[Illustration: ABRAHAM LINCOLN. ]

 "Our children shall behold his fame, The kindly-earnest, brave, foreseeing man, Sagacious, patient, dreading praise, not blame, New birth of our new soil, the first American. "

 --LOWELL. 

A SHORT HISTORY

OF

THE UNITED STATES

_FOR SCHOOL USE_

BY

EDWARD CHANNING

PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITYAUTHOR OF "A STUDENTS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, " ETC. 

_WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS_

1908

PREFACE

The aim of this little book is to tell in a simple and concise form thestory of the founding and development of the United States. The study ofthe history of one's own country is a serious matter, and should beentered upon by the text-book writer, by the teacher, and by the pupilin a serious spirit, even to a greater extent than the study of languageor of arithmetic. No effort has been made, therefore, to make out ofthis text-book a story book. It is a text-book pure and simple, andshould be used as a text-book, to be studied diligently by the pupil andexpounded carefully by the teacher. 

Most of the pupils who use this book will never have another opportunityto study the history and institutions of their own country. It is highlydesirable that they should use their time in studying the real historyof the United States and not in learning by heart a mass ofanecdotes, --often of very slight importance, and more often based onvery insecure foundations. The author of this text-book, therefore, hasboldly ventured to omit most of the traditional matter which is usuallysupposed to give life to a text-book and to inspire a "love ofhistory, "--which too often means only a love of being amused. Forinstance, descriptions of the formation of the Constitution and of thestruggle over the extension of slavery here occupy the space usuallygiven to the adventures of Captain John Smith and to accounts of theinstitutions of the Red Men. The small number of pages available for theperiod before 1760 has necessitated the omission of "pictures ofcolonial life, " which cannot be briefly and at the same time accuratelydescribed. These and similar matters can easily be studied by the pupilsin their topical work in such books as Higginson's _Young Folks'History_, Eggleston's _United States and its People_, and McMaster's_School History_. References to these books and to a limited number ofother works have been given in the margins of this text-book. Thesecitations also mention a few of the more accessible sources, whichshould be used solely for purposes of illustration. 

It is the custom in many schools to spread the study of American historyover two years, and to devote the first year to a detailed study of theperiod before 1760. This is a very bad arrangement. In the first place, it gives an undue emphasis to the colonial period; in the second place, as many pupils never return to school, they never have an opportunity tostudy the later period at all; in the third place, it prevents thosepupils who complete this study from gaining an intelligent view of thedevelopment of the American people. And, finally, most of the time thesecond year is spent in the study of the Revolutionary War and of theWar for the Union. A better way would be to go over the whole book thefirst year with some parallel reading, and the second year to review thebook and study with greater care important episodes, as the making ofthe Constitution, the struggle for freedom in the territories, and theWar for the Union. Attention may also be given the second year to astudy of industrial history since 1790 and to the elements of civilgovernment. It is the author's earnest hope that teachers will regardthe early chapters as introductory. 

Miss Annie Bliss Chapman, for many years a successful teacher of historyin grammar schools, has kindly provided a limited number of suggestivequestions, and has also made many excellent suggestions to teachers. These are all appended to the several divisions of the work. The authorhas added a few questions and a few suggestions of his own. He has alsoaltered some of Miss Chapman's questions. Whatever there is commendablein this apparatus should be credited to Miss Chapman. Acknowledgmentsare also due to Miss Beulah Marie Dix for very many admirablesuggestions as to language and form. The author will cordially welcomecriticisms and suggestions from any one, especially from teachers, andwill be very glad to receive notice of any errors. 

CAMBRIDGE, March 29, 1900. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I

DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, 1000-1600. 

1. The European Discovery of America. 2. Spanish and French Pioneers in the United States. 3. Pioneers of England. 

II

COLONIZATION, 1600-1660. 

4. French Colonists, Missionaries, and Explorers. 5. Virginia and Maryland. 6. New England. 7. New Netherland and New Sweden. 

III

A CENTURY OF COLONIAL HISTORY, 1660-1760. 

8. The Colonies under Charles II. 9. Colonial Development, 1688-1760. 10. Expulsion of the French. 

IV

COLONIAL UNION, 1760-1774. 

11. Britain's Colonial System. 12. Taxation without Representation. 13. Revolution impending. 

V

THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1775-1783. 

14. Bunker Hill to Trenton. 15. The Great Declaration and the French Alliance. 16. Independence. 

VI

THE CRITICAL PERIOD, 1783-1789. 

17. The Confederation, 1783-1787. 18. Making of the Constitution, 1787-1789. 

VII

THE FEDERALIST SUPREMACY, 1789-1801. 

19. Organization of the Government. 20. Rise of Political Parties. 21. The Last Federalist Administration. 

VIII

THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS, 1801-1812. 

22. The United States in 1800. 23. Jefferson's Administrations. 24. Causes of the War of 1812. 

IX

WAR AND PEACE, 1812-1829. 

25. The Second War of Independence, 1812-1815. 26. The Era of Good Feeling, 1815-1824. 27. New Parties and New Policies, 1824-1829. 

X

THE NATIONAL DEMOCRACY, 1829-1844. 

28. The American People in 1830. 29. The Reign of Andrew Jackson, 1829-1837. 30. Democrats and Whigs, 1837-1844. 

XI

SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES, 1844-1859. 

31. Beginning of the Antislavery Agitation. 32. The Mexican War. 33. The Compromise of 1850. 34. The Struggle for Kansas. 

XII

SECESSION, 1860-1861. 

35. The United States in 1860. 36. Secession, 1860-1861. 

XIII

THE WAR FOR THE UNION, 1861-1865. 

37. The Rising of the Peoples, 1861. 38. Bull Run to Murfreesboro', 1861-1862. 39. The Emancipation Proclamation. 40. The Year 1863. 41. The End of the War, 1864-1865. 

XIV

RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION, 1865-1869. 

42. President Johnson and Reconstruction, 1865-1869. 43. From Grant to Cleveland, 1869-1889. 

XV

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, 1889-1900. 

44. Confusion in Politics. 45. The Spanish War. 

MAPS. 

UNITED STATES, SHOWING FORMS OF LAND. BRITISH DOMINIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. UNITED STATES IN 1783. CLAIMS AND CESSIONS. TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS. UNITED STATES IN 1800. UNITED STATES IN 1803. UNITED STATES IN 1819. UNITED STATES IN 1830. UNITED STATES IN 1850. UNITED STATES IN 1860. SLAVERY AND SECESSION. UNITED STATES IN 1900. DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES. THE WORLD, ETC. . 

_Table of Dates_

1815-1824. Era of Good Feeling. 1819. The Florida Treaty. 1820. Missouri Compromise. 1823. The Monroe Doctrine. 1825. The Erie Canal. 1828. Election of Jackson. 1830. The Locomotive. 1832. The Nullification Episode. 1840. Election of William H. Harrison. 1844. The Electric Telegraph. 1845. The Horse Reaper. 1845. Annexation of Texas. 1846. The Oregon Treaty. 1846-1848. The Mexican War (Acquisition of California, New Mexico, etc. )1849. California (Discovery of Gold). 1850. Compromise of 1850. 1854. Kansas-Nebraska Act. 1857. The Dred Scott Case. 1861-1865. The War for the Union. 1863. Emancipation Proclamation, Vicksburg, and Gettysburg. 1867. Purchase of Alaska. 1867. Reconstruction Acts. 1868. Impeachment of Johnson. 1876. The Electoral Commission. 1881-1883. Civil Service Reform. 1890. Sherman Silver Law (Repealed, 1893). 1898. The War with Spain. 

TO THE TEACHER

The lists of "Books for Study and Reading" contain such titles only asare suited to the pupil's needs. The teacher will find abundantreferences in Channing's _Students' History of the United States_ (N. Y. , Macmillan). The larger work also contains the reasons for manystatements which are here given as facts without qualification. Reference to the _Students' History_ is made easy by the fact that thedivisions or parts (here marked by Roman numerals) cover the sameperiods in time as the chapters of the larger work. On the margins ofthe present volume will be found specific references to three text-booksradically unlike this text-book either in proportion or in point ofview. There are also references to easily accessible sources and to afew of the larger works. It is not suggested that any one pupil, or evenone class, shall study or read all of these references. But every pupilmay well read some of them under each division. They are also suited totopical work. Under the head of "Home Readings" great care has beentaken to mention such books only as are likely to be found interesting. 

The books most frequently cited in the margins are Higginson's _YoungFolks' History_ (N. Y. , Longmans), cited as "_Higginson_"; Eggleston's_United States and its People_ (N. Y. , Appleton), cited as "_Eggleston_", McMaster's _School History of the United States_ (N. Y. , American BookCo. ), cited as "_McMaster_"; Higginson's _Book of American Explorers_(N. Y. , Longmans), cited as "_Explorers_"; Lodge and Roosevelt, _HeroTales from American History_, cited as "_Hero Tales_"; and Hart's_Source-Book of American History_ (N. Y. , Macmillan), cited as"_Source-Book_. "

THE UNITED STATES

I

DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, 1000-1600

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Parkman's _Pioneers of France_ (edition of 1887 or alater edition); Irving's _Columbus_ (abridged edition). 

Home Readings. --Higginson's _Tales of the Enchanted Islands of theAtlantic_; Mackie's _With the Admiral of the Ocean Sea_ (Columbus);Lummis's _Spanish Pioneers_; King's _De Soto in the Land of Florida_;Wright's _Children's Stories in American History_; Barnes's _Drake andhis Yeomen_. 

CHAPTER I

THE EUROPEAN DISCOVERY OF AMERICA

[Sidenote: Leif Ericson. ]

1. Leif Ericson discovers America, 1000. --In our early childhoodmany of us learned to repeat the lines:--

 Columbus sailed the ocean blue In fourteen hundred, ninety-two. 

[Sidenote: Leif discovers America, 1000. _Higginson_, 25-30; _AmericanHistory Leaflets_, No. 3. ]

We thought that he was the first European to visit America. But nearlyfive hundred years before his time Leif Ericson had discovered the NewWorld. He was a Northman and the son of Eric the Red. Eric had alreadyfounded a colony in Greenland, and Leif sailed from Norway to make him avisit. This was in the year 1000. Day after day Leif and his men weretossed about on the sea until they reached an unknown land where theyfound many grape-vines. They called it Vinland or Wineland. They Thensailed northward and reached Greenland in safety. Precisely whereVinland was is not known. But it certainly was part of North America. Leif Ericson, the Northman, was therefore the real discovererof America. 

[Illustration: EUROPE, ICELAND, GREENLAND, AND NORTH AMERICA. ]

[Sidenote: Marco Polo, Cathay, and Cipango. ]

2. Early European Travelers. --The people of Europe knew more of thelands of Asia than they knew of Vinland. For hundreds of yearsmissionaries, traders, and travelers visited the Far East. They broughtback to Europe silks and spices, and ornaments of gold and of silver. They told marvelous tales of rich lands and great princes. One of thesetravelers was a Venetian named Marco Polo. He told of Cathay or Chinaand of Cipango or Japan. This last country was an island. Its king wasso rich that even the floors of his palaces were of pure gold. Suddenlythe Turks conquered the lands between Europe and the golden East. Theyput an end to this trading and traveling. New ways to India, China, andJapan must be found. 

[Sidenote: Portuguese seamen. ]

3. Early Portuguese Sailors. --One way to the East seemed to bearound the southern end of Africa--if it should turn out that there wasa southern end to that Dark Continent. In 1487 Portuguese seamen sailedaround the southern end of Africa and, returning home, called that pointthe Cape of Storms. But the King of Portugal thought that now there wasgood hope of reaching India by sea. So he changed the name to Cape ofGood Hope. Ten years later a brave Portuguese sailor, Vasco da Gama, actually reached India by the Cape of Good Hope, and returned safely toPortugal (1497). 

[Sidenote: Columbus and his beliefs. _Higginson, 31-35; Eggleston, 1-3;American History Leaflets_, No. 1. ]

4. Columbus. --Meantime Christopher Columbus, an Italian, hadreturned from an even more startling voyage. From what he had read, andfrom what other men had told him, he had come to believe that the earthwas round. If this were really true, Cipango and Cathay were west ofEurope as well as east of Europe. Columbus also believed that the earthwas very much smaller than it really is, and that Cipango was only threethousand miles west of Spain. For a time people laughed at the idea ofsailing westward to Cipango and Cathay. But at length Columbus securedenough money to fit out a little fleet. 

[Sidenote: Columbus reaches America, 1492. _Higginson, 35-37; Eggleston, 3-5_. ]

5. The Voyage, 1492. --Columbus left Spain in August, 1492, and, refitting at the Canaries, sailed westward into the Sea of Darkness. Atten o'clock in the evening of October 20, 1492, looking out into thenight, he saw a light in the distance. The fleet was soon stopped. Whenday broke, there, sure enough, was land. A boat was lowered, andColumbus, going ashore, took possession of the new land for Ferdinandand Isabella, King and Queen of Aragon and Castile. The natives came tosee the discoverers. They were reddish in color and interestedColumbus--for were they not inhabitants of the Far East? So he calledthem Indians. 

[Illustration: SHIPS, SEA-MONSTERS, AND INDIANS. From an early Spanishbook on America. ]

[Sidenote: The Indians, _Higginson, 13-24; Eggleston, 71-76_. ]

[Sidenote: Columbus discovers Cuba. ]

6. The Indians and the Indies. --These Indians were not at all likethose wonderful people of Cathay and Cipango whom Marco Polo haddescribed. Instead of wearing clothes of silk and of gold embroideredsatin, these people wore no clothes of any kind. But it was plain enoughthat the island they had found was not Cipango. It was probably someisland off the coast of Cipango, so on Columbus sailed and discoveredCuba. He was certain that Cuba was a part of the mainland of Asia, forthe Indians kept saying "Cubanaquan. " Columbus thought that this wastheir way of pronouncing Kublai Khan--the name of a mighty easternruler. So he sent two messengers with a letter to that powerful monarch. Returning to Spain, Columbus was welcomed as a great admiral. He madethree other voyages to America. But he never came within sight of themainland of the United States. 

[Sidenote: John Cabot visits North America, 1497. _Higginson, 40-42;Eggleston, 8-10; American History Leaflets_, No. 9. ]

7. John Cabot, 1497. --While Columbus explored the West Indies, another Italian sailed across the Sea of Darkness farther north. Hisname was John Cabot, and he sailed with a license from Henry VII ofEngland, the first of the Tudor kings. Setting boldly forth fromBristol, England, he crossed the North Atlantic and reached the coast ofAmerica north of Nova Scotia. Like Columbus, he thought that he hadfound the country of the Grand Khan. Upon his discovery English kingsbased their claim to the right to colonize North America. 

[Sidenote: Americus Vespucius, his voyages and books. _Higginson_, 37-38; _Eggleston_, 7-8. ]

[Sidenote: The New World named America. ]

8. The Naming of America. --Many other explorers also visited thenew-found lands. Among these was an Italian named Americus Vespucius. Precisely where he went is not clear. But it is clear that he wroteaccounts of his voyages, which were printed and read by many persons. Inthese accounts he said that what we call South America was not a part ofAsia. So he named it the New World. Columbus all the time was declaringthat the lands he had found were a part of Asia. It was natural, therefore, that people in thinking of the New World should think ofAmericus Vespucius. Before long some one even suggested that the NewWorld should be named America in his honor. This was done, and when itbecame certain that the other lands were not parts of Asia, the nameAmerica was given to them also until the whole continent came to becalled America. 

[Illustration: AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. ]

[Sidenote: Balboa sees the Pacific, 1513. ]

[Sidenote: Magellan's great voyage, 1520. _Eggleston_, 10-11. ]

9. Balboa and Magellan, 1513, 1520. --Balboa was a Spaniard who cameto San Domingo to seek his fortune. He became a pauper and fled awayfrom those to whom he owed money. After long wanderings he foundhimself on a high mountain in the center of the Isthmus of Panama. Tothe southward sparkled the waters of a new sea. He called it the SouthSea. Wading into it waist deep, he waved his sword in the air and tookpossession of it for his royal master, the King of Spain. This was in1513. Seven years later, in 1520, Magellan, a Portuguese seaman in theservice of the Spanish king, sailed through the Straits of Magellan andentered the same great ocean, which he called the Pacific. Thencenorthward and westward he sailed day after day, week after week, andmonth after month, until he reached the Philippine Islands. The nativeskilled Magellan. But one of his vessels found her way back to Spainaround the Cape of Good Hope. 

CHAPTER 2

SPANISH AND FRENCH PIONEERS IN THE UNITED STATES

[Sidenote: Indian traditions. ]

10. Stories of Golden Lands. --Wherever the Spaniards went, theIndians always told them stories of golden lands somewhere else. TheBahama Indians, for instance, told their cruel Spanish masters of awonderful land toward the north. Not only was there gold in that land;there was also a fountain whose waters restored youth and vigor to thedrinker. Among the fierce Spanish soldiers was Ponce de Leon (Pon'tha dala-on'). He determined to see for himself if these stories were true. 

[Sidenote: De Leon visits Florida, 1513. _Higginson_, 42. ]

[Sidenote: De Leon's death. ]

11. Discovery of Florida, 1513. --In the same year that Balboadiscovered the Pacific Ocean, Ponce de Leon sailed northward andwestward from the Bahamas. On Easter Sunday, 1513, he anchored off theshores of a new land. The Spanish name for Easter was La Pascua de losFlores. So De Leon called the new land Florida. For the Spaniards were avery religious people and usually named their lands and settlements fromsaints or religious events. De Leon then sailed around the southern endof Florida and back to the West Indies. In 1521 he again visitedFlorida, was wounded by an Indian arrow, and returned home to die. 

[Sidenote: Discovery of the Mississippi. ]

[Sidenote: Conquest of Mexico. ]

12. Spanish Voyages and Conquests. --Spanish sailors and conquerorsnow appeared in quick succession on the northern and western shores ofthe Gulf of Mexico. One of them discovered the mouth of the Mississippi. Others of them stole Indians and carried them to the islands to work asslaves. The most famous of them all was Cortez. In 1519 he conqueredMexico after a thrilling campaign and found there great store of goldand silver. This discovery led to more expeditions and to theexploration of the southern half of the United States. 

[Sidenote: Coronado sets out from Mexico, 1540. ]

[Sidenote: The pueblo Indians. _Source Book_, 6. ]

13. Coronado in the Southwest, 1540-42. --In 1540 Coronado set outfrom the Spanish towns on the Gulf of California to seek for more goldand silver. For seventy-three days he journeyed northward until he cameto the pueblos (pweb'-lo) of the Southwest. These pueblos were hugebuildings of stone and sun-dried clay. Some of them were large enoughto shelter three hundred Indian families. Pueblos are still to be seenin Arizona and New Mexico, and the Indians living in them even to thisday tell stories of Coronado's coming and of his cruelty. There washardly any gold and silver in these "cities, " so a great grief fell uponCoronado and his comrades. 

[Illustration: _By permission of the Bureau of Ethnology. _ THE PUEBLO OFZUÑI (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH). ]

[Sidenote: Coronado finds the Great Plains. ]

14. The Great Plains. --Soon, however, a new hope came to the Spaniards, for an Indian told them that far away in the north there really was agolden land. Onward rode Coronado and a body of picked men. They crossedvast plains where there were no mountains to guide them. For more than athousand miles they rode on until they reached eastern Kansas. Everywhere they found great herds of buffaloes, or wild cows, as theycalled them. They also met the Indians of the Plains. Unlike the Indiansof the pueblos, these Indians lived in tents made of buffalo hidesstretched upon poles. Everywhere there were plains, buffaloes, andIndians. Nowhere was there gold or silver. Broken hearted, Coronado andhis men rode southward to their old homes in Mexico. 

[Sidenote: De Soto in Florida, 1539. _Explorers_, 119-138. ]

[Sidenote: De Soto crosses the Mississippi. ]

15. De Soto in the Southeast, 1539-43. --In 1539 a Spanish armylanded at Tampa Bay, on the western coast of Florida. The leader of thisarmy was De Soto, one of the conquerors of Peru. He "was very fond ofthe sport of killing Indians" and was also greedy for gold and silver. From Tampa he marched northward to South Carolina and then marchedsouthwestward to Mobile Bay. There he had a dreadful time; for theIndians burned his camp and stores and killed many of his men. FromMobile he wandered northwestward until he came to a great river. It wasthe Mississippi, and was so wide that a man standing on one bank couldnot see a man standing on the opposite bank. Some of De Soto's menpenetrated westward nearly to the line of Coronado's march. But the twobands did not meet. De Soto died and was buried in the Mississippi. Those of his men who still lived built a few boats and managed to reachthe Spanish settlements in Mexico. 

[Sidenote: Other Spanish explorers. ]

[Sidenote: Attempts at settlement. ]

16. Other Spanish Expeditions. --Many other Spanish explorersvisited the shores of the United States before 1550. Some sailed alongthe Pacific coast; others sailed along the Atlantic coast. The Spaniardsalso made several attempts to found settlements both on the northernshore of the Gulf of Mexico and on Chesapeake Bay. But all these earlyattempts ended in failure. In 1550 there were no Spaniards on thecontinent within the present limits of the United States, exceptpossibly a few traders and missionaries in the Southwest. 

[Sidenote: Verrazano's voyages, 1524. _Higginson_, 44-45; _Explorers_, 60-69. ]

[Sidenote: Cartier in the St. Lawrence, 1534-36. _Explorers_ 99-117. ]

17. Early French Voyages, 1524-36. --The first French expedition toAmerica was led by an Italian named Verrazano (Ver-rä-tsä'-no), but hesailed in the service of Francis I, King of France. He made his voyagein 1524 and sailed along the coast from the Cape Fear River to NovaScotia. He entered New York harbor and spent two weeks in Newportharbor. He reported that the country was "as pleasant as it is possibleto conceive. " The next French expedition was led by a Frenchman namedCartier (Kar'-tya'). In 1534 he visited the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In1535 he sailed up the St. Lawrence River to Montreal. But before hecould get out of the river again the ice formed about his ships. He andhis crew had to pass the winter there. They suffered terribly, andtwenty-four of them perished of cold and sickness. In the spring of 1536the survivors returned to France. 

[Sidenote: Ribault explores the Carolina coasts, 1562. ]

[Sidenote: French colonists in Carolina. _Explorers_, 149-156. ]

18. The French in Carolina, 1562. --The French next explored theshores of the Carolinas. Ribault (Re'-bo') was the name of theircommander. Sailing southward from Carolina, he discovered a beautifulriver and called it the River of May. But we know it by its Spanish nameof St. Johns. He left a few men on the Carolina coast and returned toFrance. A year or more these men remained. Then wearying of their lifein the wilderness, they built a crazy boat with sails of shirts andsheets and steered for France. Soon their water gave out and then theirfood. Finally, almost dead, they were rescued by an English ship. 

[Sidenote: French colonists in Florida. ]

19. The French in Florida, 1564-65. --While these Frenchmen wereslowly drifting across the Atlantic, a great French expedition wassailing to Carolina. Finding Ribault's men gone, the new colony wasplanted on the banks of the River of May. Soon the settlers ate up allthe food they had brought with them. Then they bought food from theIndians, giving them toys and old clothes in exchange. Some of thecolonists rebelled. They seized a vessel and sailed away to plunder theSpaniards in the West Indies. They told the Spaniards of the colony onthe River of May, and the Spaniards resolved to destroy it. 

[Sidenote: Spaniards and Frenchmen. ]

[Sidenote: End of the French settlement, 1565. _Explorers_, 159-166. ]

20. The Spaniards in Florida, 1565. --For this purpose the Spaniardssent out an expedition under Menendez (Ma-nen'-deth). He sailed to theRiver of May and found Ribault there with a French fleet. So he turnedsouthward, and going ashore founded St. Augustine. Ribault followed, buta terrible storm drove his whole fleet ashore south of St. Augustine. Menendez then marched over land to the French colony. He surprised thecolonists and killed nearly all of them. Then going back to St. Augustine, he found Ribault and his shipwrecked sailors and killednearly all of them. In this way ended the French attempts to found acolony in Carolina and Florida. But St. Augustine remained, and isto-day the oldest town on the mainland of the United States. 

CHAPTER 3

PIONEERS OF ENGLAND

[Sidenote: Hawkins's voyages, 1562-67. ]

21. Sir John Hawkins. --For many years after Cabot's voyageEnglishmen were too busy at home to pay much attention to distantexpeditions. But in Queen Elizabeth's time English seamen began to sailto America. The first of them to win a place in history was JohnHawkins. He carried cargoes of negro slaves from Africa to the WestIndies and sold them to the Spanish planters. On his third voyage he wasbasely attacked by the Spaniards and lost four of his five ships. Returning home, he became one of the leading men of Elizabeth's littlenavy and fought most gallantly for his country. 

[Illustration: SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. ]

[Sidenote: Drake on the California coast, 1577-78. _Source-Book_, 9. ]

22. Sir Francis Drake. --A greater and a more famous man wasHawkins's cousin, Francis Drake. He had been with Hawkins on his thirdvoyage and had come to hate Spaniards most vigorously. In 1577 he made afamous voyage round the world. Steering through the Straits of Magellan, he plundered the Spanish towns on the western coasts of South America. At one place his sailors went on shore and found a man sound asleep. Near him were four bars of silver. "We took the silver and left theman, " wrote the old historian of the voyage. Drake also captured vesselsloaded with gold and silver and pearls. Sailing northward, he repairedhis ship, the _Pelican_, on the coast of California, and returned homeby the way of the Cape of Good Hope. 

[Sidenote: Ralegh and his colonies. _Eggleston_, 13-17; _Explorers_, 177-189. ]

23. Sir Walter Ralegh. --Still another famous Englishman ofElizabeth's time was Walter Ralegh. He never saw the coasts of theUnited States, but his name is rightly connected with our history, because he tried again and again to found colonies on our shores. In1584 he sent Amadas and Barlowe to explore the Atlantic seashore ofNorth America. Their reports were so favorable that he sent a strongcolony to settle on Roanoke Island in Virginia, as he named that region. But the settlers soon became unhappy because they found no gold. Then, too, their food began to fail, and Drake, happening along, took themback to England. 

[Sidenote: Ralegh's last attempt, 1587. _Explorers_, 189-200. ]

24. The "Lost Colony, " 1587. --Ralegh made still one more attempt tofound a colony in Virginia. But the fate of this colony was mostdreadful. For the settlers entirely disappeared, --men, women, andchildren. Among the lost was little Virginia Dare, the first Englishchild born in America. No one really knows what became of these people. But the Indians told the later settlers of Jamestown that they had beenkilled by the savages. 

[Sidenote: Ruin of Spain's sea-power. _English History for Americans_, 131-135. ]

25. Destruction of the Spanish Armada, 1588. --This activity of theEnglish in America was very distressing to the King of Spain. For heclaimed all America for himself and did not wish Englishmen to gothither. He determined to conquer England and thus put an end to theseEnglish voyages. But Hawkins, Drake, Ralegh, and the men behind theEnglish guns were too strong even for the Invincible Armada. Spain'ssea-power never recovered from this terrible blow. Englishmen could nowfound colonies with slight fear of the Spaniards. When the Spanish kinglearned of the settlement of Jamestown, he ordered an expedition to gofrom St. Augustine to destroy the English colony. But the Spaniardsnever got farther than the mouth of the James River. For when theyreached that point, they thought they saw the masts and spars of anEnglish ship. They at once turned about and sailed back to Florida asfast as they could go. 

 * * * * *

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 1

§§ 1-3. --a. To how much honor are the Northmen entitled as thediscoverers of America?

b. Draw from memory a map showing the relative positions of Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and North America. 

c. What portions of the world were known to Europeans in 1490? Explainby drawing a map. 

§§ 4-6. --a. State Columbus's beliefs about the shape and size of theearth. 

b. What land did Columbus think that he had reached?

c. What is meant by the statement that "he took possession" of the newland?

d. Describe the appearance of the Indians, their food, and theirweapons. 

§§ 7-9. --a. What other Italians sailed across the Atlantic before 1500?Why was Cabot's voyage important?

b. Why was the New World called America and not Columbia?

c. Describe the discovery of the Pacific Ocean. Why was this discoveryof importance?

CHAPTER 2

§§ 10-12. --a. What was the chief wish of the Spanish explorers?

b. How did they treat the Indians?

§§ 13-16. --a. Describe a pueblo. What do the existing pueblos teach usabout the Indians of Coronado's time?

b. Describe Coronado's march. 

c. What other band of Spaniards nearly approached Coronado's men?Describe their march. 

d. What other places were explored by the Spaniards?

§§ 17-20. --a. Why did Verrazano explore the northeastern coasts?

b. Describe Cartier's experiences in the St. Lawrence. 

c. Describe the French expeditions to Carolina and Florida. 

d. What reason had the Spaniards for attacking the French?

CHAPTER 3

§§ 21, 22. --a. Look up something about the early voyages of FrancisDrake. 

b. Compare Drake's route around the world with that of Magellan. 

§§ 23-25. --a. Explain carefully Ralegh's connection with our history. 

b. Was the territory Ralegh named Virginia just what is now the state ofVirginia?

c. What is sea-power?

d. What effect did the defeat of Spain have upon _our_ history?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

a. Draw upon an Outline Map the routes of all the explorers mentioned. Place names and dates in their proper places. 

b. Arrange a table of the various explorers as follows, stating in twoor three words what each accomplished:--

================================================ DATE. | SPANISH. | FRENCH. | ENGLISH. -------+-----------+----------+----------------- 1492 | Columbus | | 1497 | | | Cabot. ================================================

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

a. Columbus's first voyage, Irving (abridged edition). 

b. Coronado's expedition, Lummis's _Spanish Pioneers_. 

c. Verrazano and Cartier, Higginson's _Explorers_. 

d. The "Lost Colony, " Higginson's _Explorers_. 

e. The England of Elizabeth (a study of any small history of Englandwill suffice for this topic). 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

The teacher is recommended to study sources in preparing her work, making selections where possible, for the pupil's use. Some knowledge ofEuropean history (English especially) is essential for understanding ourearly history, and definite work of this nature on the teacher's part, at least, is earnestly advised. 

Encourage outside reading by assigning subjects for individualpreparation, the results to be given to the class. Let the children keepnote books for entering the important points thus given. 

Map study and map drawing should be constant, but demand correctrelations rather than finished drawings. Geographical environment shouldbe emphasized as well as the influence of natural resources andproductions in developing the country and in determining its history. 

In laying out the work on this period the teacher should remember thatthis part is in the nature of an introduction. 

II

COLONIZATION, 1600-1660

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Fiske's _United States for Schools_, 59-133;Eggleston's _United States and its People_, 91-113 (for colonial life);Parkman's _Pioneers_ (for French colonies); Bradford's _PlymouthPlantation_ (extracts in "American History Leaflets, " No. 29). 

Home Readings. --Drake's _Making of New England_; Drake's _Making ofVirginia and the Middle States_; Eggleston's _Pocahontas and Powhatan_;Dix's _Soldier Rigdale_ (Pilgrim children); Irving's _KnickerbockerHistory_; Webster's _Plymouth Oration_; Longfellow's _Myles Standish_;Moore's _Pilgrims and Puritans_. 

CHAPTER 4

FRENCH COLONISTS, MISSIONARIES, AND EXPLORERS

[Sidenote: Settlement of Acadia, 1604. ]

[Sidenote: Port Royal. ]

26. The French in Acadia. --For nearly forty years after thedestruction of the colony on the River of May, Frenchmen were too busyfighting one another at home to send any more colonists to America. Atlength, in 1604, a few Frenchmen settled on an island in the St. CroixRiver. But the place was so cold and windy that after a few months theycrossed the Bay of Fundy and founded the town of Port Royal. The countrythey called Acadia. 

[Sidenote: Champlain at Plymouth. ]

[Sidenote: Quebec founded, 1608. ]

[Sidenote: Champlain on Lake Champlain, 1609. ]

[Sidenote: He attacks the Iroquois. _Explorers_, 269-278. ]

27. Champlain and his Work. --The most famous of these colonists wasChamplain. He sailed along the coast southward and westward as far asPlymouth. As he passed by the mouth of Boston harbor, a mist hung lowover the water, and he did not see the entrance. Had it been clear hewould have discovered Boston harbor and Charles River, and Frenchcolonists might have settled there. In 1608 Champlain built atrading-post at Quebec and lived there for many years as governor orchief trader. He soon joined the St. Lawrence Indians in their warparties and explored large portions of the interior. In 1609 he wentwith the Indians to a beautiful lake. Far away to the east weremountains covered with snow. To the south were other mountains, but withno snow on their tops. To the lake the explorer gave his own name, andwe still call it in his honor, Lake Champlain. While there, he droveaway with his firearms a body of Iroquois Indians. A few years later hewent with another war party to western New York and again attackedthe Iroquois. 

[Sidenote: French missionaries and traders. ]

[Sidenote: They visit Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. ]

28. The French on the Great Lakes. --Champlain was the first of manyFrench discoverers. Some of these were missionaries who left home andfriends to bring the blessings of Christianity to the Red Men of thewestern world. Others were fur-traders, while still others were men whocame to the wilderness in search of excitement. These French discoverersfound Lake Superior and Lake Michigan; they even reached the headwatersof the Wisconsin River--a branch of the Mississippi. 

[Sidenote: The Jesuits and their work. ]

29. The French Missionaries. --The most active of the Frenchmissionaries were the Jesuits. Built stations on the shores of the GreatLakes. They made long expeditions to unknown regions. Some of them werekilled by those whom they tried to convert to Christianity. Others wererobbed and left to starve. Others still were tortured and cruellyabused. But the prospect of starvation, torture, and death only madethem more eager to carry on their great work. 

[Illustration: CHAMPLAIN'S ATTACK ON AN IROQUOIS FORT. ]

[Sidenote: The League of the Iroquois. ]

[Sidenote: Their hatred of the French. Its importance. ]

[Sidenote: The missionaries and the Iroquois. ]

30. The Iroquois. --The strongest of all the Indian tribes were thenations who formed the League of the Iroquois. Ever since Champlainfired upon them they hated the sight of a Frenchman. On the other hand, they looked upon the Dutch and the English as their friends. Frenchmissionaries tried to convert them to Christianity as they had convertedthe St. Lawrence Indians. But the Iroquois saw in this only anotherattempt at French conquest. So they hung red-hot stones about themissionaries' necks, or they burned them to death, or they cut them topieces while yet living. For a century and a half the Iroquois stoodbetween the Dutch and English settlers and their common enemies inCanada. Few events, in American history, therefore, have had such greatconsequences as Champlain's unprovoked attacks upon the Iroquois. 

CHAPTER 5

VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND

[Sidenote: New conditions of living in England. ]

[Sidenote: The Virginia Company. ]

31. The Virginia Company, 1606. --English people were now beginningto think in earnest of founding colonies. It was getting harder andharder to earn one's living in England, and it was very difficult toinvest one's money in any useful way. It followed, from this, that therewere many men who were glad to become colonists, and many persons whowere glad to provide money to pay for founding colonies. In 1606 theVirginia Company was formed and colonization began on a large scale. 

[Sidenote: The Virginia colonists at Jamestown, 1607. _Higginson_, 52, 110-117; _Eggleston_, 19-28; _Explorers_ 231-269. ]

[Sidenote: Sickness and death. ]

32. Founding of Jamestown, 1607. The first colonists sailed forVirginia in December, 1606. They were months on the way and sufferedterrible hardships. At last they reached Chesapeake Bay and James Riverand settled on a peninsula on the James, about thirty miles from itsmouth. Across the little isthmus which connected this peninsula with themainland they built a strong fence, or stockade, to keep the Indiansaway from their huts. Their settlement they named Jamestown. The earlycolonists of Virginia were not very well fitted for such a work. Some ofthem were gentlemen who had never labored with their hands; others werepoor, idle fellows whose only wish was to do nothing whatever. Therewere a few energetic men among them as Ratcliffe, Archer, and Smith. Butthese spent most of their time in exploring the bay and the rivers, inhunting for gold, and in quarreling with one another. With the summercame fevers, and soon fifty of the one hundred and five originalcolonists were dead. Then followed a cold, hard winter, and many ofthose who had not died of fever in the summer, now died of cold. Thecolonists brought little food with them, they were too lazy to plantmuch corn, and they were able to get only small supplies from theIndians. Indeed, the early history of Virginia is given mainly toaccounts of "starving times. " Of the first thousand colonists not onehundred lived to tell the tale of those early days. 

[Sidenote: Sir Thomas Dale. ]

[Sidenote: His wise action. ]

33. Sir Thomas Dale and Good Order. --In 1611 Sir Thomas Dale cameout as ruler, and he ruled with an iron hand. If a man refused to work, Dale made a slave of him for three years; if he did not work hardenough, Dale had him soundly whipped. But Sir Thomas Dale was not only asevere man; he was also a wise man. Hitherto everything had been incommon. Dale now tried the experiment of giving three acres of land toevery one of the old planters, and he also allowed them time to work ontheir own land. 

[Sidenote: Tobacco. ]

[Sidenote: Prosperity. ]

34. Tobacco-growing and Prosperity. --European people were nowbeginning to use tobacco. Most of it came from the Spanish colonies. Tobacco grew wild in Virginia. But the colonists at first did not knowhow to dry it and make it fit for smoking. After a few years they foundout how to prepare it. They now worked with great eagerness and plantedtobacco on every spot of cleared land. Men with money came over fromEngland. They brought many workingmen with them and planted large piecesof ground. Soon tobacco became the money of the colony, and the wholelife of Virginia turned on its cultivation. But it was difficult to findenough laborers to do the necessary work. 

[Sidenote: White servants. ]

[Sidenote: Criminals. ]

[Sidenote: Negro slaves, 1619. ]

35. Servants and Slaves. --Most of the laborers were white men andwomen who were bound to service for terms of years. These were calledservants. Some of them were poor persons who sold their labor to pay fortheir passage to Virginia. Others were unfortunate men and women andeven children who were stolen from their families and sold to thecolonists. Still others were criminals whom King James sent over to thecolony because that was the cheapest thing to do with them. In 1619 thefirst negro slaves were brought to Virginia by a Dutch vessel. TheVirginians bought them all--only twenty in number. But the planterspreferred white laborers. It was not until more that twenty-five yearshad passed away that the slaves really became numerous enough to makemuch difference in the life of the colony. 

[Sidenote: Sir Edwin Sandys. ]

[Sidenote: The first American legislature, 1619. ]

36. The first American Legislature, 1619. --The men who first formedthe Virginia Company had long since lost interest in it. Other men hadtaken their places. These latter were mostly Puritans (p. 29) or werethe friends and workers with the Puritans. The best known of them wasSir Edwin Sandys, the playmate of William Brewster--one of the PilgrimFathers (p. 29). Sandys and his friends sent Sir George Yeardley toVirginia as governor. They ordered him to summon an assembly to be madeup of representatives chosen by the freemen of the colony. Theserepresentatives soon did away with Dale's ferocious regulations, andmade other and much milder laws. 

[Sidenote: End of the Virginia Company, 1624. ]

[Sidenote: Virginia a royal province. ]

37. Virginia becomes a Royal Province, 1624. --The Virginiansthought this was a very good way to be governed. But King James thoughtthat the new rulers of the Virginia Company were much too liberal, andhe determined to destroy the company. The judges in those days dared notdisplease the king for he could turn them out of office at any time. Sowhen he told them to destroy the Virginia charter they took the veryfirst opportunity to declare it to be of no force. In this way theVirginia Company came to an end, and Virginia became a royal provincewith a governor appointed by the king. 

[Sidenote: Intolerance in Virginia. ]

[Sidenote: Persecution of the Puritans. ]

38. Religious Intolerance. --In 1625 King James died, and his sonCharles became king. He left the Virginians to themselves for the mostpart. They liked this. But they did not like his giving the northernpart of Virginia to a Roman Catholic favorite, Lord Baltimore, with thename of Maryland. Many Roman Catholics soon settled in Lord Baltimore'scolony. The Virginians feared lest they might come to Virginia and madesevere laws against them. Puritan missionaries also came from NewEngland and began to convert the Virginians to Puritanism. GovernorBerkeley and the leading Virginians were Episcopalians. They did notlike the Puritans any better than they liked the Roman Catholics. Theymade harsh laws against them and drove them out of Virginiainto Maryland. 

[Sidenote: Maryland given to Baltimore, 1632. ]

[Sidenote: Settlement of Maryland. _Higginson_, 121-123; _Eggleston_, 50-53; _Source-book_, 48-51. ]

39. Settlement of Maryland. --Maryland included the most valuableportion of Virginia north of the Potomac. Beside being the owner of allthis land, Lord Baltimore was also the ruler of the colony. He invitedpeople to go over and settle in Maryland and offered to give them largetracts of land on the payment of a small sum every year forever. Eachman's payment was small. But all the payments taken together, made quitea large amount which went on growing larger and larger as Maryland wassettled. The Baltimores were broad-minded men. They gave their colonistsa large share in the government of the colony and did what they could tobring about religious toleration in Maryland. 

[Sidenote: Roman Catholics in England. ]

[Sidenote: Roman Catholics and Puritans in Maryland. ]

[Sidenote: The Toleration Act, 1649. ]

40. The Maryland Toleration Act, 1649. --The English Roman Catholicswere cruelly oppressed. No priest of that faith was allowed to live inEngland. And Roman Catholics who were not priests had to pay heavy finessimply because they were Roman Catholics. Lord Baltimore hoped that hisfellow Catholics might find a place of shelter in Maryland, and many ofthe leading colonists were Roman Catholics. But most of the laborerswere Protestants. Soon came the Puritans from Virginia. They were kindlyreceived and given land. But it was evident that it would be difficultfor Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, and Puritans to live togetherwithout some kind of law to go by. So a law was made that any Christianmight worship as he saw fit. This was the first toleration act in thehistory of America. It was the first toleration act in the history ofmodern times. But the Puritan, Roger Williams, had already establishedreligious freedom in Rhode Island (p. 33). 

[Sidenote: Tobacco and grain. ]

[Sidenote: Commerce. ]

[Sidenote: Servants and slaves. ]

41. Maryland Industries. --Tobacco was the most important crop inearly Maryland. But grain was raised in many parts of the colony. Intime also there grew up a large trading town. This was Baltimore. Itsshipowners and merchants became rich and numerous, while there werealmost no shipowners or merchants in Virginia. There were also fewerslaves in Maryland than in Virginia. Nearly all the hard labor in theformer colony was done by white servants. In most other ways, however, Virginia and Maryland were nearly alike. 

CHAPTER 6

NEW ENGLAND

[Sidenote: The English Puritans. ]

[Sidenote: Non-Conformists. ]

[Sidenote: Separatists. ]

42. The Puritans. --The New England colonies were founded by EnglishPuritans who left England because they could not do as they wished inthe home land. All Puritans were agreed in wishing for a freergovernment than they had in England under the Stuart kings and in statematters were really the Liberals of their time. In religious matters, however, they were not all of one mind. Some of them wished to make onlya few changes in the Church. These were called Non-Conformists. Otherswished to make so many changes in religion that they could not stay inthe English State Church. These were called Separatists. The settlers ofPlymouth were Separatists; the settlers of Boston and neighboring townswere Non-Conformists. 

[Sidenote: The Scrooby Puritans. _Higginson, 55-56; Eggleston_, 34. ]

[Sidenote: They flee to Holland. ]

[Sidenote: They decide to emigrate to America. ]

43. The Pilgrims. --Of all the groups of Separatists scattered overEngland none became so famous as those who met at Elder Brewster's houseat Scrooby. King James decided to make all Puritans conform to the StateChurch or to hunt them out of the land. The Scrooby people soon felt theweight of persecution. After suffering great hardships and crueltreatment they fled away to Holland. But there they found it verydifficult to make a living. They suffered so terribly that many of theirEnglish friends preferred to go to prison in England rather than leadsuch a life of slavery in Holland. So the Pilgrims determined to found acolony in America. They reasoned that they could not be worse off inAmerica, because that would be impossible. At all events, their childrenwould not grow up as Dutchmen, but would still be Englishmen. They hadentire religious freedom in Holland; but they thought they would havethe same in America. 

[Illustration: BREWSTER'S HOUSE AT SCROOBY. The Pilgrims held theirservices in the building on the left, now used as a cow-house. ]

[Sidenote: The voyage of the _Mayflower_, 1620. ]

[Sidenote: The _Mayflower_ at Cape Cod. ]

44. The Voyage across the Atlantic. --Brewster's old friend, SirEdwin Sandys, was now at the head of the Virginia Company. He easilyprocured land for the Pilgrims in northern Virginia, near the Dutchsettlements (p. 41). Some London merchants lent them money. But theylent it on such harsh conditions that the Pilgrims' early life inAmerica was nearly as hard as their life had been in Holland. They had adreadful voyage across the Atlantic in the _Mayflower_. At one time itseemed as if the ship would surely go down. But the Pilgrims helped thesailors to place a heavy piece of wood under one of the deck beams andsaved the vessel from going to pieces. On November 19, 1620, theysighted land off the coast of Cape Cod. They tried to sail around thecape to the southward, but storms drove them back, and they anchored inProvincetown harbor. 

[Sidenote: The Pilgrims Compact, 1620. ]

45. The Mayflower Compact, 1620. --All the passengers on the_Mayflower_ were not Pilgrims. Some of them were servants sent out bythe London merchants to work for them. These men said that as they wereoutside of Virginia, the leaders of the expedition would have no powerover them as soon as they got on land. This was true enough, so thePilgrims drew up and signed a compact which obliged the signers to obeywhatever was decided to be for the public good. It gave the chosenleaders power to make the unruly obey their commands. 

[Illustration: map]

[Sidenote: The Pilgrims explore the coast. _Explorers_, 319-328. ]

[Sidenote: Plymouth settled. _Higginson_, 58-60; _Eggleston_, 35-38;_Source-Book_, 39-41. ]

[Sidenote: Sickness and death. ]

46. The First Winter at Plymouth. --For nearly a month the Pilgrimsexplored the shores of Cape Cod Bay. Finally, on December 21, 1620, aboat party landed on the mainland inside of Plymouth harbor. Theydecided to found their colony on the shore at that place. About a weeklater the _Mayflower_ anchored in Plymouth harbor. For months thePilgrims lived on the ship while working parties built the necessaryhuts on shore. It was in the midst of a cold New England winter. Thework was hard and food and clothing were not well suited to the worker'sneeds. Before the _Mayflower_ sailed away in the spring one-half of thelittle band was dead. 

[Sidenote: The Pilgrims and the Indians. _Explorers_, 333-337. ]

[Sidenote: Success of the colony. ]

[Sidenote: New Plymouth colony. ]

47. New Plymouth Colony. --Of all the Indians who once had livednear Plymouth only one remained. His name was Squanto. He came to thePilgrims in the spring. He taught them to grow corn and to dig clams, and thus saved them from starvation. The Pilgrims cared for him mostkindly as long as he lived. Another and more important Indian also cameto Plymouth. He was Massasoit, chief of the strongest Indian tribe nearPlymouth. With him the Pilgrims made a treaty which both parties obeyedfor more than fifty years. Before long the Pilgrims' life becamesomewhat easier. They worked hard to raise food for themselves, theyfished off the coasts, and bought furs from the Indians. In these waysthey got together enough money to pay back the London merchants. Many oftheir friends joined them. Other towns were settled near by, andPlymouth became the capital of the colony of New Plymouth. But thecolony was never very prosperous, and in the end was added toMassachusetts. 

[Sidenote: Founders of Massachusetts. ]

[Sidenote: _Explorers_ 341-361; _Source-book_ 45-48, 74-76. ]

[Sidenote: Settlement of Massachusetts, 1630. _Higginson_, 60-64;_Eggleston_, 39-41. ]

48. The Founding of Massachusetts, 1629-30. --Unlike the poor andhumble Pilgrims were the founders of Massachusetts. They were men ofwealth and social position, as for instance, John Winthrop and SirRichard Saltonstall. They left comfortable homes in England to found aPuritan state in America. They got a great tract of land extending fromthe Merrimac to the Charles, and westward across the continent. Hundredsof colonists came over in the years 1629-30. They settled Boston, Salem, and neighboring towns. In the next ten years thousands more joined them. From the beginning Massachusetts was strong and prosperous. Among somany people there were some who did not get on happily with the rulersof the colony. 

[Sidenote: Roger Williams expelled from Massachusetts. _Higginson_, 68-70. ]

[Sidenote: He founds Providence, 1636. _Source-book_, 52-54. ]

49. Roger Williams and Religious Liberty. --Among the newcomers wasRoger Williams, a Puritan minister. He disagreed with the Massachusettsleaders on several points. For instance, he thought that theMassachusetts people had no right to their lands, and he insisted thatthe rulers had no power in religious matters--as enforcing the laws asto Sunday. He insisted on these points so strongly that theMassachusetts government expelled him from the colony. In the spring of1636; with four companions he founded the town of Providence. There hedecided that every one should be free to worship God as he or shesaw fit. 

[Sidenote: Mrs. Hutchinson and her friends. ]

[Sidenote: They settle Rhode Island, 1637. ]

50. The Rhode Island Towns. --Soon another band of exiles came fromMassachusetts. These were Mrs. Hutchinson and her followers. Mrs. Hutchinson was a brilliant Puritan woman who had come to Boston fromEngland to enjoy the ministry of John Cotton, one of the Bostonministers. She soon began to find fault with the other ministers of thecolony. Naturally, they did not like this. Their friends were morenumerous than were Mrs. Hutchinson's friends, and the latter had toleave Massachusetts. They settled on the island of Rhode Island (1637). 

[Sidenote: The Connecticut colonists. ]

[Sidenote: Founding of Connecticut, 1635-36. _Higginson_, 71-72. ]

51. The Connecticut Colony. --Besides those Puritans whom theMassachusetts people drove from their colony there were other settlerswho left Massachusetts of their own free will. Among these were thefounders of Connecticut. The Massachusetts people would gladly have hadthem remain, but they were discontented and insisted on going away. Theysettled the towns of Hartford, Windsor, and Weathersfield, on theConnecticut River. At about the same time John Winthrop, Jr. , led acolony to Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut. Up to this timethe Dutch had seemed to have the best chance to settle the ConnecticutValley. But the control of that region was now definitely in the handsof the English. 

[Sidenote: Destruction of the Pequods, 1637. ]

52. The Pequod War, 1637. --The Pequod Indians were not so ready asthe Dutch to admit that resistance was hopeless. They attackedWethersfield. They killed several colonists, and carried others awayinto captivity. Captain John Mason of Connecticut and Captain JohnUnderhill of Massachusetts went against them with about one hundred men. They surprised the Indians in their fort. They set fire to the fort, andshot down the Indians as they strove to escape from their burningwigwams. In a short time the Pequod tribe was destroyed. 

[Illustration: JOHN WINTHROP, JR. ]

[Sidenote: The Connecticut Orders of 1638-39. ]

53. The First American Constitution, 1638-39. --The Connecticutcolonists had leisure now to settle the form of their government. Massachusetts had such a liberal charter that nothing more seemed to benecessary in that colony. The Mayflower Compact did well enough for thePilgrims. The Connecticut people had no charter, and they wantedsomething more definite than a vague compact. So in the winter of1638-39 they met at Hartford and set down on paper a complete set ofrules for their guidance. This was the first time in the history of theEnglish race that any people had tried to do this. The Connecticutconstitution of 1638-39 is therefore looked upon as "the first trulypolitical written constitution in history. " The government thusestablished was very much the same as that of Massachusetts with theexception that in Connecticut there was no religious condition for theright to vote as there was in Massachusetts. 

[Sidenote: The New Haven settlers. ]

[Sidenote: New Haven founded, 1638. _Higginson_, 72-73. ]

54. New Haven, 1638. --The settlers of New Haven went even fartherthan the Massachusetts rulers and held that the State should really be apart of the Church. Massachusetts was not entirely to their tastes. They passed only one winter there and then moved away and settled NewHaven. But this colony was not well situated for commerce, and was toonear the Dutch settlements (p. 41). It was never as prosperous asConnecticut and was finally joined to that colony. 

[Sidenote: Reasons for union. ]

[Sidenote: Articles of Confederation, 1643. ]

[Sidenote: New England towns. _Higginson_, 47-79. ]

55. The New England Confederation, 1643. --Besides the settlementsthat have already been described there were colonists living in NewHampshire and in Maine. Massachusetts included the New Hampshire townswithin her government, for some of those towns were within her limits. In 1640 the Long Parliament met in England, and in 1645 Oliver Cromwelland the Puritans destroyed the royal army in the battle of Naseby. Inthese troubled times England could do little to protect the New Englandcolonists, and could do nothing to punish them for acting independently. The New England colonists were surrounded by foreigners. There were theFrench on the north and the east, and the Dutch on the west. TheIndians, too, were living in their midst and might at any time turn onthe whites and kill them. Thinking all these things over, the fourleading colonies decided to join together for protection. They formedthe New England Confederation, and drew up a constitution. The colonistsliving in Rhode Island and in Maine did not belong to the Confederation, but they enjoyed many of the benefits flowing from it; for it was quitecertain that the Indians and the French and the Dutch would think twicebefore attacking any of the New England settlements. 

[Illustration: A CHILD'S HIGH CHAIR, ABOUT 1650. ]

[Sidenote: Education. ]

56. Social Conditions. --The New England colonies were all settledon the town system, for there were no industries which demanded largeplantations--as tobacco-planting. The New Englanders were small farmers, mechanics, ship-builders, and fishermen. There were few servants in NewEngland and almost no negro slaves. Most of the laborers were free menand worked for wages as laborers now do. Above all, the New Englanderswere very zealous in the matter of education. Harvard College wasfounded in 1636. A few years later a law was passed compelling everytown to provide schools for all the children in the town. 

CHAPTER 7

NEW NETHERLAND AND NEW SWEDEN

[Sidenote: The Dutch East India Company. ]

57. The Dutch. --At this time the Dutch were the greatest tradersand shipowners in the world. They were especially interested in thecommerce of the East Indies. Indeed, the Dutch India Company was themost successful trading company in existence. The way to the EastIndies lay through seas carefully guarded by the Portuguese, so theDutch India Company hired Henry Hudson, an English sailor, to search fora new route to India. 

[Sidenote: Henry Hudson. ]

[Sidenote: He discovers Hudson's River, 1609. _Higginson_, 88-90;_Explorers_, 281-296. ]

[Sidenote: His death. _Explorers_ 296-302. ]

58. Hudson's Voyage, 1609. --He set forth in 1609 in the_Half-Moon_, a stanch little ship. At first he sailed northward, but icesoon blocked his way. He then sailed southwestward to find a strait, which was said to lead through America, north of Chesapeake Bay. OnAugust 3, 1609, he reached the entrance of what is now New York harbor. Soon the _Half-Moon_ entered the mouth of the river that still bears hercaptain's name. Up, up the river she sailed, until finally she came toanchor near the present site of Albany. The ship's boats sailed evenfarther north. Everywhere the country was delightful. The Iroquois cameoff to the ship in their canoes. Hudson received them most kindly--quiteunlike the way Champlain treated other Iroquois Indians at about thesame time, on the shore of Lake Champlain (p. 20). Then Hudson saileddown the river again and back to Europe. He made one later voyage toAmerica, this time under the English flag. He was turned adrift by hismen in Hudson's Bay, and perished in the cold and ice. 

[Sidenote: The Dutch fur-traders. ]

[Sidenote: Settle on Manhattan Island. ]

[Sidenote: New Netherland. ]

59. The Dutch Fur-Traders. --Hudson's failure to find a new way toIndia made the Dutch India Company lose interest in Americanexploration. But many Dutch merchants were greatly interested inHudson's account of the "Great River of the Mountain. " They thoughtthat they could make money from trading for furs with the Indians. Theysent many expeditions to Hudson's River, and made a great deal of money. Some of their captains explored the coast northward and southward as faras Boston harbor and Delaware Bay. Their principal trading-posts were onManhattan Island, and near the site of Albany. In 1614 some of theleading traders obtained from the Dutch government the sole right totrade between New France and Virginia. They called this region NewNetherland. 

[Sidenote: The Dutch West India Company, 1621. _Higginson_, 90-96;_Explorers_, 303-307; _Source-book_, 42-44. ]

[Sidenote: The patroons, 1628. ]

60. The Founding of New Netherland. --In 1621 the Dutch West IndiaCompany was founded. Its first object was trade, but it also wasdirected "to advance the peopling" of the American lands claimed by theDutch. Colonists now came over; they settled at New Amsterdam, on thesouthern end of Manhattan Island, and also on the western end of LongIsland. By 1628 there were four hundred colonists in New Netherland. Butthe colony did not grow rapidly, so the Company tried to interest richmen in the scheme of colonization, by giving them large tracts of landand large powers of government. These great land owners were calledpatroons. Most of them were not very successful. Indeed, the whole planwas given up before long, and land was given to any one who would comeout and settle. 

[Illustration: THE DUTCH COLONY OF NEW AMSTERDAM. ]

[Sidenote: Governor Kieft. ]

[Sidenote: Kieft orders the Indians to be killed. ]

[Sidenote: Results of the massacre. ]

61. Kieft and the Indians, 1643-44. --The worst of the early Dutchgovernors was William Kieft (Keeft). He was a bankrupt and a thief, whowas sent to New Netherland in the hope that he would reform. At first hedid well and put a stop to the smuggling and cheating which were commonin the colony. Emigrants came over in large numbers, and everythingseemed to be going on well when Kieft's brutality brought on an Indianwar that nearly destroyed the colony. The Indians living near NewAmsterdam sought shelter from the Iroquois on the mainland oppositeManhattan Island. Kieft thought it would be a grand thing to kill allthese Indian neighbors while they were collected together. He sent aparty of soldiers across the river and killed many of them. The resultwas a fierce war with all the neighboring tribes. The Dutch colonistswere driven from their farms. Even New Amsterdam with its stockade wasnot safe. For the Indians sometimes came within the stockade and killedthe people in the town. When there were less than two hundred peopleleft in New Amsterdam, Kieft was recalled, and Peter Stuyvesant was sentas governor in his stead. 

[Sidenote: Peter Stuyvesant. _Higginson_, 97. ]

62. Stuyvesant's Rule. --Stuyvesant was a hot-tempered, energeticsoldier who had lost a leg in the Company's service. He ruled NewNetherland for a long time, from 1647 to 1664. And he ruled so sternlythat the colonists were glad when the English came and conquered them. This unpopularity was not entirely Stuyvesant's fault. The Dutch WestIndia Company was a failure. It had no money to spend for the defence ofthe colonists, and Stuyvesant was obliged to lay heavy taxes onthe people. 

[Sidenote: The Swedes on the Delaware. _Higginson_, 106-108. ]

[Sidenote: Stuyvesant conquers them. ]

63. New Sweden. --When the French, the English, and the Dutch werefounding colonies in America, the Swedes also thought that they might aswell have a colony there too. They had no claim to any land in America. But Swedish armies were fighting the Dutchmen's battles in Europe. Sothe Swedes sent out a colony to settle on lands claimed by the Dutch. As long as the European war went on, the Swedes were not interferedwith. But when the European war came to an end, Stuyvesant was told toconquer them. This he did without much trouble, as he had about as manysoldiers as there were Swedish colonists. In this way New Sweden becamea part of New Netherland. 

[Sidenote: Summary. ]

[Sidenote: The Chesapeake Colonies. ]

[Sidenote: The New England Colonies. ]

64. Summary. --We have seen how the French, the Dutch, the Swedish, and the English colonies were established on the Atlantic seashore andin the St. Lawrence valley. South of these settlements there was theearlier Spanish colony at St. Augustine. The Spanish colonists were veryfew in number, but they gave Spain a claim to Florida. The Swedishcolony had been absorbed by the stronger Dutch colony. We have also seenhow very unlike were the two English groups of colonies. They were bothsettled by Englishmen, but there the likeness stops. For Virginia andMaryland were slave colonies. They produced large crops of tobacco. TheNew England colonists on the other hand were practically all free. Theylived in towns and engaged in all kinds of industries. In the nexthundred years we shall see how the English conquered first the Dutch andthen the French; how they planted colonies far to the south of Virginiaand in these ways occupied the whole coast north of Florida. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 4

§§ 26, 27. --_a_. Mark on a map all the places mentioned in thesesections. 

_b_. Describe Champlain's attacks on the Iroquois. 

§§ 28-30. --_a_. Compare the reasons for the coming of the French and theSpaniards. 

_b_. What work did the Jesuits do for the Indians?

_c_. Explain carefully why the hostility of the Iroquois to the Frenchwas so important. 

CHAPTER 5

§§ 31, 32. --_a_. Give two reasons for the revival of English colonialenterprises. 

_b_. Describe the voyage and early experiences of the Virginiacolonists. 

_c_. Give three reasons for the sufferings of the Virginia colonists. 

§§ 33-35. --_a_. What do you think of Sir Thomas Dale?

_b_. To what was the prosperity of Virginia due? Why?

_c_. What classes of people were there in Virginia?

§§ 36-38. --_a_. What is the meaning of the word "Puritan" (see § 43)?Why is Sir Edwin Sandys regarded as the founder of free government inthe English colonies?

_b_. Describe the laws of Virginia as to Roman Catholics and Puritans. 

§§ 39-41. --_a_. Describe Lord Baltimore's treatment of his settlers. What do you think of the wisdom of his actions?

_b_. How were Roman Catholics treated in England?

_c_. What is meant by toleration? Who would be excluded by the MarylandToleration Act?

_d_. Describe the likenesses and the differences between Virginia andMaryland. 

CHAPTER 6

§§ 42-47. --_a_. Describe the voyage of the _Mayflower_. 

_b_. What was the object of the Mayflower Compact?

_c_. Describe the Pilgrims' search for a place of settlement. 

_d_. Read Bradford's account of the first winter at Plymouth. 

_e_. What did Squanto do for the Pilgrims?

§§ 48-50. --_a_. What advantages did the founders of Massachusetts haveover those of New Plymouth?

_b_. Look up the history of England, 1630-40, and say why so manycolonists came to New England in those years. 

_c_. On what matters did Roger Williams disagree with the rulers ofMassachusetts?

_d_. How are Williams's ideas as to religious freedom regarded now?

_e_. Why was Mrs. Hutchinson expelled from Massachusetts?

§§ 51-54. --_a_. How did the Pequod War affect the colonists on theConnecticut?

_b_. What is a constitution? Why did the Connecticut people feel theneed of one? Why is the Connecticut constitution famous?

_c_. Why did the New Haven settlers found a separate colony?

§§ 55, 56. --_a_. What two parties were fighting in England?

_b_. Give all the reasons for the formation of the New EnglandConfederation. What were the effects of this union?

_c_. Compare the industries of New England with those of Virginia. 

CHAPTER 7

§§ 57-59. --_a_. Why did the Dutch East India Company wish a northernroute to India?

_b_. Describe Hudson's and Champlain's expeditions, and compare theirtreatment of the Iroquois. 

_c_. What attracted the Dutch to the region discovered by Hudson?

§§ 60-62. --_a_. What was the object of the Dutch West India Company?What privileges did the patroons have?

_b_. Describe the career of Kieft. What were the results of histreatment of the Indians?

_c_. What kind of a governor was Stuyvesant? Why was he unpopular?

§ 63. --_a_. In what European war were the Swedes and the Dutch engaged?

_b_. On what land did the Swedes settle?

_c_. Describe how New Sweden was joined to New Netherland. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Mark on a map in colors the lands settled by the different Europeannations. 

_b_. Note the position of the Dutch with reference to the English, andexplain the importance of such position. 

_c_. Give one fact about each of the colonies, and state why you thinkit important. 

_d_. Give one fact which especially interests you in connection witheach colony, and explain your interest. 

_e_. In which colony would you have liked to live, and why?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Champlain's place in American history (Parkman's _Pioneers_). 

_b_. The First American Legislature and its work (Hart's_Contemporaries_, I. , No. 65). 

_c_. Why did the Pilgrims come to America? (Bradford's _Plymouth_). 

_d_. Arrange a table of the several settlements similar to thatdescribed on page 18. 

_e_. Write a composition on life in early colonial days (Eggleston's_United States_, 91-113). 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

In treating this chapter aim to make clear the reasons for andconditions of the settlement of each colony. Vividness can best beobtained by a study of the writings of the time, especially ofBradford's _History of Plymouth_. Use pictures in every possible way andmolding board as well. 

Emphasize the lack of true liberty of thought, and lead the children tounderstand that persecution was a characteristic of the time and not afailing of any particular colony or set of colonists. 

III

A CENTURY OF COLONIALHISTORY, 1660-1760

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Fiske's _United States for Schools_ 133-180;McMaster's _School History_, 93-108 (life in 1763); _Source-Book_, ch. Vii; Fisher's _Colonial Era_; Earle's _Child Life_. 

Home Readings. --Parkman's _Montcalm and Wolfe_; Franklin's_Autobiography_; Brooks's _In Leisler's Times_; Coffin's _Old Times inthe Colonies_; Cooper's _Last of the Mohicans_; Scudder's _Men andManners One Hundred Years Ago_. 

CHAPTER 8

THE COLONIES UNDER CHARLES II

[Sidenote: The Puritan in England. Higginson and Channing, _EnglishHistory for Americans_, 182-195. ]

[Sidenote: The Colonies, 1649-60. ]

65. The Puritans and the Colonists, 1649-60. --In 1649 Charles I wasexecuted, and for eleven years the Puritans were supreme in England. During this time the New England colonists governed themselves, and paidlittle heed to the wishes and orders of England's rulers. After somehesitation, the Virginians accepted the authority of Cromwell and thePuritans. In return they were allowed to govern themselves. In Marylandthe Puritans overturned Baltimore's governor and ruled the province forsome years. 

[Sidenote: The Restoration, 1660. _English History for Americans_, 196. ]

[Sidenote: The Navigation Laws. ]

66. Colonial Policy of Charles II. --In 1660 Charles II became kingof England or was "restored" to the throne, as people said at the time. Almost at once there was a great revival of interest in colonization, and the new government interfered vigorously in colonial affairs. In1651 the Puritans had begun the system of giving the English trade onlyto English merchants and shipowners. This system was now extended, andthe more important colonial products could be carried only toEnglish ports. 

[Sidenote: Charles II and Massachusetts. ]

[Sidenote: Massachusetts and the Quakers. _Higginson_, 80-81. ]

67. Attacks on Massachusetts. --The new government was especiallydispleased by the independent spirit shown by Massachusetts. Only goodPuritans could vote in that colony, and members of the Church of Englandcould not even worship as they wished. The Massachusetts people paid noheed whatever to the navigation laws and asserted that acts ofParliament had no force in the colony. It chanced that at this timeMassachusetts had placed herself clearly in the wrong by hanging fourpersons for no other reason than that they were Quakers. The Englishgovernment thought that now the time had come to assert its power. Itordered the Massachusetts rulers to send other Quakers to England fortrial. But, when this order reached Massachusetts, there were no Quakersin prison awaiting trial, and none were ever sent to England. 

[Sidenote: Charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, 1662-63. ]

[Sidenote: New Haven absorbed by Connecticut. ]

68. Connecticut and Rhode Island. --While the English government wasattacking Massachusetts it was giving most liberal charters toConnecticut and to Rhode Island. Indeed, these charters were so liberalthat they remained the constitutions of the states of Connecticut andRhode Island until long after the American Revolution. The Connecticutcharter included New Haven within the limits of the larger colony andthus put an end to the separate existence of New Haven. 

[Illustration: THE OLDEST CHURCH SOUTH OF THE POTOMAC. ]

[Sidenote: The English conquest of New Netherland, 1664. _Higginson_. 97-98. ]

69. Conquest of New Netherland, 1664. --The English government nowdetermined to conquer New Netherland. An English fleet sailed to NewAmsterdam. Stuyvesant thumped up and down on his wooden leg. But he wasalmost the only man in New Amsterdam who wanted to fight. He soonsurrendered, and New Netherland became an English colony. The Dutchlater recaptured it and held it for a time; but in 1674 they finallyhanded it over to England. 

[Sidenote: New Netherland given to the Duke of York and Albany. ]

70. New York. --Even before the colony was seized in 1664, CharlesII gave it away to his brother James, Duke of York and Albany, whoafterward became king as James II. The name of New Netherland wastherefore changed to New York, and the principal towns were also namedin his honor, New York and Albany. Little else was changed in thecolony. The Dutch were allowed to live very nearly as they had livedbefore, and soon became even happier and more contented than they hadbeen under Dutch rule. Many English settlers now came in. The colonybecame rich and prosperous, but the people had little to do with theirown government. 

[Sidenote: Origin of New Jersey, 1664. ]

[Sidenote: Settlement of New Jersey. ]

71. New Jersey. --No sooner had James received New Netherland fromhis brother than he hastened to give some of the best portions of it totwo faithful friends, Sir George Carteret and Lord Berkeley. Theirterritory extended from New York harbor to the Delaware River, and wasnamed New Jersey in honor of Carteret's defense of the island of Jerseyagainst the Puritans. Colonists at once began coming to the new provinceand settled at Elizabethtown. 

[Sidenote: East and West Jersey. ]

[Sidenote: Prosperity. ]

72. Later New Jersey. --Soon New Jersey was divided into two parts, East Jersey and West Jersey. West Jersey belonged to Lord Berkeley andhe sold it to the Quakers. Not very many years later the Quakers alsobought East Jersey. The New Jersey colonists were always getting intodisputes with one another, so they asked Queen Anne to take charge ofthe government of the province. This she did by telling the governor ofNew York to govern New Jersey also. This was not what the Jersey peoplehad expected. But they had their own legislature. In time also theysecured a governor all to themselves and became a royal provinceentirely separate from New York. Pennsylvania and New York protected theJersey people from the French and the Indians, and provided markets forthe products of the Jersey farms. The colonists were industrious andtheir soil was fertile. They were very religious and paid greatattention to education. New Jersey became very prosperous and socontinued until the Revolution. 

[Sidenote: Founding of Carolina, 1663. _Higginson_, 124-127. ]

73. The Founding of Carolina. --The planting of New Jersey was notthe only colonial venture of Carteret and Berkeley. With Lord ChancellorClarendon and other noblemen they obtained from Charles land in southernVirginia extending southward into Spanish Florida. This great territorywas named Carolina. 

[Sidenote: Northern Carolina. ]

[Sidenote: Southern Carolina. ]

74. The Carolina Colonists. --In 1663, when the Carolina charter wasgranted, there were a few settlers living in the northern part of thecolony. Other colonists came from outside mainly from the Barbadoes andsettled on the Cape Fear River. In this way was formed a colony innorthern Carolina. But the most important settlement was in the southernpart of the province at Charleston. Southern Carolina at once becameprosperous. This was due to the fact that the soil and climate of thatregion were well suited to the cultivation of rice. The rice swampsbrought riches to the planters, they also compelled the employment oflarge numbers of negro slaves. Before long, indeed, there were morenegroes than whites in southern Carolina. In this way there grew up twodistinct centers of colonial life in the province. 

[Illustration: Southern Carolina. ]

[Sidenote: Indian war. ]

[Sidenote: Bacon's Rebellion, 1676. ]

75. Bacon's Rebellion, 1676. --By this time the Virginians hadbecome very discontented. There had been no election to the colonialassembly since 1660 and Governor Berkeley was very tyrannical. TheVirginians also wanted more churches and more schools. To add to thesecauses of discontent the Indians now attacked the settlers, and Berkeleyseemed to take very little interest in protecting the Virginians. Led byNathaniel Bacon the colonists marched to Jamestown and demandedauthority to go against the Indians. Berkeley gave Bacon a commission. But, as soon as Bacon left Jamestown on his expedition, Berkeleydeclared that he was a rebel. Bacon returned, and Berkeley fled. Baconmarched against the Indians again, and Berkeley came back, and so therebellion went on until Bacon died. Berkeley then captured the otherleaders one after another and hanged them. But when he returned toEngland, Charles II turned his back to him, saying, "The old fool haskilled more men in Virginia than I for the murder of my father. "

[Illustration: THE HOUSE IN WHICH NATHANIEL BACON DIED. From an originalsketch. ]

[Sidenote: Greedy Governors. ]

[Sidenote: Founding of William and Mary College, 1691. ]

76. Virginia after Bacon's Rebellion. --The Virginians were nowhanded over to a set of greedy governors. Some of them came to Americato make their fortunes. But some of them were governors whom the peopleof other colonies would not have. The only event of importance in thehistory of the colony during the next twenty-five years was the foundingof William and Mary College (1691) at Williamsburg. It was the secondoldest college in the English colonies. 

[Illustration: THE OPENING LINES OF THE PENNSYLVANIA CHARTER SHOWINGORNAMENTAL BORDER AND PORTRAIT OF CHARLES II. ]

[Sidenote: King Philip's War, 1675-76. _Higginson_, 137-138;_Eggleston_, 81-89. ]

77. King Philip's War, 1675-76. --It was not only in Virginia andMaryland that the Indians were restless at this time. In New Englandalso they attacked the whites. They were led by Massasoit's son, KingPhilip, an able and far-seeing man. He saw with dismay how rapidly thewhites were driving the Indians away from their hunting-grounds. TheIndians burned the English villages on the frontier and killed hundredsof the settlers. The strongest chief to join Philip was Canonchet ofthe Narragansetts. The colonial soldiers stormed his fort and killed athousand Indian warriors. Before long King Philip himself was killed, and the war slowly came to an end. 

[Sidenote: William Penn. ]

[Sidenote: The Pennsylvania Charter, 1681. ]

78. William Penn. --Among the greatest Englishmen of that time wasWilliam Penn. He was a Quaker and was also a friend of Charles II andJames, Duke of York. He wished to found a colony in which he and theQuakers could work out their ideas in religious and civil matters. Itchanced that Charles owed Penn a large sum of money. As Charles seldomhad any money, he was very glad to give Penn instead a large tract ofland in America. In this way Penn obtained Pennsylvania. James, for hispart, gave him Delaware. 

[Sidenote: Settlement of Pennsylvania, 1682. _Higginson_, 101-105;_Eggleston_, 57-60; _Source-Book_, 67-69. ]

79. Founding of Pennsylvania, 1682. --William Penn had a greatreputation for honesty and fair dealing among the English Quakers andamong the Quakers on the continent of Europe as well. As soon as it wasknown that he was to found a colony, great numbers of persons came toPennsylvania from England and from Germany. In a very short time thecolony became strong and prosperous. In the first place, the soil ofPennsylvania was rich and productive while its climate was well suitedto the growth of grain. In the second place, Penn was very liberal tohis colonists. He gave them a large share in the government of theprovince and he allowed no religious persecution. He also insisted onfair and honest dealing with the Indians. 

[Sidenote: Mason and Dixon's line. ]

[Sidenote: Its importance in history. ]

80. Mason and Dixon's Line. --In the seventeenth century thegeography of America was very little understood in Europe--and thepersons who drew up colonial charters understood it least of all. Charter lines frequently overlapped and were often very indistinct. Thiswas particularly true of the Maryland and Pennsylvania boundaries. Pennand Baltimore tried to come to an agreement; but they never could agree. Years afterward, when they were both dead, their heirs agreed to have aline drawn without much regard to the charters. This line was finallysurveyed by two English engineers, Mason and Dixon, and is alwayscalled after their names. It is the present boundary line betweenPennsylvania and Maryland. In colonial days it separated the colonieswhere slavery was the rule from those where labor was generally free. Inthe first half of the nineteenth century it separated the free statesfrom the slave states. Mason and Dixon's line, therefore, has been afamous line in the history of the United States. 

CHAPTER 9

COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT, 1688-1760

[Sidenote: New policy of the Stuarts. ]

[Sidenote: Reasons for the new policy. ]

81. The Stuart Tyranny. --Instead of admiring the growth of thecolonies in strength and in liberty, Charles and James saw it withdismay. The colonies were becoming too strong and too free. Theydetermined to reduce all the colonies to royal provinces, likeVirginia--with the exception of Pennsylvania which belonged to theirfriend, William Penn. There was a good deal to be said in favor of thisplan, for the colonists were so jealous of each other that they wouldnot unite against the French or the Indians. If the governments were allin the hands of the king, the whole strength of the British coloniescould be used against any enemy of England. 

[Sidenote: End of the Massachusetts Company, 1684. ]

[Sidenote: Governor Andros of New England, 1688. ]

82. The Stuart Tyranny in New England. --The Massachusetts charterwas now taken away, and Sir Edmund Andros was sent over to govern thecolony. He was ordered to make laws and to tax the people without askingtheir consent. He did as he was ordered to do. He set up the Church ofEngland. He taxed the people. He even took their lands from them, on theground that the grants from the old Massachusetts government were of novalue. When one man pointed to the magistrates' signatures to his grant, Andros told him that their names were worth no more than a scratch witha bear's paw. He also enforced the navigation laws and took possessionof Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Plymouth. At the same time he wasalso governor of New Hampshire and of New York. 

[Illustration: A PROCLAMATION OF 1690 FORBIDDING THE PRINTING OFNEWSPAPERS WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE GOVERNMENT. ]

[Sidenote: Flight of James II. ]

[Sidenote: Rebellion against Andros, 1689. ]

83. The "Glorious Revolution" in America, 1689. --By this timeCharles was dead, and James was King of England. The English people didnot like James any better than the New Englanders liked Andros. In 1688they rebelled and made William of Orange and his wife Mary, James'seldest daughter, King and Queen of England. On their part, theMassachusetts colonists seized Andros and his followers and shut them upin prison (April 18, 1689). The people of Connecticut and Rhode Islandturned out Andros's agents and set up their old governments. In NewYork also Andros's deputy governor was expelled, and the people tookcontrol of affairs until the king and queen should send out a governor. Indeed, all the colonies, except Maryland, declared for Williamand Mary. 

[Sidenote: Policy of William and Mary. ]

[Sidenote: The Massachusetts Province charter, 1691. ]

84. The New Arrangements. --For a year or two William was very busyin Ireland and on the continent. At length he had time to attend tocolonial affairs. He appointed royal governors for both Pennsylvania andMaryland. William Penn soon had his colony given back to him; but theBaltimores had to wait many years before they recovered Maryland. In NewYork there was a dreadful tragedy. For the new governor, Slaughter, waspersuaded to order the execution of the leaders in the rising againstAndros. Massachusetts did not get her old charter back, but she gotanother charter. This provided that the king should appoint thegovernor, but the people should elect a House of Representatives. Themost important result of this new arrangement was a series of disputesbetween the king's governor and the people's representatives. Maine andNew Plymouth were included in Massachusetts under the new charter. ButNew Hampshire remained a royal province. 

[Sidenote: Prosperity of the colonies, 1700-60. ]

85. The Colonies, 1700-60. --During these years immigrants throngedto America, and the colonies became constantly stronger. Commerceeverywhere developed, and many manufactures were established. Throughout the colonies the people everywhere gained power, and had itnot been for the French and Indian wars they would have been happy. Aside from these wars the most important events of these years were theoverthrow of the Carolina proprietors and the founding of Georgia. 

[Illustration: Carolina Rice Fields. ]

[Sidenote: Bad government of the Carolina proprietors. ]

[Sidenote: Rebellion in Carolina, 1719. ]

[Sidenote: North and South Carolina. ]

86. North and South Carolina. --The Carolina proprietors and theircolonists had never got on well together. They now got on worse thanever. The greater part of the colonists were not members of theEstablished Church; but the proprietors tried to take away the right tovote from all persons who were not of that faith. They also interferedin elections, and tried to prevent the formation of a truerepresentative assembly. They could not protect the people against thepirates who blockaded Charleston for weeks at a time. In 1719 the peopleof Charleston rebelled. The king then interfered, and appointed a royalgovernor. Later he bought out the rights of the proprietors. In this wayCarolina became a royal province. It was soon divided into twoprovinces, North Carolina and South Carolina. But there had always beentwo separate colonies in Carolina (p. 52). 

[Sidenote: General Oglethorpe. ]

[Sidenote: Grant of Georgia, 1732. ]

87. Founding of Georgia, 1732. --In those days it was the custom inEngland to send persons who could not pay their debts to prison. Ofcourse many of these poor debtors were really industrious persons whommisfortune or sickness had driven into debt. General Oglethorpe, amember of Parliament, looked into the prison management. He was greatlyaffected by the sad fate of these poor debtors, and determined to dosomething for them. With a number of charitable persons he obtained apart of South Carolina for a colony, and named it Georgia for George II, who gave the land. Parliament also gave money. For the governmentthought it very desirable to have a colony between the rich plantationsof Carolina and the Spanish settlements in Florida. 

[Sidenote: Settlement of Georgia, 1733. _Higginson_, 127-130;_Eggleston_, 62-65; _Source-Book_, 71-73. ]

[Sidenote: Progress of the colony. ]

88. Georgia, 1733-52. --Naturally Oglethorpe had no difficulty ingetting colonists. For the poor debtors and other oppressed persons werevery glad to have a new start in life. Savannah was founded in 1733. TheSpaniards, however, were not at all glad to have an English colonyplanted so near Florida. They attacked the Georgians, and Oglethorpespent years in fighting them. The Georgia colonists found it verydifficult to compete with the Carolina planters. For the Carolinians hadslaves to work for them, and the proprietors of Georgia would not letthe Georgians own slaves. Finally they gave way and permitted thecolonists to own slaves. But this so disheartened the Georgiaproprietors that they gave up the enterprise and handed the colony overto the king. In this way Georgia became a royal province. 

CHAPTER 10

EXPULSION OF THE FRENCH

[Sidenote: Louis of France and William of Orange. ]

89. Causes of the French Wars. --At the time of the "GloriousRevolution" (p. 58) James II found refuge with Louis XIV, King ofFrance. William and Louis had already been fighting, and it was easyenough to see that if William became King of England he would be verymuch more powerful than he was when he was only Prince of Orange. SoLouis took up the cause of James and made war on the English and theDutch. The conflict soon spread across the Atlantic. 

[Sidenote: Disadvantages of the English colonists. ]

[Sidenote: Advantages of the French colonists. ]

90. Strength of the Combatants. --At first sight it might seem as ifthe English colonists were much stronger than the French colonists. Theygreatly outnumbered the French. They were much more prosperous andwell-to-do. But their settlements were scattered over a great extent ofseacoast from the Kennebec to the Savannah. Their governments were moreor less free. But this very freedom weakened them for war. The Frenchcolonial government was a despotism directed from France. Whateverresources the French had in America were certain to be well used. 

[Illustration: A "GARRISON HOUSE" AT YORK, MAINE, BUILT IN 1676. ]

[Sidenote: King William's War, 1689-97. _Eggleston_, 122-123. ]

91. King William's War, 1689-97. --The Iroquois began this war bydestroying Montreal. The next winter the French invaded New York. Theycaptured Schenectady and killed nearly all the inhabitants. Other bandsdestroyed New England towns and killed or drove away their inhabitants. The English, on their part, seized Port Royal in Acadia, but they failedin an attempt against Quebec. In 1697 this war came to an end. Acadiawas given back to the French, and nothing was gained by all thebloodshed and suffering. 

[Sidenote: Queen Anne's War, 1701-13. _Higginson_, 143-147;_Source-Book_, 98-100. ]

92. Queen Anne's War, 1701-13. --In 1701 the conflict began again. It lasted for twelve years, until 1713. It was in this war that the Dukeof Marlborough won the battle of Blenheim and made for himself a greatreputation. In America the French and Indians made long expeditions toNew England. The English colonists again attacked Quebec and againfailed. In one thing, however, they were successful. They again seizedPort Royal. This time the English kept Port Royal and all Acadia. PortRoyal they called Annapolis, and the name of Acadia was changed toNova Scotia. 

[Sidenote: King George's War, 1744-48. ]

93. King George's War, 1744-48. --From 1713 until 1744 there was nowar between the English and the French. But in 1744 fighting began againin earnest. The French and Indians attacked the New England frontiertowns and killed many people. But the New Englanders, on their part, wona great success. After the French lost Acadia they built a strongfortress on the island of Cape Breton. To this they gave the name ofLouisburg. The New Englanders fitted out a great expedition and capturedLouisburg without much help from the English. But at the close of thewar (1748) the fortress was given back to the French, to the disgust ofthe New Englanders. 

[Sidenote: La Salle on the Mississippi, 1681. ]

[Sidenote: _McMaster_, 62-65; _Source-book_, 96-98. ]

94. The French in the Mississippi Valley. --The Spaniards haddiscovered the Mississippi and had explored its lower valley. But theyhad found no gold there and had abandoned the country. It was left forFrench explorers more than one hundred years later to rediscover thegreat river and to explore it from its upper waters to the Gulf ofMexico. The first Frenchman to sail down the river to its mouth was LaSalle. In 1681, with three canoes, he floated down the Mississippi, until he reached a place where the great river divided into three largebranches. He sent one canoe down each branch. Returning, they allreported that they had reached the open sea. 

[Sidenote: La Salle attempts to found a colony. _McMaster_, 79-80. ]

[Sidenote: Louisiana settled, 1699. ]

95. Founding of Louisiana. --La Salle named this immense regionLouisiana in honor of the French king. He soon led an expedition toplant a colony on the banks of the Mississippi. Sailing into the Gulf ofMexico, he missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed on the coastof Texas. Misfortune after misfortune now fell on the unhappyexpedition. La Salle was murdered, the stores were destroyed, theSpaniards and Indians came and killed or captured nearly all thecolonists. A few only gained the Mississippi and made their way toCanada. In 1699, another French expedition appeared in the Gulf ofMexico. This time the mouth of the Mississippi was easily discovered. But the colonists settled on the shores of Mobile Bay. It was not until1718 that New Orleans was founded. 

[Sidenote: The French on the Ohio, 1749. _McMaster_, 82-86. ]

[Sidenote: The English Ohio Company, 1750. ]

96. Struggle for the Ohio Valley. --At the close of King George'sWar the French set to work to connect the settlements in Louisiana withthose on the St. Lawrence. In 1749 French explorers gained the AlleghanyRiver from Lake Erie and went down the Ohio as far as the Miami. Thenext year (1750) King George gave a great tract of land on the OhioRiver to an association of Virginians, who formed the Ohio Company. Thestruggle for the Ohio Valley had fairly begun. Governor Dinwiddie ofVirginia learned that the French were building forts on the Ohio, andsent them a letter protesting against their so doing. The bearer of thisletter was George Washington, a young Virginia surveyor. 

[Sidenote: George Washington. Scudder's _Washington; Hero Tales_ 1-15. ]

[Sidenote: He warns the French to leave the Ohio. ]

97. George Washington. --Of an old Virginia family, GeorgeWashington grew up with the idea that he must earn his own living. Hisfather was a well-to-do planter. But Augustine Washington was the eldestson, and, as was the custom then in Virginia, he inherited most of theproperty. Augustine Washington was very kind to his younger brother, andgave him a good practical education as a land surveyor. The younger manwas a bold athlete and fond of studying military campaigns. He was fullof courage, industrious, honest, and of great common sense. Before hewas twenty he had surveyed large tracts of wilderness, and had done hiswork well amidst great difficulties. When Dinwiddie wanted a messengerto take his letter to the French commander on the Ohio, GeorgeWashington's employer at once suggested him as the best person to sendon the dangerous journey. 

[Sidenote: The French build Fort Duquesne. ]

[Sidenote: Washington's first military expedition, 1754. ]

98. Fort Duquesne. --Instead of heeding Dinwiddie's warning, theFrench set to work to build Fort Duquesne (Dü-kan') at the spot wherethe Alleghany and Monongahela join to form the Ohio, --on the site ofthe present city of Pittsburg. Dinwiddie therefore sent Washington witha small force of soldiers to drive them away. But the French were toostrong for Washington. They besieged him in Fort Necessity and compelledhim to surrender (July 4, 1754). 

[Illustration: BRADDOCK'S CAMPAIGN. ]

[Sidenote: Braddock's expedition, 1755. _Higginson_, 152-154;_Eggleston_, 129-131; _Source-book_, 103-105. ]

99. Braddock's Defeat, 1755. --The English government now sentGeneral Braddock with a small army of regular soldiers to Virginia. Slowly and painfully Braddock marched westward. Learning of hisapproach, the French and Indians left Fort Duquesne to draw him intoambush. But the two forces came together before either party wasprepared for battle. For some time the contest was even, then theregulars broke and fled. Braddock was fatally wounded. With great skill, Washington saved the survivors, --but not until four shots had piercedhis coat and only thirty of his three companies of Virginians wereleft alive. 

[Sidenote: The French and Indian War. ]

[Sidenote: William Pitt, war minister, 1757. ]

100. The War to 1759. --All the earlier French and Indian wars hadbegun in Europe and had spread to America. This war began in America andsoon spread to Europe. At first affairs went very ill. But in 1757William Pitt became the British war minister, and the war began to bewaged with vigor and success. The old generals were called home, and newmen placed in command. In 1758 Amherst and Wolfe captured Louisburg, andForbes, greatly aided by Washington, seized Fort Duquesne. Bradstreetcaptured Fort Frontenac, on Lake Ontario. There was only one badfailure, that of Abercrombie at Ticonderoga. But the next year Amherstcaptured Ticonderoga and Crown Point and opened the way to Canada byLake Champlain. 

[Illustration: WOLFE'S RAVINE. This shows the gradual ascent of the pathfrom the river to the top of the bluff. ]

[Sidenote: Capture of Quebec, 1759. _Higginson_, 154-156; _Eggleston_, 137-139; _Source-Book_, 105-107. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Quebec. ]

101. Capture of Quebec, 1759. --Of all the younger generals JamesWolfe was foremost. To him was given the task of capturing Quebec. Seated on a high bluff, Quebec could not be captured from the river. Theonly way to approach it was to gain the Plains of Abraham in its rearand besiege it on the land side. Again and again Wolfe sent his men tostorm the bluffs below the town. Every time they failed. Wolfe felt thathe must give up the task, when he was told that a path led from theriver to the top of the bluff above the town. Putting his men intoboats, they gained the path in the darkness of night. There was a guardat the top of the bluff, but the officer in command was a coward and ranaway. In the morning the British army was drawn up on the Plains ofAbraham. The French now attacked the British, and a fierce battle tookplace. The result was doubtful when Wolfe led a charge at the head ofthe Louisburg Grenadiers. He was killed, but the French were beaten. Five days later Quebec surrendered. Montreal was captured in 1760, andin 1763 the war came to an end. 

[Sidenote: Peace of Paris, 1763. ]

102. Peace of Paris, 1763. --By this great treaty, or set oftreaties, the French withdrew from the continent of North America. ToSpain, who had lost Florida, the French gave the island of New Orleansand all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi. To Great Britain theFrench gave up all the rest of their American possessions except twosmall islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Spain, on her part, gave upFlorida to the British. There were now practically only two powers inAmerica, --the British in the eastern part of the continent, and theSpaniards west of the Mississippi. The Spaniards also owned the islandof New Orleans and controlled both sides of the river for more than ahundred miles from its mouth. But the treaty gave the British the freenavigation of the Mississippi throughout its length. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 8

§§ 65, 66. --_a_. What government did England have after the execution ofCharles I? Give three facts about Cromwell. 

_b_. How did the accession of Charles II affect the colonies?

_c_. What laws were made about the commerce of the colonies?

§ 67. --_a_. How did the new government of England regard Massachusetts?Why?

_b_. Describe the treatment of the Quakers in Massachusetts. 

§ 68. --_a_. Describe the charters given to Connecticut and Rhode Island. Why did Connecticut need a charter when she already had a constitution?

_b_. What other colony was united with Connecticut?

§§ 69, 70. --_a_. Why did England wish to conquer New Netherland? Why didnot the people of New Amsterdam wish to fight the English?

_b_. To whom did Charles give this territory?

§§ 71, 72. --_a_. Mark on a map the position of New Jersey. 

_b_. Describe the division of New Jersey and its sale to the Quakers. 

_c_. Why was the colony prosperous?

§§ 73, 74. --_a_. Describe the founding of Carolina. 

_b_. Describe northern and southern Carolina, and note the differencesbetween them. 

§§ 75, 76. --_a_. What complaints did the people of Virginia make? WasBacon a rebel?

_b_. Describe the later government of Virginia. 

_c_. Why was the founding of William and Mary College important?

§ 77. --_a_. What was the cause of King Philip's War?

_b_. What were the results of the war?

§§ 78-80. --_a_. Find out three facts about the early life of WilliamPenn. Why did colonists come to Pennsylvania?

_b_. What trouble arose with Maryland about the boundary line?

_c_. How was Mason and Dixon's line famous later?

CHAPTER 9

§§ 81-84. --_a_. Why did Charles and James dislike the growing liberty ofthe colonies?

_b_. What changes did Andros make in New England?

_c_. Describe the "Glorious Revolution" in America. 

_d_. What changes did William and Mary make in the colonial governments?

§§ 85-88. --_a_. How did the Carolina proprietors treat their colonists?What was the result of their actions?

_b_. Explain the reasons for the founding of Georgia. 

CHAPTER 10

§§ 89, 90. --_a_. Compare the strength of the English and French colonies. What is a "despotism"?

_b_. Draw a map showing the position of the English and French colonies. 

§§ 91-93. --_a_. Mark on a map all the places mentioned in the text. 

_b_. Describe the expedition against Louisburg. 

_c_. What was the result of these wars?

§§ 94-97. --_a_. Which country, England, France, or Spain, had the bestclaim to the Mississippi valley? Why?

_b_. Follow route of La Salle on a map, marking each place mentioned. Describe the settlement of Louisiana. 

_c_. Why did the struggle between England and France begin in the Ohiovalley?

_d_. Describe Washington's early training. 

§§ 98-101. --_a_. Where was Fort Duquesne? Why was its positionimportant? Describe Braddock's expedition and trace his route. 

_b_. Mark on a map the important routes to Canada. 

_c_. Describe the capture of Quebec. Why was it important?

§ 102. --_a_. What territory did England gain in 1763? What did Spaingain? What did France lose?

_b_. What was the great question settled by this war?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Were the New England colonies difficult to govern? Why?

_b_. In what respects were the colonial governments alike? In whatrespects were they unlike?

_c_. What events in any colony have shown that its people desired moreliberty?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. The Revolution of 1688 in England and America. 

_b_. Write an account of the life of a boy or girl in any colony; tellabout the house, furniture, dress, school, and if a journey to anothercolony is made, how it is made and what is seen on the way. 

_c_. Arrange a table similar to that described on p. 18. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

In this period the growing difficulties between England and the coloniescan be traced--especially in commercial affairs and in governmentalinstitutions. Thus many of the causes of the Revolution may be broughtout as well as the difficulties in the way of colonial union. This maybe emphasized by noting the difference between the English andFrench colonies. 

[Illustration: A MAP OF THE BRITISH DOMINIONS IN NORTH AMERICA. , ACCORDING TO THE TREATY IN 1763, By Peter Bell, Geographer, 1772. ]

IV

COLONIAL UNION, 1760-1774

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Fiske's _War of Independence_, 39-86; Scudder's_George Washington_; Lossing's _Field-Book of the Revolution; EnglishHistory for Americans_, 244-284 (English political history). 

Home Readings. --Irving's _Washington_ (abridged edition); Cooke's_Stories of the Old Dominion_; Cooper's _Lionel Lincoln_; Longfellow's_Paul Revere's Ride_. 

CHAPTER 11

BRITAIN'S COLONIAL SYSTEM

[Sidenote: England's early liberal colonial policy. ]

[Sidenote: England's changed colonial policy. ]

103. Early Colonial Policy. --At the outset, England's rulers hadbeen very kind to Englishmen who founded colonies. They gave them greatgrants of land. They gave them rights of self-government greater thanany Englishmen living in England enjoyed. They allowed them to managetheir own trade and industries as they saw fit. They even permitted themto worship God as their consciences told them to worship him. But, asthe colonists grew in strength and in riches, Britain's rulers tried tomake their trade profitable to British merchants and interfered intheir government. On their part the colonists disobeyed the navigationlaws and disputed with the royal officials. For years Britain's rulersallowed this to go on. But, at length, near the close of the last Frenchwar Mr. Pitt ordered the laws to be enforced. 

[Sidenote: Difficulties in enforcing the navigation laws. ]

[Sidenote: James Otis. _Eggleston_, 163. His speech against writs ofassistance, 1761. ]

104. Writs of Assistance, 1761. --It was a good deal easier to orderthe laws to be carried out than it was to carry them out. It was almostimpossible for the customs officers to prevent goods being landedcontrary to law. When the goods were once on shore, it was difficult toseize them. So the officers asked the judges to give them writs ofassistance. Among the leading lawyers of Boston was James Otis. He wasthe king's law officer in the province. But he resigned his office andopposed the granting of the writs. He objected to the use of writs ofassistance because they enabled a customs officer to become a tyrant. Armed with one of them he could go to the house of a man he did not likeand search it from attic to cellar, turn everything upside down andbreak open doors and trunks. It made no difference, said Otis, whetherParliament had said that the writs were legal. For Parliament could notmake an act of tyranny legal. To do that was beyond the power even ofParliament. 

[Sidenote: Patrick Henry. _Eggleston_, 162. ]

[Sidenote: His speech in the Parson's Cause, 1763. ]

105. The Parson's Cause, 1763. --The next important case arose inVirginia and came about in this way. The Virginians made a lawregulating the salaries of clergymen in the colony. The king vetoed thelaw. The Virginians paid no heed to the veto. The clergy men appealed tothe courts and the case of one of them was selected for trial. PatrickHenry, a prosperous young lawyer, stated the opinions of the Virginiansin a speech which made his reputation. The king, he said, had no rightto veto a Virginia law that was for the good of the people. To do so wasan act of tyranny, and the people owed no obedience to a tyrant. Thecase was decided for the clergyman. For the law was clearly on his side. But the jurymen agreed with Henry. They gave the clergyman only onefarthing damages, and no more clergymen brought cases into the court. The king's veto was openly disobeyed. 

[Sidenote: Proclamation of 1763. _McMaster_, 110. ]

106. The King's Proclamation of 1763. --In the same year that theParson's Cause was decided the king issued a proclamation which greatlylessened the rights of Virginia and several other colonies to westernlands. Some of the old charter lines, as those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, and the Carolinas had extended to the PacificOcean. By the treaty of 1763 (p. 69) the king, for himself and hissubjects, abandoned all claim to lands west of Mississippi River. Now inthe Proclamation of 1763 he forbade the colonial governors to grant anylands west of the Alleghany Mountains. The western limit of Virginia andthe Carolinas was fixed. Their pioneers could not pass the mountains andsettle in the fertile valleys of the Ohio and its branches. 

CHAPTER 12

TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION

[Sidenote: George III. ]

[Sidenote: George Grenville. ]

[Sidenote: The British Parliament. ]

107. George III and George Grenville. --George III became king in1760. He was a narrow, stupid, well-meaning, ignorant young man oftwenty-one. He soon found in George Grenville a narrow, dull, well-meaning lawyer, a man who would do what he was told. So GeorgeGrenville became the head of the government. To him the law was the law. If he wished to do a thing and could find the law for it, he asked fornothing more. His military advisers told him that an army must be keptin America for years. It was Grenville's business to find the money tosupport this army. Great Britain was burdened with a national debt. Thearmy was to be maintained, partly, at least, for the protection of thecolonists. Why should they not pay a part of the cost of maintaining it?Parliament was the supreme power in the British Empire. It controlledthe king, the church, the army, and the navy. Surely a Parliament thathad all this power could tax the colonists. At all events, Grenvillethought it could, and Parliament passed the Stamp Act to tax them. 

[Sidenote: Taxation and representation. ]

[Sidenote: Henry's resolutions, 1765. _Higginson_, 161-164; _McMaster_, 112-114. ]

108. Henry's Resolutions, 1765. --The colonists, however, with onevoice, declared that Parliament had no power to tax them. Taxes, theysaid, could be voted only by themselves or their representatives. Theywere represented in their own colonial assemblies, and nowhere else. Patrick Henry was now a member of the Virginia assembly. He had justbeen elected for the first time. But as none of the older members of theassembly proposed any action, Henry tore a leaf from an old law-book andwrote on it a set of resolutions. These he presented in a burningspeech, upholding the rights of the Virginians. He said that to tax themby act of Parliament was tyranny. "Caesar and Tarquin had each hisBrutus, Charles I his Cromwell, and George III"--"Treason, treason, "shouted the speaker. "May profit by their example, " slowly Henry wenton. "If that be treason, make the most of it. " The resolutions werevoted. In them the Virginians declared that they were not subject toActs of Parliament laying taxes or interfering in the internal affairsof Virginia. 

[Illustration: HENRY'S FIRST AND LAST RESOLUTIONS (FACSIMILE OF THEORIGINAL DRAFT)]

[Sidenote: Opposition to the Stamp Act, 1765. _Higginson_, 164-165;_McMaster_, 116. ]

109. Stamp Act Riots, 1765. --Until the summer of 1765 the colonistscontented themselves with passing resolutions. There was little elsethat they could do. They could not refuse to obey the law because itwould not go into effect until November. They could not mob the stampdistributers because no one knew their names. In August the names of thestamp distributers were published. Now at last it was possible to dosomething besides passing resolutions. In every colony the peoplevisited the stamp officers and told them to resign. If they refused, they were mobbed until they resigned. In Boston the rioters wereespecially active. They detested Thomas Hutchinson. He waslieutenant-governor and chief justice and had been active in enforcingthe navigation acts. The rioters attacked his house. They broke hisfurniture, destroyed his clothing, and made a bonfire of his booksand papers. 

[Sidenote: Colonial congresses. ]

[Sidenote: Albany Congress, 1754. ]

[Sidenote: Stamp Act Congress, 1765. ]

110. The Stamp Act Congress, 1765. --Colonial congresses were no newthing. There had been many meetings of governors and delegates fromcolonial assemblies. The most important of the early congresses was theAlbany Congress of 1754. It was important because it proposed a plan ofunion. The plan was drawn up by Benjamin Franklin. But neither theking nor the colonists liked it, and it was not adopted. All theseearlier congresses had been summoned by the king's officers to arrangeexpeditions against the French or to make treaties with the Indians. TheStamp Act Congress was summoned by the colonists to protest against thedoings of king and Parliament. 

[Illustration: PATRICK HENRY "I am not a Virginian, but an American. "]

[Sidenote: Declaration of the Rights and Grievances of the Colonists, 1765. _McMaster_, 115. ]

111. Work of the Stamp Act Congress. --Delegates from nine coloniesmet at New York in October, 1765. They drew up a "Declaration of theRights and Grievances of the Colonists. " In this paper they declaredthat the colonists, as subjects of the British king, had the same rightsas British subjects living in Britain, and were free from taxes exceptthose to which they had given their consent. They claimed for themselvesthe right of trial by jury--which might be denied under the Stamp Act. But the most important thing about the congress was the fact that ninecolonies had put aside their local jealousies and had joined inholding it. 

[Sidenote: Benjamin Franklin. ]

[Sidenote: Examined by the House of Commons. ]

112. Franklin's Examination. --Born in Boston, Benjamin Franklin ranaway from home and settled at Philadelphia. By great exertion andwonderful shrewdness he rose from poverty to be one of the mostimportant men in the city and colony. He was a printer, a newspapereditor, a writer, and a student of science. With kite and string he drewdown the lightning from the clouds and showed that lightning was adischarge of electricity. He was now in London as agent for Pennsylvaniaand Massachusetts. His scientific and literary reputation gave him greatinfluence. He was examined at the bar of the House of Commons. Manyquestions and answers were arranged beforehand between Franklin and hisfriends in the House. But many questions were answered on the spur ofthe moment. Before the passage of the Stamp Act the feeling of thecolonists toward Britain had been "the best in the world. " So Franklindeclared. But now, he said, it was greatly altered. Still an army sentto America would find no rebellion there. It might, indeed, make one. Inconclusion, he said the repeal of the act would not make the colonistsany more willing to pay taxes. 

[Sidenote: Fall of Grenville. ]

[Sidenote: Repeal of the Stamp Act, 1766. ]

[Sidenote: The Declaratory Act, 1766. ]

113. Repeal of the Stamp Act, 1766. --It chanced that at this momentGeorge III and George Grenville fell out. The king dismissed theminister, and gave the Marquis of Rockingham the headship of a new setof ministers. Now Rockingham and his friends needed aid from somebody togive them the strength to outvote Grenville and the Tories. So when thequestion of what should be done about the Stamp Act came up, theylistened most attentively to what Mr. Pitt had to say. That great mansaid that the Stamp Act should be repealed wholly and at once. At thesame time another law should be passed declaring that Parliament hadpower to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever. TheRockinghams at once did as Mr. Pitt suggested. The Stamp Act wasrepealed. The Declaratory Act was passed. In the colonies Pitt waspraised as a deliverer. Statues of him were placed in the streets, pictures of him were hung in public halls. But, in reality, the passageof the Declaratory Act was the beginning of more trouble. 

[Sidenote: The Chatham Ministry. ]

[Sidenote: The Townshend Acts, 1767. _McMaster_, 117-118. ]

114. The Townshend Acts, 1767. --The Rockingham ministers did whatMr. Pitt advised them to do. He then turned them out and made a ministryof his own. He was now Earl of Chatham, and his ministry was the ChathamMinistry. The most active of the Chatham ministers was CharlesTownshend. He had the management of the finances and found them veryhard to manage. So he hit upon a scheme of laying duties on wine, oil, glass, lead, painter's colors, and tea imported into the colonies. Mr. Pitt had said that Parliament could regulate colonial trade. The bestway to regulate trade was to tax it. At the same time that Townshendbrought in this bill, he brought in others to reorganize the colonialcustoms service and make it possible to collect the duties. He evenprovided that offences against the revenue laws should be tried byjudges appointed directly by the king, without being submitted to a juryof any kind. 

[Sidenote: The Sugar Act. ]

[Sidenote: Enforcement of the Navigation Acts. ]

115. Colonial Opposition, 1768. --Many years before this, Parliamenthad made a law taxing all sugar brought into the continental colonies, except sugar that had been made in the British West Indies. Had this lawbeen carried out, the trade of Massachusetts and other New Englandcolonies would have been ruined. But the law was not enforced. No onetried to enforce it, except during the few months of vigor at the timeof the arguments about writs of assistance. As the taxes were notcollected, no one cared whether they were legal or not. Now it was plainthat this tax and the Townshend duties were to be collected. TheMassachusetts House of Representatives drew up a circular letter to theother colonial assemblies asking them to join in opposing the new taxes. The British government ordered the House to recall the letter. Itrefused and was dissolved. The other colonial assemblies were directedto take no notice of the circular letter. They replied at the firstpossible moment and were dissolved. 

[Sidenote: Seizure of the sloop _Liberty_, 1768. ]

116. The New Customs Officers at Boston, 1768. --The chief office ofthe new customs organization was fixed at Boston. Soon John Hancock'ssloop, _Liberty_, sailed into the harbor with a cargo of Madeira wine. As Hancock had no idea of paying the duty, the customs officers seizedthe sloop and towed her under the guns of a warship which was in theharbor. Crowds of people now collected. They could not recapture the_Liberty_. They seized one of the war-ship's boats, carried it to theCommon, and had a famous bonfire. All this confusion frightened thechief customs officers. They fled to the castle in the harbor and wroteto the government for soldiers to protect them. 

[Illustration: ONE OF JOHN HANCOCK'S BILL-HEADS. ]

[Sidenote: Virginia Resolves, 1769. ]

117. The Virginia Resolves of 1769. --Parliament now asked the kingto have colonists, accused of certain crimes, brought to England fortrial. This aroused the Virginians. They passed a set of resolutions, known as the Virginia Resolves of 1769. These resolves asserted: (1)that the colonists only had the right to tax the colonists; (2) that thecolonists had the right to petition either by themselves or with thepeople of other colonies; and (3) that no colonist ought to be sent toEngland for trial. 

[Sidenote: Non-Importation Agreements, 1769. ]

[Sidenote: Partial repeal of the Townshend Acts, 1770. ]

118. Non-Importation Agreements, 1769. --When he learned what wasgoing on, the governor of Virginia dissolved the assembly. But themembers met in the Raleigh tavern near by. There George Washington laidbefore them a written agreement to use no British goods upon whichduties had been paid. They all signed this agreement. Soon the othercolonies joined Virginia in the Non-Importation Agreement. Englishmerchants found their trade growing smaller and smaller. They could noteven collect their debts, for the colonial merchants said that trade inthe colonies was so upset by the Townshend Acts that they could not selltheir goods, or collect the money owing to them. The British merchantspetitioned Parliament to repeal the duties, and Parliament answered themby repealing all the duties except the tax on tea. 

[Illustration: THE "RALEIGH TAVERN"]

CHAPTER 13

REVOLUTION IMPENDING

[Sidenote: The British soldiers at New York. ]

[Sidenote: Soldiers sent to Boston, 1768. ]

119. The Soldiers at New York and Boston. --Soldiers had beenstationed at New York ever since the end of the French war because thatwas the most central point on the coast. The New Yorkers did not like tohave the soldiers there very well, because Parliament expected them tosupply the troops with certain things without getting any money inreturn. The New York Assembly refused to supply them, and Parliamentsuspended the Assembly's sittings. In 1768 two regiments came from NewYork to Boston to protect the customs officers. 

[Sidenote: The Boston Massacre, 1770. _Higginson_, 166-169; _McMaster_, 118. ]

120. The Boston Massacre, 1770. --There were not enough soldiers atBoston to protect the customs officers--if the colonists really wishedto hurt them. There were quite enough soldiers at Boston to getthemselves and the colonists into trouble. On March 5, 1770, a crowdgathered around the soldiers stationed on King's Street, now StateStreet. There was snow on the ground, and the boys began to throw snowand mud at the soldiers. The crowd grew bolder. Suddenly the soldiersfired on the people. They killed four colonists and wounded severalmore. Led by Samuel Adams, the people demanded the removal of thesoldiers to the fort in the harbor. Hutchinson was now governor. Heoffered to send one regiment out of the town. "All or none, " said Adams, and all were sent away. 

[Sidenote: Town Committees of Correspondence. ]

[Sidenote: Colonial Committees of Correspondence, 1769. ]

121. Committees of Correspondence. --Up to this time the resistanceof the colonists had been carried on in a haphazard sort of way. NowCommittees of Correspondence began to be appointed. These committeeswere of two kinds. First there were town Committees of Correspondence. These were invented by Samuel Adams and were first appointed inMassachusetts. But more important were the colonial Committees ofCorrespondence. The first of these was appointed by Virginia in 1769. Atfirst few colonies followed Massachusetts and Virginia in appointingcommittees. But as one act of tyranny succeeded another, other coloniesfell into line. By 1775 all the colonies were united by a completesystem of Committees of Correspondence. 

[Sidenote: The tax on tea. _McMaster_, 119. ]

122. The Tea Tax. --Of all the Townshend duties only the tax on teawas left. It happened that the British East India Company had tons oftea in its London storehouses and was greatly in need of money. Thegovernment told the company that it might send tea to America withoutpaying any taxes in England, but the three-penny colonial tax would haveto be paid in the colonies. In this way the colonists would get theirtea cheaper than the people of England. But the colonists were not to bebribed into paying the tax in any such way. The East India Company sentover ship-loads of tea. The tea ships were either sent back again or thetea was stored in some safe place where no one could get it. 

[Sidenote: Boston Tea Party, 1773. _Higginson_, 171-173; _Eggleston_, 165; _Source-Book_, 137. ]

123. The Boston Tea Party, 1773. --In Boston things did not go sosmoothly. The agents of the East India Company refused to resign. Thecollector of the customs refused to give the ships permission to sailaway before the tea was landed. Governor Hutchinson refused to give theship captains a pass to sail by the fort until the collector gave hispermission. The commander at the fort refused to allow the ships to sailout of the harbor until they had the necessary papers. The only way toget rid of the tea was to destroy it. A party of patriots, dressed asIndians, went on board of the ships as they lay at the wharf, broke openthe tea boxes, and threw the tea into the harbor. 

[Sidenote: Repressive acts, 1774. _McMaster_, 120. ]

124. Punishment of Massachusetts, 1774. --The British king, theBritish government, and the mass of the British people were furious whenthey found that the Boston people had made "tea with salt water. "Parliament at once went to work passing acts to punish the colonists. One act put an end to the constitution of Massachusetts. Another actclosed the port of Boston so tightly that the people could not bring hayfrom Charlestown to give to their starving horses. A third act providedthat soldiers who fired on the people should be tried in England. And afourth act compelled the colonists to feed and shelter the soldiersemployed to punish them. 

[Sidenote: The colonists aid Massachusetts. _Higginson_, 174-177. ]

[Sidenote: George Washington. ]

125. Sympathy with the Bostonians. --King George thought he couldpunish the Massachusetts people as much as he wished without the peopleof the other colonies objecting. It soon appeared that the people of theother colonies sympathized most heartily with the Bostonians. They sentthem sheep and rice. They sent them clothes. George Washington was now arich man. He offered to raise a thousand men with his own money, marchwith them to Boston, and rescue the oppressed people from theiroppressors. But the time for war had not yet come although it wasnot far off. 

[Sidenote: The Quebec Act, 1774. ]

126. The Quebec Act, 1774. --In the same year that Parliament passedthe four acts to punish Massachusetts, it passed another act whichaffected the people of other colonies as well as those of Massachusetts. This was the Quebec Act. It provided that the land between the Ohio, theMississippi, and the Great Lakes should be added to the Province ofQuebec. Now this land was claimed by Massachusetts, Connecticut, NewYork, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. These colonies were to be deprived oftheir rights to land in that region. The Quebec Act also provided forthe establishment of a very strong government in that province. Thisseemed to be an attack on free institutions. All these things drove thecolonists to unite. They resolved to hold a congress where the leadersof the several continental colonies might talk over matters and decidewhat should be done. 

[Sidenote: The First Continental Congress, 1774. ]

127. The First Continental Congress, 1774. --The members of theContinental Congress met in Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, inSeptember, 1774. Never, except in the Federal Convention (p. 137), haveso many great men met together. The greatest delegation was that fromVirginia. It included George Washington, Patrick Henry, and RichardHenry Lee. From Massachusetts came the two Adamses, John and Samuel. From New York came John Jay. From Pennsylvania came John Dickinson. Ofall the greatest Americans only Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklinwere absent. 

[Illustration: CARPENTER'S HALL, PHILADELPHIA. ]

[Sidenote: The American Association, 1774. ]

128. The American Association, 1774. --It soon became clear that themembers of the Congress were opposed to any hasty action. They were notwilling to begin war with Great Britain. Instead of so doing theyadopted a Declaration of Rights and formed the American Association. TheDeclaration of Rights was of slight importance. But the Association wasof great importance, as the colonies joining it agreed to buy no moreBritish goods. This policy was to be carried out by the Committees ofCorrespondence. Any colony refusing to join the Association should belooked upon as hostile "to the liberties of this country, " and treatedas an enemy. The American Association was the real beginning of theAmerican Union. 

[Sidenote: Resistance throughout the colonies 1774-75. ]

129. The Association carried out, 1774-75. --It was soon evidentthat Congress in forming the Association had done precisely what thepeople wished to have done. For instance, in Virginia committees werechosen in every county. They examined the merchants' books. Theysummoned before them persons suspected of disobeying "the laws ofCongress. " Military companies were formed in every county and carriedout the orders of the committees. The ordinary courts were entirelydisregarded. In fact, the royal government had come to an end in theOld Dominion. 

[Sidenote: Parliament punishes Massachusetts, 1774-75. ]

130. More Punishment for Massachusetts, 1774-75. --George III andhis ministers refused to see that the colonies were practically united. On the contrary, they determined to punish the people of Massachusettsstill further. Parliament passed acts forbidding the Massachusettsfishermen to catch fish and forbidding the Massachusetts traders totrade with the people of Virginia, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and allforeign countries. The Massachusetts colonists were rebels, they shouldbe treated as rebels. General Gage was given more soldiers and orderedto crush the rebellion. 

[Sidenote: General Gage. ]

[Sidenote: Opposed by the Massachusetts people. ]

131. Gage in Massachusetts, 1774-75. --General Gage found he had agood deal to do before he could begin to crush the rebellion. He had tofind shelter for his soldiers. He also had to find food for them. TheBoston carpenters would not work for him. He had to bring carpentersfrom Halifax and New York to do his work. The farmers of easternMassachusetts were as firm as the Boston carpenters. They would not sellfood to General Gage. So he had to bring food from England and fromHalifax. He managed to buy or seize wood to warm the soldiers and hay tofeed his horses. But the boats bringing these supplies to Boston wereconstantly upset in a most unlooked-for way. The colonists, on theirpart, elected a Provincial Congress to take the place of the regulargovernment. The militia was reorganized, and military storesgathered together. 

[Illustration: APRIL 19, 1775, DRAWN AND ENGRAVED BY TWO MEN WHO TOOKPART IN THE ACTION. Reproduced through the courtesy of Rev. E. G. Porter. ]

[Sidenote: Lexington and Concord, 1775. _Higginson_, 178-183;_McMaster_, 126-128; _Source-Book_, 144-146. ]

132. Lexington and Concord, April 19, 1775. --Gage had said thatwith ten thousand men he could march all over Massachusetts. In April, 1775, he began to crush the rebellion by sending a strong force toConcord to destroy stores which his spies told him had been collectedthere. The soldiers began their march in the middle of the night. ButPaul Revere and William Dawes were before them. "The regulars arecoming, " was the cry. At Lexington, the British found a few militiamendrawn up on the village green. Some one fired and a few Americans werekilled. On the British marched to Concord. By this time the militiamenhad gathered in large numbers. It was a hot day. The regulars weretired. They stopped to rest. Some of the militiamen attacked theregulars at Concord, and when the British started on their homewardmarch, the fighting began in earnest. Behind every wall and bit ofrising ground were militiamen. One soldier after another was shot downand left behind. At Lexington the British met reinforcements, or theywould all have been killed or captured. Soon they started again. Againthe fighting began. It continued until the survivors reached a place ofsafety under the guns of the warships anchored off Charlestown. TheAmericans camped for the night at Cambridge and began the siegeof Boston. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 11

§ 103. --_a_. Name some instances which illustrate England's early policytoward its colonies. 

_b_. Explain the later change of policy, giving reasons for it. 

§§ 104, 105. --_a_. What reasons did Otis give for his opposition to thewrits of assistance? Why are such writs prohibited by the Constitutionof the United States?

_b_. What is a veto? What right had the King of Great Britain to veto aVirginia law? Which side really won in the Parson's Cause?

§ 106. --What colonies claimed land west of the Alleghany Mountains? Howdid the king interfere with these claims?

CHAPTER 12

§§ 107-109. --_a_. What reasons were given for keeping an army inAmerica?

_b_. What is meant by saying that Parliament was "the supreme power inthe British Empire"?

_c_. Is a stamp tax a good kind of tax?

_d_. Explain carefully the colonists' objections to the Stamp Act of1765. Do the same objections hold against the present Stamp tax?

§§ 110-113. --_a_. Explain the difference between the Stamp Act Congressand the earlier Congress. 

_b_. What did the Stamp Act Congress do?

_c_. Give an account of Franklin. What did Franklin say about thefeeling in the colonies?

_d_. Explain carefully the causes which led to the repeal of the StampAct. 

_e_. Can the taxing power and the legislative power be separated? Whatis the case to-day in your own state? In the United States?

§§ 114-116. --_a_. How did Townshend try to raise money? How did thisplan differ from the Stamp tax?

_b_. What was the Massachusetts Circular Letter? Why was it important?

_c_. What was the result of the seizure of the _Liberty_?

§§ 117, 118. --_a_. What were the Virginia Resolves of 1769? Why werethey passed?

_b_. What were the Non-importation agreements?

_c_. What action did the British merchants take? What results followed?

CHAPTER 13

§§ 119, 120. --_a_. Why were the soldiers stationed at New York? AtBoston?

_b_. Describe the trouble at Boston. Why is it called a massacre?

§§ 121-123. --_a_. What was the work of a Committee of Correspondence?

_b_. What did the British government hope to accomplish in the teabusiness? Why did the colonists refuse to buy the tea?

_c_. Why was the destruction of the tea at Boston necessary?

§§ 124-126. --_a_. How did Parliament punish the colonists ofMassachusetts and Boston? Which of these acts was most severe? Why?

_b_. What effect did these laws have on Massachusetts? On the othercolonies?

_c_. Explain the provisions of the Quebec Act. 

_d_. How would this act affect the growth of the colonies?

§§ 127-129. --_a_. What was the object of the Continental Congress?

_b_. Why was the Association so important?

_c_. How was the idea of the Association carried out?

_d_. What government did the colonies really have?

§§ 130-132. --_a_. What is a rebel? Were the Massachusetts colonistsrebels?

_b_. Describe General Gage's difficulties. 

_c_. What was the result of Gage's attempt to seize the arms atConcord?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Arrange, with dates, all the acts of the British government whichoffended the colonists. 

_b_. Arrange, with dates, all the important steps which led towardunion. Why are these steps important?

_c_. Give the chief causes of the Revolution and explain why you selectthese. 

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. The early life of Benjamin Franklin _(Franklin's Autobiography). _

_b_. The early life of George Washington (Scudder's _Washington). _

_c_. The Boston Tea Party (Fiske's _War of Independence). _

_d_. The Nineteenth of April, 1775 (Fiske's _War of Independence;_Lossing's _Field-Book). _

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

This section is not only the most important but the most difficult ofany so far considered. Its successful teaching requires more preparationthan any earlier section. The teacher is advised carefully to peruseChanning's _Students' History_, ch. Iv, and to state in simple, clearlanguage, the difference between the ideas on representation whichprevailed in England and in the colonies. Another point to make clear isthe legal supremacy of Parliament. The outbreak was hastened by thestupid use of legal rights which the supremacy of Parliament placed inthe hands of Britain's rulers, who acted often in defiance of the realpublic opinion of the mass of the inhabitants of Great Britain. 

V

THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1775-1783

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Fiske's _War of Independence;_ Higginson's _LargerHistory_, 249-293; McMaster's _With the Fathers. _

Home Readings. --Scudder's _Washington_; Holmes's _Grandmother's Story ofBunker Hill;_ Cooper's _Lionel Lincoln_ (Bunker Hill); Cooper's _Spy_(campaigns around New York); Cooper's _Pilot_ (the war on the sea);Drake's _Burgoyne's Invasion; _Coffin's _Boys of '76_; Abbot's _BlueJackets of '76_; Abbot's _Paul Jones_, Lossing's _Two Spies. _

CHAPTER 14

BUNKER HILL TO TRENTON

[Sidenote: Advantages of the British. ]

133. Advantages of the British. --At first sight it seems as if theAmericans were very foolish to fight the British. There were five or sixtimes as many people in the British Isles as there were in thecontinental colonies. The British government had a great standing army. The Americans had no regular army. The British government had a greatnavy. The Americans had no navy. The British government had quantitiesof powder, guns, and clothing, while the Americans had scarcely anymilitary stores of any kind. Indeed, there were so few guns in thecolonies that one British officer thought if the few colonial gunsmithscould be bribed to go away, the Americans would have no guns to fightwith after a few months of warfare. 

[Illustration: GRAND UNION FLAG. Hoisted at Cambridge, January, 1776. The British Union and thirteen stripes, ]

[Sidenote: Advantages of the Americans. ]

134. Advantages of the Americans. --All these things were clearlyagainst the Americans. But they had some advantages on their side. Inthe first place, America was a long way off from Europe. It was verydifficult and very costly to send armies to America, and very difficultand very costly to feed the soldiers when they were fighting in America. In the second place, the Americans usually fought on the defensive andthe country over which the armies fought was made for defense. In NewEngland hill succeeded hill. In the Middle states river succeeded river. In the South wilderness succeeded wilderness. In the third place, theAmericans had many great soldiers. Washington, Greene, Arnold, Morgan, and Wayne were better soldiers than any in the British army. 

[Sidenote: The Loyalists. ]

135. Disunion among the Americans. --We are apt to think of thecolonists as united in the contest with the British. In reality thewell-to-do, the well-born, and the well-educated colonists were as arule opposed to independence. The opponents of the Revolution werestrongest in the Carolinas, and were weakest in New England. 

[Illustration: THE SIEGE OF BOSTON. ]

[Sidenote: Boston and neighborhood, 1775-76. ]

[Sidenote: Importance of Dorchester and Charlestown. ]

136. Siege of Boston. --It was most fortunate that the British armywas at Boston when the war began, for Boston was about as bad a placefor an army as could be found. In those days Boston was hardly more thanan island connected with the mainland by a strip of gravel. Gage built afort across this strip of ground. The Americans could not get in. Butthey built a fort at the landward end, and the British could not getout. On either side of Boston was a similar peninsula. One of these wascalled Dorchester Heights; the other was called Charlestown. Bothoverlooked Boston. To hold that town, Gage must possess both Dorchesterand Charlestown. If the Americans could occupy only one of these, theBritish would have to abandon Boston. At almost the same moment Gagemade up his mind to seize Dorchester, and the Americans determined tooccupy the Charlestown hills. The Americans moved first, and the firstbattle was fought for the Charlestown hills. 

[Illustration: A POWDER-HORN USED AT BUNKER HILL. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775. _Higginson_, 183-188;_McMaster_, 129-130. ]

137. Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775. --When the seamen on the Britishmen-of-war waked up on the morning of June 17, the first thing they sawwas a redoubt on the top of one of the Charlestown hills. The shipsopened fire. But in spite of the balls Colonel Prescott walked on thetop of the breastwork while his men went on digging. Gage sent three orfour thousand men across the Charles River to Charlestown to drive thedaring Americans away. It took the whole morning to get them toCharlestown, and then they had to eat their dinner. This delay gave theAmericans time to send aid to Prescott. Especially went Stark and hisNew Hampshire men, who posted themselves behind a breastwork of fencerails and hay. At last the British soldiers marched to the attack. Whenthey came within good shooting distance, Prescott gave the word to fire. The British line stopped, hesitated, broke, and swept back. Again thesoldiers marched to the attack, and again they were beaten back. Moresoldiers came from Boston, and a third time a British line marched upthe hill. This time it could not be stopped, for the Americans had nomore powder. They had to give up the hill and escape as well as theycould. One-half of the British soldiers actually engaged in the assaultswere killed or wounded. The Americans were defeated. But they wereencouraged and were willing to sell Gage as many hills as he wanted atthe same price. 

[Illustration: FACSIMILE OF A REVOLUTIONARY POSTER. ]

[Sidenote: Washington takes command of the army, 1775. _Higginson_, 188-193. ]

[Sidenote: Seizure of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. ]

[Sidenote: Evacuation of Boston, 1776. ]

138. Washington in Command, July, 1775. --The Continental Congresswas again sitting at Philadelphia. It took charge of the defense of thecolonies. John Adams named Washington for commander-in-chief, and he waselected. Washington took command of the army on Cambridge Common, July3, 1775. He found everything in confusion. The soldiers of one colonywere jealous of the soldiers of other colonies. Officers who had notbeen promoted were jealous of those who had been promoted. In the winterthe army had to be made over. During all this time the people expectedWashington to fight. But he had not powder enough for half a battle. Atlast he got supplies in the following way. In the spring of 1775 EthanAllen and his Green Mountain Boys, with the help of the people ofwestern Massachusetts and Connecticut, had captured Ticonderoga andCrown Point. These forts were filled with cannon and stores left fromthe French campaigns. Some of the cannon were now dragged by oxen overthe snow and placed in the forts around Boston. Captain Manley, of theMassachusetts navy, captured a British brig loaded with powder. Washington now could attack. He seized and held Dorchester Heights. TheBritish could no longer stay in Boston. They went on board their shipsand sailed away (March, 1776). 

[Illustration: SITE OF TICONDEROGA. ]

[Sidenote: The Canada expedition, 1775-76. ]

[Sidenote: Assault on Quebec. ]

139. Invasion of Canada, 1775-76. --While the siege of Boston wasgoing on, the Americans undertook the invasion of Canada. There werevery few regular soldiers in Canada in 1775, and the Canadians were notlikely to fight very hard for their British masters. So the leaders inCongress thought that if an American force should suddenly appearbefore Quebec, the town might surrender. Montgomery, with a small army, was sent to capture Montreal and then to march down the St. Lawrence toQuebec. Benedict Arnold led another force through the Maine woods. Aftertremendous exertions and terrible sufferings he reached Quebec. But thegarrison had been warned of his coming. He blockaded the town and waitedfor Montgomery. The garrison was constantly increased, for Arnold wasnot strong enough fully to blockade the town. At last Montgomeryarrived. At night, amidst a terrible snowstorm, Montgomery and Arnoldled their brave followers to the attack. They were beaten back withcruel loss. Montgomery was killed, and Arnold was severely wounded. Inthe spring of 1776 the survivors of this little band of heroes wererescued--at the cost of the lives of five thousand American soldiers. 

[Illustration: ARNOLD'S MARCH. ]

[Sidenote: Strength of Charleston. ]

[Sidenote: Fort Moultrie. ]

[Sidenote: Attack on Fort Moultrie, 1776. ]

[Sidenote: Success of the defense]

140. British Attack on Charleston, 1776. --In June 1776 a Britishfleet and army made an attack on Charleston, South Carolina. This townhas never been taken by attack from the sea. Sand bars guard theentrance of the harbor and the channels through these shoals leaddirectly to the end of Sullivan's Island. At that point the Americansbuilt a fort of palmetto logs and sand. General Moultrie commanded atthe fort and it was named in his honor, Fort Moultrie. The British fleetsailed boldly in, but the balls from the ships' guns were stopped by thesoft palmetto logs. At one time the flag was shot away and fell downoutside the fort. But Sergeant Jasper rushed out, seized the brokenstaff, and again set it up on the rampart. Meantime, General Clinton hadlanded on an island and was trying to cross with his soldiers to thefurther end of Sullivan's Island. But the water was at first too shoalfor the boats. The soldiers jumped overboard to wade. Suddenly the waterdeepened, and they had to jump aboard to save themselves from drowning. All this time Americans were firing at them from the beach. GeneralClinton ordered a retreat. The fleet also sailed out--all that couldget away--and the whole expedition was abandoned. 

[Illustration: GENERAL MOULTRIE. ]

[Sidenote: Defense of New York, 1776. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Long Island, 1776. ]

[Sidenote: Escape of the Americans. ]

141. Long Island and Brooklyn Heights, 1776. --The very day that theBritish left Boston, Washington ordered five regiments to New York. Forhe well knew that city would be the next point of attack. But he neednot have been in such a hurry. General Howe, the new Britishcommander-in-chief, sailed first to Halifax and did not begin thecampaign in New York until the end of August. He then landed hissoldiers on Long Island and prepared to drive the Americans away. Marching in a round-about way, he cut the American army in two andcaptured one part of it. This brought him to the foot of BrooklynHeights. On the top was a fort. Probably Howe could easily have capturedit. But he had led in the field at Bunker Hill and had had enough ofattacking forts defended by Americans. So he stopped his soldiers--withsome difficulty. That night the wind blew a gale, and the next day wasfoggy. The British fleet could not sail into the East River. Skillfulfishermen safely ferried the rest of the American army across to NewYork. When at length the British marched to the attack, there was no oneleft in the fort on Brooklyn Heights. 

[Sidenote: Retreat from New York. ]

[Sidenote: Washington crosses the Delaware. ]

142. From the Hudson to the Delaware, 1776. --Even now with hissplendid fleet and great army Howe could have captured the Americans. But he delayed so long that Washington got away in safety. Washington'sarmy was now fast breaking up. Soldiers deserted by the hundreds. Asevere action at White Plains only delayed the British advance. The fallof Fort Washington on the end of Manhattan Island destroyed all hope ofholding anything near New York. Washington sent one part of his army tosecure the Highlands of the Hudson. With the other part he retiredacross New Jersey to the southern side of the Delaware River. The end ofthe war seemed to be in sight. In December, 1776, Congress gave the soledirection of the war to Washington and then left Philadelphia for aplace of greater safety. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Trenton, 1776. _Higginson_, 203; _Hero Tales_, 45-55]

143. Trenton, December 26, 1776. --Washington did not give up. OnChristmas night, 1776, he crossed the Delaware with a division of hisarmy. A violent snowstorm was raging, the river was full of ice. ButWashington was there in person, and the soldiers crossed. Then the stormchanged to sleet and rain. But on the soldiers marched. When the Hessiangarrison at Trenton looked about them next morning they saw thatWashington and Greene held the roads leading inland from the town. Stark and a few soldiers--among them James Monroe--held the bridgeleading over the Assanpink to the next British post. A few horsemenescaped before Stark could prevent them. But all the foot soldiers werekilled or captured. A few days later nearly one thousand prisonersmarched through Philadelphia. They were Germans, who had been sold bytheir rulers to Britain's king to fight his battles. They were calledHessians by the Americans because most of them came from the littleGerman state of Hesse Cassel. 

[Illustration: Battle of Trenton. ]

[Illustration: Battle of Princeton. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Princeton, 1777. _Source-Book_, 149-151. ]

144. Princeton, January, 1777. --Trenton saved the Revolution bygiving the Americans renewed courage. General Howe sent Lord Cornwalliswith a strong force to destroy the Americans. Washington with the mainpart of his army was now encamped on the southern side of theAssanpink. Cornwallis was on the other bank at Trenton. Leaving a fewmen to keep up the campfires, and to throw up a slight fort by thebridge over the stream, Washington led his army away by night towardPrinceton. There he found several regiments hastening to Cornwallis. Hedrove them away and led his army to the highlands of New Jersey where hewould be free from attack. The British abandoned nearly all their postsin New Jersey and retired to New York. 

CHAPTER 15

THE GREAT DECLARATION AND THE FRENCH ALLIANCE

[Sidenote: Rising spirit of independence, 1775-76. ]

145. Growth of the Spirit of Independence. --The year 1776 is evenmore to be remembered for the doings of Congress than it is for thedoings of the soldiers. The colonists loved England. They spoke of it ashome. They were proud of the strength of the British empire, and glad tobelong to it. But their feelings rapidly changed when the Britishgovernment declared them to be rebels, made war upon them, and hiredforeign soldiers to kill them. They could no longer be subjects ofGeorge III. That was clear enough. They determined to declare themselvesto be independent. Virginia led in this movement, and the chairman ofthe Virginia delegation moved a resolution of independence. A committeewas appointed to draw up a declaration. 

[Illustration: FIRST UNITED STATES FLAG. Adopted by Congress in 1777. ]

[Sidenote: The Great Declaration, adopted July 4, 1776. _Higginson_, 194-201; _McMaster_, 131-135; _Source-Book_, 147-149. ]

[Sidenote: Signing of the Declaration, August 2, 1776. ]

146. The Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. --The mostimportant members of this committee were Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. Of these Jefferson was the youngest, and the leastknown. But he had already drawn up a remarkable paper called _A SummaryView of the Rights of British America. _ The others asked him to writeout a declaration. He sat down without book or notes of any kind, andwrote out the Great Declaration in almost the same form in which it nowstands. The other members of the committee proposed a few changes, andthen reported the declaration to Congress. There was a fierce debate inCongress over the adoption of the Virginia resolution for independence. But finally it was adopted. Congress then examined the Declaration ofIndependence as reported by the committee. It made a few changes in thewords and struck out a clause condemning the slave-trade. The firstparagraph of the Declaration contains a short, clear statement of thebasis of the American system of government. It should be learned byheart by every American boy and girl, and always kept in mind. TheDeclaration was adopted on July 4, 1776. A few copies were printed onJuly 5, with the signatures of John Hancock and Charles Thompson, president and secretary of Congress. On August 2, 1776, the Declarationwas signed by the members of Congress. 

[Illustration: Battle of Brandywine. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Brandywine 1777. _McMaster_, 137-138. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Germantown, 1777. ]

147. The Loss of Philadelphia, 1777. --For some months after thebattle of Princeton there was little fighting. But in the summer of1777, Howe set out to capture Philadelphia. Instead of marching acrossNew Jersey, he placed his army on board ships, and sailed to ChesapeakeBay. As soon as Washington learned what Howe was about, he marched toChad's Ford, where the road from Chesapeake Bay to Philadelphia crossedBrandywine Creek. Howe moved his men as if about to attempt to cross theford. Meantime he sent Cornwallis with a strong force to cross the creekhigher up. Cornwallis surprised the right wing of the American army, drove it back, and Washington was compelled to retreat. Howe occupiedPhiladelphia and captured the forts below the city. Washington tried tosurprise a part of the British army which was posted at Germantown. Butaccidents and mist interfered. The Americans then retired to ValleyForge--a strong place in the hills not far from Philadelphia. 

[Sidenote: The army at Valley Forge, 1777-78. ]

[Illustration: "The Glorious WASHINGTON and GATES. " FROM TITLE-PAGE OFAN ALMANAC OF 1778. To show condition of wood-engraving in theRevolutionary era. ]

[Sidenote: Baron Steuben. ]

148. The Army at Valley Forge, 1777-78. --The sufferings of thesoldiers during the following winter can never be overstated. Theyseldom had more than half enough to eat. Their clothes were in rags. Many of them had no blankets. Many more had no shoes. Washington did allhe could do for them. But Congress had no money and could not get any. At Valley Forge the soldiers were drilled by Baron Steuben, a Prussianveteran. The army took the field in 1778, weak in numbers and poorlyclad. But what soldiers there were were as good as any soldiers to befound anywhere in the world. During that winter, also, an attempt wasmade to dismiss Washington from chief command, and to give his place toGeneral Gates. But this attempt ended in failure. 

[Sidenote: Burgoyne's campaign, 1777. _Eggleston_, 178-179; _McMaster_, 139-140; _Source-Book_, 154-157. ]

[Sidenote: Schuyler and Gates. ]

149. Burgoyne's March to Saratoga, 1777. --While Howe was marchingto Philadelphia, General Burgoyne was marching southward from Canada. It had been intended that Burgoyne and Howe should seize the line of theHudson and cut New England off from the other states. But the ordersreached Howe too late, and he went southward to Philadelphia. Burgoyne, on his part, was fairly successful at first, for the Americans abandonedpost after post. But when he reached the southern end of Lake Champlain, and started on his march to the Hudson, his troubles began. The way ranthrough a wilderness. General Schuyler had had trees cut down across itswoodland paths and had done his work so well that it took Burgoyne abouta day to march a mile and a half. This gave the Americans time to gatherfrom all quarters and bar his southward way. But many of the soldiershad no faith in Schuyler and Congress gave the command to GeneralHoratio Gates. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Bennington, 1777. _Hero Tales_, 59-67. ]

150. Bennington, 1777. --Burgoyne had with him many cavalrymen. Butthey had no horses. The army, too, was sadly in need of food. SoBurgoyne sent a force of dismounted dragoons to Bennington in southernVermont to seize horses and food. It happened, however, that GeneralStark, with soldiers from New Hampshire, Vermont, and westernMassachusetts, was nearer Bennington than Burgoyne supposed. They killedor captured all the British soldiers. They then drove back with greatloss a second party which Burgoyne had sent to support the first one. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Oriskany, 1777. ]

151. Oriskany, 1777. --Meantime St. Leger, with a large body ofIndians and Canadian frontiersmen, was marching to join Burgoyne by theway of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. Near the site of the presentcity of Rome in New York was Fort Schuyler, garrisoned by an Americanforce. St. Leger stopped to besiege this fort. The settlers on theMohawk marched to relieve the garrison and St. Leger defeated them atOriskany. But his Indians now grew tired of the siege, especially whenthey heard that Arnold with a strong army was coming. St. Leger marchedback to Canada and left Burgoyne to his fate. 

[Sidenote: First battle of Freeman's Farm, 1777. ]

[Sidenote: Second battle of Freeman's Farm, 1777. ]

[Sidenote: Surrender of the British at Saratoga, 1777. ]

152. Saratoga, 1777. --Marching southward, on the western side ofthe Hudson, Burgoyne and his army came upon the Americans in a forestclearing called Freeman's Farm. Led by Daniel Morgan and BenedictArnold the Americans fought so hard that Burgoyne stopped where he wasand fortified the position. This was on September 19. The American armyposted itself near by on Bemis' Heights. For weeks the two armies facedeach other. Then, on October 7, the Americans attacked. Again Arnold ledhis men to victory. They captured a fort in the centre of the Britishline, and Burgoyne was obliged to retreat. But when he reached thecrossing place of the Hudson, to his dismay he found a strong body ofNew Englanders with artillery on the opposite bank. Gates had followedthe retiring British, and soon Burgoyne was practically surrounded. Hismen were starving, and on October 17 he surrendered. 

[Sidenote: The Treaty of Alliance, 1778. ]

153. The French Alliance, 1778. --Burgoyne's defeat made the Frenchthink that the Americans would win their independence. So Dr. Franklin, who was at Paris, was told that France would recognize the independenceof the United States, would make treaties with the new nation, and giveaid openly. Great Britain at once declared war on France. The Frenchlent large sums of money to the United States. They sent large armiesand splendid fleets to America. Their aid greatly shortened the strugglefor independence. But the Americans would probably have won withoutFrench aid. 

[Sidenote: The British leave Philadelphia 1778. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Monmouth, 1778. ]

154. Monmouth, 1778. --The first result of the French alliance wasthe retreat of the British from Philadelphia to New York. As Sir HenryClinton, the new British commander, led his army across the Jerseys, Washington determined to strike it a blow. This he did near Monmouth. The attack was a failure, owing to the treason of General Charles Lee, who led the advance. Washington reached the front only in time toprevent a dreadful disaster. But he could not bring about victory, andClinton seized the first moment to continue his march to New York. Therewere other expeditions and battles in the North. But none of these hadany important effect on the outcome of the war. 

[Illustration: Clark's Campaign 1777-1778]

[Sidenote: Clark's conquest of the Northwest, 1778-79. _Hero Tales_, 31-41. ]

155. Clark's Western Campaign, 1778-79. --The Virginians had longtaken great interest in the western country. Their hardy pioneers hadcrossed the mountains and begun the settlement of Kentucky. TheVirginians now determined to conquer the British posts in the countrynorthwest of the Ohio. The command was given to George Rogers Clark. Gathering a strong band of hardy frontiersmen he set out on hisdangerous expedition. He seized the posts in Illinois, and Vincennessurrendered to him. Then the British governor of the Northwest came fromDetroit with a large force and recaptured Vincennes. Clark set out fromIllinois to surprise the British. It was the middle of the winter. Insome places the snow lay deep on the ground. Then came the early floods. For days the Americans marched in water up to their waists. At nightthey sought some little hill where they could sleep on dry ground. Thenon again through the flood. They surprised the British garrison atVincennes and forced it to surrender. That was the end of the contestfor the Northwest. 

[Illustration: WEST POINT IN 1790. ]

[Sidenote: Benedict Arnold. ]

[Sidenote: His treason, 1780 _Higginson_, 209-211; _McMaster_, 144]

156. Arnold and André, 1780. --Of all the leaders under Washingtonnone was abler in battle than Benedict Arnold. Unhappily he was alwaysin trouble about money. He was distrusted by Congress and was notpromoted. At Saratoga he quarrelled with Gates and was dismissed fromhis command. Later he became military governor of Philadelphia and wascensured by Washington for his doings there. He then secured the commandof West Point and offered to surrender the post to the British. MajorAndré, of Clinton's staff, met Arnold to arrange the final details. Onhis return journey to New York André was arrested and taken beforeWashington. The American commander asked his generals if André was aspy. They replied that André was a spy, and he was hanged. Arnoldescaped to New York and became a general in the British army. 

CHAPTER 16

INDEPENDENCE

[Sidenote: Invasion of the South. ]

[Sidenote: Capture of Charleston, 1780. ]

157. Fall of Charleston, 1780. --It seemed quite certain thatClinton could not conquer the Northern states with the forces given him. In the South there were many loyalists. Resistance might not be so stiffthere. At all events Clinton decided to attempt the conquest of theSouth. Savannah was easily seized (1778), and the French and Americanscould not retake it (1779). In the spring of 1780, Clinton, with a largearmy, landed on the coast between Savannah and Charleston. He marchedoverland to Charleston and besieged it from the land side. The Americansheld out for a long time. But they were finally forced to surrender. Clinton then sailed back to New York, and left to Lord Cornwallis thefurther conquest of the Carolinas. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Camden, 1780. ]

158. Gates's Defeat at Camden, 1780. --Cornwallis had little troublein occupying the greater part of South Carolina. There was no one tooppose him, for the American army had been captured with Charleston. Another small army was got together in North Carolina and the commandgiven to Gates, the victor at Saratoga. One night both Gates andCornwallis set out to attack the other's camp. The two armies met atdaybreak, the British having the best position. But this really madelittle difference, for Gates's Virginia militiamen ran away before theBritish came within fighting distance. The North Carolina militiafollowed the Virginians. Only the regulars from Maryland and Delawarewere left. They fought on like heroes until their leader, General JohnDe Kalb, fell with seventeen wounds. Then the survivors surrendered. Gates himself had been carried far to the rear by the rush of thefleeing militia. 

[Battle of King's Mountain, 1780. _Hero Tales_, 71-78. ]

159. King's Mountain, October, 1780. --Cornwallis now thought thatresistance surely was at an end. He sent an expedition to thesettlements on the lower slopes of the Alleghany Mountains to getrecruits, for there were many loyalists in that region. Suddenly fromthe mountains and from the settlements in Tennessee rode a body of armedfrontiersmen. They found the British soldiers encamped on the top ofKing's Mountain. In about an hour they had killed or captured everyBritish soldier. 

[Illustration: THE SOUTHERN CAMPAIGNS. ]

[Sidenote: General Greene. ]

[Sidenote: Morgan's victory of the Cowpens, 1781. ]

160. The Cowpens, 1781. --General Greene was now sent to the Southto take charge of the resistance to Cornwallis. A great soldier and agreat organizer Greene found that he needed all his abilities. Hiscoming gave new spirit to the survivors of Gates's army. He gatheredmilitia from all directions and marched toward Cornwallis. Dividing hisarmy into two parts, he sent General Daniel Morgan to threatenCornwallis from one direction, while he threatened him from anotherdirection. Cornwallis at once became uneasy and sent Tarleton to driveMorgan away, but the hero of many hard-fought battles was not easilyfrightened. He drew up his little force so skillfully that in a very fewminutes the British were nearly all killed or captured. 

[Illustration: GENERAL MORGAN THE HERO OF COWPENS. ]

[Sidenote: Greene's retreat. ]

[Sidenote: The Battle of Guilford, 1781. ]

161. The Guilford Campaign, 1781. --Cornwallis now made a desperateattempt to capture the Americans, but Greene and Morgan joined forcesand marched diagonally across North Carolina. Cornwallis followed soclosely that frequently the two armies seemed to be one. When, however, the river Dan was reached, there was an end of marching, for Greene hadcaused all the boats to be collected at one spot. His men crossed andkept the boats on their side of the river. Soon Greene found himselfstrong enough to cross the river again to North Carolina. He took up avery strong position near Guilford Court House. Cornwallis attacked. TheAmericans made a splendid defense before Greene ordered a retreat, andthe British won the battle of Guilford. But their loss was so great thatanother victory of the same kind would have destroyed the British army. As it was, Greene had dealt it such a blow that Cornwallis left hiswounded at Guilford and set out as fast as he could for the seacoast. Greene pursued him for some distance and then marched southwardto Camden. 

[Sidenote: Greene's later campaigns, 1871-83. ]

162. Greene's Later Campaigns. --At Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, theBritish soldiers who had been left behind by Cornwallis attacked Greene. But he beat them off and began the siege of a fort on the frontier ofSouth Carolina. The British then marched up from Charleston, and Greenehad to fall back. Then the British marched back to Charleston andabandoned the interior of South Carolina to the Americans. There wasonly one more battle in the South--at Eutaw Springs. Greene was defeatedthere, too, but the British abandoned the rest of the Carolinas andGeorgia with the exception of Savannah and Charleston. In thesewonderful campaigns with a few good soldiers Greene had forced theBritish from the Southern states. He had lost every battle. He had wonevery campaign. 

[Sidenote: Lafayette and Cornwallis, 1781. ]

163. Cornwallis in Virginia, 1781. --There were already two smallarmies in Virginia, --the British under Arnold, the Americans underLafayette. Cornwallis now marched northward from Wilmington and addedthe troops in Virginia to his own force; Arnold he sent to New York. Cornwallis then set out to capture Lafayette and his men. Together theymarched from salt water across Virginia to the mountains--and then theymarched back to salt water again. Cornwallis had called Lafayette "theboy" and had declared that "the boy should not escape him. " FinallyCornwallis fortified Yorktown, and Lafayette settled down atWilliamsburg. And there they still were in September, 1781. 

[Sidenote: The French at Newport, 1780. ]

[Sidenote: Plans of the allies, 1781. ]

164. Plans of the Allies. --In 1780 the French government had sentover a strong army under Rochambeau. It was landed at Newport. Itremained there a year to protect the vessels in which it had come fromFrance from capture by a stronger British fleet that had at onceappeared off the mouth of the harbor. Another French fleet and anotherFrench army were in the West Indies. In the summer of 1781 it becamepossible to unite all these French forces, and with the Americans tostrike a crushing blow at the British. Just at this moment Cornwallisshut himself up in Yorktown, and it was determined to besiege him there. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1783. ]

[Illustration: The Siege of Yorktown. ]

[Sidenote: The march to the Chesapeake. ]

[Sidenote: Combat between the French and the British fleets. ]

[Surrender of Yorktown, October 19, 1781. _Higginson_, 211-212. ]

165. Yorktown, September-October, 1781. --Rochambeau led his men toNew York and joined the main American army. Washington now took commandof the allied forces. He pretended that he was about to attack New Yorkand deceived Clinton so completely that Clinton ordered Cornwallis tosend some of his soldiers to New York. But the allies were marchingsouthward through Philadelphia before Clinton realized what they wereabout. The French West India fleet under De Grasse reached one end ofthe Chesapeake Bay at the same time the allies reached the other end. The British fleet attacked it and was beaten off. There was now no hopefor Cornwallis. No help could reach him by sea. The soldiers of theallies outnumbered him two to one. On October 17, 1781, four years to aday since the surrender of Burgoyne, a drummer boy appeared on therampart of Yorktown and beat a parley. Two days later the Britishsoldiers marched out to the good old British tune of "The world turnedupside down, " and laid down their arms. 

[Sidenote: Treaty of Peace, 1783. ]

166. Treaty of Peace, 1783. --This disaster put an end to Britishhopes of conquering America. But it was not until September, 1783, thatBenjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay brought the negotiationsfor peace to an end. Great Britain acknowledged the independence of theUnited States. The territory of the United States was defined asextending from the Great Lakes to the thirty-first parallel of latitudeand from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Spain had joined the UnitedStates and France in the war. Spanish soldiers had conquered Florida, and Spain kept Florida at the peace. In this way Spanish Florida andLouisiana surrounded the United States on the south and the west. British territory bounded the United States on the north and thenortheast. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 14

§§ 134-136. --_a_. Compare the advantages of the British and theAmericans. Which side had the greater advantages?

_b_. Explain the influence of geographical surroundings upon the war. 

_c_. Why were there so many loyalists?

§§ 137-139. --_a_. Mold or draw a map of Boston and vicinity and explainby it the important points of the siege. 

_b_. Who won the battle of Bunker Hill? What were the effects of thebattle upon the Americans? Upon the British?

_c_. Why was Washington appointed to chief command?

_d_. What were the effects of the seizure of Ticonderoga on the siege ofBoston?

§§ 140, 141. --_a_. Why did Congress determine to attack Canada? _b_. Follow the routes of the two invading armies. What was the result of theexpedition?

_c_. Describe the harbor of Charleston. Why did the British attack atthis point?

_d_. What was the result of this expedition?

§§ 142, 143. --_a_. What advantage would the occupation of New York givethe British?

_b_. Describe the Long Island campaign. 

_c_. Why did Congress give Washington sole direction of the war? Who haddirected the war before?

§§ 144, 145. --_a_. Describe the battle of Trenton. Why is it memorable?

_b_. Who were the Hessians?

_c_. At the close of January, 1777, what places were held by theBritish?

CHAPTER 15

§§146, 147. --_a_. What had been the feeling of most of the coloniststoward England? Why had this feeling changed?

_b_. Why was Jefferson asked to write the Declaration?

_c_. What great change was made by Congress in the Declaration? Why?

_d_. What truths are declared to be self-evident? Are they stillself-evident?

_e_. What is declared to be the basis of government? Is it still thebasis of government?

_f_. When was the Declaration adopted? When signed?

§§ 148, 149. --_a_. Describe Howe's campaign of 1777. 

_b_. What valuable work was done at Valley Forge?

§§ 150-153. --_a_. What was the object of Burgoyne's campaign? Was theplan a wise one from the British point of view?

_b_. What do you think of the justice of removing Schuyler?

_c_. How did the battle of Bennington affect the campaign? What was theeffect of St. Leger's retreat to Canada?

_d_. Describe Arnold's part in the battles near Saratoga. 

§§ 154, 155. --_a_. What was the effect of Burgoyne's surrender on GreatBritain? On France? On America?

_b_. What were the results of the French alliance?

_c_. Describe the battle of Monmouth. Who was Charles Lee?

§ 156. --_a_. Describe Clark's expedition and mark on a map the placesnamed. _b_. How did this expedition affect the later growth of theUnited States?

§ 157. --_a_. Describe Arnold's career as a soldier to 1778. _b_. What istreason? _c_. Was there the least injustice in the treatment of André?

Chapter 16

§§ 158, 159. --_a_. Why was the scene of action transferred to the South?_b_. What places were captured? _c_. Compare the British and Americanarmies at Camden. What was the result of this battle?

§§ 160-163. --_a_. Describe the battle of King's Mountain. _b_. What wasthe result of the battle of the Cowpens? _c_. Follow the retreat of theAmericans across North Carolina. What events showed Greene's foresight?_d_. What were the results of the battle of Guilford? _e_. Compare theoutlook for the Americans in 1781 with that of 1780. 

§§ 164-166. _a_. How did the British army get to Yorktown? _b_. Describethe gathering of the Allied Forces. _c_. Describe the surrender and noteits effects on America, France, and Great Britain. 

§ 167. --_a_. Where were the negotiations for peace carried on? _b_. Markon a map the original territory of the United States. _c_. How did Spainget the Floridas?

General Questions

_a_. When did the Revolution begin? When did it end?

_b_. Were the colonies independent when the Declaration of Independencewas adopted?

_c_. Select any campaign and discuss its objects, plan, the leadingbattles, and the results. 

_d_. Follow Washington's movements from 1775-82. 

_e_. What do you consider the most decisive battle of the war? Why?

Topics For Special Work

_a_. Naval victories. 

_b_. Burgoyne's campaign. 

_c_. Greene as a general. 

_d_. Nathan Hale. 

_e_. The peace negotiations. 

Suggestions

The use of map or molding board should be constant during the study ofthis period. Do not spend time on the details of battles, but teachcampaigns as a whole. In using the molding board the movements of armiescan be shown by colored pins. 

The Declaration of Independence should be carefully studied, especiallythe first portions. Finally, the territorial settlement of 1783 shouldbe thoroughly explained, using map or molding board. 

VI

The Critical Period, 1783-1789

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Higginson's _Larger History_, 293-308; Fiske's _CivilGovernment_, 186-267; McMaster's _With the Fathers_. 

Home Readings. --Fiske's _Critical Period_, 144-231, 306-345;_Captain Shays: A Populist of 1786_. 

Chapter 17

The Confederation, 1783-1787

[Sidenote: Disunion and jealousy. _Source-Book_, 161-163. ]

167. Problems of Peace. --The war was over. But the future of theAmerican nation was still uncertain. Indeed, one can hardly say thatthere was an American nation in 1783. While the war lasted, a sense ofdanger bound together the people of the different states. But as soon asthis peril ceased, their old jealousies and self-seekings came back. There was no national government to smooth over these differences and tocompel the states to act justly toward one another. There was, indeed, the Congress of the Confederation, but it is absurd to speak of it as anational government. 

[Sidenote: Formation of the Articles of Confederation. ]

[Sidenote: Weakness of the Confederation. _McMaster_, 163. ]

168. The Articles of Confederation, 1781. --The Continental Congressbegan drawing up the Articles of Confederation in June, 1776. But therewere long delays, and each month's delay made it more impossible to forma strong government. It fell out in this way that the Congress of theConfederation had no real power. It could not make a state or anindividual pay money or do anything at all. In the course of a few yearsCongress asked the states to give it over six million dollars to pay thedebts and expenses of the United States. It received about a milliondollars and was fortunate to get that. 

[Sidenote: Distress among the people. ]

169. A Time of Distress. --It is not right to speak too harshly ofthe refusal of the state governments to give Congress the money it askedfor, as the people of the states were in great distress and had no moneyto give. As soon as peace was declared British merchants sent over greatquantities of goods. People bought these goods, for every one thoughtthat good times were coming now that the war was over. But the Britishgovernment did everything it could do to prevent the coming of goodtimes. The prosperity of the northern states was largely based on aprofitable trade with the West Indies. The British government put an endto that trade. No gold and silver came to the United States from theWest Indies while gold and silver constantly went out of the country topay debts due to British merchants. Soon gold and silver grew scarce, and those who had any promptly hid it. The real reason of all thistrouble was the lack of a strong national government which could havecompelled the British government to open its ports to American commerce. But the people only saw that money was scarce and called upon the statelegislatures to give them paper money. 

[Sidenote: Paper money. ]

170. Paper Money. --Most of the state legislatures did what theywere asked to do. They printed quantities of paper money. They paid thepublic expenses with it, and sometimes lent it to individuals withoutmuch security for its repayment. Before long this paper money began togrow less valuable. For instance, on a certain day a man could buy a bagof flour for five dollars. In three months' time a bag of flour mightcost him ten dollars. Soon it became difficult to buy flour for anynumber of paper dollars. 

[Sidenote: Tender laws. ]

171 Tender Laws. --The people then clamored for "tender laws. " Thesewere laws which would make it lawful for them to tender, or offer, papermoney in exchange for flour or other things. In some cases it was madelawful to tender paper money in payments of debts which had been madewhen gold and silver were still in use. The merchants now shut up theirshops, and business almost ceased. The lawyers only were busy. For thoseto whom money was owed tried to get it paid before the paper moneybecame utterly worthless. The courts were crowded, and the prisons werefilled with poor debtors. 

[Sidenote: Stay laws. ]

172. Stay Laws. --Now the cry was for "stay laws. " These were lawsto prevent those to whom money was due from enforcing their rights. These laws promptly put an end to whatever business was left. The onlyway that any business could be carried on was by barter. For example, aman who had a bushel of wheat that he did not want for his family wouldexchange it for three or four bushels of potatoes, or for four or fivedays of labor. In some states the legislatures passed very severe lawsto compel people to receive paper money. In one state, indeed, no onecould vote who would not receive paper money. 

[Illustration: STATE STREET, BOSTON, ABOUT 1790. The Boston Massacreoccurred near where the two-horse wagon stands. ]

[Sidenote: Disorder in Massachusetts. ]

173. Shays's Rebellion, 1786-87. --In Massachusetts, especially, thediscontent was very great. The people were angry with the judges forsending men to prison who did not pay their debts. Crowds of armed menvisited the judges and compelled them to close the courts. The leader inthis movement was Daniel Shays. He even threatened to seize the UnitedStates Arsenal at Springfield. By this time Governor Bowdoin and GeneralLincoln also had gathered a small force of soldiers. In the midst ofwinter, through snowstorms and over terrible roads, Lincoln marched withhis men. He drove Shays from place to place, captured his followers, andput down the rebellion. There were risings in other states, especiallyin North Carolina. But Shays's Rebellion in Massachusetts was the mostimportant of them all, because it convinced the New Englanders that astronger national government was necessary. 

[Illustration: CLAIMS AND CESSIONS. ]

[Sidenote: Claims of the states to Western lands. _McMaster_, 155]

[Sidenote: _Hero Tales_, 19-28. ]

[Sidenote: Opposition of Maryland and of other states. ]

174. Claims to Western Lands. --The Confederation seemed to befalling to pieces. That it did not actually fall to pieces was largelydue to the fact that all the states were interested in the settlement ofthe region northwest of the Ohio River. It will be well to stop a momentand see how this came about. Under their old charters Massachusetts, Connecticut, Virginia, Carolina, and Georgia had claims to lands west ofthe Alleghanies. Between 1763 and 1776 the British government had paidslight heed to these claims (pp. 75, 89). But Daniel Boone and othercolonists had settled west of the mountains in what are now the statesof Kentucky and Tennessee. When the Revolution began the states havingclaims to western lands at once put them forward, and New York alsoclaimed a right to about one-half of the disputed territory. Naturally, the states that had no claims to these lands had quite different views. The Marylanders, for example, thought that the western lands should beregarded as national territory and used for the common benefit. Marylandrefused to join the Confederation until New York had ceded her claims tothe United States, and Virginia had proposed a cession of the territoryclaimed by her. 

[Sidenote: The states cede their claims to the United States. _McMaster_, 159-160. ]

175. The Land Cessions. --In 1784 Virginia gave up her claims to theland northwest of the Ohio River with the exception of certain largetracts which she reserved for her veteran soldiers. Massachusetts cededher claims in 1785. The next year (1786) Connecticut gave up her claims. But she reserved a large tract of land directly west of Pennsylvania. This was called the Connecticut Reserve or, more often, the WesternReserve. South Carolina and North Carolina ceded their lands in 1787 and1790, and finally Georgia gave up her claims to western lands in 1802. 

[Sidenote: Reasons for the ordinance. ]

[Sidenote: Passage of Ordinance of 1787. _McMaster_, 160-162;_Source-Book_, 169-172. ]

[Sidenote: Passage of Ordinance of 1787. _McMaster_, 160-162;_Source-Book_, 169-172. ]

176. Passage of the Ordinance of 1787. --What should be done withthe lands which in this way had come into the possession of the peopleof all the states? It was quite impossible to divide these lands amongthe people of the thirteen states. They never could have agreed as tothe amount due to each state. In 1785 Congress took the first step. Itpassed a law or an ordinance for the government of the TerritoryNorthwest of the Ohio River. This ordinance was imperfect, and fewpersons emigrated to the West. There were many persons who wished toemigrate from the old states to the new region. But they were unwillingto go unless they felt sure that they would not be treated by Congressas the British government had treated the people of the original states. Dr. Cutler of Massachusetts laid these matters before Congress and didhis work so well that Congress passed a new ordinance. This was in 1787. The ordinance is therefore called the Ordinance of 1787. It was so wellsuited to its purpose that nearly all the territories of the UnitedStates have been settled and governed under its provisions. It will bewell to study this great document more at length. 

[Sidenote: Provisions of the Ordinance of 1787. ]

177. The Ordinance of 1787. --In the first place the ordinanceprovided for the formation of one territory to be called the TerritoryNorthwest of the Ohio. But it is more often called the NorthwestTerritory or simply the Old Northwest. At first it was to be governed bythe persons appointed by Congress. But it was further provided that whensettlers should arrive in sufficient numbers they should enjoyself-government. When fully settled the territory should be divided intofive states. These should be admitted to the Confederation on a footingof equality with the original states. The settlers in the territoryshould enjoy full rights of citizenship. Education should be encouraged. Slavery should never be permitted. This last provision is especiallyimportant as it saved the Northwest to freedom. In this way a newpolitical organization was invented. It was called a territory. It wasreally a colony; but it differed from all other colonies because in timeit would become a state on a footing of entire equality with theparent states. 

Chapter 18

Making Of The Constitution, 1787-1789

[Sidenote: Weakness of the Confederation. ]

[Sidenote: Meeting of the Federal Convention, 1787. ]

178. Necessity for a New Government. --At this very moment aconvention was making a constitution to put an end to the Confederationitself. It was quite clear that something must be done or the statessoon would be fighting one another. Attempt after attempt had been madeto amend the Articles of Confederation so as to give Congress morepower. But every attempt had failed because the consent of every statewas required to amend the Articles. And one state or another hadobjected to every amendment that had been proposed. It was while affairswere in this condition that the Federal Convention met at Philadelphiain May, 1787. 

[Sidenote: James Madison. ]

179. James Madison. --Of all the members of the Convention, JamesMadison of Virginia best deserves the title of Father of theConstitution. He drew up the Virginia plan which was adopted as thebasis of the new Constitution. He spoke convincingly for the plan in theConvention. He did more than any one else to secure the ratification ofthe Constitution by Virginia. He kept a careful set of _Notes_ of thedebates of the Convention which show us precisely how the Constitutionwas made. With Alexander Hamilton and John Jay he wrote a series ofpapers which is called the _Federalist_ and is still the best guide tothe Constitution. 

[Illustration: JAMES MADISON. ]

[Sidenote: Washington President of the Convention. ]

[Sidenote: Franklin. ]

180. Other Fathers of the Constitution. --George Washington waschosen President of the Convention. He made few speeches. But thespeeches that he made were very important. And the mere fact that heapproved the Constitution had a tremendous influence throughout thecountry. The oldest man in the Convention was Benjamin Franklin. Hislong experience in politics and in diplomacy with his natural shrewdnesshad made him an unrivaled manager of men. From all the states came ablemen. In fact, with the exception of John Adams, Samuel Adams, PatrickHenry, and Thomas Jefferson, the strongest men in political life were inthe Federal Convention. Never in the history of the world have so manygreat political leaders, learned students of politics, and shrewdbusiness men gathered together. The result of their labors was the mostmarvelous product of political wisdom that the world has ever seen. 

[Illustration: THE OLD STATE HOUSE, PHILADELPHIA. Meeting place of theContinental Congress and of the Federal Convention--now calledIndependence Hall. ]

[Sidenote: The Virginia plan. ]

[Sidenote: Pinckney's plan. ]

[Sidenote: Vote for a national government. ]

181. Plans for a National Government. --As soon as the Conventionwas in working order, Governor Randolph of Virginia presented Madison'splan for a "national" government. Charles Pinckney of South Carolinaalso brought forward a plan. His scheme was more detailed than wasMadison's plan. But, like it, it provided for a government with "supremelegislative, executive, and judicial powers. " On May 30 the Conventionvoted that a "national government ought to be established, consisting ofa supreme Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary. " It next decided thatthe legislative department should consist of two houses. But when thedelegates began to talk over the details, they began to disagree. 

[Sidenote: The New Jersey plan. ]

182. Disagreement as to Representation. --The Virginia plan proposedthat representation in one branch of the new Congress should be dividedamong the states according to the amount of money each state paid intothe national treasury, or according to the number of the freeinhabitants of each state. The Delaware delegates at once said that theymust withdraw. In June Governor Patterson of New Jersey brought forwarda plan which had been drawn up by the delegates from the smaller states. It is always called, however, the New Jersey plan. It proposed simply toamend the Articles of Confederation so as to give Congress more power. After a long debate the New Jersey plan was rejected. 

[Illustration: Benjamin Franklin. "He snatched the lightning fromHeaven, and the sceptre from tyrants. "--TURGOT. ]

[Sidenote: Representation in the House of Representatives. _McMaster_, 167. ]

[Sidenote: Representation in the Senate. ]

183. The Compromise as to Representation. --The discussion nowturned on the question of representation in the two houses of Congress. After a long debate and a good deal of excitement Benjamin Franklinand Roger Sherman proposed a compromise. This was, that members of theHouse of Representatives should be apportioned among the statesaccording to their population and should be elected directly by thepeople. In the Senate they proposed that each state, regardless of size, population, or wealth, should have two members. The Senators, representing the states, would fittingly be chosen by the statelegislatures. It was agreed that the states should be equallyrepresented in the Senate. But it was difficult to reach a conclusion asto the apportionment of representatives in the House. 

[Sidenote: The federal ratio. ]

184. Compromise as to Apportionment. --Should the members of theHouse of Representatives be distributed among the states according topopulation? At first sight the answer seemed to be perfectly clear. Butthe real question was, should slaves who had no vote be counted as apart of the population? It was finally agreed that the slaves should becounted at three-fifths of their real number. This rule was called the"federal ratio. " The result of this rule was to give the Southern slavestates representation in Congress out of all proportion to their votingpopulation. 

[Sidenote: Power of Congress over commerce. ]

[Sidenote: Restriction as to slave-trade. ]

185. Compromise as to the Slave-Trade. --When the subject of thepowers to be given to Congress came to be discussed, there was evengreater excitement. The Northerners wanted Congress to have power toregulate commerce. But the Southerners opposed it because they fearedCongress would use this power to put an end to the slave-trade. JohnRutledge of South Carolina even went so far as to say that unless thisquestion was settled in favor of the slaveholders, the slave stateswould "not be parties to the Union. " In the end this matter also wascompromised by providing that Congress could not prohibit theslave-trade until 1808. These were the three great compromises. Butthere were compromises on so many smaller points that we cannot evenmention them here. 

[Illustration: SIGNING OF THE CONSTITUTION, SEPTEMBER 17, 1787. From anearly unfinished picture. This shows the arrangement of the room and thesun behind Washington's chair. ]

[Sidenote: Franklin's prophecy. ]

186. Franklin's Prophecy. --It was with a feeling of real reliefthat the delegates finally came to the end of their labors. As they wereputting their names to the Constitution, Franklin pointed to a risingsun that was painted on the wall behind the presiding officer's chair. He said that painters often found it difficult to show the differencebetween a rising sun and a setting sun. "I have often and often, " saidthe old statesman, "looked at that behind the President, without beingable to tell whether it was rising or setting; but now, at length, Ihave the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun. "And so indeed it has proved to be. 

[Sidenote: Strength of the Constitution. _McMaster_, 168-169. ]

187. The Constitution. --It will be well now to note some of thepoints in which the new Constitution was unlike the old Articles ofConfederation. In the first place, the government of the Confederationhad to do only with the states; the new government would deal directlywith individuals. For instance, when the old Congress needed money, itcalled on the states to give it. If a state refused to give any money, Congress could remonstrate--and that was all. The new government couldorder individuals to pay taxes. Any one who refused to pay his tax wouldbe tried in a United States court and compelled to pay or go to prison. In the second place the old government had almost no executive powers. The new government would have a very strong executive in the person ofthe President of the United States. 

[Sidenote: Interpretation of the Constitution. ]

[Sidenote: John Marshall's decisions. ]

188. The Supreme Court. --But the greatest difference of all was tobe found in the Supreme Court of the United States provided in theConstitution. The new Congress would have very large powers of makinglaws. But the words defining these powers were very hard to understand. It was the duty of the Supreme Court to say what these words meant. Nowthe judges of the Supreme Court are very independent. It is almostimpossible to remove a judge of this court, and the Constitutionprovides that his salary cannot be reduced while he holds office. Itfell out that under the lead of Chief Justice John Marshall the SupremeCourt defined the doubtful words in the Constitution so as to give thegreatest amount of power to the Congress of the United States. As thelaws of the United States are the supreme laws of the land, it will beseen how important this action of the Supreme Court has been. 

[Illustration: OPENING LINES OF THE CONSTITUTION. ]

[Sidenote: Opposition to the Constitution. _Source-Book_, 172-175. ]

189. Objections to the Constitution. --The great strength of theConstitution alarmed many people. Patrick Henry declared that thegovernment under the new Constitution would be a national government andnot a federal government at all. Other persons objected to theConstitution because it took the control of affairs out of the hands ofthe people. For example, the Senators were to be chosen by the statelegislatures, and the President was to be elected in a round-about wayby presidential electors. Others objected to the Constitution becausethere was no Bill of Rights attached to it. They pointed out, forinstance, that there was nothing in the Constitution to prevent Congressfrom passing laws to destroy the freedom of the press. Finally a greatmany people objected to the Constitution because there was no provisionin it reserving to the states or to the people those powers that werenot expressly given to the new government. 

[Illustration: CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. ]

[Sidenote: Opponents of the Constitution. ]

[Sidenote: The first ten amendments. ]

190. The First Ten Amendments. --These defects seemed to be so gravethat patriots like Patrick Henry, R. H. Lee, Samuel Adams, and JohnHancock could not bring themselves to vote for its adoption. Conventionsof delegates were elected by the people of the several states to ratifyor to reject the Constitution. The excitement was intense. It seemed asif the Constitution would not be adopted. But a way was found out of thedifficulty. It was suggested that the conventions should consent to theadoption of the Constitution, but should, at the same time, proposeamendments which would do away with many of these objections. This wasdone. The first Congress under the Constitution and the statelegislatures adopted most of these amendments, and they became a part ofthe Constitution. There were ten amendments in all, and they should bestudied as carefully as the Constitution itself is studied. 

[Sidenote: Constitution adopted. _Higginson_, 216; _Source-Book_, 175-180. ]

191. The Constitution Adopted, 1787-88. --In June, 1788, NewHampshire and Virginia adopted the Constitution. They were the ninth andtenth states to take this action. The Constitution provided that itshould go into effect when it should be adopted by nine states, that is, of course, it should go into effect only between those states. Preparations were now made for the organization of the new government. But this took some time. Washington was unanimously elected President, and was inaugurated in April, 1789. By that time North Carolina andRhode Island were the only states which had not adopted the Constitutionand come under the "New Roof, " as it was called. In a year or two theyadopted it also, and the Union of the thirteen original stateswas complete. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 17

§§ 168, 169. --_a_. What were the chief weaknesses of the Confederation?Why did not Congress have any real power?

_b_. How did some states treat other states? Why?

§§ 170-173. --_a_. Explain the distress among the people. 

_b_. Describe the attitude of the British government and give somereason for it. 

_c_. Why did the value of paper money keep changing?

_d_. What were the "tender laws"? The "stay laws"?

_e_. Give some illustration of how these laws would affect trade. 

§ 174. --_a_. Describe the troubles in Massachusetts. 

_b_. What was the result of this rebellion?

§§ 175-178. --_a_. What common interest did all the states have?

_b_. What did Maryland contend? State carefully the result of Maryland'saction. Describe the land cessions. 

_c_. How did the holding these lands benefit the United States?

_d_. Give the provisions of the Ordinance of 1787. What was the resultof the declaration as to slaves?

_e_. What privileges were the settlers to have? Why is this Ordinance soimportant?

CHAPTER 18

§§ 179-181. --_a_. What difficulties in the United States showed thenecessity of a stronger government?

_b_. How could the Articles of Confederation be amended?

_c_. What was the important work of Madison?

_d_. What was the advantage of having Washington act as President of theConvention?

§§ 182, 183. --_a_. Explain fully the provisions of the Virginia plan. What departments were decided upon?

_b_. Why did New Jersey and Delaware oppose the Virginia plan? What werethe great objections to the New Jersey plan?

§§ 184-186. --_a_. What is a compromise? What are the three greatcompromises of the Constitution?

_b_. Explain the compromise as to representation. What does the Senaterepresent? What the House?

_c_. Define apportionment. What do you think of the wisdom of thecompromise as to apportionment? What of its justice?

_d_. Why was there a conflict over the clause as to commerce? How wasthe matter settled?

§§ 187-189. --_a_. What events at first seemed to disprove Franklin'sprophecy?

_b_. Compare the Constitution with the Articles of Confederation andshow in what respects the Constitution was much stronger. 

_c_. Explain how the new government could control individuals. 

_d_. What were some of the duties of the President? Of Congress? Of theSupreme Court?

§§ 190-192. --_a_. What is the difference between a national and afederal government? Was Henry's criticism true?

_b_. Study the first ten amendments and state how far they met theobjections of those opposed to the Constitution. 

_c_. Repeat the Tenth Amendment from memory. 

_d_. How was the Constitution ratified?

_e_. How did the choice of Washington as first President influencepopular feeling toward the new government?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Why should the people have shown loyalty to the states rather thanto the United States?

_b_. Analyze the Constitution as follows:--

=============================================================== | EXECUTIVE. | LEGISLATIVE. | JUDICIARY. ----------------------+------------+--------------+------------Method of Appointment | | |or Election. | | |----------------------+------------+--------------+------------Term of Office. | | | | | |----------------------+------------+--------------+------------Duties and Powers. | | | | | |----------------------+------------+--------------+------------

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

The career of any one man prominent in the Convention, as Madison, Hamilton, Franklin, Washington, Robert Morris, etc. Write a briefbiography. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

This period should be taught very slowly and very thoroughly, as itdemands much more time than any of the earlier periods. A clearunderstanding of the Constitution is of the most practical value, notmerely to enable one to comprehend the later history, but also to enableone to understand present duties. Note carefully the "federal ratio" andthe functions of the Supreme Court. Use the text of the Constitution andemphasize especially those portions of importance in the later history. 

This work is difficult. It should therefore be most fully illustratedfrom recent political struggles. Let the children represent charactersin the Convention and discuss the various plans proposed. Encourage themalso to suggest transactions which might represent the working of thetender laws, the commercial warfare between the states, the "federalratio" etc. Especially study the first ten amendments and show how theylimit the power of the general government to-day. 

[Illustration: TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS 1783-1853. For lateracquisitions see Map facing page 397. ]

VII

THE FEDERALIST SUPREMACY, 1789-1801

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Higginson's _Larger History_, 309-344; Eggleston's_United States and its People_ ch. Xxxiv (the people in 1790);McMaster's _School History_, ch. Xiv (the people in 1790). 

Home Readings. --Drake's _Making of the West_; Scribner's _PopularHistory_, IV; Coffin's _Building the Nation_; Bolton's _FamousAmericans_; Holmes's _Ode on Washington's Birthday_; Seawell's_Little Jarvis_. 

CHAPTER 19

ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT

[Sidenote: The first way of electing President. Constitution, Art. II, §I; _McMaster_, 170-171. ]

[Sidenote: Washington and Adams. ]

192. Washington elected President. --In the early years under theConstitution the Presidents and Vice-Presidents were elected in thefollowing manner. First each state chose presidential electors usuallyby vote of its legislature. Then the electors of each state cametogether and voted for two persons without saying which of the twoshould be President. When all the electoral votes were counted, theperson having the largest number, provided that was more than half ofthe whole number of electoral votes, was declared President. The personhaving the next largest number became Vice-President. At the firstelection every elector voted for Washington. John Adams received thenext largest number of votes and became Vice-President. 

[Illustration: FEDERAL HALL, 1797. Washington took the oath of office onthe balcony. ]

[Sidenote: Washington's journey to New York. _Higginson_, 217-218. ]

193. Washington's Journey to New York. --At ten o'clock in themorning of April 14, 1789, Washington left Mt. Vernon and set out forNew York. Wherever he passed the people poured forth to greet him. AtTrenton, New Jersey, a triumphal arch had been erected. The school girlsstrewed flowers in his path and sang an ode written for the occasion. Abarge manned by thirteen pilots met him at the water's edge and bore himsafely to New York. 

[Sidenote: Washington inaugurated President, 1789. _Source-Book_, 181-183. ]

[Sidenote: The oath of office. ]

194. The First Inauguration, April 30, 1789. --Long before the timeset for the inauguration ceremonies, the streets around Federal Hallwere closely packed with sightseers. Washington in a suit of velvet withwhite silk stockings came out on the balcony and took the oath of officeordered in the Constitution, "I will faithfully execute the office ofPresident of the United States, and will to the best of my Abilitypreserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. "Cannon roared forth a salute and Chancellor Livingston turning to thepeople proclaimed, "Long live George Washington, President of the UnitedStates. " Reëntering the hall Washington read a simple andsolemn address. 

[Sidenote: Jefferson, Secretary of State. ]

[Sidenote: Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury. _Eggleston_, 215. ]

[Sidenote: Knox, Secretary of War. ]

[Sidenote: Randolph, Attorney-General. ]

195. The First Cabinet. --Washington appointed Thomas JeffersonSecretary of State. Since writing the Great Declaration, Jefferson hadbeen governor of Virginia and American minister at Paris. The Secretaryof the Treasury was Alexander Hamilton. Born in the British West Indies, he had come to New York to attend King's College, now ColumbiaUniversity. For Secretary of War, Washington selected Henry Knox. He hadbeen Chief of Artillery during the Revolution. Since then he had beenhead of the War Department. Edward Randolph became Attorney General. Hehad introduced the Virginia plan of union into the Federal Convention. But he had not signed the Constitution in its final form. These fourofficers formed the Cabinet. There was also a Postmaster General. Buthis office was of slight importance at the time. 

[Illustration: WASHINGTON'S WRITING-TABLE]

[Sidenote: Federal Officers. ]

[Sidenote: Jay, Chief Justice. ]

196. Appointments to Office. --The President now appointed thenecessary officers to execute the national laws. These were mostly menwho had been prominent in the Revolutionary War. For instance, John Jay(p. 126) was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, and GeneralLincoln (p. 134) was appointed Collector of Customs at Boston. It was inhaving officers of its own to carry out its laws, that the newgovernment seemed to the people to be so unlike the old government. Formerly if Congress wanted anything done, it called on the states to doit. Now Congress, by law, authorized the United States officials to dotheir tasks. The difference was a very great one, and it took the peoplesome time to realize what a great change had been made. 

[Sidenote: Titles. _Higginson_, 222. ]

197. The Question of Titles. --The first fiercely contested debatein the new Congress was over the question of titles. John Adams, theVice-President and the presiding officer of the Senate, began theconflict by asking the Senate how he should address the President. Onesenator suggested that the President should be entitled "His PatrioticMajesty. " Other senators proposed that he should be addressed as "YourHighness, the President of the United States and Protector of theirLiberties. " Fortunately, the House of Representatives had the firstchance to address Washington and simply called him "Mr. President of theUnited States. "

[Sidenote: Ceremonies. _Higginson_, 222-224. ]

[Sidenote: Monarchical appearances. ]

198. Ceremonies and Progresses. --Washington liked a good deal ofceremony and was stiff and aristocratic. He soon gave receptions or"levees" as they were called. To these only persons who had tickets wereadmitted. Washington stood on one side of the room and bowed stiffly toeach guest as he was announced. When all were assembled, the entrancedoors were closed. The President then slowly walked around the room, saying something pleasant to each person. In 1789 he made a journeythrough New England. Everywhere he was received by guards of honor, andwas splendidly entertained. At one place an old man greeted him with"God bless Your Majesty. " This was all natural enough, for Washingtonwas "first in the hearts of his countrymen. " But many good men wereafraid that the new government would really turn out to be a monarchy. 

[Sidenote: Struggle over protection, 1789. _Source-Book_, 183-186. ]

199. First Tariff Act, 1789. --The first important business thatCongress took in hand was a bill for raising revenue, and a livelydebate began. Representatives from New England and the Middle stateswanted protection for their commerce and their struggling manufactures. Representatives from the Southern states opposed all protective dutiesas harmful to agriculture, which was the only important pursuit of theSoutherners. But the Southerners would have been glad to have a dutyplaced on hemp. This the New Englanders opposed because it wouldincrease the cost of rigging ships. The Pennsylvanians were eager for aduty on iron and steel. But the New Englanders opposed this duty becauseit would add to the cost of building a ship, and the Southerners opposedit because it would increase the cost of agricultural tools. And so itwas as to nearly every duty that was proposed. But duties must be laid, and the only thing that could be done was to compromise in everydirection. Each section got something that it wanted, gave up a greatdeal that it wanted, and agreed to something that it did not want atall. And so it has been with every tariff act from that day to this. 

[Sidenote: The first census. ]

[Sidenote: Extent of the United States, 1791. ]

[Sidenote: Population of the United States, 1791. ]

200. The First Census, 1791. --The Constitution provided thatrepresentatives should be distributed among the states according topopulation as modified by the federal ratio (p. 142). To do this it wasnecessary to find out how many people there were in each state. In 1791the first census was taken. By that time both North Carolina and RhodeIsland had joined the Union, and Vermont had been admitted as thefourteenth state. It appeared that there were nearly four million peoplein the United States, or not as many as one hundred years later livedaround the shores of New York harbor. There were then about sevenhundred thousand slaves in the country. Of these only fifty thousandwere in the states north of Maryland. The country, therefore, wasalready divided into two sections: one where slavery was of littleimportance, and another where it was of great importance. 

[Sidenote: Vermont admitted, 1791. ]

[Sidenote: _Higginson_ 229. ]

[Sidenote: Kentucky admitted, 1792. _Higginson_, 224-230. ]

201. New States. --The first new state to be admitted to the Unionwas Vermont (1791). The land which formed this state was claimed by NewHampshire and by New York. But during the Revolution the Green MountainBoys had declared themselves independent and had drawn up aconstitution. They now applied to Congress for admission to the Union asa separate state. The next year Kentucky came into the Union. This wasoriginally a part of Virginia, and the colonists had brought theirslaves with them to their new homes. Kentucky, therefore, was a slavestate. Vermont was a free state, and its constitution forbade slavery. 

[Illustration: CENTER OF POPULATION]

[Sidenote: Origin of the National Debt. For details, see _McMaster_, 198-200. ]

[Sidenote: Bonds. ]

202. The National Debt. --The National Debt was the price ofindependence. During the war Congress had been too poor to pay gold andsilver for what it needed to carry on the war. So it had given promisesto pay at some future time. These promises to pay were called by variousnames as bonds, certificates of indebtedness, and paper money. Taken alltogether they formed what was called the Domestic Debt, because it wasowed to persons living in the United States. There was also a ForeignDebt. This was owed to the King of France and to other foreigners whohad lent money to the United States. 

[Sidenote: Hamilton as a financier. ]

[Sidenote: His plan. ]

[Sidenote: Objections to it. ]

203. Hamilton's Financial Policy. --Alexander Hamilton was theablest Secretary of the Treasury the United States has ever had. To givepeople confidence in the new government, he proposed to redeem the oldcertificates and bonds, dollar for dollar, in new bonds. To this planthere was violent objection. Most of the original holders of thecertificates and bonds had sold them long ago. They were now mainly heldby speculators who had paid about thirty or forty cents for each dollar. Why should the speculator get one dollar for that which had cost himonly thirty or forty cents? Hamilton insisted that his plan was the onlyway to place the public credit on a firm foundation, and it wasfinally adopted. 

[Illustration: ALEXANDER HAMILTON. "He smote the rock of the nationalresources and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He touched thedead corpse of the public credit and it sprang upon itsfeet. "--WEBSTER. ]

[Sidenote: The state debts. _Source-Book_, 186-188. ]

[Sidenote: Hamilton's plan of assumption. ]

[Sidenote: Objections to it. ]

[Sidenote: Failure of the bill. ]

204. Assumption of State Debts. --A further part of Hamilton'soriginal scheme aroused even greater opposition. During theRevolutionary War the states, too, had become heavily in debt. They hadfurnished soldiers and supplies to Congress. Some of them had undertakenexpeditions at their own expense. Virginia, for example, had borne allthe cost of Clark's conquest of the Northwest (p. 116). She had laterceded nearly all her rights in the conquered territory to the UnitedStates (p. 135). These debts had been incurred for the benefit of thepeople as a whole. Would it not then be fair for the people of theUnited States as a whole to pay them? Hamilton thought that it would. Itchanced, however, that the Northern states had much larger debts thanhad the Southern states. One result of Hamilton's scheme would be torelieve the Northern states of a part of their burdens and to increasethe burdens of the Southern states. The Southerners, therefore, werestrongly opposed to the plan. The North Carolina representatives reachedNew York just in time to vote against it, and that part of Hamilton'splan was defeated. 

[Illustration: AN OLD STAGECOACH. The house was built in Lincoln County, Kentucky, in 1783. ]

[Sidenote: Question of the site of the national capital. ]

[Sidenote: Jefferson and Hamilton. ]

[Sidenote: The District of Columbia. ]

205. The National Capital. --In these days of fast express trains itmakes little difference whether one is going to Philadelphia or toBaltimore--only a few hours more or less in a comfortable railroad car. But in 1791 it made a great deal of difference whether one were going toPhiladelphia or to Baltimore. Traveling was especially hard in theSouth. There were few roads or taverns in that part of the country, andthose few were bad. The Southerners were anxious to have the nationalcapital as far south as possible. They were also opposed to theassumption of the state debts by the national government. Now ithappened that the Northerners were in favor of the assumption of thedebts and did not care very much where the national capital might be. Inthe end Jefferson and Hamilton made "a deal, " the first of its kind inour history. Enough Southerners voted for the assumption bill to passit. The Northerners, on their part, agreed that the temporary seat ofgovernment should be at Philadelphia, and the permanent seat ofgovernment on the Potomac. Virginia and Maryland at once ceded enoughland to form a "federal district. " This was called the District ofColumbia. Soon preparations were begun to build a capital citythere--the city of Washington. 

[Illustration: A LADY OF THE "REPUBLICAN COURT. "]

[Sidenote: Hamilton's plan for a United States bank. _McMaster_, 201]

[Sidenote: Jefferson's argument against it. ]

[Sidenote: The bank established. ]

206. The First Bank of the United States. --Two parts of Hamilton'splan were now adopted. To the third part of his scheme there was evenmore opposition. This was the establishment of a great Bank of theUnited States. The government in 1790 had no place in which to keep itsmoney. Instead of establishing government treasuries, Hamilton wanted agreat national bank, controlled by the government. This bank couldestablish branches in important cities. The government's money could bedeposited at any of these branches and could be paid out by checks sentfrom the Treasury. Furthermore, people could buy a part of the stock ofthe bank with the new bonds of the United States. This would make peoplemore eager to own the bonds, and so would increase their price. For allthese reasons Hamilton thought the bank would be very useful, andtherefore "necessary and proper" for the carrying out of the powersgiven by the Constitution to the national government. Jefferson, however, thought that the words "necessary and proper" meant necessaryand not useful. The bank was not necessary according to the ordinary useof the word. Congress therefore had no business to establish it. Afterthinking the matter over, Washington signed the bill and it became alaw. But Jefferson had sounded the alarm. Many persons agreed with him, many others agreed with Hamilton. Two great political parties wereformed and began the contest for power that has been going onever since. 

CHAPTER 20

RISE OF POLITICAL PARTIES

[Sidenote: Formation of the Federalist party. _McMaster_, 202. ]

207. The Federalists. --There were no political parties in theUnited States in 1789. All the leading men were anxious to give the newConstitution a fair trial. Even Patrick Henry supported Washington. Manymen, as Alexander Hamilton and Gouverneur Morris, believed a monarchy tobe the best form of government. But they saw clearly that the Americanpeople would not permit a monarchy to be established. So they supportedthe Constitution although they thought that it was "a frail andworthless fabric. " But they wished to establish the strongest possiblegovernment that could be established under the Constitution. This theycould do by defining in the broadest way the doubtful words in theConstitution as Hamilton had done in the controversy over the bankcharter (p. 162). Hamilton had little confidence in the wisdom of theplain people. He believed it would be safer to rely on the richerclasses. So he and his friends wished to give to the central governmentand to the richer classes the greatest possible amount of power. Thosewho believed as Hamilton believed called themselves Federalists. Inreality they were Nationalists. 

[Sidenote: Formation of the Republican party. ]

208. The Republicans. --Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, AlbertGallatin, and their friends entirely disagreed with the Federalists onall of these points. They called themselves Republicans. In the GreatDeclaration Jefferson had written that government rested on the consentof the governed. He also thought that the common sense of the plainpeople was a safer guide than the wisdom of the richer classes. He wasindignant at the way in which Hamilton defined the meaning of phrases inthe Constitution. He especially relied on the words of the TenthAmendment. This amendment provided that "all powers not delegated to theUnited States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the states arereserved to the states respectively or to the people. " Jefferson thoughtthat phrases like "not delegated" and "necessary and proper" should beunderstood in their ordinary meanings. He now determined to arousepublic opinion. He once declared that if he had to choose between havinga government and having a newspaper press, he should prefer thenewspaper press. He established a newspaper devoted to his principlesand began a violent and determined attack on the Federalists, callingthem monarchists. These disputes became especially violent in thetreatment of the questions which grew out of the French Revolution. 

[Sidenote: The French Revolution, 1789. ]

209. The French Revolution. --In 1789 the French people rose againsttheir government. In 1792 they imprisoned their king and queen. In 1793they beheaded them, and set up a republic. The monarchs of Europe madecommon cause against this spirit of revolution. They made war on theFrench Republic and began a conflict which soon spread to all parts ofthe world. 

[Sidenote: Effect of the French Revolution on American politics. _McMaster_, 206-207. ]

[Sidenote: Federalists and Republicans. ]

210. The French Revolution and American Politics. --Jefferson andhis political friends rejoiced at the overthrow of the French monarchyand the setting up of the Republic. It seemed as if American ideas hadspread to Europe. Soon Jefferson's followers began to ape the manners ofthe French revolutionists. They called each other Citizen this andCitizen that. Reports of French victories were received with rejoicing. At Boston an ox, roasted whole, bread, and punch were distributed to thepeople in the streets, and cakes stamped with the French watchwords, Liberty and Equality, were given to the children. But, while theRepublicans were rejoicing over the downfall of the French monarchy, theFederalists were far from being happy. Hamilton had no confidence ingovernment by the people anywhere. Washington, with his aristocraticideas, did not at all like the way the Republicans were acting. He saidlittle on the subject, but Lady Washington expressed her mind freely andspoke of Jefferson's followers as "filthy Democrats. "

[Sidenote: Genet at Charleston. ]

[Sidenote: His contest with the government. ]

211. Citizen Genet. --The new French government soon sent an agentor minister to the United States. He was the Citizen Genet. He landed atCharleston, South Carolina. He fitted out privateers to prey on Britishcommerce and then set out overland for Philadelphia. Washington hadrecently made a tour through the South. But even he had not beenreceived with the enthusiasm that greeted Genet. But when Genet reachedPhiladelphia, and began to confer with Jefferson about getting help fromthe government, he found little except delay, trouble, and good advice. Jefferson especially tried to warn Genet not to be over confident. ButGenet would not listen. He even appealed to the people againstWashington, and the people rallied to the defense of the President. Soonanother and wiser French minister came to the United States. 

[Sidenote: The Treaty of Alliance of 1778. ]

[Sidenote: The Neutrality Proclamation, 1793. ]

212. The Neutrality Proclamation, 1793. --Washington and hisadvisers had a very difficult question to settle. For the Treaty of 1778with France (p. 115) gave to French ships the use of United Statesports in war time, and closed those ports to the enemies of France. Thetreaty might also oblige the United States to make war on Great Britainin order to preserve the French West India Islands to France. It wasquite certain, at all events, that if French warships were allowed touse American ports, and British warships were not allowed to do so, Great Britain would speedily make war on the United States. The treatyhad been made with the King of France. Could it not be set aside on theground that there was no longer a French monarchy? Washington at lengthmade up his mind to regard it as suspended, owing to the confusion whichexisted in France. He therefore issued a Proclamation of Neutrality. Inthis proclamation he warned all citizens not to aid either of thefighting nations. It was in this way that Washington began the policy ofkeeping the United States out of European conflicts (p. 224). 

[Sidenote: Internal revenue taxes. ]

[Sidenote: The Whiskey Rebellion, 1794. _McMaster_, 203-204. ]

213. The Whiskey Insurrection, 1794. --The increasing expenses ofthe government made new taxes necessary. Among the new taxes was aninternal revenue tax on whiskey. It happened that this tax bore heavilyon the farmers of western Carolina and western Pennsylvania. The farmersof those regions could not take their grain to the seaboard because theroads were bad and the distance was great. So they made it into whiskey, which could be carried to the seaboard and sold at a profit. The new taxon whiskey would make it more difficult for these western farmers toearn a living and to support their families. They refused to pay it. They fell upon the tax collectors and drove them away. Washington sentcommissioners to explain matters to them. But the farmers paid no heedto the commissioners. The President then called out fifteen thousandmilitia-men and sent them to western Pennsylvania, under the command ofHenry Lee, governor of Virginia. The rebellious farmers yielded withoutfighting. Two of the leaders were convicted of treason. But Washingtonpardoned them, and the conflict ended there. The new government hadshown its strength, and had compelled people to obey the laws. That initself was a very great thing to have done. 

[Sidenote: Relations with Great Britain. _McMaster_, 207-209;_Source-Book_, 188-190. ]

[Sidenote: Jay's Treaty, 1794. ]

214. Jay's Treaty, 1794. --Ever since 1783 there had been troublewith the British. They had not surrendered the posts on the Great Lakes, as the treaty of 1783 required them to do. They had oppressed Americancommerce. The American states also had broken the treaty by making lawsto prevent the collection of debts due to British subjects by Americancitizens. The Congress of the Confederation had been too weak to compeleither the British government or the American states to obey the treaty. But the new government was strong enough to make treaties respected athome and abroad. Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to London tonegotiate a new treaty. He found the British government very hard todeal with. At last he made a treaty. But there were many things in itwhich were not at all favorable to the United States. For instance, itprovided that cotton should not be exported from the United States, andthat American commerce with the British West Indies should be greatlyrestricted. 

[Sidenote: Contest over ratification of Jay's Treaty, 1795. ]

215. Ratification of Jay's Treaty, 1795. --After a long discussionthe Senate voted to ratify the treaty without these two clauses. In theHouse of Representatives there was a fierce debate. For although theHouse has nothing to do with ratifying treaties, it has a great deal todo with voting money. And money was needed to carry out this treaty. Atlast the House voted the necessary money. The British surrendered theposts on the Great Lakes, and the debts due to British subjects werepaid. Many people were very angry with Jay and with Washington formaking this treaty. Stuffed figures of Jay were hanged, and Washingtonwas attacked in the papers as if he had been "a common pickpocket"--touse his own words. 

[Illustration: SOUTHERN BOUNDARY OF UNITED STATES 1795]

[Sidenote: Treaty with Spain, 1795. ]

[Sidenote: Right of deposit. ]

216. The Spanish Treaty of 1795. --France and Great Britain werenot the only countries with which there was trouble. The Spaniards heldposts on the Mississippi, within the limits of the United States andrefused to give them up. For a hundred miles the Mississippi flowedthrough Spanish territory. In those days, before steam railroadsconnected the Ohio valley with the Eastern seacoast, the farmers ofKentucky and Tennessee sent their goods by boat or raft down theMississippi to New Orleans. At that city they were placed on sea-goingvessels and carried to the markets of the world. The Spaniards refusedto let this commerce be carried on. In 1795, however, they agreed toabandon the posts and to permit American goods to be deposited at NewOrleans while awaiting shipment by sea-going vessels. 

[Sidenote: Washington declines a third term. ]

[Sidenote: His Farewell Address. ]

217. Washington's Farewell Address. --In 1792 Washington had beenreëlected President. In 1796 there would be a new election, andWashington declined another nomination. He was disgusted with the toneof public life and detested party politics, and desired to pass theshort remainder of his life in quiet at Mt. Vernon. He announced hisintention to retire in a Farewell Address, which should be read andstudied by every American. In it he declared the Union to be the mainpillar of independence, prosperity, and liberty. Public credit must becarefully maintained, and the United States should have as little aspossible to do with European affairs. In declining a third term asPresident, Washington set an example which has ever since been followed. 

CHAPTER 21

THE LAST FEDERALIST ADMINISTRATION

[Sidenote: Hamilton's intrigues against Adams. ]

[Sidenote: Adams elected, President, 1796. ]

218. John Adams elected President, 1796. --In 1796 John Adams wasthe Federalist candidate for President. His rival was Thomas Jefferson, the founder and chief of the Republican party. Alexander Hamilton wasthe real leader of the Federalists, and he disliked Adams. ThomasPinckney was the Federalist candidate for Vice-President. Hamiltonsuggested a plan which he thought would lead to the election of Pinckneyas President instead of Adams. But Hamilton's scheme did not turn outvery well. For by it Jefferson was elected Vice-President. Indeed, hecame near being President, for he had only three less electoral votesthan Adams. 

[Sidenote: Relations with France, 1796-97. _McMaster, 210-212;Source-Book_, 191-194. ]

[Sidenote: The French government declines to receive an Americanminister. ]

219. More Trouble with France. --France was now (1796-97) governedby five chiefs of the Revolution, who called themselves "the Directory. "They were very angry when they heard of Jay's Treaty (p. 168), for theyhad hoped that the Americans would make war on the British. James Monroewas then American minister at Paris. Instead of doing all he could tosmooth over this difficulty, he urged on the wrath of the Directory. Washington recalled Monroe, and sent in his stead General CharlesCotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina. The Directory promptly refused toreceive Pinckney, and ordered him to leave France. News of this actionof the Directory reached Philadelphia three days after Adams'sinauguration. 

[Sidenote: Adams's message, 1797. ]

[Sidenote: A commission sent to France, 1797. ]

[Sidenote: The X. Y. Z. Affair, 1797-98. ]

220. The X. Y. Z. Affair, 1797-98. --Adams at once summoned Congressand addressed the members in stirring words. He denied that theAmericans were a "degraded people, humiliated under a colonial sense offear . .. And regardless of national honor, character, and interest. " Itseemed best, however, to make one more effort to avoid war. Adamstherefore sent John Marshall, a Virginia Federalist, and Elbridge Gerry, a Massachusetts Republican, to France. They were to join Pinckney andtogether were to negotiate with the French Directory. When they reachedParis three men came to see them. These men said that America (1) mustapologize for the President's vigorous words, (2) must lend money toFrance, and (3) must bribe the Directory and the Minister of ForeignAffairs. These outrageous suggestions were emphatically put aside. Insending the papers to Congress, the three men were called Mr. X. , Mr. Y. , and Mr. Z. , so the incident is always known as the "X. Y. Z. Affair. "

[Sidenote: Excitement in America. ]

221. Indignation in America. --Federalists and Republicans joined inindignation. "Millions for defense, not one cent for tribute, " was thecry of the day. French flags were everywhere torn down. "Hail Columbia"was everywhere sung. Adams declared that he would not send anotherminister to France until he was assured that the representative of theUnited States would be received as "the representative of a great, free, powerful, and independent state. "

[Sidenote: Washington appointed Commander-in-chief. Hamilton and Adams. ]

[Sidenote: The navy. ]

[Sidenote: Naval warfare, 1798-99. _McMaster_, 213-214. ]

222. War with France, 1797-98. --The organization of a provisionalarmy was now at once begun. Washington accepted the chief command oncondition that Hamilton should have the second place. There were alreadya few vessels in the navy. A Navy Department was now organized. Thebuilding of more warships was begun, and merchant vessels were boughtand converted into cruisers. French privateers sailed along the Americancoasts and captured American vessels off the entrances of the principalharbors. But this did not last long. For the American warships drove theprivateers to the West Indies and pursued them as they fled southward. Soon the American cruisers began to capture French men-of-war. CaptainTruxton, in the _Constellation_, captured the French frigate_L'Insurgent_. Many other French vessels were captured, and preparationswere made to carry on the naval war even more vigorously when a treatywith France was signed. 

[Sidenote: Another commission sent to France. ]

[Sidenote: The treaty of 1800. ]

223. Treaty with France, 1800. --This vigor convinced the Frenchthat they had been hasty in their treatment of the Americans. They nowsaid that if another minister were sent to France, he would be honorablyreceived. Adams wished to send one of the American ministers then inEurope, and thus end the dispute as soon as possible. But the otherFederalist leaders thought that it would be better to wait until Francesent a minister to the United States. Finally they consented to theappointment of three commissioners. Napoleon Bonaparte was now the rulerof France. He received the commissioners honorably, and a treaty wassoon signed. On two points, however, he refused to give way. He declinedto pay for American property seized by the French, and he insisted thatthe treaty of 1778 (pp. 115, 166) was still binding on both countries. It was finally agreed that the Americans should give up their claims fordamages, and the French government should permit the treaty to beannulled. John Adams always looked upon this peaceful ending of thedispute with France as the most prudent and successful act of his wholelife. But Hamilton and other Federalists thought it was treachery to theparty. They set to work to prevent his reëlection to the presidency. 

[Sidenote: Repressive Laws. _McMaster_, 211-212. ]

[Sidenote: The naturalization act. ]

[Sidenote: The alien acts. ]

[Sidenote: The Sedition Act. ]

224. Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798. --The Federalists, even if theyhad been united, would probably have been defeated in the election of1800. For they had misused their power to pass several very foolishlaws. The first of these laws was the Naturalization Act. It lengthenedthe time of residence in the United States from five to fourteen yearsbefore a foreign immigrant could gain the right to vote. This law borevery harshly on the Republicans, because most of the immigrants wereRepublicans. Other laws, called the Alien Acts, were also aimed at theRepublican immigrants. These laws gave the President power to compelimmigrants to leave the United States, or to live in certain places thathe named. The worst law of all was the Sedition Act. This was aimedagainst the writers and printers of Republican newspapers. It providedthat any one who attacked the government in the press should be severelypunished as a seditious person. Several trials were held under this law. Every trial made hundreds of persons determined to vote for theRepublican candidate at the next election. 

[Sidenote: Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 1798-99. _McMaster_, 212-213. ]

[Sidenote: Jefferson and Madison on the Constitution. ]

[Sidenote: The Kentucky Resolutions of 1799. ]

225. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798-99. --In the excitingyears before the Revolutionary War the colonial legislatures had passedmany resolutions condemning the acts of the British government (see pp. 77, 84). Following this example Jefferson and Madison now brought itabout that the Virginia and Kentucky legislatures passed resolutionsagainst the Alien and Sedition Acts. They declared that the Constitutionwas a compact between the states. It followed from this that any statecould determine for itself whether any act of Congress wereconstitutional or not. It followed from, this, again, that any statecould refuse to permit an Act of Congress to be enforced within itslimits. In other words, any state could make null or nullify any Act ofCongress that it saw fit to oppose. This last conclusion was found onlyin the Kentucky Resolutions of 1799. But Jefferson wrote to this effectin the original draft of the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798. The Virginiaand Kentucky Resolutions called the voter's attention to the Federalistabuse of power and did much to form public opinion. 

[Sidenote: Death of Washington, 1799. ]

226. Death of Washington, 1799. --In the midst of this excitementGeorge Washington died. People forgot how strongly he had taken theFederalist side in the last few years, and united to do honor to hismemory. Henry Lee spoke for the nation when he declared that Washingtonwas "first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of hiscountrymen. " To this day, we commemorate Washington's birthday as we dothat of no other man, though of late years we have begun to keepLincoln's birthday also. 

[Sidenote: Election of 1800. _McMaster_, 215. ]

[Sidenote: Jefferson and Burr. ]

[Sidenote: The election in the House of Representatives. ]

227. Election of 1800. --It was for a moment only that the noise ofparty conflict was hushed by the death of America's first President. Thestrife soon began anew. Indeed, the election of 1800 was fought with avigor and violence unknown before, and scarcely exceeded since. JohnAdams was the Federalist candidate, and he was defeated. Jefferson andBurr, the Republican candidates, each received seventy-three electoralvotes. But which of them should be President? The Republican votersclearly wished Jefferson to be President. But the Federalists had amajority in the House of Representatives. They had a clear legal rightto elect Burr President. But to do that would be to do what was morallywrong. After a useless struggle the Federalists permitted Jefferson tobe chosen, and he was inaugurated on March 4, 1801. 

[Illustration: PRESIDENT WASHINGTON, 1790. "Observe good faith andjustice towards all nations. "--_Farewell Address. _]

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 19

§§ 192-194. --_a_. Describe the method of electing President employed atfirst. 

_b_. Describe Washington's journey to New York and the inauguralceremonies, and compare them with the inauguration of the lastPresident. 

§§ 195, 196. --_a_. In whose hands do appointments to federal officeslie?

_b_. What was the great difference mentioned in § 196? Why was thedifference so great?

§§ 197, 198. --_a_. Why was Washington "stiff and aristocratic"?

_b_. Would Washington have accepted the title of king? Give the reasonsfor your answer. 

§§ 199-202. --_a_. Give the reasons for the different views expressed inCongress as to customs duties. What are customs duties?

_b_. Explain how slavery influenced the views of the Southern members. 

_c_. Compare the extent and population of the United States in 1791 withthe extent and population to-day. 

_d_. What two new states were admitted in 1791-92? What was theirattitude on slavery? What changes would their admission makein Congress?

§§ 203, 204. --_a_. Explain carefully Hamilton's plan. What were itsadvantages? What is meant by the phrase "public credit"?

_b_. What is meant by the phrase "assumption of the state debts"?

§§ 205, 206. --_a_. What question arose concerning the site of thenational capital? How was it settled? Was this a good way to settleimportant questions?

_b_. Why did Hamilton want a Bank of the United States? Was this banklike one of the national banks of to-day?

CHAPTER 20

§§ 207, 208. --_a_. Compare carefully the principles of the Federalistsand the Republicans. Which party would you have joined had you livedthen? Why? Which ideas prevail to-day?

_b_. Discuss Jefferson's views as to the value of newspapers. 

§§ 209-212. --_a_. Why did the Republicans sympathize with the FrenchRevolution?

_b_. How was the action of the Republicans regarded by Washington? ByHamilton?

_c. _ Why did Washington issue the Proclamation of Neutrality?

§ 213. --_a_. What is the difference between a tax laid by a tariff onimported goods and an internal revenue tax?

_b_. How was the rebellion suppressed? Compare this with Shays'sRebellion. 

§§ 214-216. --_a_. State the reasons for the trouble with Great Britain. How was the matter settled?

_b. _ Explain the trouble over the traffic on the Mississippi. 

_c_. How was this matter settled?

§ 217. --_a_. Why did Washington decline a third term?

_b_. What are the important points in his Farewell Address?

_c_. How far has later history proved the truth of his words?

CHAPTER 21

§ 218. --_a_. How did Hamilton set to work to defeat Adams? Do you thinkhis action justifiable?

_b_. What was the result of Hamilton's intrigues?

§§ 219-221. --_a_. To what was the refusal to receive Pinckneyequivalent? Describe the X. Y. Z. Affair. 

_b_. What is a bribe? How must bribery in political life affect agovernment?

_c_. How was the news of this affair received in America? What does thisshow about the feeling of both parties toward the government?

§§ 222, 223. --_a_. Describe the preparations for war. Why was a NavyDepartment necessary?

_b_. Why was France wise to make peace with the United States?

_c_. How was the matter finally settled?

§§ 224, 225. --_a_. Describe the Naturalization Act. 

_b_. What power did the Alien Act give the President? What danger isthere in such power?

_c_. What is sedition? Compare the Sedition Act with the FirstAmendment. 

_d_. What were the theories on which the Kentucky and VirginiaResolutions were based?

§§ 226, 227. --_a_. What position does Washington hold in our history?Why is it deserved? _b_. Describe the election of 1800. Why was itfought so bitterly? _c_. Why should disputes as to elections forPresident go to the House? _d_. How was it known that Jefferson'selection was the wish of the voters?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Write an account of life in the United States about 1790, or lifein Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston. 

_b_. Prepare a table of the two political parties mentioned, with datesand account of origin. As you go on, note upon this table changes inthese parties and the rise of new ones. 

_c_. On an Outline Map color the thirteen original states and then fillin, with dates, new states as they are admitted. Write on each state F. For free or S. For slave, as the case may be. 

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Early life of Washington, John Adams, Jefferson, or Hamilton. 

_b_. Washington's Farewell Address. 

SUGGESTIONS

In this period we meet two questions, which are still important, tarifflegislation and political parties. In connection with the Tariff Act of1789 (§ 200), touch upon the industries of the different sections of thecountry and explain how local interests affected men's actions. Show howcompromise is often necessary in political action. 

It is a good plan to use Outline Maps to show the important lines ofdevelopment, as the gradual drifting apart of the North and the South onthe slavery question. 

Illustrate by supposed transactions the working of Hamilton's financialmeasures. By all means do not neglect a study of Washington's FarewellAddress. Particular attention should be given to the two views ofconstitutional interpretation mentioned in § 207, and considerable timeshould be spent on a study of §§ 224 and 225. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1800. ]

VIII

THE JEFFERSONIAN REPUBLICANS, 1801-1812

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Higginson's _Larger History_, 344-365; Scribner's_Popular History_, IV, 127-184; Schouler's _Jefferson_. 

Home Reading. --Coffin's _Building the Nation;_ Drake's _Making theOhio Valley States;_ Hale's _Man Without a Country_ and _PhilipNolan's Friends. _

CHAPTER 22

THE UNITED STATES IN 1800

[Sidenote: Area. ]

[Sidenote: Population. ]

228. Area and Population, 1800. --The area of the United States in1800 was the same as at the close of the Revolutionary War. But thepopulation had begun to increase rapidly. In 1791 there were nearly fourmillion people in the United States. By 1800 this number had risen tofive and one-quarter millions. Two-thirds of the people still lived onor near tide-water. But already nearly four hundred thousand peoplelived west of the Alleghanies. In 1791 the centre of population had beeneast of Baltimore. It was now eighteen miles west of that city (p. 157). 

[Sidenote: Philadelphia. ]

[Sidenote: New York. ]

[Sidenote: The new capital. ]

229. Cities and Towns in 1800. --Philadelphia was the largest cityin the United States. It had a population of seventy thousand. But NewYork was not far behind Philadelphia in population. Except these two, nocity in the whole United States had more than thirty thousandinhabitants. The seat of government had been removed from Philadelphiato Washington. But the new capital was a city only in name. One broadlong street, Pennsylvania Avenue, led from the unfinished Capitol to theunfinished White House. Congress held its sessions in a temporary woodenbuilding. The White House could be lived in. But Mrs. Adams found theunfinished reception room very convenient for drying clothes on rainyMondays. A few cheaply built and very uncomfortable boarding-housescompleted the city. 

[Sidenote: Roads, coaches, and inns. ]

[Sidenote: Traveling by water. ]

230. Traveling in 1800. --The traveler in those days had a very hardtime. On the best roads of the north, in the best coach, and with thebest weather one might cover as many as forty miles a day. But thetraveler had to start very early in the morning to do this. Generally hethought himself fortunate if he made twenty-five miles in thetwenty-four hours. South of the Potomac there were no public coaches, and the traveler generally rode on horseback. A few rich men likeWashington rode in their own coaches. Everywhere, north and south, theinns were uncomfortable and the food was poor. Whenever it was possiblethe traveler went by water. But that was dangerous work. Lighthouseswere far apart, there were no public buoys to guide the mariner, andalmost nothing had been done to improve navigation. 

[Illustration: THE "CLERMONT, " 1807. ]

[Sidenote: The first steamboat]

[Sidenote: Fulton's steamboat, 1807. _Higginson_, 241-242. ]

231. The Steamboat. --The steamboat came to change all this. WhileWashington was still President, a queer-looking boat sailed up and downthe Delaware. She was propelled by oars or paddles which were worked bysteam. This boat must have been very uncomfortable, and few personswished to go on her. Robert Fulton made the first successful steamboat. She was named the _Clermont_ and was launched in 1807. She had paddlewheels and steamed against the wind and tide of the Hudson River. Atfirst some people thought that she was bewitched. But when it was foundthat she ran safely and regularly, people began to travel on her. Beforea great while steamboats appeared in all parts of the country. 

[Sidenote: Western pioneers. ]

[Sidenote: Settlements on the Ohio. _Eggleston_, 232-234; _Higginson_, 243. ]

232. Making of the West. --Even before the Revolutionary Warexplorers and settlers had crossed the Alleghany Mountains. InWashington's time pioneers, leaving Pittsburg, floated down the OhioRiver in flatboats. Some of these settled Cincinnati. Others wentfarther down the river to Louisville, in Kentucky, and still othersfounded Wheeling and Marietta. In 1811 the first steamboat appeared onthe Western rivers. The whole problem of living in the West rapidlychanged. For the steamboat could go up stream as well as down stream. Communication between the new settlements, and New Orleans andPittsburg, was now much safer and very much easier. 

[Sidenote: Cotton growing. ]

[Sidenote: Beginning of exportation, 1784. ]

233. Cotton Growing in the South. --Cotton had been grown in theSouth for many years. It had been made on the plantations into a roughcloth. Very little had been sent away. The reason for this was that ittook a very long time to separate the cotton fiber from the seed. Oneslave working for a whole day could hardly clean more than a pound ofcotton. Still as time went on more cotton was grown. In 1784 a few bagsof cotton were sent to England. The Englishmen promptly seized itbecause they did not believe that so much cotton could be grown inAmerica. In 1791 nearly two hundred thousand pounds of cotton wereexported from the South. Then came Whitney's great invention, whichentirely changed the whole history of the country. 

[Illustration: THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. As designed by ThomasJefferson. ]

[Sidenote: Eli Whitney. ]

[Sidenote: His cotton gin, 1793. _McMaster_, 195-196. ]

234. Whitney's Cotton Gin, 1793. --Eli Whitney was a Connecticutschoolmaster. He went to Georgia to teach General Greene's children. Hewas very ingenious, and one day Mrs. Greene suggested to him that hemight make a machine which would separate the cotton fiber from thecotton seed. Whitney set to work and soon made an engine or gin, as hecalled it, that would do this. The first machine was a rude affair. Buteven with it one slave could clean one hundred pounds of cotton in aday. Mrs. Greene's neighbors promptly broke into Whitney's shop andstole his machine. Whitney's cotton gin made the growing of cottonprofitable and so fastened slavery on the South. With the exception ofthe steam locomotive (p. 241) and the reaper (p. 260), no invention hasso tremendously influenced the history of the United States. 

[Sidenote: Early manufactures. ]

235. Colonial Manufactures. --Before the Revolutionary War therewere very few mills or factories in the colonies. There was no money toput into such undertakings and no operatives to work the mills if theyhad been built. The only colonial manufactures that amounted to muchwere the making of nails and shoes. These articles could be made at homeon the farms, in the winter, when no work could be done out of doors. 

[Sidenote: New manufactures established. ]

[Sidenote: Invention of cotton spinning machinery. ]

236. Growth of Manufactures, 1789-1800. --As soon as the newgovernment with its wide powers was established, manufacturing startedinto life. Old mills were set to work. While the Revolution had beengoing on in America, great improvements in the spinning of yarn and theweaving of cloth had been made in England. Parliament made laws toprevent the export from England of machinery or patterns of machinery. But it could not prevent Englishmen from coming to America. Among therecent immigrants to the United States was Samuel Slater. He brought nopatterns with him. But he was familiar with the new methods ofspinning. He soon built spinning machinery. New cotton mills were nowset up in several places. But it was some time before the new weavingmachinery was introduced into America. 

CHAPTER 23

JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATIONS

[Sidenote: Jefferson's political ideas. _Higginson_ 239; _McMaster_, 216. ]

[Sidenote: Republican simplicity. ]

237. President Jefferson. --Thomas Jefferson was a Republican. Hebelieved in the republican form of government. He believed the wisdom ofthe people to be the best guide. He wished the President to be simpleand cordial in his relations with his fellow-citizens. Adams had riddento his inauguration in a coach drawn by six cream-colored horses. Jefferson walked with a few friends from his boarding house to theCapitol. Washington and Adams had gone in state to Congress and hadopened the session with a speech. Jefferson sent a written message toCongress by a messenger. Instead of bowing stiffly to those who came tosee him, he shook hands with them and tried to make them feel at ease inhis presence. 

[Sidenote: Proscription of Republicans by the Federalists. ]

[Sidenote: Adams's midnight appointments. ]

238. The Civil Service. --One of the first matters to takeJefferson's attention was the condition of the civil service. There wasnot a Republican office-holder in the government service. Washington, inthe last years of his presidency, and Adams also had given office onlyto Federalists. Jefferson thought it was absolutely necessary to havesome officials upon whom he could rely. So he removed a few Federalistofficeholders and appointed Republicans to their places. Adams had evengone so far as to appoint officers up to midnight of his last day inoffice. Indeed, John Marshall, his Secretary of State, was busy signingcommissions when Jefferson's Attorney General walked in with his watchin hand and told Marshall that it was twelve o'clock. Jefferson andMadison, the new Secretary of State, refused to deliver thesecommissions even when Marshall as Chief Justice ordered Madison todeliver them. 

[Sidenote: The Judiciary Act, 1801. ]

[Sidenote: Repealed by Republicans]

[Sidenote: Jefferson and appointments. ]

239. The Judiciary Act of 1801. --One of the last laws made by theFederalists was the Judiciary Act of 1801. This law greatly enlarged thenational judiciary, and Adams eagerly seized the opportunity to appointhis friends to the new offices. The Republican Congress now repealedthis Judiciary Act and "legislated out of office" all the new judges. For it must be remembered that the Constitution makes only the membersof the Supreme Court sure of their offices. Congress also got rid ofmany other Federalist officeholders by repealing the Internal RevenueAct (p. 167). But while all this was done, Jefferson steadily refused toappoint men to office merely because they were Republicans. One manclaimed an office on the ground that he was a Republican, and that theRepublicans were the saviors of the republic. Jefferson replied thatRome had been saved by geese, but he had never heard that the geese weregiven offices. 

[Illustration: THOMAS JEFFERSON. ] "Honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none, . .. Economy in the public expense, thehonest payment of our debts, and sacred preservation of the publicfaith. "--_Jefferson's First Inaugural. _

[Sidenote: Expenses diminished. ]

[Sidenote: Internal taxes repealed. ]

[Sidenote: Army and navy reduced. ]

[Sidenote: Part of the debt paid. _McMaster_, 217-218. ]

240. Paying the National Debt. --Jefferson was especially anxious tocut down the expenses of the government and to pay as much as possibleof the national debt. Madison and Gallatin worked heartily with him tocarry out this policy. The repeal of the Internal Revenue Act took muchrevenue from the government. But it also did away with the salaries of agreat many officials. The repeal of the Judiciary Act also put an end tomany salaries. Now that the dispute with France was ended, Jeffersonthought that the army and navy might safely be reduced. Most of thenaval vessels were sold. A few good ships were kept at sea, and the restwere tied up at the wharves. The number of ministers to European stateswas reduced to the lowest possible limit, and the civil service at homewas also cut down. The expenses of the government were in these waysgreatly lessened. At the same time the revenue from the customs serviceincreased. The result was that in the eight years of Jefferson'sadministrations the national debt shrank from eighty-three milliondollars to forty-five million dollars. Yet in the same time the UnitedStates paid fifteen million dollars for Louisiana, and waged a series ofsuccessful and costly wars with the pirates of the northern coastof Africa. 

[Sidenote: The Spaniards in Louisiana and Florida. _McMaster_, 218-219. ]

[Sidenote: France secures Louisiana. ]

241. Louisiana again a French Colony. --Spanish territory nowbounded the United States on the south and the west. The Spaniards werenot good neighbors, because it was very hard to make them come to anagreement, and next to impossible to make them keep an agreement whenit was made. But this did not matter very much, because Spain was a weakpower and was growing weaker every year. Sooner or later the UnitedStates would gain its point. Suddenly, however, it was announced thatFrance had got back Louisiana. And almost at the same moment the Spanishgovernor of Louisiana said that Americans could no longer deposit theirgoods at New Orleans (p. 170). At once there was a great outcry in theWest. Jefferson determined to buy from France New Orleans and the landeastward from the mouth of the Mississippi. 

[Illustration: JACKSON SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS. ]

[Illustration: ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON. ]

[Sidenote: Napoleon's policy. ]

[Sidenote: He offers to sell Louisiana. ]

242. The Louisiana Purchase, 1803. --When Napoleon got Louisianafrom Spain, he had an idea of again founding a great French colony inAmerica. At the moment France and Great Britain were at peace. But itsoon looked as if war would begin again. Napoleon knew that the Britishwould at once seize Louisiana and he could not keep it anyway. So oneday, when the Americans and the French were talking about the purchaseof New Orleans, the French minister suddenly asked if the United Stateswould not like to buy the whole of Louisiana. Monroe and Livingston, theAmerican ministers, had no authority to buy Louisiana. But the purchaseof the whole colony would be a great benefit to the United States. Sothey quickly agreed to pay fifteen million dollars for the whole ofLouisiana. 

[Sidenote: Louisiana purchased, 1803. _Higginson_, 244-245; _Eggleston_, 234; _Source-Book_, 200-202. ]

[Sidenote: Importance of the purchase. ]

243. The Treaty Ratified. --Jefferson found himself in a strangeposition. The Constitution nowhere delegated to the United States powerto acquire territory (p. 164). But after thinking it over Jefferson feltsure that the people would approve of the purchase. The treaty wasratified. The money was paid. This purchase turned out to be a mostfortunate thing. It gave to the United States the whole western valleyof the Mississippi. It also gave to Americans the opportunity toexplore and settle Oregon, which lay beyond the limits of Louisiana. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1803. ]

[Sidenote: Lewis and Clark, 1804-6. _Higginson_, 245-247; _McMaster_, 219-221;_Source-Book_, 206-209. ]

[Sidenote: The mouth of the Oregon. ]

244. Lewis and Clark's Explorations. --Jefferson soon sent outseveral expeditions to explore the unknown portions of the continent. The most important of these was the expedition led by two army officers, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, brother of General George RogersClark (p. 116). Leaving St. Louis they slowly ascended the muddyMissouri. They passed the site of the present city of Omaha. They passedthe Council Bluffs. The current of the river now became so rapid thatthe explorers left their boats and traveled along the river's bank. Theygained the sources of the Missouri, and came to a westward-flowingriver. On, on they followed it until they came to the river's mouth. Afog hung low over the water. Suddenly it lifted. There before theexplorers' eyes the river "in waves like small mountains rolled out inthe ocean. " They had traced the Columbia River from its upper course tothe Pacific. Captain Gray in the Boston ship _Columbia_ had alreadyentered the mouth of the river. But Lewis and Clark were the first whitemen to reach it overland. 

[Sidenote: Amendment as to the election of President. ]

[Sidenote: The Twelfth Amendment, 1804. ]

245. The Twelfth Amendment, 1804. --Four presidential elections hadnow been held under the method provided by the Constitution. And thatmethod had not worked well (pp. 171, 176). It was now (1804) changed bythe adoption of the Twelfth Amendment which is still in force. The oldmachinery of presidential electors was kept. But it was provided thatin the future each elector should vote for President and forVice-President on separate and distinct ballots. The voters had no morepart in the election under the new system than they had had under theold system. The old method of apportioning electors among the states wasalso kept. This gives to each state as many electors as it has Senatorsand Representatives in Congress. No matter how small its territory, orhow small its population, a state has at least two Senators and oneRepresentative, and, therefore, three electors. The result is that eachvoter in a small state has more influence in choosing the President thaneach voter in a large state. Indeed, several Presidents have beenelected by minorities of the voters of the country as a whole. 

[Sidenote: Jefferson reëlected, 1804. ]

[Sidenote: Strength of the Republicans. ]

246. Reëlection of Jefferson, 1804. --Jefferson's firstadministration had been most successful. The Republicans had repealedmany unpopular laws. By the purchase of Louisiana the area of the UnitedStates had been doubled and an end put to the dispute as to thenavigation of the Mississippi. The expenses of the national governmenthad been cut down, and a portion of the national debt had been paid. Thepeople were prosperous and happy. Under these circumstances Jeffersonwas triumphantly reëlected. He received one hundred and sixty-twoelectoral votes to only fourteen for his Federalist rival. 

[Illustration: STEPHEN DECATUR. ]

CHAPTER 24

CAUSES OF THE WAR OF 1812

[Sidenote: The African pirates. _Higginson_, 237-239; _Eggleston_, 228-229. ]

[Sidenote: Tribute paying. ]

[Sidenote: Jefferson ends this system. ]

[Sidenote: _Hero Tales_, 103-113. ]

247. The North Africa Pirates. --Stretching along the northernshores of Africa from Egypt westward to the Atlantic were four states. These states were named Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco. Theirpeople were Mohammedans, and were ruled over by persons called Deys orBeys, or Pachas. These rulers found it profitable and pleasant to attackand capture Christian ships. The cargoes of the captured vessels theysold at good prices, and the seamen and passengers they sold at goodprices too--as slaves. The leading powers of Europe, instead ofdestroying these pirates, found it easier to pay them to let their shipsalone. Washington and Adams also paid them to allow American ships tosail unharmed. But the pirates were never satisfied with what was paidthem. Jefferson decided to put an end to this tribute paying. He sent afew ships to seize the pirates and shut up their harbors. More and morevessels were sent, until at last the Deys and Beys and Pachas thought itwould be cheaper to behave themselves properly. So they agreed torelease their American prisoners and not to capture any more Americanships (1805). In these little wars American naval officers gained muchuseful experience and did many glorious deeds. Especially Decatur andSomers won renown. 

[Sidenote: European fighters attack American commerce. _McMaster_, 224-226. ]

248. America, Britain, and France. --Napoleon Bonaparte was nowEmperor of the French. In 1804 he made war on the British and theirallies. Soon he became supreme on the land, and the British becamesupreme on the water. They could no longer fight one another veryeasily, so they determined to injure each other's trade and commerce asmuch as possible. The British declared continental ports closed tocommerce, and Napoleon declared all British commerce to be unlawful. Ofcourse under these circumstances British and Continental ships could notcarry on trade, and American vessels rapidly took their places. TheBritish shipowners called upon their government to put an end to thisAmerican commerce. Old laws were looked up and enforced. Americanvessels that disobeyed them were seized by the British. But if anyAmerican vessel obeyed these laws, Napoleon seized it as soon as itentered a French harbor. 

[Sidenote: Impressment. _Eggleston_, 240. ]

249. The Impressment Controversy. --With the British the UnitedStates had still another cause of complaint. British warships stoppedAmerican vessels and took away all their seamen who looked likeEnglishmen. These they compelled to serve on British men-of-war. AsAmericans and Englishmen looked very much alike, they generally seizedall the best-looking seamen. Thousands of Americans were captured inthis way and forced into slavery on British men-of-war. This method ofkidnaping was called impressment. 

[Sidenote: The embargo, 1807. _Eggleston_, 241; _McMaster_, 226-227, 228. ]

[Sidenote: Failure of the embargo. _Source-Book_, 209-211. ]

250. The Embargo, 1807-1809. --Jefferson hardly knew what to do. Hemight declare war on both Great Britain and on France. But to do thatwould surely put a speedy end to all American commerce. In the old days, before the Revolutionary War, the colonists had more than once broughtthe British to terms by refusing to buy their goods (pp. 84, 85). Jefferson now thought that if the people of the United States shouldrefuse to trade with the British and the French, the governments both ofGreat Britain and of France would be forced to treat American commerceproperly. Congress therefore passed an Embargo Act. This forbade vesselsto leave American ports after a certain day. If the people had beenunited, the embargo might have done what Jefferson expected it would do. But the people were not united. Especially in New England, theshipowners tried in every way to break the law. This led to the passingof stricter laws. Finally the New Englanders even talked of secedingfrom the Union. 

[Illustration: AN EARLY STEAM FERRYBOAT, ABOUT 1810. ]

[Sidenote: Outrage on the _Chesapeake_, 1807. _McMaster_, 227. ]

251. The Outrage on the _Chesapeake_, 1807. --The British now addedto the anger of the Americans by impressing seamen from the decks of anAmerican warship. The frigate _Chesapeake_ left the Norfolk navy yardfor a cruise. At once the British vessel _Leopard_ sailed toward her andordered her to stop. As the _Chesapeake_ did not stop, the _Leopard_fired on her. The American frigate was just setting out, and everythingwas in confusion on her decks. But a coal was brought from the cook'sstove, and one gun was fired. Her flag was then hauled down. The Britishcame on board and seized four seamen, who they said were deserters fromthe British navy. This outrage aroused tremendous excitement. Jeffersonordered all British warships out of American waters and forbade thepeople to supply them with provisions, water, or wood. The Britishoffered to restore the imprisoned seamen and ordered out of Americanwaters the admiral under whose direction the outrage had been done. Butthey would not give up impressment. 

[Sidenote: Madison elected President, 1808. ]

252. Madison elected President, 1808. --There is nothing in theConstitution to limit the number of times a man may be chosen President. Many persons would gladly have voted a third time for Jefferson. But hethought that unless some limit were set, the people might keep onreëlecting a popular and successful President term after term. Thiswould be very dangerous to the republican form of government. SoJefferson followed Washington's example and declined a third term, Washington and Jefferson thus established a custom that has ever sincebeen followed. The Republicans voted for James Madison, and he waselected President (1808). 

[Illustration: MODERN DOUBLE-DECKED FERRYBOAT. ]

[Sidenote: Non-Intercourse Act, 1809. ]

253. The Non-Intercourse Act, 1809. --By this time the embargo hadbecome so very unpopular that it could be maintained only at the cost ofcivil war. Madison suggested that the Embargo Act should be repealed, and a Non-Intercourse Act passed in its place. Congress at once did ashe suggested. The Non-Intercourse Act prohibited commerce with GreatBritain and with France and the countries controlled by France. Itpermitted commerce with the rest of the world. There were not manyEuropean countries with which America could trade under this law. Stillthere were a few countries, as Norway and Spain, which still maintainedtheir independence. And goods could be sold through them to the otherEuropean countries. At all events, no sooner was the embargo removedthan commerce revived. Rates of freight were very high and the profitswere very large, although the French and the British captured manyAmerican vessels. 

[Sidenote: The Erskine treaty. ]

[Sidenote: The British minister Jackson. _Source-Book_, 212-213]

254. Two British Ministers. --Soon after Madison's inauguration anew British minister came to Washington. His name was Erskine, and hewas very friendly. A treaty was speedily made on conditions whichMadison thought could be granted. He suspended non-intercourse withGreat Britain, and hundreds of vessels set sail for that country. Butthe British rulers soon put an end to this friendly feeling. They saidthat Erskine had no authority to make such a treaty. They refused tocarry it out and recalled Erskine. The next British minister was aperson named Jackson. He accused Madison of cheating Erskine andrepeated the accusation. Thereupon Madison sent him back to London. Asthe British would not carry out the terms of Erskine's treaty, Madisonwas compelled to prohibit all intercourse with Great Britain. 

[Sidenote: Still another policy. _McMaster_, 229-230. ]

[Sidenote: French trickery. ]

[Sidenote: British trickery. ]

255. British and French Trickery. --The scheme of non-intercoursedid not seem to bring the British and the French to terms much betterthan the embargo had done. In 1810, therefore, Congress set to work andproduced a third plan. This was to allow intercourse with both GreatBritain and France. But this was coupled with the promise that if one ofthe two nations stopped seizing American ships and the other did not, then intercourse with the unfriendly country should be prohibited. Napoleon at once said that he would stop seizing American vessels onNovember 1 of that year if the British, on their part, would stop theirseizures before that time. The British said that they would stop seizingwhen Napoleon did. Neither of them really did anything except to keep oncapturing American vessels whenever they could get a chance. 

[Sidenote: Indians of the Northwest. _Eggleston_, 242. ]

[Sidenote: Tecumthe. ]

256. Indian Troubles, 1810. --To this everlasting trouble with GreatBritain and France were now added the horrors of an Indian war. It cameabout in this way. Settlers were pressing into Indiana Territory west ofthe new state of Ohio. Soon the lands which the United States had boughtof the Indians would be occupied. New lands must be bought. At this timethere were two able Indian leaders in the Northwest. These wereTecumthe, or Tecumseh, and his brother, who was known as "the Prophet. "These chiefs set on foot a great Indian confederation. They said that noone Indian tribe should sell land to the United States without theconsent of all the tribes of the Confederation. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811. ]

257. Battle of Tippecanoe. --This determined attitude of the Indiansseemed to the American leaders to be very dangerous. Governor WilliamHenry Harrison of Indiana Territory gathered a small army of regularsoldiers and volunteers from Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana. He marched tothe Indian settlements. The Indians attacked him at Tippecanoe. He beatthem off and, attacking in his turn, routed them. Tecumthe was not atthe battle. But he immediately fled to the British in Canada. TheAmericans had suspected that the British were stirring up the Indians toresist the United States. The reception given to Tecumthe made them feelthat their suspicions were correct. 

[Illustration: MEDAL PRESENTED TO HENRY CLAY. ]

[Sidenote: Henry Clay. ]

[Sidenote: John C. Calhoun. ]

258. The War Party in Congress. --There were abundant reasons tojustify war with Great Britain, or with France, or with both of them. But there would probably have been no war with either of them had it notbeen for a few energetic young men in Congress. The leaders of this warparty were Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Clay was born in Virginia, but as a boy he had gone to Kentucky. He represented the spirit of theyoung and growing West. He was a true patriot and felt angry at the waythe British spoke of America and Americans, and at the way they actedtoward the United States. He was a very popular man and won men to himby his attractive qualities and by his energy. Calhoun was a SouthCarolinian who had been educated in Connecticut. He was a man of thehighest personal character. He had a strong, active mind, and he wasfearless in debate. As with Clay so with Calhoun, they both felt therising spirit of nationality. They thought that the United States hadbeen patient long enough. They and their friends gained a majority inCongress and forced Madison to send a warlike message to Congress. 

[Sidenote: Madison's war message, 1812. _McMaster>_, 231;_Source-Book_, 214-216. ]

259. Madison's Reasons for War, 1812. --In his message Madisonstated the grounds for complaint against the British as follows: (1)they impressed American seamen; (2) they disturbed American commerce bystationing warships off the principal ports; they refused to permittrade between America and Europe; (4) they stirred up the westernIndians to attack the settlers; (5) they were really making war on theUnited States while the United States was at peace with them. For thesereasons Madison advised a declaration of war against Great Britain, andwar was declared. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 22

§§ 228, 229. --_a_. Draw a map showing the states and territories in1800. 

_b_. How and why had the center of population changed since 1791? Whereis it now?

_c_. Why did so many people live near tide water? Do the same reasonsexist to-day?

§§ 230-232. --_a_. What were the "best roads" in 1800?

_b_. Describe the dangers and discomforts of traveling in 1800. 

_c_. What were the early steamboats like?

§§ 233, 234. --_a_. What fact hindered the growth of cotton on a largescale in colonial times?

_b_. How did Whitney's cotton gin change these conditions?

§§ 235, 236. --_a_. Why had manufacturing received so little attentionbefore the Revolution?

_b_. How did the new government encourage manufacturing?

CHAPTER 23

§ 237. --_a_. How did Jefferson's inauguration illustrate his politicalideas?

_b_. Compare his method of opening Congress with that employed byWashington and Adams. Which method is followed to-day?

§§ 238. --_a_. What is the Civil Service? How had Washington and Adamsfilled offices? Was their action wise?

§§ 239. --_a_. Explain the Judiciary Act of 1801. 

_b_. What power has Congress over the Judiciary? (Constitution, Art. III). 

§§ 240. --_a_. What was Jefferson's policy toward expenses? How did hecarry it out? What was the result of these economies?

_b_. Was the reduction of the navy wise? What conditions make a largenavy necessary?

§§ 241-244. --_a_. When and how had Louisiana changed hands since itssettlement? Why were the Spaniards poor neighbors?

_b_. How did the United States acquire Louisiana?

_c_. Trace on a map the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase. Compareits value to-day with the price paid. 

_d_. What important discoveries did Lewis and Clark make?

§§ 245, 246. --_a_. Give instances which illustrate the disadvantages ofthe old way of electing the President and Vice-President. 

_b_. Explain carefully the changes made by the Twelfth Amendment, andshow how a President may be elected by a minority of the voters. 

CHAPTER 24

§§ 247. --_a_. Describe the doings of the African pirates. Why hadWashington and Adams paid them?

_b_. Describe Jefferson's action and state the results. 

§§ 248, 249. --_a_. Compare the power of France and Great Britain at thistime. 

_b_. How did they try to injure one another? How did they treat Americanships?

_c_. Explain the impressment of sailors by the British. 

§§ 250, 251. --_a_. Describe the difficulties of Jefferson's position. 

_b_. Give instances of refusal to buy British goods and the results. 

_c_. Explain the Embargo Act. Why was it a failure?

_d_. Describe the outrage on the _Chesapeake_. Was the offer of theBritish government enough? What more should have been promised?

§§ 252, 253. --_a_. What were Jefferson's objections to a third term?What custom was established by these early Presidents?

_b_. Where have we found Madison prominent before?

_c_. Explain the difference between the Embargo Act and theNon-Intercourse Act. 

§§ 254, 255. --_a_. Describe the attempt to renew friendly intercoursewith Great Britain. 

_b_. What do you think of Napoleon's treatment of the United States?

§§ 256. --_a_. What caused the trouble with the Indians?

_b_. Describe Harrison's action. How were the British connected withthis Indian trouble?

§§ 257-259. --_a_. How did all these affairs affect the relations betweenthe United States and Great Britain?

_b_. Explain the attitude of Clay and Calhoun. 

_c_. What is meant by the "rising spirit of nationality"?

_d_. Illustrate, by facts already studied, the reasons given inMadison's message. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. How has machinery influenced the history of the United States?

_b_. Draw a map showing the extent of the United States in 1802 and1804. 

_c_. What were the four most important things in Jefferson'sadministrations? Why do you select these?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Robert Fulton or Eli Whitney. 

_b_. Exploration of the Northwest. 

_c_. War with the African pirates. 

_d_. Life and manners in 1800. 

SUGGESTIONS

The purchase of Louisiana and the early development of the West areleading points in this period. With the latter must be coupled theimportant inventions which made such development possible. Commercialquestions should receive adequate attention and should be illustrated bypresent conditions. 

Jefferson's attitude toward both the Louisiana Purchase and theenforcement of the Embargo Act is an illustration of the effect whichpower and responsibility have on those placed at the head of thegovernment. This can also be illustrated by events in our own time. 

IX

WAR AND PEACE, 1812-1829

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Higginson's _Larger History, _365-442; Scribner's_Popular History, _IV; Lossing's _Field-Book of the War of 1812;_Coffin's _Building the Nation, _149-231. 

Home Readings. --Barnes's _Yankee Ships; _Roosevelt's _Naval War of1812; _Seawell's _Midshipman Paulding; _Holmes's _Old Ironsides;_Goodwin's _Dolly Madison. _

CHAPTER 25

THE SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1812 1815

[Sidenote: American plan of campaign, 1812. ]

[Sidenote: Objections to it. ]

260. Plan of Campaign, 1812. --The American plan of campaign wasthat General Hull should invade Canada from Detroit. He could then marcheastward, north of Lake Erie, and meet another army which was to crossthe Niagara River. These two armies were to take up the eastward marchand join a third army from New York. The three armies then would captureMontreal and Quebec and generally all Canada. It was a splendid plan. But there were three things in the way of carrying it out: (i) there wasno trained American army; (2) there were no supplies for an army whengathered and trained; and (3) there was a small, well-trained andwell-supplied army in Canada. 

[Illustration: DETROIT, ABOUT 1815. ]

[Sidenote: Hull's march to Detroit. ]

[Sidenote: His misfortunes. ]

[Sidenote: He surrenders Detroit, 1812. ]

261. Hull's Surrender of Detroit, 1812. --In those days Detroit wasseparated from the settled parts of Ohio by two hundred miles ofwilderness. To get his men and supplies to Detroit, Hull had first ofall to cut a road through the forest. The British learned of the actualdeclaration of war before Hull knew of it. They dashed down on hisscattered detachments and seized his provisions. Hull sent outexpedition after expedition to gather supplies and bring in thescattered settlers. Tecumthe and the other Indian allies of the Britishcaptured one expedition after another. The British advanced on Detroit, and Hull surrendered. By this disaster the British got control of theupper lakes. They even invaded Ohio. 

[Illustration: PERRY'S BATTLE FLAG. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Lake Erie 1813. McMaster, 234-235. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of the Thames, 1813. ]

262. Perry's Victory on Lake Erie, 1813. --But the British triumphdid not last long. In the winter of 1812-13 Captain Oliver Hazard Perrybuilt a fleet of warships on Lake Erie. They were built of green timbercut for the purpose. They were poor vessels, but were as good as theBritish vessels. In September, 1813, Perry sailed in search of theBritish ships. Coming up with them, he hoisted at his masthead a largeblue flag with Lawrence's immortal words, "Don't give up the ship" (p. 212), worked upon it. The battle was fiercely fought. Soon Perry'sflagship, the _Lawrence_, was disabled and only nine of her crew wereuninjured. Rowing to another ship, Perry continued the fight. In fifteenminutes more all the British ships surrendered. The control of Lake Eriewas now in American hands. The British retreated from the southern sideof the lake. General Harrison occupied Detroit. He then crossed intoCanada and defeated a British army on the banks of the river Thames(October, 1813). 

[Illustration: THE "CONSTITUTION. " From an early painting of the escapeof the _Constitution_ from the British fleet. The men in the boat arepreparing to carry out a small anchor. ]

[Sidenote: The _Constitution_. ]

[Sidenote: Chased by a British fleet, 1812. ]

[Sidenote: She escapes. ]

263. The Frigate _Constitution_. --One of the first vessels to getto sea was the _Constitution_, commanded by Isaac Hull. She sailed fromChesapeake Bay for New York, where she was to serve as a guard-ship. Onthe way she fell in with a British squadron. The _Constitution_ sailedon with the whole British fleet in pursuit. Soon the wind began to dieaway. The _Constitution's_ sails were soaked with water to make themhold the wind better. Then the wind gave out altogether, Captain Hulllowered his boats and the men began to tow the ship. But the Britishlowered their boats also. They set a great many boats to towing theirfastest ship, and she began to gain on the _Constitution_. Then CaptainHull found that he was sailing over shoal water, although out of sightof land, so he sent a small anchor ahead in a boat. The anchor wasdropped and men on the ship pulled in the anchor line. This was doneagain and again. The _Constitution _now began to gain on the Britishfleet. Then a sudden squall burst on the ships. Captain Hull saw itcoming and made every preparation to take advantage of it. When the raincleared away, the _Constitution_ was beyond fear of pursuit. But shecould not go to New York, so Captain Hull took her to Boston. Thegovernment at once ordered him to stay where he was; but, before theorders reached Boston, the _Constitution_ was far away. 

[Sidenote: _Constitution_ and _Guerrière_, 1812. ]

[Sidenote: Reasons for the victory. ]

264. _Constitution_ and _Guerrière_, 1812. --For some time Hullcruised about in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. One day he sighted a Britishfrigate--the _Guerrière_--one of the ships that had chased the_Constitution_. But now that Hull found her alone, he steered straightfor her. In thirty minutes from the firing of the first gun the_Guerrière_ was a ruinous wreck. All of her masts and spars were shotaway and most of her crew were killed or wounded. The _Constitution_ wasonly slightly injured, and was soon ready to fight another Britishfrigate, had there been one to fight. Indeed, the surgeons of the_Constitution_ went on board of the _Guerrière_ to help dress the woundsof the British seamen. The _Guerrière_ was a little smaller than the_Constitution_ and had smaller guns. But the real reason for this greatvictory was that the American ship and the American guns were very muchbetter handled than were the British ship and the British guns. 

[Sidenote: _Wasp_ and the _Frolic_]

[Sidenote: Effect of these victories. ]

265. The _Wasp_ and the _Frolic_, 1812. --At almost the same timethe American ship _Wasp_ captured the British brig _Frolic_. The _Wasp_had three masts, and the _Frolic_ had only two masts. But the twovessels were really of about the same size, as the American ship wasonly five feet longer than her enemy, and had the lighter guns. In a fewminutes after the beginning of the fight the _Frolic_ was a shatteredhulk, with only one sound man on her deck. Soon after the conflict aBritish battleship came up and captured both the _Wasp_ and her prize. The effect of these victories of the _Constitution_ and the _Wasp_ wastremendous. Before the war British naval officers had called the_Constitution_ "a bundle of sticks. " Now it was thought to be no longersafe for British frigates to sail the seas alone. They must go in pairsto protect each other from "Old Ironsides. " Before long the_Constitution_, now commanded by Captain Bainbridge, had captured theBritish frigate _Java_, and the frigate _United States_, CaptainDecatur, had taken the British ship _Macedonian_. On the other hand, the_Chesapeake_ was captured by the _Shannon_. This victory gave greatsatisfaction to the British. But Captain Lawrence's last words, "Don'tgive up the ship, " have always been a glorious inspiration toAmerican sailors. 

[Sidenote: Plan of campaign, 1814. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Lundy's Lane, 1814. ]

266. Brown's Invasion of Canada, 1814. --In the first two years ofthe war the American armies in New York had done nothing. But abler menwere now in command. Of these, General Jacob Brown, General Macomb, Colonel Winfield Scott, and Colonel Ripley deserve to be remembered. The American plan of campaign was that Brown, with Scott and Ripley, should cross the Niagara River and invade Canada. General Macomb, with anaval force under McDonough, was to hold the line of Lake Champlain. TheBritish plan was to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain. Browncrossed the Niagara River and fought two brilliant battles at Chippewaand Lundy's Lane. The latter battle was especially glorious because theAmericans captured British guns and held them against repeated attacksby British veterans. In the end, however, Brown was obliged to retire. 

[Sidenote: Invasion of New York. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Plattsburg, 1814. ]

267. McDonough's Victory at Plattsburg, 1814. --General Prevost, with a fine army of veterans, marched southward from Canada, while afleet sailed up Lake Champlain. At Plattsburg, on the western side ofthe lake, was General Macomb with a force of American soldiers. Anchoredbefore the town was McDonough's fleet. Prevost attacked Macomb's armyand was driven back. The British fleet attacked McDonough's vessels andwas destroyed. That put an end to Prevost's invasion. He retreated backto Canada as fast as he could go. 

[Illustration: FORT McHENRY. ]

[Sidenote: Burning of Washington, 1814. ]

[Sidenote: "The Star-Spangled Banner. "]

268. The British in the Chesapeake, 1814. --Besides their operationson the Canadian frontier, the British tried to capture New Orleans andthe cities on Chesapeake Bay. The British landed below Washington. Theymarched to the capital. They entered Washington. They burned theCapitol, the White House, and several other public buildings. They thenhurried away, leaving their wounded behind them. Later on the Britishattacked Baltimore and were beaten off with great loss. It was at thistime that Francis Scott Key wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner. " He wasdetained on board one of the British warships during the fight. Eagerlyhe watched through the smoke for a glimpse of the flag over Fort McHenryat the harbor's mouth. In the morning the flag was still there. Thisdefeat closed the British operations on the Chesapeake. 

[Illustration: FLAG OF FORT McHENRY. Fifteen stars and fifteenstripes--one of each for each state. ]

[Sidenote: Jackson's Creek campaign, 1814. ]

269. The Creek War. --The Creek Indians lived in Alabama. They sawwith dismay the spreading settlements of the whites. The Americans werenow at war. It would be a good chance to destroy them. So the Creeksfell upon the whites and murdered about four hundred. General AndrewJackson of Tennessee commanded the American army in the Southwest. Assoon as he knew that the Creeks were attacking the settlers, he gatheredsoldiers and followed the Indians to their stronghold. He stormed theirfort and killed most of the garrison. 

[Illustration: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. From a sketch by one of Jackson'sstaff. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of New Orleans, 1815. ]

[Sidenote: _Hero Tales_, 139-147. ]

270. Jackson's Defense of New Orleans, 1814-15. --Jackson hadscarcely finished this work when he learned of the coming of a greatBritish expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi River. He at oncehastened to the defense of New Orleans. Below the city the countrygreatly favored the defender. For there was very little solid groundexcept along the river's bank. Picking out an especially narrow place, Jackson built a breastwork of cotton bales and rubbish. In front of thebreastwork he dug a deep ditch. The British rushed to the attack. Mostof their generals were killed or wounded, and the slaughter wasterrible. Later, they made another attack and were again beaten off. 

[Sidenote: Naval combats, 1814. ]

271. The War on the Sea, 1814. --It was only in the first year or soof the war that there was much fighting between American and Britishwarships. After that the American ships could not get to sea, for theBritish stationed whole fleets off the entrances to the principalharbors. But a few American vessels ran the blockade and did goodservice. For instance, Captain Charles Stewart in the _Constitution_captured two British ships at one time. But most of the warships thatgot to sea were captured sooner or later. 

[Sidenote: The privateers. _Hero Tales_, 129-136. ]

272. The Privateers. --No British fleets could keep the privateersfrom leaving port. They swarmed upon the ocean and captured hundreds ofBritish merchantmen, some of them within sight of the shores of GreatBritain. In all, they captured more than twenty-five hundred Britishships. They even fought the smaller warships of the enemy. 

[Sidenote: Treaty of peace, 1814. ]

273. Treaty of Ghent, 1814. --The war had hardly begun beforecommissioners to treat for peace were appointed by both the UnitedStates and Great Britain. But they did nothing until the failure of the1814 campaign showed the British government that there was no hope ofconquering any portion of the United States. Then the British were readyenough to make peace, and a treaty was signed at Ghent in December, 1814. This was two weeks before the British disaster at New Orleansoccurred, and months before the news of it reached Europe. None of thethings about which the war was fought were even mentioned in the treaty. But this did not really make much difference. For the British hadrepealed their orders as to American ships before the news of thedeclaration of war reached London. As for impressment, the guns of the_Constitution_ had put an end to that. 

[Illustration: THE OLD STATE HOUSE. Where the Hartford Convention met. ]

[Sidenote: New England Federalists. ]

[Sidenote: Hartford Convention, 1814. ]

274. The Hartford Convention, 1814. --While the New commissionerswere talking over the treaty of peace, other debaters were discussingthe war, at Hartford, Connecticut. These were leading New EnglandFederalists. They thought that the government at Washington had donemany things that the Constitution of the United States did not permit itto do. They drew up a set of resolutions. Some of these read like thoseother resolutions drawn up by Jefferson and Madison in 1798 (p. 175). The Hartford debaters also thought that the national government had notdone enough to protect the coasts of New England from British attacks. They proposed, therefore, that the taxes collected by the nationalgovernment in New England should be handed over to the New Englandstates to use for their defense. Commissioners were actually atWashington to propose this division of the national revenue when newscame of Jackson's victory at New Orleans and of the signing of theTreaty of Ghent. The commissioners hastened home and the Republicanparty regained its popularity with the voters. 

[Illustration: A REPUBLICAN SQUIB ON THE HARTFORD CONVENTION. ]

[Sidenote: Gains of the war. ]

[Sidenote: The American nation. ]

275. Gains of the War. --The United States gained no territory afterall this fighting on sea and land. It did not even gain the abolition ofimpressment in so many words. But what was of far greater importance, the American people began to think of itself as a nation. Americans nolonger looked to France or to England as models to be followed. Theybecame Americans. The getting of this feeling of independence and ofnationality was a very great step forward. It is right, therefore, tospeak of this war as the Second War of Independence. 

[Illustration: JAMES MONROE. ]

CHAPTER 26

THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING, 1815-1824

[Sidenote: Monroe elected President, 1816, 1820. ]

[Sidenote: Characteristics of the Era of Good Feeling. _McMaster_, 260. ]

276. The Era as a Whole. --The years 1815-24 have been called theEra of Good Feeling, because there was no hard political fighting in allthat time--at least not until the last year or two. In 1816 Monroe waselected President without much opposition. In 1820 he was reëlectedPresident without any opposition whatever. Instead of fighting overpolitics, the people were busily employed in bringing vast regions ofthe West under cultivation and in founding great manufacturingindustries in the East. They were also making roads and canals toconnect the Western farms with the Eastern cities and factories. Thelater part of the era was a time of unbounded prosperity. Every now andthen some hard question would come up for discussion. Its settlementwould be put off, or the matter would be compromised. In these years theFederalist party disappeared, and the Republican party split intofactions. By 1824 the differences in the Republican party had become sogreat that there was a sudden ending to the Era of Good Feeling. 

[Sidenote: Hard times, 1816-18. ]

[Sidenote: Emigration to the West, 1816-18. _McMaster_, 241, 266-273. ]

[Sidenote: Four states admitted, 1816-1819]

[Sidenote: Maine and Missouri apply for admission. ]

277. Western Emigration. --During the first few years of this periodthe people of the older states on the seacoast felt very poor. Theshipowners could no longer make great profits. For there was now peacein Europe, and European vessels competed with American vessels. Greatquantities of British goods were sent to the United States and were soldat very low prices. The demand for American goods fell off. Mill ownersclosed their mills. Working men and women could find no work to do. Theresult was a great rush of emigrants from the older states on theseaboard to the new settlements in the West. In the West the emigrantscould buy land from the government at a very low rate, and by workinghard could support themselves and their families. This westward movementwas at its height in 1817. In the years 1816--19, four states wereadmitted to the Union. These were Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), and Alabama (1819). Some of the emigrants even crossedthe Mississippi River and settled in Missouri and in Arkansas. In 1819they asked to be admitted to the Union as the state of Missouri, orgiven a territorial government under the name of Arkansas. The people ofMaine also asked Congress to admit them to the Union as the stateof Maine. 

[Sidenote: Objections to the admission of Missouri. ]

278. Opposition to the Admission of Missouri. --Many people in theNorth opposed the admission of Missouri because the settlers of theproposed state were slaveholders. Missouri would be a slave state, andthese Northerners did not want any more slave states. Originally slaveryhad existed in all the old thirteen states. But every state north ofMaryland had before 1819 either put an end to slavery or hadadopted some plan by which slavery would gradually come to an end. Slavery had been excluded from the Northwest by the famous Ordinance of1787 (p. 135). In these ways slavery had ceased to be a vitalinstitution north of Maryland and Kentucky. Why should slavery beallowed west of the Mississippi River? Louisiana had been admitted as aslave state (1812). But the admission of Louisiana had been provided forin the treaty for the purchase of Louisiana from France. The Southernersfelt as strongly on the other side. They said that their slaves weretheir property, and that they had a perfect right to take theirproperty and settle on the land belonging to the nation. Having foundeda slave state, it was only right that the state should be admitted tothe Union. 

[Illustration: (Map) Missouri Compromise of 1820]

[Sidenote: This Missouri Compromise, 1820. _Higginson_, 254-256;_Eggleston_, 258-261. ]

[Sidenote: Both states admitted, 1820. _McMaster_, 274-276. ]

279. The Missouri Compromise, 1820. --When the question of theadmission of Maine and Missouri came before Congress, the Senate wasequally divided between the slave states and the free states. But themajority of the House of Representatives was from the free states. Thefree states were growing faster than were the slave states and wouldprobably keep on growing faster. The majority from the free states inthe House, therefore, would probably keep on increasing. If the freestates obtained a majority in the Senate also, the Southerners wouldlose all control of the government. For these reasons the Southernerswould not consent to the admission of Maine as a free state unless atthe same time Missouri was admitted as a slave state. After a longstruggle Maine and Missouri were both admitted--the one as a free state, the other as a slave state. But it was also agreed that all of theLouisiana purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri, with thesingle exception of the state of Missouri, should be free soilforever. This arrangement was called the Missouri Compromise. It was thework of Henry Clay. It was an event of great importance, because it putoff for twenty-five years the inevitable conflict over slavery. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1820]

[Sidenote: Reasons for the purchase of Florida. ]

[Sidenote: Jackson invades Florida, 1818. ]

[Sidenote: The Florida purchase, 1819. ]

280. The Florida Treaty, 1819. --While this contest was going on, the United States bought of Spain a large tract of land admirably suitedto negro slavery. This was Florida. It belonged to Spain and was arefuge for all sorts of people: runaway negroes, fugitive Indians, smugglers, and criminals of all kinds. Once in Florida, fugitivesgenerally were safe. But they were not always safe. For instance, in1818 General Jackson chased some fleeing Indians over the boundary. Theysought refuge in a Spanish fort, and Jackson was obliged to take thefort as well as the Indians. This exploit made the Spaniards morewilling to sell Florida. The price was five million dollars. But when itcame to giving up the province, the Spaniards found great difficulty inkeeping their promises. The treaty was made in 1819, but it was notuntil 1821 that Jackson, as governor of Florida, took possession of thenew territory. Even then the Spanish governor refused to hand over therecord books, and Jackson had to shut him up in prison until he becamemore reasonable. 

[Illustration: OLD HOUSES, ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA. ]

[Sidenote: Formation of the Holy Alliance. ]

[Sidenote: It interferes in Spanish affairs. ]

[Sidenote: The Spanish Americans colonists rebel against Spain. ]

[Sidenote: Russian attempts at colonization. ]

281. The "Holy Alliance. "--Most of the people of the other Spanishcolonies were rebelling against Spain, and there was a rebellion inSpain itself. There were rebellions in other European countries as wellas in Spain. In fact, there seemed to be a rebellious spirit nearlyeverywhere. This alarmed the European emperors and kings. With theexception of the British king, they joined together to put downrebellions. They called their union the Holy Alliance. They soon put theSpanish king back on his throne. They then thought that they would sendwarships and soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean to crush the rebellionsin the Spanish colonies. Now the people of the United States sympathizedwith the Spanish colonists in their desire for independence. They alsodisliked the idea of Europeans interfering in American affairs. "Americafor Americans, " was the cry. It also happened that Englishmen desiredthe freedom of the Spanish colonists. As her subjects Spain would notlet them buy English goods. But if they were free, they could buy goodswherever they pleased. The British government therefore proposed thatthe United States and Great Britain should join in a declaration thatthe Spanish colonies were independent states. John Quincy Adams, son ofJohn Adams, was Monroe's Secretary of State. He thought that this wouldnot be a wise course to follow, because it might bring American affairswithin European control. He was all the more anxious to prevent thisentanglement, as the Czar of Russia was preparing to found colonies onthe western coast of North America and Adams wanted a free hand todeal with him. 

[Sidenote: The Monroe Doctrine, 1822. _McMaster_, 262-265]

[Sidenote: Action of Great Britain. End of European interference inAmerica. ]

282. The Monroe Doctrine, 1823. --It was under these circumstancesthat President Monroe sent a message to Congress. In it he stated thepolicy of the United States as follows: (1) America is closed tocolonization by any European power; (2) the United States have notinterfered and will not interfere in European affairs; (3) the UnitedStates regard the extension of the system of the Holy Alliance toAmerica as dangerous to the United States; and (4) the United Stateswould regard the interference of the Holy Alliance in American affairsas an "unfriendly act. " This part of the message was written by Adams. He had had a long experience in diplomacy. He used the words "unfriendlyact" as diplomatists use them when they mean that such an "unfriendlyact" would be a cause for war. The British government also informed theHoly Allies that their interference in American affairs would beresented. The Holy Alliance gave over all idea of crushing the Spanishcolonists. And the Czar of Russia agreed to found no colonies south offifty-four degrees and forty minutes north latitude. 

[Sidenote: Meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. ]

283. Meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. --The ideas contained inMonroe's celebrated message to Congress are always spoken of as theMonroe Doctrine. Most of these ideas were not invented by Monroe or byAdams. Many of them may be found in Washington's NeutralityProclamation, in Washington's Farewell Address, in Jefferson's InauguralAddress, and in other documents. What was new in Monroe's message wasthe statement that European interference in American affairs would belooked upon by the United States as an "unfriendly act, " leading to war. European kings might crush out liberty in Europe. They might divide Asiaand Africa among themselves. They must not interfere inAmerican affairs. 

CHAPTER 27

NEW PARTIES AND NEW POLICIES, 1824-1829

[Sidenote: End of Monroe's administrations. ]

284. End of the Era of Good Feeling. --The Era of Good Feeling cameto a sudden ending in 1824. Monroe's second term as President would endin 1825. He refused to be a candidate for reëlection. In thus followingthe example set by Washington, Jefferson, and Madison, Monroe confirmedthe custom of limiting the presidential term to eight years. There wasno lack of candidates to succeed him in his high office. 

[Sidenote: J. Q. Adams]

285. John Quincy Adams. --First and foremost was John Quincy Adamsof Massachusetts. He was Monroe's Secretary of State, and this officehad been a kind of stepping-stone to the presidency. Monroe had beenMadison's Secretary of State; Madison had been Jefferson's Secretary ofState; and Jefferson had been Washington's Secretary of State, althoughhe was Vice-President when he was chosen to the first place. John QuincyAdams was a statesman of great experience and of ability. He was a manof the highest honor and intelligence. He was nominated by thelegislatures of Massachusetts and of the other New England states. 

[Illustration: John C. Calhoun. ]

[Sidenote: W. H. Crawford. ]

[Sidenote: Tenure of Office Act. ]

[Sidenote: The Crawford machine. ]

286. William H. Crawford. --Besides Adams, two other members ofMonroe's cabinet wished to succeed their chief. These were John C. Calhoun and William H. Crawford. Calhoun soon withdrew from the contestto accept the nomination of all the factions to the place ofVice-President. Crawford was from Georgia and was Secretary of theTreasury. As the head of that great department, he controlled moreappointments than all the other members of the cabinet put together. Thehabit of using public offices to reward political friends had begun inPennsylvania. Washington, in his second term, Adams, and Jefferson hadappointed to office only members of their own party. Jefferson had alsoremoved from office a few political opponents (p. 187). But there weregreat difficulties in the way of making removals. Crawford hit upon theplan of appointing officers for four years only. Congress at once fellin with the idea and passed the Tenure of Office Act, limitingappointments to four years. Crawford promptly used this new power tobuild up a strong political machine in the Treasury Department, devotedto his personal advancement. He was nominated for the presidency by aCongressional caucus and became the "regular" candidate. 

[Sidenote: Henry Clay. ]

[Sidenote: Andrew Jackson. ]

287. Clay and Jackson. --Two men outside of the cabinet were alsoput forward for Monroe's high office. These were Andrew Jackson ofTennessee and Henry Clay of Kentucky. Clay and Calhoun had enteredpolitics at about the same time. They had then believed in the samepolicy. Calhoun had abandoned his early ideas. But Clay held fast tothe policy of "nationalization. " He still favored internal improvementsat the national expense. He still favored the protective system. He wasthe great "peacemaker" and tried by means of compromises to unite allparts of the Union (p. 222). He loved his country and had unboundedfaith in the American people. The legislatures of Kentucky and otherstates nominated him for the presidency. The strongest man of all thecandidates was Andrew Jackson, the "Hero of New Orleans. " He had neverbeen prominent in politics. But his warlike deeds had made his name andhis strength familiar to the voters, especially to those of the West. Hewas a man of the people, as none of his rivals were. He stood fordemocracy and the Union. The legislatures of Tennessee and other statesnominated Jackson for the presidency. 

[Sidenote: The election of 1824. ]

[Sidenote: It goes to the House of Representatives. ]

[Sidenote: The House chooses Adams. ]

288. Adams chosen President, 1824. --The election was held. Thepresidential electors met in their several states and cast their votesfor President and Vice-President. The ballots were brought to Washingtonand were counted. No candidate for the presidency had received amajority of all the votes cast. Jackson had more votes than any othercandidate, next came Adams, then Crawford, and last of all Clay. TheHouse of Representatives, voting by states, must choose one of the firstthree President. Clay, therefore, was out of the race. Clay and hisfriends believed in the same things that Adams and his friends believedin, and had slight sympathy with the views of Jackson or of Crawford. So they joined the Adams men and chose Adams President. The Jackson menwere furious. They declared that the Representatives had defeated the"will of the people. "

[Illustration: JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. ]

[Sidenote: Adams appoints Clay Secretary of State. ]

[Sidenote: Charges of a bargain. ]

[Sidenote: Weakness of Adams's administration. ]

289. Misfortunes of Adams's Administration. --Adams's first mistakewas the appointment of Clay as Secretary of State. It was a mistake, because it gave the Jackson men a chance to assert that there had been a"deal" between Adams and Clay. They called Clay the "Judas of the West. "They said that the "will of the people" had been defeated by a "corruptbargain. " These charges were repeated over and over again until manypeople really began to think that there must be some reason for them. The Jackson men also most unjustly accused Adams of stealing thenation's money. The British government seized the opportunity of Adams'sweak administration to close the West India ports to American shipping. 

[Sidenote: Early tariff laws. ]

[Sidenote: The tariff of 1816. ]

[Sidenote: Tariff of 1824. ]

290. Early Tariffs. --Ever since 1789 manufactures had beenprotected (p. 155). The first tariff rates were very low. But theEmbargo Act, the non-intercourse law, and the War of 1812 put an end tothe importation of foreign goods. Capitalists invested large amounts ofmoney in cotton mills, woolen mills, and iron mills. With the return ofpeace in 1815, British merchants flooded the American markets with cheapgoods (p. 220). The manufacturers appealed to Congress for moreprotection, and Congress promptly passed a new tariff act (1816). Thisincreased the duties over the earlier laws. But it did not give themanufacturers all the protection that they desired. In 1824 another lawwas drawn up. It raised the duties still higher. The Southerners opposedthe passage of this last law. For they clearly saw that protection didthem no good. But the Northerners and the Westerners were heartily infavor of the increased duties, and the law was passed. 

[Sidenote: Agitation for more protection, 1828. ]

[Sidenote: Scheme of the Jackson men. ]

[Sidenote: Tariff of 1828. ]

291. The Tariff of Abominations, 1828. --In 1828 anotherpresidential election was to be held. The manufacturers thought thatthis would be a good time to ask for even higher protective duties, because the politicians would not dare to oppose the passage of the lawfor fear of losing votes. The Jackson men hit upon a plan by which theywould seem to favor higher duties while at the same time they werereally opposing them. They therefore proposed high duties onmanufactured goods. This would please the Northern manufacturers. Theyproposed high duties on raw materials. This would please the Westernproducers. But they thought that the manufacturers would oppose thefinal passage of the bill because the high duties on raw materials wouldinjure them very much. The bill would fail to pass, and this wouldplease the Southern cotton growers. It was a very shrewd little plan. But it did not work. The manufacturers thought that it would be well atall events to have the high duties on manufactured goods--perhaps theymight before long secure the repeal of the duties on raw materials. TheNorthern members of Congress voted for the bill, and it passed. 

[Sidenote: Election of 1828. ]

[Sidenote: Jackson elected President. _McMaster_, 301. ]

292. Jackson elected President, 1828. --In the midst of all thisdiscouragement as to foreign affairs and this contest over the tariff, the presidential campaign of 1828 was held. Adams and Jackson were theonly two candidates. Jackson was elected by a large majority ofelectoral votes. But Adams received only one vote less than he hadreceived in 1824. The contest was very close in the two large states ofPennsylvania and New York. Had a few thousand more voters in thosestates cast their votes for Adams, the electoral votes of those stateswould have been given to him, and he would have been elected. It wasfortunate that Jackson was chosen. For a great contest between thestates and the national government was coming on. It was well that a manof Jackson's commanding strength and great popularity should be at thehead of the government. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 25

§§ 260-262. --_a_. Explain by a map the American plan of campaign andshow its advantages and disadvantages. 

_b_. Describe Perry's victory. How did this turn the scale of war?

§§ 263-265. --_a_. Describe the escape of the _Constitution_ from theBritish fleet. Describe the destruction of the _Guerrière_ and of the_Frolic_. What was the reason for the American successes?

_b_. Why was the effect of these victories so great?

_c_. Why did the capture of the _Chesapeake_ cause so much delight inEngland? Why are Lawrence's words so inspiring?

§§ 266, 267. --_a_. Compare the second plan for the invasion of Canadawith the earlier one. 

_b_. Discuss the events of Brown's campaign and its results. 

_c_. Compare Prevost's campaign with Burgoyne's. Why was itunsuccessful?

_d_. What do Perry's and McDonough's victories show?

§§ 268. --_a_. Why were the British attacks directed against these threeportions of the country?

_b_. Describe the attack on Washington. Was the burning of the publicbuildings justifiable?

_c_. Read the "Star-Spangled Banner" and explain the allusions. 

§§ 269, 270. --_a_. Describe Jackson's plans for the defense of NewOrleans. Why were they so successful?

_b. _ Why did not this success of the Americans have more effect on thepeace negotiations?

§§ 271, 272. --_a. _ Why were most of the naval conflicts during the firstyear of the war? What is a blockade? What is a privateer?

_b. _ What work did the privateers do?

§ 273. --_a. _ Why was so little advance made at first toward a treaty ofpeace?

_b. _ Why was the news of the treaty so long in reaching Washington?

_c. _ What was settled by the war?

§ 274. --_a. _ Were the Federalists or the Republicans more truly thenational party?

_b. _ What propositions were made by the Hartford Convention? If suchproposals were carried out, what would be the effect on the Union?

_c. _ Compare the principles underneath these resolutions with those ofthe Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. 

§275. --_a. _ Note carefully the effect of this war. 

_b. _ Why is it called the Second War of Independence?

CHAPTER 26

§§ 276, 277. --_a. _ What is meant by the Era of Good Feeling? Is thisperiod more important or less important than the period of war whichpreceded it? Why?

_b. _ What matters occupied the attention of the people?

_c. _ What shows the sudden increase in Western migration?

§§ 278, 279. --_a. _ State carefully the objections to the admission ofMissouri on the part of the Northerners. Why did the Southerners objectto the admission of Maine?

_b. _ Trace on a map the line between the free states and the slavestates. Why was slavery no longer of importance north of this line? Whywas it important south of this line?

_c. _ Why were the free states gaining faster than the slave states?

_d. _ Explain the Missouri Compromise. How did the Compromise postponethe conflict over slavery?

§ 280. --_a. _ Why was Florida a danger to the United States?

_b. _ What people in the United States would welcome the purchase ofFlorida?

_c. _ What does this section show you as to Jackson's character?

§ 281. --_a_. Why was the Holy Alliance formed? What did the alliespropose as to America?

_b_. How was this proposal regarded by Americans? Why?

_c_. How was it regarded by Englishmen? Why?

§§ 282, 283. --_a_. Explain carefully the four points of Monroe'smessage. 

_b_. Were these ideas new? What is an "unfriendly act"?

_c_. What action did Great Britain take? What was the result of thedeclarations of the United States and Great Britain. 

_d_. What was the new point in Monroe's message?

_e_. Do we still keep to the Monroe Doctrine in all respects?

CHAPTER 27

§§ 284-288. --_a_. Who were the candidates for President in 1824?Describe the qualities and careers of each of them. For whom would youhave voted had you had the right to vote in 1824?

_b_. How were these candidates nominated? What is a caucus?

_c_. Describe the Tenure of Office Act. Should a man be given an officesimply because he has helped his party?

_d_. In what respects was Jackson unlike the early Presidents?

_e_. What was the result of the election? Who was finally chosen? Why?If you had been a Representative in 1824, for whom would you have voted?voted? Why?

_f_. What is a majority? A plurality?

§ 289. --_a_. Why was the appointment of Clay a mistake?

_b_. What charges were made against Adams?

_c_. Describe the misfortunes of Adams's administration. 

§§ 290, 291. --_a_. How are manufactures protected?

_b_. Why were the protective tariffs of no benefit to the Southerners?

_c_. Why was an attempt for a higher tariff made in 1828?

_d_. Explain the plan of the Jackson men. Why did the plan fail?

§ 292. --_a_. Describe the election of 1828. 

_b_. How was Jackson fitted to meet difficulties?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Why was the navy better prepared for war than the army?

_b_. Why did slaveholders feel the need of more slave territory in theUnion?

_c_. Jackson has been called "a man of the people. " Explain this title. 

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Early life of Andrew Jackson (to 1828). 

_b_. A battle of the War of 1812, e. G. Lake Erie, Lundy's Lane, Plattsburg, New Orleans, or a naval combat. 

_c_. The frigate _Constitution_. 

_d_. The career of Clay, of Calhoun, of J. Q. Adams, or of Monroe. 

SUGGESTIONS

The results of the War of 1812 should be carefully studied and comparedwith the proposals of the Hartford Convention. These last can be taughtby comparison with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. 

To the Missouri Compromise much time and careful explanation should begiven. Touch upon the economic side of slavery, and explain how thecontinued supremacy of the slave power was threatened. 

The Monroe Doctrine is another difficult topic; but it can be explainedby recent history. 

The election of 1824 can be carefully employed to elucidate the mode ofelecting President, and the struggle over the tariffs can be illustratedby recent tariff contests. 

[Illustration: FLAG ADOPTED IN 1818. A star for each state and a stripefor each of the original states. ]

[Illustration: UNITED STATES IN 1830]

X

THE NATIONAL DEMOCRACY, 1829-1844

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Scribner's _Popular History_, IV; Lodge's _Webster_;Coffin's _Building the Nation_, 251-313. 

Home Readings. --Roosevelt's _Winning of the West_; Hale's _Storiesof Inventions_; Wright's _Stories of American Progress_. 

CHAPTER 28

THE AMERICAN PEOPLE IN 1830

[Sidenote: Changes in conditions. ]

293. A New Race. --Between the election of President Jefferson andthe election of President Jackson great changes had taken place. The oldRevolutionary statesmen had gone. New men had taken their places. Theold sleepy life had gone. Everywhere now was bustle and hurry. In 1800the Federalists favored the British, and the Republicans favored theFrench. Now no one seemed to care for either the British or the French. At last the people had become Americans. The Federalist party haddisappeared. Every one now was either a National Republican and votedfor Adams, or a Democratic Republican and voted for Jackson. 

[Sidenote: Population, 1830. ]

[Sidenote: Area, 1830. ]

[Sidenote: Growth of the cities. ]

[Sidenote: Settlement of the West. ]

294. Numbers and Area. --In 1800 there were only five and one-halfmillion people in the whole United States. Now there were nearlythirteen million people. And they had a very much larger country to livein. In 1800 the area of the United States was about eight hundredthousand square miles. But Louisiana and Florida had been bought sincethen. Now (1830) the area of the United States was about two millionsquare miles. The population of the old states had greatly increased. Especially the cities had grown. In 1800 New York City held about sixtythousand people; it now held two hundred thousand people. But it was inthe West that the greatest growth had taken place. Since 1800 Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Missouri had allbeen admitted to the Union. 

[Sidenote: Difficulties of transport over the Alleghanies. _McMaster_, 252, 280-282. ]

[Sidenote: The Cumberland Road. ]

295. National Roads. --Steamboats were now running on the GreatLakes and on all the important rivers of the West. The first result ofthis new mode of transport was the separation of the West from the East. Steamboats could carry passengers and goods up and down the Mississippiand its branches more cheaply and more comfortably than people and goodscould be carried over the Alleghanies. Many persons therefore advisedthe building of a good wagon road to connect the Potomac with the Ohio. The eastern end of this great road was at Cumberland on the Potomac inMaryland. It is generally called, therefore, the Cumberland Road. It wasbegun at the national expense in 1811. By 1820 the road was built as faras Wheeling on the Ohio River. From that point steamboats could steam toPittsburg, Cincinnati, St. Louis, or New Orleans. Later on, the road wasbuilt farther west, as far as Illinois. Then the coming of the railroadmade further building unnecessary. 

[Sidenote: The Erie Canal, 1825. _McMaster_, 282-284. ]

[Sidenote: De Witt Clinton. ]

[Sidenote: Results of the building of the Erie Canal. ]

296. The Erie Canal. --The best way to connect one steamboat routewith another was to dig a canal. The most famous of all these canals wasthe one connecting the Hudson River with Lake Erie, and called the ErieCanal. It was begun in 1817 and was completed so that a boat could passthrough it in 1825. It was De Witt Clinton who argued that such a canalwould benefit New York City by bringing to it the produce of theNorthwest and of western New York. At the same time it would benefit thefarmers of those regions by bringing their produce to tide water cheaperthan it could be brought by road through Pennsylvania. It would stillfurther benefit the farmers by enabling them to buy their goods muchcheaper, as the rates of freight would be so much lower by canal thanthey were by road. People who did not see these things as clearly as DeWitt Clinton saw them, spoke of the enterprise most sneeringly andcalled the canal "Clinton's big ditch. " It very soon appeared thatClinton was right. In one year the cost of carrying a ton of grain fromLake Erie to the Hudson River fell from one hundred dollars to fifteendollars. New York City soon outstripped all its rivals and became thecenter of trade and money in the United States. Other canals, as theChesapeake and Ohio Canal, were marvels of skill. But they were not sofavorably situated as the Erie Canal and could not compete with itsuccessfully. 

[Illustration: CONESTOGA WAGON AND TEAM. ]

[Sidenote: The first railroads. _McMaster_, 285-289. ]

297. Early Railroads. --The best stone and gravel roads were alwaysrough in places. It occurred to some one that it would be better to laydown wooden rails, and then to place a rim or flange on the wagon wheelsto keep them on the rails. The first road of this kind in America wasbuilt at Boston in 1807. It was a very rude affair and was only used tocarry dirt from the top of a hill to the harbor. The wooden rails soonwore out, so the next step was to nail strips of iron on top of them. Long lines of railroads of this kind were soon built. Both passengersand goods could be carried on them. Some of them were built by privatepersons or by companies. Others were built by a town or a state. Any onehaving horses and wagons with flanged wheels could use the railway onthe payment of a small sum of money. This was the condition of affairswhen the steam locomotive was invented. 

[Illustration: AN EARLY LOCOMOTIVE. ]

[Sidenote: Invention of the locomotive, 1830. ]

[Sidenote: Hardships of early railroad travel. ]

298. The Steam Locomotive. --Steam was used to drive boats throughthe water. Why should not steam be used to haul wagons over a railroad?This was a very easy question to ask, and a very hard one to answer. Year after year inventors worked on the problem. Suddenly, about 1830, it was solved in several places and by several men at nearly the sametime. It was some years, however, before the locomotive came intogeneral use. The early railroad trains were rude affairs. The cars werehardly more than stagecoaches with flanged wheels. They were fastenedtogether with chains, and when the engine started or stopped, there wasa terrible bumping and jolting. The smoke pipe of the engine was verytall and was hinged so that it could be let down when coming to a lowbridge or a tunnel. Then the smoke and cinders poured straight into thepassengers' faces. But these trains went faster than canal boats orsteamboats. Soon the railroad began to take the first place as a meansof transport. 

[Illustration: A LOCOMOTIVE OF TO-DAY. ]

[Sidenote: Use of hard coal. ]

[Sidenote: Growth of the cities. ]

299. Other Inventions. --The coming of the steam locomotive hastenedthe changes which one saw on every side in 1830. For some time men hadknown that there was plenty of hard coal or anthracite in Pennsylvania. But it was so hard that it would not burn in the old-fashioned stovesand fireplaces. Now a stove was invented that would burn anthracite, andthe whole matter of house warming was completely changed. Then meanswere found to make iron from ore with anthracite. The whole ironindustry awoke to new life. Next the use of gas made from coal becamecommon in cities. The great increase in manufacturing, and the greatchanges in modes of transport, led people to crowd together in citiesand towns. These inventions made it possible to feed and warm largenumbers of persons gathered into small areas. The cities began to growso fast that people could no longer live near their work or the shops. Lines of stagecoaches were established, and the coaches were soonfollowed by horse cars, which ran on iron tracks laid in the streets. 

[Illustration: AN EARLY HORSE CAR. ]

[Sidenote: Growth of the school system. ]

[Sidenote: Webster's "Dictionary. "]

[Sidenote: American men of letters. ]

[Sidenote: American men of science. ]

300. Progress in Letters. --There was also great progress inlearning. The school system was constantly improved. Especially was thisthe case in the West, where the government devoted one thirty-sixth partof the public lands to education. High schools were founded, and soonnormal schools were added to them. Even the colleges awoke from theirlong sleep. More students went to them, and the methods of teaching wereimproved. Some slight attention, too, was given to teaching thesciences. In 1828 Noah Webster published the first edition of his greatdictionary. Unfortunately he tried to change the spelling of many words. But in other ways his dictionary was a great improvement. He definedwords so that they could be understood, and he gave the American meaningof many words, as "congress. " American writers now began to make greatreputations. Cooper, Irving, and Bryant were already well known. Theywere soon joined by a wonderful set of men, who speedily made Americafamous. These were Emerson, Lowell, Longfellow, Holmes, Hawthorne, Prescott, Motley, Bancroft, and Sparks. In science, also, men of markwere beginning their labors, as Pierce, Gray, Silliman, and Dana. LouisAgassiz before long began his wonderful lectures, which did much to makescience popular. In short, Jackson's administration marks the time whenAmerican life began to take on its modern form. 

[Illustration: NOAH WEBSTER. ]

CHAPTER 29

THE REIGN OF ANDREW JACKSON, 1829-1837

[Sidenote: Jackson's early career. ]

[Sidenote: His "kitchen cabinet". ]

301. General Jackson. --Born in the backwoods of Carolina, Jacksonhad early crossed the Alleghanies and settled in Tennessee. Whenevertrouble came to the Western people, whenever there was need of a stoutheart and an iron will, Jackson was at the front. He always did hisduty. He always did his duty well. Honest and sincere, he believed inhimself and he believed in the American people. As President he led thepeople in one of the stormiest periods in our history. Able men gatheredabout him. But he relied chiefly on the advice of a few friends whosmoked their pipes with him and formed his "kitchen cabinet. " He seldomcalled a regular cabinet meeting. When he did call one, it was oftenmerely to tell the members what he had decided to do. 

[Sidenote: Party machines. ]

[Sidenote: The Spoils System. ]

302. The Spoils System. --Among the able men who had fought theelection for Jackson were Van Buren and Marcy of New York and Buchananof Pennsylvania. They had built up strong party machines in theirstates. For they "saw nothing wrong in the principle that to the victorsbelong the spoils of victory. " So they rewarded their party workers withoffices--when they won. The Spoils System was now begun in the nationalgovernment. Those who had worked for Jackson rushed to Washington. Thehotels and boarding-houses could not hold them. Some of them camped outin the parks and public squares of the capital. Removals now wentmerrily on. Rotation in office was the cry. Before long Jackson removednearly one thousand officeholders and appointed political partisans intheir places. 

[Sidenote: The North and the South. _McMaster_, 301-304. ]

303. The North and the South. --The South was now a greatcotton-producing region. This cotton was grown by negro slaves. TheNorth was now a great manufacturing and commercial region. It was also agreat agricultural region. But the labor in the mills, fields, and shipsof the North was all free white labor. So the United States was reallysplit into two sections: one devoted to slavery and to a few greatstaples, as cotton; the other devoted to free white labor and toindustries of many kinds. 

[Sidenote: The South and the tariff, 1829. ]

[Sidenote: Calhoun's "Exposition. "]

304. The Political Situation, 1829. --The South was growing richerall the time; but the North was growing richer a great deal faster thanwas the South. Calhoun and other Southern men thought that thisdifference in the rate of progress was due to the protective system. In1828 Congress had passed a tariff that was so bad that it was called theTariff of Abominations (p. 231). The Southerners could not prevent itspassage. But Calhoun wrote an "Exposition" of the constitutionaldoctrines in the case. This paper was adopted by the legislature ofSouth Carolina as giving its ideas. In this paper Calhoun declared thatthe Constitution of the United States was a compact. Each state was asovereign state and could annul any law passed by Congress. Theprotective system was unjust and unequal in operation. It would bring"poverty and utter desolation to the South. " The tariff act should beannulled by South Carolina and by other Southern states. 

[Illustration: DANIEL WEBSTER, 1833. ]

[Sidenote: Hayne's speech, 1830. ]

[Sidenote: Webster's reply to Hayne. ]

305. Webster and Hayne, 1830. --Calhoun was Vice-President andpresided over the debates of the Senate. So it fell to Senator Hayne ofSouth Carolina to state Calhoun's ideas. This he did in a very ablespeech. To him Daniel Webster of Massachusetts replied in the mostbrilliant speeches ever delivered in Congress. The Constitution, Websterdeclared, was "the people's constitution, the people's government; madeby the people and answerable to the people. The people have declaredthat this constitution . .. Shall be the supreme law. " The Supreme Courtof the United States alone could declare a national law to beunconstitutional; no state could do that. He ended this great speechwith the memorable words, "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one andinseparable. "

[Sidenote: Tariff of 1832. ]

[Sidenote: "Nullified" by South Carolina, 1833. ]

[Sidenote: Jackson's warning. ]

[Sidenote: He prepares to enforce the law. ]

[Sidenote: The Force Bill, 1833. ]

306. Nullification, 1832-33. --In 1832 Congress passed a new tariffact. The South Carolinians decided to try Calhoun's weapon ofnullification. They held a convention, declared the act null and void, and forbade South Carolinians to obey the law. They probably thoughtthat Jackson would not oppose them. But they should have had no doubtson that subject. For Jackson already had proposed his famous toast onJefferson's birthday, "Our federal Union, it must be preserved. " He nowtold the Carolinians that he would enforce the laws, and he set aboutdoing it with all his old-time energy. He sent ships and soldiers toCharleston and ordered the collector of that port to collect the duties. He then asked Congress to give him greater power. And Congress passedthe Force Bill, giving him the power he asked for. The SouthCarolinians, on their part, suspended the nullification ordinance andthus avoided an armed conflict with "Old Hickory, " as his admirerscalled Jackson. 

[Sidenote: Tariff of 1833. ]

307. The Compromise Tariff, 1833. --The nullifiers really gained apart of the battle, for the tariff law of 1832 was repealed. In itsplace Congress passed what was called the Compromise Tariff. Thiscompromise was the work of Henry Clay, the peacemaker. Under it theduties were to be gradually lowered until, in 1842, they would be as lowas they were by the Tariff Act of 1816 (p. 231). 

[Sidenote: Second United States Bank, 1816. ]

[Sidenote: Jackson's dislike of the bank. ]

308. The Second United States Bank. --Nowadays any one with enoughmoney can open a national bank under the protection of the government atWashington. At this time, however, there was one great United StatesBank. Its headquarters were at Philadelphia and it had branches all overthe country. Jackson, like Jefferson (p. 163), had very grave doubts asto the power of the national government to establish such a bank. Itssize and its prosperity alarmed him. Moreover, the stockholders andmanagers, for the most part, were his political opponents. The UnitedStates Bank also interfered seriously with the operations of the statebanks--some of which were managed by Jackson's friends. The latter urgedhim on to destroy the United States Bank, and he determined todestroy it. 

[Sidenote: Jackson, Clay, and the bank charter. ]

[Sidenote: Constitution, Art. I, sec. 7, par. 3. ]

[Sidenote: Reëlection of Jackson, 1832. ]

309. Struggle over the Bank Charter. --The charter of the bank wouldnot come to an end until 1836, while the term for which Jackson had beenelected in 1828 would come to an end in 1833. But in his first messageto Congress Jackson gave notice that he would not give his consent to anew charter. Clay and his friends at once took up the challenge. Theypassed a bill rechartering the bank. Jackson vetoed the bill. The Claymen could not get enough votes to pass it over his veto. The bankquestion, therefore, became one of the issues of the election of 1832. Jackson was reflected by a large majority over Clay. 

The people were clearly on his side, and he at once set to work todestroy the bank. 

[Sidenote: The bank and the government. ]

[Sidenote: Removal of the deposits, 1833. _McMaster_, 305-308. ]

310. Removal of the Deposits. --In those days there was no UnitedStates Treasury building at Washington, with great vaults for thestoring of gold, silver, and paper money. There were no sub-treasuriesin the important commercial cities. The United States Bank and itsbranches received the government's money on deposit and paid it out onchecks signed by the proper government official. In 1833 the UnitedStates Bank had in its vaults about nine million dollars belonging tothe government. Jackson directed that this money should be drawn out asrequired, to pay the government's expenses, and that no more governmentmoney should be deposited in the bank. In the future it should bedeposited in certain state banks. The banks selected were controlled byJackson's political friends and were called the "pet banks. "

[Illustration: ANDREW JACKSON, 1815. "Our Federal union, it must bepreserved. "--Jackson's toast at the Jefferson dinner. ]

[Sidenote: Speculation in Western lands. _McMaster_, 309. ]

[Sidenote: The specie circular, 1836. ]

311. Jackson's Specie Circular, 1836. --The first result of theremoval of the deposits was very different from what Jackson hadexpected. At this time there was active speculation in Western lands. Men who had a little spare money bought Western lands. Those who had nomoney in hand, borrowed money from the banks and with it bought Westernlands. Now it happened that many of the "pet banks" were in the West. The government's money, deposited with them, tempted their managers tolend money more freely. This, in turn, increased the ease with whichpeople could speculate. Jackson saw that unless something were done torestrain this speculation, disaster would surely come. So he issued acircular to the United States land officers. This circular was calledthe Specie Circular, because in it the President forbade the landofficers to receive anything except gold and silver and certaincertificates in payment for the public lands. 

[Illustration: A SETTLER'S CABIN. ]

[Sidenote: Payment of the national debt. _McMaster_, 309-310. ]

312. Payment of the Debt, 1837. --The national debt had now all beenpaid. The government was collecting more money than it could use fornational purposes. And it was compelled to keep on collecting more moneythan it could use, because the Compromise Tariff (p. 248) made itimpossible to reduce duties any faster than a certain amount each year. No one dared to disturb the Compromise Tariff, because to do so wouldbring on a most bitter political fight. The government had more money inthe "pet banks" than was really safe. It could not deposit morewith them. 

[Sidenote: Distribution of the surplus. ]

[Sidenote: Van Buren elected President, 1836. ]

313. Distribution of the Surplus, 1837. --A curious plan was now hitupon. It was to loan the surplus revenues to the states in proportion totheir electoral votes. Three payments were made to the states. Then thePanic of 1837 came, and the government had to borrow money to pay itsown necessary expenses. Before this occurred, however, Jackson was nolonger President. In his place was Martin Van Buren, his Secretary ofState, who had been chosen President in November, 1836. 

CHAPTER 30

DEMOCRATS AND WHIGS, 1837-1844

[Sidenote: Causes of the Panic. ]

[Sidenote: Hard times, 1837-39. ]

314. The Panic of 1837. --The Panic was due directly to Jackson'sinterference with the banks, to his Specie Circular, and to thedistribution of the surplus. It happened in this way. When the SpecieCircular was issued, people who held paper money at once went to thebanks to get gold and silver in exchange for it to pay for the landsbought of the government. The government on its part drew out money fromthe banks to pay the states their share of the surplus. The banks wereobliged to sell their property and to demand payment of money due them. People who owed money to the banks were obliged to sell their propertyto pay the banks. So every one wanted to sell, and few wanted to buy. Prices of everything went down with a rush. People felt so poor thatthey would not even buy new clothes. The mills and mines were closed, and the banks suspended payments. Thousands of working men and womenwere thrown out of work. They could not even buy food for themselves ortheir families. Terrible bread riots took place. After a time peoplebegan to pluck up their courage. But it was a long time before "goodtimes" came again. 

[Sidenote: The national finances. ]

[Sidenote: The Sub-Treasury plan. ]

[Sidenote: Independent Treasury Act, 1840. ]

315. The Independent Treasury System. --What should be done with thegovernment's money? No one could think of depositing it with the statebanks. Clay and his friends thought the best thing to do would be toestablish a new United States Bank. But Van Buren was opposed to that. His plan, in short, was to build vaults for storing money in Washingtonand in the leading cities. The main storehouse or Treasury was to be inWashington, subordinate storehouses or sub-treasuries were to beestablished in the other cities. To these sub-treasuries the collectorsof customs would pay the money collected by them. In this way thegovernment would become independent of the general business affairs ofthe country. In 1840 Congress passed an act for putting this plan intoeffect. But before it was in working order, Van Buren was no longerPresident. 

[Sidenote: New parties. ]

[Sidenote: The Democrats. ]

[Sidenote: The Whigs. ]

316. Democrats and Whigs. --In the Era of Good Feeling there was butone party--the Republican party. In the confused times of 1824 theseveral sections of the party took the names of their party leaders: theAdams men, the Jackson men, the Clay men, and so on. Soon the Adams menand the Clay men began to act together and to call themselves NationalRepublicans. This they did because they wished to build up the nation'sresources at the expense of the nation. The Jackson men calledthemselves Democratic Republicans, because they upheld the rights of thepeople. Before long they dropped the word "Republican" and calledthemselves simply Democrats. The National Republicans dropped the wholeof their name and took that of the great English liberal party--theWhigs. This they did because they favored reform. 

[Illustration: Log Cabin Song Book. ]

[Sidenote: "A campaign of humor. " _Higginson_, 269; _McMaster_, 315-316. ]

[Sidenote: Harrison and Tyler elected, 1840. ]

317. Election of 1840. --General William Henry Harrison was the sonof Benjamin Harrison of Virginia, one of the signers of the Declarationof Independence. General Harrison had moved to the West and had wondistinction at Tippecanoe, and also in the War of 1812 (pp. 202, 209). The Whigs nominated him in 1836, but he was beaten. They now renominatedhim for President, with John Tyler of Virginia as candidate forVice-President. Van Buren had made a good President, but his term ofoffice was associated with panic and hard times. He was a rich man andgave great parties. Plainly he was not a "man of the people, " as wasHarrison. A Democratic orator sneered at Harrison, and said that all hewanted was a log cabin of his own and a jug of cider. The Whigs eagerlyseized on this description. They built log cabins at the street cornersand dragged through the streets log cabins on great wagons. They heldimmense open-air meetings at which people sang songs of "Tippecanoe andTyler Too. " Harrison and Tyler received nearly all the electoral votesand were chosen President and Vice-President. 

[Sidenote: Death of Harrison, 1841. ]

318. Death of Harrison, 1841. --The people's President wasinaugurated on March 4, 1841. For the first time since the establishmentof the Spoils System a new party came into control of the government. Thousands of office-seekers thronged to Washington. They even slept inout-of-the-way corners of the White House. Day after day, from morningtill night, they pressed their claims on Harrison. One morning early, before the office-seekers were astir, he went out for a walk. He caughtcold and died suddenly, just one month after his inauguration. JohnTyler at once became President. 

[Sidenote: President Tyler. ]

[Sidenote: His contest with the Whigs. ]

319. Tyler and the Whigs. --President Tyler was not a Whig likeHarrison or Clay, nor was he a Democrat like Jackson. He was a Democratwho did not like Jackson ideas. As President, he proved to be anythingbut a Whig. He was willing to sign a bill to repeal the IndependentTreasury Act, for that was a Democratic measure he had not liked; but herefused to sign a bill to establish a new Bank of the United States. Without either a bank or a treasury, it was well-nigh impossible tocarry on the business of the government. But it was carried on in oneway or another. Tyler was willing to sign a new tariff act, and one waspassed in 1842. This was possible, as the Compromise Tariff (p. 248)came to an end in that year. 

[Sidenote: Northeastern boundary dispute. ]

[Sidenote: The Ashburton Treaty, 1842. ]

320. Treaty with Great Britain, 1842. --Perhaps the most importantevent of Tyler's administration was the signing of the Treaty of 1842with Great Britain. Ever since the Treaty of Peace of 1783, there hadbeen a dispute over the northeastern boundary of Maine. If the boundaryhad been run according to the plain meaning of the Treaty of Peace, thepeople of Upper Canada would have found it almost impossible to reachNew Brunswick or Nova Scotia in winter. At that time of the year the St. Lawrence is frozen over, and the true northern boundary of Maine ran sonear to the St. Lawrence that it was difficult to build a road whichwould be wholly in British territory. So the British had tried in everyway to avoid settling the matter. It was now arranged that the UnitedStates should have a little piece of Canada north of Vermont and NewYork and should give up the extreme northeastern corner of Maine. It wasalso agreed that criminals escaping from one country to the other shouldbe returned. A still further agreement was made for checking the slavetrade from the coast of western Africa. 

[Illustration: JOHN TYLER. ]

[Illustration: THE FIRST MORSE INSTRUMENT. ]

[Sidenote: The Morse code. ]

[Sidenote: First telegraph line, 1844. ]

[Sidenote: Usefulness of the telegraph, _McMaster_, 372. ]

321. The Electric Telegraph. --Benjamin Franklin and Joseph Henrymade great discoveries in electricity. But Samuel F. B. Morse was thefirst to use electricity in a practical way. Morse found out that if aman at one end of a line of wire pressed down a key, electricity couldbe made at the same moment to press down another key at the other end ofthe line of wire. Moreover, the key at the farther end of the line couldbe so arranged as to make an impression on a piece of paper that wasslowly drawn under it by clockwork. Now if the man at one end of theline held his key down for only an instant, this impression would looklike a dot. If he held it down longer, it would look like a short dash. Morse combined these dots and dashes into an alphabet. For instance, onedash meant the letter "t, " and so on. For a time people only laughed atMorse. But at length Congress gave him enough money to build a line fromBaltimore to Washington. It was opened in 1844, and proved to be asuccess from the beginning. Other lines were soon built, and the Morsesystem, greatly improved, is still in use. The telegraph made itpossible to operate long lines of railroad, as all the trains could bemanaged from one office so that they would not run into one another. Italso made it possible to communicate with people afar off and get ananswer in an hour or so. For both these reasons the telegraph was veryimportant and with the railroads did much to unite the people of thedifferent portions of the country. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST MCCORMICK REAPER. ]

[Sidenote: Problems of what growing. ]

[Sidenote: The McCormick reaper, 1831. _McMaster_, 31-372. ]

[Sidenote: Results of this invention. ]

322. The McCormick Reaper. --Every great staple depends for itsproduction on some particular tool. For instance, cotton was of slightimportance until the invention of the cotton gin (p. 185) made itpossible cheaply to separate the seed from the fiber. The success ofwheat growing depended upon the ability quickly to harvest the crop. Wheat must be allowed to stand until it is fully ripened. Then it mustbe quickly reaped and stored away out of the reach of the rain and wet. For a few weeks in each year there was a great demand for labor on thewheat farms. And there was little labor to be had. Cyrus H. McCormicksolved this problem for the wheat growers by inventing a horse reaper. The invention was made in 1831, but it was not until 1845 that thereaper came into general use. By 1855 the use of the horse reaper wasadding every year fifty-five million dollars to the wealth of thecountry. Each year its use moved the fringe of civilization fifty milesfarther west. Without harvesting machinery the rapid settlement of theWest would have been impossible. And had not the West been rapidlysettled by free whites, the whole history of the country between 1845and 1865 would have been very different from what it has been. Theinfluence of the horse reaper on our political history, therefore, is asimportant as the influence of the steam locomotive or of the cotton gin. 

[Illustration: MODERN HARVESTER. ]

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 28

§§ 293, 294. --Compare the condition of the United States in 1830 and1800 as to (1) extent, (2) population, (3) interests and occupation ofthe people. Illustrate these changes by maps, diagrams, or tables. 

§§ 295, 296. --_a_. How had the use of steamboats increased?

_b_. Why had this led to the separation of the West and the East? Howwas it proposed to overcome this difficulty?

_c_. Do you think that roads should be built at national expense? Giveyour reasons. 

_d_. Mark on a map the Erie Canal, and show why it was so important. Describe the effects of its use. 

§§ 297, 298. --_a_. Do you think that railroads should be carried on bythe state or by individuals? Why?

_b_. What influence has the railroad had upon the Union? Upon people'sminds? Upon the growth of cities? (Take your own city or town and thinkof it without railroads anywhere. )

§§ 299, 300. --_a_. Explain how one discovery or invention affected otherindustries (as shown, for instance, in the use of anthracite coal). 

_b_. How did these inventions make large cities possible?

_c_. Why is the education of our people so important?

_d_. What were the advantages of Webster's "Dictionary"?

CHAPTER 29

§§ 301, 302. --_a_. Why is this chapter called the "Reign of AndrewJackson"? Do you think that a President should "reign"?

_b_. In what respects was Jackson fitted for President?

_c_. What is meant by his "kitchen cabinet"?

_d_. What is a "party machine"? How was it connected with the "spoilssystem"?

_e_. Did the "spoils system" originate with Jackson?

§§ 303, 304. --_a_. Compare carefully the North and the South. Why wasthe North growing rich faster than the South?

_b_. Where have you already found the ideas expressed in Calhoun's_Exposition_? Why was this doctrine so dangerous? Are the states"sovereign states"?

§ 305. --_a_. What view did Webster take? How does his speech show theincrease of the love of the Union?

_b_. What is the "supreme law of the land"? Whose business is it todecide on the constitutionality of a law? Is this wise?

§§ 306, 307. --_a_. How did South Carolina oppose the Act of 1832?

_b_. How did Jackson oppose the South Carolinians?

_c_. Would a state be likely to nullify an act of Congress now? Giveyour reasons. 

§§ 308, 309. --_a_. Was the United States Bank like the national banks ofthe present day?

_b_. Why did Jackson dislike and distrust the United States Bank?

_c_. If a bill is vetoed by the President, how can it still be made alaw?

§§ 310. --_a_. Where did the United States government keep its money?

_b_. How did Jackson try to ruin the United States Bank?

§§ 311-313. --_a_. Why did people wish to buy Western lands? How did thefavoring the "pet banks" increase speculation?

_b_. What was done with the surplus? What was the effect of thismeasure?

_c_. How did Jackson try to stop speculation?

CHAPTER 30

§§ 314, 315. --_a_. Why did "prices go down with a rush"?

_b_. Describe the Independent Treasury plan. Where is the nation's moneykept to-day?

§§ 316, 317. --_a_. State briefly the reasons for the split in theRepublican party. Had you lived in 1840, for whom would you have voted?voted? Why?

_b_. Give an account of the early life of Harrison. 

_c_. Describe the campaign of 1840, and compare it with the lastpresidential campaign. 

§§ 318, 319. --_a_. What party came into power in 1841? Under the spoilssystem what would naturally follow?

_b_. To what party did Tyler belong?

_c_. Why was it difficult for the government to carry on its businesswithout a bank or a treasury?

§§ 320. --_a_. What dispute had long existed with Great Britain?

_b_. Why did the British object to the boundary line laid down in theTreaty of 1783? Show on a map how the matter was finally settled. 

§§ 321, 322. --_a_. Explain carefully the application of electricity madeby Morse. Of what advantage has the telegraph been to the United States?

_b_. How did the McCormick reaper solve the difficulty in wheat growing?What were the results of this invention?

_c_. Compare its influence upon our history with that of the cotton gin. 

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Why is the period covered by this division so important?

_b_. Give the principal events since the Revolution which made Westernexpansion possible. 

_c_. Explain, using a chart, the changes in parties since 1789. 

_d_. What were the good points in Jackson's administration? Themistakes?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Select some one invention between 1790 and 1835, describe it, explain the need for it, and the results which have followed from it. 

_b_. The Erie Canal. 

_c_. The career of Webster, Clay, or Calhoun. 

_d_. Life and works of any one of the literary men of this period. 

_e_. The Ashburton Treaty, with a map. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

The personality of Andrew Jackson, representing as he does a new elementin social and political life, deserves a careful study. The financialpolicy of his administration is too difficult for children. With briefcomparisons with present-day conditions the study of this subject can beconfined to what is given in the text. Jackson's action at the time ofthe nullification episode may well be compared with Buchanan's inactionin 1860-61. The constitutional portions of Webster's great speeches aretoo hard for children, but his burning words of patriotism may well belearned by the whole class. The spoils system may be lightly treatedhere. It can best be studied in detail later in connection with civilservice reform. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1859. ]

XI

SLAVERY IN THE TERRITORIES, 1844-1859

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Scribner's _Popular History_, IV; _McMaster's_ _Withthe Fathers_, Coffin's _Building the Nation_, 314-324. 

Home Readings. --Wright's _Stories of American Progress_; Bolton's_Famous Americans_; Brooks's _Boy Settlers_; Stowe's _Uncle Tom'sCabin_; Lodge's _Webster_. 

CHAPTER 31

BEGINNING OF THE ANTISLAVERY AGITATION

[Sidenote: Antislavery sentiments of the Virginians. ]

[Sidenote: Slavery in the far South. ]

[Sidenote: _Source-book_, 244-248, 251-260. ]

323. Growth of Slavery in the South. --South of Pennsylvania and ofthe Ohio River slavery had increased greatly since 1787 (p. 136). Washington, Jefferson, Henry, and other great Virginians were opposed tothe slave system. But they could find no way to end it, even inVirginia. The South Carolinians and Georgians fought every propositionto limit slavery. They even refused to come into the Union unless theywere given representation in Congress for a portion at least of theirslaves. And in the first Congress under the Constitution they opposedbitterly every proposal to limit slavery. Then came Whitney's inventionof the cotton gin. That at once made slave labor vastly more profitablein the cotton states and put an end to all hopes of peacefulemancipation in the South. 

[Sidenote: Proposal to end slavery with compensation. ]

[Sidenote: The _Liberator_. ]

324. Rise of the Abolitionists. --About 1830 a new movement in favorof the negroes began. Some persons in the North, as, for example, William Ellery Channing, proposed that slaves should be set free, andtheir owners paid for their loss. They suggested that the money receivedfrom the sale of the public lands might be used in this way. But nothingcame of these suggestions. Soon, however, William Lloyd Garrison beganat Boston the publication of a paper called the _Liberator_. He wishedfor complete abolition without payment. For a time he labored almostalone. Then slowly others came to his aid, and the Antislavery Societywas founded. 

[Sidenote: Anti-abolitionist sentiment in the North. _Higginson_, 268. ]

[Sidenote: Disunion sentiment of abolitionists. ]

[Sidenote: The Garrison riot, 1835. _Source-Book_, 248-251. ]

325. Opposition to the Abolitionists. --It must not be thought thatthe abolitionists were not opposed. They were most vigorously opposed. Very few Northern men wished to have slavery reestablished in the North. But very many Northern men objected to the antislavery agitationbecause they thought it would injure business. Some persons even arguedthat the antislavery movement would bring about the destruction of theUnion. In this idea there was a good deal of truth. For Garrison grewmore and more outspoken. He condemned the Union with slaveholders andwished to break down the Constitution, because it permitted slavery. There were anti-abolitionist riots in New York, New Jersey, and NewHampshire. In Boston the rioters seized Garrison and dragged him aboutthe streets (1835). 

[Sidenote: Nat Turner's Rebellion, 1831. ]

[Sidenote: Incendiary publications in the mails. _McMaster_, 313-314. ]

326. Slave Rebellion in Virginia, 1831. --At about the time thatGarrison established the _Liberator_ at Boston, a slave rebellion brokeout in Virginia. The rebels were led by a slave named Nat Turner, andthe rebellion is often called "Nat Turner's Rebellion. " It was a smallaffair and was easily put down. But the Southerners were alarmed, because they felt that the Northern antislavery agitation would surelylead to more rebellions. They called upon the government to forbid thesending of the _Liberator_ and similar "incendiary publications" throughthe mails. 

[Sidenote: Right of petition. ]

[Sidenote: J. Q. Adams and antislavery petitions, 1836. _Hero Tales_, 151-159. ]

[Sidenote: The "gag-resolutions. " _McMaster_, 314-315. ]

327. The Right of Petition. --One of the most sacred rights offreemen is the right to petition for redress of grievances. In the oldcolonial days the British Parliament had refused even to listen topetitions presented by the colonists. But the First Amendment to theConstitution forbade Congress to make any law to prevent citizens of theUnited States from petitioning. John Quincy Adams, once President, wasnow a member of the House of Representatives. In 1836 he presentedpetition after petition, praying Congress to forbid slavery in theDistrict of Columbia. Southerners, like Calhoun, thought these petitionswere insulting to Southern slaveholders. Congress could not prevent theantislavery people petitioning. They could prevent the petitions beingread when presented. This they did by passing "gag-resolutions. " Adamsprotested against these resolutions as an infringement on the rights ofhis constituents. But the resolutions were passed. Petitions now camepouring into Congress. Adams even presented one from some negro slaves. 

[Sidenote: Growth of antislavery feeling in the North. ]

328. Change in Northern Sentiment. --All these happenings broughtabout a great change of sentiment in the North. Many people, who caredlittle about negro slaves, cared a great deal about the freedom of thepress and the right of petition. Many of these did not sympathize withthe abolitionists, but they wished that some limit might be set to theextension of slavery. At the same time the Southerners were uniting toresist all attempts to interfere with slavery. They were even determinedto add new slave territory to the United States. 

CHAPTER 32

THE MEXICAN WAR

[Sidenote: The Mexican Republic, 1821. ]

[Sidenote: Texas secedes from Mexico, 1836, _McMaster_, 320-322; _HeroTales_, 173-181. ]

329. The Republic of Texas. --The Mexicans won their independencefrom Spain in 1821 and founded the Mexican Republic. Soon immigrantsfrom the United States settled in the northeastern part of the newrepublic. This region was called Texas. The Mexican government gavethese settlers large tracts of land, and for a time everything went onhappily. Then war broke out between the Mexicans and the Texans. Led bySamuel Houston, a settler from Tennessee, the Texans won the battle ofSan Jacinto and captured General Santa Anna, the president of theMexican Republic. The Texans then established the Republic of Texas(1836) and asked to be admitted to the Union as one of theUnited States. 

[Sidenote: Question of the admission of Texas to the Union. ]

330. The Southerners and Texas. --The application of Texas foradmission to the Union came as a pleasant surprise to many Southerners. As a part of the Mexican Republic Texas had been free soil. But Texaswas well suited to the needs of the cotton plant. If it were admitted tothe Union, it would surely be a slave state or, perhaps, several slavestates. The question of admitting Texas first came before Jackson. Hesaw that the admission of Texas would be strongly opposed in the North. So he put the whole matter to one side and would have nothing to do withit. Tyler acted very differently. Under his direction a treaty was madewith Texas. This treaty provided for the admission of Texas to theUnion. But the Senate refused to ratify the treaty. The matter, therefore, became the most important question in the presidentialelection of 1844. 

[Illustration: JAMES K. POLK. ]

[Sidenote: Candidates for the presidency, 1844. ]

[Sidenote: The Liberty party. ]

[Sidenote: Polk elected. ]

331. Election of 1844. --President Tyler would have been glad of asecond term. But neither of the great parties wanted him as a leader. The Democrats would have gladly nominated Van Buren had he not opposedthe acquisition of Texas. Instead they nominated James K. Polk ofTennessee, an outspoken favorer of the admission of Texas. The Whigsnominated Henry Clay, who had no decided views on the Texas question. Hesaid one thing one day, another thing another day. The result was thatthe opponents of slavery and of Texas formed a new party. They called itthe Liberty party and nominated a candidate for President. The Libertymen did not gain many votes. But they gained enough votes to make Clay'selection impossible and Polk was chosen President. 

[Sidenote: Texas admitted by joint resolution, 1845. _McMaster_, 325. ]

332. Acquisition of Texas, 1845. --Tyler now pressed the admissionof Texas upon Congress. The two houses passed a joint resolution. Thisresolution provided for the admission of Texas, and for the formationfrom the territory included in Texas of four states, in addition to thestate of Texas, and with the consent of that state. Before Texas wasactually admitted Tyler had ceased to be President. But Polk carried outhis policy, and on July 4, 1845, Texas became one of the United States. 

[Sidenote: Southern boundary of Texas. ]

[Sidenote: Taylor on the Rio Grande. ]

[Sidenote: War declared, 1846. Lowell in _Source-Book_, 271-276. ]

333. Beginning of the Mexican War, 1846. --The Mexicans had neveracknowledged the independence of Texas. They now protested against itsadmission to the United States. Disputes also arose as to the southernboundary of Texas. As no agreement could be reached on this point, President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to march to the Rio Grandeand occupy the disputed territory. Taylor did as he was ordered, and theMexicans attacked him. Polk reported these facts to Congress, andCongress authorized the President to push on the fighting on the groundthat "war exists, and exists by the act of Mexico herself. "

[Sidenote: The three parts of the Mexican War. ]

[Sidenote: Taylor's campaign. _McMaster_, 326-327. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Buena Vista, 1847. ]

334. Taylor's Campaigns. --The Mexican War easily divides itselfinto three parts: (1) Taylor's forward movement across the Rio Grande;(2) Scott's campaign, which ended in the capture of the City of Mexico;and (3) the seizure of California. Taylor's object was to maintain theline of the Rio Grande, then to advance into Mexico and injure theMexicans as much as possible. The battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de laPalma (May 8, 9, 1846) were fought before the actual declaration of war. These victories made Taylor master of the Rio Grande. In September hecrossed the Rio Grande. So far all had gone well. But in the wintermany of Taylor's soldiers were withdrawn to take part in Scott'scampaign. This seemed to be the Mexicans' time. They attacked Taylorwith four times as many men as he had in his army. This battle wasfought at Buena Vista, February, 1847. Taylor beat back the Mexicanswith terrible slaughter. This was the last battle of Taylor's campaign. 

[Sidenote: Scott's campaign. _Eggleston_, 284-286; _McMaster_, 327-328. ]

[Sidenote: He captures City of Mexico, 1847. ]

335. Scott's Invasion of Mexico. --The plan of Scott's campaign wasthat he should land at Vera Cruz, march to the city of Mexico, --twohundred miles away, --capture that city, and force the Mexicans to makepeace. Everything fell out precisely as it was planned. With the help ofthe navy Scott captured Vera Cruz. He had only about one-quarter as manymen as the Mexicans. But he overthrew them at Cerro Gordo, where theroad to the City of Mexico crosses the coast mountains (April, 1847). With the greatest care and skill he pressed on and at length came withinsight of the City of Mexico. The capital of the Mexican Republic stoodin the midst of marshes, and could be reached only over narrow causewayswhich joined it to the solid land. August 20, 1847, Scott beat theMexicans in three pitched battles, and on September 14 he entered thecity with his army, now numbering only six thousand men fit foractive service. 

[Illustration: THE BEAR FLAG. ]

[Sidenote: California. ]

[Sidenote: The "Bear Republic, " 1846. ]

[Sidenote: California seized by American soldiers. ]

336. Seizure of California. --California was the name given to theMexican possessions on the Pacific coast north of Mexico itself. Therewere now many American settlers there, especially at Monterey. Hearingof the outbreak of the Mexican War, they Set up a republic of their own. Their flag had a figure of a grizzly bear painted on it, and hence theirrepublic is often spoken of as the Bear Republic. Commodore Stocktonwith a small fleet was on the Pacific coast. He and John C. Frémontassisted the Bear Republicans until soldiers under Colonel Kearneyreached them from the United States by way of Santa Fé. 

[Illustration: JOHN C. FRÉMONT. ]

[Sidenote: Mexican cessions, 1848. ]

[Sidenote: The Gadsden Purchase, 1853. _McMaster_, 334. ]

337. Treaty of Peace, 1848. --The direct cause of the Mexican Warwas Mexico's unwillingness to give up Texas without a struggle. But theMexicans had treated many Americans very unjustly and owed them largesums of money. A treaty of peace was made in 1848. Mexico agreed toabandon her claims to Texas, California, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, andColorado. The United States agreed to withdraw its armies from Mexico, to pay Mexico fifteen million dollars, and to pay the claims of Americancitizens on Mexico. These claims proved to amount to three and one-halfmillion dollars, In the end, therefore, the United States paid eighteenand one-half million dollars for this enormous and exceedingly valuableaddition to its territory. When the time came to run the boundary line, the American and Mexican commissioners could not agree. So the UnitedStates paid ten million dollars more and received an additional strip ofland between the Rio Grande and the Colorado rivers. This gave theUnited States its present southern boundary. This agreement was made in1853 by James Gadsden for the United States, and the land bought isusually called the Gadsden Purchase. 

[Sidenote: Oregon. ]

[Sidenote: Joint occupation by United States and Great Britain. ]

338. The Oregon Question. --It was not only in the Southwest thatboundaries were disputed; in the Northwest also there was a longcontroversy which was settled while Polk was President. Oregon was thename given to the whole region, between Spanish and Mexican Californiaand the Russian Alaska. The United States and Great Britain eachclaimed to have the best right to Oregon. As they could not agree as totheir claims, they decided to occupy the region jointly. As time went onAmerican settlers and missionaries began to go over the mountains toOregon. In 1847 seven thousand Americans were living in the Northwest. 

[Sidenote: "All Oregon or none. "]

[Sidenote: Division of Oregon, 1846. ]

339. The Oregon Treaty, 1846. --The matter was now taken up inearnest. "All Oregon or none, " "Fifty-four forty or fight, " becamepopular cries. The United States gave notice of the ending of the jointoccupation. The British government suggested that Oregon should bedivided between the two nations. In 1818 he boundary between the UnitedStates and British North America had been fixed as the forty-ninthparallel from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. It was nowproposed to continue this line to the Pacific. The British government, however, insisted that the western end of the line should follow thechannel between Vancouver's Island and the mainland so as to make thatisland entirely British. The Mexican War was now coming on. It wouldhardly do to have two wars at one time. So the United States gave wayand a treaty was signed in 1846. Instead of "all Oregon, " the UnitedStates received about one-half. But it was a splendid region andincluded not merely the present state of Oregon, but all the territorywest of the Rocky Mountains between the forty-second and the forty-ninthparallels of latitude. 

CHAPTER 33

THE COMPROMISE OF 1850

[Sidenote: Should Oregon and Mexican cessions be free soil?]

[Sidenote: The Wilmot Proviso. _McMaster_, 324. ]

340. The Wilmot Proviso, 1846. --What should be done with Oregon andwith the immense territory received from Mexico? Should it be free soilor should it be slave soil? To understand the history of the disputewhich arose out of this question we must go back a bit and study theWilmot Proviso. Even before the Mexican War was fairly begun, thisquestion came before Congress. Every one admitted that Texas must be aslave state. Most people were agreed that Oregon would be free soil. Forit was too far north for negroes to thrive. But what should be done withCalifornia and with New Mexico? David Wilmot of Pennsylvania thoughtthat they should be free soil. He was a member of the House ofRepresentatives. In 1846 he moved to add to a bill giving the Presidentmoney to purchase land from Mexico a proviso that none of the territoryto be acquired at the national expense should be open to slavery. Thisproviso was finally defeated. But the matter was one on which peopleheld very strong opinions, and the question became the most importantissue in the election of 1848. 

[Illustration: ZACHARY TAYLOR. ]

[Sidenote: Candidates for the presidency, 1848. ]

[Sidenote: "Squatter sovereignty. "]

[Sidenote: Free Soil party. _McMaster_, 334-335. ]

[Sidenote: Taylor and Fillmore elected. ]

341. Taylor elected President, 1848. --Three candidates contestedthe election of 1848. First there was Lewis Cass of Michigan, theDemocratic candidate. He was in favor of "squatter sovereignty, " thatis, allowing the people of each territory to have slavery or not as theychose. The Whig candidate was General Taylor, the victor of Buena Vista. The Whigs put forth no statement of principles. The third candidate wasMartin Van Buren, already once President. Although a Democrat, he didnot favor the extension of slavery. He was nominated by Democrats whodid not believe in "squatter sovereignty, " and by a new party whichcalled itself the Free Soil party. The abolitionists or Liberty partyalso nominated a candidate, but he withdrew in favor of Van Buren. TheWhigs had nominated Millard Fillmore of New York for Vice-President. Heattracted to the Whig ticket a good many votes in New York. Van Burenalso drew a good many votes from the Democrats. In this way New York wascarried for Taylor and Fillmore. This decided the election, and the Whigcandidates were chosen. 

[Illustration: THE SITE OF SAN FRANCISCO IN 1847. From an originaldrawing. ]

[Sidenote: Discovery of gold in California, 1848. ]

[Sidenote: The "rush" to California, 1849. _McMaster_, 337-338;_Source-Book_, 276-279. ]

342. California. --Before the treaty of peace with Mexico wasratified, even before it was signed, gold was discovered in California. Reports of the discovery soon reached the towns on the western seacoast. At once men left whatever they were doing and hastened to the hills todig for gold. Months later rumors of this discovery began to reach theeastern part of the United States. At first people paid little attentionto them. But when President Polk said that gold had been found, peoplebegan to think that it must be true. Soon hundreds of gold-seekersstarted for California. Then thousands became eager to go. These firstcomers were called the Forty-Niners, because most of them came in theyear 1849. By the end of that year there were eighty thousand immigrantsin California. 

[Sidenote: California constitutional convention, 1849. ]

[Sidenote: Slavery forbidden. ]

343. California seeks Admission to the Union. --There were eightythousand white people in California, and they had almost no governmentof any kind. So in November, 1849, they held a convention, drew up aconstitution, and demanded admission the Union as a state. The peculiarthing about this constitution was that it forbade slavery in California. Many of the Forty-Niners were Southerners. But even they did not wantslavery. The reason was that they wished to dig in the earth and wingold. They would not allow slave holders to work their mining claimswith slave labor, for free white laborers had never been able to workalongside of negro slaves. So they did not want slavery in California. 

[Sidenote: Divisions on the question of the extension of slavery. _McMaster_, 335-336. ]

344. A Divided Country. --This action of the people of California atonce brought the question of slavery before the people. Many Southernerswere eager to found a slave confederacy apart from the Union. Manyabolitionists were eager to found a free republic in the North. ManyNortherners, who loved the Union, thought that slavery should beconfined to the states where it existed. They thought that slaveryshould not be permitted in the territories, which belonged to the peopleof the United States as a whole. They argued that if the territoriescould be kept free, the people of those territories, when they came toform state constitutions, would forbid slavery as the people ofCalifornia had just done. They were probably right, and for this veryreason the Southerners wished to have slavery in the territories. Sostrong was the feeling over these points that it seemed as if the Unionwould split into pieces. 

[Sidenote: Taylor's policy. ]

[Sidenote: California demands admission. ]

345. President Taylor's Policy. --General Taylor was now President. He was alarmed by the growing excitement. He determined to settle thematter at once before people could get any more excited. So he sentagents to California and to New Mexico to urge the people to demandadmission to the Union at once. When Congress met in 1850, he statedthat California demanded admission as a free state. The Southerners wereangry. For they had thought that California would surely be aslave state. 

[Sidenote: Clay's compromise scheme, 1850. _McMaster_, 339-341;_Source-Book_, 279-281. ]

346. Clay's Compromise Plan. --Henry Clay now stepped forward tobring about a "union of hearts. " His plan was to end all disputesbetween Northerners and Southerners by having the people of each sectiongive way to the people of the other section. For example, theSoutherners were to permit the admission of California as a free state, and to consent to the abolition of the slave trade in the District ofColumbia. In return, the Northerners were to give way to the Southernerson all other points. They were to allow slavery in the District ofColumbia. They were to consent to the organization of New Mexico andUtah as territories without any provision for or against slavery. Texasclaimed that a part of the proposed Territory of New Mexico belonged toher. So Clay suggested that the United States should pay Texas for thisland. Finally Clay proposed that Congress should pass a severe FugitiveSlave Act. It is easily seen that Clay's plan as a whole was distinctlyfavorable to the South. Few persons favored the passage of the wholescheme. But when votes were taken on each part separately, they allpassed. In the midst of the excitement over this compromise PresidentTaylor died, and Millard Fillmore, the Vice-President, became President. 

[Illustration: MILLARD FILLMORE. ]

[Sidenote: Art. IV, sec. 2. ]

[Sidenote: Fugitive Slave Act of 1793. ]

[Sidenote: Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. _McMaster_, 341-343. ]

[Sidenote: Results of passage of this act. _Higginson_, 281;_Source-Book_, 282-284. ]

[Sidenote: The "Underground Railway. " _Source-Book_, 260-263. ]

347. The Fugitive Slave Act. --The Constitution provides thatpersons held to service in one state escaping into another state shallbe delivered up upon claim of the person to whom such service may bedue. Congress, in 1793, had passed an act to carry out this provision ofthe Constitution. But this law had seldom been enforced, because itsenforcement had been left to the states, and public opinion in the Northwas opposed to the return of fugitive slaves. The law of 1850 gave theenforcement of the act to United States officials. The agents of slaveowners claimed many persons as fugitives. But few were returned to theSouth. The important result of these attempts to enforce the law was tostrengthen Northern public opinion against slavery. It led to redoubledefforts to help runaway slaves through the Northern states to Canada. Aregular system was established. This was called the "UndergroundRailway. " In short, instead of bringing about "a union of hearts, " theCompromise of 1850 increased the ill feeling between the people of thetwo sections of the country. 

[Sidenote: "Uncle Tom's Cabin. "]

[Sidenote: Effects of this book. ]

348. "Uncle Tom's Cabin. "--It was at this time that Mrs. HarrietBeecher Stowe wrote "Uncle Tom's Cabin. " In this story she set forth thepleasant side of slavery--the light-heartedness and kind-heartedness ofthe negroes. In it she also set forth the unpleasant side ofslavery--the whipping of human beings, the selling of human beings, thehunting of human beings. Of course, there never was such a slave asUncle Tom. The story is simply a wonderful picture of slavery as itappeared to a brilliant woman of the North. Hundreds of thousands ofcopies of this book were sold in the South as well as in the North. Plays founded on the book were acted on the stage. Southern people whenreading "Uncle Tom" thought little of the unpleasant things in it: theyliked the pleasant things in it. Northern people laughed at the prettypictures of plantation life: they were moved to tears by the tales ofcruelty. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and the Fugitive Slave Law convinced thepeople of the North that bounds must be set to the extension of slavery. 

CHAPTER 34

THE STRUGGLE FOR KANSAS

[Sidenote: Campaign of 1852. ]

[Sidenote: Pierce elected President. ]

349. Pierce elected President, 1852. --It was now Campaign time fora new election. The Whigs had been successful with two old soldiers, sothey thought they would try again with another soldier and nominatedGeneral Winfield Scott, the conqueror of Mexico. The Democrats alsonominated a soldier, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, who had been innorthern Mexico with Taylor. The Democrats and Whigs both said that theywould stand by the Compromise of 1850. But many voters thought thatthere would be less danger of excitement with a Democrat in the WhiteHouse and voted for Pierce for that reason. They soon found that theywere terribly mistaken in their belief. 

[Sidenote: The Nebraska bill, 1854. _Source-Book, 284-287. _]

[Sidenote: Douglas asserts Compromise of 1820 to be repealed. ]

350. Douglas's Nebraska Bill. --President Pierce began his term ofoffice quietly enough. But in 1854 Senator Douglas of Illinois broughtin a bill to organize the Territory of Nebraska. It will be rememberedthat in 1820 Missouri had been admitted to the Union as a slave state. In 1848 Iowa had been admitted as a free state. North of Iowa was thefree Territory of Minnesota. Westward from Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesotawas an immense region without any government of any kind. It all laynorth of the compromise line of 1820 (p. 222), and had been foreverdevoted to freedom by that compromise. But Douglas said that theCompromise of 1820 had been repealed by the Compromise of 1850. So heproposed that the settlers of Nebraska should say whether that territoryshould be free soil or slave soil, precisely as if the Compromise of1820 had never been passed. Instantly there was a tremendous uproar. 

[Illustration: FRANKLIN PIERCE. ]

[Sidenote: The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854. ]

[Sidenote: Antislavery senators attack the bill. ]

[Sidenote: The Independent Democrats. ]

351. The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854. --Douglas now changed his billso as to provide for the formation of two territories. One of these henamed Kansas. It had nearly the same boundaries as the present state ofKansas, except that it extended westward to the Rocky Mountains. Theother territory was named Nebraska. It included all the land north ofKansas and between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains. Theantislavery leaders in the North attacked the bill with great fury. Chase of Ohio said that it was a violation of faith. Sumner ofMassachusetts rejoiced in the fight, for he said men must now take sidesfor freedom or for slavery. Some, independent Democrats published "AnAppeal. " They asked their fellow-citizens to take their maps and seewhat an immense region Douglas had proposed to open to slavery. Theydenied that the Missouri Compromise had been repealed. Nevertheless, thebill passed Congress and was signed by President Pierce. 

[Illustration: Territory opened to slavery. ]

[Sidenote: Abraham Lincoln, _Hero Tales_, 325-335. ]

[Sidenote: Aroused by the Kansas-Nebraska Act. ]

352. Abraham Lincoln. --Born in Kentucky, Abraham Lincoln went withhis parents to Indiana and then to Illinois. As a boy he was very poorand had to work hard. But he lost no opportunity to read and to study. At the plow or in the long evenings at home by the firelight he was everthinking and studying. Growing to manhood he became a lawyer and servedone term in Congress. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act arousedhis indignation as nothing had ever aroused it before. He denied thatany man had the right to govern another man, be he white or be he black, without that man's consent. He thought that blood would surely be shedbefore the slavery question would be settled in Kansas, and the firstshedding of blood would be the beginning of the end of the Union. 

[Sidenote: Seward's challenge to the Southerners. _McMaster_, 347-351. ]

[Sidenote: The Sons of the South. ]

[Sidenote: Fraudulent election. _Source-Book_, 287-289. ]

353. Settlement of Kansas. --In the debate on the Kansas-Nebraskabill Senator Seward of New York said to the Southerners: "Come on, then. .. . We will engage in competition for the soil of Kansas, and Godgive the victory to the side that is strong in numbers as it is inright. " Seward spoke truly. The victory came to those opposed to theextension of slavery. But it was a long time in coming. As soon as theact was passed, armed "Sons of the South" crossed the frontier ofMissouri and founded the town of Atchison. Then came large bands ofarmed settlers from the North and the East. They founded the towns ofLawrence and Topeka. An election was held. Hundreds of men poured overthe boundary of Missouri, outvoted the free-soil settlers in Kansas, andthen went home. The territorial legislature, chosen in this way, adoptedthe laws of Missouri, slave code and all, as the laws of Kansas. Itseemed as if Kansas were lost to freedom. 

[Sidenote: Free-state constitution. ]

[Sidenote: The Senate refuses to admit Kansas. ]

354. The Topeka Convention. --The free-state voters now held aconvention at Topeka. They drew up a constitution and applied toCongress for admission to the Union as the free state of Kansas. Thefree-state men and the slave-state men each elected a Delegate toCongress. The House of Representatives now took the matter up andappointed a committee of investigation. The committee reported in favorof the free-state men, and the House voted to admit Kansas as a freestate. But the Senate would not consent to anything of the kind. Thecontest in Kansas went on and became more bitter every month. 

[Sidenote: Origin of the Republican party. _McMaster_, 352-355. ]

[Sidenote: Anti-Nebraska men. ]

355. The Republican Party. --The most important result of theKansas-Nebraska fight was the formation of the Republican party. It wasmade up of men from all the other parties who agreed in opposingDouglas's Kansas-Nebraska policy. Slowly they began to think ofthemselves as a party and to adopt the name of the old party ofJefferson, Madison, and Monroe--Republican. 

[Sidenote: Presidential candidates, 1856. ]

[Sidenote: Buchanan. ]

[Sidenote: Frémont. ]

356. Buchanan elected President, 1856. --The Whigs and theKnow-Nothings nominated Millard Fillmore for President and said nothingabout slavery. The Democrats nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvaniafor President and John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for Vice-President. They declared their approval of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and favored astrict construction of the Constitution. The Republicans nominated JohnC. Frémont. They protested against the extension of slavery and declaredfor a policy of internal improvements at the expense of the nation. TheDemocrats won; but the Republicans carried all the Northern statessave four. 

[Sidenote: Dred Scott decision, 1857. _McMaster_, 355-357;_Source-Book_, 290-291]

[Sidenote: Opinions of the judges. ]

357. The Dred Scott Decision, 1857. --The Supreme Court of theUnited States now gave a decision in the Dred Scott case that put an endto all hope of compromise on the slavery question. Dred Scott had beenborn a slave. The majority of the judges declared that a person once aslave could never become a citizen of the United States and bring suitin the United States courts. They also declared that the MissouriCompromise was unlawful. Slave owners had a clear right to carry theirproperty, including slaves, into the territories, and Congress could notstop them. 

[Sidenote: Lincoln's policy. ]

[Sidenote: His debates with Douglas. _McMaster_, 388-389; _Source-Book_, 290-294. ]

358. The Lincoln and Douglas Debates, 1858. --The question of thereëlection of Douglas to the Senate now came before the people ofIllinois. Abraham Lincoln stepped forward to contest the election withhim. "A house divided against itself cannot stand, " said Lincoln. "Thisgovernment cannot endure half slave and half free. .. . It will become allone thing or all the other. " He challenged Douglas to debate the issueswith him before the people, and Douglas accepted the challenge. Sevenjoint debates were held in the presence of immense crowds. Lincolnforced Douglas to defend the doctrine of "popular sovereignty. " ThisDouglas did by declaring that the legislatures of the territories couldmake laws hostile to slavery. This idea, of course, was opposed to theDred Scott decision. Douglas won the election and was returned to theSenate. But Lincoln had made a national reputation. 

[Illustration: HARPER'S FERRY. ]

[Sidenote: Civil war in Kansas. _McMaster_, 357. ]

[Sidenote: John Brown. ]

[Sidenote: The slave constitution. ]

[Sidenote: Douglas opposes Buchanan. ]

359. "Bleeding Kansas. "--Meantime civil war had broken out inKansas, Slavery men attacked Lawrence, killed a few free-state settlers, and burned several buildings. Led by John Brown, an immigrant from NewYork, free-state men attacked a party of slave-state men and killed fiveof them. By 1857 the free-state voters had become so numerous that itwas no longer possible to outvote them by bringing men from Missouri, and they chose a free-state legislature. But the fraudulent slave-statelegislature had already provided for holding a constitutional conventionat Lecompton. This convention was controlled by the slave-state men andadopted a constitution providing for slavery. President Buchanan sentthis constitution to Congress and asked to have Kansas admitted as aslave state. But Douglas could not bear to see the wishes of thesettlers of Kansas outraged. He opposed the proposition vigorously andit was defeated. It was not until 1861 that Kansas was admitted to theUnion as a free state. 

[Sidenote: John Brown's Raid, 1859. _Higginson_, 286-289;_Source-Book_, 294-296. ]

[Sidenote: He seizes Harper's Ferry. ]

[Sidenote: His execution, 1859. ]

360. John Brown's Raid, 1859. --While in Kansas John Brown hadconceived a bold plan. It was to seize a strong place in the mountainsof the South, and there protect any slaves who should run away fromtheir masters. In this way he expected to break slavery in pieces withintwo years. With only nineteen men he seized Harper's Ferry, in Virginia, and secured the United States arsenal at that place. But he and most ofhis men were immediately captured. He was executed by the Virginianauthorities as a traitor and murderer. The Republican leaders denouncedhis act as "the gravest of crimes. " But the Southern leaders wereconvinced that now the time had come to secede from the Union and toestablish a Southern Confederacy. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 31

§ 323. --_a_. Why were the people of South Carolina so opposed to anylimitation of slavery? How did they show their opposition?

_b_. Had slavery disappeared in the North because people thought that itwas wrong?

§§ 324, 325. --_a_. What suggestions were made by some in the North forthe ending of slavery? What do you think of these suggestions?

_b_. For what did Garrison contend, and how did he make his views known?Why were these views opposed in the North?

§ 326. --_a_. Why were the Southerners so alarmed by Nat Turner'sRebellion?

_b_. What power had Congress over the mails? How would you have voted onthis question?

§§ 327, 328. --_a_. Why is the right of petition so important? How isthis right secured to citizens of the United States?

_b_. Why should these petitions be considered as insulting toslaveholders?

_c_. Why were the Southerners so afraid of any discussion of slavery?

CHAPTER 32

§§ 329, 330. --_a_. Show by the map the extent of the Mexican Republic. 

_b_. Why did Texas wish to join the United States? What attitude hadMexico taken on slavery?

§§ 331, 332. --_a_. Explain carefully how the Texas question influencedthe election of 1844. 

_b_. What was the Liberty party? How did its formation make the electionof Polk possible?

_c_. What is a "joint resolution"?

§ 333. --How did the Mexicans regard the admission of Texas? What disputewith Mexico arose? Did Mexico begin the war?

§§ 334, 335. --_a_. What was the plan of Taylor's campaign? Of Scott'scampaign?

_b_. Mention the leading battles of Taylor's campaign. Of Scott'scampaign. 

§§ 336, 337. --_a_. What action did the American settlers in Californiatake? With what result?

_b_. Explain by a map the Mexican cessions of 1848 and 1853. 

§§ 338, 339. --_a_. What was the extent of Oregon in 1845?

_b_. How was the dispute finally settled? Explain by a map. 

_c_. What was the extent of Oregon in 1847? Is it the same to-day?

_d_. Of what value was this region to the United States?

CHAPTER 33

§§ 340, 341. --_a_. Why was there little question whether Oregon would beslave or free?

_b_. Explain carefully Wilmot's suggestion. What would be the argumentsin Congress for and against this "proviso"?

_c_. What is meant by "squatter sovereignty"? What do you think of thewisdom and justice of such a plan?

§§ 342, 343. --_a_. Describe the discovery of gold in California and therush thither. What difference did _one year_ make in the population ofCalifornia?

_b_. What attitude did California take on the slavery question? Why?

§§ 344, 345. --_a_. How had the question of slavery already divided thecountry?

_b_. What extreme parties were there in the North and the South?

_c_. Why was the question about the territories so important?

_d_. What action did President Taylor take? Why? What do you think ofthe wisdom of this policy?

§§ 346, 347. --_a_. State the provisions of Clay's compromise plan. Whichof these favored the North? The South?

_b_. What law had been made as to fugitive slaves? Why had it not beenenforced? Why was the change made in 1850 so important?

_c_. How would you have acted had you been a United States officercalled to carry out the Fugitive Slave Law?

§ 348. --_a_. Who was Mrs. Stowe? What view did she take of slavery?

_b_. Were there any good points in the slave system?

_c_. Why is this book so important?

CHAPTER 34

§§ 349-351. --_a_. Who were the candidates in 1852? Who was chosen? Why?

_b_. What doctrine did Douglas apply to Kansas and Nebraska?

_c_. Why did Chase call this bill "a violation of faith"?

_d_. Was Douglas a patriot? Chase? Sumner? Pierce?

§ 352. --_a_. Give an account of the early life and training of AbrahamLincoln. 

_b_. What did he think of the Kansas-Nebraska Act?

§§ 353, 354. --_a_. What effect did the Kansas-Nebraska Act have on thesettlement of Kansas?

_b_. Describe the election. Do you think that laws made by a legislatureso elected were binding?

_d_. Explain the difference in the attitude of the Senate and House onthe Kansas question. 

§§ 355, 356. --_a_. How was the Republican party formed? _b_. Were itsprinciples like or unlike those of the Republican party of Jefferson'stime? Give your reasons. 

§ 357. --_a_. What rights did the Supreme Court declare a slave could notpossess? Was a slave a person or a thing?

_b_. What power does the Constitution give Congress over a territory?(Art. IV, Sec. 3. )

§ 358. --_a_. Explain carefully the quotations from Lincoln's speeches. 

_b_. Was the doctrine of popular sovereignty necessarily favorable toslavery? Give illustrations to support your reasons. 

_c_. Was Douglas's declaration in harmony with the decision of theSupreme Court?

§§ 359, 360. --_a_. Compare the attitude of Douglas and Buchanan upon theadmission of Kansas. 

_b_. Describe John Brown's raid. Was he a traitor?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Give, with dates, the important laws as to slavery since 1783. 

_b_. What were the arguments in favor of the extension of slavery?Against it?

_c_. Find and learn a poem against slavery by Whittier, Lowell, orLongfellow. 

_d_. Make a table of elections since 1788, with the leading parties, candidates, and principal issues. Underline the name of thecandidate elected. 

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. John Brown in Kansas or at Harper's Ferry. 

_b_. The career, to this time, of any man mentioned in Chapters 33 and34. 

_c_. Any one fugitive slave case: Jerry McHenry in Syracuse (A. J. May's_Antislavery Conflicts_), Shadrach, Anthony Burns. 

SUGGESTIONS

Preparation is especially important in teaching this period. The teacherwill find references to larger books in Channing's _Students' History. _

Show how the question of slavery was really at the basis of the MexicanWar. Geographical conditions and the settlement of the Western countryshould be carefully noted. A limited use of the writings and speeches ofprominent men and writers is especially valuable at this point. 

Have a large map of the United States in the class room, cut out andfasten upon this map pieces of white and black paper to illustrate theeffects of legislation under discussion, and also to illustrate thevarious elections. 

The horrors of slavery should be but lightly touched. Emphasizeespecially the fact that slavery prevented rather than aided thedevelopment of the South, and was an evil economically as wellas socially. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1860. ]

XII

SECESSION, 1860-1861

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Scribner's _Popular History_, IV, 432-445; McMaster's_School History_, chap. Xxvi (industrial progress, 1840-60). 

Home Readings. --Page's _The Old South_. 

CHAPTER 35

THE UNITED STATES IN 1860

[Sidenote: Area of the United States, 1860. ]

[Sidenote: Population, 1860. ]

361. Growth of the Country. --The United States was now three timesas large as it was at Jefferson's election. It contained over threemillion square miles of land. About one-third of this great area wassettled. In the sixty years of the century the population had increasedeven faster than the area had increased. In 1800 there were five and ahalf million people living in the United States. In 1860 there were overthirty-one million people within its borders. Of these nearly fivemillions were white immigrants. More than half of these immigrants hadcome in the last ten years, and they had practically all of them settledin the free states of the North. Of the whole population of thirty-onemillions only twelve millions lived in the slave states, and of thesemore than four millions were negro slaves. 

[Sidenote: New states. _McMaster_, 365-368. ]

362. Change of Political Power. --The control of Congress had nowpassed into the hands of the free states of the North. The majority ofthe Representatives had long been from the free states. Now moreSenators came from the North than from the South. This was due to theadmission of new states. Texas (1845) was the last slave state to beadmitted to the Union. Two years later the admission of Wisconsin gavethe free states as many votes in the Senate as the slave states had. In1850 the admission of California gave the free states a majority of twovotes in the Senate. This majority was increased to four by theadmission of Minnesota in 1858, and to six by the admission of Oregon in1859. The control of Congress had slipped forever from the grasp of theslave states. 

[Sidenote: The cities. ]

[Sidenote: New York. ]

[Sidenote: Chicago. ]

363. The Cities. --The tremendous increase in manufacturing, infarming, and in trading brought about a great increase in foreigncommerce. This in turn led to the building up of great cities in theNorth and the West. These were New York and Chicago; and they grewrapidly because they formed the two ends of the line of communicationbetween the East and the West by the Mohawk Valley (p. 239). New Yorknow contained over eight hundred thousand inhabitants. It had morepeople within its limits than lived in the whole state of SouthCarolina. The most rapid growth was seen in the case of Chicago. In1840 there were only five thousand people in that city; it now containedone hundred and nine thousand inhabitants. Cincinnati and St. Louis, each with one hundred and sixty thousand, were still the largest citiesof the West, and St. Louis was the largest city in any slave state. NewOrleans, with nearly as many people as St. Louis, was the only largecity in the South. 

[Sidenote: The North and the South. ]

[Sidenote: Growth of the Northwest. ]

[Sidenote: Density of population, 1860. ]

364. The States. --As it was with the cities so it was with thestates--the North had grown beyond the South. In 1790 Virginia had asmany inhabitants as the states of New York and Pennsylvania puttogether. In 1860 Virginia had only about one-quarter as manyinhabitants as these two states. Indeed, in 1860 New York had nearlyfour million inhabitants, or nearly as many inhabitants as the wholeUnited States in 1791 (p. 156). But the growth of the states of theNorthwest had been even more remarkable. Ohio now had a million morepeople than Virginia and stood third in population among the states ofthe Union. Illinois was the fourth state and Indiana the sixth. Evenmore interesting are the facts brought out by a study of the map showingthe density of population or the number of people to the square mile inthe several states. It appears that in 1860 Ohio, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island, andMassachusetts each had over forty-five inhabitants to the square mile, while not a single Southern state had as many as forty-five inhabitantsto the square mile. This shows us at once that although the Southernstates were larger in extent than the Northern states, they were muchless powerful. 

[Illustration: DENSITY OF POPULATION IN 1860. ]

[Sidenote: Improvements in living. ]

365. City Life. --In the old days the large towns were just like thesmall towns except that they were larger. Life in them was just aboutthe same as in the smaller places. Now, however, there was a greatdifference. In the first place the city could afford to have a greatmany things the smaller town could not pay for. In the second place itmust have certain things or its people would die of disease or be killedas they walked the streets. For these reasons the streets of theNorthern cities were paved and lighted and were guarded by policemen. Then, too, great sewers carried away the refuse of the city, andenormous iron pipes brought fresh water to every one within its limits. Horse-cars and omnibuses carried its inhabitants from one part of thecity to another, and the railroads brought them food from thesurrounding country. 

[Illustration: AN OMNIBUS]

[Sidenote: Growth of the railroad systems. ]

366. Transportation. --Between 1849 and 1858 twenty-one thousandmiles of railroad were built in the United States, In 1860 there weremore than thirty thousand miles of railroad in actual operation. In 1850one could not go from New York to Albany without leaving the railroadand going on board a steamboat. In 1860 one continuous line of rails ranfrom New York City to the Mississippi River. Traveling was stilluncomfortable according to our ideas. The cars were rudely made andjolted horribly. One train ran only a comparatively short distance. Thenthe traveler had to alight, get something to eat, and see his baggageplaced on another train. Still, with all its discomforts, traveling inthe worst of cars was better than traveling in the old stagecoaches. Many more steamboats were used, especially on the Great Lakes and theWestern rivers. 

[Illustration: HORACE GREELEY]

[Sidenote: Schools. ]

[Sidenote: Newspapers. ]

[Sidenote: Horace Greeley. ]

367. Education. --The last thirty years had also been years ofprogress in learning. Many colleges were founded, especially in theNorthwest. There was still no institution which deserved the name ofuniversity. But more attention was being paid to the sciences and to theeducation of men for the professions of law and medicine. The newspapersalso took on their modern form. The _New York Herald_, founded in 1835, was the first real newspaper. But the _New York Tribune_, edited byHorace Greeley, had more influence than any other paper in the country. Greeley was odd in many ways, but he was one of the ablest men of thetime. He called for a liberal policy in the distribution of the publiclands and was forever saying, "Go West, young man, go West. " Themagazines were now very much better than in former years, and America'sforemost writers were doing some of their best work. 

[Illustration: THE FIRST SEWING MACHINE. ]

[Sidenote: The telegraph. ]

[Sidenote: The Howe sewing machine. ]

[Sidenote: Agriculture machinery. ]

[Sidenote: Stagnation in the South. ]

368. Progress of Invention. --The electric telegraph was now incommon use. It enabled the newspapers to tell the people what was goingon as they never had done before. Perhaps the invention that did as muchas any one thing to make life easier was the sewing machine. Elias Howewas the first man to make a really practicable sewing machine. Otherinventors improved upon it, and also made machines to sew other thingsthan cloth, as leather. Agricultural machinery was now in common use. The horse reaper had been much improved, and countless machines had beeninvented to make agricultural labor more easy and economical. Hundredsof homely articles, as friction matches and rubber shoes, came into usein these years. In short, the thirty years from Jackson's inaugurationto the secession of the Southern states were years of great progress. But this progress was confined almost wholly to the North. In the South, living in 1860 was about the same as it had been in 1830, or even in1800. As a Southern orator said of the South, "The rush and whirl ofmodern civilization passed her by. "

CHAPTER 36

SECESSION, 1860-1861

[Illustration: WILLIAM H. SEWARD. ]

[Sidenote: Candidates for the Republican nomination 1860. ]

[Sidenote: Lincoln nominated. The platform. ]

369. The Republican Nomination, 1860. --Four names were especiallymentioned in connection with the Republican nomination for President. These were Seward, Chase, Cameron, and Lincoln. Seward was the bestknown of them all. In the debates on the Compromise of 1850 he haddeclared that there was "a higher law" than the Constitution, namely, "the law of nature in men's hearts. " In another speech he had termed theslavery contest "the irrepressible conflict. " These phrases endeared himto the antislavery men. But they made it impossible for many moderateRepublicans to follow him. Senator Chase of Ohio had also been veryoutspoken in his condemnation of slavery. Senator Cameron ofPennsylvania was an able political leader. But all of these men were"too conspicuous to make a good candidate. " They had made many enemies. Lincoln had spoken freely. But he had never been prominent in nationalpolitics. He was more likely to attract the votes of moderate men thaneither of the other candidates. After a fierce contest he was nominated. The Republican platform stated that there was no intention to interferewith slavery in the states where it existed; but it declared the party'sopposition to the extension of slavery. The platform favored internalimprovements at the national expense. It also approved theprotective system. 

[Sidenote: The Charleston convention, 1860. _McMaster_, 360-361. ]

[Sidenote: The Douglas Democrats. ]

[Sidenote: The Breckinridge Democrats. ]

370. The Democratic Nominations. --The Democratic convention met atCharleston, South Carolina. It was soon evident that the NorthernDemocrats and the Southern Democrats could not agree. The Northernerswere willing to accept the Dred Scott decision and to carry it out. Butthe Southerners demanded that the platform should pledge the partyactively to protect slavery in the territories. To this the Northernerswould not agree. So the convention broke up to meet again at Baltimore. But there the delegates could come to no agreement. In the end twocandidates were named. The Northerners nominated Douglas on a platformadvocating "popular sovereignty. " The Southerners nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. In their platform they advocated states'rights, and the protection of slavery in the territories by the federalgovernment. 

[Sidenote: The Constitutional Union party. ]

371. The Constitutional Union Party. --Besides these threecandidates, cautious and timid men of all parties united to form theConstitutional Union party. They nominated Governor John Bell ofTennessee for President. In their platform they declared for themaintenance of the Constitution and the Union, regardless of slavery. 

[Illustration: LINCOLN'S SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS AND SADDLEBAG. ]

[Sidenote: The campaign of 1860. ]

[Sidenote: Lincoln elected. ]

372. Lincoln elected President, 1860. --With four candidates in thefield and the Democratic party hopelessly divided, there could be littledoubt of Lincoln's election. He carried every Northern state exceptMissouri and New Jersey. He received one hundred and eighty electoralnotes. Breckenridge carried every Southern state except the "borderstates" of Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and received seventy-twoelectoral votes. Bell carried the three "border" Southern states andDouglas carried Missouri and New Jersey. There was no doubt as toLincoln's election. He had received a great majority of the electoralvotes. But his opponents had received more popular votes than he hadreceived. He was therefore elected by a minority of the voters. 

[Illustration: LINCOLN'S BOOKCASE. From the Keyes-Lincoln MemorialCollection, Chicago. ]

[Sidenote: Weakness of the Republicans. ]

[Sidenote: Southern fears. ]

373. The North and the South. --Lincoln had been elected by aminority of the people. He had been elected by the people of onesection. Other Presidents had been chosen by minorities. But Lincolnwas the first man to be chosen President by the people of one section. The Republicans, moreover, had not elected a majority of the members ofthe House of Representatives, and the Senate was still in the hands ofthe Democrats. For two years at least the Republicans could not carryout their ideas. They could not repeal the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Theycould not admit Kansas to the Union as a free state. They could notcarry out one bit of their policy. In their platform they had declaredthat they had no intention to interfere with slavery in the states. Lincoln had said over and over again that Congress had no right tomeddle with slavery in the states. The Southern leaders knew all thesethings. But they made up their minds that now the time had come tosecede from the Union and to establish a Southern Confederacy. For thefirst time all the southernmost states were united. No matter whatLincoln and the Republicans might say, the Southern slaveholdersbelieved that slavery was in danger. In advising secession, many of themthought that by this means they could force the Northerners to accepttheir terms as the price of a restored Union. Never were politicalleaders more mistaken. 

[Sidenote: Southern conventions. ]

374. Threats of Secession, November, 1860. --The Constitutionpermits each state to choose presidential electors as it sees fit. Atthe outset these electors had generally been chosen by the statelegislatures. But, in the course of time, all the states save one hadcome to choose them by popular vote. The one state that held to the oldway was South Carolina. Its legislature still chose the state'spresidential electors. In 1860 the South Carolina legislature did thisduty and then remained in session to see which way the election wouldgo. When Lincoln's election was certain, it called a state convention toconsider the question of seceding from the United States. In otherSouthern states there was some opposition to secession. In Georgia, especially, Alexander H. Stephens led the opposition. He said thatsecession "was the height of madness. " Nevertheless he moved aresolution for a convention. Indeed, all the southernmost statesfollowed the example of South Carolina and summoned conventions. 

[Sidenote: Buchanan's compromise plan. ]

[Crittenden's plan of compromise. _McMaster_, 380-381. ]

[Sidenote: It fails to pass Congress. ]

375. The Crittenden Compromise Plan. --Many men hoped that even nowsecession might be stopped by some compromise. President Buchanansuggested an amendment to the Constitution, securing slavery in thestates and territories. It was unlikely that the Republicans wouldagree to this suggestion. The most hopeful plan was brought forward inCongress by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. He proposed that amendmentsto the Constitution should be adopted: (1) to carry out the principle ofthe Missouri Compromise (p. 222);(2) to provide that states should befree or slave as their people should determine; and (3) to pay the slaveowners the value of runaway slaves. This plan was carefully consideredby Congress, and was finally rejected only two days before Lincoln'sinauguration. 

[Sidenote: South Carolina secedes, 1860. _Eggleston_, 304-305. ]

[Sidenote: Six other states secede. ]

376. Secession of Seven States, 1860-61. --The South Carolinaconvention met in Secession Hall, Charleston, on December 17, 1860. Three days later it adopted a declaration "that the union now subsistingbetween South Carolina and other states, under the name of the UnitedStates of America, is hereby dissolved. " Six other states soon joinedSouth Carolina. These were Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. 

[Sidenote: Confederate states constitution]

[Sidenote: Views of Jefferson Davis. ]

377. The "Confederate States of America. "--The next step was forthese states to join together to form a confederation. This work wasdone by a convention of delegates chosen by the conventions of the sevenseceding states. These delegates met at Montgomery, Alabama. Their newconstitution closely resembled the Constitution of the United States. But great care was taken to make it perfectly clear that each member ofthe Confederacy was a sovereign state. Exceeding care was also takenthat slavery should be protected in every way. Jefferson Davis ofMississippi was chosen provisional president, and Alexander H. Stephensprovisional vice-president. 

[Illustration: CHARLESTON MERCURY EXTRA: The UNION is DISSOLVED!]

[Sidenote: Views of Jefferson Davis. ]

[Sidenote: Views of Alexander H. Stephens. _Source-Book_, 296-299. ]

378. Views of Davis and Stephens. --Davis declared that Lincoln had"made a distinct declaration of war upon our (Southern) institutions. "His election was "upon the basis of sectional hostility. " If "war mustcome, it must be on Northern and not on Southern soil. .. . We will carrywar . .. Where food for the sword and torch awaits our armies in thedensely populated cities" of the North. For his part, Stephens said thenew government's "foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon thegreat truth that the negro is not equal to the white man. "

[Sidenote: "Let the erring sisters" go in peace. ]

[Sidenote: Greeley's opinions. ]

[Sidenote: Buchanan's opinions. ]

379. Hesitation in the North. --At first it seemed as if Davis wasright when he said the Northerners would not fight. General Scott, commanding the army, suggested that the "erring sisters" should beallowed to "depart in peace, " and Seward seemed to think the same way. The Abolitionists welcomed the secession of the slave states. HoraceGreeley, for instance, wrote that if those states chose to form anindependent nation, "they had a clear moral right so to do. " For hispart, President Buchanan thought that no state could constitutionallysecede. But if a state should secede, he saw no way to compel it to comeback to the Union. So he sat patiently by and did nothing. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 35

§§ 361, 362. --_a_. Compare the area and population of the United Statesin 1800 and in 1860. 

_b_. Compare the white population of the North and the South. Were allthe Southern whites slave owners?

_c_. Why had the control of the House passed to the free states? Did awhite man in the North and in the South have proportionally the samerepresentation in the House? Why?

_d_. What change in the control of the Senate had taken place? Why? Whywas this change so important?

§§ 363, 364. --_a_. What had caused the growth of the Northern cities?Why were there so few large cities in the slave states?

_b_. How had the population of the states changed since 1790? What hadcaused the growth of the Northwest?

_c_. Where was there the greatest density of population? Why?

§§ 365, 366. --_a_. Describe the change of life in the cities. Whatarrangements were made for the comfort and health of the people?

_b_. How had railroads increased, and what improvements had been made?

§§ 367, 368. --_a_. Of what use are newspapers? How do they influencethe opinions of the people? What policy did Horace Greeley uphold? Why?

_b_. Who were some of the important writers? Mention two works of each. 

_c_. What influence did the telegraph have? Was this important?

_d_. Describe some of the other inventions. 

_e_. Why had this progress been confined mainly to the North?

CHAPTER 36

§ 369. --_a_. Who were the leading Republican candidates?

_b_. Why was Lincoln nominated? What is the meaning of the phrase "tooconspicuous"?

_c_. What did Seward mean by saying that there was a "higher law" thanthe Constitution? Why was the slavery contest "irrepressible"?

_d_. What declaration was made by the Republican party as to slavery?Compare this policy with the Wilmot Proviso. 

§§ 370, 371. --_a_. What divisions took place in the Democratic party?Why?

_b_. What candidates were named? What policy did each uphold?

_c_. How had the demands of the Southerners concerning slaveryincreased?

_d_. What third party was formed? By whom? What does the name show?

§§ 372, 373. --_a_. What was the result of the election?

_b_. What was there peculiar in Lincoln's election?

_c_. Were the Southern states in any particular danger?

_d_. Why should the Southerners have felt so strongly about thiselection? What was their hope in threatening secession?

§§374, 375. --_a_ Give arguments for and against secession. In what otherquestion similar to this had South Carolina led?

_b_. Were the people of the South generally in favor of secession?

_c_. What compromise did Buchanan suggest? What do you think of thewisdom of the plan?

_d_. Explain carefully the points in Crittenden's plan. Discuss itsvalue. 

§§ 376, 377. --_a_ Could one state dissolve the Union? _b_. What otherstates followed South Carolina?

_c_. What government was formed by them? What two points wereespecially emphasized in their constitution? Why these?

§§ 378, 379. --_a_. What statement did Davis make as to Lincoln? Was ittrue or false? Give your reasons. 

_b_. Why did Davis advocate war on Northern soil?

_c_. Why was there such hesitation in the North? State the opinions ofScott, Greeley, and Buchanan. 

_d_. What would Jackson probably have done had he been President?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Was the South justified in thinking that the North would yield?Give illustrations to support your view. 

_b_. Were the years 1857-61 more or less "critical" than the years1783-87? Why?

_c_. How was the South dependent upon the North?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Comparison between the North and the South. 

_b_. Any invention mentioned in this part. 

_c_. Some writer of this period. 

_d_. The condition of your own state (or town or city) in 1860. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

The first chapter of this part should be taught very slowly, and at eachpoint the contrast between the North and the South should bepointed out. 

In Chapter 36 the changed attitude of the Southern politicians should benoted and their demands clearly set forth. The fact that the slaveowners while a minority in the South dominated public opinion should bepointed out. 

In considering the question of secession it will be well to review theKentucky and Virginia Resolutions, the Hartford Convention, and theNullification episode. The weakness of Pierce and Buchanan may becontrasted with the strength of Jackson, and will serve as anintroduction to the study of Lincoln's character. 

XIII

THE WAR FOR THE UNION, 1861-1865

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Dodge's _Bird's-Eye View_; Scribner's _PopularHistory_, IV and V; McMaster's _School History_. Chap, xxix (the cost ofthe war); Lincoln's _Inaugurals_ and _Gettysburg Address_. 

Home Readings. --_Battles and Leaders of the Civil War_ (composedlargely of articles that had previously appeared in the _CenturyMagazine_; Whittier's _Barbara Frietchie; _Coffin's _Winning his Way_and other stories; Soley's _Sailor Boys of '61_; Trowbridge's _DrummerBoy_ and other stories; Read's _Sheridan's Ride_; Champlin's _YoungFolks' History of the War for the Union_). 

CHAPTER 37

THE RISING OF THE PEOPLES, 1861

[Sidenote: Lincoln's inaugural address, March 4, 1861. ]

380. Lincoln's Inauguration. --On March 4, 1861, President Lincolnmade his first inaugural address. In it he declared: "The Union is mucholder than the Constitution. .. . No state upon its own motion canlawfully get out of the Union. .. . In view of the Constitution and thelaws the Union is unbroken . .. I shall take care that the laws of theUnion be faithfully executed in all the states. " As to slavery, he had"no purpose . .. To interfere with the institution of slavery in thestates where it exists. " He even saw no objection to adopt an amendmentof the Constitution to prohibit the Federal government from interferingwith slavery in the states. But he was resolved to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States. 

[Illustration: SLAVERY AND SECESSION. ]

[Illustration: "OLD GLORY" AS USED IN THE CIVIL WAR. ]

[Sidenote: Fort Sumter. _Source-Book_, 299-302. ]

[Sidenote: The call to arms, April 15, 1861. ]

381. Fall of Fort Sumter, April, 1861. --The strength of Lincoln'sresolve was soon tested. When South Carolina seceded, Major Anderson, commanding the United States forces at Charleston, withdrew from theland forts to Fort Sumter, built on a shoal in the harbor. He had withhim only eighty fighting men and was sorely in need of food andammunition. Buchanan sent a steamer, the _Star of the West, _toCharleston with supplies and soldiers. But the Confederates fired onher, and she steamed away without landing the soldiers or the supplies. Lincoln waited a month, hoping that the secessionists would come back tothe Union of their own accord. Then he decided to send supplies to MajorAnderson and told the governor of South Carolina of his decision. Immediately (April 12) the Confederates opened fire on Fort Sumter. OnApril 14 Anderson surrendered. The next day President Lincoln issued aproclamation calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers. 

[Sidenote: The Northern volunteers. _McMaster_, 386-387; _Source-Book_, 303-305. ]

[Sidenote: Douglas, Buchanan, and Pierce]

[Sidenote: Progress of secession. ]

382. Rising of the North. --There was no longer a question ofletting the "erring sisters" depart in peace. The Southerners had firedon "Old Glory. " There was no longer a dispute over the extension ofslavery. The question was now whether the Union should perish or shouldlive. Douglas at once came out for the Union and so did the formerPresidents, Buchanan and Franklin Pierce. In the Mississippi Valleyhundreds of thousands of men either sympathized with the slaveholders orcared nothing about the slavery dispute. But the moment the Confederatesattacked the Union, they rose in defense of their country andtheir flag. 

[Sidenote: West Virginia. ]

383. More Seceders. --The Southerners flocked to the standards ofthe Confederacy, and four more states joined the ranks of secession. These were Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Virginia. InVirginia the people were sharply divided on the question of secession. Finally Virginia seceded, but the western Virginians, in their turn, seceded from Virginia and two years later were admitted to the Union asthe state of West Virginia. Four "border states" had seceded; but fourother "border states" were still within the Union. These were Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. 

[Sidenote: Kentucky and Maryland saved to the Union. ]

[Sidenote: Missouri saved to the Union. _Eggleston_, 310. ]

384. The Border States. --The people of Maryland and of Kentuckywere evenly divided on the question of secession. They even tried to setup as neutral states. But their neutrality would have been so greatly tothe advantage of the seceders that this could not be allowed. Lincoln'sfirm moderation and the patriotism of many wise leaders in Kentuckysaved that state to the Union. But Maryland was so important to thedefense of Washington that more energetic means had to be used. InMissouri, a large and active party wished to join the Confederacy. Buttwo Union men, Frank P. Blair and Nathaniel Lyon, held the mostimportant portions of the state for the Union. It was not until a yearlater, however, that Missouri was safe on the Northern side. 

[Sidenote: Southern sentiment in Washington. ]

[Sidenote: Southern Unionists. ]

[Sidenote: First bloodshed, April 19, 1861. ]

385. To the Defense of Washington. --The national capital was reallya Southern town, for most of the permanent residents were Southerners, and the offices were filled with Southern men. In the army and navy, too, were very many Southerners. Most of them, as Robert E. Lee, feltthat their duty to their state was greater than their duty to theirflag. But many Southern officers felt differently. Among these were twomen whose names should be held in grateful remembrance, Captain David G. Farragut and Colonel George H. Thomas. The first soldiers to arrive inWashington were from Pennsylvania; but they came unarmed. Soon they werefollowed by the Sixth Massachusetts. In passing through Baltimore thisregiment was attacked. Several men were killed, others were wounded. This was on April 19, 1861, --the anniversary of the battles ofLexington and Concord. It was the first bloodshed of the war. 

CHAPTER 38

BULL RUN TO MURFREESBORO', 1861-1862

[Illustration: RAILROADS AND RIVERS OF THE SOUTH. ]

[Sidenote: The field of war. ]

386. Nature of the Conflict. --The overthrow of the Confederatestates proved to be very difficult. The Alleghany Mountains cut theSouth into two great fields of war. Deep and rapid rivers flowed fromthe mountains into the Atlantic or into the Mississippi. Each of theserivers was a natural line of defense. The first line was the Potomac andthe Ohio. But when the Confederates were driven from this line, theysoon found another equally good a little farther south. Then again theSouth was only partly settled. Good roads were rare, but there were manypoor roads. The maps gave only the good roads. By these the Northernsoldiers had to march while the Southern armies were often guidedthrough paths unknown to the Northerners, and thus were able to marchshorter distances between two battlefields or between twoimportant points. 

[Sidenote: Plan of campaign. ]

[Sidenote: Disaster at Bull Run, July, 1861. _Source-Book_, 305-308. ]

387. The Bull Run Campaign, July, 1861. --Northern soldiers crossedthe Potomac into Virginia and found the Confederates posted at Bull Runnear Manassas Junction. Other Northern soldiers pressed into theShenandoah Valley from Harper's Ferry. They, too, found a Confederatearmy in front of them. The plan of the Union campaign is now clear:General McDowell was to attack the Confederates at Bull Run, whileGeneral Patterson attacked the Confederates in the Valley, and kept themso busy that they could not go to the help of their comrades at BullRun. It fell out otherwise, for Patterson retreated and left theConfederate general, Johnston, free to go to the aid of the sorelypressed Confederates at Bull Run. McDowell attacked vigorously and brokethe Confederate line; but he could not maintain his position. The Uniontroops at first retreated slowly. Then they became frightened and fled, in all haste, back to Washington. The first campaign ended in disaster. 

[Illustration: GENERAL MCCLELLAN. ]

[Sidenote: The Army of the Potomac, 1862. ]

388. The Army of the Potomac. --While the Bull Run campaign wasgoing on in eastern Virginia, Union soldiers had been winning victoriesin western Virginia. These were led by General George B. McClellan. Henow came to Washington and took command of the troops operating in frontof the capital. During the autumn, winter, and spring he drilled his menwith great skill and care. In March, 1862, the Army of the Potomac leftits camps a splendidly drilled body of soldiers. 

[Sidenote: Southern preparations. _Source-Book_, 308-311. ]

[Sidenote: Richmond. ]

[Sidenote: Army of Northern Virginia. ]

389. The Army of Northern Virginia. --Meantime the government of theConfederacy had gathered great masses of soldiers. There were not nearlyas many white men of fighting age in the South as there were in theNorth. But what men there were could be placed in the fighting line, because the negro slaves could produce the food needed by the armies anddo the hard labor of making forts. The capital of the Confederacy wasnow established at Richmond, on the James River, in Virginia. The armydefending this capital was called the Army of Northern Virginia. It wascommanded by Joseph E. Johnston; but its ablest officers were Robert E. Lee and Thomas J. Jackson (Stonewall Jackson). 

[Sidenote: McClellan's plan of campaign, 1862. ]

[Sidenote: Objections to it. ]

390. Plan of the Peninsular Campaign. --The country between thePotomac and the James was cut up by rivers, as the Rappahannock, theMattapony, and Pamunkey, and part of it was a wilderness. McClellanplanned to carry his troops by water to the peninsula between the Jamesand the York and Pamunkey rivers. He would then have a clear road toRichmond, with no great rivers to dispute with the enemy. Johnston wouldbe obliged to leave his camp at Bull Run and march southward to thedefense of Richmond. The great objection to the plan was that Johnstonmight attack Washington instead of going to face McClellan. GeneralJackson also was in the Shenandoah Valley. He might march down theValley, cross the Potomac, and seize Washington. So the government keptseventy-five thousand of McClellan's men for the defense of theFederal capital. 

[Illustration: THE "MONITOR. "]

[Sidenote: The _Monitor_ and the _Merrimac_. _Hero Tales_, 183, 195. ]

391. The _Monitor_ and the _Merrimac_. --On March 8 a queer-lookingcraft steamed out from Norfolk, Virginia, and attacked the Union fleetat anchor near Fortress Monroe. She destroyed two wooden frigates, the_Cumberland_ and the _Congress_, and began the destruction of the_Minnesota_. She then steamed back to Norfolk. This formidable vesselwas the old frigate _Merrimac_. Upon her decks the Confederates hadbuilt an iron house. From these iron sides the balls of the Unionfrigates rolled harmlessly away. But that night an even stranger-lookingship appeared at Fortress Monroe. This was the _Monitor_, a floatingfort, built of iron. She was designed by John Ericsson, a Swedishimmigrant. When the _Merrimac_ came back to finish the destruction ofthe _Minnesota_, the _Monitor_ steamed directly to her. These twoironclads fought and fought. At last the _Merrimac_ steamed away andnever renewed the fight. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Fair Oaks, May, 1862. ]

[Sidenote: The Seven Days. ]

[Sidenote: Malvern Hill. ]

392. The Peninsular Campaign, 1862. --By the end of May McClellanhad gained a position within ten miles of Richmond. Meantime, Jacksonfought so vigorously in the Shenandoah Valley that the Washingtongovernment refused to send more men to McClellan, although Johnston hadgone with his army to the defense of Richmond. On May 31 the Army of thePotomac and the Army of Northern Virginia fought a hard battle at FairOaks. Johnston was wounded, and Lee took the chief command. He summonedJackson from the Valley and attacked McClellan day after day, June 26to July 2, 1862. These terrible battles of the Seven Days forcedMcClellan to change his base to the James, where he would be near thefleet. At Malvern Hill Lee and Jackson once more attacked him and werebeaten off with fearful loss. 

[Sidenote: Lee's plan of campaign. ]

[Sidenote: Second battle of Bull Run, August, 1862. ]

393. Second Bull Run Campaign. --The Army of the Potomac was stilluncomfortably near Richmond. It occurred to Lee that if he should strikea hard blow at the army in front of Washington, Lincoln would recallMcClellan. Suddenly, without any warning, Jackson appeared at ManassasJunction (p. 317). McClellan was at once ordered to transport his armyby water to the Potomac, and place it under the orders of General JohnPope, commanding the forces in front of Washington. McClellan did as hewas ordered. But Lee moved faster than he could move. Before the Army ofthe Potomac was thoroughly in Pope's grasp, Lee attacked the Unionforces near Bull Run. He defeated them, drove them off the field andback into the forts defending Washington (August, 1862). 

[Sidenote: Lee invades Maryland. ]

[Sidenote: Antietam, September, 1862. _Hero Tales_, 199-209. ]

394. The Antietam Campaign, 1862. --Lee now crossed the Potomac intoMaryland. But he found more resistance than he had looked for. McClellanwas again given chief command. Gathering his forces firmly together, hekept between Lee and Washington, and threatened Lee's communicationswith Virginia. The Confederates drew back. McClellan found them stronglyposted near the Antietam and attacked them. The Union soldiers foughtsplendidly. But military writers say that McClellan's attacks were notwell planned. At all events, the Army of the Potomac lost more thantwelve thousand men to less than ten thousand on the Confederate side, and Lee made good his retreat to Virginia. McClellan was now removedfrom command, and Ambrose E. Burnside became chief of the Army ofthe Potomac. 

[Illustration: ANTIETAM (A WAR-TIME SKETCH). ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Fredericksburg, December, 1862. ]

395. Fredericksburg, December, 1862. --Burnside found Lee stronglyposted on Marye's Heights, which rise sharply behind the little town ofFredericksburg on the southern bank of the Rappahannock River. Burnsideattacked in front. His soldiers had to cross the river and assault thehill in face of a murderous fire--and in vain. He lost thirteen thousandmen to only four thousand of the Confederates. "Fighting Joe" Hooker nowsucceeded Burnside as commander of the Army of the Potomac. We must nowturn to the West, and see what had been doing there in 1861-62. 

[Sidenote: General Grant. ]

[Sidenote: He seizes Cairo. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Mill Springs, January, 1862. ]

396. Grant and Thomas. --In Illinois there appeared a trainedsoldier of fierce energy and invincible will, Ulysses Simpson Grant. Hehad been educated at West Point and had served in the Mexican War. InSeptember, 1861, he seized Cairo at the junction of the Ohio and theMississippi. In January, 1862, General George H. Thomas defeated aConfederate force at Mill Springs, in the upper valley of the CumberlandRiver. In this way Grant and Thomas secured the line of the Ohio andeastern Kentucky for the Union. 

[Illustration: THE BRIDGE AT ANTIETAM. Burnside's soldiers charged overthe bridge from the middle foreground. ]

[Sidenote: Capture of Fort Henry, February, 1862. ]

[Sidenote: Fort Donelson. ]

397. Forts Henry and Donelson, February, 1862. --In February, 1862, General Grant and Commodore Foote attacked two forts which theConfederates had built to keep the Federal gunboats from penetrating thewestern part of the Confederacy. Fort Henry yielded almost at once, butthe Union forces besieged Fort Donelson for a longer time. Soon theConfederate defense became hopeless, and General Buckner asked for theterms of surrender. "Unconditional surrender, " replied Grant, andBuckner surrendered. The lower Tennessee and the lower Cumberland werenow open to the Union forces. 

[Sidenote: The lower Mississippi. ]

[Sidenote: Admiral Farragut. ]

398. Importance of New Orleans. --New Orleans and the lowerMississippi were of great importance to both sides, for the possessionof this region gave the Southerners access to Texas, and through Texasto Mexico. Union fleets were blockading every important Southern port. But as long as commerce overland with Mexico could be maintained, theSouth could struggle on. The Mississippi, too, has so many mouths thatit was difficult to keep vessels from running in and out. For thesereasons the Federal government determined to seize New Orleans and thelower Mississippi. The command of the expedition was given to Farragut, who had passed his boyhood in Louisiana. He was given as good a fleet ascould be provided, and a force of soldiers was sent to help him. 

[Illustration: A RIVER GUNBOAT. ]

[Sidenote: Capture of New Orleans, April, 1862. _Higginson_, 303-304;_Source-Book_, 313-315. ]

399. New Orleans captured, April, 1862. --Farragut carried his fleetinto the Mississippi, but found his way upstream barred by two forts onthe river's bank. A great chain stretched across the river below theforts, and a fleet of river gunboats with an ironclad or two was inwaiting above the forts. Chain, forts, and gunboats all gave way beforeFarragut's forceful will. At night he passed the forts amid a terrificcannonade. Once above them New Orleans was at his mercy. It surrendered, and with the forts was soon occupied by the Union army. The lowerMississippi was lost to the Confederacy. 

[Illustration: A WAR-TIME ENVELOPE. ]

[Sidenote: Shiloh, April, 1862. ]

[Sidenote: Corinth, May, 1862. ]

400. Shiloh and Corinth, April, May, 1862. --General Halleck nowdirected the operations of the Union armies in the West. He orderedGrant to take his men up the Tennessee to Pittsburg Landing and thereawait the arrival of Buell with a strong force overland from Nashville. Grant encamped with his troops on the western bank of the Tennesseebetween Shiloh Church and Pittsburg Landing. Albert Sidney Johnston, theConfederate commander in the West, attacked him suddenly and with greatfury. Soon the Union army was pushed back to the river. In his placemany a leader would have withdrawn. But Grant, with amazing courage, held on. In the afternoon Buell's leading regiments reached the otherside of the river. In the night they were ferried across, and Grant'soutlying commands were brought to the front. The next morning Grantattacked in his turn and slowly but surely pushed the Confederates offthe field. Halleck then united Grant's, Buell's, and Pope's armies andcaptured Corinth. 

[Sidenote: General Bragg invades Kentucky. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Perryville, October, 1862. ]

[Sidenote: Murfreesboro', December, 1862. _Eggleston_, 331. ]

401. Bragg in Tennessee and Kentucky. --General Braxton Bragg nowtook a large part of the Confederate army, which had fought at Shilohand Corinth, to Chattanooga. He then marched rapidly across Tennesseeand Kentucky to the neighborhood of Louisville on the Ohio River. Buellwas sent after him, and the two armies fought an indecisive battle atPerryville. Then Bragg retreated to Chattanooga. In a few months he wasagain on the march. Rosecrans had now succeeded Buell. He attacked Braggat Murfreesboro'. For a long time the contest was equal. In the end, however, the Confederates were beaten and retired from the field. 

CHAPTER 39

THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION

[Sidenote: The blockade. ]

402. The Blockade. --On the fall of Fort Sumter President Lincolnordered a blockade of the Confederate seaports. There were fewmanufacturing industries in the South. Cotton and tobacco were thegreat staples of export. If her ports were blockaded the South couldneither bring in arms and military supplies from Europe, nor send cottonand tobacco to Europe to be sold for money. So her power of resistingthe Union armies would be greatly lessened. The Union government boughtall kinds of vessels, even harbor ferryboats, armed them, and stationedthem off the blockaded harbors. In a surprisingly short time theblockade was established. The Union forces also began to occupy theSouthern seacoast, and thus the region that had to be blockaded steadilygrew less. 

[Sidenote: Effect of the blockade. ]

403. Effects of the Blockade. --As months and years went by, and theblockade became stricter and stricter, the sufferings of the Southernpeople became ever greater. As they could not send their products toEurope to exchange for goods, they had to pay gold and silver forwhatever the blockade runners brought in. Soon there was no more goldand silver in the Confederacy, and paper money took its place. Then thesupplies of manufactured goods, as clothing and paper, of things notproduced in the South, as coffee and salt, gave out. Toward the end ofthe war there were absolutely no medicines for the Southern soldiers, and guns were so scarce that it was proposed to arm one regiment withpikes. Nothing did more to break down Southern resistance thanthe blockade. 

[Sidenote: Hopes of the Southerners. ]

404. The Confederacy, Great Britain, and France. --From thebeginning of the contest the Confederate leaders believed that theBritish and the French would interfere to aid them. "Cotton is king, "they said. Unless there were a regular supply of cotton, the mills ofEngland and of France must stop. Thousands of mill hands--men, women, and children--would soon be starving. The French and the Britishgovernments would raise the blockade. Perhaps they would even force theUnited States to acknowledge the independence of the Confederate states. There was a good deal of truth in this belief. For the British andFrench governments dreaded the growing power of the American republicand would gladly have seen it broken to pieces. But events fell out farotherwise than the Southern leaders had calculated. Before the supply ofAmerican cotton in England was used up, new supplies began to come infrom India and from Egypt. The Union armies occupied portions of thecotton belt early in 1862, and American cotton was again exported. Butmore than all else, the English mill operatives, in all their hardships, would not ask their government to interfere. They saw clearly enoughthat the North was fighting for the rights of free labor. At times itseemed, however, as if Great Britain or France would interfere. 

[Sidenote: Southern agents sent to Europe. ]

[Sidenote: Removed from the _Trent_. ]

[Sidenote: Lincoln's opinion. ]

[Sidenote: Action of Great Britain. ]

405. The Trent Affair, 1861. --As soon as the blockade wasestablished, the British and French governments gave the Confederatesthe same rights in their ports as the United States had. The Southernersthen sent two agents, Mason and Slidell, to Europe to ask the foreigngovernments to recognize the independence of the Confederate states. Captain Wilkes of the United States ship _San Jacinto_ took these agentsfrom the British steamer _Trent_. But Lincoln at once said that Wilkeshad done to the British the very thing which we had fought the War of1812 to prevent the British doing to us. "We must stick to Americanprinciples, " said the President, "and restore the prisoners. " They weregiven up. But the British government, without waiting to see whatLincoln would do, had gone actively to work to prepare for war. Thisseemed so little friendly that the people of the United States weregreatly irritated. 

[Sidenote: The war powers of the President. ]

[Sidenote: Lincoln follows Northern sentiment. ]

406. Lincoln and Slavery. --It will be remembered that theRepublican party had denied again and again that it had any intention tointerfere with slavery in the states. As long as peace lasted theFederal government could not interfere with slavery in the states. Butwhen war broke out, the President, as commander-in-chief, could doanything to distress and weaken the enemy. If freeing the slaves in theseceded states would injure the secessionists, he had a perfect right todo it. But Lincoln knew that public opinion in the North would notapprove this action. He would follow Northern sentiment in this matter, and not force it. 

[Sidenote: The contrabands. ]

407. Contrabands of War. --he war had scarcely begun before slavesescaped into the Union lines. One day a Confederate officer came toFortress Monroe and demanded his runaway slaves under the Fugitive SlaveAct (p. 281). General Butler refused to give them up on the ground thatthey were "contraband of war. " By that phrase he meant that theirrestoration would be illegal as their services would be useful to theenemy. President Lincoln approved this decision of General Butler, andescaping slaves soon came to be called "Contrabands. "

[Illustration: A WAR-TIME ENVELOPE. ]

[Sidenote: Abolition with compensation. ]

408. First Steps toward Emancipation, 1862. --Lincoln and theRepublican party thought that Congress could not interfere with slaveryin the states. It might, however, buy slaves and set them free or helpthe states to do this. So Congress passed a law offering aid to anystate which should abolish slavery within its borders. Congress itselfabolished slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation to theowners. It abolished slavery in the territories without compensation. Lincoln had gladly helped to make these laws. Moreover, by August, 1862, he had made up his mind that to free the slaves in the seceded stateswould help "to save the Union" and would therefore be right as a "warmeasure. " For every negro taken away from forced labor would weaken theproducing power of the South and so make the conquest of theSouth easier. 

[Sidenote: Lincoln's warning, September, 1862. ]

[Sidenote: Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, 1863. _Higginson_, 304-305; _Source-Book_, 315-318, 327-329. ]

409. The Emancipation Proclamation, 1863. --On September 23, 1862, Lincoln issued a proclamation stating that on the first day of the newyear he would declare free all slaves in any portion of the UnitedStates then in rebellion. On January 1, 1863, he issued the EmancipationProclamation. This proclamation could be enforced only in those portionsof the seceded states which were held by the Union armies. It did notfree slaves in loyal states and did not abolish the institution ofslavery anywhere. Slavery was abolished by the states of West Virginia, Missouri, and Maryland between 1862 and 1864. Finally, in 1865, it wasabolished throughout the United States by the adoption of the ThirteenthAmendment (p. 361). 

[Sidenote: Northern friends of secession. ]

[Sidenote: Suspension of _habeas corpus. _]

410. Northern Opposition to the War. --Many persons in the Norththought that the Southerners had a perfect right to secede if theywished. Some of these persons sympathized so strongly with theSoutherners that they gave them important information and did all theycould to prevent the success of the Union forces. It was hard to proveanything against these Southern sympathizers, but it was dangerous toleave them at liberty. So Lincoln ordered many of them to be arrestedand locked up. Now the Constitution provides that every citizen shallhave a speedy trial. This is brought about by the issuing a writ of_habeas corpus_, compelling the jailer to bring his prisoner into courtand show cause why he should not be set at liberty. Lincoln nowsuspended the operation of the writ of _habeas corpus_. This actionangered many persons who were quite willing that the Southerners shouldbe compelled to obey the law, but did not like to have their neighborsarrested and locked up without trial. 

[Illustration: THE DRAFT. ]

[Sidenote: The draft. ]

[Sidenote: Riots in the North. ]

411. The Draft Riots. --At the outset both armies were made up ofvolunteers; soon there were not enough volunteers. Both governments thendrafted men for their armies; that is, they picked out by lot certainmen and compelled them to become soldiers. The draft was bitterlyresisted in some parts of the North, especially in New York City. 

CHAPTER 40

THE YEAR 1863

[Sidenote: Position of the armies. ]

412. Position of the Armies, January, 1863. --The Army of thePotomac, now under Hooker, and the Army of Northern Virginia were faceto face at Fredericksburg on the Rappahannock. In the West Rosecrans wasat Murfreesboro', and Bragg on the way back to Chattanooga. In theMississippi Valley Grant and Sherman had already begun the Vicksburgcampaign. But as yet they had had no success. 

[Sidenote: Grant's Vicksburg Campaign, 1863. _Hero Tales_, 239-248. ]

413. Beginnings of the Vicksburg Campaign. --Vicksburg stood on thetop of a high bluff directly on the river. Batteries erected at thenorthern end of the town commanded the river, which at that point randirectly toward the bluff. The best way to attack this formidable placewas to proceed overland from Corinth. This Grant tried to do. But theConfederates forced him back. 

[Sidenote: Siege of Vicksburg. _Source-Book_, 320-323. ]

[Sidenote: Surrender of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. ]

414. Fall of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. --Grant now carried his wholearmy down the Mississippi. For months he tried plan after plan, andevery time he failed. Finally he marched his army down on the westernside of the river, crossed the river below Vicksburg, and approached thefortress from the south and east. In this movement he was greatly aidedby the Union fleet under Porter, which protected the army while crossingthe river. Pemberton, the Confederate commander, at once came out fromVicksburg. But Grant drove him back and began the siege of the town fromthe land side. The Confederates made a gallant defense. But slowly andsurely they were starved into submission. On July 4, 1863, Pembertonsurrendered the fortress and thirty-seven thousand men. 

[Sidenote: Port Hudson surrendered. ]

[Sidenote: Opening of the Mississippi. ]

415. Opening of the Mississippi. --Port Hudson, between Vicksburgand New Orleans, was now the only important Confederate position on theMississippi. On July 8 it surrendered. A few days later the freightsteamer _Imperial_ from St. Louis reached New Orleans. The Mississippiat last "flowed unvexed to the sea. " The Confederacy was cut in twain. 

[Sidenote: Chancellorsville, May, 1863. _Hero Tales_, 213-223. ]

[Sidenote: Lee invades Pennsylvania. ]

[Sidenote: Meade in command. ]

416. Lee's Second Invasion, 1863. --"Fighting Joe Hooker" was now incommand of the Army of the Potomac. Outwitting Lee, he gained the rearof the Confederate lines on Marye's Heights, But Lee fiercely attackedhim at Chancellorsville and drove him back across the Rappahannock. ThenLee again crossed the Potomac and invaded the North. This time hepenetrated to the heart of Pennsylvania. Hooker moved on parallel lines, always keeping between Lee and the city of Washington. At length, in themidst of the campaign, Hooker asked to be relieved, and George G. Meadebecame the fifth and last chief of the Army of the Potomac. 

[Illustration: BATTLEFIELD OF GETTYSBURG, LOOKING SOUTH FROM ROUND TOP. ]

[Sidenote: Lee retires. ]

[Sidenote: Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. ]

417. Gettysburg, July 1, 1863. --Meade now moved the Union armytoward Lee's line of communication with Virginia. Lee at once drewback. Both armies moved toward Gettysburg, where the roads leadingsouthward came together. In this way the two armies came into contact onJuly i, 1863. The Southerners were in stronger force at the moment anddrove the Union soldiers back through the town to the high land calledCemetery Ridge. This was a remarkably strong position, with Culp's Hillat one end of the line and the Round Tops at the other end. Meadedetermined to fight the battle at that spot and hurried up allhis forces. 

[Illustration: MAP: Battle of Gettysburg. ]

[Sidenote: The second day. ]

418. Gettysburg, July 2, 1863. --At first matters seemed to go badlywith the Union army. Its left flank extended forward from Little RoundTop into the fields at the foot of the ridge. The Confederates droveback this part of the Union line. But they could not seize Little RoundTop. On this day also the Confederates gained a foothold on Culp's Hill. 

[Sidenote: The third day. _Source-Book_, 323-327. ]

[Sidenote: Pickett's charge. _Hero Tales_, 227-236. ]

[Sidenote: It fails. ]

[Sidenote: Lee retreats, July 4, 1863. ]

419. Gettysburg, July 3, 1863. --Early on this morning the Unionsoldiers drove the Confederates away from Culp's Hill and held the wholeridge. Now again, as at Malvern Hill (p. 321), Lee had fought the Armyof the Potomac to a standstill. But he would not admit failure. Led byPickett of Virginia, thirteen thousand men charged across the valleybetween the two armies directly at the Union center. Some of them evenpenetrated the Union lines. But there the line stopped. Slowly it beganto waver. Then back the Confederates went--all who escaped. The battleof Gettysburg was won. Lee faced the Army of the Potomac for another dayand then retreated. In this tremendous conflict the Confederates losttwenty-two thousand five hundred men killed and wounded and fivethousand taken prisoners by the Northerners--a total loss oftwenty-eight thousand out of eighty thousand in the battle. The Unionarmy numbered ninety-three thousand men and lost twenty-three thousand, killed and wounded. Vicksburg and Gettysburg cost the South sixty-fivethousand fighting men--a loss that could not be made good. We must nowturn to eastern Tennessee. 

[Sidenote: Rosecrans and Bragg, 1863. ]

[Sidenote: Chickamauga, September, 1863. ]

[Sidenote: Thomas and Sheridan. ]

[Sidenote: Grant in command in the West. ]

420. Chickamauga, September, 1863. --For six months afterMurfreesboro' (p. 326) Rosecrans and Bragg remained in their camps. Inthe summer of 1863 Rosecrans, by a series of skillful marchings, forcedBragg to abandon Chattanooga. But Bragg was now greatly strengthened bysoldiers from the Mississippi and by Longstreet's division from Lee'sarmy in Virginia. He turned on Rosecrans, and attacked him atChickamauga Creek. The right wing of the Union army was driven from thefield. But Thomas, "the Rock of Chickamauga, " with his men stood fast. Bragg attacked him again and again, and failed every time, although hehad double Thomas's numbers. Rosecrans, believing the battle to belost, had ridden off to Chattanooga, but Sheridan aided Thomas as wellas he could. The third day Thomas and Bragg kept their positions, andthen the Union soldiers retired unpursued to Chattanooga. The command ofthe whole army at Chattanooga was now given to Thomas, and Grant wasplaced in control of all the Western armies. 

[Illustration: GENERAL THOMAS. ]

[Sidenote: Sherman's attack. ]

[Sidenote: Hooker's attack. ]

[Sidenote: Thomas's attack. ]

[Sidenote: Rout of the Confederates, November, 1863. ]

421. Chattanooga, November, 1863. --The Union soldiers atChattanooga were in great danger. For the Confederates were all aboutthem and they could get no food. But help was at hand. Hooker, withfifteen thousand men from the Army of the Potomac, arrived and opened aroad by which food could reach Chattanooga. Then Grant came withSherman's corps from Vicksburg. He at once sent Sherman to assailBragg's right flank and ordered Hooker to attack his left flank. Shermanand his men advanced until he was stopped by a deep ravine. At theother end of the line Hooker fought right up the side of LookoutMountain, until the battle raged above the clouds. In the center wereThomas's men. Eager to avenge the slaughter of Chickamauga, they carriedthe first Confederate line of defenses. Then, without orders, theyrushed up the hillside over the inner lines. They drove the Southernersfrom their guns and seized their works. Bragg retreated as well as hecould. Longstreet was besieging Knoxville. He escaped through themountains to Lee's army in Virginia. 

CHAPTER 41

THE END OF THE WAR, 1864-1865

[Sidenote: Grant in chief command. ]

[Sidenote: Sherman commands in the West. ]

422. Grant in Command of all the Armies. --The Vicksburg andChattanooga campaigns marked out Grant for the chief command. Hithertothe Union forces had acted on no well-thought-out plan. Now Grant wasappointed Lieutenant General and placed in command of all the armies ofthe United States (March, 1864). He decided to carry on the war inVirginia in person. Western operations he intrusted to Sherman, withThomas in command of the Army of the Cumberland. Sheridan came withGrant to Virginia and led the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac. Wewill first follow Sherman and Thomas and the Western armies. 

[Illustration: GENERAL SHERMAN. ]

[Sidenote: Sherman's army. ]

[Sidenote: The march to Atlanta. ]

[Sidenote: Hood attacks Sherman. ]

423. The Atlanta Campaign, 1864. --Sherman had one hundred thousandveterans, led by Thomas, McPherson, and Schofield. Joseph E. Johnston, who succeeded Bragg, had fewer men, but he occupied strongly fortifiedpositions. Yet week by week Sherman forced him back till, after twomonths of steady fighting, Johnston found himself in the vicinity ofAtlanta. This was the most important manufacturing center in the South. The Confederates must keep Atlanta if they possibly could. Johnstonplainly could not stop Sherman. So Hood was appointed in his place, inthe expectation that he would fight. Hood fought his best. Again andagain he attacked Sherman only to be beaten off with heavy loss. He thenabandoned Atlanta to save his army. From May to September Sherman losttwenty-two thousand men, but the Confederates lost thirty-five thousandmen and Atlanta too. 

[Sidenote: Problems of war. ]

[Sidenote: Plan of the March to the Sea. ]

424. Plans of Campaign. --Hood now led his army northward toTennessee. But Sherman, instead of following him, sent only Thomas andSchofield. Sherman knew that the Confederacy was a mere shell. Its hearthad been destroyed. What would be the result of a grand march throughGeorgia to the seacoast, and then northward through the Carolinas toVirginia? Would not this unopposed march show the people of the North, of the South, and of Europe that further resistance was useless? Shermanthought that it would, and that once in Virginia he could help Grantcrush Lee. Grant agreed with Sherman and told him to carry out hisplans. But first we must see what happened to Thomas and Hood. 

[Sidenote: Hood in Tennessee. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Franklin, November, 1864. ]

[Sidenote: Thomas destroys Hood's army, December, 1864. ]

425. Thomas and Hood, 1864. --Never dreaming that Sherman was not inpursuit, Hood marched rapidly northward until he had crossed theTennessee. He then spent three weeks in resting his tired soldiers andin gathering supplies. This delay gave Thomas time to draw in recruits. At last Hood attacked Schofield at Franklin on November 30, 1864. Schofield retreated to Nashville, where Thomas was with the bulk of hisarmy, and Hood followed. Thomas took all the time he needed to completehis preparations. Grant felt anxious at his delay and ordered him tofight. But Thomas would not fight until he was ready. At length, onDecember 15, he struck the blow, and in two days of fighting destroyedHood's whole army. This was the last great battle in the West. 

[Sidenote: The March to the Sea, 1864. ]

[Sidenote: Fall of Savannah, December, 1864. ]

426. Marching through Georgia. --Destroying the mills and factoriesof Atlanta, Sherman set out for the seashore. He had sixty thousand menwith him. They were all veterans and marched along as if on a holidayexcursion. Spreading out over a line of sixty miles, they gatheredeverything eatable within reach. Every now and then they would stop anddestroy a railroad. This they did by taking up the rails, heating themin the middle on fires of burning sleepers, and then twisting themaround the nearest trees. In this way they cut a gap sixty miles long inthe railroad communication between the half-starved army of northernVirginia and the storehouses of southern Georgia. On December 10, 1864, Sherman reached the sea. Ten days later he captured Savannah andpresented it to the nation as a Christmas gift. Sherman and Thomasbetween them had struck a fearful blow at the Confederacy. How had itfared with Grant?

[Sidenote: Grant's plan of campaign, 1864. ]

[Sidenote: Objections to it. ]

427. Grant in Virginia, 1864. --Grant had with him in Virginia theArmy of the Potomac under Meade, the Ninth Corps under Burnside, and agreat cavalry force under Sheridan. In addition General Butler was onthe James River with some thirty thousand men. Lee had under his ordersabout one-half as many soldiers as had Grant. In every other respect theadvantage was on his side. Grant's plan of campaign was to move by hisleft from the Rappahannock southeastwardly. He expected to push Leesouthward and hoped to destroy his army. Butler, on his part, was tomove up the James. By this plan Grant could always be near navigablewater and could in this way easily supply his army with food andmilitary stores. The great objection to this scheme of invasion was thatit gave Lee shorter lines of march to all important points. This factand their superior knowledge of the country gave the Confederates anadvantage which largely made up for their lack in numbers. 

[Sidenote: Battle of the Wilderness, May, 1864. ]

428. The Wilderness, May, 1864. --On May 4 and 5 the Union armycrossed the Rapidan and marched southward through the Wilderness. Itsoon found itself very near the scene of the disastrous battle ofChancellorsville (p. 335). The woods were thick and full of underbrush. Clearings were few, and the roads were fewer still. On ground like thisLee attacked the Union army. Everything was in favor of the attacker, for it was impossible to foresee his blows, or to get men quickly to anythreatened spot. Nevertheless Grant fought four days. Then he skillfullyremoved the army and marched by his left to Spotsylvania Court House. 

[Illustration: GENERAL GRANT. From a photograph taken in the field, March, 1865. "Strong, simple, silent, . .. Such was he Who helped us inour need. "--LOWELL. ]

[Sidenote: Spotsylvania, May, 1864. ]

429. Spotsylvania, May, 1864. --Lee reached Spotsylvania first andfortified his position. For days fearful combats went on. One point inthe Confederate line, called the Salient, was taken and retaken over andover again. The loss of life was awful, and Grant could not push Leeback. So on May 20 he again set out on his march by the left anddirected his army to the North Anna. But Lee was again before him andheld such a strong position that it was useless to attack him. 

[Sidenote: Cold Harbor. ]

[Sidenote: Blockade of Petersburg. ]

430. To the James, June, 1864. --Grant again withdrew his army andresumed his southward march. But when he reached Cold Harbor, Lee wasagain strongly fortified. Both armies were now on the ground of thePeninsular Campaign. For two weeks Grant attacked again and again. Thenon June 11 he took up his march for the last time. On June 15 the Unionsoldiers reached the banks of the James River below the junction of theAppomattox. But, owing to some misunderstanding, Petersburg had not beenseized. So Lee established himself there, and the campaign took on theform of a siege. In these campaigns from the Rapidan to the James, Grantlost in killed, wounded, and missing sixty thousand men. Lee's loss wasmuch less--how much less is not known. 

[Illustration: A BOMB PROOF AT PETERSBURG AS IT APPEARS TO-DAY WITH THETREES GROWING ON THE BREASTWORKS. ]

[Sidenote: Importance of Petersburg. ]

431. Petersburg, June-December, 1864. --Petersburg guarded the roadsleading from Richmond to the South. It was in reality a part of thedefenses of Richmond. For if these roads passed out of Confederatecontrol, the Confederate capital would have to be abandoned. It wasnecessary for Lee to keep Petersburg. Grant, on the other hand, wishedto gain the roads south of Petersburg. He lengthened his line; but eachextension was met by a similar extension of the Confederate line. Thisprocess could not go on forever. The Confederacy was getting worn out. No more men could be sent to Lee. Sooner or later his line would becomeso weak that Grant could break through. Then Petersburg and Richmondmust be abandoned. Two years before, when Richmond was threatened byMcClellan, Lee had secured the removal of the Army of the Potomac by asudden movement toward Washington (p. 321). He now detached Jubal Earlywith a formidable force and sent him through the Shenandoah Valley toWashington. 

[Illustration: GENERAL SHERIDAN. ]

[Sidenote: Confederate attack on Washington, 1864. ]

[Sidenote: Sheridan in the Valley. _Hero Tales_, 263-290. ]

[Sidenote: Confederate disaster, October, 1864. ]

[Sidenote: Lincoln reëlected, November, 1864. _McMaster_, 425-426. ]

432. Sheridan's Valley Campaigns, 1864. --The conditions now werevery unlike the conditions of 1862. Now, Grant was in command instead ofMcClellan or Pope. He controlled the movements of all the armies withoutinterference from Washington, and he had many more men than Lee. Without letting go his hold on Petersburg, Grant sent two army corps bywater to Washington. Early was an able and active soldier, but hedelayed his attack on Washington until soldiers came from the James. Hethen withdrew to the Shenandoah Valley. Grant now gave Sheridan fortythousand infantry and fifteen thousand cavalry, and sent him to theValley with orders to drive Early out and to destroy all supplies inthe Valley which could be used by another Southern army. SplendidlySheridan did his work. At one time, when he was away, the Confederatessurprised the Union army. But, hearing the roar of the battle, Sheridanrode rapidly to the front. As he rode along, the fugitives turned back. The Confederates, surprised in their turn, were swept from the field andsent whirling up the Valley in wild confusion (October 19, 1864). ThenSheridan destroyed everything that could be of service to anotherinvading army and rejoined Grant at Petersburg. In the Novemberfollowing this great feat of arms, Lincoln was reëlected President. 

[Sidenote: Mobile Bay, 1864. _Hero Tales_, 303-322. ]

[Sidenote: _Kearsarge_ and _Alabama_. ]

433. The Blockade and the Cruisers, 1863-64. --The blockade had nowbecome stricter than ever. For by August, 1864, Farragut had carried hisfleet into Mobile Bay and had closed it to commerce. Sherman had takenSavannah. Early in 1865 Charleston was abandoned, for Sherman had it athis mercy, and Terry captured Wilmington. The South was now absolutelydependent on its own resources, and the end could not be far off. On theopen sea, with England's aid a few vessels flew the Confederate flag. The best known of these vessels was the _Alabama. _ She was built inEngland, armed with English guns, and largely manned by Englishmen. OnJune 19, 1864, the United States ship _Kearsarge_ sank her offCherbourg, France. Englishmen were also building two ironcladbattleships for the Confederates. But the American minister at London, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, said that if they were allowed to sail, itwould be "war. " The English government thereupon bought the vessels. 

[Illustration: ADMIRAL FARRAGUT. ]

[Sidenote: Sherman's northern march, 1865. ]

434. Sherman's March through the Carolinas, 1865. --Early in 1865Sherman set out on the worst part of his great march. He now directedhis steps northward from Savannah toward Virginia. The Confederatesprepared to meet him. But Sherman set out before they expected him, andthus gained a clear path for the first part of his journey. Joseph E. Johnston now took command of the forces opposed to Sherman and dideverything he could to stop him. At one moment it seemed as if he mightsucceed. He almost crushed the forward end of Sherman's army before therest of the soldiers could be brought to its rescue. But Sherman'sveterans were too old soldiers to be easily defeated. They first beatback the enemy in front, and when another force appeared in the rearthey jumped to the other side of their field breastworks and defeatedthat force also. Night then put an end to the combat, and by morning theUnion force was too strong to be attacked. Pressing on, Sherman reachedGoldsboro' in North Carolina. There he was joined by Terry fromWilmington and by Schofield from Tennessee. Sherman now was strongenough to beat any Confederate army. He moved to Raleigh and completelycut Lee's communications with South Carolina and Georgia, April, 1865. 

[Sidenote: Condition of Lee's army. ]

[Sidenote: _Higginson_, 317. ]

[Sidenote: Surrender of the Southern armies, April 1865. _Source-book_, 329-333]. 

435. Appomattox, April, 1865. --The end of the Confederacy was nowplainly in sight. Lee's men were starving. They were constantlydeserting either to go to the aid of their perishing families or toobtain food from the Union army. As soon as the roads were fit formarching, Grant set his one hundred and twenty thousand men once more inmotion. His object was to gain the rear of Lee's army and to force himto abandon Petersburg. A last despairing attack on the Union center onlyincreased Grant's vigor. On April 1 Sheridan with his cavalry and aninfantry corps seized Five Forks in the rear of Petersburg and could notbe driven away. Petersburg and Richmond were abandoned. Lee tried toescape to the mountains. But now the Union soldiers marched faster thanthe starving Southerners. Sheridan, outstripping them, placed his menacross their path at Appomattox Court House. There was nothing left savesurrender. The soldiers of the Army of Northern Virginia, now onlythirty-seven thousand strong, laid down their arms, April 9, 1865. SoonJohnston surrendered, and the remaining small isolated bands ofConfederates were run down and captured. 

[Sidenote: Murder of Lincoln, April 14, 1865. _Higginson_, 322-323;_Source-book_, 333-335. ]

436. Lincoln murdered, April 14, 1865. --The national armies werevictorious. President Lincoln, never grander or wiser than in the momentof victory, alone stood between the Southern people and the Northernextremists clamoring for vengeance. On the night of April 14 he wasmurdered by a sympathizer with slavery and secession. No one old enoughto remember the morning of April 15, 1865, will ever forget the horroraroused in the North by this unholy murder. In the beginning Lincolnhad been a party leader. In the end the simple grandeur of his naturehad won for him a place in the hearts of the American people that noother man has ever gained. He was indeed the greatest because the mosttypical of Americans. Vice-President Andrew Johnson, a war Democrat fromTennessee, became President. The vanquished secessionists were soon totaste the bitter dregs of the cup of defeat. 

[Illustration: MAYOR'S OFFICE, APRIL 15th, 1865, Death notice ofAbraham Lincoln]

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

[Use maps constantly while studying this period. The maps provided inDodge's _Bird's-Eye View _are admirably adapted to this purpose. ]

CHAPTER 37

§ 380. --_a_. What did Lincoln say about the Union? What did he say aboutslavery? What oath did Lincoln take?

_b_. Was his inaugural conciliatory to the South?

§§ 381, 382. --_a_. What was the result of Buchanan's attempt to sendsupplies to Fort Sumter?

_b_. Why did Lincoln inform the governor of South Carolina of hisdetermination to succor Fort Sumter?

_c_. What was the effect on Northern opinion of the attack on FortSumter?

_d_. Could the Southerners have done otherwise than fire on the flag?

§§ 383-385. --_a_. Why were the Virginians so divided? What resulted fromthis division?

_b_. What were the "border states"? Could these states have beenneutral?

_c_. Describe the especial importance of Maryland. 

_d_. What oath had the officers of the United States army and navytaken? Did Lee and other officers who resigned necessarily believe inthe right of secession? Give your reasons. 

CHAPTER 38

§§ 386, 387. --_a_. State the advantages of the Southerners from thegeographical point of view. 

_b_. Explain how rivers were lines of defense. 

_c_. Describe carefully the plan of the Bull Run campaign. 

_d_. Why was the Shenandoah Valley so important?

§§ 388-390. --_a_. Why was McClellan placed in command of the Army of thePotomac?

_b_. Of what advantage to the South were the negroes?

_c_. Describe the plan of the Peninsular Campaign. What was the greatobjection to it?

§ 391. --_a_. Describe the _Merrimac_, the _Monitor_. Compare them withthe _Congress_. 

_b_. What effect did the _Monitor-Merrimac_ fight have on McClellan'scampaign?

§§ 392, 393. --_a_ Describe the Peninsular Campaign. Why were not moresoldiers sent to McClellan?

_b_. What is meant by the phrase "change of base"?

_c_. How did Lee secure the removal of McClellan's army from the James?

§§ 394, 395. --_a_ Why did Lee invade Maryland? _b_. Describe the battleof Antietam, of Fredericksburg. What was the result of each ofthese battles?

§§ 396, 397. --_a_. Give an account of the early life and training ofGrant and of Thomas. 

_b_. Why were the seizures of Cairo and Paducah and the battle of MillSprings important?

_c_. What is meant by the phrase "unconditional surrender"?

§§ 398, 399. --_a_. Explain carefully the importance to the South of NewOrleans and the lower Mississippi. 

_b_. Give an account of Farragut's early life. How did it fit him forthis work?

_c_. Describe the operations against New Orleans. 

§ 400. --_a_. Explain carefully the plan of the campaign to Corinth Whywas Corinth important?

_b_. What quality in Grant was conspicuous at Shiloh?

§ 401. --_a_. What was Bragg's object in invading Kentucky? How far didhe succeed? Why was Chattanooga important?

CHAPTER 39

§§ 402, 403. --_a_. What is a blockade? What was the effect of theblockade on the South?

_b_. Had sea power been in Southern hands, could the Union have beensaved?

_c_. Why was Charleston so difficult to capture? (Compare with theRevolutionary War. )

§§ 405, 406. --_a_. What help did the Southerners hope to obtain fromGreat Britain and France? Why? How were their hopes disappointed?

_b_. What do you think of the action of the English mill operatives?

_c_. Describe the Trent Affair. What do you think of Lincoln's action?Did the British government act wisely?

§§ 406, 407. --_a_. What had the Republican party declared about slaveryin the states? What had Lincoln said in his inaugural?

_b_. How had the war altered Lincoln's power as President?

_c_. Why was it necessary for Lincoln to follow Northern sentiment?

_d_. What is contraband of war? How were the slaves contraband?

§§ 408, 409. --_a_. What steps had already been taken by Congress towardfreeing the slaves?

_b_. How was the Emancipation Proclamation justified? Upon what wouldits enforcement depend?

_c_. What slave states were not affected by this proclamation?

_d_. How was slavery as an institution abolished throughout the UnitedStates?

§§ 410, 411. --_a_. Why was not the North united upon this war?

_b_. What is the force of the writ of _habeas corpus_? Why is it soimportant?

_c_. What was the "draft, " and why was it necessary?

CHAPTER 40

§§ 412-415. --_a_. Explain the position of the armies at the beginning of1863. 

_b_. Why was the conquest of Vicksburg so difficult? How was it finallycaptured?

_c_. What effect did the control of the Mississippi have upon theConfederacy?

§ 416. --_a_. What was Lee's object in invading Pennsylvania?

_b_. What position did the Union army keep as regards the Confederates?

§§ 417-419. --_a_. Describe the battle-field of Gettysburg. Why was thebattle so important?

_b_. Describe in detail the principal events of each day of the battle. 

_c_. Learn Lincoln's "Gettysburg Address. " How was this groundhallowed? What was the great task before the people?

§§ 420, 421. --_a_. Describe the battle of Chickamauga. Review Thomas'sservices up to this time. 

_b_. Describe the three parts of the battle of Chattanooga. 

CHAPTER 41

§§ 422, 423. --_a_. How had Grant shown his fitness for high command? Wasit wise to have one man in command of all the armies? Why?

_b_. Review Sherman's career up to this time. Why did Grant impose trustin him?

_c_. What was the result of Hood's attacks?

§§ 424-426. --_a_. What was the real object of Sherman's march to thesea?

_b_. Describe the destruction of Hood's army. What does it show as toThomas's ability?

_c_. What did Sherman's army accomplish on its way to the sea?

§§ 427-430. --_a_. Compare the conditions of the two armies in Virginia. Explain the advantages of the Confederates. 

_b_. Describe the battle of the Wilderness, noting the conditionsfavorable to the Confederates. 

_c_. Describe the movement to the James. What advantages had Grant notpossessed by McClellan?

§§ 431, 432. --_a_. Why was Petersburg important?

_b_. How did Lee try to compel the withdrawal of Grant? Why did he notsucceed?

_c_. Describe Sheridan's work in the Shenandoah Valley. Read a shortaccount of Sheridan's career to 1865, and state his services to theUnion cause. 

§§ 433. --_a_. How had Sherman's victories affected the blockade?

_b_. What aid had Great Britain given to the Confederates? Why did shenot give more assistance?

§§ 434, 435. --_a_. How did Sherman's occupation of Raleigh affect Lee?

_b_. Describe the condition of Lee's army. How was its captureaccomplished?

§ 436. --_a_. Why was Lincoln's death a terrible loss to the South?

_b_. Why is he the greatest of all Americans?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Review the steps which led to the war for the Union. 

_b_. What were Lincoln's personal views as to slavery? Why could he notcarry them out?

_c_. What were Lincoln's leading characteristics? Give illustrations tosupport your view. 

_d_. Study Grant's military career and try to find out why he succeededwhere others failed. 

_e_. Arrange a table of the leading campaigns, giving dates, leaders, end to be attained, important battles, and result. 

_f_. Give the two most important battles of the war. Why do you selectthese?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK. 

_a_. Life in Southern prisons. 

_b_. The Shenandoah Valley in the war. 

_c_. Any important battle or naval action, or leading general, or navalcommander. 

_d_. The part played by your own state or town in the war, or thehistory of one of your state regiments. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

A few days spent upon a study of the field of war will save a great dealof time. Channing's _Students' History_ will enable the teacher toindicate the most important strategic points. Maps have been sparinglyprovided in this book, as the simple plans in Dodge's _Bird's-eye View_can easily be reproduced on the blackboard. In general, campaigns shouldbe studied rather than battles. 

Pictures relating to this period are easily obtainable and may be freelyused. It is an excellent plan to ask some veteran to describe hisexperiences, and the local post of the Grand Army of the Republic willoften lend material aid in making the war real to the pupils. Grant'scareer should be especially studied, and the reasons for his successescarefully noted. 

Indeed, the study of this period may well center around Lincoln andGrant. Lincoln's inaugurals are too difficult to be studied thoroughly. But the teacher can easily select portions, as the last paragraph of thesecond inaugural. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address should be learned byevery pupil, and his letter to Greeley _(Students' History, _p. 539)will throw a flood of light on Lincoln's character. In studying thisperiod, as well as other periods, it is better to dwell on thepatriotism and heroism of our soldiers, sailors, and statesmen than topoint out their mistakes and personal faults. 

Literature is so rich in reference to this time that nothing more thanthe mention of the works of Lowell, Whittier, Holmes, and Longfellowis needed. 

[Illustration: THE PRESENT FLAG, 1900. ]

XIV

RECONSTRUCTION AND REUNION, 1865-1888

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Scribner's _Popular History_, V; McMaster's _SchoolHistory_, chs. Xxx-xxxiii; Andrews's _Last Quarter-Century. _

Home Readings. --Hale's _Mr. Merriam's Scholars. _

CHAPTER 42

PRESIDENT JOHNSON AND RECONSTRUCTION, 1861-1869

[Sidenote: Position of the seceded states. ]

[Sidenote: Lincoln's policy of reconstruction. _McMaster_, 427-428. ]

437. Lincoln's Reconstruction Policy. --The great question nowbefore the country was what should be done with the Southern states andpeople. And what should be done with the freedmen? On these questionspeople were not agreed. Some people thought that the states were"indestructible"; that they could not secede or get out of the Union. Others thought that the Southern states had been conquered and should betreated as a part of the national domain. Lincoln thought that it wasuseless to go into these questions. The Southern states were out of the"proper practical relations with the Union. " That was clear enough. Thething to do, therefore, was to restore "proper practical relations" asquickly and as quietly as possible. In December, 1863, Lincoln hadoffered a pardon to all persons, with some exceptions, who should takethe oath of allegiance to the United States, and should promise tosupport the Constitution and the Emancipation Proclamation. Wheneverone-tenth of the voters in any of the Confederate states should do thesethings, and should set up a republican form of government, Lincolnpromised to recognize that government as the state government. But theadmission to Congress of Senators and Representatives from such areconstructed state would rest with Congress. Several states werereconstructed on this plan. But public opinion was opposed to this quietreorganization of the seceded states. The people trusted Lincoln, however, and had he lived he might have induced them to accept his plan. 

[Sidenote: Andrew Johnson President, 1865. ]

[Sidenote: His ideas on reconstruction. _McMaster_, 428. ]

438. President Johnson's Reconstruction Plan. --Johnson was an ableman and a patriot. But he had none of Lincoln's wise patience. He hadnone of Lincoln's tact and humor in dealing with men. On the contrary, he always lost his temper when opposed. Although he was a Southerner, hehated slavery and slave owners. On the other hand, he had a Southerner'scontempt for the negroes. He practically adopted Lincoln'sreconstruction policy and tried to bring about the reorganization of theseceded states by presidential action. 

[Sidenote: Force of Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. ]

[Sidenote: Abolition of slavery, 1865. ]

439. The Thirteenth Amendment, 1865. --President Lincoln'sEmancipation Proclamation (p. 331) had freed the slaves in those statesand parts of states which were in rebellion against the nationalgovernment. It had not freed the slaves in the loyal states. It had notdestroyed slavery as an institution. Any state could reestablish slaverywhenever it chose. Slavery could be prohibited only by an amendment ofthe Constitution. So the Thirteenth Amendment was adopted, December, 1865. This amendment declares that "neither slavery nor involuntaryservitude, except as a punishment for crime, . .. Shall exist within theUnited States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. " In this wayslavery came to an end throughout the United States. 

[Illustration: HORSE CAR. ]

[Sidenote: Forced labor in the South. _McMaster_, 429. ]

[Sidenote: The Freedmen's Bureau. _Source-book_, 339-342. ]

440. Congress and the President, 1865-66. --Unhappily many of theold slave states had passed laws to compel the negroes to work. They hadintroduced a system of forced labor which was about the same thing asslavery. In December, 1865, the new Congress met. The Republicans werein the majority. They refused to admit the Senators and Representativesfrom the reorganized Southern states and at once set to work to passlaws for the protection of the negroes. In March, 1865, while the warwas still going on, and while Lincoln was alive, Congress hadestablished the Freedmen's Bureau to look after the interests of thenegroes. Congress now (February, 1866) passed a bill to continue theBureau and to give it much more power. Johnson promptly vetoed the bill. In the following July Congress passed another bill to continue theFreedmen's Bureau. In this bill the officers of the Bureau were givengreatly enlarged powers, the education of the blacks was provided for, and the army might be used to compel obedience to the law. Johnsonvetoed this bill also. 

[Sidenote: Civil Rights Bill, 1866. ]

[Sidenote: It is passed over Johnson's veto. ]

[Sidenote: The Fourteenth Amendment, 1866. ]

441. The Fourteenth Amendment. --While this contest over theFreedmen's Bureau was going on, Congress passed the Civil Rights Bill toprotect the freedmen. This bill provided that cases concerning the civilrights of the freedmen should be heard in the United States courtsinstead of in the state courts. Johnson thought that Congress had nopower to do this. He vetoed the bill, and Congress passed it over hisveto. Congress then drew up the Fourteenth Amendment. This forbade thestates to abridge the rights of the citizens, white or black. It furtherprovided that the representation of any state in Congress should bediminished whenever it denied the franchise to any one except for takingpart in rebellion. Finally it guaranteed the debt of the United States, and declared all debts incurred in support of rebellion null and void. Every Southern state except Tennessee refused to accept this amendment. 

[Illustration: ANDREW JOHNSON. ]

[Sidenote: Elections of 1866. ]

[Sidenote: Tenure of Office Act, 1867. ]

[Sidenote: The Reconstruction Acts, 1867. ]

[Sidenote: Process of reconstruction. _Source-Book_, 344-346. ]

442. The Reconstruction Acts, 1867. --The Congressional elections ofNovember, 1866, were greatly in favor of the Republicans. The Republicanmembers of Congress felt that this showed that the North was with themin their policy as to reconstruction. Congress met in December, 1866, and at once set to work to carry out this policy. First of all it passedthe Tenure of Office Act to prevent Johnson dismissing Republicans fromoffice. Then it passed the Reconstruction Act. Johnson vetoed both ofthese measures, and Congress passed them both over his veto. TheReconstruction Act was later amended and strengthened. It will be wellto describe here the process of reconstruction in its final form. Firstof all the seceded states, with the exception of Tennessee, were formedinto military districts. Each district was ruled by a military officerwho had soldiers to carry out his directions. Tennessee was not includedin this arrangement, because it had accepted the Fourteenth Amendment. But all the other states, which had been reconstructed by Lincoln or byJohnson, were to be reconstructed over again. The franchise was given toall men, white or black, who had lived in any state for oneyear--excepting criminals and persons who had taken part in rebellion. This exception took the franchise away from the old rulers of the South. These new voters could form a state constitution and elect a legislaturewhich should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment. When all this had beendone, Senators and Representatives from the reconstructed state might beadmitted to Congress. 

[Sidenote: Charges against Johnson. ]

[Sidenote: He is impeached. ]

[Sidenote: But not convicted. ]

443. Impeachment of Johnson, 1868. --President Johnson had vetoedall these bills. He had declared that the Congress was a Congress ofonly a part of the states, because Representatives from the statesreconstructed according to his ideas were not admitted. He had usedlanguage toward his opponents that was fairly described as indecent andunbecoming the chief officer of a great nation. Especially he hadrefused to be bound by the Tenure of Office Act. Ever since theformation of the government the Presidents had removed officers whenthey saw fit. The Tenure of Office Act required the consent of theSenate to removals as well as to appointments. Among the members ofLincoln's cabinet who were still in office was Edwin M. Stanton. Johnsonremoved him, and this brought on the crisis. The House impeached thePresident. The Senate, presided over by Chief Justice Chase, heard theimpeachment. The Constitution requires the votes of two-thirds of theSenators to convict. Seven Republicans voted with the Democrats againstconviction, and the President was acquitted by one vote. 

[Sidenote: Napoleon's plans. ]

[Sidenote: Action of the United States. ]

[Sidenote: Withdrawal of the French, 1868. ]

444. The French in Mexico. --Napoleon III, Emperor of the French, seized the occasion of the Civil War to set the Monroe Doctrine atdefiance and to refound a French colonial empire in America. At onetime, indeed, he seemed to be on the point of interfering, to compel theUnion government to withdraw its armies from the Confederate states. Then Napoleon had an idea that perhaps Texas might secede from theConfederacy and set up for itself under French protection. This failing, he began the establishment of an empire in Mexico with the Austrianprince, Maximilian, as Emperor. The ending of the Civil War made itpossible for the United States to interfere. Grant and Sheridan wouldgladly have marched troops into Mexico and turned out the French, butSeward said that the French would have to leave before long anyway. Hehastened their going by telling the French government that the soonerthey left the better. They were withdrawn in 1868. Maximilian insistedon staying. He was captured by the Mexicans and shot. The MexicanRepublic was reestablished. 

[Sidenote: Purchase of Alaska, 1867. ]

[Sidenote: The fur seals. ]

[Sidenote: Boundary controversy. ]

445. The Purchase of Alaska, 1867. --In 1867 President Johnson sentto the Senate, for ratification, a treaty with Russia for the purchaseof Russia's American possessions. These were called Alaska, andincluded an immense tract of land in the extreme Northwest. The price tobe paid was seven million dollars. The history of this purchase is stilllittle known. The Senate was completely taken by surprise, but itratified the treaty. Until recent years the only important product ofAlaska has been the skins of the fur seals. To preserve the seal herdsfrom extinction, the United States made rules limiting the number ofseals to be killed in any one year. The Canadians were not bound bythese rules, and the herds have been nearly destroyed. In recent yearslarge deposits of gold have been found in Alaska and in neighboringportions of Canada. But the Canadian deposits are hard to reach withoutfirst going through Alaska. This fact has made it more difficult toagree with Great Britain as to the boundary between Alaska and Canada. 

[Sidenote: Grant nominated for the presidency. ]

[Sidenote: The Democrats. ]

[Sidenote: Grant elected, 1868. ]

446. Grant elected President, 1868. --The excitement overreconstruction and the bitter contest between the Republicans inCongress and the President had brought about great confusion inpolitics. The Democrats nominated General F. P. Blair, a gallantsoldier, for Vice-President. For President they nominated HoratioSeymour of New York. He was a Peace Democrat. As governor of New Yorkduring the war he had refused to support the national government. TheRepublicans nominated General Grant. 

He received three hundred thousand more votes than Seymour. Of the twohundred and ninety-four electoral votes, Grant received two hundredand fifteen. 

CHAPTER 43

FROM GRANT TO CLEVELAND, 1869-1889

[Sidenote: The Fifteenth Amendment, 1870. ]

447. The Fifteenth Amendment. --In February, 1869, just beforeGrant's inauguration, Congress proposed still another amendment, providing that neither the United States nor any state could abridge therights of citizens of the United States on account of race, color, orprevious condition of servitude. The state legislatures hastened toaccept this amendment, and it was declared in force in March, 1870. 

[Sidenote: Progress of reconstruction. ]

[Sidenote: Reunion, 1870. ]

448. End of Reconstruction. --Three states only were stillunreconstructed. These were Virginia, Texas, and Mississippi. In 1869Congress added to the conditions on which they could be readmitted tothe Union the acceptance of the Fifteenth Amendment. Early in 1870 theyall complied with the conditions and were readmitted. The Union was nowagain complete. Since 1860 four states had been added to the Union. These were Kansas, West Virginia, Nevada, and Nebraska. There were nowthirty-seven states in all. 

[Sidenote: The carpetbaggers. _McMaster_, 439-414. ]

[Sidenote: The Ku-Klux-Klan. ]

[Sidenote: The Force Acts. ]

449. The Southerners and the Negroes. --The first result of theCongressional plan of reconstruction was to give the control of theSouthern states to the freedmen and their white allies. Some of thesewhite friends of the freedmen were men of character and ability, butmost of them were adventurers who came from the North to make theirfortunes. They were called the "carpetbaggers, " because they usuallycarried their luggage in their hands. The few Southern whites whobefriended the negroes were called "scalawags" by their white neighbors. Secret societies sprang into being. The most famous was theKu-Klux-Klan. The object of these societies was to terrorize thefreedmen and their white friends and to prevent their voting. This ledto the passage of the Force Acts. These laws provided severe penaltiesfor crimes of intimidation. They also provided that these cases shouldbe tried in United States courts. Federal soldiers, stationed in theSouth, could be used to compel obedience to the law. 

[Sidenote: Relations with Great Britain. ]

[Sidenote: Treaty of Washington, 1871. _Source-Book_, 355-358. ]

[Sidenote: The Geneva Award. ]

450. The Alabama Claims. --During the Civil War vessels built inBritish shipyards, or refitted and supplied with coal at British ports, had preyed upon American commerce. The most famous of these vessels wasthe _Alabama_. The claims for losses caused by these vessels which theUnited States presented to Great Britain were therefore called the"Alabama Claims. " There also were disputes with Great Britain over thefisheries and over the western end of the Oregon boundary. In 1871 theUnited States and Great Britain made an arrangement called the Treaty ofWashington. By this treaty all these points of dispute were referred toarbitration. The Oregon boundary was decided in favor of the UnitedStates, but the fishery dispute was decided in favor of Great Britain. The "Alabama Claims" were settled by five arbitrators who sat at Genevain Switzerland. They decided that Great Britain had not used "duediligence" to prevent the abuse of her ports by the Confederates. Theycondemned her to pay fifteen and one-half million dollars damages to theUnited States. 

[Sidenote: The Chicago fire, 1871. ]

451. The Chicago Fire, 1871. --Early one morning in October, 1871, aChicago woman went to the barn to milk her cow. She carried a lightedkerosene lamp, for it was still dark. The cow kicked over the lamp. Thebarn was soon ablaze. A furious gale carried the burning sparks from onehouse to another. And so the fire went on spreading all that day andnight and the next day. Nearly two hundred million dollars' worth ofproperty was destroyed. The homes of nearly one hundred thousand personswere burned down. In a surprisingly short time the burnt district wasrebuilt, and Chicago grew more rapidly than ever before. 

[Sidenote: Rings. _Source-Book_, 352-355. ]

[Sidenote: Bribery. ]

452. Corruption in Politics. --New York City had no two hundredmillion dollar fire. But a "ring" of city officers stole more than onehundred and fifty million dollars of the city's money. In other citiesalso there was great corruption. Nor were the state governments freefrom bribery and thieving. Many officers in the national government werebelieved to be mixed up in schemes to defraud the people. The truth ofthe matter was that the Civil War had left behind it the habit ofspending money freely. A desire to grow suddenly rich possessed thepeople. Men did not look closely to see where their money came from. 

[Illustration: CHICAGO IN 1832. ]

[Sidenote: Objections to Grant. ]

[Sidenote: Liberal Republicans. ]

[Sidenote: Horace Greeley. ]

[Sidenote: Grant reëlected, 1872. ]

453. Election of 1872. --In fact, this condition of the publicservice made many persons doubtful of the wisdom of reëlecting PresidentGrant. There was not the slightest doubt as to Grant's personal honesty. There were grave doubts as to his judgment in making appointments. Reconstruction, too, did not seem to be restoring peace and prosperityto the South. For these reasons many voters left the Republican party. They called themselves Liberal Republicans and nominated Horace Greeleyfor President. He had been one of the most outspoken opponents ofslavery. The Democrats could find no better candidate, so they, too, nominated Greeley. But many Democrats could not bring themselves to votefor him. They left their party for the moment and nominated a thirdcandidate. The result of all this confusion was the reëlection ofGrant. But the Democrats elected a majority of the House ofRepresentatives. 

[Illustration: THE HEART OF MODERN CHICAGO. ]

[Sidenote: Rebellion in Cuba, 1867. ]

[Sidenote: Spanish cruelty. ]

[Sidenote: The _Virginius_ affair. ]

[Sidenote: Spanish promises end rebellion, 1877. ]

454. The Cuban Rebellion, 1867-77. --When the other Spanish-Americancolonies won their independence (p. 223), Cuba remained true to Spain. But by 1867 the Cubans could no longer bear the hardships of Spanishrule. They rebelled and for ten years fought for freedom. The Spaniardsburned whole villages because they thought the inhabitants favored therebels. They even threatened to kill all Cuban men found away from theirhomes. This cruelty aroused the sympathy of the Americans. Expeditionssailed from the United States to help the Cubans, although thegovernment did everything it could to prevent their departure. One ofthese vessels carrying aid to the Cubans was named the _Virginius_. TheSpaniards captured her, carried her to Santiago, and killed forty-six ofher crew. There came near being a war with Spain over this affair. Butthe Spaniards apologized and saluted the American flag. In 1877President Grant made up his mind that the war had lasted long enough. Headopted a severe tone toward Spain. The Spanish government made termswith the rebels, and the rebellion came to an end. 

[Sidenote: The Credit Mobilier. ]

[Sidenote: The Whiskey Ring. ]

455. Scandals in Political Life. --In 1872 the House ofRepresentatives made a searching inquiry into the charges of bribery inconnection with the building of the Pacific railroads. Oakes Ames ofMassachusetts was the head of a company called the "Credit Mobilier. "This company had been formed to build the Union Pacific Railway. Fearingthat Congress would pass laws that might hurt the enterprise, Ames gavestock in the company to members of Congress. But nothing definite couldbe proved against any members, and the matter dropped. Soon after thebeginning of Grant's second term, many evil things came to light. One ofthese was the Whiskey Ring, which defrauded the government of large sumsof money with the aid of the government officials. Grant wished to havea thorough investigation, and said, "Let no guilty man escape. " Theworst case of all, perhaps, was that of W. W. Belknap, Secretary ofWar. But he escaped punishment by resigning. 

[Illustration: A MISSISSIPPI RIVER COTTON STEAMER. ]

[Sidenote: Failure of reconstruction. _Source-Book_, 349-351. ]

456. Anarchy in the South. --Meantime reconstruction was not workingwell in the South. This was especially true of Louisiana, Arkansas, andSouth Carolina. In Louisiana, and in Arkansas also, there were two setsof governors and legislatures, and civil war on a small scale was goingon. In South Carolina the carpetbaggers and the negroes had gainedcontrol. They stole right and left. In other Southern states there werecontinued outrages on the negroes. President Grant was greatly troubled. "Let us have peace, " was his heartfelt wish. But he felt it necessary tokeep Federal soldiers in the South, although he knew that public opinionin the North was turning against their employment. It was under thesecircumstances that the election of 1876 was held. 

[Sidenote: Election of 1876. _Higginson_, 331-334. ]

[Sidenote: The electoral commission. ]

[Sidenote: Hayes inaugurated, 1877. ]

457. Election of 1876. --The Republican candidate was Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio. He was a gallant soldier of the Civil War, and was a manof the highest personal character. His Democratic opponent was Samuel J. Tilden of New York--a shrewd lawyer who had won distinction as governorof the Empire State. When the electoral returns were brought in, thereappeared two sets of returns from each of three Southern states, and thevote of Oregon was doubtful. The Senate was Republican, and the Housewas Democratic. As the two houses could not agree as to how thesereturns should be counted, they referred the whole matter to anelectoral commission. This commission was made up of five Senators, fiveRepresentatives, and five justices of the Supreme Court. Eight of themwere Republicans and seven were Democrats. They decided by eight seventhat Hayes was elected, and he was inaugurated President on March4, 1877. 

[Sidenote: Southern politics _Higginson_, 334-335. ]

[Sidenote: Troops withdrawn. ]

458. Withdrawal of the Soldiers from the South. --The People of theNorth were weary of the ceaseless political agitation in the South. Theold Southern leaders had regained control of nearly all the Southernstates. They could not be turned out except by a new civil war, and theNorthern people were not willing to go to war again. The only otherthing that could be done was to withdraw the Federal soldiers and letthe Southern people work out their own salvation as well as they could. President Hayes recalled the troops, and all the Southern states at oncepassed into the control of the Democrats. 

[Illustration: THE RUINS AFTER THE PITTSBURGH RIOTS. ]

[Sidenote: Panic and hard times. ]

[Sidenote: The Pittsburgh riots, 1877. ]

459. Strikes and Riots, 1877. --The extravagance and speculation ofthe Civil War, and the years following its close, ended in a great panicin 1873. After the panic came the "hard times. " Production fell off. Thedemand for labor diminished. Wages were everywhere reduced. Strikesbecame frequent, and riots followed the strikes. At Pittsburg, inwestern Pennsylvania, the rioters seized the railroad. They burnedhundreds of railroad cars and locomotives. They destroyed the railroadbuildings. At last the riot came to an end, but not until millions ofdollars' worth of property had been destroyed. 

[Sidenote: The Stalwart Republicans. ]

[Sidenote: Garfield elected President, 1880. ]

460. Election of 1880. --At the beginning of his administrationHayes had declared that he would not be a candidate for reëlection. Whoshould be the Republican standard bearer? Grant's friends proposed tonominate him for a third term. The politicians who advocated a thirdterm for Grant were opposed to the candidacy of James G. Blaine. Theywere called the Stalwart Republicans. In the convention they votedsteadily and solidly for Grant. Finally their opponents, with the cry of"Anything to beat Grant, " suddenly turned to an entirely new man, whosename had been little mentioned. This was James A. Garfield of Ohio. Hehad won distinction in the Civil War and had served with credit inCongress. For Vice-President the Republicans nominated Chester A. Arthur, a New York banker. The Democrats, on their part, nominated oneof the most brilliant and popular soldiers of the Army of the Potomac, General Winfield Scott Hancock. The campaign was very hotly contested. In the end Garfield won. 

[Sidenote: Garfield murdered, 1881. ]

[Sidenote: President Arthur. ]

[Sidenote: Civil Service Reform. _Source-Book_, 363-365. ]

461. Garfield murdered; Civil Service Reform. --President Garfieldtook the oath of office on March 4, 1881. On July 2 he was shot in theback by a disappointed office-seeker. Week after week he enduredterrible agony. At length, on September 19, the martyred President died. Now at last the evils of the "Spoils System" were brought to theattention of the American people. Vice-President Arthur became Presidentand entered heartily into projects of reform. A beginning was soon made. But it was found to be a very difficult thing to bring about any lastingreform. The Constitution gives the President the appointment ofofficers, subject to the confirmation of the Senate. No act of Congresscan diminish the constitutional powers of the President except so far ashe consents, and one President cannot bind succeeding Presidents. Anyscheme of reform also costs money, which must be voted annually byCongress. It follows, therefore, that the consent of every President andof both Houses of every Congress is necessary to make the reform of thecivil service permanent. Nevertheless the reform has made steadyprogress until now by far the greater part of the civil service isorganized on the merit system. 

[Sidenote: J. G. Blaine]

[Sidenote: The Mugwumps. ]

[Sidenote: Grover Cleveland. ]

[Sidenote: Cleveland elected President, 1884. ]

[Sidenote: Tariff reform. ]

462. Election of 1884. --In 1884 the Republicans nominated James G. Blaine of Maine for President. He was a man of magnetic address and hadmade many friends, but he also had made many enemies. Especially manyRepublican voters distrusted him. They felt that he had used hisposition for private gain, although nothing was proved against him. These Republicans were called "Mugwumps. " They "bolted" the nominationand supported the Democratic candidate, Grover Cleveland. As mayor ofBuffalo, Cleveland had done very well. He had then been elected governorof New York by a very large majority. The campaign of 1884 was conductedon lines of personal abuse that recall the campaigns of 1800 and of1828. Cleveland carried four large Northern states and the "solid South"and was elected. 

[Illustration: GROVER CLEVELAND. ]

463. Cleveland's Administration, 1885-89. --The great contest ofCleveland's first term was a fierce struggle over the tariff. Thegovernment's need of money during the Civil War had compelled Congressto raise large sums by means of internal revenue taxes. These taxes inturn had brought about a great increase in the tariff rates on goodsimported from foreign countries. The internal revenue taxes had beenalmost entirely removed, but the war tariff substantially remained inforce. In 1887 Cleveland laid the whole question before Congress. For atime it seemed probable that something would be done. But the oppositionin Congress was very active and very strong. It fell out, therefore, that nothing important was done. The real significance of Cleveland'sfirst administration lay in the fact that the Southerners were onceagain admitted to a share in the government of the nation. It marked, therefore, the reunion of the American people. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 42

§§437, 438. --_a_. Explain carefully Lincoln's plan for reconstruction. How was it affected by his death?

_b_. What was Johnson's attitude toward reconstruction? Precisely whatis meant by "reconstruction"?

§§439-441. --_a_. What was the force of the Emancipation Proclamation?How was the institution of slavery abolished?

_b_. Explain the reasons for the establishment of the freedmen's bureau. What do you think of the provision relating to the use of the army?

_c_. How was Congress able to pass a bill over the President's veto?

_d_. Explain carefully the Fourteenth Amendment. What do you think ofthe provision as to debts?

§§442, 443. --_a_. Why were the elections of 1866 important?

_b_. What was the force of the Tenure of Office Act, and why was itpassed?

_c_. Describe the actual process of reconstruction. 

_d_. Why was Johnson impeached? Why did the impeachment fail?

§§444, 445. --_a_. How did this act of Napoleon's set the Monroe Doctrineat defiance?

_b_. What action did the government take? With what result?

_c_. What advantage has Alaska been to the United States?

§446. --_a_. What were the issues in the campaign of 1868?

_b_. What had Blair done for the Union?

_c_. What did the election of Grant show?

CHAPTER 43

§§447-449. --_a_. What were the provisions of the Fifteenth Amendment?

_b_. Under what conditions were the remaining seceded states readmitted?

_c_. What was the Force Act? Why was it passed?

§450. --_a_. How was the injury to our shipping during the Civil Warconnected with Great Britain?

_b_. What is meant by "arbitration"? Is it better to settle disputes byarbitration or by war?

§§451-452. --_a_. Describe the Chicago fire and its results. 

_b_. Why was there so much bribery and corruption at this time?

_c_. Should city governments be conducted as business enterprises?

§453. --_a_. Why was there so much opposition to Grant's reëlection?

_b_. Why did the Democrats nominate Greeley? What was the result of theelection?

§454. --_a_. What trouble broke out in Cuba? Why?

_b_. Describe the _Virginius_ affair. How did the Cuban rebellion cometo an end?

§§455, 456. --_a_. What scandal arose in connection with the UnionPacific Railway?

_b_. What was the "Whiskey Ring"? What was Grant's wish?

_c_. What troubles arose in the South? Could they have been avoided?

§§457, 458. --_a_. Why was there a dispute about the election of 1876?How was it settled?

_b_. Was it wise to let the Southerners work out their questions forthemselves or not? Why?

§§459, 460. --_a_. Compare the panic of 1873 with that of 1877 explainingthe likenesses and differences. 

_b_. Why was opposition to the nomination of Grant so strong?

_c_. Who were nominated? Who was elected?

§§461. --_a_. What was the cause of Garfield's murder?

_b_. Why is Civil Service Reform so difficult?

_c_. What is meant by the "Merit System"? Do you consider such a systembetter or worse than the Spoils System? Why?

§§462, 463. --_a_. Why was Blaine so strongly opposed? Who were the"Mugwumps"? How did their action influence the election?

_b_. What is the difference between internal revenue taxes and customsduties?

_c_. What was the real significance of Cleveland's first election?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. Give all the treaties with Great Britain, with dates, reason forthe treaty, and results. 

_b_. Why were there no executions for treason at the close of the CivilWar?

_c_. What two methods does the Constitution provide for its amendment?Which method has always been followed?

_d_. What were the chief difficulties in the way of reconstruction?

_e_. What are the important duties of citizens? Why do you select these?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Impeachment of Johnson. 

_b_. The Chicago fire. 

_c_. Civil Service Reform. 

_d_. Industrial activity in the South. 

SUGGESTIONS

The importance of the topics treated in Part XIV can hardly beoverestimated. The opportunities to impress the pupils with their publicduties are many and important. Reconstruction should be broadly treatedand not discussed in a partisan spirit. It is better to dwell on ourduties to the negroes than to seek out Northern blunders and Southernmistakes. In connection with the amendments the whole question of thesuffrage can be discussed in the responsibility devolving upon the voterfully set forth. Questions of municipal organizations also arise and canbe illustrated by local experience. 

XV

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT, 1889-1900

Books for Study and Reading

References. --Scribner's _Popular History_, V, 579-659;McMaster's _School History_, chs. Xxxiv, xxxv. 

Home Readings. --Any short, attractive account of the SpanishWar. 

CHAPTER 44

CONFUSION IN POLITICS

[Sidenote: Benjamin Harrison elected President, 1888. ]

464. Benjamin Harrison elected President, 1888. --In 1888 theDemocrats put forward Cleveland as their candidate for President. TheRepublicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana. Like Hayes andGarfield, he had won renown in the Civil War and was a man of thehighest honor and of proved ability. The prominence of the old Southernleaders in the Democratic administration, and the neglect of thebusiness interests of the North, compelled many Northern Republicans whohad voted for Cleveland to return to the Republican party. The resultwas the election of Harrison and of a Republican majority in the Houseof Representatives. 

[Sidenote: The McKinley tariff, 1890. ]

[Sidenote: Reciprocity. ]

465. The McKinley Tariff, 1890. --One of the questions mostdiscussed in the campaign of 1888 was the reform of the tariff. Thereseem to have been two sets of tariff reformers. One set of reformersproposed to reform the tariff by doing away with as much of it aspossible. The other set of reformers proposed to readjust the tariffduties so as to make the protective system more consistent and moreperfect. Led by William McKinley, the Republicans set to work to reformthe tariff in this latter sense. This they did by generally raising theduties on protected goods. The McKinley Tariff Act also offeredreciprocity to countries which would favor American goods. This offerwas in effect to lower certain duties on goods imported from Argentina, for instance, if the Argentine government would admit certain Americangoods to Argentina on better terms than similar goods imported fromother countries. 

[Illustration: THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON. ]

[Sidenote: Gold and Silver]

[Sidenote: Sherman Silver Law. ]

466. The Sherman Silver Law, 1890. --In the Civil War gold andsilver had disappeared from circulation. But after the close of the wara gradual return was made to specie payments. In the colonial days thedemand for silver, as compared with the demand for gold, outran thesupply. The consequence was that silver was constantly becoming worthmore in comparison with gold. In the nineteenth century the supply ofsilver has greatly outstripped the demand, with the result that silverhas greatly declined in value as compared with gold. In 1871 thegovernment decided to use silver for small coins only, and not to allowsilver to be offered in payment of a larger sum than five dollars. Thiswas called the "demonetization of silver. " In 1878 a small but earnestband of advocates of the free coinage of silver secured the passage ofan act of Congress for the coinage of two million silver dollars eachmonth. The silver in each one of these dollars was only worth in goldfrom ninety to sixty cents. In 1890, Senator John Sherman of Ohiobrought in a bill to increase the coinage of these silver dollars which, in 1894, were worth only forty nine cents on the dollar in gold. 

[Sidenote: Business depression. ]

[Sidenote: Cleveland elected President, 1892. ]

467. Election of 1892. --One result of this great increase in thesilver coinage was to alarm business men throughout the country. Business constantly declined. Every one who could lessened his expensesas much as possible. Mill owners and railroad managers discharged theirworkers or reduced their wages. Harrison and Cleveland were again theRepublican and Democratic candidates for the presidency. As is alwaysthe case, the party in power was held to be responsible for the hardtimes. Enough voters turned to Cleveland to elect him, and he wasinaugurated President for the second time (March 4, 1893). 

[Sidenote: Scarcity of money. ]

[Sidenote: Repeal of the Sherman Law. ]

[Sidenote: Wilson tariff. ]

468. Silver and the Tariff. --In the summer of 1893 there was agreat scarcity of money. Thousands of people withdrew all the money theycould from the banks and locked it up in places of security. ButCongress repealed the Sherman Silver Law and put an end to thecompulsory purchase of silver and the coinage of silver dollars. Thistended to restore confidence. The Democrats once more overhauled thetariff. Under the lead of Representative Wilson of West Virginia theypassed a tariff act, lowering some duties and placing many articles onthe free list. 

[Sidenote: Chicago Exhibition, 1893. ]

469. The Chicago Exhibition, 1893. --The four hundredth anniversaryof the Columbian discovery of America occurred in October, 1892. Preparations were made for holding a great commemorative exhibition atChicago. But it took so long to get everything ready that the exhibitionwas not held until the summer of 1893. Beautiful buildings were erectedof a cheap but satisfactory material. They were designed with thegreatest taste, and were filled with splendid exhibits that showed theskill and resources of Americans, and also with the products of foreigncountries. Hundreds of thousands of persons from all parts of thecountry visited the exhibition with pleasure and great profit. No morebeautiful or successful exhibition has ever been held. 

[Illustration: THE FISHERIES BUILDING, WORLD'S FAIR, CHICAGO. ]

[Sidenote: William McKinley. ]

[Sidenote: W. J. Bryan. ]

[Sidenote: McKinley elected President, 1896. ]

470. Election of 1896. --In 1896 the Republicans held theirconvention at St. Louis and nominated William McKinley of Ohio forPresident. They declared in favor of the gold standard, unless somearrangement with other nations for a standard of gold and silver couldbe made. They also declared for protection to home industries. TheDemocrats held their convention at Chicago. The men who had stood byCleveland found themselves in a helpless minority. William JenningsBryan of Nebraska was nominated for President on a platform advocatingthe free coinage of silver and many changes in the laws in thedirection of socialism. The Populists and the Silver Republicans alsoadopted Bryan as their candidate. Now, at last, the question of the goldstandard or the silver standard was fairly before the voters. Theyresponded by electing McKinley and a Republican House ofRepresentatives. 

[Illustration: WILLIAM MCKINLEY. ]

[Sidenote: The Dingley tariff, 1897. ]

471. The Dingley Tariff, 1897. --The Republicans, once more incontrol of the government, set to work to reform the tariff in favor ofhigh protection. Representative Dingley of Maine was chairman of thecommittee of the House that drew up the new bill, and the act as finallypassed goes by his name. It raised the duties on some classes of goodsand taxed many things that hitherto had come in free. Especially wereduties increased on certain raw materials for manufactures, with a viewto encourage the production of such materials in the United States. Thereciprocity features of the McKinley tariff (P. 383) were also restored. 

CHAPTER 45

THE SPANISH WAR, 1898

[Sidenote: The Cubans rebel, 1894. ]

[Sidenote: Spanish cruelties, _Source-book_, 374-379. ]

472. The Cuban Rebellion, 1894-98. --The Cubans laid down their armsin 1877 (p. 372) because they relied on the promises of bettergovernment made by the Spaniards. But these promises were never carriedout. Year after year the Cuban people bore with their oppression. But atlast their patience was worn out. In 1894 they again rebelled. TheSpaniards sent over an army to subdue them. Soon tales of cruelty on thepart of the Spaniards reached the United States. Finally the Spanishgovernor, General Weyler, adopted the cruel measure of driving the oldmen, the women, and the children from the country villages and huddlingthem together in the seaboard towns. Without money, without food, withscant shelter, these poor people endured every hardship. They died bythousands. The American people sent relief, but little could be done tohelp them. The Cubans also fitted out expeditions in American ports tocarry arms and supplies to the rebels. The government did everything inits power to stop these expeditions, but the coast line of the UnitedStates is so long that it was impossible to stop them all, especially aslarge numbers of the American people heartily sympathized with theCubans. Constant disputes with Spain over the Cuban question naturallycame up and gave rise to irritation in the United States and in Spain. 

[Illustration: THE "MAINE. "]

[Sidenote: Destruction of the _Maine_, 1898. ]

[Sidenote: Cuban independence recognized. ]

473. The Declaration of War, 1898. --On January 5, 1898, theAmerican battleship _Maine_ anchored in Havana harbor. On February 15she was destroyed by an explosion and sank with two hundred andfifty-three of her crew. A most competent Court of Inquiry wasappointed. It reported that the _Maine_ had been blown up from theoutside. The report of the Court of Inquiry was communicated to theSpanish government in the hope that some kind of apology and reparationmight be made. But all the Spanish government did was to propose thatthe matter should be referred to arbitration. The condition of theCubans was now dreadful. Several Senators and Representatives visitedCuba. They reported that the condition of the Cubans was shocking. ThePresident laid the whole matter before Congress for its determination. On April 19, 1898, Congress recognized the independence of the Cubanpeople and demanded the withdrawal of the Spaniards from the island. Congress also authorized the President to compel Spain's withdrawal andstated that the United States did not intend to annex Cuba, but to leavethe government of the island to its inhabitants. Before these termscould be formally laid before the Spanish government, it ordered theAmerican minister to leave Spain. 

[Illustration: THE "OLYMPIA. " From a photograph by Irving Underhill. ]

[Sidenote: Battle of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898. ]

474. The Destruction of the Spanish Pacific Fleet. --Admiral Dewey, commanding the American squadron on the Asiatic station, hadconcentrated all his vessels at Hong Kong, in the belief that war was athand. Of course he could not stay at Hong Kong after the declaration ofwar. The only thing that he could do was to destroy the Spanish fleetand use Spanish ports as a naval base. The Spanish fleet was in ManilaBay. Thither sailed Dewey. In the darkness of the early morning of May1, Dewey passed the Spanish forts at the entrance of the bay. The fleetwas at anchor near the naval arsenal, a few miles from the city ofManila. As soon as it was light Dewey opened fire on the Spaniards. Soonone Spanish ship caught fire, then another, and another. Dewey drew offout of range for a time while his men rested and ate their breakfasts. He then steamed in again and completed the destruction of the enemy'sfleet. Not an American ship was seriously injured. Not one Americansailor was killed. This victory gave the Americans the control of thePacific Ocean and the Asiatic waters, as far as Spain was concerned. Itrelieved the Pacific seacoast of the United States of all fear ofattack. It made it possible to send soldiers and supplies to Manila, without fear of attack while on the way. And it was necessary to sendsoldiers because Dewey, while he was supreme on the water and couldeasily compel the surrender of Manila, could not properly police thetown after its capture. 

[Sidenote: Defense of the Atlantic seaboard. ]

[Sidenote: Blockade of Cuba. ]

475. The Atlantic Seacoast and the Blockade. --No sooner did warseem probable than the people on the Atlantic seacoast were seized withan unreasoning fear of the Spanish fleets. For the Spaniards had a fewnew fast ships. The mouths of the principal harbors were blocked withmines and torpedoes. The government bought merchant vessels of all kindsand established a patrol along the coast. It also blockaded the moreimportant Cuban seaports. But the Cuban coast was so long that it wasimpossible to blockade it all. As it was, great suffering was inflictedon the principal Spanish armies in Cuba. 

[Sidenote: The Spanish-Atlantic fleet. ]

[Sidenote: The American fleet. ]

476. The Atlantic Fleets. --Before long a Spanish fleet of four new, fast armored cruisers and three large sea-going torpedo-boat destroyersappeared in the West Indies. The Spanish admiral did not seem to knowexactly where to go. But after sailing around the Caribbean Sea for atime, he anchored in Santiago harbor--on the southern coast of Cuba. Inthe American navy there were only two fast armored cruisers, the _NewYork _and the _Brooklyn_. These with five battleships--the _Oregon, Iowa, Indiana, Massachusetts_, and _Texas_--and a number of smallervessels were placed under the command of Admiral Sampson and sent toSantiago. Another fleet of sea-going monitors and unarmored cruisersmaintained the Cuban blockade. 

[Sidenote: The _Oregon's_ voyage. ]

477. The Oregon's Great Voyage. --When the _Maine_ was destroyed, the _Oregon_ was at Puget Sound on the northwest coast. She was at onceordered to sail to the Atlantic coast at her utmost speed. Steadily thegreat battleship sped southward along the Pacific coast of NorthAmerica, Central America, and South America. She passed through MagellanStraits and made her way up the eastern coast of South America. As sheapproached the West Indies, it was feared that she might meet the wholeSpanish fleet. But she never sighted them. She reached Florida insplendid condition and at once joined Sampson's squadron. 

[Sidenote: Santiago. ]

[Sidenote: Sinking of the _Merrimac_]

478. The Blockade of the Spanish Fleet. --Santiago harbor seemed tohave been designed as a place of refuge for a hard-pressed fleet. Itsnarrow winding entrance was guarded by huge mountains stronglyfortified. The channel between these mountains was filled with mines andtorpedoes. The American fleet could not go in. The Spanish fleet mustnot be allowed to come out unseen. Lieutenant Hobson was ordered to takethe collier _Merrimac_ into the narrow entrance and sink her across thechannel at the narrowest part. He made the most careful preparations. But the _Merrimac_ was disabled and drifted by the narrowest part of thechannel before she sank. The Spanish admiral was so impressed by theheroism of this attempt that he sent a boat off to the American squadronto assure them that Hobson and his six brave companions were safe. 

[Sidenote: Destruction of the Spanish Fleet. ]

[Sidenote: Lessons of the victory. ]

479. Destruction of the Spanish Fleet. --As the American vesselscould not enter Santiago harbor to sink the Spanish ships at theiranchors, it became necessary to send an army to Santiago. But theSpaniards did not wait for the soldiers to capture the city. On Sundaymorning, July 3, the Spanish fleet suddenly appeared steaming out of theharbor. The _Massachusetts_ was away at the time, getting a supply ofcoal, and the _New York_ was steaming away to take Admiral Sampson to aconference with General Shafter. But there were enough vessels left. Oncame the Spaniards. The American ships rushed toward them. The Spaniardsturned westward and tried to escape along the coast. Soon one of themwas set on fire by the American shells. She was run on shore to preventher sinking. Then another followed her, and then a third. Thetorpedo-boat destroyers were sunk off the entrance to the harbor. Butone ship now remained afloat. Speedily, she, too, was overtaken andsurrendered. In a few hours the whole Spanish fleet was destroyed;hundreds of Spanish seamen were killed, wounded, or drowned, and sixteenhundred Spanish sailors captured. The American loss was one man killedand two wounded. The American ships were practically ready to destroyanother Spanish fleet had one been within reach. At Manila Bay and offSantiago the American fleets were superior to the enemy's fleets. Butthe astounding results of their actions were due mainly to the splendidmanner in which the American ships had been cared for and, above all, to the magnificent training and courage of the men behind the guns. Years of peace had not in any way dimmed the splendid qualities of theAmerican sea-fighters. 

[Sidenote: Military preparations. ]

[Sidenote: The volunteers. ]

480. The American Army. --Meantime the American soldiers on shore atSantiago were doing their work under great discouragement, but with avalor and stubbornness that will always compel admiration. While thenavy was silently and efficiently increased to be a well-ordered force, the army was not so well managed at first. Soldiers there were inplenty. From all parts of the Union, from the South and from the North, from the West and from the East, from the cattle ranches of the plainsand the classrooms of the great universities, patriots offered theirlives at their country's call. But there was great lack of order in themanagement of the army. Sickness broke out among the soldiers. Volunteerregiments were supplied with old-fashioned rifles. It seemed to bedifficult to move one regiment from one place to another without direconfusion. When the Spanish fleet was shut up in Santiago harbor, aforce of fifteen thousand soldiers under General Shafter was sent tocapture Santiago itself and make the harbor unsafe for the ships. 

[Illustration: SAN JUAN BLOCKHOUSE SHOWING MARKS OF SHOT. ]

[Sidenote: The landing. ]

[Sidenote: La Guasimas. _Source-Book_, 380-382. ]

[Sidenote: San Juan and Caney. ]

[Sidenote: Fall of Santiago. ]

481. The Santiago Expedition. --On June 22 and 23 the expeditionlanded not far to the east of the entrance to Santiago harbor. Steep andhigh mountains guard this part of the coast. But no attempt was made toprevent the landing of the Americans. Dismounted cavalrymen of theregular army and Roosevelt's Rough Riders, also on foot, at once pushedon toward Santiago. At La Guasimas the Spaniards tried to stop them. Butthe regulars and the Rough Riders drove them away, and the army pushedon. By June 28 it had reached a point within a few miles of the city. The Spaniards occupied two very strong positions at San Juan (San Huan)and Caney. On July 1 they were driven from them. The regulars and thevolunteers showed the greatest courage and heroism. They crossed longopen spaces in the face of a terrible fire from the Spaniards, who werearmed with modern rifles. The rains now set in, and the sufferings ofthe troops became terrible. On July 3 the Spanish fleet sailed out ofthe harbor to meet its doom from the guns of the American warships. Reinforcements were sent to Shafter, and heavy guns were dragged overthe mountain roads and placed in positions commanding the enemy'slines. The Spaniards surrendered, and on July 17 the Americans enteredthe captured city. 

[Illustration: TAKING WOUNDED TO THE DIVISION HOSPITAL AFTER THE FIGHTON SAN JUAN HILL. ]

[Sidenote: The Porto Rico expedition. ]

482. The Porto Rico Campaign. --The only other important colonystill remaining to Spain in America was Porto Rico. General Nelson A. Miles led a strong force to its conquest. Instead of landing on thenorthern coast near San Juan, the only strongly fortified position onthe seacoast, General Miles landed his men on the southern coast nearPonce (Pon-tha). The inhabitants received the Americans with theheartiest welcome. This was on August 1. The American army then set outto cross the island. But before they had gone very far news came of theending of the hostilities. 

[Sidenote: Fall of Manila. ]

483. Fall of Manila. --When the news of Dewey's victory (p. 390)reached the United States, soldiers were sent to his aid. But this tooktime, for it was a very long way from San Francisco to the Philippinesand vessels suitable for transports were not easily procured on thePacific coast. General Wesley Merritt was given command of the landforces. Meantime, for months Dewey with his fleet blockaded Manila fromthe water side, while Philippine insurgents blockaded it from the landside. Foreign vessels, especially the German vessels, jealously watchedthe operations of the American fleet and severely taxed Dewey'spatience. On August 17 Merritt felt strong enough to attack the city. Itwas at once surrendered to him. 

[Illustration: THE UNITED STATES IN 1900. ]

[Illustration: DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES. All on same scale asUnited States, 1900. ]

[Sidenote: Treaty of Peace, 1898. ]

[Sidenote: Hawaii. ]

484. End of the War. --The destruction of the Spanish Atlantic fleetand the fall of Santiago convinced the Spaniards that further resistancewas useless. So it was agreed that the fighting should be stopped. Thiswas in July, 1898. But the actual treaty of peace was not madeuntil the following December. The conditions were that Spain shouldabandon Cuba, should cede to the United States Porto Rico, thePhilippines, and some smaller islands, and should receive from theUnited States twenty million dollars. For many years Americanmissionaries, merchants, and planters had been interested in theHawaiian Islands. The war showed the importance of these islands to theUnited States as a military and naval station, and they were annexed. 

485. Prosperity. --The years 1898-1900 have been a period ofunbounded prosperity for the American people. Foreign trade hasincreased enormously, and the manufactures of the United States arefinding a ready market in other countries. A rebellion has been going onin the Philippines, but it seems to be slowly dying out(February, 1900). 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS

CHAPTER 44

§§ 464, 465. --_a_. Why was Harrison chosen President?

_b_. What is "tariff reform"? What is "reciprocity"? Do you considersuch a method wise or not? Why?

§§ 466, 467. --_a_. Why was silver demonetized? What is meant by the word"demonetization"?

_b_. What was the Sherman Silver Law? What effect did it have uponbusiness?

_c_. Was there any reason for the fear on the part of business men?

_d_. Why was Harrison defeated in 1892?

§§ 468, 469. --_a_. Why did money become scarce in the summer of 1893?

_b_. How did the repeal of the Sherman Law affect confidence in thefuture of business?

_c_. Describe the Chicago Exhibition. What is the advantage of such anexhibition?

§§ 470, 471. --_a_. Who were the leading candidates for the presidency in1896? What principles did they stand for?

_b_. Explain the provisions of the Dingley Tariff. 

_c_. Ask some business man what he thinks of the wisdom of changing thetariff very often. 

CHAPTER 45

§§ 472, 473. --_a_. What promises had the Spaniards made to the Cubansand how had they kept them?

_b_. What do you think of Weyler's policy?

_c_. Could the Spanish war have been avoided?

§ 474. --_a_. Why could not Admiral Dewey remain at Hong Kong?

_b_. Describe the battle of Manila Bay. What were the results of thisaction?

§§ 475-477. --_a_. Why were the American people on the Atlantic seacoastalarmed? Were the harbors well defended?

_b_. Compare the American and the Spanish Atlantic fleets. Why was thevoyage of the _Oregon_ important?

§§ 478, 479. --_a_. Describe the harbor of Santiago. What advantages didit possess for the Spaniards?

_b_. How did Hobson try to prevent the escape of the Spanish fleet?

_c_. Describe the encounter between the two fleets. 

_d_. To what was this great success due?

§§ 480-482. --_a_. From what parts of the country did the volunteerscome?

_b_. Why was there so much confusion in the army?

_c_. Describe the Santiago campaign and the suffering of the soldiers. 

_d_. Describe the Porto Rico expedition. Why did General Miles land onthe southern coast?

§§ 483-485. --_a_. Why were the soldiers needed after Dewey's victory?

_b_. Give the conditions of peace. Exactly what was the condition as toCuba?

_c_. Why are the Hawaiian Islands important to the United States?

GENERAL QUESTIONS

_a_. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a tariff?

_b_. What important matters have been definitely settled during the pastone hundred years?

_c_. What are some of the problems now before the American people?

_d_. Should the United States be a "world power"?

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK

_a_. Present condition of any part of the United States or dependentterritories. 

_b_. Any campaign or battle of the Spanish War. 

_c_. Present political parties and their principles. 

SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER

Interesting constitutional questions will inevitably arise in teachingthis section, but the events are too recent to admit of dogmatizing onlines of policy. The Spanish War and the Philippine trouble are too nearto be properly judged, and the facts only should be taught. The dutiesand responsibilities resting upon the United States through its closerconnection with all parts of the world can, however, be emphasizedwithout the display of partisan spirit. Furthermore, the causes ofpresent prosperity and the industrial advantages of the United Statesmay well demand attention. Throughout every part of this section, also, the importance of good citizenship, in the broadest sense of the word, should receive special emphasis. 

CONSTITUTION

OF THE

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA[1]

WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in Order to form a more perfectUnion, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for thecommon defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessingsof Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establishthis CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE. I. 

SECTION. 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in aCongress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and Houseof Representatives. 

SECTION. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Memberschosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and theElectors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite forElectors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to theAge of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the UnitedStates, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that Statein which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the severalStates which may be included within this Union, according to theirrespective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the wholeNumber of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term ofYears, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all otherPersons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years afterthe first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within everysubsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Lawdirect. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for everythirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representative;and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshireshall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island andProvidence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jerseyfour, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, theExecutive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill suchVacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and otherOfficers; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. 

SECTION. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of twoSenators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for sixYears; and each Senator shall have one Vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the firstElection, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at theExpiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration ofthe fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixthYear, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and ifVacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of theLegislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporaryAppointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall thenfill such Vacancies. 

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age ofthirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, andwho shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which heshall be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of theSenate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President protempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercisethe Office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. Whensitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When thePresident of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shallpreside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of twothirds of the Members present. 

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than toremoval from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Officeof honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Partyconvicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. 

SECTION. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections forSenators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by theLegislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make oralter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and suchMeeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall byLaw appoint a different Day. 

SECTION. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns andQualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shallconstitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjournfrom day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance ofabsent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each Housemay provide. 

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish itsMembers for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of twothirds, expel a member. 

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time totime publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgmentrequire Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House onany question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, beentered on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without theConsent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any otherPlace than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

SECTION. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive aCompensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid outof the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, exceptTreason, Felony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrestduring their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, andin going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate ineither House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he waselected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of theUnited States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereofshall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding anyOffice under the United States, shall be a Member of either House duringhis Continuance in Office. 

SECTION. 7. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the Houseof Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendmentsas on other Bills. 

Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and theSenate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President ofthe United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shallreturn it, with his Objections, to that House in which it shall haveoriginated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirdsof that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, togetherwith the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise bereconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shallbecome a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall bedetermined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for andagainst the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each Houserespectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President withinten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unlessthe Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case itshall not be a Law. 

Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senateand House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question ofAdjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States;and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, orbeing disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senateand House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitationsprescribed in the Case of a Bill. 

SECTION. 8. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the commonDefence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on thesubject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fixthe Standard of Weights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities andcurrent Coin of the United States;

To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing forlimited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to theirrespective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rulesconcerning Captures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Useshall be for a longer Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and navalForces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of theUnion, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, andfor governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of theUnited States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment ofthe Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to thediscipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over suchDistrict (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession ofparticular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat ofthe Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority overall Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State inwhich the same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings;--And To make all Laws whichshall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoingPowers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in theGovernment of the United States, or in any Department orOfficer thereof. 

SECTION. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of theStates now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibitedby the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding tendollars for each Person. 

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety mayrequire it. 

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportionto the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue tothe Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels boundto, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Dutiesin another. 

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence ofAppropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of theReceipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published fromtime to time. 

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And noPerson holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, withoutthe Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 

SECTION. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, orConfederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emitBills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender inPayment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Lawimpairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. 

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts orDuties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessaryfor executing its inspection Laws: and the net Produce of all Duties andImposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Useof the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subjectto the Revision and Controul of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty ofTonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into anyAgreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, orengage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger aswill not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE. II. 

SECTION, 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of theUnited States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term offour Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the sameTerm, be elected, as follows Each State shall appoint, in such Manner asthe Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to thewhole Number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may beentitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Personholding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall beappointed an Elector. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballotfor two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of thesame State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all thePersons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List theyshall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of theGovernment of the United States, directed to the President of theSenate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senateand House of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the Votesshall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votesshall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Numberof Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have suchMajority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House ofRepresentatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them forPresident; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five higheston the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. Butin chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, theRepresentation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for thisPurpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of theStates, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having thegreatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senateshall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. 

The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Dayon which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the samethroughout the United States. 

No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the UnitedStates, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall beeligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person beeligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirtyfive Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. 

In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the saidOffice, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congressmay by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation orInability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring whatOfficer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall actaccordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shallbe elected. 

The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, aCompensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during thePeriod for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receivewithin that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or anyof them. 

Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take thefollowing Oath or Affirmation:--

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute theOffice of President of the United States, and will to the best of myAbility, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of theUnited States. "

SECTION. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army andNavy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may requirethe Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of theexecutive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of theirrespective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves andPardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases ofImpeachment. 

He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur;and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of theSenate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the UnitedStates, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, andwhich shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest theAppointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in thePresident alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 

The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happenduring the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shallexpire at the End of their next Session. 

SECTION. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Informationof the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration suchMeasures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, onextraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and inCase of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time ofAdjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper;he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall takeCare that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all theOfficers of the United States. 

SECTION. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of theUnited States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, andConviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

SECTION. 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested inone supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may fromtime to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme andinferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, andshall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in Office. 

SECTION. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law andEquity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;--toall Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;--toall Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;--to Controversies towhich the United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between twoor more States;--between a State and Citizens of anotherState;--between Citizens of different States, --between Citizens of thesame State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and betweena State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizensor Subjects. 

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall haveoriginal Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, thesupreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law andFact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congressshall make. 

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be byJury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimesshall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, theTrial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Lawhave directed. 

SECTION. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only inlevying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving themAid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on theTestimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession inopen Court. 

The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, butno Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeitureexcept during the Life of the Person attainted. 

ARTICLE. IV. 

SECTION. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to thepublic Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. Andthe Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which suchActs, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. 

SECTION. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to allPrivileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, whoshall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demandof the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be deliveredup, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. 

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Lawsthereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law orRegulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shallbe delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labourmay be due. 

SECTION. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union;but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction ofany other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or moreStates, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures ofthe States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rulesand Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging tothe United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be soconstrued as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of anyparticular State. 

SECTION. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in thisUnion a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of themagainst Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of theExecutive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) againstdomestic Violence. 

ARTICLE. V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem itnecessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on theApplication of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of thisConstitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of theseveral States, or by Conventions in three fourths thereof, as the oneor the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress;Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year Onethousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the firstand fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and thatno State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffragein the Senate. 

ARTICLE. VI. 

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoptionof this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States underthis Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be madein Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law ofthe Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anyThing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrarynotwithstanding. 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members ofthe several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound byOath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Testshall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trustunder the United States. 

ARTICLE. VII. 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficientfor the Establishment of this Constitution between the States soratifying the Same. 

THE AMENDMENTS. 

I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, orprohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom ofspeech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably toassemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. 

II. 

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a freeState, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not beinfringed. 

III. 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, withoutthe consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to beprescribed by law. 

IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not beviolated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the placeto be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamouscrime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except incases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when inactual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person besubject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life orlimb; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be witness againsthimself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without dueprocess of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to aspeedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and districtwherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall havebeen previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature andcause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses againsthim; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 

VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceedtwenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and nofact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of theUnited States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, norcruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not beconstrued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, norprohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. 

XI. 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extendto any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of theUnited States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjectsof any Foreign State. 

XII. 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballotfor President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be aninhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in theirballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots theperson voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct listsof all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for asVice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists theyshall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of thegovernment of the United States, directed to the President of theSenate;--The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of theSenate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and thevotes shall then be counted;--The person having the greatest number ofvotes for President, shall be the President, if such number be amajority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no personhave such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers notexceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the Houseof Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, therepresentation from each state having one vote; a quorum for thispurpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of thestates, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a Presidentwhenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourthday of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act asPresident, as in the case of the death or other constitutionaldisability of the President. The person having the greatest number ofvotes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number bea majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no personhave a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, theSenate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shallconsist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority ofthe whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no personconstitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligibleto that of Vice-President of the United States. 

XIII. 

SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as apunishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to theirjurisdiction. 

SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article byappropriate legislation. 

XIV. 

SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, andsubject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United Statesand of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforceany law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens ofthe United States: nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any personwithin its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

SECTION 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several Statesaccording to their respective numbers, counting the whole number ofpersons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the rightto vote at any election for the choice of electors for President andVice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, theExecutive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of theLegislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of suchState, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or othercrime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in theproportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to thewhole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

SECTION 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil ormilitary, under the United States, or under any State, who, havingpreviously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer ofthe United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as anexecutive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitutionof the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellionagainst the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. ButCongress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove suchdisability. 

SECTION 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions andbounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shallnot be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shallassume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection orrebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss oremancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claimsshall be held illegal and void. 

SECTION 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriatelegislation, the provisions of this article. 

XV. 

SECTION 1. The right citizens of the United States to vote shall not bedenied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account ofrace, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

SECTION 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article byappropriate legislation. 

[1] Reprinted from the text issued by the State Department. 

INDEX

Abolitionists. Acadia. Adams, John; Vice-President; President; his administration. Adams, John Quincy, portrait; and the Monroe Doctrine; President, his administration; and the right of petition. Adams, Samuel. Alabama claims. Alaska, purchase of; map of. Albany Congress. Algerine War. Alien and Sedition Acts. Allen, Ethan. America, discovery of; naming of. American Association. Americus Vespucius, see Vespucius. André, Major. Andros, Sir Edmund. Antietam, battle of. Antislavery agitation. Appomattox, surrender at. Arnold, Benedict, at Quebec; in Burgoyne's campaign; treason of. Arthur, C. A. , Vice-President; President. Articles of Confederation. Atlanta Campaign. 

Bacon's Rebellion. Balboa discovers Pacific Ocean. Baltimore, Lord. Bank of the United States, the First; the Second. Bennington, battle of. Blaine, J. G. , candidate for the Presidency. Blair, F. P. Blockade of Confederate seaports. "Border States" in Civil War. Boston, founded; massacre at; destruction of tea at; closing of the port of; siege of; map of siege. Braddock, British general. Bragg, Confederate general. Brandy wine, battle of. Breckinridge, John C. , Vice-President; defeated for Presidency. Brown, General Jacob, invades Canada. Brown, John, in Kansas; at Harper's Ferry; executed. Buchanan, James, President; comes out for the Union. Buell, General. Bull Run, battles of. Bunker Hill, battle of. Burgoyne's campaign. Burnside, General A. E. 

Cabot, John, discovers North America. Calhoun, John C. , portrait; in Congress; Vice-President; his _Exposition_. California, Drake on the coast of; seized by Americans; discovery of gold in; seeks admission to the Union. Camden, battle of. Canada, conquest of; invasion of 1775; in War of 1812. Carolina, settlement of; rebellion in 1719; separated into two provinces. Cartier (kar'tia'). Cass, Lewis, defeated for the Presidency. Cathay. Champlain, Samuel de. Champlain, Lake. Chancellorsville, battle of. Charles II, his colonial policy. Charleston, S. C. , attacked; captured; in Civil War. Chattanooga, battle of. "Chesapeake, " outrage on the. Chicago, growth of; great fire at. Columbian Exhibition. Chickamauga, battle of. Cipango. Civil Service under Washington and Adams; under Jefferson; "Spoils System" in the; reform of the. Clark, General G. R. , conquers the Northwest. Clay, Henry, portrait; in Congress; and the Missouri Compromise; defeated for the Presidency; and the Compromise of 1850. Cleveland, Grover, portrait; President; reëlected President. Clinton, British general. Columbus discovers America. Committees of Correspondence. Compromises of the Constitution; of 1820; of 1850. Concord, battle of. Confederate States. Confederation of New England. Confederation of the United States, Articles of. Connecticut, settlement of; charter of. Constitution, formation of the; facsimile of first lines; first ten amendments; text of, Appendix. "Constitution, " the frigate, chased by a British fleet; and the "Guerrière. "Constitutional Union Party. Continental Congress, first; second. Coronade, in the Southwest. Cotton gin. Cowpens, battle of. Crawford, William H. , defeated for the Presidency. Creek War. Critical Period. Crittenden Compromise. Cromwell, Oliver, and the colonies. Cuba, rebellions in (1867-77); (1894-98). 

Dale, Sir Thomas. Davis, Jefferson. Decatur, Stephen, portrait; in Algerine War. Declaration of Independence. Declaratory Act. Democratic Party. Detroit, surrender of. Dewey, Admiral. Dickinson, John. Douglas, Stephen A. , Kansas-Nebraska Act; debate with Lincoln; defeated for Presidency; comes out for the Union. Draft Riots. Drake, Sir Francis, his great voyage. Dred Scott Decision. Duquesne, Fort. Dutch Colonies. 

Elections, presidential, of 1800; of 1824; of 1840; of 1844; of 1848; of 1852; of 1856; of 1860; of 1868; of 1872; of 1876; of 1880; of 1884; of 1888; of 1892; of 1896. Electoral Commission. Embargo, Jefferson's. Era of Good Feeling. Ericson, Leif (Life er'ik-son). Ericsson, John. Erie Canal. 

Farragut, Admiral D. G. , portrait; at New Orleans. Federal Ratio. Federalist Party. Fifteenth Amendment. Fillmore, Millard, portrait; chosen Vice-President; becomes President. Florida, discovered; settled; purchased. Fourteenth Amendment. France, explorers and colonists of; colonists conquered by British; recognizes independence of the United States; influence of revolution in, on America; controversy. Franklin, Benjamin, portrait; early life of; examined by House of Commons; Minister to France; in Federal Convention. Fredericksburg, battle of. Free Soil Party. Freeman's Farm, battles of. Frémont, John C. ; portrait; in California; defeated for the Presidency. Fugitive Slave Act. Fulton, Robert. 

Gadsden Purchase. Gag Resolutions. Gage, British general. Gama, da (dä gä'mä). Garfield, J. A. ; elected President; murdered. Garrison, W. L. Gates, General; in Burgoyne's campaign; defeated at Camden. Genet, French Minister. Georgia, settlement of. Gettysburg, battle of. Ghent, Treaty of. Grant, General U. S. ; portrait; seizes Cairo; captures Fort Donelson; at Shiloh; captures Vicksburg; at Chattanooga; Lieutenant-General; his Virginia Campaign; elected President; reëlected President. Great Britain; Treaty of 1783; Jay's Treaty; Treaty of Ghent; Treaty of 1842; Oregon Treaty; Alabama claims. Greeley, Horace; portrait; on secession; defeated for Presidency. Greene, General, his Southern Campaigns. Grenville, George. Guilford, battle of. 

Hamilton, Alexander; Secretary of the Treasury; his financial policy; his constitutional ideas; intrigues against Adams. Harrison, Benjamin, elected President. Harrison, General W. H. ; at Tippecanoe; elected President; his death. Hartford Convention. Harvester, the. Hawaii annexed. Hawkins, Sir John. Hayes, R. B. , elected President. Henry, Patrick; portrait; Parson's Cause; his Stamp Act Resolutions; in Continental Congress; opposes Constitution. Hood, Confederate general. Hooker, General Joseph. Hudson, Henry. 

Impressment. Iroquois. 

Jackson, General Andrew; portrait; a Creek War; defends New Orleans; candidate for Presidency; elected President; his administration. Jamestown, founded. Jay, John. Jay's Treaty. Jefferson, Thomas; portrait; writes Declaration of Independence; Secretary of State; his constitutional ideas; Vice-President; writes Kentucky Resolutions; elected President; his administrations. Johnson, Andrew; portrait; President; his reconstruction policy; impeached. Johnston, Confederate general. Judiciary Act of 1801. 

Kansas, struggle for. Kansas-Nebraska Act. Kentucky Resolutions. Kieft, Dutch governor. King Philip's War. King's Mountain, battle of. 

Lake Erie, battle of. La Salle, his explorations. Lee, R. E. , Confederate general. Lee, R. H. Leon, Ponce de. Lewis and Clark. Lexington, battle of. "Liberty, " the, seized. Lincoln, Abraham; portrait; early life; Debate with Douglas; elected President; first inaugural; Emancipation Proclamation; murdered; reconstruction policy. Livingston, R. R. ; portrait; negotiates Louisiana Purchase. Locomotive invented. Louisiana; settlement of; ceded to Spain; returned to France; purchased by United States. Loyalists. Lundy's Lane, battle of. 

Madison, James; portrait; in Federal convention; writes Virginia Resolutions; President; his war message. Magellan, his great voyage. "Maine, " destruction of the. Manhattan Island. Manila Bay, battle of. Manila, captured. Maryland Toleration Act. Mason and Dixon's Line. Massachusetts Circular Letter. Mayflower compact. McClellan, General G. B. ; portrait; Peninsular Campaign; at Antietam. McCormick, C. H. , invents horse reaper. McKinley, William; portrait; President. Meade, General G. G. Menendez (mä-nen'deth). Mexico; War with; the French in. Missouri Compromise. "Monitor" and "Merrimac. "Monmouth, battle of. Monroe Doctrine. Monroe, James; portrait; negotiates Louisiana Purchase; President. Morgan, General D. . Morse, S. F. B. Moultrie, General. Murfreesboro', battle of. 

Nashville, battle of. National debt; origin of; Jefferson and the. Neutral commerce. Neutrality Proclamation. New Amsterdam. New England colonies, settlement of. New England Confederation. New Jersey. New Netherland. New Orleans; defended by Jackson; captured by Farragut. New Sweden. New York City; in 1800; in 1830; in 1860. Non-Conformists. Non-Importation agreements. Non-Intercourse Act. North Carolina. Nullification. 

Oglethorpe, General. Ordinance of 1787. Oregon; claims to; divided. Oriskany, battle of. Otis, James. 

Pacific Ocean, discovered. Panic; of 1837; of 1873. Paris; Peace of (1763); (1783). Parson's cause. Parties, political, formation of. Peninsular Campaign. Penn, William. Pennsylvania, settlement of. Pequod War. Perry, Commodore. Petersburg, blockade of. Petition, right of. Philadelphia. Pierce, Franklin; portrait; President; comes out for the Union. Pilgrims. Pitt, William. Plattsburg, battle of. Plymouth, settlement of. Polk, James K. ; portrait; President. Polo, Marco. Pope, General John. Porto Rico, occupied. President, how chosen. Princeton, battle of. Proclamation of 1763. Providence, founded. Puritans, the. 

Quakers. Quebec Act. Quebec; founded; captured. 

Railroads, growth of. Ralegh, Sir Walter. Reaper, the horse. Reconstruction Acts. Religion. Republican Party; of Jefferson; of Lincoln. Revolutionary War, campaigns of. Rhode Island, settlement of. Ribault (re'bo'), French explorer. Rockingham Ministry. Rosecrans, General. 

St. Augustine, founded. Sampson, Admiral. Sandys, Sir Edwin. Santiago. Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender at. Schuyler. General. Scott, General Winfield; his Mexican campaign; defeated for Presidency; views on secession. Secession. Separatists. Seward, W. H. ; portrait; on Kansas. Shays's Rebellion. Sheridan, General Philip; portrait; at Chickamauga; in Virginia; his Valley Campaigns. Sherman, General W. T. ; portrait; at Chattanooga; captures Atlanta; the march through Georgia; the march through the Carolinas. Shiloh, battle of. Slavery; in Virginia; compromises; Missouri Compromise; petitions in Congress; Compromise of 1850; abolished. Soto, de (dä so'to) in the Southeast. South Carolina; settlement of; nullification in; secession of. Spain; pioneers of; Treaty with (1795); War with. Spotsylvania, battle of. "Squatter Sovereignty. "Stamp Act. Stamp Act Congress. Stark, General. Steamboat, the. Stephen, A. H. Steuben, Baron. Stowe, Mrs. H. B. Stuart Tyranny in the colonies. Stuyvesant, Dutch governor. Sumter, fall of Fort. 

Tariffs; 1789; of 1816, 1824, 1828; the Compromise; McKinley; Dingley. Taylor, General Zachary; portrait; his Mexican Campaign; President; death. Tea Tax. Tecumseh or Tecumthe. Telegraph, the. Tenure of Office Acts; Crawford's; of 1867. Texas; Republic of; admitted to the Union. Thirteenth Amendment. Thomas, General George H. ; portrait; his services. Ticonderoga. Tippecanoe, battle of. Townshend Acts, the. Treaties; 1778 (with France); 1783 (with Great Britain); Jay's Treaty; 1795 (with Spain); 1800 (with France); Louisiana Purchase; of Ghent; Florida Purchase; 1842 (with Great Britain); Oregon Treaty; 1848 (with Mexico); Gadsden Purchase; 1898 (with Spain). Trent Affair. Trenton, battle of. Twelfth Amendment. Tyler, John; portrait; Vice-President; President. 

United States, area and population of; in 1800; in 1830; in 1860. 

Van Buren, Martin; President; defeated for Presidency. Verrazano (ver-rä-tsä'no). Vespucius, Americus; portrait; his voyages. Vicksburg, Campaign of. Vinland. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Virginia Resolves of 1769. Virginia, settlement of. 

War of 1812. Washington, George; portrait; his early life; first campaign; on the Boston Post Act; in Continental Congress; in Revolutionary War; in Federal Convention; President; his neutrality proclamation; farewell address; death. Washington City. Webster, Daniel; portrait; his reply to Hayne. Webster, Noah, portrait; his Dictionary. Whig Party, the. Whiskey Insurrection. Whitney. Wilderness, battle of the. Williams, Roger. Wilmot Proviso. Wolfe, General. Writs of Assistance. X. Y. Z. Affair. Yorktown, capture of. 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

_In Congress, July 4, 1776_, THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one peopleto dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the earth, the separate and equalstation to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, adecent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they shoulddeclare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That tosecure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, derivingtheir just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever anyForm of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right ofthe People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers insuch form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety andHappiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments longestablished should not be changed for light and transient causes; andaccordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed tosuffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves byabolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long trainof abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces adesign to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it istheir duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards fortheir future security. --Such has been the patient sufferance of theseColonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to altertheir former Systems of Government. The history of the present King ofGreat Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, allhaving in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny overthese States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary forthe public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressingimportance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent shouldbe obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected toattend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of largedistricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right ofRepresentation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them andformidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance withhis measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing withmanly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause othersto be elected; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable ofAnnihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise;the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers ofinvasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for thatpurpose obstructing the Laws of Naturalization of Foreigners; refusingto pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising theconditions of new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assentto Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of theiroffices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms ofOfficers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without theConsent of our legislature. 

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior tothe Civil Power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign toour constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent totheir acts of pretended legislation:

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from Punishment for any Murderswhich they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouringProvince, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlargingits Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrumentfor introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, andaltering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves investedwith Power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protectionand waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, anddestroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries tocompleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun withcircumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the mostbarbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas tobear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of theirfriends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured tobring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of allages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress inthe most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only byrepeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every actwhich may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People. 

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our Brittish brethren. We havewarned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extendan unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of thecircumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed totheir native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by theties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, wouldinevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too havebeen deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, inPeace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, inGeneral Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the worldfor the rectitude of our intentions, do in the Name, and by Authorityof the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, Thatthese United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and IndependentStates; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of GreatBritain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free andIndependent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts andThings which Independent States may of right do. And for the support ofthis Declaration, with a firm reliance on the Protection of DivineProvidence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes andour sacred Honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 

_New Hampshire_--JOSIAH BARTLETT, WM. WHIPPLE, MATTHEW THORNTON. 

_Massachusetts Bay_--SAML. ADAMS, JOHN ADAMS, ROBT. TREAT PAINE, ELBRIDGE GERRY. 

_Rhode Island_--STEP. HOPKINS, WILLIAM ELLERY. 

_Connecticut_--ROGER SHERMAN, SAM'EL HUNTINGTON, WM. WILLIAMS, OLIVERWOLCOTT. 

_New York_--WM. FLOYD, PHIL. LIVINGSTON, FRANS. LEWIS, LEWIS MORRIS. 

_New Jersey_--RICHD. STOCKTON, JNO. WITHERSPOON, FRAS. HOPKINSON, JOHNHART, ABRA. CLARK. 

_Pennsylvania_--ROBT. MORRIS, BENJAMIN RUSH, BENJA. FRANKLIN, JOHNMORTON, GEO. CLYMER, JAS. SMITH, GEO. TAYLOR, JAMES WILSON, GEO. ROSS. 

_Delaware_-CAESAR RODNEY, GEO. READ, THO. M'KEAN. 

_Maryland_--SAMUEL CHASE, WM. PACA, THOS. STONE, CHARLES CARROLL ofCarrollton. 

_Virginia_--GEORGE WYTHE, RICHARD HENRY LEE, TH. JEFFERSON, BENJA. HARRISON, THOS. NELSON, jr. , FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, CARTER BRAXTON. 

_North Carolina_--WM. HOOPER, JOSEPH HEWES, JOHN PENN. 

_South Carolina_--EDWARD RUTLEDGE, THOS. HEYWARD, Junr. , THOMAS LYNCH, Junr. , ARTHUR MIDDLETON. 

_Georgia_--BUTTON GWINNETT, LYMAN HALL, GEO. WALTON. [2]

[2] This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The Statesare not mentioned in the original.