work written in 1601, referred to in Grimm's_Household Tales_ a spider relates:--

 Once did I catch a tailor proud Heavy he was as elder wood, From Heaven above he'd run a race, With an old straw hat to this place, In Heaven he might have stayed no doubt, For no one wished to turn him out. He fell in my web, hung in a knot, Could not get out, I liked it not, That e'en the straw hat, safe and sound, Nine days ere him came to the ground. 

A delightful little rhyme, _Tom Thumb_, is among Halliwell's _NurseryRhymes_. It may refer to the Danish _History of Tom Thumb_:

 I had a little husband No bigger than my thumb; I put him in a pint pot And there I bade him drum: I bridled him and saddled him, And sent him out of town; I gave him a pair of garters To tie up his little hose; And a little handkerchief To wipe his little nose. 

The English version of _Tom Thumb_ as we know it today, opens with avisit of the magician Merlin at the cottage of an honest andhospitable ploughman. Merlin rewarded the Goodman and his Wife fortheir hospitality by calling on the Queen of the fairies, who broughtto the home, Tom Thumb, a boy no bigger than a man's thumb. 

The time of the tale is in the days of Merlin and King Arthur's court. The tale is marked by a number of distinct English elements. Theintroduction of the Queen of the Fairies, of Fairy Land and the visitthere, and of the fairy clothes they make for Tom, are all decidedlyEnglish. The sly ways of Tom, his tricks and his cleverness aredistinctly English humor. He played with the boys for cherry-stones, and took theirs. He had so much curiosity that he fell into hismother's pudding. He was so light that on a windy day he had to betied to a thistle when his mother went to milk the cow; and so, withhis oak-leaf hat, he got caught in the cow's one mouthful. After otherstrange adventures he arrived at King Arthur's court where he becamethe favorite. His feats at tilts and tournaments give a glimpse ofEnglish court life, with its pastime of hunting; and fighting with thesword brings in the knight element. The story has little plot, being asuccession of many episodes and a repetition of some. It shows littleconstructive ability, promises to be a perpetual tale, and is endedonly by sudden death at the poisonous breath of the spider. _TomThumb_ is one of the tales of pure fancy, with no underlying meaning, created for pure entertainment, to please children and grown-ups byits little people and little things. The moral is in the effect ofTom's character. 

Perrault's _Little Thumb_ tells how a poor Fagot-maker and his Wifesat by the hearth, sad with famine, and Little Thumb overheard theirwords. When they started to the wood to gather fagots, Little Thumb, like Hansel, scattered pebbles. The parents left the seven children inthe wood but little Thumb guided them home by his pebbles. They setout a second time, when Little Thumb scattered bread-crumbs; and asthe birds ate them, the children were lost. Little Thumb climbed atree and saw the light of the Ogre's cottage afar off. The childrenreached the Ogre's cottage where Little Thumb changed the goldencrowns of the seven little Ogresses, and putting them on his brothers, saved their lives. Then they all fled through the wood and hid in arock, while the Ogre in his seven-league boots, pursued them and laydown to rest at the rock in which they were hidden. Little Thumb senthis brothers home, stole the fairy boots, and through craft, persuadedthe Ogre's Wife to give him all the Ogre's gold. So, rich and happy, he returned to his father's home. 

This tale shows a number of common motifs that appear in other tales:

 (1) The design of distressed parents to expose children to the forest. 

 (2) The discovery and prevention of the scheme by a child. 

 (3) The repetition of incident; the clew spoiled by the birds. The trail motif, similar to the one in _Hansel and Grethel_. 

 (4) The arrival of children at the home of the Ogre. 

 (5) The shifting of crowns to the heads of his brothers. 

 (6) The flight of the brothers pursued by the Ogre in seven-league boots. 

 (7) Little Thumb, stealing the boots and winning court favor, or the Ogre's treasure. 

Some say that in this tale, symbolically, the forest represents night;the crumbs and pebbles, stars; and the Ogre, the sun. Little Thumb, because of his cunning and invention, has been called the Ulysses ofthe fairy tales. His adventure with the Ogre at the rock, while not aparallel one, reminds one of Ulysses and Polyphemus. Both succeeded ingetting the better of the giant. An English edition of this tale wasillustrated by William Blake. 

_Snow White and Rose Red_

_Snow White and Rose Red_, besides blending the romantic and therealistic, illustrates rather completely how the old tale may standthe tests which have been emphasized here. As a romantic type, itcontains adventure and the picturesque. It arouses emotion. Itcontains objects of beauty; and the strange Bear and the strangerDwarf, about both of whom there is a sense of mystery. It exaggeratescharacter and incidents beyond the normal, --the Mother and Daughterswere more lovely than mortals usually are, --and the harmony betweenman and beast may belong to the millennium rather than to this commonearth. This is one of the most romantic of fairy tales in that it is ahighly idealized type. 

The story was current in Germany before the time of the Grimms, andappeared in the collection of Caroline Stahl. The rhyme, --

 Snowy-white, rosy-red, Will ye strike your lover dead?

was taken from a popular song, and is found in a child's story in_Taschenbuch Minerva_ for 1813. 

_Snow White and Rose Red_ is full of many beauties; the characters arebeautiful, the setting is beautiful, and the spirit of the whole isfull of beauty. There is sister-love; and mother-love--not the selfishkind that loves but its own, but that similar to the rich growth ofour modern times, when mother-love seeks to include those without thehome. There is genuine kindness that pours its sweetness on the Bearor on the Dwarf, that falls like the rain on the deserving and on theungrateful; there is devotion to animals and a lack of enmity betweenman and beast; and there is a portrayal of the beauty of domestic lifeand of the charms of childhood in simple life--its play, its pleasure, and its tasks. This is all set as in two pictures whose sky is thegolden glow of passion for the sun and the spring-time and summer itbrings. In the first picture, on the edge of the forest stands alittle cottage before whose gate grow two rose-trees, a red rose-treeand a white rose-tree, not only symbols of the beauty of thespring-time and of the rich fruitage of summer, but also symbolstypifying the more wondrous beauty of the character of the twochildren, Snow White and Rose Red. In the second picture, a tallpalace rears itself, before whose gate grow two rose-trees also, a redrose-tree and a white rose-tree, not only symbols of the same beautyof spring-time and fruitage of summer, but also symbols typifying thebeauty of loveliness and the fairness of happiness and prosperity thatguarded from harm the lives of the deserving Snow White and Rose Red, and continued to bless them to the close. 

First, looking at the characters in this tale, we see a Mother whoillustrates the richness of womanhood. She managed her own home andkept it a place of beauty and cheer. She had two daughters, bothlovely, but very different. She recognized this difference andrespected it, and permitted each child to enjoy a delightful freedomto grow as was her nature. She permitted the children to play but shealso commanded willing obedience. She arranged their work withfairness so that each had her share and each seemed free in doing thatwork to use her individual taste and judgment. She taught her childrento spin and to sew, and she read to them. She told them about theguardian Angel who watched over them to keep them from harm. She wasnot anxious when they were out of sight, for even when Snow White andRose Red stayed in the wood all night and slept on the leaves, she hadno fear, for no accident ever happened to them. As a strong, noblewoman, without fear, and full of love, pity, and fairness, --GeorgeEliot's ideal of highest character, --the Mother of Snow White and RoseRed has no equal in the fairy tales. 

The two Children, beautiful as the roses that grew outside thecottage, were both industrious, good, amiable little girls, who intheir natural sweetness showed the spirit of the Golden Age when peaceand good-will dwelt among men. They were natural children and theyloved to play. They gathered berries in the forest, they playedhide-and-seek among the trees, they waded in the river, went fishing, made wreaths of flowers, and played with their animal friends. Theyfed the hares cauliflower, or watched the fawns grazing and the goatsfrisking; and even the birds loved them and did not fly away when theywere near. In the home they kept things not only clean but beautiful;they not only did work but took pleasure in doing that work. Now at atime when domestic life in the home is being threatened, _Snow Whiteand Rose Red_ gives a realistic picture of the beauty of domesticlife, its simple joys and charm. In summer there was always a nose-gayfor the Mother, and in winter there was a cheery fire with a copperkettle over it, shining like gold. And in the evening when the snowfell fast outside, inside was warmth and comfort. The Children satsewing and the Mother reading, while a lamb and a white dove besidethem enjoyed their protection and care. 

The entrance of the Bear gave the Children a natural thrill of fear. But the Mother, with beautiful hospitality, gave the Bear protectionand kindness and led them to overcome that fear. To the Bear theyshowed that good nature which willingly serves; and in the tricks theyplayed with their comrade they showed a great strength of vitality andthat freedom which grows where there is no repression. 

The Bear departed at spring-time; and as he left Snow White thoughtshe saw glittering gold under his coat. This seems to hint that thetale is symbolic, typifying the change of seasons. Spring, the Bear, took refuge in the cottage during the cold winter months; but in thespring he had to go abroad into the forest, to guard his treasuresfrom the evil Dwarf of winter. 

The Children again showed their sweetness and good nature when, whilegathering sticks, they came upon the Dwarf, with his wrinkled face andsnow-white beard, the end of which was caught in a split of a tree. The contrast is delightful, between the cross and impatient Dwarf andRose Red who offered to fetch help, and Snow White who politely triedto soothe his impatience by cutting off the end of his beard with herscissors. This time the Dwarf snatched a sack of gold which lay at thefoot of the tree, and fled, most ungrateful, not even thanking theChildren. The Children had two other adventures with the Dwarf; andthese, together with their adventure with the Bear, make up the plotof the story. They met the Dwarf a second time, one day when they wentfishing. Then Rose Red told him to be careful or he'd fall into thewater, because a great fish was pulling on the bait and his beardbecame entangled in the fishing-line. Snow White again cut off the endof his beard to free him and again he snatched his bag--this time ofpearls, lying among the rushes--and fled. One day, on going to town tobuy thread, needles, laces, and ribbons, they met the Dwarf a thirdtime. This time an eagle had caught him and was about to carry himoff. The Children, with compassion, held on and freed him; but againhe scolded, seized his bag of precious stones, and slipped away to hiscave. On their return from town, the Children again met the Dwarf, inthe wood, counting his treasure. Again he was very angry, but justthen the Bear arrived out of the forest and demanded the life of theDwarf. The Dwarf offered up in his stead, Snow White and Rose Red. Butthe Bear, faithful to his old comrades, slew the Dwarf, and thenbecoming a beautiful Prince, went home with the Sisters. Snow Whitemarried the Prince and Rose Red his Brother, and they all lived withtheir Mother happily in the beautiful palace. 

When the Bear slew the Dwarf spring returned to the land. The Dwarfwith his snow-white beard seems to typify winter. Each time theDwarf's beard was cut the beard of winter became shorter, anotherwinter month was gone, and there remained a shorter season. The bag ofgold which the Dwarf first took might signify the golden fruit ofautumn, and the pearls and diamonds which he next took, the ice andsnow of winter. The Dwarf's beard became entangled in the fishing-linewhen the icy winds of winter began to give the pond its frozen coat;and then the animals of the wood were compelled to seek a refuge. Whenthe Bear came out of the wood to meet the Dwarf and slew him, the timefor the departure of winter was at hand, and spring returned to theland. 

This fairy tale evidently shows a good, interesting plot, withsomething happening all the time. The climax is very distinctlymarked, everything leads up to the meeting of the Bear and the Dwarfin the forest. The characters present interesting variety and strongcontrasts. The setting is unusually beautiful: the cottage, the wood, the lake, the town, the hillside, the palace, and the two symbolicrose-trees. The tale appeals to the emotions of love, kindness, compassion, and gratitude. It presents to the imagination distinctepisodes: the home-life of the Children in the cottage, their life inthe wood, their adventure with the Bear, their three adventures withthe Dwarf, and the meeting of the Bear and the Dwarf. The conclusionfollows closely upon the climax, --the Bear, grateful to the kindChildren, saved their lives and re-transformed, became a Prince. Thehappy marriage brings the tale to a close, with the palace homeguarded by the two rose-trees. The message of the tale is the possiblebeauty of woman's love and character, and the loveliness of spring andof summer. 

A Modern Tale[18]

_The Elephant's Child_

_The Elephant's Child_ might be examined here more particularlybecause it is unusually interesting as an example of the complete testapplied to the child's fairy tale. One need not test it as to interestfor it was written especially for children by one who could play withthem. As to literature it certainly has mind and soul; there is nodoubt about its structure or its appeal to the sympathies. Thequantity of good humor and fun it bestows upon childhood is apermanent enrichment; for even a child's world has need of all thegood cheer and fun that can be given to it. 

This tale is especially interesting also because it might be classedas almost any one of the types of tales. It is not accumulative thoughit possesses to a marked degree three characteristics of theaccumulative tale, repetition, alliteration, and all sorts of phoniceffects. And it is not an old tale. But it is not only one of the mostpleasing animal tales we possess but one of the best humorous taleshaving the rare quality of freshness. It is realistic in its portrayalof animal life; and it is highly romantic in its sense of adventure, the heroic, the strange, and the remote. 

As a short-story it shows the essentials, originality, ingenuity, andcompression. The single interest is how the Elephant got his trunk, and everything points to the climax of his getting it. The plot is"entertaining, novel, comical and thrilling. " The structure is veryeasily seen in these ten episodes:--

 1. The introduction; the family; the Child; his home; his questions; the new, fine question. 2. The Elephant's Child set out to answer his own question. 3. The Elephant's Child met Kolokolo Bird. 4. The Elephant's Child journeyed to the Limpopo. 5. The Elephant's Child met the Python. 6. The Elephant's Child met the Crocodile. He got his trunk. (Climax. ) 7. The Elephant's Child gained experience from the Python. 8. The Elephant's Child's journey home. 9. The Elephant's Child's return home. 10. Conclusion. How all elephants got trunks. Peace. 

The characters are unique and interesting. They are usual animals butunusual in what they say. They exhibit animal traits and motives butthey also show us a hidden meaning in their actions and words. Theyseem living, they speak directly; yet they preserve the idea of thefable for they are symbolic. The Elephant's Child typifies humaninnocence, the inexperience of youth; the Kolokolo Bird, a friend; thePython, experience or wisdom; and the Crocodile, guile or evil. Allthe animals become very interesting because we are concerned to knowtheir particular reason for spanking the "'satiable Elephant's Child. "What they say is so humorous and what they do is consistent, inharmony with their natural animal traits. The Child is the hero. He isa very attractive character because he has that rare charm we calltemperament. He is curious, polite, and sweet, and follows his ownnose in spite of everything. He wins out with strength, experience, and a new nose; and we are rejoiced at his triumphs. His questions areso funny and yet they seem quite what any elephant with a bump ofcuriosity might ask. To the Giraffe--"What made his skin spotty?" Tothe Hippopotamus--"Why her eyes were red?" To the Baboon--"Why melonstasted just so?" And at last, "What does the Crocodile have fordinner?"

The setting of the tale is suggested continually in expressions whichshow visual imagination of a high order: such as, "And he lived inAfrica"; "dragged him through a thorn bush"; "blew bubbles into herear"; "hove him into a hornet's nest"; and "from Graham's Town toKimberley and from Kimberley to Khama's Country, and from Khama'sCountry east by north to the Limpopo. "

The tale possesses most delightful humor. A verbal magic which fairlyscintillates with the comic spirit, and clinging epithets of whichKipling is a master, suggest the exact picture needed. Humor issecured largely through the use of the unique word; as, "_spanked_, ""_precisely_ as Kolokolo Bird had said, " and "for he was a _Tidy_Pachyderm. " Often it is increased by the use of newly coined words;as, "hijjus, " "curtiosity, " "scalesome, flailsome, tail, ""fever-trees, " "self-propelling man-of-war, " and "schloop of mud. "Another element of humor in the tale is the artistic use ofrepetition, which has been previously referred to as one of thechild's interests. Sometimes one meaning is expressed in severaldifferent ways; as, "immediately and directly, without stopping, for along time. " Or we are given contrasted terms; as, "a little warm butnot at all astonished, " and then later, "very warm and greatlyastonished. " One main element of humor is this way in whichexpressions reflect back on preceding ones. Sometimes we are givenvery surprising, startling, expressions; as, "wait-a-bit-thorn-bush"--which reminds us of the "all-alone-stone" in _Water Babies_--and"he sang to himself down his trunk. "

As to imagination, _The Elephant's Child_ is a delightful illustrationof the appeal to the associative, the penetrative, and thecontemplative imagination. While its philosophy may be understood inpart by the child it has a deeper meaning for the adult. It seems toimply that it is the way of life to spank somebody else. It is thestronger who spank the weaker until they become strong enough to standup for themselves. Then nobody spanks anybody any more and there ispeace. When the Child asked a question that no one would answer he setout to find his own answer just as in life it often is best to work toanswer one's own questions. When the Elephant trusted the Crocodile hegot something to keep just as in life the innocent may bear the marksof a contest though in no sense responsible for the contest. Experience in the guise of the Python helped the Child in his contestfor life with the advice his own common sense would have offered. Asan allegory of Experience _The Elephant's Child_ does not view life asa whole; it gives but a glimpse of life. It would say: Experienceteaches us to make the best with what we have. The way to getexperience is to try a new power, just as the Child with his trunktried to kill the fly and eat grass. As soon as he had received hisnew power he tested it on the Hippopotamous. He won the respect of hiskind by beating them at their own game. 

The emotional appeal in _The Elephant's Child_ would repay study. Thedominant emotional tone is that of the adventurous hero with his"'satiable curtiosity. " There is vividness of emotion, steadiness ofemotion, and a rich variety in the contrasts of feeling. Emotion of amoral quality is characteristic of its implied message of worldlywisdom but it does not leave one exactly satisfied. 

The form of the story is a splendid example of a literary classicstyle. A pleasing humorous touch is given to the unity of the tale bymaking the Elephant's Child pick up with his new trunk, on his wayhome, the melon-rinds he had scattered on his journey to the Limpopo. The coherence in the tale is unusually fine and is secured largely byexpressions which look backward or forwards; as, "By and by when thatwas finished, " or "One fine morning, " or "That very next morning. " Anystudy will show that the tale possesses the general qualities of formand has its parts controlled by the principles of composition. 

OUTLINE

 I. THE WORTH OF FAIRY TALES

 I. Two public tributes 1

 II. The value of fairy tales in education 3

 1. They bring joy into child-life 3

 2. They satisfy the play-spirit of childhood 4

 3. They give a power of accurate observation 6

 4. They strengthen the power of emotion, develop the power of imagination, train the memory and exercise the reason 6

 5. They extend and intensify the child's social relations 7

 6. In school they unify the child's work or play 8

 7. In the home they employ leisure time profitably 9

 8. They afford a vital basis for language-training 10

 III. References 12

II. PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION FOR FAIRY TALES

 I. The interests of children 13

 1. Fairy tales must follow the law of composition and must contain the interests of children 13

 a. A sense of life 14

 b. The familiar 14

 c. The surprise 15

 d. Sense impression 17

 e. The beautiful 18

 f. Wonder, mystery, magic 19

 g. Adventure 19

 h. Success 20

 i. Action 20

 j. Humor 21

 k. Poetic justice 22

 l. The imaginative 23

 m. Animals 24

 n. A portrayal of human relations, especially with children 24

 o. The diminutive 25

 p. Rhythm and repetition 26

 q. The simple and sincere 28

 r. Unity of effect 29

 2. Fairy tales must follow the law of the emotions and avoid elements opposed to the interests of the very young child 30

 a. The tale of the witch 31

 b. The tale of the dragon 31

 c. Giant tales 31

 d. Some tales of transformation 32

 e. The tale of strange animal relations and strange creatures 33

 f. Unhappy tales 34

 g. The tale of capture 34

 h. The very long tale 35

 i. The complicated or the insincere tale 36

 II. The fairy tale as literature 37

 1. The fairy tale must be a true classic 38

 2. The fairy tale must have mind and soul 39

 3. The fairy tale must have the distinguishing marks of literature 40

 a. A power to appeal to the emotions 41

 1) Literary emotion is not personal 41

 2) Literary emotion must have justness 41

 3) Literary emotion must have vividness 41

 4) Literary emotion must have steadiness 41

 5) Literary emotion must have variety 41

 6) Literary emotion must have moral quality 41

 7) Application of the test of emotion to the Fairy tales 41

 8) The value of fairy tales in the development of emotion 44

 b. A power to appeal to the imagination 45

 1) Appeal to the creative imagination 45

 2) Appeal to the associative imagination 46

 a) Appeal to fancy 46

 3) Appeal to the penetrative imagination 47

 4) Appeal to the contemplative imagination 47

 a) Philosophy in the fairy tales 48

 b) Proverbs in the fairy tales 50

 c) Relation of the contemplative imagination to science 52

 c. A basis of truth, or appeal to the intellect 53

 1) The truth must be idealistic 53

 a) It may be realistic 53

 b) It may be romantic 53

 2) Value of the appeal of literature to the intellect 53

 d. A form more or less perfect 54

 1) The elements of form: words, sentences, paragraphs, and wholes 58

 a) Words, the medium of language must have two powers 54

 (1) Denotation, to name what they mean 54

 (2) Connotation, to suggest what they imply 54

 b) Suggestive power of words illustrated 55

 2) General qualities characteristic of perfect form 57

 a) Precision or clearness 57

 (1) Precision demands that words have denotation 57

 (2) Precision appeals to the intellect 57

 b) Energy or force 57

 (1) Energy demands that words have connotation 58

 (2) Energy appeals to the emotions and holds the attention 58

 c) Delicacy or emotional harmony 58

 (1) Delicacy demands that words have the power of adaptation 58

 (2) Delicacy demands that form appeal to the æsthetic sense 58

 (3) Delicacy is secured by selection and arrangement of words according to emotional associations 58

 d) Personality 58

 (1) Personality gives the charm of individuality 58

 (2) Personality suggests the character of the writer 58

 3) Principles controlling the elements of form, principles of composition 58

 a) The principle of sincerity 58

 (1) Sincerity demands a just expression 58

 b) The principle of unity 59

 (1) Unity demands a central idea 59

 (2) Unity demands completeness 59

 (3) Unity demands no irrelevant material 59

 (4) Unity demands method, sequence and climax 59

 c) The principle of mass 59

 (1) Mass demands that the chief parts readily catch the eye 59

 (2) Mass demands harmonious proportion of parts 59

 d) The principle of coherence 59

 (1) Coherence demands unmistakable relation of parts 59

 (2) Coherence demands this unmistakable relation be preserved by the order, forms and connections 59

 4) Form characterized by perfect adaptation of words to thought and feeling is called style 59

 a) Style demands that form possess the four general qualities of form in perfection: precision, energy, delicacy, and personality 59

 b) Style demands that form have its elements controlled by the four general principles: sincerity, unity, mass, and coherence 59

 c) _Oeyvind and Marit_, a modern tale illustrating style 60

 d) _Three Billy-Goats Gruff_, a folk-tale illustrating style 64

 e) The folk-tale generally considered as to literary form 65

 f) The tale by Grimm, Perrault, Dasent, Harris, Jacobs, Lang, and Andersen considered as to literary form 67

 g) The tale of to-day considered as to literary form 69

 III. The fairy tale as a short-story 70

 1. Characters 71

 a. Characters must be unique, original, and striking 72

 b. Characters of the fairy tales 72

 2. Plot 73

 a. Plot must be entertaining, comical, novel, or thrilling 73

 b. Plot must show a beginning, a middle, and an end 73

 c. Plot must have a distinct climax 74

 d. Introduction must be simple 74

 e. Conclusion must show poetic justice 74

 f. Plot must be good narration and description 74

 1) Narration must have truth, interest, and consistency 74

 2) Description must have aptness and concreteness 75

 g. Structure illustrated by _Three Pigs_ and _Briar Rose_ 76

 3. Setting 77

 a. Setting must give the time and place, the background of the tale 77

 b. Setting must arouse sensation and feeling 77

 c. Effect of transformation of setting 77

 1) Story sequence preserved by setting illustrated by _Robin's Christmas Song_ 78

 d. Setting and phonics, illustrated. _The Spider and the Flea_ 79

 e. Setting illustrated. _Chanticleer and Partlet_ 81

 4. A blending of characters, plot, and setting illustrated by _The Elves and the Shoemaker_ 82

 5. Tests to be applied to fairy tales 84

 6. Tales examined and tested by the complete test of interests, classic, literature, short-story, narration, and description 84

 a. _How the Sun, Moon, and West Wind Went to Dinner_ (Indian) 84

 b. The Straw Ox (Cossack) 86

 IV. References 87

III. THE TELLING OF FAIRY TALES

 Story-telling as an Art. Introductory 90

 1. Story-telling as an ancient art 90

 2. The place of the story in the home, library, and the school 93

 3. Principles of story-telling 94

 I. The teacher's preparation. Rules 94

 1. Select the tale for some purpose 94

 a. The teacher's problem of selecting the tale psychologically or logically 95

 2. Know the tale historically as folk-lore, as literature, and as a short-story 96

 a. The various motives contained in the fairy tales listed 97

 3. Master the structure of the tale 99

 4. Dwell upon the life of the story 99

 5. Secure the message 100

 6. Master the form 100

 II. The presentation of the tale 102

 1. Training of the voice 103

 a. Study of phonetics 103

 2. Exercises in breathing 104

 3. A knowledge of gesture 105

 a. Gesture precedes speech 106

 b. Gesture begins in the face 106

 c. Hands and arms lie close to the body in controlled emotion 106

 4. A power of personality 106

 5. Suggestions for telling 107

 a. The establishment of the personal relation between the teacher and the listener 108

 b. The placing of the story in a concrete situation for the child 110

 c. The consideration of the child's aim in listening, by the teacher in her preparation 112

 6. The telling of the tale 112

 a. The re-creative method of story-telling. Illustrated by a criticism of the telling of _The Princess and the Pea_ 114

 b. The re-creative method illustrated by _The Foolish, Timid Rabbit_ 116

 7. Adaptation of the fairy tale. Illustrated by _Thumbelina_ and by _The Snow Man_ 118

 III. The return from the child 119

 Story-telling as one phase of the art of teaching. Introductory 119

 1. Teaching as good art and as great art; and fairy tales as subject-matter suited to accomplish high purposes in teaching 120

 2. The part the child has to play in story-telling 121

 3. The child's return, the expression of his natural instincts or general interests 125

 1. The instinct of conversation 125

 a. Language expression, oral re-telling 125

 b. The formation of original little stories 126

 c. Reading of the tale a form of creative reaction 127

 2. The instinct of inquiry 127

 a. Appeal of the folk-tale to this instinct 128

 b. The instinct of inquiry united to the instinct of conversation, of construction, and of artistic expression, illustrated 128

 3. The instinct of construction 129

 a. Clay-modelling 129

 b. Construction of objects 129

 4. The instinct of artistic expression 130

 a. Cutting of free silhouette pictures. Illustrated 130

 b. Drawing and crayon-sketching. Illustrated 132

 c. Painting. Illustrated 132

 d. Song. Illustrated 133

 e. Dance, rhythm plays. Illustrated 134

 f. Game. Illustrated 135

 g. Representation of the fairy tale. Illustrated by _The Steadfast Tin Soldier_ 135

 h. Free play and dramatization 138

 1) Virtues of dramatization 138

 a) It develops voice 138

 b) It gives grace of movement 138

 c) It develops control and poise 138

 d) It strengthens attention and power of visualization 138

 e) It combines intellectual, emotional, artistic, and physical action 138

 f) It impresses many pieces of literature effectively 138

 g) It is the true Direct Moral Method and may establish a habit 143

 2) Dangers of dramatization 139

 a) Dramatization often is in very poor form 139

 b) Dramatization may develop boldness in a child 141

 c) Dramatization may spoil some literature 142

 d) Dramatization has lacked sequence in tales used from year to year 142

 i. Illustrations of creative return 144

 1) _The Country Mouse and the City Mouse_ as expression in language, dramatization, drawing, and crayon-sketching 144

 2) _The Elves and the Shoemaker_ as expression in the dramatic game 145

 3) _Little Two-Eyes_ as expression in dramatization. A fairy-play outline. (See _Appendix_) 145

 4) _Snow White_ as expression in dramatization. (See _Appendix_) 145

 5) _Sleeping Beauty_ as expression of partial narration, dramatic game, and dramatization combined 146

 6) _The Little Lamb and the Little Fish_, an original tale developed from a Grimm fragmentary tale, illustrating expression in folk-game and dramatization. (See _Appendix_) 147

 7) _The Bird and the Trees_, an original play illustrating expression in rhythm play and dramatization 149

 8) _How the Birds came to Have Different Nests_, an original play illustrating language expression and dramatization. (See _Appendix_) 151

 9) Andersen's _Fir Tree_ as expression in dramatization, illustrating organization of ideas through a play 152

 IV. References 154

 IV. THE HISTORY OF FAIRY TALES

 I. The origin of fairy tales 158

 1. The fairy tale defined 159

 2. The derivation and history of the name, _fairy_ 159

 a. Four senses in which _fairy_ has been used 160

 3. The theories concerning the origin of fairy tales 161

 a. Fairy tales are detritus of myth 161

 1) The evolution of the tale 161

 b. Fairy tales are myths of Sun, Rain, Dawn, Thunder, etc. , the Aryan Theory 162

 c. Fairy tales all arose in India, the Philological theory 165

 d. Fairy tales owe their origin to the identity of early fancy 167

 e. Fairy tales owe their origin to a combination of all these theories 167

 II. The transmission of fairy tales 167

 1. The oral transmission of fairy tales 167

 a. Examples of transmission of fairy tales: _Jack the Giant-Killer_, _Dick Whittington_, etc. 168

 2. Literary transmission of fairy tales 170

 a. An enumeration of the literary collections and books that have handed down the tales; as _Reynard the Fox_, the _Persian King-book, The Thousand and One Nights_, Straparola's _Nights_, Basile's _Pentamerone_, and Perrault's _Tales of Mother Goose_ 170

 b. French publications of fairy tales 179

 1) The tales of Perrault 179

 2) Tales by followers of Perrault 181

 3) A list of tales from the time of Perrault to the present time 183

 c. English and Celtic publications of fairy tales 183

 1) Tales of Scotland and Ireland 184

 2) English tales and books 184

 3) A list illustrating the history of the English fairy tale, including chap-books: _Jack the Giant-Killer_, _Tom Hickathrift_; old collections; etc. 184

 4) A list illustrating the development of fairy-tale illustration in England 188

 d. German publications of fairy tales 192

 1) A list of tales from the time of the Grimms to the present 193

 e. Fairy-tale publications of other nations 193

 f. American publications of fairy tales 195

 1) A list of tales from the earliest times to 1870 196

 g. Recent collections of folk-lore 200

 III. References 201

 V. CLASSES OF FAIRY TALES

 I. Available types of tales 204

 1. The accumulative or clock story 205

 a. Tales of simple repetition 206

 1) The House that Jack Built 206

 2) The Key of the Kingdom 207

 b. Tales of repetition with an addition 208

 1) The Old Woman and Her Pig 208

 2) Titty Mouse and Tatty Mouse 208

 3) Johnny Cake 209

 4) The Gingerbread Man 209

 5) The Straw Ox 209

 c. Tales of repetition and variation 209

 1) The Three Bears 209

 2) The Three Billy Goats 211

 2. The animal tale 211

 a. The evolution of the animal tale 211

 b. The animal tale may be an old beast tale 211

 1) Henny Penny 213

 2) The Foolish Timid Rabbit 214

 3) The Sheep and the Pig 215

 4) Medio Pollito 215

 5) The Three Pigs 216

 c. The animal tale may be an elaborated fable, illustrated 211

 d. The animal tale may be an imaginary creation, illustrated 211

 e. The Good-Natured Bear, a modern type. (See _Appendix_) 217

 3. The humorous tale 217

 a. The humorous element for children 218

 b. The Musicians of Bremen, a humorous type 219

 c. Humorous tales mentioned previously 221

 d. Drakesbill, a humorous type 221

 4. The realistic tale 223

 a. Lazy Jack, a realistic type of common life 224

 b. The Old Woman and Her Pig, a realistic type 225

 c. How Two Beetles Took Lodgings, a realistic tale of scientific interest 226

 d. Titty Mouse and Tatty Mouse, a realistic theme transformed into a romantic tale 227

 5. The romantic tale 228

 a. Cinderella 228

 b. Sleeping Beauty 231

 c. Red Riding Hood 232

 d. Puss-in-Boots. (See _Appendix_) 232

 1) The Norse Lord Peter (See _Appendix_) 232

 e. Tom Thumb, a romantic tale of fancy. (See _Appendix_) 232

 1) The French Little Thumb. (See _Appendix_) 232

 2) The English Tom Thumb. (See _Appendix_) 232

 f. Snow White and Rose Red, a highly idealized romantic type tested by the standards included here. (See _Appendix_) 232

 6. The old tale and the modern tale 234

 a. The modern tale often lacks the great art qualities of the old tale, unity and harmony, sincerity and simplicity 235

 b. The modern tale often fails to use the method of suggestion 235

 c. The modern tale often does not stand the test of literature 235

 d. The modern tale gives richly to the primary and elementary field 235

 e. Criticism of a few modern tales 236

 1) Little Beta and the Lame Giant, a good modern tale 236

 2) The Cock, the Mouse, and the Little Red Hen, a good modern tale 238

 3) Peter Rabbit, a classic; other animal tales 239

 4) The Elephant's Child, a modern animal tale. (See _Appendix_) 239

 5) A Quick-Running Squash, a good modern tale 240

 6) A few St. Nicholas fairy stories 241

 7) The Hop-About-Man, a romantic modern fairy tale 241

 f. What the modern fairy tale is 243

 VI. SOURCES OF MATERIAL FOR FAIRY TALES: A LIST OF FAIRY TALES, FOLK-TALES, PICTURES, PICTURE-BOOKS, POEMS, AND BOOKS. 

 Basis on which lists are made. Introductory 245

 I. A list of fairy tales and folk-tales suited to the kindergarten and first grade 246

 1. Tales of Perrault 246

 2. Tales of the Grimms 246

 3. Norse tales 247

 4. English tales, by Jacobs 247

 5. Modern fairy tales, by Andersen 248

 6. Uncle Remus tales, by Harris 248

 7. Miscellaneous tales 249

 II. Bibliography of fairy tales 253

 III. A list of picture-books 254

 IV. A list of pictures 255

 V. A list of fairy poems 256

 VI. Main standard fairy-tale books 256

 VII. Fairy tales of all nations 258

 VIII. Miscellaneous editions of fairy tales 259

 IX. School editions of fairy tales 262

APPENDIX

 Illustrations of creative return 265

 Tales suited for dramatization 265

 Little Two-Eyes 265

 Snow White 266

 The Little Lamb and the Little Fish 267

 How the Birds came to Have Different Nests 270

 Types of tales 272

 An animal tale 272

 The Good-Natured Bear 272

 A few romantic tales 275

 Puss-in-Boots and Lord Peter 275

 Tom Thumb and Little Thumb 278

 Snow White and Rose Red 282

 A modern tale 287

 The Elephant's Child 287

NOTES:

[1: McLoughlin edition. ]

[2: What if we could give the child that which is called education through his voluntary activities, and have him always as eager as he is at play! (_Froebel_. )

 What if we could let the child be free and happy, and yet bring to him those things which he ought to have so that he will choose them freely!

 What would be the possibilities for a future race if we would give the child mind a chance to come out and express itself, if we would remove adult repression, offer a stimulus, and closely watch the product, untouched by adult skill. (_Unknown_. )

 The means by which the higher selective interest is aroused, is the exercise of selected forms of activity. (_Susan Blow_. )]

[3: _Little Two-Eyes_ and _Snow White_ are tales also suited to the first grade for dramatization. See _Appendix_. ]

[4: A similar tale is told by Miss Holbrook in _The Book of Nature Myths_. Also by Mary McDowell as "The Three Little Christmas Trees. " A simple version of this tale, "The Three Little Christmas Trees that Grew on the Hill, " is given in _The Story-Teller's Book_ by Alice O'Grady and Frances Throop. ]

[5: Joseph Jacobs, in his Introduction to the Cranford edition, and Ashton, in _Chap-Books of the Eighteenth Century_, furnish most of the facts mentioned here. ]

[6: This list has been compiled largely from "Children's Books and Their Illustrators, " by Gleeson White, in _The International Studio_. Special Winter Number, 1897-98. ]

[7: The following list, compiled by Mr. H. H. B. Meyer, the chief bibliographer of the Library of Congress, has been furnished through the courtesy of the United States Bureau of Education. A few additional books were inserted by the author. The books at the head of the list give information on the subject. ]

[8: _The Woman and Her Kid_, a version of this tale adapted from an ancient Jewish Sacred Book, is given in _Boston Kindergarten Stories_, p. 171. ]

[9: See Appendix. ]

[10: William M. Thackeray, _Miscellanies_, v. Boston: James Osgood & Co. , 1873. "Titmarsh among Pictures and Books"; "On Some Illustrated Christmas Books, " 1846. ]

[11: A few romantic tales for the first grade are treated in the Appendix: _Puss-in-Boots_, _Lord Peter_, _Tom Thumb_, _Little Thumb_, and _Snow White and Rose Red_. ]

[12: See _Appendix_. ]

[13: Laura F. Kready, "Picture-Books for Little Children, " _Kindergarten Review_, Sept. , 1914. ]

[14: For _Little Two-Eyes_ and _Snow White, see_ note on p. 145; for _The Little Lamb and the Little Fish, see_ pp. 147-48; and for _How the Birds came to have Different Nests, see_ p. 151. ]

[15: _See_ note, p. 217. ]

[16: _See_ note, p. 232]

[17: Reprinted in _Living Age_, Aug. 13, 1844, vol. 2, p. 1. ]

[18: _See_ p. 239]

INDEX

Accumulative or clock story, 205-11. 

Action, 20-21. 

Adaptation of fairy tales, 117-19. 

Adventure, 19-20. 

Adventures of Chanticleer and Partlet, 81-82. 

American fairy tales, 195-99. 

Andersen, Hans C. : tales by, tested as literary form, 69; Steadfast Tin Soldier, 46, 49, 135-38; Fir Tree, 151-53; list of tales by, 248; editions, 256-57. 

Animal tale: class, 211-17; evolution of, 211-13; types of, 213-17, 272-75, 287-90. 

Animals: an interest, 24; tale of strange, 33-34. 

Appendix, 265-90: Little Two-Eyes, 265-66; Snow White, 266-67; The Little Lamb and the Little Fish, 267-70; How the Birds came to Have Different Nests, 270-72; The Good-Natured Bear, 272-75; Puss-in-Boots and Lord Peter, 275-78; Tom Thumb and Little Thumb, 278-82; Snow White and Rose Red, 282-86; The Elephant's Child, 287-90. 

Arabian Nights, Thousand and One Nights, 176-78, 190, 196. 

Art: of teaching, 119-20; in teaching, good, 120; in teaching, great, 120-21; in literature, good, 39-40; in literature, fine, 39-40; of story-telling, 90-91, 93-94; ancient, of story-telling, 91-93. 

Artistic expression, instinct of, 130-54. 

Aulnoy, Comtesse d', tales of, 181-82. 

Basile, 178-79. 

Beaumont, Madam de, 182. 

Beautiful, the, 18-19. 

Beauty and the Beast, dramatization of, 140-41; editions of, 189, 198. 

Bibliography of fairy tales, 253-54. 

Bird and the Trees, 148-51. 

Books, main standard fairy tale, a list, 256-58. _See_ Sources ofmaterial. 

Breathing, exercises in, 104-05. 

Briar Rose, 77. _See also_ Sleeping Beauty. 

Capture, tales of, 34-35. 

Celtic fairy tales, 183-84. 

Chap-books, 185-87, 188, 196, 198. 

Characters, 71-73. 

Child: his part in story-telling, 121-25; interests, 13-37; instincts, 125-54; growth: in observation, 6, 47-48; in reason, 6-7, 53-54; in language, 10; in emotion, 44-45; in imagination, 45-53; in experience, 54; in intellect, 53-54; in self-activity, 121-22; in consciousness, 122-23; in initiative, 122; in purpose, 123-25; in creative return possible to him, 123-54; in self-expression, 124-54; in organization of ideas, 153. 

Child's Own Book, The, 190. 

Cinderella, a chap-book, 187, 188, 198; a romantic type, 228-31. 

Classes of tales, 204-44: accumulative, 205-11; animal, 211-17; humorous, 217-23; realistic, 223-28; romantic, 228-34; old and modern, compared, 234-43; references, 243-44. 

Classic, fairy tale as a, 38-39. 

Cock, the Mouse, and the Little Red Hen, 238-39. 

Coherence, principle of, 58-59; illustrated, 62, 65. 

Complicated or insincere, the, 36. 

Composition: general qualities of, 57-58; precision, 57; energy, 57-58; delicacy, 58; personality, 58; principles of, 58-59; sincerity, 58-59; unity, 59; mass, 59; coherence, 59; style in, 59-60. 

Comte de Caylus, 182. 

Concrete situation, placing of story in, 94-95, 110-11. 

Connotation, 54-57. 

Consciousness, development of, 122-23. 

Construction, expression of instinct of, 129-30. 

Conversation, expression of instinct of, 125-27. 

Country Mouse and City Mouse, 144-45. 

Crayon-sketching, as expression, 132. 

Creative return, illustrated, 144-54. _See_ Return. 

Criticism: of life, teaching, a, 120-21; of Oeyvind and Marit, 60-64; of Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 64-65; of How the Sun, Moon, and West Wind went out to Dinner, 84-86; of Straw Ox, 86-87; of Steadfast Tin Soldier, 135-38; of Musicians of Bremen, 219-20; of Drakesbill, 221-23; of Puss-in-Boots and Norse Lord Peter, 275-78; of Tom Thumb and Little Thumb, 278-82; of Snow White and Rose Red, 282-86; and of Elephant's Child, 287-90. 

Danish tales, 194. 

Dasent, Sir George W. , tales by, as literary form, 68-69; Norse tales by, 194, 247, 257. 

Delicacy, or emotional harmony, quality of, 57-58; illustrated, 60, 61, 64. 

Denotation, 54. 

Description, 75. 

Dick Whittington, illustrating oral transmission of tales, 169; a chap-book, 185, 188, 196, 198. 

Diminutive, the, 25-26. 

Dragon tales, 31. 

Drakesbill, 221-23. 

Dramatic game: Elves and the Shoemaker, 145; Sleeping Beauty, 146-47. 

Dramatization, as expression, 138-54; virtues of, 138, 143; dangers of, 139-43; of Sleeping Beauty, 146-47; of Bird and the Trees, 149-51; of Fir Tree, 152-53; of Little Two Eyes, 265-66; of Snow White, 266-67; of How the Birds came to have Different Nests, 270-72; and of Puss-in-Boots, 276. 

Drawing, as expression, 132. 

Dwarf's Tailor, 237. 

Editions, main fairy tale, 256-58; fairy tale, of all nations, 258-59; illustrated, 254-55; miscellaneous, of fairy tales, 259-62; school, of fairy tales, 262-64. 

Elements to be avoided, 30-36. 

Elephant's Child, illustrating: repetition, 27-28; suggestion, 56-57; form, 100-01; modern animal tale, 239, 287-90. 

Elves and the Shoemaker, illustrating: structure and short-story, 82-84; story, 82-84; creative return, 145. 

Emelyan the Fool, 170. 

Emotion, appeal to, distinguishing literary trait, 40-41; qualities of literary, 41; literary, in fairy tales, 41-44; growth of, 44-45; comparison of, in fairy tales and Shakespeare's dramas, 7, 43-44. 

Energy or force, quality of, 57-58; illustrated, 61, 64. 

English fairy tales, 184-92; collections of, 184-88; illustrating development of illustration, 188-92; by Jacobs, list, 247-48; editions, 257. 

Expression in: language, 125-27; reading, 127; inquiry, 127-29; construction, 129-30; art, 130-54; paper-cutting, 130-31; drawing, 132; painting, 132; rhythm play, 133-34; song, 132-33; game, 134-35; representation, 135-38; dramatization, 138-54, 265-72. 

Fairy, derivation of, 159-60; history of the name, 160. 

Fairy tales: worth of, 1-12; principles of selection for, 13-89; telling of, 90-157; history of, 158-203; classes of, 204-44; sources of material for, 245-64; tributes to, 1-3; interests in, 13-37; as literature, 37-70; as classics, 38-39; possessing mind and soul, 39-40; distinguished by marks of literature, 40; as emotion, 41-45; as imagination, 45-53; philosophy in, 48-52; proverbs in, 50; as truth, 53-54; as form, 54-70; powers of words in, 54-57; general qualities of form in, 57-58; general principles controlling form in, 58-59; style in, defined, 59-60; tested as literary form, 60-70; as a form of short-story, 70-87; characters, 71-73; plot, 73-77; narration, 74-75; description, 75; structure, 76-77; setting, 77-82; three elements blended, 82-84; tested by complete standards, 84-87; teacher's preparation for telling, 94-102; presentation of, by teacher, 102-19; return of child from, 119-54; rules for preparation of, 94-102; selection of, 95-96; motifs in, 96-98; re-telling of, 101-02; training of voice in telling, 103-04; breathing in telling, 104-05; gesture in telling, 105-06; power of personality, in telling, 106-07; suggestions for telling, 107-12; establishment of personal relation in telling, 107-10; placing of, in a concrete situation, 110-11; conception of child's aim in listening to, 112; re-creative method of telling, 112-17; adaptation of, 117-19; art of teaching, in telling, 119-25; as expression of conversation, 125-27; as expression of inquiry, 127-29; as expression of construction, 129-30; as expression of art, 130-54; origin of, 158-67; transmission of, 167-200; French, 179-83; Celtic, 183-84; English, 184-92; German, 192-93; tales of other nations, 193-95; American, 195-99; collections of folklore, 200; accumulative, 205-11; animal, 211-17; humorous, 217-23; realistic, 223-28; romantic, 228-34, 275-86; old and modern, 234-43; of Perrault, 246; of the Grimms, 246-47; Norse, 247; English, by Jacobs, 247-48; modern, by Andersen, 248; Uncle Remus, by Harris, 248-49; miscellaneous, 249-53; bibliography of, 253-54; in picture-books, 254-55; in pictures, 255; in poems, 255-56; in standard books, 256-58; of all nations, 258-59; in miscellaneous editions, 259-62; in school editions, 262-64; in Appendix, 265-90. 

Familiar, the, 14-15. 

Fancy, 46, 47. 

Fir Tree, 151-53. 

First-grade fairy tales, 231-34, 265-86. 

Folk-game, illustrated by Little Lamb and the Little Fish, 147-48, 267-70. 

Folk-tales, generally, as literary form, 65-67; tested as literary form, 60-70; characters of, compared with those of Shakespeare, 7, 43-44; recent collections of, 200. 

Foolish, Timid Rabbit, illustrating method in story-telling, 116-17; an animal type, 214. 

Form, a distinguishing literary trait, 40, 54; perfect, 57-60; general qualities of, 57-58; precision, a quality, 57; energy, a quality, 57-58; delicacy, a quality, 58; personality, a quality, 58; principles controlling, 58-60: sincerity, 58-59; unity, 59; mass, 59; coherence, 59; style in, 59-60; illustrated: by Oeyvind and Marit, 60-64; by Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 64-65; folk-tales as literary, 65-70; mastery of tale as, 100-02. 

French fairy tales, 179-83. 

Game, as expression, 134-35. 

Gardens of the Tuileries, 1. 

German fairy tales, 192-93. 

Gesta Romanorum, 174-75. 

Gesture, knowledge of, 105-06; library pamphlet relating to, 106. 

Giant tales, 31-32. 

Golden Egg and the Cock of Gold, 237-38. 

Good-Natured Bear, a modern animal type, 217, 272-75; a book, 190. 

Grimm, William and Jacob, 67-68; list of tales by, 246-47; editions by, 257; tales by, as literary form, 67. 

Harris, J. C. , list of Uncle Remus tales by, 248-49; tales by, as literary form, 69; editions by, 257. 

Henny Penny, 214. 

History of fairy tales, 158-203; origin of fairy tales, 158-67; transmission of fairytales, 167-200; oral transmission, 167-70; literary transmission, 170-200; references, 201-03. 

Hop-About-Man, 241-43. 

House that Jack Built, 206-07. 

How the Birds came to Have Different Nests, 151; 270-72. 

How the Sun, Moon, and West Wind went out to Dinner, 84-86. 

How Two Beetles Took Lodgings, 226. 

Humor in fairy tales: an interest, 21-22; 217-19. 

Humorous tales, 217-23; types of, 219-23. 

Imagination, a distinguishing literary mark of fairy tales, 40, 45-53; creative, 45; associative, 46; penetrative, 47; contemplative, 47-53; fancy, 46, 47; exhibited in child's return, 122, 125-54. 

Imaginative, the, 23. 

Initiative, development of, 122, 123-25. 

Instincts of child, expression of: conversation, 125-27; inquiry, 127-29; construction, 129-30; artistic expression, 130-54. 

Intellect, appeal of fairy tales to, 53-54. 

Interests of children, 13-37; sense of life, 14; the familiar, 14-15; surprise, 15-17; sense impression, 17-18; the beautiful, 18-19; wonder, mystery, magic, 19; adventure, 19-20; success, 20; action, 20-21; humor, 21-22; poetic justice, 22-23; the imaginative, 23; animals, 24; portrayal of human relations, 24-25; the diminutive, 25-26; rhythm and repetition, 26-28; the simple and the sincere, 28-29; unity of effect, 29-30; opposed to, 30-36; witch tales, 31; dragon tales, 31; giant tales, 31-32; some tales of transformation, 32-33; tales of strange creatures, 33-34; unhappy tales, 34; tales of capture, 34-35; very long tales, 35-36; complicated or insincere tales, 36. 

Introduction, i-iii. 

Inquiry, instinct of, 127-29. 

Jack the Giant-Killer, 185, 186, 188, 190. 

Jacobs, Joseph, list of tales by, 247-48; tales by, as literary form, 69; editions by, 257. 

Jatakas, 170. 

Key of the Kingdom, 207-08. 

Kindergarten: play in, 5-6; work in, unified by the fairy tale, 8-9; language-training in, 10-11; interests of child in, 13-37; standards for literature in, 37-87; standards for composition in, 54-60; story-telling in, 94-119; return to be expected from child in, 119-54; standards of teaching for teacher in, 119-25; instincts of child in, 125-54; history of fairy tales to be used in, 158-203; classes of tales used in, 204-44; sources of material for fairy tales to be used in, 245-64. 

King-book, Persian, The, 175-76. 

Lang, Andrew, tales by, as literary form, 69. 

Lambikin, 21. 

Language, expression in, 125-27. 

Lazy Jack, 224-25. 

Life, a sense of, 14; criticism of, 120-21; fairy tale a counterpart to, 8-9. 

Lists: of tales, 246-53; _See_ Sources of material. 

Literature, mind and soul in, 39-40; qualities of, 40; fairy tale as, 37-87. 

Little Lamb and the Little Fish, 147-48, 267-70. 

Little Two-Eyes, 145, 265-66. 

Little Thumb, editions, 189; tale, 232, 281-82. 

Literary collections of tales, 170-200. 

Logical method of selecting tales, 95-96. 

Long tales, opposed to child's interests, 35-36. 

Lord Peter, 232, 277. 

Magpie's Nest, 151, 270-72. 

Märchen Brunnen or Fairy-tale Fountain, 2-3. 

Mass, principle of, 58-59; illustrated in: Oeyvind and Marit, 61-62; Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 65. 

Medio Pollito, 215-16. 

Memory, development of, 226. 

Message, of the tale, 100; of this book. _See_ Summaries. 

Method of story-telling, the recreative, 113-17; criticism of, 114-16; illustration of, 116-17; direct moral, 143. 

Mind, in literature, 40. 

Miscellaneous, tales, a list, 249-53; editions, 259-62. 

Modern tale, compared with old tale, 234-43; types of, 235-43; what it is, 243; tales, by Andersen, 28-29, 234, 248, 256-57. 

Motifs in folk-tales, classified, 97-98. 

Mother Goose, tales of, 179-81; her Melodies, 187, 195, 197, 198. 

Musicians of Bremen, 130-31, 219-20. 

Narration, in fairy tales, 74-75; illustrated by Sleeping Beauty, 146-47. 

Norse tales, 194; a list of, 247; editions, 257. 

Objectification in fairy tales, 135-38. 

Oeyvind and Marit, 60-64. 

Old Woman and Her Pig, accumulative type, 207, 208; realistic type, 225-26; an exercise of memory, 226. 

Organization of ideas, accomplished through Fir Tree, 152-53; social, of tale, 153-54. 

Origin of fairy tales, 158-67. 

Outline, 291-303. 

Paper-cutting, 130-31. 

Painting, as expression, 132. 

Panchatantra, the Five Books, 171. 

Pause, in story-telling, 104-05. 

Pentamerone, The, 178-79. 

Perrault, Charles, statue of, 1; list of tales by, 180; tales by, tested as literary form, 68; editions by, 257-58. 

Personality, quality of, 57-58; in Oeyvind and Marit, 60; in Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 64; power of, 106-07. 

Personal relation, establishment of, 107-10. 

Peter Rabbit, 239. 

Philosophy, in fairy tales, 48-52; of Uncle Remus Tales, 51-52; of Laboulaye's Tales, 51; of Cat and Mouse in Partnership, 48; of Emperor's New Suit, 48-49; of Ugly Duckling, 49-50; of Elephant's Child, 49; child's, 50-51. 

Phonics in fairy tales, 79-81. 

Pictures, list, 255. 

Picture-Books, list, 254-55. 

Plot, element of fairy tale as short-story, 73-77; structure illustrated, 76-77. 

Poems, fairy, list, 255-56. 

Poetic justice, 22-23. 

Poetry, of teaching, 120. 

Portrayal of human relations, especially with children, 24-25. 

Position, of story-teller, 107. 

Precision, quality of, 57; illustrated in: Oeyvind and Marit, 60; Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 64. 

Preparation, teacher's, in story-telling, 94-102; rules for telling, 94-102. 

Presentation, teacher's, of tale, 102-19; training of voice, 103-04; exercises in breathing, 104-05; gesture, 105-06; power of personality, 106-07; suggestions for telling, 107-12; establishment of personal relation, 108-10; placing of story in concrete situation, 94-95, 110-11; conception of child's aim, 112; telling of tale, 112-19; re-creative method of story-telling, 113-17; adaptation of fairy tales, 117-19. 

Princess and Pea, 114-16. 

Principles, of selection for fairy tales, 13-89; interests of children, 13-37; fairy tale as literature, 37-70; fairy tale as short-story, 70-87; references, 87-89. 

Principles, of composition, 58-60; of story-telling, 94; of teaching, 119-25; concerning instincts of children, 124-25. 

Problem, a means of developing consciousness, 122-25. 

Proverbs in fairy tales, 50. 

Purpose, growth in child's, 123-25. 

Puss-in-Boots, 232, 275-78. 

Psychological method of selecting tales, 95-96. 

Quick-Running Squash, 240. 

Realistic, tale, 223-28; types of, 224-28. 

Reading, as expression, 127; relation of, to literature, 10-11, 127. 

Reason, growth in, 6-7, 10; development of, 53-54. 

Re-creative method of story-telling, 113-17. 

Red Riding Hood, chap-book, 189; a romantic type, 232-34. 

References; chapter I, 12; chapter II, 87-89; chapter III, 154-57; chapter IV, 201-03; chapter V, 243-44. 

Relation, of contemplative imagination to language-training, 47-48; of contemplative imagination to power of observation, 47-48; of contemplative imagination to science, 52-53; of literature to intellect, 53-54; of sound to sense or meaning, 55; of sound to action, 55-56; of phonics and emotional effect, 55; of gesture to story-telling, 105-06; personal, between the story-teller and listener, 107-10; of reading to story-telling, 127; of reading to literature, 10, 11, 38, 127; of rhyme to meaning, 56; of fairy tales to nature study, 6, 47-48; of fairy tales to industrial education, 71-73; of fairy tales to child, 3-11; of dramatization to story-telling, 138-54; of fairy tales to literature, 37-70; of fairy tales to composition, 54-70; of fairy tales to story-telling, 90-91. 

Repetition, 26-28, 205-11. 

Representation, 135-38. 

Re-telling of fairy tales, 101-02. 

Return, creative, from child, in telling of fairy tales, 119-54: in language, 125-27; in inquiry, 127-29; in construction, 129-30; in artistic expression, 130-54; in paper-cutting, 130-31; in drawing, 132; in painting, 132; in song, 132-33; in rhythm, 133-34; in game, 134-35; in dance, 137, 145, 147; in dramatization, 138-54; illustrated, 145-54, 265-72. 

Reynard the Fox, place in the animal tale, 212; history, 172-74; chap-book, 185, 186, 190, 196. 

Rhyme, 56. 

Rhythm, in fairy tales, 26-28; plays, 133-34. 

Robin's Christmas song, 78-79. 

Romantic tale, 228-34; types of, 228-34, 275-86. 

St. Nicholas, Stories retold from, 241. 

Sanskrit Tales, 171. 

School editions of fairy tales, 262-64. 

Science, relation of contemplative imagination to, 52-53. 

Sea Fairy and the Land Fairy, 236-37. 

Selection of fairy tales by teacher, psychological or logical, 95-96. 

Sense impression, 17-18. 

Setting, element of fairy tale as short-story, 77-82; sequence in, 78-79; story told by, 81-82; and phonics, 79-81. 

Sheep and Pig, 215. 

Short-story, fairy tale as, 70-87: elements of, 70-71; ways of writing, 71; characters, 71-73; plot, 73-77; narration in, 74-75; description in, 75; setting, 77-82; elements of, blended, 82-84; tales tested as, 84-87; telling of, 90-154. 

Silhouette pictures, cutting of, 130-31. 

Simple and sincere, 28-29. 

Sincerity, principle of, 58-59; illustrated in: Oeyvind and Marit, 60, 61; Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 64-65. 

Sindibad, The Book of, 172. 

Sleeping Beauty, romantic type, 231-32; uniting partial narration, dramatization, and dramatic game, 146-47. 

Snow White, 145, 266-67. 

Snow White and Rose Red, 232, 282-86. 

Song, as expression, 132-33. 

Soul, in literature, 39-40. 

Sources of material for fairy tales, 245-64: list of fairy tales and folk-tales, 246-53; bibliography of fairy tales, 253-54; list of picture-books, 254-55; list of pictures, 255; list of fairy poems, 255-56; main standard fairy-tale books, 256-58; fairy tales of all nations, 258-59; miscellaneous editions of fairy tales, 259-62; school editions of fairy tales, 262-64. 

Sparrow and the Crow, as expression, 125-26. 

Spider and the Flea, 79-81. 

Standards, for testing fairy tales, 84; for selecting tales, 204-05; for making lists, 245-46. _See_ Summaries. 

Standard fairy-tale books, a list, 256-58. 

Story, place of, in home, library, and school, 93-94; formation of original stories, 126-27. 

Story-telling, an ancient art, 91-93; principles governing, 94; teacher's preparation for, 94-102; rules for, 94-102; presentation in, 102-119; voice in, 103-04; breathing in, 104-05; gesture in, 105-06; re-creative method of, 113-17; return from child, in, 119-54; child's part in, 121-25. 

Straparola, 178. 

Straparola's Nights, 178. 

Straw Ox, 86-87. 

Structure, illustrated, 76-77; study of, in story-telling, 99-100. 

Study of tale as folk-lore and as literature, 96-99. 

Style, defined, 59-60; illustrated, 60-65; qualities of, 59-60; principles controlling, 59-60. 

Success, 20. 

Suggestion, illustrated by Pope, 55; by Andersen, 136; by Kipling, 56-57; through gesture and sound, 55; through arrangement of words and speech-tunes of voice, 56-57. 

Summaries: giving message of book, 13, 37-38, 40, 70-71, 84, 158, 204-05, 235. 

Surprise, 15-17. 

Swedish tales, 193. 

Tales: of Mother Goose, 179-81; of Perrault, 246; of the Grimms, 246-47; Norse, 247; English, by Jacobs, 247-48; modern fairy, by Andersen, 248; Uncle Remus, 248-49; miscellaneous, 249-53; fairy, of all nations, 258-59; literary collections of, 170-200. _See_ Fairy tales. 

Teaching, story-telling, a part of the art of, 119-25; poetry of, 120; good art in, 120; great art in, 120-21; a criticism of life, 120-21. 

Telling, of fairy tales, 90-154; art of story-telling, 90-94; principles controlling, 94; preparation by teacher for, 94-102; presentation by teacher, in, 102-19; suggestions for, 107-12; return by child, from, 119-54; re-creative method of, 113-17; adaptation of tales for, 117-19; references, 154-57. 

Theories of origin of fairy tales: detritus of myth, 161-63; sun-myth theory, 163-64; common Indian heritage, 165-67; identity of early fancy, 167. 

Three Bears, illustrating surprise, 16-17; a chap-book, 190; accumulative, 209-11. 

Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 64-65. 

Three Pigs, illustrating structure, 76; animal type, 216. 

Thumbelina, illustrating adaptation, 118; illustrating rhythm play, 134. 

Tin Soldier, Steadfast, as emotion, 42; tale of imagination, 46; as representation, 135-38; as a game, 135, 138. 

Titty Mouse and Tatty Mouse, 81, 208-09, 227-28. 

Tom Hickathrift, 185, 186, 187, 196. 

Tom Thumb, chap-book tale, 185, 188, 190, 196; romantic type, 278-81. 

Tone-color, in story-telling, 105. 

Training of voice, 103-04. 

Transformation, tales of, 32-33; kinds of, 276. 

Transmission, of tales: oral, 167-170; literary, 170; illustrated by: Dog Gellert, 166; Dick Whittington, 169; Peruonto, 169-70. 

Tributes, two public, 1-3. 

Truth, basis of, in fairy tales, a distinguishing literary mark, 40, 53-54. 

Tuileries, gardens of. _See_ Gardens. 

Uncle Remus Tales, by Harris, 248-49; editions, 257. 

Unhappy tales, 34. 

Unity, of effect, 29-30; principle of composition, 58-59; illustrated in: Oeyvind and Marit, 61; Three Billy-Goats Gruff, 65. 

Value, of fairy tales in education, 3-12, 119-25; to give joy, 3-4; to satisfy the play-spirit, 4-6; to develop observation, 6; to give habits of mind, 6-7; to strengthen emotion, 6-7, 44-45; to extend social relations, 7-8 in home, library, and school, 8-9; to give language-training, 10-11; to develop imagination, 45-53; to develop reason, 53-54; to develop power of creative return, 119-54; to develop self-activity, 121-22; to develop consciousness, through problems, 122-23; to develop initiative, 122; to develop purpose, 123-25; to develop self-expression, 124-54; to strengthen originality, 127-29; to develop organization of ideas, 153; and to exercise memory, 226. 

Version, of tale, 101-02. 

Villeneuve, Madam, 182. 

Voice, training of, 103-04. 

Witch tales, 31. 

Wolf and the Seven Kids, expression in painting, 132; in song, 132-33. 

Words, powers of, 54-55; denotation, 54; connotation, 54-55; suggestion, 54-57. 

Wonder, mystery, magic, an interest, 19. 

Worth of fairy tales, 1-12: two public tributes, 1-3; value of fairy tales in education, 3-12; references, 12.