A SCHOOL HISTORYOF THE GREAT WAR

BY

ALBERT E. McKINLEY, PH. D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

CHARLES A. COULOMB, PH. D. DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA

AND

ARMAND J. GERSON, PH. D. DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, PHILADELPHIA

Copyright, 1918, by

Albert E. McKinley, Charles A. Coulomb, and Armand J. Gerson

PREFACE

This brief history of the world's greatest war was prepared upon thesuggestion of the National Board for Historical Service. Its purpose isto expand into an historical narrative the outline of the study of thewar which the authors prepared for the Board and which was published bythe United States Bureau of Education as Teachers' Leaflet No. 4, inAugust, 1918. The arrangement of chapters and the choice of topics havebeen largely determined by the various headings in the outline for thecourse in grades seven and eight. 

The authors trust that the simple presentation here given may aid indeveloping a national comprehension of the issues involved in the war;and they hope it may play some part in preparing the American people forthe solution of the great problems which lie immediately before us. 

CONTENTS

CHAPTER

 I. EUROPE BEFORE THE GREAT WAR 5

 II. WHY GERMANY WANTED WAR 27

 III. GERMAN MILITARISM 34

 IV. INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE HAGUE CONFERENCES 38

 V. INTERNATIONAL JEALOUSIES AND ALLIANCES 48

 VI. THE BALKAN STATES 59

 VII. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE GREAT WAR 67

VIII. THE WAR IN 1914 77

 IX. THE WAR IN 1915 95

 X. THE WAR IN 1916 107

 XI. THE WAR IN 1917 118

 XII. THE WAR IN 1918 135

XIII. THE UNITED STATES IN THE WAR 152

 XIV. QUESTIONS OF THE COMING PEACE 168

CHRONOLOGY--Principal Events of the War 181

INDEX 190

A School History of the Great War

CHAPTER I

EUROPE BEFORE THE GREAT WAR

To understand the Great War it is not sufficient to read the dailyhappenings of military and naval events as they are told in newspapersand magazines. We must go back of the facts of to-day and find innational history and personal ambition the causes of the presentstruggle. Years of preparation were necessary before German militaryleaders could convert a nation to their views, or get ready the men, munitions, and transportation for the war they wanted. Conflicts ofraces for hundreds of years have made the southeastern part of Europe afirebrand in international affairs. The course of the Russian revolutionhas been determined largely by the history of the Russian people and ofthe Russian rulers during the past two centuries. The entrance ofEngland and Italy into the war against Germany was in each case broughtabout by causes which came into existence long before August, 1914. Aperson who understands, even in part, the causes of this greatstruggle, will be in a better position to realize why America enteredthe war and what our nation is fighting for. And better yet, he will bemore ready to take part in settling the many problems of peace whichmust come after the war is over. For these reasons, the first fewchapters of this book are devoted to a study of the important facts ofrecent European history. 

[Illustration: EUROPE IN 1913]

A HUNDRED YEARS AGO. --It is remarkable that almost exactly a centurybefore the present world war, Europe was engaged in a somewhat similarstruggle to prevent an ambitious French general, Napoleon Bonaparte, from becoming the ruler of all that continent, and of America as well. He had conquered or intimidated nearly all the states ofEurope--Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, etc. --except Great Britain. Heonce planned a great settlement on the Mississippi River, and so alarmedPresident Jefferson that the latter said the United States might becompelled to "marry themselves to the British fleet and nation. " ButEngland's navy kept control of the seas; Napoleon's colony in NorthAmerica was never founded; and at last the peoples of Europe roseagainst their conqueror, and in the battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815, finally overthrew him. 

EUROPE SINCE 1815. --After the downfall of Napoleon the rulers ofEurope met in conference at Vienna and sought to restore conditions asthey had been before the war. They were particularly anxious that thegreat masses of the people in their several nations should continue torespect what was termed "the divine right of kings to rule over theirsubjects. " They did not, except in Great Britain, believe inrepresentative governments. They feared free speech and independentnewspapers and liberal educational institutions. They hated all kinds ofpopular movements by which the inhabitants of any country might throwoff the monarch's yoke and secure a share in their own government. Forover thirty years the "Holy Allies, "--the name applied to the monarchsof Austria, Prussia, and Russia, --succeeded tolerably well in keepingthe peoples in subjection. But they had many difficulties to face, andafter 1848 their policy was largely given up. 

DEMOCRATIC MOVEMENTS. --During the nineteenth century the people ofEurope were restive under the rule of kings, and gradually governmentscontrolled in greater or less degree by the people were established. Almost every decade saw popular uprisings in some of the Europeanstates. About 1820 insurrections occurred in Greece, in Spain, and insouthern Italy; and the Spanish American colonies revolted from themother country. In 1830 popular uprisings took place in France, Belgium, Germany, Poland, and other places. In 1848 a far more serious movementoccurred, which overthrew the French monarchy and established arepublic. From France the flame of liberty lighted fires of insurrectionin Germany, Austria, Poland, and Italy. Similar attempts were made atlater times. As a result of these popular uprisings and of the growingeducation of all classes of the people, manhood suffrage andrepresentative institutions were established in most of the Europeanstates. 

NATIONAL ASPIRATIONS. --The Holy Allies had refused to recognize theright of nations to independent existence. They had bartered peoples andprovinces "as if they were chattels and pawns in a game. " But when thepeoples tried to found democratic governments, they often discoveredthat the quickest and surest way was to unite under one government allwho belonged to a given nationality. Thus the last hundred years inEurope has witnessed the erection of a number of new national statescreated by throwing off the yoke of some foreign ruler. Among the newnations thus established were (1) Belgium, freed from the kingdom ofHolland; (2) Greece, Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Albania, freed fromTurkish rule; (3) Italy, united out of territories controlled by pettysovereigns and Austrian rulers; (4) Norway, separated from Sweden. Thesame period saw also the unification of a number of German states intothe German Empire. But during this time several races were unsuccessfulin obtaining independence, among which we may note the Poles (in Russia, Prussia, and Austria), the Czechs (checks), or Bohemians (in northernAustria), the Finns (in the northwestern part of the Russian Empire), and the Slavic people in the southern part of Austria-Hungary. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. --The nineteenth century was not only a periodof political change in Europe. It was also a time of great changes inthe general welfare of the people. It witnessed a remarkable alterationin everyday employments and habits. In 1800 a great part of thepopulation was engaged in agriculture. Manufacturing and commerce werelooked upon as of minor importance. The goods that were produced weremade by hand labor in the workman's own home. Beginning first in Englandabout 1750 and extending to the Continent between 1820 and 1860, therecame a great industrial change. The steam engine was applied tospinning, weaving, and countless other operations which previously hadbeen performed by hand. Steam engines could not of course be installedin every small cottage; hence a number of machines were put in onefactory to be run by one steam engine. The workers left their small hutsand gardens in the country and came to live in towns and cities. Afterthe steam engine came steam transportation on land and water. Thenfollowed an enormous demand for coal, iron, steel, and other metals. More goods could be produced in the factories than were needed for thepeople at home. Hence arose more extended commerce and the search forforeign markets. 

COLONIAL EXPANSION. --In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Spain, Portugal, France, and England settled the American continents andparts of Asia. By a series of wars in the seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies the Dutch secured part of the possessions of Spain andPortugal; and England obtained almost all of the French colonialterritories. In the eighteenth century the thirteen English colonies onthe Atlantic seaboard made good their independence; and in thenineteenth, Spain lost all of her vast possessions in America. Duringthe early nineteenth century, Great Britain, in spite of the loss of thethirteen colonies, was by far the most successful colonizing country, and her possessions were to be found in Canada, India, the East and WestIndies, Australia, and Africa. 

Leaders of other nations in Europe thought these colonies of GreatBritain were the cause of her wealth and prosperity. Naturally they tootried to found colonies in those parts of the world not occupied byEuropeans. They hoped by this means to extend their power, to find homesfor their surplus population, and to obtain markets for their newmanufactured goods. Thus Africa was parceled out among France, Germany, Great Britain, Portugal, Belgium, Spain, and Italy. The islands of thePacific were seized in the same manner. Proposals for a partition ofChina were made by Germany, Russia, Japan, France, and Great Britain;and if it had not been for the American demands for the "open door oftrade" and for the "territorial integrity" of China, that nationprobably would have shared the fate of Africa. The noteworthy fact aboutthis rivalry for colonies is that almost the entire world, except Chinaand Japan, came under the domination of Europeans and their descendants. 

Having noted a few general features of European history during thenineteenth century, we shall now take up in turn each of the moreimportant countries. 

GERMANY. --After the overthrow of Napoleon, a German Confederation wasformed. This comprised thirty-nine states which were bound to each otherby a very weak tie. The union was not so strong even as that in our owncountry under the Articles of Confederation. But there were two statesin the German Confederation which were far stronger than any of theothers; these were Austria and Prussia. Austria had been a great powerin German and European affairs for centuries; but her rulers were nowincompetent and corrupt. Prussia, on the other hand, was an upstart, whose strength lay in universal military service. As the centuryprogressed, the influence of Prussia became greater; and the jealousy ofAustria grew proportionately. Bismarck, the Prussian prime minister, adopted a policy of "blood and iron. " By this he meant that Prussiawould attain the objects of her ambition by means of war. Under hisguidance she would intimidate or conquer the other German states andforce them into trade and commercial agreements, or annex theirterritory to that of Prussia. 

Bismarck looked for success only to the army. With the king back of him, he defied the people's representatives, ignored the Prussianconstitution, and purposely picked quarrels with his neighbors. In 1866, in a brief war of seven weeks, Austria was hopelessly defeated andforced to retire from the German Confederation. In 1870, when he feltsure of his military preparations, Bismarck altered a telegram and thusbrought on a war with France. The Franco-Prussian War lasted only a fewmonths; but in that time the French were thoroughly defeated. Manyimportant results followed the war: (1) The German states, influenced bythe patriotic excitement of a successful war, founded the German Empire, with Prussia in the leading position, and the Prussian king as Germanemperor or "Kaiser. " (2) A huge indemnity of one billion dollars wasexacted by Prussia from France, and this money, deposited in the Germanbanks and loaned to individuals, played a large part in expanding themanufactures and commerce of Germany. (3) Prussia took away from France, against the wishes of the inhabitants, the provinces calledAlsace-Lorraine. This "wrong done to France, " as President Wilson hassaid, "unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years. " (4) TheFrench people carried through a revolution and established arepublic--for the third time in their history--which has continued downto the present. 

After 1870 Germany made remarkable material progress. By 1911 herpopulation had grown from 41, 000, 000 to 65, 000, 000. Her coal and ironproduction in 1911 was eight times as much as in 1871. In wealth, commerce, coal production, and textile industries, among Europeancountries, Germany was second only to Great Britain; while in theproduction of iron and steel Germany had passed Great Britain and wassecond only to the United States. 

But this great industrial and commercial advance was not accompaniedwith a corresponding liberality in government. The constitution of theGerman Empire gave very large powers to the emperor, and very littlepower to the representatives of the people. Prussia, the dominant statein the empire, had an antiquated system of voting which rated men'svotes according to the taxes they paid, and placed political power inthe hands of a small number of capitalists and wealthy landowners, especially the Junkers (yoong´kerz), or Prussian nobles. The educationalsystem, while giving a rudimentary education to all, was really designedto keep large masses of the people subject to the military group, thegovernment officials, and the capitalists. Blind devotion to the emperorand belief in the necessity of future war in order to increase Germanprosperity, were widely taught. The "mailed fist" was clenched, and "theshining sword" rattled in the scabbard whenever Germany thought theother nations of Europe showed her a lack of respect. Enormouspreparations for war were made in order that Germany might gain from herneighbors the "place in the sun" which she was determined upon. Othernations were to be pushed aside or be broken to pieces in order that theGerman "super-men" might enjoy all that they wished of this world'sgoods and possessions. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. --The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1910 had apopulation of 49, 000, 000, made up of peoples and races who spokedifferent languages and had different customs, habits, and ideals. Theseraces, instead of being brought under unifying influences as foreignersare in the United States, had for centuries retained theirpeculiarities. Germans comprised 24 per cent of the total population;Hungarians, 20 per cent; Slavic races (including Bohemians, Poles, SouthSlavs, and others), 45 per cent; Roumanians, over 6 per cent; andItalians less than 2 per cent. The Germans and Hungarians, although onlya minority of the total population, had long exercised political controlover the others and by repressive measures had tried to stamp out theirschools, newspapers, and languages. Unrest was continuous during thenineteenth century; and the rise of the independent states of Serbia, Roumania, and Bulgaria tended to make the Slavic and Roumanianinhabitants of Austria-Hungary dissatisfied with their own position. 

After 1815 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy continued under the rule of theroyal family of Hapsburgs, whose proud history extends back to thefifteenth century. Austria (but not Hungary) was part of the GermanConfederation, and her representative had the right of presiding at allmeetings of the confederation. Between 1815 and 1848 the Austrianemperor and his Prime minister were the leaders in opposition to populargovernment and national aspirations. But in 1848 a serious uprisingtook place, and it seemed for a time that the diverse peoples would flyapart from each other and establish separate states. The emperorabdicated and his prime minister fled to England. Francis Joseph, theyoung heir to the throne, with the aid of experienced military leaderssucceeded in suppressing the rebellion. For sixty-eight years(1848-1916) he was personally popular and held together the compositestate. 

In 1866 Austria was driven out of the German Confederation by Prussia. Seven years earlier she had lost most of her Italian possessions. Thereafter her interests and ambitions lay to the southeast; and shebent her energies to extend her territory, influence, and commerce intothe Balkan region. A semblance of popular government was established inAustria and in Hungary, which were separated from each other in ordinaryaffairs, but continued under the same monarch. In each country, however, the suffrage and elections were so juggled that the ruling minority, ofGermans in Austria and of Hungarians in Hungary, was enabled to keep themajority in subjection. 

Austria-Hungary has not progressed as rapidly in industry and commerceas the countries to the north and west of her. Her life is still largelyagricultural, and cultivation is often conducted by primitive methods. Before the war her wealth per person was only $500, as compared with$1843 in the United States, $1849 in Great Britain, $1250 in France, and$1230 in Germany. She possessed only one good seaport, Trieste(trĭ-ĕst´), and this partly explained her desire to obtain access tothe Black Sea and the Ægean Sea. About half of her foreign trade wascarried on with Germany. The low standards of national wealth andproduction made the raising of taxes a difficult matter. The governmenthad a serious struggle to obtain the funds for a large military andnaval program. 

ITALY. --For a thousand years before 1870 there was no singlegovernment for the entire Italian peninsula. Although the people weremainly of one race, their territory was divided into small states ruledby despotic princes, who were sometimes of Italian families, but moreoften were foreigners--Greeks, Germans, French, Spanish, and Austrians. The Pope, head of the Roman Catholic Church, governed nearly one thirdof the land. This condition continued after 1815. But during thenineteenth century the Italians began to realize that they belonged toone race. They saw that the rule of foreigners was opposed to thenational welfare. 

By 1870 the union of all Italy into one kingdom was completed. In thiswork three great men participated, as well as many lesser patriots. Thefirst was Garibal´di, a man of intense courage and patriotism. Hearoused the young men of Italy to the need of national union and theexpulsion of the foreigners. For over thirty years he was engaged invarious military expeditions which aided greatly in the establishment ofthe national union. The second leader was of an entirely differentcharacter. Count Cavour (ka-voor´) was a statesman, a politician, adeep student of European history, and a man of great tact. He, too, wished for a united Italy, but he believed union could not be gainedwithout foreign assistance. By most skillful means he secured thesupport of France and of England, while at the same time he usedGaribaldi and his revolutionists. He had succeeded, at the time of hisdeath in 1861, in bringing together all of Italy except Rome and Venice. He won for the new Italian kingdom a place among the great nations ofEurope. 

The third great Italian was Victor Emman´uel, king of Sardinia. Heapproved of a limited monarchy, like that of England, instead of thecorrupt despotisms which existed in most of the Italian peninsula. Heknew how to use men like Cavour and Garibaldi to achieve the nationalambitions. By a popular vote in each part of Italy Victor Emmanuel wasaccepted as king of the united nation. The country was not ready for arepublic; but Victor Emmanuel proved a wise national leader, willing toreign, according to a written constitution under which the people'srepresentatives had the determining voice in the government. In 1870 theking entered Rome and early the next year proclaimed the city to be thecapital of Italy. 

BELGIUM. --The country we now know as Belgium has had a very checkeredhistory. At one time or another it has been controlled by German, French, Spanish, and Austrian rulers. At the opening of the nineteenthcentury it was annexed to the kingdom of Holland (1815). But a revolttook place in 1830, and the Belgians separated from the Dutch and chosea king for themselves. Their constitution declares that the governmentis a "constitutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy. " Thegovernment is largely in the control of the people or theirrepresentatives. There is one voter for every five persons in thepopulation, nearly the same proportion as in the United States. In 1839the principal states of Europe agreed to recognize Belgium'sindependence, and in case of war among themselves to treat her territoryas neutral land, not to be invaded. This treaty was signed by Prussia aswell as by Austria, France, Great Britain, and Russia. The treaty wasagain acknowledged by Prussia in 1870. It was in violation of thesetreaties, as we shall see, that Prussian and other German troops invadedBelgium on August 4, 1914. 

FRANCE. --In 1789 France entered upon a period of revolution. The oldmonarchy was shortly overthrown, and with it went aristocracy and allthe inequalities of the Middle Ages. A republic, however, did not longendure; and Napoleon Bonaparte used his position as a successful generalto establish a new monarchy called the French Empire. After Napoleon'sdownfall, the allied monarchs of Europe restored the old line of kingsin France. But the country had outgrown despotism. A revolution in 1830deposed one king and set up another who was ready to rule under theterms of a constitution. In 1848 this monarchy was displaced and thesecond French republic was established. But again a Bonaparte, nephew ofNapoleon I, seized the government and established a second empire, calling himself Napoleon III. He aped the ways of his great predecessorand tried by foreign conquest or annexation in Africa, Italy, and Mexicoto dazzle the French people. But he was never popular, and his reignclosed in the defeat and disgrace of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), for which he was partly responsible. 

The third French republic was proclaimed in 1870 and is the presentgovernment of the country. Under the constitution there is a senate, themembers of which are elected for nine years, and a lower house, electedfor four years. The president is chosen by these two houses of thelegislature for a term of seven years. No member of the old royalfamilies may become president of the republic. The president of Francedoes not possess nearly so much power as the president of the UnitedStates. Many of the executive duties are performed by the premier, orprime minister, and other cabinet ministers. 

Republican France has become one of the great nations of the world, andits democratic institutions are firmly rooted in the hearts of thepeople. It has been compelled to face German militarism by erecting asystem of universal military training. The patriotism and self-sacrificeof all classes during the Great War have been beyond praise. 

GREAT BRITAIN. --During the nineteenth century Great Britain did notexperience any of the sudden revolutions which appeared in nearly everyother country of Europe. For centuries England, Scotland, and Irelandhad possessed representative institutions. When reforms were needed, they were adopted gradually, by the natural process of lawmaking, instead of resulting from rebellion and revolt. In this way GreatBritain had been changed from an aristocratic government to one foundedon democratic principles. By 1884 the suffrage was nearly as extensiveas in the United States. Parliament became as truly representative ofthe people's will as our American Congress. Far-reaching social reformswere adopted which advanced the general welfare. Among these reformswere acts for improving housing conditions, regulating hours of laborand use of machinery in factories, and establishing a national insurancesystem, old-age pensions, and compensation to injured workmen. 

Great Britain was the first nation to experience the advantages anddisadvantages of the new age of coal and iron, and the new methods offactory production. Her wealth and commerce grew at a rapid rate, andshe invested her profits in enterprises in many parts of the world. Thefactory system drew so many workers from the farms, that Great Britainno longer raised sufficient food for her population. She becamedependent upon the United States, Australia, South America, and otherlands for wheat, meat, and other necessaries of life. Her merchantvessels were to be found in all parts of the world; and her navy wasincreased from year to year to protect her commerce and colonies. Fromnow on it became evident that England's existence depended upon herships. If in time of war she lost control of the seas the enemy couldstarve her into submission. Hence during the nineteenth century GreatBritain's policy was to maintain a fleet stronger than that of anypossible combination against her. 

England's colonial system had been developed into a great empire. Principles of English liberty and representative government were carriedby Britishers to many parts of the world. The American Revolution showedthe mother country that Englishmen would not brook oppression even bytheir own king and parliament. During the nineteenth and twentiethcenturies England adopted the policy of erecting her colonies intoself-governing communities. Thus the separate colonies in Canada, inAustralia, and in South Africa were grouped in each case into a federalgovernment, somewhat similar to that of the United States, and threegreat British democracies were formed within the boundaries of theempire. So successful has been the British system of colonial governmentthat there has been virtually no question of loyalty during the GreatWar. All parts of the dominions have contributed in men and money to thecommon cause, and frequent imperial war conferences have been held inLondon. In these conferences representatives from the colonies and themother country have joined in the discussion of important imperialquestions. 

TURKEY AND THE BALKANS. --In 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople. Thereafter their power was rapidly extended in southeastern Europe andfor several centuries they were the dominant power in the Balkanpeninsula. During this time they overran Hungary and invaded Austria upto the walls of Vienna. They subjugated Greece and all the lands nowincluded in Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, Albania, as well as a number ofnear-by Austrian, Hungarian, and Russian provinces. 

Many diverse races were included within the Turkish dominions. Theydiffered among themselves in language, religion, and culture. The Turkswere Mohammedans, while their subject peoples in Europe were mainlyChristians belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church. 

First driven out of Hungary and Russia during the eighteenth century, the Turks lost nearly all their European possessions in the nineteenthand early twentieth centuries. The subject peoples had kept theirnational traditions and customs and from time to time they aimed atindependence. The Turkish rule was oppressive and at times its methodswere barbarous. If there had been no jealousies among the great Europeanpowers, it is probable that Russia would have occupied Constantinoplelong ago. The other powers, fearing this might make Russia too strong, interfered on several occasions to prevent such an occupation. But thepowers could not prevent the smaller nationalities from attaining theirindependence from Turkey. Greece, Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, andAlbania were freed from the rule of the "unspeakable Turk" and erectedinto independent kingdoms at various times between 1829 and 1913. Of hergreat empire in Europe, Turkey retained, at the outbreak of the GreatWar, an area of less than 11, 000 square miles (less than the area of thestate of Maryland), and a population of 1, 890, 000, which was almostaltogether resident in the two cities of Constantinople and Adrianople. 

RUSSIA. --In 1914 Russia was an empire occupying one seventh of theland area of the world and inhabited by about 180, 000, 000 people. Duringthe nineteenth century the country was ruled by absolute monarchs calledczars, under whom political and social conditions were corrupt andoppressive. However, some progress was made during the century. Serfdomor slavery was abolished from 1861 to 1866; restraints upon newspapers, publishers, and schools were partly withdrawn. Natural resources weredeveloped, factories established, and railroads built. But thesemeasures only served to whet the appetite of the people for more liberalgovernment. The activities of revolutionists and reformers were met bymost severe measures on the part of the government. Thousands weretransported to Siberia and many were executed. Even as late as 1903five thousand persons were imprisoned, exiled, or executed for politicalactivity against the Czar's government. An attempt of the people toforce a representative government upon the Czar failed after a seemingsuccess in 1905-1906; for the Duma, or legislative assembly, thencreated was given little power. 

Russia has not been fortunate in her relations with the neighboringstates. Her great ambition, the occupation of Constantinople, wasrepeatedly balked by other countries. In an attempt to obtain anice-free harbor on the Pacific, Russia brought on the Russo-Japanese Warof 1904-1905, in which she was disastrously defeated. In anotherdirection Russia was more successful. She posed as the protector of theSlavic provinces under Turkish rule and saw the day when nearly all ofthem were free. 

Russia is a country of vast territory, enormous population, andunbounded natural resources. But before the war it had no experience inself-government. Its land and mineral resources were not used fornational purposes. A small governing class, with the Czar at the head, controlled its tremendous powers and wealth. Naturally, when aninsurrection is successful against such a government, the people loseall self-control and go to great extremes. Liberty and self-governmentsucceed only when all the people are willing to abide by the laws madeby the majority. May this time soon come for Russia!

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Look up facts concerning Napoleon Bonaparte, Gladstone, Bismarck, Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel I. 2. On outline maps of the world show the principal colonial possessions of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Holland. 3. Show on an outline map of Europe the location of peoples that had not attained to national independence before 1914. 4. Compare the size and population of the European countries with your own state in the American Union. 5. How far did the people in European countries possess a share in their government in 1914? 6. Look up in detail the government of Germany. 

 REFERENCES. --For facts such as those mentioned above see the _World Almanac_, the _Statesman's Yearbook_, and any good encyclopedia. For Germany, see Hazen, _The Government of Germany_, published by the Committee on Public Information, Washington, D. C. [1] Reference may also be made to Harding's _New Medieval and Modern History_ or to other histories of Europe. 

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Hereafter the publications of the Committee on Public Informationare indicated as follows: (C. P. I. ). 

CHAPTER II

WHY GERMANY WANTED WAR

It would be impossible to make a list of all the causes which ledGermany from time to time to take such action as would tend to force waron one or another of the nations of Europe. For besides questions ofnational honor or of national rights there were the writings of Germanphilosophers, historians, and scientists, a great majority of whommaintained that war was a necessity if men were to continue to live inlarge groups or societies. These writers were chiefly Prussian, butPrussia, including more than half of Germany, dominated the rest of theempire through the organization of its government. The followingparagraphs present what seem to be the chief reasons why Germany, andespecially Prussia, wanted war. 

WAR AS A PROFITABLE BUSINESS. --According to those German writers thereare two results from a successful war. First, the victors take more orless territory from the vanquished; second, the victors may demand alarge sum of money, called an indemnity, from the defeated people, whothus have to pay their conquerors for having taken the trouble to defeatthem. 

In both of these instances the result is advantageous to the winner ofthe war, and particularly to the governing class of that nation. Throughthe taxes from the new territory more money flows into the nationaltreasury, and a great many new officials must be appointed. These, ofcourse, for many years are appointed by the rulers of the victoriousnation. Besides this not only do we find new markets opened up for themanufacturers and merchants, but the conquered territory frequentlycontains great stores of raw materials. In both cases the goods can nowpass to and fro without the drawbacks of possible embargoes or importtaxes which interfere with the freedom of trade. This is wellillustrated by the results of the seizure of part of Lorraine by Germanyfrom France in 1870. Lorraine contains great stores of coal and ironore. These Germany wanted. So that part of Lorraine was demanded whichwould give to Germany rich mines of coal and iron. Some other oredeposits, which could not be easily utilized, she left to France. Notlong afterwards a new process for making iron was discovered which madethe French deposits more valuable than those Germany had taken. Undoubtedly one of the reasons for the present war was that Germanywished to increase her national wealth by seizing the iron mines thathad become so valuable. 

Many times before 1870 the Prussians had made large gains, in the way ofincreased territory and prestige, by means of war. It was the boast ofmany Prussian kings that each one of them had added to the lands overwhich he ruled. In almost every instance this increase was due to asuccessful war, enabling the king of Prussia to seize territory whichdid not belong to him. 

The indemnity which may be collected from a conquered nation is also asource of profit to the conqueror. The money is deposited by thegovernment in banks, which thus have large sums ready to lend tomanufacturers and merchants who wish to increase their business. Theresult of this is a great stimulation of manufactures and commerce. Inthe case of Germany, the effect on industry of the $1, 000, 000, 000 ofindemnity which she received from France following the Franco-Prussianwar was so great that Germany was soon manufacturing more than herpeople could consume, and German commercial agents spread all over theglobe seeking to find profitable customers for the surplus. 

On the other hand, the German leaders have failed to realize that thedestruction of men and materials in war is always a great national loss. In the case of a long war, the losses from these causes may, even forthe victors, overbalance any advantage which may be secured in the wayof territory or money from the vanquished nation. 

GERMANY WANTED LAND FROM HER NEIGHBORS. --The present war was largelythe result of Germany's desire to secure territory. The territory thatwas particularly wanted was in a number of different places. 

In the first place, Germany coveted the rest of the iron mines which shehad made the mistake (from her point of view) of letting France keep in1870. These are located along the northeast frontier of France, abouthalf a dozen miles from the boundary. Germany wanted also the greaterpart of Belgium, because it has valuable iron ore deposits, andespecially because it has great deposits of coal. It has been said thatwithout these mines of Belgian coal and of French iron, which Germanyseized at the very beginning of the war, she would soon have had to giveup the fight. 

In the second place, Germany's only ports are on the shallow northcoast, and the channels are intricate and difficult of navigation. Theseports are inconveniently situated for exports from Germany's chiefmanufacturing region, the lower Rhine valley. The best ports for westernGermany are Antwerp, in Belgium, and Rotterdam, in Holland. Germanywanted a port toward the west through which she could more convenientlyreach her customers in North and South America and elsewhere. It isinteresting to notice that the river Scheldt (skelt), on which Antwerpis situated, passes through Holland on its way to the sea. Even ifGermany secured Belgium this would not give her control of the Antwerpoutlet nor would it give her Rotterdam. It is certain that eventualdomination of Holland was part of Germany's plan. 

Germany wanted that part of Russia which was along the Baltic Sea. Thepart of Germany adjoining this, called East Prussia, is the strongholdof the Prussian Junkers, or landed nobility. These people already owngreat estates in the Baltic provinces of Russia. Germany wished togovern this German-owned land and provide a place to which her surpluspopulation could emigrate and still be in German territory. The Junkerswere especially anxious for this to come about as it would greatlyincrease their power in Germany. 

"Pan-Germanists" is the name given to a group of German leaders whoaimed especially to bring all German-speaking peoples into the GermanEmpire. In general, however, the same leaders aimed to bring underGerman control all the districts that have been mentioned above, together with the Balkan states and other lands. 

GERMANY WANTED MORE COLONIES. --Germany's commercial expansion cameafter most of the world had been divided among the other nations. Shethought she must have more colonies to provide her with raw materialsand to give her markets for some of her surplus manufactures. Otherreasons why Germany wanted colonies were that she might obtain morefood, and that she might establish coaling stations for her navy, sothat it could protect her commerce, especially her food-carrying ships. As the war has shown, Germany can hardly produce a full supply of foodfor her own people. 

The easiest way to get colonies seemed to be by making war against somenation that already possessed them, in the hope that a victoriousGermany could seize the colonies she desired. On the other hand, withoutwar, she had gained some large colonies and was assured of others inAfrica, and she had secured a prevailing influence over the immensedomains of Turkey in Asia. By 1914 the Germans had more than halfcompleted a railroad through Turkey to the Persian Gulf, and expectedsoon to dominate the eastern trade by the Berlin-Bagdad route. 

[Illustration: THE BERLIN-BAGDAD RAILWAY]

GERMANY WANTED "A PLACE IN THE SUN. "--Germany was acknowledged to bethe strongest nation in continental Europe. Her position as a worldpower, however, was disputed by Great Britain, both by reason of thelatter's control of the sea through her enormous fleet, and by reason ofGreat Britain's numerous colonies all over the world. It was galling toGerman pride to have to coal her ships at English coaling stations. Shewanted stations of her own. By bringing on a war that would humbleFrance to the dust and make Belgium a part of Germany, thus giving her achance to seize the colonies of France and Belgium, Germany would atonce attain a position in the world's affairs which would enable her tochallenge the power of any nation on earth. 

THE SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST. --German thinkers carried to an extremethe theory of the survival of the fittest. This doctrine teaches thatall living things have reached their present forms through a gradualdevelopment of those qualities which best fit them to live in theirpresent surroundings. Those that are best adapted live on, and produce anew generation that are also well fitted to survive. Those that are notfitted to their surroundings soon give up the struggle and die. TheGermans applied this same belief to nations, and claimed that only thosenations survived that could successfully meet world conditions. Theybelieved that war was an inevitable world condition, and that thatnation would survive that was best able to fight. They believed in war, because they believed that just as nature removes the weak animal orplant by an early death, so the weak nation should pay the penalty ofits weakness by being defeated in war and absorbed by the stronger one. War would prove which nation was the most nearly perfect. The Germanshad no doubt that this nation was Germany. Acceptance of this belief bythe German people had much to do with bringing on the present war. 

GERMANY WANTED TO GERMANIZE THE WORLD. --As a result of the reasoningoutlined in the last paragraph, German writers taught that those thingswhich were German--their speech, their literature, their religion, their armies, in short the manners, customs, and thoughts of theGermans--were the best possible manners, and customs, and thoughts. These things all taken together are what is meant by _Kultur_(kool-toor´), --not merely "culture" as the latter word is generallyused. 

Since the Germans believed that their _Kultur_ was the highest stage ofhuman progress, the next step, according to the view of their leaders, would be to Germanize all the rest of the nations of the earth byimposing German _Kultur_ upon them. If possible, this was to be broughtabout with the consent of the other nations; if not, then it was to beimposed by force. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Locate Antwerp, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Bremen, East Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine. 2. Show on an outline map the regions which Germany desired to control. Who would have suffered? 3. If all countries adopted the German idea of war what would be the condition of the world? 4. Has any nation the right to impose its rule upon another people because it believes its own ideals are the only true ones?

 REFERENCES. --See page 26; also _Conquest and Kultur_ (C. P. I. ); _War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ), under the headings "German Military Autocracy" and "Pan-Germanism. "

CHAPTER III

GERMAN MILITARISM

WHAT IS MILITARISM?--Militarism has been defined as "a policy whichmaintains huge standing armies for purposes of aggression. " It should benoticed that the mere fact that a nation, through universalconscription, maintains a large standing army in times of peace does notconvict it of militarism. Every one of the great European powers exceptEngland maintained such an army, and yet Germany was the only one thatwe can say had a militaristic government. 

A more narrow definition of militarism is that form of government inwhich the military power is in control, and with the slightest excusecan and does override the civil authority. This had been the situationin Germany for many years before the outbreak of the Great War. 

Let us take a glance at the development of this sort of government. After Napoleon conquered Prussia, early in the nineteenth century, oneof the conditions of peace was that Prussia should reduce her army tonot more than forty-two thousand men. In order that the country shouldnot again be so easily conquered, the king of Prussia enrolled thepermitted number of men for one year, then dismissed that group, andenrolled another of the same size, and so on. Thus, in the course of tenyears, it would be possible for him to gather an army of four hundredthousand men who had had at least one year of military training. 

The officers of the army were drawn almost entirely from among theland-owning nobility. The result was that there was gradually built up alarge class of military officers on the one hand, and, on the other, amuch larger class, the rank and file of the army. These men had becomeused, in the army, to obeying implicitly all the commands of theofficers. 

This led to several results. Since the officer class furnished also mostof the officials for the civil administration of the country, theinterests of the army came to be considered the same as the interests ofthe country as a whole. A second result was that the governing classdesired to continue a system which gave them so much power over thecommon people. We should perhaps consider as a third result the factthat the possession of such a splendid and efficient military machinetended to make its possessors arrogant and unyielding in theirintercourse with other nations. 

COMPETITION IN ARMAMENTS. --After 1870 the German emperor was thecommander of the whole German army, which was organized and trained onthe Prussian model. The fact that Germany had such an efficient armycaused other nations to be in constant fear of attack. Therefore herneighbors on the continent of Europe were led to organize similar armiesand make other preparations for defense. 

Moreover, Germany in recent years formed a number of ambitious projectsof expansion and colonization which would probably bring her intoconflict with other countries. In order to assure herself of success, Germany proceeded to enlarge and otherwise improve the organization andequipment of her army. This led France and Russia to enlarge theirarmies. So the competition went on. 

GERMANY'S NAVY. --For over a century Great Britain's control of theseas had been almost undisputed. In order to carry out her projects ofexpansion, Germany required a fleet which, while perhaps not so large asthat of Great Britain, would be large enough to make the result of anaval battle questionable. Huge money grants were obtained from theGerman people, and for a time more battleships were built by Germanythan by England. England dared not permit the naval superiority to passinto Germany's hands. The result was a competition in dreadnaughtbuilding quite as feverish as the competition in armies. The buildingand maintenance of these great fleets were a heavy burden upon thepeople of both countries. England made several offers to limit thecompetition by promising to build no ships in any year in which Germanywould build none, but Germany in every case refused to agree to theplan. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Make a chart showing the comparative sizes of European armies in 1914. 2. In the same way compare the European navies in 1914. 3. What effect is produced upon a country by an aristocratic military class? 4. Compare the German military policy with that of the United States. 5. Will disarmament be one of the good results of this war?

 REFERENCES. --_The World Almanac; War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ), under the names of the several countries, and under "Navy"; _German Militarism_ (C. P. I. ). 

CHAPTER IV

INTERNATIONAL LAW AND THE HAGUE CONFERENCES

INTERNATIONAL LAW. --In the civilized world to-day each community ismade up of citizens who have a right to the protection of the laws oftheir community and who in turn have the duty of obedience to thoselaws. During recent centuries improved means of communication andtransportation have brought all parts of the world closer together, andthere has grown up in the minds of many enlightened thinkers the ideathat the whole civilized world ought to be regarded as a community ofnations. In the past the relations of nations to one another have beenvery nearly as bad as that of persons in savage communities. Quarrelshave usually been settled by contests of strength, called wars. Believers in the idea of the community of nations argue that wars wouldcease or at least become much less frequent if this idea of a communityof nations were generally accepted. 

The body of rules which nations recognize in their dealings with eachother is usually spoken of as _international law_. As to certain rulesof international conduct the civilized nations of the world have been ingeneral agreement for many centuries. Among such rules are those for thecarrying out of treaty obligations, the punishment of piracy, theprotection of each other's ambassadors, the rights of citizens of onecountry to the protection of the laws of the country they are visiting, the protection of women and children in time of war. 

As in community law so also in international law rules have frequentlygrown up as matters of custom. In the second place agreements havesometimes been reached through negotiation and written out in the formof treaties between the two nations concerned. In the latter half of thenineteenth century several attempts were made to strengtheninternational law by means of general conferences of the nations. One ofthe most famous of these was the Conference of Geneva in 1864, whichreached a number of valuable agreements on the care of wounded soldiersand gave official international recognition to the Red Cross. At thevery end of the century occurred the first of the two famousinternational conferences at The Hague. 

Toward this growing movement in the direction of the setting up of acommunity of nations in which each has equal rights and equallyrecognizes the force of international law, the German Empire has takenan attitude of opposition. She has steadily refused to accept her placeas a member of a family of nations. Her leaders have taken the ground, as explained in Chapter II, that strong nations should control weakernations whenever it is to their own interest. As a principle this isjust as barbarous as if in a community the man with the strongestmuscles or the biggest club should be permitted to control the actionsof his neighbors who happened to be weaker or less effectively armed. Just as the strong brutal man must be taught that laws apply to him aswell as to the weaker members of the community, so must Germany learn torespect the laws of nations and the rights of weaker peoples. 

THE CALL FOR A WORLD PEACE CONFERENCE. --In spite of the rapid growthof armaments in Europe after 1870 there was growing up among many of theleading thinkers of the nations a movement looking toward permanentpeace in the world. The movement soon gained great strength among allclasses. Peace societies were formed, meetings were held, and pamphletswere prepared and distributed. Toward the close of the century publicopinion in most countries was leaning more and more toward the idea ofuniversal peace. Governments, however, were slower to take up theproblem. Strangely enough the first government to take action in thematter was that of Russia, at the time the most autocratic of all thenations of Europe. 

Two years before the close of the century Czar Nicholas II sent out anofficial invitation calling upon the nations to send representatives toan international conference to discuss the problem of the prevention ofwars. The Czar pointed out the dangers which must surely result if themilitary rivalry of the nations were not checked. He referred to thefact that European militarism was using up the strength and the wealthof the nations and was bringing about a condition of militarypreparedness which must inevitably lead in the end to a war moredisastrous and terrible than any war in the history of mankind. The Czardid not go so far as to suggest complete and immediate disarmament. Every one knew that Europe was not ready to consider so violent a changeof policy. The Russian invitation merely proposed that the conferenceshould try to agree upon some means for putting a limit upon theincrease of armaments. It suggested that the nations should agree not toincrease their military or naval forces for a certain limited period, not to add to their annual expenditure of money for military purposes, and to consider means by which later on there might be an actualreduction of armaments. It was necessary to avoid the jealousies whichmight arise among the great powers if the capital of one of them wereselected for the conference, so the Czar suggested that the meeting takeplace at The Hague, the capital of small, peace-loving Holland. 

THE FIRST HAGUE CONFERENCE. --The conference called by the Czar met onMay 18, 1899. All the great nations of the world sent delegates, as didmany of the smaller nations. In all, twenty-six governments wererepresented, twenty of which were European. The United States and Mexicowere the only countries of the New World which sent representatives. Thequeen of Holland showed her appreciation of the honor conferred upon hercountry by placing at the disposal of the conference, as its meetingplace, the former summer residence of the royal family, the "House inthe Woods, " situated about a mile from the city in the midst of abeautiful park. 

DISARMAMENT. --Although the menace of the tremendous armaments ofEurope had been the chief reason for the conference, absolutely nothingwas accomplished toward solving that problem. This failure was largelydue to the opposition of Germany, which, as the strongest military powerin Europe, would listen to no suggestion looking toward the limitationof military force. At one of the early meetings of the conference aGerman delegate brought out clearly and unmistakably his government'sopposition to any consideration of the subject. In a sarcastic andarrogant speech he defended the German system of compulsory militaryservice and her expenditures for military purposes. While it isextremely doubtful, in view of the difficulties in the way of anygeneral policy of disarmament, that much could have been accomplished bythe conference even under the most favorable circumstances, this standon the part of the German government meant the immediate and absolutedefeat of the suggestion. The other nations of Europe had establishedtheir large military systems as a measure of defense against Germany, sothat in the face of that government's refusal to agree to the policy oflimiting armaments, no neighboring country on the European continentcould adopt it. In the conference, the matter was dismissed after theadoption of a very general resolution expressing the opinion "that therestriction of military charges ... Is extremely desirable for theincrease of the material and moral welfare of mankind. "

ARBITRATION. --The conference met with a somewhat larger measure ofsuccess when it came to discuss the question of the peaceful settlementof international disputes, though here also the attitude of the Germangovernment stood in the way of complete success. The United States fromthe days of John Jay had taken the lead among the nations of the worldin the policy of settling international disputes by peaceful means. Quite different has been the traditional policy of Prussia, whichthroughout its history has relied upon force to accomplish its purposes. All the German wars of the nineteenth century could easily have beenaverted if the Prussian government had honestly desired to settle itsquarrels by peaceful methods. She has taken the ground, however, thatarbitration can only work to her injury, since she is better preparedfor war than any other nation and can mobilize her army more rapidlythan any of her neighbors. "Arbitration, " said one of her delegates atThe Hague, "would simply give rival powers time to put themselves inreadiness, and would therefore be a great disadvantage to Germany. " Thispoint of view shows clearly how the German leaders place the growth ofGerman power far above such considerations as right and justice. 

THE HAGUE PEACE TRIBUNAL. --The struggle in the conference over thequestion of arbitration centered about the establishment of a permanenttribunal or international court of arbitration to which nations mightbring their disagreements for settlement. The United States delegationfavored making a definite list of the kinds of disputes which nationswould be compelled to bring to the tribunal for settlement. On the otherhand, the Kaiser himself sent a dispatch from Berlin in which he spokestrongly against anything in the nature of an arbitration tribunal. Largely through the efforts of Mr. Andrew D. White, head of the Americandelegation, the German government was brought to modify its stand. Germany finally agreed to the creation of the tribunal, but only oncondition that in no case should the submission of a dispute to it becompulsory. The tribunal was to be established, but it would have theright to render a decision only in those cases which the disagreeingnations might decide to submit to it. 

The Hague Tribunal is not made up of permanent judges like an ordinarycourt. It consists of persons (not more than four from each country)selected by the various nations from among their citizens of highstanding and broad knowledge of international affairs. From this longlist any powers between whom there is a disagreement may choose thepersons to form a court or tribunal for their special case. 

THE SECOND HAGUE CONFERENCE. --The conference of 1899 had proved anabsolute failure so far as disarmament and compulsory arbitration wereconcerned. In fact the years immediately following were marked by twodestructive wars: that between Great Britain and the Boers of SouthAfrica, and the war between Russia and Japan. These wars made it clearthat with the applications of modern science warfare had become soterrible that, if the nations could not arrange by agreement for itsabolition, they should at least take steps to lessen its horrors. Thiswas the chief reason back of the invitation for a second HagueConference, which was issued by the Czar at the suggestion of PresidentRoosevelt. Forty-seven nations--nearly all the nations of the world---were represented when the conference assembled on June 15, 1907. 

Attempts were made to reopen the questions of disarmament and compulsoryarbitration, but without success. Germany again stood firmly againstboth suggestions. The conference consequently confined its effortsalmost entirely to drawing up a code of international laws--especiallythose regulating the actual conduct of war--known as "the HagueConventions. " They contain rules about the laying of submarine mines, the treatment of prisoners, the bombardment of towns, and the rights ofneutrals in time of war; they forbid, for example, the use of poison orof weapons causing unnecessary suffering. Even on these questionsGermany stood out against certain changes which would have made warstill more humane. But her delegates took part in framing the HagueConventions; and Germany, like all the other powers later engaged in theGreat War, accepted those conventions by formal treaty, thus bindingherself to observe them. 

RESULTS OF THE HAGUE CONFERENCES. --Leaders of the movement foruniversal peace felt that in spite of the small success of the HagueConferences a definite beginning had been made. Many of them were veryhopeful that later conferences would lead to larger results and thateven Germany would swing into line. There were plans to hold a thirdconference in 1914 or 1915. As we look back upon the years between 1907and 1914, it seems hard to understand the general blindness of the worldto the certainty of the coming struggle. Armaments were piled up at afaster rate than ever. Naval armaments also entered into the race. Fromthe point of view of bringing about permanent peace in the world we mustview the conferences at The Hague as having hopelessly failed. 

They did accomplish something, however. Arbitration was accepted by thenations of the world, in principle at least. Moreover, the conferenceshelped the cause of international law by showing how easilyinternational agreements could be reached if all the nations werehonestly in favor of peaceful decisions. Some day when the present warhas taught the world the much needed lessons that the recognition ofinternational law is necessary to civilization, and that the nationsmust join together in its enforcement, the work begun at The Hague in1899 and 1907 will be taken up once more with larger hope of success. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. How are ordinary laws enforced? How is international law carried out? Why the difference? 2. Enumerate the instances in which questions of international law have been brought up during the present war. 3. Look up the history of the Red Cross movement. 4. Why did the Hague Conferences fail to attain their great objects? 5. Summarize what was actually accomplished by the Conferences. 6. Has the history of the Hague Conferences any lessons which will be of value after this war?

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ), under "Red Cross, " "Hague Conferences. " See also publications of the World Peace Foundation; _International Conciliation_ (C. P. I. ); _War, Labor, and Peace_ (C. P. I. ). 

CHAPTER V

INTERNATIONAL JEALOUSIES AND ALLIANCES

The years between 1870 and 1914 were marked by growing jealousies amongthe great powers of Europe. All were growing in wealth and commerce, andeach looked with envious eyes upon the successes of its neighbors. Inthis chapter we are going to consider some of the special reasons forthe growth of international jealousies during this period, and thegrouping of the great nations into alliances. 

ALSACE-LORRAINE. --At the close of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, France was humiliated by being forced to give up to Germany a largesection of her eastern lands--Alsace and northeastern Lorraine. It wastrue that these provinces had long ago belonged to Germany. All of thisterritory, however, had been French for generations, and much of it forover two hundred years; and in both provinces the population was loyalto the French government and violently opposed to being transferred tothe rule of Germany. But defeated France had no choice in the matter, and the provinces became part of the German Empire. France has neverforgotten or forgiven this humiliation. Lloyd George, the British primeminister, in speaking of the Alsace-Lorraine problem (January, 1918)said, "This sore has poisoned the peace of Europe for half a century, and until it is cured healthy conditions cannot be restored. "

[Illustration: ALSACE-LORRAINE]

German rule in Alsace-Lorraine has been unwise as well as severe. Theteaching of the French language in the elementary schools of theprovinces was forbidden. Military service in the German army was madecompulsory despite the protests of the inhabitants, who felt a horror ofsome day being forced to fight against the French, whom they regarded asbrothers. All important offices were filled by Germans from beyond theRhine. The police constantly interfered with the freedom of the people. French newspapers were suppressed on the slightest excuse. Attempts weremade to prevent Frenchmen from visiting Alsace and Alsatians fromvisiting France. German army officers stationed in the provinces openlyignored the rights of the population and were upheld in their conduct bythe German government. As time passed the inhabitants grew more and moredissatisfied with the strict German rule. 

In France also hostility to Germany was increased by the conditions inAlsace-Lorraine. Frenchmen could not forget that they had been robbed ofthese provinces. Hope was kept alive that some day they might be wonback. In the city of Paris, in the Place de la Concorde, there are eightlarge marble statues each representing a great city of France. One ofthese represents Strassburg, the chief city of Alsace. Every year, onJuly 14, the national holiday of France, the people of Paris have placeda wreath of mourning on this statue. This custom expresses the sorrow ofFrance for the loss of her eastern provinces, as well as her hope thatsome day they may be restored. 

ITALIA IRREDENTA. --_Italia Irreden´ta_ in the Italian language means"unredeemed Italy. " It refers to the territory adjoining Italy on thenorth and northeast, occupied by Italians but not yet redeemed fromforeign rule. 

[Illustration: Map of Italia Irredenta]

When in 1871 the kingdom of Italy took its present form through theunion of former Italian states (Chapter I), Italia Irredenta remainedunder the rule of Austria. Italians feel, however, that Italian unityis not complete so long as adjoining lands inhabited by Italian-speakingpeople are ruled by foreign governments. So they regard these lands as"unredeemed. "

Italia Irredenta consists chiefly of the Trentino (tren-tee´no), atriangle of territory dipping down into the north of Italy, and someland around the northern end of the Adriatic including the importantcity of Trieste. Both of these regions are ruled by Austria. For manyyears this situation has led to ill feeling between the two countries. While it has not had so direct a bearing on the outbreak of the WorldWar as the question of Alsace-Lorraine, it nevertheless largely explainsthe entrance of Italy into the war on the side of the Allies. 

RUSSIA AND THE BOSPORUS. --Still another situation which in the yearsbefore the war was the cause of international jealousies was Russia'slong-standing ambition to control Constantinople on the Bos´porus. AsConstantinople is the capital of the Turkish Empire, the continuedexistence of that state, at least on the continent of Europe, wasthreatened by Russia's purpose. Russia has long been in need of anice-free port as an outlet for her commerce. Archangel (ark´ān´jel) inthe north is ice-bound most of the year. Vladivostok´, her port on thePacific, is ice-bound for three months of the year. Russian trade by wayof the Baltic must pass through waters controlled by other countries. Naturally she has turned toward the Bosporus and Dardanelles(dar-da-nelz´)--the straits connecting the Black Sea with theMediterranean--as the natural outlet for her trade, and this explainsher desire to possess Constantinople. 

For centuries Russia has been so much more powerful than Turkey that shewould surely have taken possession of Constantinople if the othernations of Europe had not interfered. On two different occasions duringthe nineteenth century England came to the assistance of the TurkishEmpire and saved Constantinople from the Czar. Great Britain was led totake this action through fear that Russian control of Constantinoplemight endanger the safety of her own communications with India. In theyears immediately preceding the outbreak of the Great War the dangerfrom Germany made other quarrels of much less importance, and England'sdisagreement with Russia over her desire for a trade outlet wasforgotten. 

EUROPEAN AMBITIONS IN THE BALKANS. --Russia has always felt a stronginterest in the small nations of the Balkan peninsula. Their inhabitantsare for the most part Slavs, of the same race as the Russiansthemselves, and they have naturally looked upon the great Slavic empireof the Czars as their protector. There was, moreover, a pan-Slavic partyin Russia, i. E. A group who looked forward to a union of all the Slavnations under the leadership of Russia. The pan-Slavic movement had itsbeginning in the help Russia had given these states in their revolt fromTurkey. 

Russia's aims and hopes in the Balkans were strongly opposed byAustria-Hungary. That state has long felt the need of seaports to thesoutheast and has hoped, with German support, to secure an outlet on theÆgean and to control the whole course of the Danube. This purpose couldbe accomplished only by annexing a large part of the Balkan peninsula. The Balkan situation, therefore, brought Russia and Austria face to facein opposition to each other. It was one of the most serious instances ofinternational rivalry in the period before the war. 

Italy also was interested in the Balkan question. She saw that if theAustrians should annex the Balkan lands lying to the south they wouldcontrol the whole eastern shore of the Adriatic. Italian interests andambitions would suffer. This fear, added to the constant bitternesscaused by the problem of Italia Irredenta, inflamed the hostility ofItaly toward Austria. 

Finally, Turkey also had an interest in the Balkan situation. She hopedto benefit by the various jealousies of the great powers. She believedthat fear of a general war would keep all of them from making any movein the Balkans and so would prolong her own shaky existence as aEuropean state. 

RIVAL COLONIAL EMPIRES. --Some time after the establishment of theGerman Empire, her rapidly growing wealth, population, and trade led herto regret the opportunities for colonial expansion that she had missed. She cast jealous eyes upon the vast colonial possessions of othernations. She also took what was left over, --several large regions ofAfrica, a port in China, a few islands in the Pacific, --not nearlyenough to satisfy her ambitions. South America was closed to her by thepolicy of the United States which is expressed in the Monroe Doctrine. In Asia, however, she secured extensive commercial and industrialconcessions--the forerunners of political control--in the TurkishEmpire. Germany's desire for colonies was natural enough, but herjealousy of her more fortunate European neighbors must be considered asone of the reasons underlying her military and naval preparedness forwar. 

Germany's covetous attitude toward the colonial possessions of othernations led to several serious international disagreements in the yearsbefore the Great War. More than once it almost brought her into conflictwith the government of the United States. An agreement had been made forthe joint control of the Samoan Islands by Great Britain, Germany, andthe United States. Germany's attempt to enlarge her interests in theislands led to a quarrel with American officers. An American flag wasseized by armed Germans, war vessels were sent to Samoa, and a navalbattle seemed about to take place. A hurricane destroyed the vessels, however, before any fighting had occurred, and the three countries drewup a treaty which settled that particular difficulty (1899). 

Germany also resented our acquisition of the Philippines and otherSpanish colonies. At the outbreak of our war with Spain in 1898, whenAdmiral Dewey steamed into Manila Bay, he found there a German fleetthat was half disposed to interfere with his operations. But when Deweyshowed a willingness to fight, the Germans withdrew. 

Several years later Germany picked a quarrel with Venezuela and, indefiance of the Monroe Doctrine, bombarded a fort on her coast. Actingin conjunction with England and Italy, German warships blockaded theports of Venezuela to force the payment of financial claims. PresidentRoosevelt's insistence that Germany drop her further plans ofaggression, and his promptness in concentrating the American fleet inthe West Indies, resulted in Germany's accepting a peaceful solution ofthe dispute. 

In 1911 Germany tried to force France out of Morocco. Since 1904 Francehad by common consent taken general charge of affairs in that country. Later Germany made objections to this arrangement. Finally, in 1911, when France was sending troops into the interior to put down disordersamong the natives, Germany sent a gunboat to Agadir (ah-gah-deer´), onthe west coast of Morocco. It looked as if she intended to takepossession of the port there. France protested and the affair began tolook very warlike. England came to the support of France, and Germanygave up all claim to Morocco, taking in exchange about 100, 000 squaremiles in equatorial Africa. After this humiliation the Germanmilitarists became more determined than ever to force the war which theythought would make Germany supreme over her rivals. 

THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. --The various jealousies among the nations ofEurope which we have just considered, and particularly the general fearof the growing power of the German Empire, largely explain the stronginternational alliances which came into existence between 1870 and 1914. 

Germany, after 1870, knew that France would for many years be too weakto retake Alsace-Lorraine. All that German leaders had to fear was thatFrance might succeed in securing powerful friends among the othernations and that a strong combination of countries might some daychallenge Germany's supremacy on the Continent. To prevent or at anyrate to counterbalance any such combination, Germany looked about forallies upon whose help she might rely in case of necessity. At first sheplanned a general league of friendship with the great countries lying tothe east and southeast, Russia and Austria-Hungary. This combination, known as the League of the Three Emperors, was soon broken up by thegrowing jealousies of Russia and Austria in the Balkans. Germany, havingto choose which of these two nations she would support, decided in favorof Austria. There followed a growing coldness in the relations betweenGermany and Russia. 

Germany having allied herself with Austria, looked about for anothernation to give greater strength to the combination. Her thoughts turnedtoward Italy, which, in case of another war against France, could attackthe French southeastern border and so prove a valuable ally. For anumber of years there had been ill feeling between Italy and France, andGermany counted on this feeling to bring Italy under her influence. Thechief difficulty in the way of Germany's plan was that Italy would haveto abandon her ideas in regard to Italia Irredenta and enter intofriendly relations with Austria, her old enemy. Italy was finally driveninto this unnatural alliance by the action of France, which in 1881occupied Tunis, a land which Italy herself had been planning to annex asa colony. Italy, too weak to prevent this action of France, entered thealliance with Germany and Austria into which she had been invited. So itwas that the Triple Alliance was established (1882), as a league ofdefense against any nations which should begin an attack upon any one ofthe three. 

THE TRIPLE ENTENTE. --_Entente_ (ahn-tahnt´) is the French word forunderstanding or agreement. In the recent history of Europe it refers tothat friendly grouping of nations which was formed in self-defenseagainst the Triple Alliance. The war of 1870 had left France not onlyhumiliated but weakened and isolated. The formation of the TripleAlliance put out of question the idea of a successful war againstGermany to right the wrong which France had suffered. In fact it seemedto make more probable a new attack upon France. Russia also foundherself in a position of isolation. Their isolation and consequentdanger gradually drew these two nations together, distant as they werefrom one another and different as they were in government and ideas. Sothere was established a dual alliance between the French Republic andthe Russian Empire. 

Great Britain had for a long time remained outside the jealousies andcombinations of the continental powers. In fact she had frequently foundherself at odds with France over the rights of the two nations inAfrica, and with Russia over the question of Constantinople and Russianaggression in Asia. When English statesmen discovered, however, that theGerman Empire was constantly enlarging her navy with a view tochallenging English control of the seas, they felt that it would be wellfor Great Britain to seek friendships on the Continent. Old quarrelswith France and Russia were forgotten. Friendly relations wereestablished, and Great Britain, France, and Russia entered into a leagueof friendship known as the Triple Entente (1907). 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Locate the Bosporus, Alsace-Lorraine, Italia Irredenta, Balkan peninsula, Ægean Sea. 2. Explain the geographical importance of Constantinople. How was Russia prevented from taking it in the Crimean War of 1854 and the Russo-Turkish War of 1877? 3. Show on a map of Europe the countries in the Triple Alliance and those in the Triple Entente. Why was each alliance formed?

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); Harding, _New Medieval and Modern History_; Hazen, _Europe since 1815_; and other European histories. For the treaties forming the two alliances, see _A League of Nations_, Vol. I, No. 4. 

CHAPTER VI

THE BALKAN STATES

THE BALKANS. --As we have learned in Chapter I, the Balkan states are, with the exception of Montenegro, the result of a series of revolutionswhich took place during the last hundred years. These revolutions werethe result of two causes. First there was a growing restlessness of thedifferent groups of people in the Balkan peninsula. This was due notonly to centuries of Turkish misrule, but also to the influence of therepublican movement which developed in northern and western Europe as aresult of the French Revolution. The second cause of the Balkanrevolutions was the gradual growth among the oppressed races of thefeeling that they would better their condition by throwing off thedespotic Turkish rule and by organizing each separate race into aseparate nation. Thus it was that the revolutions brought into existencea group of small states, each populated chiefly by one of the racesinhabiting the Balkans. 

[Illustration: THE BALKAN STATES 1913]

RACES IN THE BALKANS. --There are more races represented in the Balkansthan in any similar sized territory in Europe. Most of the Balkan stateslie along what was the northeastern fringe of the Roman Empire. So wefind inhabiting them not only ancient races like the Greeks andAlbanians, but also descendants of Roman colonists like theRoumanians, and other racial groups like the Serbs and Bulgars, whichrepresent the survivals of the barbarian invasions of the Middle Ages. While the larger groups of invaders passed on to the west, these droppedout and moved southward into the Balkan peninsula, where theirdescendants still remain. We must not think that these are pure races. There has been much intermixture, and to-day all of the groups contain astrong Slavic element, although some are rather unwilling to admit it. There is besides a Turkish element in the population, as the result ofthe long period of Turkish rule, especially in those districts wheremany of the original inhabitants accepted Mohammedanism, as in Albaniaand Macedonia. 

THE SLAVS. --The Serbs, a Slavic race, form the chief part of thepopulation in Serbia and Montenegro, as well as in Bosnia and otherparts of southern Austria-Hungary. Together with the Croats and Slovenesof southern Austria-Hungary, the Serbs are called the Jugo-Slavs(yoo´go-slavz) or South-Slavs (_jugo_ means "south") to distinguish themfrom the Czechs, Poles, and Russians of the north. There is, however, astrong feeling of relationship between these two great Slavic groups. 

THE BULGARS. --The Bulgars are descended from a non-Slavic race alliedto the Tatars and Finns. They came into the Balkan region on the heelsof some of the early migrations and seized the land now called Bulgaria;there, however, they mingled with the native Slavic people whom theyconquered, and whose language they adopted. There are, besides, manyBulgarians in the Dobrud´ja--the district lying between the lower Danubeand the Black Sea. Likewise in the province of Macedonia, the Bulgariansform the largest element in the population. 

THE ROUMANIANS. --Roumania is the old Roman province of Dacia, and theRoumanians claim to be descendants of colonists which the Romans sentinto that province as an outpost against invasion. It is certain thatthe language spoken by the Roumanians is much like Latin, but, as arecent writer says, the language is closer to Latin than the Roumaniansare to Romans. 

THE ALBANIANS. --The Albanian people are descended from the mostancient of all the races in the Balkan peninsula; their language is theoldest language spoken in Europe. For centuries they were nominallysubject to Turkey; but the Turks never really succeeded in conqueringthem, though many of the Albanians became Mohammedans. 

THE GREEKS. --Though the Greeks are descended in part from the peoplewho inhabited their country in ancient times, and though they speak amodern form of the old Greek language, it is certain that the presentinhabitants are a much mixed race. They are largely Slav, but hold astrong feeling for the great past of their country. This gives them anunusually strong national rallying point. In many ways the Greeks arethe most progressive of the Balkan races. 

RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA AS PROTECTORS OF THE BALKAN COUNTRIES. --Thestruggle between the great powers as to which of them should become theheirs of "the sick man of Europe, " as the Sultan of Turkey was long agocalled, dates back about a century. Austria on account of hergeographical position and her desire to expand to the southward, andRussia on account of her desire for Constantinople and the racial tiesconnecting her with the Balkan states, each hoped to be preferred. BothAustria and Russia, then, for more or less selfish reasons, were anxiousto bring about the break-up of the Turkish Empire in Europe. Whenever arevolt against Turkish rule would break out, the revolutionists couldalmost always count on the help of one or the other of these nations. 

Since the Slavs and the Greeks hated each other, and both hated theBulgarians, there was sometimes a tendency for the Bulgarians and theGreeks to look to Austria or Germany for help, as a counterpoise toRussia's influence on behalf of the Slavic states. At one time, however, Russia gave great aid to Bulgaria. In all the twists and turns of Balkanpolitics we find Russia or Austria posing as protector of the rights ofone or another of the Balkan states. 

On the other hand, when all the Balkan states bordering Turkey put asidetheir rivalries and combined for an attack on Turkey in 1912, Germanyand Austria gave what moral support they could to Turkey. Austria had nodesire to see a strong league of the Balkan states formed to the southof her, a league which would be largely under the influence of Russia. 

German leaders had already formulated their dream of _Mittel-Europa_(Mid-Europe), a broad band of German-controlled territory extending toTurkey. With Turkey itself Germany made treaties which practicallyassured her control all the way to Bagdad. Germany had no desire eitherfor a Balkan league, which would block her way, or for the defeat ofTurkey, which might interfere with the carrying out of the treaties. 

THE BALKAN WAR OF 1912. --Turkish rule in Macedonia had becomeincreasingly bad. Situated in the midst of three of the larger Balkancountries, it had representatives of each among its population. Thesecountries put aside for the time being their jealousies of each other. In 1912 Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro formed an alliance andpresented a demand to Turkey that Macedonia should be madeself-governing. Most of Europe believed that the German-trained army ofthe Turks would annihilate the armies of the smaller nations. But in alittle over a month Turkey was beaten. Even Constantinople might havebeen taken had Bulgaria pursued the advantage gained by her troops. Thistime no nation protected Turkey, and the treaty of peace left her withonly a tiny bit of European territory and the city of Constantinople. Incidentally, Germany had lost much prestige, for Turkey had fought thewar with the help of German officers and with German encouragement, andhad lost. 

THE SECOND BALKAN WAR. --Unfortunately, the victors soon quarreled overthe spoils. Bulgaria had seized Thrace and wanted most of Macedonia, including the city of Saloni´ca, which had been captured by the Greeks. Austria intervened to prevent Serbia from getting any increase interritory on the southwest, toward the Adriatic. Hence Serbia wanted ashare of the lands to the south, claimed by Bulgaria. Bulgaria, backedby Austria and Germany, refused to make any concessions, or to leave thedispute to arbitration. She began the second Balkan war with a nightattack on the Serbian and Greek armies, but was unable to defeat them. On the contrary Bulgaria was defeated within a month, partly becauseRoumania and Turkey also entered the struggle against her. Bulgaria hadto give up much of her conquests to her former allies. Roumania claimeda slice off her northeastern corner, and a Turkish army recapturedAdrianople and neighboring territory from the hard-pressed Bulgarians. 

LOSS OF PRESTIGE BY GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. --One of the important resultsof these two wars was the loss of prestige by Germany and Austria. These"Central Powers, " as they were called, had gone out of their way toencourage first Turkey, and then Bulgaria, and both these countries hadbeen badly beaten. In any future diplomacy the opinions and desires ofthe Central Powers would have less weight and impressiveness thanformerly. To regain their lost influence it was practically certain thatthese nations would, at the earliest opportunity, make an attempt toimpose their will upon the victorious Balkan states. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Locate Macedonia, the Dobrudja, Nish, Sofia, Durazzo. 2. Define and explain Mittel-Europa; "The sick man of Europe. " 3. Which nations of the Balkan peninsula border upon the Black Sea? Which border upon the Adriatic? Which lie along the Danube? 4. On an outline map of the Balkan peninsula indicate the races to which the populations belong and their distribution. 5. We have read in this chapter that the old Roman province of Dacia developed later into modern Roumania; can you name the Roman provinces which correspond to the modern nations of France, Spain, England, Switzerland? 6. What do you know of the history of Constantinople prior to its capture by the Turks? 7. Explain the causes of the second Balkan war. How did the outcome of this war affect the history of the great European powers?

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); _Study of the Great War_ (C. P. I. ); Davis, _The Roots of the War_; Hazen, _Europe since 1815_; and other general histories of recent Europe. 

CHAPTER VII

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE GREAT WAR

GERMANY'S RESPONSIBILITY. --Germany's tremendous increase of armaments, her opposition to arbitration, her hostility to the purpose of the HagueConferences, her building up of the Triple Alliance, her challenge toEngland's naval supremacy and her refusal to accept England's suggestionthat both nations should limit their expenditures on naval armaments, the glorification of war on the part of her teachers and writers, --allmake it clear that the present Great War was of her planning. For yearsshe prepared herself to inflict a crushing blow with all the weight ofher powerful army and navy and establish herself as the mistress of theworld. On this she was willing to stake her very existence. To use aphrase made famous by one of her leading military writers, Germany haddecided upon "world power or downfall. "

German militarists all looked forward to the day when her years ofpreparation would at last reap their reward through the crushing ofGermany's rivals. England particularly, with her vast trade, hercolonial empire, and her control of the sea, they planned to lower to asubordinate position in the world. "_Der Tag_" (dĕr tahkh), "the day"when the long-awaited war should burst upon the world, was a favoritetoast in the German army and navy. As long ago as the end of theSpanish-American War, a German diplomat said to an American armyofficer: "About fifteen years from now my country will start her greatwar. She will be in Paris in about two months after the commencement ofhostilities. Her move on Paris will be but a step to her realobject--the crushing of England. Everything will move like clockwork. Wewill be prepared and others will not be prepared. "

FINAL PREPARATIONS. --In 1913 the German government decided upon alarge increase in her already tremendous standing army. Immense sumswere also appropriated for aircraft and for huge guns powerful enough tobatter to pieces the strongest fortresses. To pay for this extraequipment additional heavy taxes were voted. The new arrangements wereall to be completed by the fall of 1914. Alterations were also hurriedon the Kiel Canal. This waterway, connecting the Baltic with the NorthSea, had been opened in 1895 and was of great naval importance. The newGerman battleships, however, were so large that the canal was not largeenough to admit them. The work of widening and deepening the passage wasundertaken by the government, and was finally completed on July 1, 1914. Preparations for the Great War were complete at last, both on land andsea. The gunpowder was ready. All that was needed was a spark to bringabout the explosion. 

THE AUSTRO-SERBIAN QUESTION. --For years before the war the Serbs andother Jugo-Slavs in the southern provinces of Austria-Hungary had beendissatisfied with Austrian rule. The Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina(hĕr-tsĕ-go-vee´nah) were especially aroused when those provinces, aftera long temporary government by Austria-Hungary, were formally annexed bythat power in 1908. Their wish was for union with the adjoining Serbiankingdom. Their aspirations did not cause very much trouble while Serbiawas small and weak; but when, as a result of the Balkan wars, Serbia wasrevealed to the world as a warlike nation with extended boundaries andgrowing national ambitions, the Austrian Serbs grew restless. There islittle doubt that Serbs of Serbia had much to do with the anti-Austrianactivities that rapidly spread among their brothers within the AustrianEmpire. The Austrian government, much disturbed by a movement thatthreatened to spread among her other subject populations, began to seeka pretext for crushing her southern neighbor and so settling thetroublesome Serbian question once for all. 

In 1913, at the close of the second Balkan war, Austria-Hungary informedher allies, Italy and Germany, of her intention to make war upon Serbia, and asked for the support of those countries. Italy refused to have anypart in the matter. Germany, realizing that Russia would probably cometo the assistance of Serbia and that a general European war mightfollow, no doubt prevailed upon Austria to stay her hand. Germany'spreparations at that time were not quite complete. 

THE ASSASSINATION OF FRANCIS FERDINAND. --In the early summer of 1914occurred the event that was destined to plunge the world into war. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, madea visit to the southern provinces of the monarchy. On June 28, while heand his wife were driving through the streets of Serajevo (sĕr´a-yā-vo), in Bosnia, three pistol shots were fired into the carriage, mortallywounding the archduke and his wife. The assassin was an Austrian Serb, amember of a Serbian secret society which had for its aim the separationof the Serb provinces from Austria-Hungary and their annexation to thekingdom of Serbia. The crime caused great excitement and horrorthroughout Europe. But the deed had given Austria the opportunity tosettle its account with Serbia and thus put an end to the Serb plottingswithin the Austrian borders. 

THE DECISION FOR WAR. --There is evidence that on July 5, one weekafter the murder at Serajevo, a secret meeting of German and Austrianstatesmen and generals took place in the German emperor's palace atPotsdam, a suburb of Berlin. Probably at this conference it wasdefinitely decided that the assassination of the Austrian crown princeshould be used as a pretext for crushing Serbia. Austria, it wasexpected, would thus permanently settle her Serbian problem. Germanymust have known that this action would probably lead to a generalEuropean war, since Russia would come to the rescue of Serbia and Francewould stand by Russia. But Germany was ready at last, and so theterrible decision was made. 

THE AUSTRIAN ULTIMATUM. --On July 23, the Austro-Hungarian governmentsent a note to the government of Serbia holding her accountable for theSerajevo murder and making a number of humiliating demands. Serbia wastold she must suppress all newspapers inciting enmity to Austria, thatshe must dissolve all societies that were working toward "Pan-Serbism, "that she must dismiss from the Serbian public service all officials whomthe Austrian government should officially accuse of plotting againstAustria, that she must accept the help of Austrian officials in Serbiain the putting down of anti-Austrian activities and in searching outaccessories to the plot of June 28, that she must arrest two Serbianofficials who had been implicated by the trial in Serajevo, and that shemust put a stop to the smuggling of arms from Serbia into Austria. 

The demand that Serbia admit Austrian officials into Serbia to take partin the work of investigation and suppression was an intolerable invasionof Serbia's sovereignty within her own borders. But the most threateningpart of the note was its conclusion: "The Austro-Hungarian governmentexpects the reply of the royal [Serbian] government at the latest by 6o'clock on Saturday evening, the 25th of July. " In other words, the notewas an ultimatum giving Serbia a period of only forty-eight hours inwhich to agree to the Austrian demands. 

SERBIA'S REPLY. --Serbia's answer to the Austrian ultimatum wasdelivered within a few minutes of the time set. She agreed, practically, to all the Austrian demands except those which required that Austrianofficials should conduct investigations and suppress conspiracies inSerbia, and she even went part way toward accepting those. Serbia wenton to suggest that if Austria was not entirely satisfied with the reply, the points still in dispute should be referred to the internationaltribunal at The Hague. This reply the Austrian government consideredunsatisfactory. Forty-five minutes after the Serbian note had beenplaced in the hands of the Austrian minister to Serbia that officialhanded a notice to the Serbian government stating "that not havingreceived a satisfactory answer within the time limit set, he was leavingBelgrade" (the Serbian capital). Austria-Hungary made immediatepreparations for the invasion of Serbia and on July 28 declared war. 

EFFORTS FOR PEACE. --Meanwhile Great Britain, France, and Italy wereputting forth every effort to preserve the peace of Europe. In theseefforts the lead was taken by Sir Edward Grey, the British foreignminister. As early as July 26 he urged a conference at London of therepresentatives of France, Germany, Italy, and Great Britain to findsome solution of the problem which might be satisfactory to both Austriaand Russia. Italy and France agreed at once, but Germany raisedobjections. Germany's only suggestion for preserving the general peaceof Europe was that Austria should be permitted to deal with Serbia asshe pleased, without interference from any other power. And so itcontinued through those critical days. Every effort made by Englandlooking toward a peaceful settlement of the quarrel was baffled byGermany's refusal to coöperate. This is not difficult to understand inthe light of our later knowledge of the plans and aims of the Germangovernment. 

THE DECLARATIONS OF WAR. --Austria's declaration of war on Serbia (July28) was followed by the general mobilization of Austria's troops. Austria maintained that all her armies were for the war on Serbia, buther preparations were so extensive that it was clear she was gettingready to fight Russia also. In reply Russia began to mobilize hertroops, partly to prevent the destruction of Serbia, but also to defendherself from possible Austrian attacks. Russia definitely notifiedGermany that her mobilization was directed against Austria only. Meanwhile England continued her efforts to bring about a conference ofthe powers, a plan which Germany continued to foil. The Czar in a formaltelegram to the Kaiser on July 29 suggested that the Austro-Serbianproblem be given over to the Hague Tribunal, a suggestion which wouldhave led to peace. Nothing came of this proposal. 

On July 31 the German government, on the ground that Russia'smobilization was a threat of war, sent ultimatums to both Russia andFrance. The ultimatum to Russia gave that government twelve hours inwhich to stop all war preparations against both Germany and Austria. Theultimatum to France informed that government of the message just sent toRussia, and demanded a reply within eighteen hours as to whether Francewould remain neutral in case of war between Germany and Russia. Thecrowds in the streets of Berlin went wild with joy over the news of thetwo ultimatums. There were cries of "On to Paris" and "On to St. Petersburg. " The Kaiser addressed his people from the balcony of hispalace. In the course of his speech, he said, "The sword is being forcedinto our hand. " The government of Germany had decided to make its peoplebelieve that they were about to fight in self-defense. 

Russia would not demobilize her armies under a German threat. Consequently the next day, August 1, Germany declared war upon Russia. Two days later, August 3, Germany declared war on France because thatcountry had refused to desert her ally in this time of danger. Thegreatest war of all history had begun. 

GREAT BRITAIN ENTERS THE WAR. --The German military leaders felt surethat Great Britain would remain neutral in case of a general Europeanwar. They based this belief on the peaceful temper of the Englishpeople, upon the serious domestic problems she was facing, such as thequestion of woman suffrage, Irish Home Rule, and the threatening laborsituation. Germany regarded England as a nation of shopkeepers who wouldnot fight unless they were attacked. After Germany had made herselfsupreme on the Continent England's turn would come. 

Great Britain's agreement with France and Russia, the other members ofthe Triple Entente, did not go so far as to require her to join them incase they should be involved in war. It is difficult to say whether ornot Great Britain would have decided to enter the conflict at this timeif a new element had not been introduced into the question by Germany'sinvasion of Belgium. Of this invasion more will be said in the followingchapter. All that need be mentioned here is that Germany, in spite of along-standing treaty to observe Belgium's neutrality, had decided onmarching through that country as the best route to Paris. Great Britain, as one of the nations which had promised to protect the neutrality ofBelgium, immediately demanded of the German government that it withdrawits plan of invasion. Germany refused, and on August 4 Great Britaindeclared war. So one week after Austria's declaration of war againstSerbia all the powers of the Triple Entente--commonly called theAllies--were in arms against Germany and Austria. Italy, the thirdmember of the Triple Alliance, on August 1 declared herself neutral, much to the disappointment and anger of the Central Powers, her formerallies. Her treaty with them provided that she should come to their aidonly in case they were attacked, and so did not apply to the presentwar, in which Germany and Austria were the aggressors. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Locate the Kiel Canal. What is its other name? When and why was it constructed? 2. Locate Potsdam, Belgrade, Serajevo. 3. Define ultimatum; mobilization; "Der Tag"; Jugo-Slavs. 4. What is the meaning of the prefix "pan" in Pan-Slavism, Pan-Germanism, Pan-Serbism? What do you know about each of these movements? 5. What is a declaration of war? Who has the power to declare war in the United States? In Germany? 6. Where are the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina? How were they governed before 1878? Between 1878 and 1908? Since 1908? 7. Review the efforts for peace made by the British government between the Austrian ultimatum and Germany's final declarations of war. Explain the attitude of Austria, Russia, France, and Germany during these days. 

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); _Study of the Great War_ (C. P. I. ); _The Government of Germany_ (C. P. I. ); Davis, _The Roots of the War_. 

CHAPTER VIII

THE WAR IN 1914

GERMAN PLAN OF ATTACK. --As soon as the German leaders had determinedupon war, their military machine was set in motion. The plan was firstto attack France and crush her armies before the slow-moving Russianscould get a force together; and then, after the defeat of France, toturn to the east and subdue Russia. The success of the plan wasdependent upon the swift overthrow of France; and this in turn hingedupon the question as to whether German armies could invade France beforethe French were ready. Speed was the essential thing, and in order togain speed Germany committed one of the greatest crimes in modernhistory. 

From the nearest point on the German boundary to Paris is only onehundred and seventy miles. But no rapid invasion of France could be madein this direction for two reasons: first, because of the very strongforts which protected the French frontier; and second, on account of thenature of the land, which presents to the east a series of five easilydefended ridges, each of which would have to be stormed by an invader. AGerman attack directly across the French frontier could move but slowlypast these natural and military obstacles; and the French nation wouldhave ample time to mobilize its forces. 

Consequently the German military leaders determined to attack Francefrom the northeast. Here a comparatively level plain stretched fromGermany through Belgium and France up to Paris itself. Many good roadsand railways traversed the land. Few natural barriers existed to aid thedefenders, and France, trusting to the neutrality of Belgium, had nostrong fortifications on her northeastern frontier. One obstacle toGerman invasion existed; it was what the German Chancellor once[2]called "a scrap of paper"--a promise to respect the neutrality ofBelgium, which Prussia, France, and England had agreed to by formaltreaties. Similar treaties guaranteed the neutrality of Luxemburg, asmall country east of Belgium. Upon these promises France had dependedfor the protection of her northeastern border; for the German Empire hadaccepted all the rights and all the duties of the treaties made byPrussia. But now, under the plea of necessity which "knows no law, " theGerman rulers determined to break their promises, violate the neutralityof Belgium and Luxemburg, and crush France before an aroused and alarmedworld could interfere. 

BELGIUM BLOCKS THE GERMAN PLAN. --The invasion of Belgium had tworesults which the Germans had not foreseen. In the first place, itbrought Great Britain immediately into the war to the aid of Belgiumand France. In the second place, the Belgian king and people refused tobe bought off with a promise of compensation; they made the highdecision to defend their country as long as possible against theterrible German army-machine. Said the Belgian king: "A country whichdefends itself commands the respect of all; that country cannot perish. "This action of Belgium disarranged the German army plans; instead ofreaching Paris according to schedule, the Germans were delayed inBelgium for ten days. These ten days were full of horror and sufferingand defeat for the brave Belgians; but they are precious days in thelight of history. They gave time for the French to mobilize their armiesand bring them up to the northeast; and they enabled Great Britain tosend across the English Channel her first hundred thousand troops. Inthis way Paris was saved from capture, and France from conquest; andprobably the whole world from German domination. The German plans forworld conquest met their first defeat at the hands of brave littleBelgium. The would-be conquerors had forgotten to include in theirtime-table the elements of honor, patriotism, and self-sacrifice. 

[Illustration: THE WESTERN FRONT 1914]

THE GERMAN ADVANCE. --Luxemburg was occupied without resistance, forthat little country had no army. On August 4, 1914, the German armiesattacked the Belgian fortress of Liege (lee-ĕzh´), and withintwenty-three days Belgium was overrun, its capital taken, and all theimportant places except Antwerp captured. After the delay in Belgium, the main German armies advanced into France. Here they were met (August21-23) by French and British troops; but the defenders were not yetstrong enough to stop the German advance. For twelve days they fell backtoward Paris, fighting continually, until the invaders were withintwenty miles of the city. The French government and archives werewithdrawn from Paris to Bordeaux in the southwest, so imminent seemedthe capture of the capital. The battle line now extended for one hundredand seventy-five miles eastward from near Paris to the fortress ofVerdun. 

THE FIRST BATTLE OF THE MARNE. --In the meantime the French commander, General Joffre (zhofr), had secretly been collecting another army withwhich to attack the invaders on the flank from the west. At the rightmoment he hurled this army upon the German flank, while the men on themain battle line were commanded to "face about and accept death ratherthan surrender. " On September 6-10 took place the first great battle ofthe Marne, during which the Germans, under these new attacks, werecompelled to retreat fifty miles from their most advanced position. TheFrench armies had rescued Paris in the nick of time. The Frenchgovernment once more returned to its capital. "France had saved herselfand Europe. "

THE RACE TO THE COAST. --On reaching the river Aisne (ân) the Germanarmies had time to entrench themselves and thus beat off the heavyattacks of the French and British (September 12-17). The Allied armiesin turn began to entrench opposite the German positions. But both armiesturned toward the north in a race to reach the North Sea and outflankthe enemy. The Germans were particularly anxious to reach Calais(ca-lĕ´) and cut the direct line of communication between England andFrance. Antwerp surrendered to the Germans on October 9; Lille (leel) onthe 13th. In tremendous massed attacks the Germans sought in vain tobreak through the British lines (Battle of Flanders, October 17 toNovember 15). The German losses were upwards of 150, 000 men. On thecoast the Belgians cut the dikes of the river Yser (ī´ser) and floodedthe neighboring lowlands, thus putting a stop to any further advance ofthe enemy. 

TRENCH WARFARE. --By this time the combatants had reached a temporarydeadlock. Both had adopted trench tactics, and for over three hundredmiles, from the sea to the Swiss border, two systems of entrenchmentsparalleled one another. The trenches were protected in front byintricate networks of barbed wire. Looked at from above, the trenchesseemed to be dug with little system. But they rigidly adhered to onemilitary maxim, --that fortifications must not continue in a straightline, because such straight trenches are liable to be enfiladed fromeither end. Hence the trenches curve and twist, with here and theresupporting trenches and supply trenches. Sometimes the trenches arecovered; sometimes dugouts and caves are constructed. Every turn orcorner is protected with machine-guns. In some portions of the linethese trenches faced one another for over four years with scarcely anychange in their relative locations. 

GERMAN TREATMENT OF OCCUPIED TERRITORY. --Eastward of the Germantrenches lay all of Belgium except a very small corner, and the richestmanufacturing districts of France, including eighty per cent of theiron and steel industries, and fifty per cent of the coal. On the otherhand the Allies had occupied only a small section of German territory atthe southern end of the line, in Alsace. 

German occupation of Belgium and northeastern France was accompanied byhorrible barbarities and systematic frightfulness, which were inviolation of the Hague Conventions as well as of other laws and usagesof civilized warfare. The aim at first was to terrorize the people andreduce them to a condition of fear and of servility to the conquerors. Men and women were executed without adequate evidence or trial; manyGerman soldiers were quartered in the homes; at the slightest sign ofresistance innocent persons were punished for the guilty; immense finesand forced contributions were imposed upon the communities; furniture, works of art, beautiful buildings, and historic structures wereruthlessly pillaged and destroyed. In the second place, the Germansbegan a systematic plundering of the occupied country, taking fortransportation to Germany anything they deemed useful or valuable. Nearly every article made of metal, wool, rubber, or leather was seized. Machinery from Belgian and French factories was taken to Germanestablishments. Households were compelled to surrender bathtubs, doorknobs and knockers, kitchen utensils, gas fixtures, bedclothes, etc. Food, farm animals, and farm products were confiscated; and thepopulation was saved from actual starvation only by the energies ofBelgium's friends in France, England, and America. At a later time, athird policy of the Germans was to drag Belgian and French young men andwomen away from their families and relatives and compel them to work farfrom their homes in factories, fields, and mines. Probably more than twohundred thousand persons were forced into this industrial slavery. Finally, where the Germans were forced to retire from the lands they hadoccupied in northern France and in Belgium, they sought to reduce muchof the evacuated territory to a desert condition. Not only were bridgesand roads destroyed, but houses, factories, and churches were leveled tothe ground, and the foundation walls and cellars were obliterated. Insome parts of France even the fruit trees and grapevines, the product ofmany years' growth and care, were systematically destroyed, andeverything which might make the land habitable disappeared. 

THE WAR IN THE EAST. --As has already been explained, the Germanmilitary leaders had counted upon a rapid crushing of France by way ofBelgium before Russia should have time to complete her militarypreparations for attacking eastern Germany. But during the time lostthrough the unexpected resistance of Belgium huge Russian armies weregathered together in Russian Poland for an invasion of Germany andAustria-Hungary. 

The western border of Russian Poland is less than two hundred miles fromBerlin. But Russia could not advance along this road without runningthe risk of having the Germans from the north and the Austrians from thesouth cut off her armies from their sources of supply in Russia. Inother words, Russia dared not advance on Berlin without first drivingthe Germans out of East Prussia and the Austrians from Galicia. Hencethe plan of her campaign in 1914 was to invade these two provinces. 

[Illustration: EASTERN FRONT Dec. 31, 1914]

BATTLE OF TANNENBERG. --Two Russian armies entered East Prussia in themiddle of August. At first they met with success. The nature of thecountry, however, was against them, as there was a chain of almostimpassable lakes, marshes, and rivers stretching across their route. Inthis difficult territory they were surprised by German reinforcementswhich had been rushed to the east. In the battle of Tan´nenberg (August26-31), the German troops under the command of General von Hindenburginflicted a crushing defeat upon the Russians, capturing 70, 000 men andlarge quantities of supplies. Hindenburg followed up his success, andthe Russians were completely expelled from East Prussia. 

THE RUSSIANS OVERRUN GALICIA. --The second part of the Russian plan, the invasion of Galicia, was more successful. In September the importantcity of Lemberg was taken, and the fortress of Przemysl (pshem´ishl) wasbesieged. By December almost the whole province was in Russian hands. South of Galicia, separating it from Hungary, are the CarpathianMountains. Russian troops penetrated the passes of this mountain walland conducted a series of successful raids upon the plains of northernHungary. 

THE RUSSIAN SITUATION AT THE CLOSE OF 1914. --At the end of the yearRussia, while she had achieved success in Galicia, had failed in EastPrussia. An advance toward Berlin was for the time out of the question. Indeed the Germans had themselves taken the offensive and had enteredRussian Poland. In October an advance of German and Austrian troopsthreatened Warsaw, the most important city in Poland. The Russians inspite of strong efforts were unable to drive their enemies entirely outof this region. On the whole, therefore, the Russian situation at theend of 1914 was disappointing. Russia's accomplishment consisted of hervictories in Galicia, and, probably more important, the drawing ofGerman troops from the western front and the consequent weakening ofGermany's offensive in France and Belgium. Russia was no farther on theroad to Berlin than at the opening of the war. 

SERBIAN RESISTANCE TO AUSTRIA. --An Austrian attempt to overwhelmSerbia in the first weeks of the war met with disastrous failure. Thiswas due to two causes: (1) the brave resistance of the Serbian troops;(2) the fact that the greater part of the Austrian forces had to be usedfor defense against the Russian invaders of Galicia. Serbia after severefighting compelled the Austrians to retreat beyond their own boundaries. Early in September the Serbians took the offensive and began an invasionof Austria-Hungary. This venture failed, and before long Serbia was oncemore resisting the enemy on her own soil. Belgrade fell into Austrianhands on December 2. It did not long remain in the possession of theconquerors. On the 14th, it was regained by the Serbians, and theAustrian armies once more expelled. The little Balkan kingdom seemed tobe holding her own. 

TURKEY ENTERS THE WAR. --In the years before the war, Germany hadcarefully cultivated the friendship of the Turkish government. By meansof intrigue, she had practically made herself master of that country, particularly in military matters. The Turkish army had been trained byGermans, and many of its officers were Germans. Although at the openingof the war Turkey declared herself neutral, she soon showed herself anally of the Central Powers. There is evidence to show that as early asAugust 4 she had entered into a secret treaty with Germany. In OctoberTurkey startled the world by bombarding a Russian port on the Black Seaand destroying French and Russian vessels at Odessa. These acts wereregarded by Russia as acts of war. A few days later France and GreatBritain declared war on Turkey. 

[Illustration: GERMAN COLONIES and locations of early navalengagements. ]

Germany welcomed the entrance of Turkey into the war for two reasons. Inthe first place she expected that the Mohammedans under English andFrench rule, that is, those living in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt, andIndia, would join the Turkish Sultan, the religious head of theMohammedan world, and engage in a "Holy War" against Great Britain andFrance. In this hope she was doomed to disappointment. In the secondplace Germany rejoiced at the arrival of a new enemy for Russia whomight keep the Russians occupied along their southern borders and soweaken their efforts on other fronts. 

GERMAN COLONIES IN THE PACIFIC. --During the first four months of thewar all of Germany's possessions in the Pacific were lost to her. On theoutbreak of the war, Australia and New Zealand promptly organizedexpeditionary forces which attacked and captured the German colonies andcoaling stations situated south of the Equator. German Samoa, the firstto be taken, surrendered to the New Zealand expeditionary force August29. The other German possessions in the South Pacific surrendered to theAustralians. 

England's ally, Japan, having entered the war August 23, 1914, sent anexpeditionary force which captured and occupied the German islands inthe North Pacific. Kiaochow (kyou´chō´), Germany's only colony in China, was captured by a combined Japanese and British force early in November. 

The loss of these colonies so early in the war interfered seriously withGerman plans for a war on Allied commerce by fast cruisers. In theabsence of German coaling stations, the only way such vessels couldobtain coal during a long raiding voyage, would be by the chance captureof coal-laden vessels. 

GERMAN COLONIES IN AFRICA. --During the last quarter century Germanyhad succeeded in getting control of considerable territory in Africa. There were few German colonists there. However, Germany hoped that theBoers, who had recently fought a war with the British, and had beendefeated, would attempt to regain their independence. In this case therewas also the possibility of capturing Cape Colony and Rhodesia from theBritish. Much to the surprise and disgust of Germany, the Boers promptlyshowed their loyalty to Great Britain and aided in capturing the Germancolonies. 

The struggle for Germany's African colonies continued for more thanthree years. Togo, a comparatively small colony, was captured by Frenchand British troops shortly after the outbreak of the war. Under the Boerleaders, Generals Smuts and Botha, German Southwest Africa was conqueredby July of 1915. Kamerun in West Africa was freed from German forces in1916. The final chapter in the fight for the German colonies was writtenin December of 1917, when an army from British South Africa, incoöperation with Belgian forces, completed the conquest of German EastAfrica. 

GERMANY'S FLEET. --When war was declared the German fleet, which hadcost the people of Germany a billion and a half of dollars, wassomething less than two thirds the strength of the British fleet. Germany's task was to destroy the British fleet or to weaken it to suchan extent that it could no longer protect the British trade in food andmunitions from over seas, nor assure the safe transport of troops fromGreat Britain or her colonies to the various fronts. 

THE WORK OF THE BRITISH NAVY. --The British navy had two pieces of workto perform. In the first place its aim was to destroy or bottle up inport the main German fleet so that it should not be able to interferewith the British plans for the war. In the second place squadrons had tobe sent out to search for and destroy German squadrons or vessels thatwere far from home ports at the outbreak of war or that were sent out toraid British and neutral commerce. 

COAST PROTECTION. --Both Great Britain and Germany protected theircoasts by laying fields of mines in the sea so placed that they wouldfloat just under water and arranged to explode on contact with the hullof a ship. Through these mine fields carefully hidden channels gaveaccess to the different ports. So long as ships stayed in port orinside the fields of mines they were safe from attack. 

THE BLOCKADE OF GERMAN PORTS. --In July, 1914, the British navy had agrand review. When the review was over, the war clouds were sothreatening that the vessels were not dismissed to their stations. Atthe beginning of the war Great Britain announced a blockade of Germanports and assigned to her main fleet the task of carrying out theblockade. 

THE BATTLE OF HELGOLAND BIGHT. --Hel´goland is a small island risingsteeply out of the North Sea; it has an area of one fifth of a squaremile. It was ceded to Germany by England about twenty years before thewar. Germany had fortified it and made it a sort of German Gibraltar toprotect her chief naval ports. The Bight of Helgoland is the passageabout eighteen miles wide between the island and the German coast. Herea portion of the British fleet engaged in patrol or scout duty came incontact with a part of the German fleet (August 28, 1914). The arrivalof four fast British battleships decided the contest. Germany lost threecruisers and two destroyers, while every British vessel returned toport, though some were badly battered. 

GERMAN COMMERCE RAIDERS. --A few days before the outbreak of the warthe German fleet in China slipped out of port. The cruiser "Emden" wasdetached for work in the Indian Ocean, and the rest of the squadronraided over the Pacific. November 1, a British squadron met the Germanships near the coast of Chile. In a little over an hour two of theBritish ships had been sunk and the remainder fled to the south. Immediately on news of the defeat the British Admiralty sent a squadronof seven powerful ships to find and destroy the German squadron. TheBritish vessels stopped at the Falkland Islands to coal. The next daythe German ships appeared. When they saw the strength of the Britishsquadron they vainly attempted to escape. In the battle that followed, four German vessels were sunk. Of the two that escaped one was, a fewmonths later, interned in a United States port and about the same timethe other was destroyed. 

The "Emden, " after separating from the other warships, cruised in theIndian Ocean for three months, and was the most destructive of theGerman raiders. She was finally located by an Australian cruiser. Aftera fight the German captain drove his vessel on the rocks to escapesinking. A lieutenant and forty men who had landed to destroy a wirelessstation, seized a schooner and escaped, landed on the coast of Arabia, and finally made their way back to Germany. 

NAVAL SITUATION AT THE CLOSE OF 1914. --As a result of the activitiesof the Allied fleets, the German navy was shut up in port back of itsmine fields, German commerce raiders had, with a few exceptions, beendriven from the sea or destroyed, German merchant vessels were laid upin neutral or German ports, and the Allies were free to carry on thetransport of troops, munitions, and other supplies with practically nofear of interference from the enemy. "The British ships, whethermen-of-war or merchantmen, are upon the sea, the German in their ports. "

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Locate Metz, Cologne, Liege, Namur, Lille, Verdun; the Meuse, the Marne, the Oise, the Aisne; Lemberg, Warsaw, Königsberg. 2. Look at a large map of Europe and by reference to the scale find out the following distances: Metz to Paris; Cologne to Paris (via Liege); Verdun to Berlin; Verdun to Strassburg; Liege to Paris; Warsaw to Berlin. What is the length of the Belgian coast-line; of the Dutch coast-line; of the Franco-German frontier? 3. Collect pictures and charts illustrative of trench warfare, and of devastated areas of Belgium and France. 4. Explain fully the influence of geography upon the campaigns of 1914. 5. Define neutrality; guarantee; treaty. 6. On an outline map of Europe indicate the countries fighting against Germany at the close of 1914. Indicate those fighting on the side of Germany at that time. Indicate the date when each of these countries entered the war. Draw a line showing the farthest German advance into France, and the farthest Russian advance into Germany and Austria (map, page 124). 7. What might have been the consequences if the Belgians had not resisted the German invasion? 8. Describe the German effort to reach the French coast in 1914. What would have been the probable consequences of its success? 9. What was the purpose of the English blockade of Germany? How did this blockade affect the rights of neutrals? Find out what the United States government did in the matter. 

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); _Study of the Great War_ (C. P. I. ); McKinley, _Collected Materials for the Study of the War; National School Service_, Vol. I, No. 3 (C. P. I. ); _New York Times History of the European War_. 

FOOTNOTES:

[2] In an interview with the British ambassador, as reported by theambassador August 4, 1914. 

CHAPTER IX

THE WAR IN 1915

THE WESTERN FRONT. --The deadlock which existed on the western front atthe close of 1914 continued with little change during the year 1915. There were indeed many contests which, on account of the men involvedand the casualties, would in previous wars have been considered majorengagements; but in spite of great preparations neither side was able tomake much impression upon the entrenched line of the enemy. From the seato the Swiss border two apparently impregnable lines of trenches facedeach other. 

German ingenuity and barbarity were shown in two new forms of warfareintroduced during this year. Poison gas was first used, contrary to theterms of the Hague Conventions, against the Allied line on April 22, 1915. It brought on the most horrible forms of suffering and torture, and compelled a temporary withdrawal of the French and English fromtrenches near Ypres (eepr). Later, masks were used as a preventive ofgas poisoning. Eventually the Allies were forced to adopt the use ofpoisonous gases in bombs and shells in order to fight the Germans withtheir own weapon. The other innovation was the "flame-thrower, " anapparatus which threw a flame of burning liquid or gas far ahead of thetroops. This has never been widely used by the Germans, because itproved almost as dangerous to themselves as it was to their opponents. Asharpshooter's bullet or a piece of shell might pierce the apparatus andthe containers and produce dangerous results among the Germans. 

THE GALLIPOLI CAMPAIGN. --In the east the year opened with an attempton the part of the Allies to force the Dardanelles with their fleets andtake possession of the city of Constantinople. The campaign gets itsname from the peninsula of Gallip´oli, the European shore of theDardanelles. In February the campaign opened with a naval attack. TheTurkish fortifications, however, were strong enough to defeat a purelynaval attempt and the Allied fleets met with heavy losses. It has beenstated since that had the Allies continued the attack one more day theTurks would have had to yield, as their ammunition was nearly exhausted. In April troops were landed on the peninsula to aid in the attack. Thelanding was accomplished at a terrible cost of life. Siege operationswere then begun against the Turkish and German forces defending thepeninsula. Month after month the fighting continued, but nothing worthwhile was accomplished. Finally, in January of the next year, thecampaign was abandoned. It had cost the Allies heavily in money andlives, and its failure had lost to them the respect of the hesitatingnations of southeastern Europe, Bulgaria and Greece. 

THE WAR ON THE RUSSIAN BORDER. --Along the Russian frontier also theAllied cause met with serious reverses. The year had opened favorablywith the Russians in control of most of Galicia. In March the greatGalician fortress of Przemysl, which had successfully withstood theattacks of the Russians the previous autumn, was compelled to surrender. 

Meanwhile, in January, Russia once more attempted to carry out the otherpart of her general plan, the invasion of East Prussia. The Russiantroops succeeded as before in entering the coveted territory, this timecrossing the troublesome lake region while the waters were frozen. Soon, however, the invaders met with a decisive defeat. In the Battle of theMazurian Lakes, General Von Hindenburg took 100, 000 Russian prisoners;the number of killed and wounded Russian soldiers is said to have been150, 000. The Russians hurriedly retreated from German soil. 

The time had now come for the Germans and Austrians definitely to assumethe offensive. A strategic blow in Galicia imperiled the whole Russianfront and compelled a general retreat of the Russian armies in Galiciaand Poland. In June both Przemysl and Lemberg were recaptured by theCentral Powers. By September all of Russian Poland had been conquered. Russia had lost 65, 000 square miles of thickly populated territory. Butthe land was so thoroughly plundered by the German conquerors that manyof the people died of starvation. 

BULGARIA ENTERS THE WAR. --The sympathies of the Bulgarian governmenthad been with the Central Powers from the beginning of the war. Bulgariahad not forgiven the neighboring Balkan states for their treatment ofher in the second Balkan war (1913). Against Serbia her feeling wasparticularly bitter. The Allied disaster at Gallipoli and the militarysuccesses of Germany and Austria in Poland and Galicia in the spring andsummer of 1915 led the Bulgarians to believe that now was the time forthem to strike. In October Bulgaria declared war upon Serbia, thusdefinitely taking her stand as an ally of the Central Powers. 

Bulgaria's entrance into the war was followed by simultaneous invasionsof Serbia from Austria and from Bulgaria. Under these blows the Serbianswere crushed. Together with her neighbor and ally, brave littleMontenegro, Serbia was overrun by her enemies. The cruelties inflictedupon the Serbian population by the invading Bulgars are said to havebeen fully as horrible as those which had taken place during theconquest of Belgium in 1914 and of Poland in 1915. 

There was serious danger that the government of Greece would follow thelead of Bulgaria and also enter the war on the side of the CentralPowers. This was prevented by two things. In the first place, a majorityof the Greek people favored the cause of the Allies and were opposed toBulgaria. In the second place, the Allies promptly landed an army atSalonica. Later on, they removed Constantine, the pro-German king ofGreece, and placed his son Alexander upon the throne. 

THE EAST AT THE CLOSE OF 1915. --On the eastern front 1915 had been ayear of failure. The Gallipoli campaign had been a humiliation for theAllies. The Russians had been driven from Russian Poland and from theAustrian province of Galicia. Bulgaria had joined the Central Powers, linking Austria-Hungary with Turkey. Serbia, the country whose quarrelhad been the occasion of the whole world struggle, had been conquered bythe enemies of the Allies. 

ITALY ENTERS THE WAR. --In May, 1915, Italy declared war upon Austria, and more than a year later upon Germany. Her reasons for this actionwere: (1) her old enmity toward Austria; (2) her desire to annex theneighboring territory inhabited by Italians, but ruled by Austria; and(3) her feeling that Austria was opposed to Italian interests in theBalkans. 

Italy entered the war with vigor although at a great disadvantage. Whenthe northern Italian lands were freed from Austrian rule in 1866, Austria kept the highlands and mountain passes, from which she couldeasily descend upon the Italian lowlands. Now that war was begun, theItalians were compelled to force their way up the heights and againstthe fire from well-protected Austrian forts. Here upon the dizzy peaksof the Alps, or the icy surfaces of glaciers, or the rocky mountainsides, warfare has been more spectacular and has called for more daringand recklessness than anywhere else. Slides of rock and avalanches ofice sometimes have been the ammunition of armies. During the year theItalians made some progress and by December occupied positions wellwithin the Austrian frontier; but no decisive battle had been fought orimportant city or fortress occupied. 

ALLIED CONTROL OF THE SEA. --Throughout 1915--as in the preceding andthe following years--the Allies maintained their control of the ocean. As a result of a proclamation declaring the North Sea a military area, and the more strict enforcement of the proclamation against sendingcontraband articles to Germany, the blockade against the Central Powerswas more tightly drawn. 

This seriously affected the commerce of the United States, not only withGermany but with neutral countries, such as Holland or Sweden, thatcould easily transship to Germany the supplies received. Neutral vesselswere stopped and taken into Allied ports, there to be detained sometimesfor long periods until a decision was reached as to the legality oftheir traffic. Moreover, the expense of this detention was laid upon theowners of the vessel and cargo. These acts brought forth a series ofprotests by our government against the policy of the Allies. Thecorrespondence continued with varying results until the United Statesentered the war. 

FORCED DECREASE OF NEUTRAL TRADE WITH GERMANY. --Neutral countriesadjoining Germany had been making huge profits by selling their food andother products to Germany, replacing their stores with material importedfrom over seas. As part of the preparation for a long war, the Alliesblocked the renewal of neutral stocks of goods. The neutral countriescomplained vigorously, but they soon cut down their trade with Germanysince they were no longer able to replenish their stock of food, rubber, metals, and other supplies. 

SUBMARINE WARFARE. --In 1914, when the war broke out, Germany is saidto have had but four seaworthy submarines. It is difficult to believethat she had so few, but it is certain that she did not have so many aseither England, France, or Russia. German naval authorities were notconvinced of the value of the submarine in war. 

However, about a month after the war began, a German submarine torpedoeda British cruiser, and, within a few minutes, two others that had goneto assist the first. Germany, now realizing the value of the new weapon, began the construction of a numerous fleet of underwater boats, orU-boats. But against war ships, properly defended by guns and othermeans, they proved of little avail after all. Toward the end of theyear, Admiral von Tirpitz, head of the German navy, hinted at anextension of the use of submarines to attack merchant ships. 

Soon numbers of the submarines made their way to the waters surroundingthe British Isles, where they torpedoed merchant vessels taking food andsupplies to Great Britain and France. The vessels sunk were chieflyBritish, though some were neutral. 

PROTECTION AGAINST SUBMARINES. --Large war ships were protected fromsubmarines by keeping them in a mine-protected area until there was needfor them at sea. At sea they were protected largely by the patrol andscouting operations carried on by lighter and faster vessels. To reducethe danger to merchant vessels from submarines, harbors and sea laneswere protected by mines and by great nets made of heavy wire cables. Theseas in the immediate vicinity of Great Britain were patrolled bythousands of small, swift vessels constantly in search of U-boats. 

ATTEMPTED BLOCKADE OF GREAT BRITAIN. --In February, 1915, Germanydeclared a blockade of the British Isles. Under an actual blockade shewould have the right to prevent neutral vessels from trading with GreatBritain. But inasmuch as it was not possible to take seized neutralships to German ports, the submarines would sink them, often withoutproviding for the safety of the passengers and crews. The ultimateobject of this course of action was so to reduce the world's shipping asto make it impossible for Great Britain to be supplied with the food orother materials that would enable her to carry on the war. This methodof warfare, however, was contrary to the well established rules ofinternational law. Against it the United States and other neutrals madevigorous protests. 

THE LUSITANIA. --The most notable loss by submarine attack was that ofthe "Lusitania, " sunk without warning off the coast of Ireland on May 7, 1915. Nearly twelve hundred lives were lost, including many women andchildren. One hundred and fourteen of those lost were Americans. Anadvertisement had been inserted in the papers warning passengers not totravel on Allied ships, but no one believed that Germany would go so farin violation of international law as to torpedo, without warning, apassenger vessel carrying civilians of neutral as well as of warringnations. The people of the whole civilized world were horrified by thedeed. Germany's attitude is shown by the fact that medals were struckcommemorating the act, and the commander of the submarine was rewarded. 

President Wilson wrote a series of notes to the German governmentinsisting that Germany conduct her warfare in accordance withinternational law. This resulted in a promise by the German minister tothe United States, that liners would not be sunk by German submarineswithout warning and without safety to the lives of noncombatants, provided that the liners did not try to escape or offer resistance. 

RAIDS ON COAST TOWNS. --Several times in 1914 German vessels managed toescape through the cordon of Allied ships. They proceeded to the eastcoast of England and bombarded defenseless fishing ports and wateringplaces such as Yarmouth, Whitby, and Scarborough. These raids had nomilitary effect, but they resulted in the killing or wounding ofhundreds of women, children, and old men. They were undertaken for thepurpose of terrorizing the civilian population of England in order toarouse a desire for peace. In January, 1915, a German squadronattempting a similar raid was intercepted and defeated by British warships. 

ZEPPELINS. --At the outset Germany had great faith in the usefulness ofher immense dirigible balloons, or Zep´pelins, as they are commonlycalled. In the attack on Belgium, they were used for observation, incidentally dropping a few bombs on Antwerp. Early in 1915, Zeppelinsmade their appearance over England, bombing many of the smaller townsand villages, as well as London. Such raids might have some effect onthe war if they were directed toward munition plants, railway stations, or naval depots. The Germans, however, generally contented themselveswith attacks on defenseless residential towns and cities. Up to October, 1917, there were thirty-four such raids, resulting in the death ofnearly one thousand persons and the wounding of three times as many. Theresult on the military situation was practically zero, except toincrease the British determination to see the war through. 

Later the protection afforded Great Britain by anti-aircraft guns andespecially by airplanes, made it highly dangerous for Zeppelins tocontinue their raids. Many of them were destroyed. The later raids weremade by squadrons of airplanes which had greater chances of escape. German air raiders found it increasingly difficult to get past thedefenses, and in 1918 the raids on England became infrequent. 

ALLIED RETALIATION. --For a long time the Allies refused to retaliateby bombing unfortified towns in Germany, but finally they decided to doso. The immediate results were a protest from Germany that the Allieswere violating international law, and a petition to the Germanauthorities from the towns in western Germany, asking that air raids onplaces not in the military area should be stopped, so that the Germancities should not be bombed in retaliation. Nearly all such Allied airraids, however, were directed against railroads, munition factories, andother objects of military importance. 

THE ALLIES ORGANIZE FOR A LONG WAR. --When Lord Kitchener, the greatBritish general, predicted that the war would last at least three years, hardly any one believed him. It was thought that the cost of a modernwar would be so great that nations would not be able to stand the strainfor more than a few months. When the Allies realized that Kitchener wasright, they prepared for a long struggle. The munition factories in allthe countries were reorganized, and the output of war material wasincreased many fold, more being produced in a few days than had formerlybeen produced in a year. Great Britain and France appointed ministers ofmunitions whose sole work was to see that the armies were supplied withguns, ammunition, and other fighting needs. 

The people in the British overseas dominions remained loyal, and senthundreds of thousands of soldiers to the battle fronts in order toprotect the mother country from threatened defeat. To secure stillgreater coöperation throughout the British Empire, the prime ministersof the self-governing colonies were invited to places in the Britishimperial war conferences. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Locate Przemysl, Lemberg, the Mazurian Lakes, Scarborough, Helgoland, Essen. 2. On an outline map of Europe indicate the countries engaged in the war at the end of 1915. Which of these countries had entered during the year? 3. By use of the scale on your map of Europe determine the following distances: Ostend to Scarborough; Berlin to Warsaw; Brussels to Paris. 4. When did the kingdom of Poland pass out of existence? What became of it? 5. What was the purpose of the Allies in the Gallipoli campaign? What would have been the consequences of the success of this campaign? 6. Collect pictures of Zeppelins, of gas attacks, and of methods of defense against gas. 

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); _Study of the Great War_ (C. P. I. ); _New York Times History of the European War_; McKinley, _Collected Materials for the Study of the War; German War Practices_ (C. P. I. ), parts I and II. 

CHAPTER X

THE WAR IN 1916

"THEY SHALL NOT PASS!"--Early in 1916 the Germans began a furiousattack on the strong French position at Verdun. This point was a highlyimportant one for the French, because if it were captured by the enemy, he could make flank attacks upon their adjoining lines and perhapscompel a general retreat. The Germans had long been massing materialsand men for the greatest military offensive which the world had everseen. Twenty thousand men were placed on each mile of the front for adistance of twenty-five miles, while hundreds of thousands more wereheld in reserve. Thousands of guns of all sizes were brought up for theattack. Under the command of the German crown prince, the German peopleand the whole world were to be shown that the German army was stillinvincible. 

Beginning on February 21, the titanic struggle around Verdun continueduntil July, when the attacks and counter-attacks were graduallysuspended. In the early attacks the French were driven in from advancedpositions, and then the Germans charged the heavily protected woodlandsand hills. In massed formation they advanced in the face of artillery, machine-gun, and rifle fire of the heaviest character. The first waveswere mown down like grain; but other troops, and still others climbedover the bodies of their dead comrades. Never since the world began hadsuch slaughter been seen. 

During the intervals between the infantry attacks the French troops weresubjected to an unprecedented artillery fire. Suffering under a strainsuch as armies had never hitherto known, the French patriots yet heldtrue to their watchword, --"They shall not pass. " General Pétain(pā-tăn´), in a stirring address, said to his entrenched heroes, "Courage, we'll get them!" ("_Courage, on les aura!_"), and this phrasebecame the Verdun battle-cry. Try as the Germans would, from everypossible point, they could not break through the living wall ofFrenchmen. A little ground was won here and there, but before the end ofthe year nearly all had been retaken by the French. At a frightful costthe German crown prince and his military advisers had put their fightingmachine to the test, and it had failed. A half million men, killed, wounded, or prisoners, were lost to the Germans before they ceased theirattacks at this point. 

THE BATTLE OF THE SOMME. --In July, 1916, while the Verdun struggle wasstill undetermined, the French and British troops began an advance onthe German line along the river Somme (som). Exceedingly heavy artilleryattacks first battered down the enemy defenses, and then the infantrywent "over the top. " During the long course of the Battle of the Somme(July 1 to November 17) the Allies advanced on a front of twenty milesto a maximum depth of about nine miles. Slowly, and at great expense ofammunition and men on both sides, the Allied progress had been won. Theyhad failed to break through the German line, but they had shown how itmight gradually be pushed back. And they had relieved the importantposition of Verdun from further severe attacks, because German forceswere needed to the westward. 

In the course of this battle, on September 15, the British first usedtheir most original military machines--the "tanks. " Thereafter thesearmored cruisers of the land were to play an increasingly important partalong the western front. 

INCREASED USE OF AIRCRAFT. --Aircraft, too, were every day becomingmore valuable. In the first year of the war airplanes were used mainlyfor observation purposes: to find the location of enemy forts, trenches, troops, and batteries; and to direct the fire of the aviator's ownbatteries. Hundreds of photographs were taken by the airmen, rapidlydeveloped, and within thirty minutes the staff officers could be seenstudying them with microscopes to determine what changes had taken placewithin the enemy's lines. Anchored balloons, too, were used for similarpurposes. 

Airplane construction and use developed more rapidly than any otherfeature in the war. After the observation machines, came thebattle-planes, whose first purpose was to clear the way and protect theobservation planes. Later, heavy machines for bombing expeditions wereconstructed; and squadrons of airplanes now took part in every battle, preceding the attacking party, and firing with machine-guns and bombsupon the enemy's trenches or his massed troops back of the line. 

[Illustration: Map]

THE RUSSIANS INVADE TURKEY IN ASIA. --In the early months of 1916Russian troops met with success in an offensive in the part of Turkeysouth of the Caucasus. This territory, known as Arme´nia, is inhabitedby a Christian population who for many years had been the victims ofTurkish persecutions; half a million were cruelly exterminated afterTurkey allied herself with Germany in 1914. The Russians advancedsteadily, inflicting serious defeats upon the Turkish forces. InFebruary they took possession of Erz´erum, a strongly fortified city ofArmenia. The capture of this point was of importance because it was astep in the plan for coöperation with the British armies which werepushing their way north from the region of the Persian Gulf. It had thefurther important result of interrupting Turkish plans for an invasionof Egypt by way of the Isthmus of Suez, as Turkey was compelled toconcentrate her power for the defense of her own territory. 

In April, Treb´izond, the most important city on the Turkish shore ofthe Black Sea, surrendered to the invading Russian army. The Russians, supported by fleets along the coast, had made the defense of the cityimpossible. The fall of Trebizond was a very serious blow to the powerof Turkey in Asia Minor. 

THE CAMPAIGN IN MESOPOTAMIA. --Part of the Allied plan in the east wasfor the junction of Russian armies operating from the region of theCaucasus with British troops from the land around the Persian Gulf. While the Russians, as we have seen, were making a noteworthy success oftheir part of this program, the British had not been so fortunate. Theirplan was to take possession of Mesopotamia, the valley of theTigris-Euphrates, and occupy its capital, the famous city of Bagdad. General Townshend with an insufficient force had begun his march up theTigris River the year before and in March, 1915, had occupied thestronghold of Kut-el-Ama´ra, about 100 miles below Bagdad. Here later hewas besieged by a Turkish army. A Russian army on the way from Erzerumand an English relief force from the south failed to reach the place intime, and April 29, 1916, General Townshend was forced by starvation tosurrender. 

RUSSIAN SUCCESSES IN AUSTRIA. --During the summer months the Russiansunder the command of one of their greatest leaders, General Bru´silov, renewed their offensive against the border lands of Austria-Hungary. Itlooked for a while as if the disasters of 1915 in this region were aboutto be redeemed. On a wide front extending from the Prip´et marshes ineastern Poland all the way to Bukowina (boo-ko-vee´nah), the Austrianprovince southeast of Galicia, the Russian armies advanced. They invadedGalicia and took hundreds of thousands of Austrian prisoners. Austriawas compelled to transfer troops from her Italian front. The year 1916closed with the Russians in a decidedly more favorable military positionthan they had occupied a year before. 

ROUMANIA IN THE WAR. --Roumania had long looked forward to an extensionof her boundaries to include all the Roumanians of southeastern Europe. Across the border, in southeastern Hungary, were more than two millionRoumanians living in the large region known as Transylvania. Theannexation of Transylvania was one of the greatest ambitions ofRoumanian leaders. In August, 1916, encouraged by the promises ofRussia, her powerful neighbor and protector, Roumania entered the war onthe side of the Allies. 

On her western front Roumania could easily defend herself from invasionbecause of strong mountain barriers. Her point of danger was theBulgarian boundary between the Danube and the Black Sea. Here she shouldhave concentrated her strength for defense against the Bulgarian forcesor even for an offensive into Bulgaria. Instead she sent most of herarmies west into Transylvania. Presently a strong force of Germans andBulgarians crossed the border into southeastern Roumania (the Dobrudja)and marched north in a resistless offensive. Meanwhile the Roumanians inTransylvania, far from their base of supplies, had advanced too fast forsafety. Moreover, they suffered from a shortage of ammunition, probablycaused by the failure of certain pro-German Russian officials tocoöperate with the Roumanians as they had promised. A large German armyattacked the Roumanian forces and drove them back with heavy losses totheir own borders. The boundaries were then crossed by the invaders andthe greater part of the country occupied. This disaster brought enormousadvantages to the enemy. The battle front of the Central Powers wasshortened by five hundred miles, the oil and wheat fields whichconstitute the chief wealth of Roumania fell into their hands, and theircommunications with Turkey were materially strengthened. 

THE ITALIAN FRONT. --The winter of 1915-1916 was uncommonly severe inthe Alps; snow thirty feet deep lay on some of the passes, and militaryoperations were brought almost to a standstill. During the spring theAustrians made preparations for a great offensive against Italy, collecting over a third of a million of men and enormous stores ofprovisions and munitions. During May and June, 1916, this Austrian forcedrove back the Italians from their advanced positions in the Trentinovalley. It seemed that the enemy would enter the valley of the Po andcapture the cities of the most prosperous part of Italy. But the fartherthe Austrian army advanced, the more difficult it was to bring suppliesup the narrow Alpine valleys. Meantime, on the eastern frontier theRussians began their great drive into Austrian territory. There wasnothing for the Austrians to do but retire from the Trentino front. Thisthey did with the loss of one third of their force, and of greatquantities of war material. 

The Italians now took the offensive, not only on the Trentino, but alsoon their eastern frontier, where, the year before, they had begun anadvance toward the "unredeemed" territory around Trieste (map, page 50). The Ison´zo River was crossed and after months of warfare the city andfortresses of Gorizia (go-rît´sî-a) were occupied (August 9, 1916). Fromthis point the Italians continued slowly, overcoming great difficulties, on their way toward Trieste. 

THE BATTLE OF JUTLAND, MAY 31, 1916. --A minor division of the Britishfleet under Admiral Beatty was scouting in the neighborhood of Jutland(the peninsula of Denmark). The main German fleet came out to attackit. The small British squadron, instead of withdrawing, gave battle tothe whole German high seas fleet. After the fighting had gone on forseveral hours in fog and mist, the British grand fleet approached, butnight came on before a decision was reached. During the night the Germanfleet retired back of the defenses of mines and shore batteries. In thebattle the British fleet had lost three battle cruisers and fifteen orsixteen other vessels. The German losses were not completely publishedbut were certainly heavier. The Germans claimed a victory, and a generalholiday was ordered that all might celebrate. Nevertheless, the Britishvessels were on the scene the next morning picking up survivors, whilethe German fleet has not (up to the present writing) come out of harborin order that it might try to repeat its so-called victory. 

SUBMARINE WARFARE. --During the year 1916 Germans continued withincreasing success their policy of sinking merchant vessels, neutral andenemy. Out of a total of nearly 4, 000, 000 tons of shipping destroyedfrom the beginning of the war to January 1, 1917, more than half waslost during 1916. Occasional loss of life also caused much doubt on thepart of our government as to whether Germany was keeping her pledge tosafeguard the lives of noncombatants on torpedoed liners. 

When a passenger steamer, the "Sussex, " plying between England andFrance, was torpedoed without warning (March 24, 1916), eighty of thepassengers were killed or injured, two of the latter being Americans. Germany at first said that one of her submarines had torpedoed a vesselin the vicinity, but not the "Sussex. " The finding of fragments of aGerman torpedo on the "Sussex" after it was brought into portconclusively proved that the Germans were responsible, and that Germanyhad broken her promise. President Wilson addressed a note to the Germangovernment, stating that he would sever diplomatic relations with itunless Germany should both declare and effect an abandonment of herunlawful methods of submarine warfare. Thereupon the German governmentgave a written pledge that merchant ships "shall not be sunk withoutwarning and without saving human lives, unless these ships attempt toescape or offer resistance. " This pledge was given on the condition thatthe United States should demand that Great Britain observe certain(disputed) rules of international law; but our government refused toagree that Germany's respect for our neutral rights should be made todepend on the conduct of other nations. President Wilson thus made clearhis intention to sever diplomatic relations if Germany's pledge shouldbe withdrawn or violated. 

CONSCRIPTION IN GREAT BRITAIN. --The British government had kept up itsarmy by volunteering. The need of an army of five million could notdepend on this plan. A conscription bill therefore was passed making allmales between certain ages liable for military service. Ireland wasexcepted from the provisions of this act. 

SINN FEIN REBELLION. --Some of the more radical among the Irish HomeRule party had formed an organization known as the Sinn Fein (shin fān), an Irish phrase which means "for ourselves. " Their aim was to makeIreland an independent nation. The leaders of this group got intocorrespondence with persons in Germany and were promised militaryassistance if they would rebel against England. The rebellion broke outApril 24, 1916, without the promised help from Germany. For several daysthe rebels held some of the principal buildings in Dublin. After muchbloodshed the rebellion was put down, and Sir Roger Casement, one ofthose who had been in communication with Germany, was executed fortreason. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. On an outline map of Europe indicate the countries engaged in the war at the end of 1916. Indicate the date of the entrance of each and the side on which it was fighting. 2. Collect pictures illustrative of life in the Balkans and of the war in that region. 3. Locate Armenia. What do you know of the race and religion of its population? 4. Where is Bagdad? Why is it important for the British Empire that the valley of the Tigris-Euphrates should not fall into the possession of a strong hostile power? What do you know of the history of this region in ancient times? What may become of Mesopotamia at the close of the war? 5. In regard to Roumania tell what you know of its race, language, religion, and industries prior to the war. Compare this country with Bulgaria in regard to the facts you have mentioned. 

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); _Study of the Great War_ (C. P. I. ); McKinley, _Collected Materials for the Study of the War; New York Times History of the European War_. 

CHAPTER XI

THE WAR IN 1917

THE WESTERN FRONT. --During the winter of 1916-1917 there was littleinfantry warfare in France, although the heavy guns kept up theircannonades. In the spring of 1917 the Allies planned a great drive onthe enemy positions in the valley of the Somme. But in March the Germansbegan a general retirement to a more easily defended line--the so-calledHindenburg line--on a front of one hundred miles, from Arras (ar-rahss´)to Soissons (swah-sawn´)[3]. Completely destroying the villages, churches, castles, vineyards, and orchards, they left a desolate wastebehind them. In this retreat the Germans gave up French territory to theextent of thirteen hundred square miles. 

The German retirement was closely followed by British and French troops. Great courage was shown by Canadian troops in the taking of Vimy Ridgeon April 9. In the following month many attacks were made by the Britishand French, which resulted in the taking of nearly 50, 000 prisoners andlarge quantities of munitions, and the breaking through the Hindenburgline in one place. During the summer and fall the Allied attackscontinued to win small territorial gains. The artillery fire was veryheavy during all this time. During a period of three weeks the Frenchcity of Rheims (reemz or rănss) alone, with its magnificent cathedralalmost in ruins, was bombarded with 65, 000 large caliber German shells. 

Two very important ridges, from which artillery could reach Germanpositions, were taken during the heavy fighting in November. The Frenchforced a retreat of the Germans over a thirteen-mile front and occupiedthe ridge known as Chemin des Dames (shmăn dā dahm); while the Canadianssecured Passchendaele (pahss-ken-dĕl´ā) Ridge. 

Late in the year the British introduced a new method of warfare. Insteadof beginning their attack with a great bombardment lasting many hoursand thus indicating to the enemy the approximate time and place ofattack, they sent over the front a large number of "tanks" which brokethrough the barbed wire entanglements and opened the way for theinfantry. By this means the British successfully surprised the enemy inthe battle of Cambrai (cahn-brĕ´; November 20 to December 13). Unfortunately they could not hold most of the land occupied, --which waslost later in the battle, --but they did show the possibility of breakingthe old deadlock of trench righting. The new method was to be used byboth sides during the campaigns of the following year. 

THE WAR IN THE AIR. --During this year warfare in the air continued toadvance. Guynemer (geen-mĕr´), the great French ace, who was lost onSeptember 11, had to his credit the destruction of fifty-four enemymachines. The increase in the number of airplanes led to the grouping oflarge numbers into regular formations (escadrilles), sometimes composedof over a hundred planes. Each year showed a steady increase in theeffectiveness of this kind of warfare. In 1916 a total of 611 enemymachines had been destroyed or damaged by the Allied forces. In 1917 theFrench destroyed forty-three in twenty-four hours; and the Britishbrought down thirty-one enemy planes in one combat. In a single week in1918 the Allies destroyed 339 German planes. On one day, October 9, 1918, three hundred and fifty airplanes were sent forth by the Americanarmy in a single bombing expedition. 

THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. --In 1917 the Allied cause received a heavyblow through the collapse of the Russian government. Long before the warthere had been parties in Russia which desired to do away with theautocratic government of the Czar and substitute some sort ofrepresentative system which would give to the people a voice in themanagement of their affairs. These reforming parties did not agree amongthemselves as to the kind of government they wished to set up; theirideas extended from limited monarchy of the English type, all the way toanarchy, which means no government at all. In 1905 the Czar met thewishes of the reformers to the extent of establishing the Duma, a sortof representative assembly or parliament, which should help in makingthe laws. The Duma, however, was never given any real authority, and astime passed those who believed in Russian democracy became more and moredissatisfied. 

During the war the Germans by means of bribery and plotting did all theycould to weaken the authority of the Russian government. There existed, moreover, much corruption and disloyalty among high Russian officials. As the war dragged on a shortage of food added to the generaldiscontent. By the early months of 1917, conditions were very badindeed, and dissatisfied crowds gathered in the streets of Petrograd. Hunger and hardship had made them desperate, and they refused todisperse until the government should do something to relieve thesituation. Regiments of soldiers were summoned to fire upon the crowd. They refused to do so and finally joined the mob. Thus began the RussianRevolution. 

At a meeting of the revolutionists a group of soldiers and working menwas selected to call upon the Duma and ask that body to form a temporarygovernment. Another committee was sent to inform Nicholas II that he wasdeposed. Messages were sent to the armies to notify the generals thatthere was no longer a Russian Empire and that they were to take theirorders thereafter from the representatives of the Russian people. Withina few days the revolution was complete. On March 15, the Czar signed apaper giving up the throne of Russia. Moderate reformers were placed incharge of the different departments of the government. The newgovernment was recognized by the United States, Great Britain, France, and Italy. It looked as if the revolution had established a freegovernment for Russia and that thenceforth, as a democratic nation, shewould fight better than ever by the side of her allies. In all theRussian provinces, elections were called for choosing delegates to anassembly that should make a new constitution for Russia. 

RUSSIA UNDER KERENSKY. --Meanwhile the extreme socialists began at onceto make trouble for the new government. These men for the most partowned no property and wanted all wealth equally divided among the entirepopulation. They considered the new government as tyrannical as that ofthe Czar had been. They also favored an immediate peace. Chief among themoderate leaders during this period was Alexander Keren´sky. He saw thenecessity of keeping the revolution within bounds. For a while he wasstrong enough to maintain a moderate government in spite of theopposition of the extreme socialists. The Germans, meanwhile, throughspies and secret agents, had been spreading among the Russian soldiersthe idea that Germany was really their friend and that it was to theirinterest to stop fighting and retreat. Kerensky personally visited thebattle front in Galicia, and for a time by means of his rousing speechesto the soldiers kept up their fighting spirit. New advances were made, the Germans and Austrians being driven back many miles. Lemberg itselfseemed about to fall once more into the hands of the Russians. But thissuccess was only temporary. Owing to the shortage of ammunition and therapid spread of peace sentiments among the troops, the Russian armybecame disorganized and retreated from Galicia. 

THE BOLSHEVIKI. --Bolsheviki (bōl-shĕv´e-kee) is the name given to theextreme socialistic party in Russia. From the beginning they had opposedthe control of affairs by the moderate revolutionists under Kerensky. Atlast, in the fall of 1917, helped by the depression caused by the Germanadvance and by the strikes and food riots which once more broke out inthe capital, they succeeded in winning over to their side the Petrogradgarrison and the navy, and drove Kerensky from the city (November 7). Their revolt was led by two of the most extreme members of the party, Lenine and Trotzky, who had at their disposal large sums of moneyfurnished by Germany. 

No sooner were the Bolsheviki in control than they announced themselvesin favor of an immediate peace. They proclaimed that all the land shouldat once be divided among the peasants. When the new representativeassembly met to make a constitution, it was found to be too moderate tosuit the Bolshevik leaders, who dispersed it before it could accomplishanything. The rule of Lenine and Trotzky promised to be even moretyrannical than anything that had preceded it in Russia. 

[Illustration: EUROPEAN BATTLE FRONTS End of 1917]

Meanwhile the Bolsheviki had arranged for an armistice with Germany witha view toward immediate negotiations for peace. This arrangement for thecessation of military operations became effective December 7. In spiteof its provisions, however, the Germans, who had taken Riga (ree´ga) inSeptember, continued their advance into Russian territory. By the closeof 1917 peace negotiations were in progress between Russia and herenemies. Russia under Bolshevik control had definitely deserted herallies. 

THE BRITISH IN MESOPOTAMIA. --It will be remembered that the Allied warplans in 1916 had included the junction of Russian armies operating fromthe Caucasus with British troops advancing north from the Persian Gulf. After the disaster at Kut-el-Amara the British still held the territoryabout the mouth of the Tigris. In January, 1917, they began a newadvance up the river in the direction of Bagdad. This time their effortsproved successful. In February, Kut-el-Amara was retaken from the Turks, and on March 11 the British entered the city of Bagdad. They alsocontinued their advance a considerable distance along the Bagdad Railwayand occupied much of the Euphrates valley. 

Still more important victories would probably have resulted from thiscampaign had it not been for the outbreak of the Russian revolution. This had the effect of weakening Russian military coöperation, andfinally of removing Russia entirely from the war, leaving to GreatBritain alone the task of dealing with the Turkish armies in Asia. Butthe British kept their hold on the city of Bagdad, thus checkmating theGerman scheme of a Berlin-Bagdad railway and protecting India from anyoffensive on this side. 

THE PALESTINE CAMPAIGN. --The year 1917 witnessed still anothermilitary success for the British in Asia. The Turks had made severalattempts to seize the Suez Canal and so inflict a serious blow againstthe communications of the Allies with the Far East. To remove, ifpossible, the danger of further threats against this vital spot, theEnglish at last decided upon an offensive in that region. Early in 1917, the British advance began. During January and February importantpositions on the Sinai peninsula were seized. This success was followedby a slow progress north into Palestine. The resistance of the Turks waspowerful and the British met with serious reverses. The terrible heat ofthe summer months further held up their operations. In the fall, however, the advance was resumed and a number of towns in the Holy Landfell into the hands of the British. In November, Jaffa, the seaport ofJerusalem, was taken. All the Turkish positions around the Holy Citywere carried by storm, and on December 10 Jerusalem surrendered toGeneral Allenby. 

This successful campaign in Palestine had several important results. Thecapture of Jerusalem after almost seven centuries of Turkish control ledto general rejoicing among the Allied nations. Large numbers of Jewsthroughout the world, who had long looked forward to the reëstablishmentof a Jewish nation in Palestine, now felt that a long step had beentaken toward the realization of their hopes. From a military point ofview, however, the chief result of the British campaign in Palestine wasthat it definitely freed the Suez Canal from further danger of a Turkishattack. 

THE OFFENSIVE AGAINST ITALY. --At the beginning of 1917 the Italianforces were within eleven miles of their great objective, the city andport of Trieste. During the late spring and summer the advancecontinued. Austrian trenches were occupied and tens of thousands ofAustrian soldiers were captured. After two years of effort it seemedthat the Italians would obtain the city and incorporate itspopulation--very largely Italian--into the kingdom of Italy. Butconditions in Austria and Germany had greatly changed. The cessation ofwar by Russia relieved the Central Powers of the necessity of keepinglarge armies on the eastern front. Further, the campaign had been goingagainst Germany on the western front, and an easy victory in Italy mightquiet criticism at home. 

An immense army of Austrians and Germans was gathered together to attackthe Italian forces. The Italians were spread out in a semicircle aboutone hundred and fifty miles long stretching from near Trent to within afew miles of Trieste. The Austrians controlled the upper passes in themountains, so that they could attack this long line where they would. Thus the Italian military position was difficult to defend. The campaignbegan with a surprise attack by picked German troops at a point wherethe morale of one Italian division had previously been weakened by thepretended fraternizing of Austrian troops. 

The Austro-German drive (October-December, 1917) swiftly undid the workof two years of most arduous endeavor. The Italians were forced backfrom Gorizia and compelled to surrender mountain positions which hadbeen captured by them at enormous cost. Back across the boundary theyretreated, losing heavily in men and material. The enemy advanced intothe low country near Venice, and it seemed for a time that the citywould fall into their hands. But British and French assistance was sentto Italy, the Italian army recovered its spirit, and a permanent checkwas put to the enemy's advance before Venice was reached. Upon a muchshorter but more defensible line the Italians held the enemy at bay inthe mountains and along the river Piave (pyah´vā). 

[Illustration: WAR ZONES]

UNRESTRICTED SUBMARINE WARFARE. --On January 31, 1917, the Germanambassador to the United States, Count von Bernstorff, announced toPresident Wilson that Germany would begin unrestricted submarine warfarethe following day, in the waters around Great Britain and France, [4]thus withdrawing the pledge given as a result of the sinking of the"Sussex. " Three days later the President handed Count von Bernstorff hispassports and recalled Ambassador Gerard´ from Berlin, thus severingdiplomatic relations with Germany. 

During the next six months shipping was sunk at an average rate of600, 000 tons per month, three times as fast as before, and two or threetimes faster than it was being replaced. The highwater mark was reachedin April, when 800, 000 tons of shipping were destroyed. Unless this losscould be greatly reduced the Allies for want of food and materials wouldsoon have to give up fighting. 

But methods were quickly devised to combat the new danger. The patrolswere increased, ships voyaged under convoy of fast destroyers constantlyhovering about on the watch for submarines, and other protectivemeasures were taken, so that the submarine menace was soon much reduced. By September, 1918, the sinkings were only about 150, 000 tons a month, while the production of ships, especially in the United States, hasincreased to several times this amount. 

Apparently Germany had waited until she had built a large number ofsubmarines, thinking that by the use of a great fleet of them in aruthless warfare on shipping she could force a peace within a fewmonths. In this expectation she was disappointed. The principal resultof the withdrawal of her pledge to this country was the entrance of theUnited States into the war on the side of the Allies. Captain Persius, an expert German naval critic, admitted in November, 1917, that theGerman admiralty was grossly mistaken in its calculations and thatGermany had no reason for believing in the decisive influence of thesubmarine war. 

THE UNITED STATES DRIFTS TOWARD WAR. --The breaking off of diplomaticrelations is not a declaration of war. Nevertheless the eventsimmediately succeeding the withdrawal of Count von Bernstorff made adeclaration of war increasingly probable. The most important of thesewere the publication of the Zimmerman note, the fact that severalAmerican merchant ships were actually sunk by German submarines, and thediscovery that members of the German embassy and other German diplomaticrepresentatives had been concerned in plotting on United States soilagainst the Allies, thus endangering our peaceful relations with them. Not only so, but there was evidence that plots had been laid to destroyAmerican lives and property in this country and to stir up internaldisorders, such as strikes and riots. 

THE ZIMMERMAN NOTE. --On the last day of February, the Secretary ofState published a note that had come into his possession which wasaddressed by Dr. Zimmerman, the German foreign minister, to the Germanminister in Mexico. The note stated that Germany would soon begin aruthless submarine warfare and proposed, if the United States shoulddeclare war on Germany, that Mexico should enter into an alliance withGermany. Germany was to furnish money and Mexico was to reconquer NewMexico, Texas, and Arizona. It was also hinted that Mexico shouldsuggest to Japan that the latter country should come into the agreement. The interesting thing about the note is that it was dated January 19, twelve days before Germany announced to us her plan for ruthlesssubmarine warfare, and during a time when our relations with Germany, though under a great strain, were still peaceable. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY. --About the time the Zimmerman note was published, President Wilson asked Congress to authorize the arming of Americanmerchant ships for their own defense. A small minority in Congress bytheir obstructive tactics prevented the passage of the desiredresolution before Congress expired on March 4. On March 12 the Presidentannounced that this country had determined to place an armed guard onall United States merchant vessels, which under international law mightdefend themselves from attack, although Germany denied this right. Thereis no evidence, however, that there was any encounter between thesearmed ships and German vessels prior to the outbreak of the war. 

THE PRESIDENT'S WAR MESSAGE. --When Russia deposed the Czar andestablished a democratic government, in March, 1917, the last reason wasremoved which might have held us back from a declaration of war. Manybelieved that it would have been illogical for us to fight for democracyside by side with one of the greatest of autocracies. President Wilsoncalled Congress in special session and on April 2 delivered his famouswar message, asking Congress to declare that a state of war existedbetween the United States and Germany. 

In the message he told of the various acts of Germany which had led upto the verge of war, recited the steps which our government had taken tobring Germany to realize the inevitable results of her crimes againstcivilization, and concluded by asking Congress to declare war. ThePresident stated that the aims of the United States in the war are:

1. That the people of every nation may determine the form of governmentunder which they wish to live. 

2. That the small nations may have the right to exist and be protectedagainst aggression. 

3. That the future peace of the world may be guaranteed through theformation of a league of nations. 

4. That the world may be made safe for democracy. 

THE DECLARATION OF WAR. --In accordance with the recommendation of thePresident, Congress declared war against Germany on April 6, 1917. Warwas not declared at this time against Germany's allies, Austria, Turkey, and Bulgaria. A few days later, however, at the instance of Germany, Austria and Turkey broke off diplomatic relations. On December 7, 1917, the United States declared war on Austria-Hungary. 

Following the declaration of war with Germany, steps were at once takento put the country in a position to give effective aid to ourassociates, and the President from time to time has requested Congressto grant authority to do those things that would enable us to take anactive part in the war. 

OTHER COUNTRIES ENTER THE WAR. --After the United States entered thewar, many other countries, especially Brazil and some of the SpanishAmerican countries, either broke off relations with Germany or declaredwar against her. Most of these countries had close commercialrelationships with the United States, which would have been seriouslyinterfered with had they remained neutral. 

SPURLOS VERSENKT. --The decision of some of the South Americancountries to side against Germany was probably hastened by a typicalpiece of German bad faith. Argentina was at peace with Germany. In spiteof that fact, the German minister at Buenos Aires (the Argentinecapital) telegraphed to his government that if possible Argentine shipsshould be spared, but if not, they should be sunk without leaving atrace ("_spurlos versenkt_). " This would involve the drowning ormurdering of the crews, so that there would be no inconvenient proteston the part of the Argentine government. It should be added that at therequest of the German minister, the Swedish minister at Buenos Airessent these dispatches in code as if they were his own private messages. In this way the German minister was able to have them sent over cablelines controlled by the Allies. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. What is a "tank"? What are small tanks called? 2. Define socialism; Bolsheviki. 3. On a map of Europe show Germany and her allies in black. Mark with black lines other territory held or controlled by the Central Powers at the close of 1917. 4. On a map of southern Europe show Italy's farthest advance into Austrian territory in 1917. 5. Collect pictures of Rheims Cathedral, before and after being bombarded by the Germans; also pictures of other places destroyed by bombardments. Get pictures of different sorts of tanks and airplanes, of destroyers and Eagle boats. 6. What was the object of the Germans in devastating the country when they retreated to the Hindenburg line? 7. Why did Germany think Mexico and Japan might join her in an attack on the United States? 8. What was the date on which the United States declared war on Germany? 9. Why did not the United States declare war on Turkey or Bulgaria? 10. Make a list of the countries of South America and Central America that declared war on Germany. 

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); _The Study of the Great War_ (C. P. I. ); _War, Labor, and Peace_ (C. P. I. ); _How the War came to America_ (C. P. I. ); _The War Message and the Facts Behind It_ (C. P. I. ); _New York Times History of the European War_. 

FOOTNOTES:

[3] The Hindenburg line was very nearly the same as the battle line ofJan. 1, 1918, as shown on the map, page 145. 

[4] Except that the United States, on certain conditions, might send oneship a week to Falmouth. 

CHAPTER XII

THE WAR IN 1918

FAILURE OF GERMAN PEACE OFFENSIVE. --During the fall of 1917 Germanyhad started a great discussion of the terms of the peace which shouldclose the war. In general the position taken by German spokesmen was"peace without annexations and without indemnities, " as proposed by theRussian Bolsheviki. Such talk was designed to weaken the war spirit ofthe Allied peoples, and perhaps to make the German people believe thatthey were fighting a war of self-defense. The time was ripe for astatement of the war aims of Germany's opponents. This statement, laterapproved in general by Allied statesmen, was made by President Wilson inhis address to Congress on January 8, 1918. It is discussed in detail inChapter XIV. It was not satisfactory to Germany's rulers, for they hopedto secure better terms in a peace of bargains and compromises. 

RUSSIA MAKES A SEPARATE PEACE. --Only in Russia was this German peaceoffensive a success. In the last chapter we saw how in the latter partof 1917 the Bolsheviki had gained control of the government of Russiaand had arranged an armistice with the Central Powers. This meant thestopping of all fighting along the eastern front and the consequentfreeing of many thousands of German soldiers to fight in the west. 

At Brest-Litovsk, a town in Russian Poland which had been occupied bythe troops of the Central Powers, a meeting of delegates was called toarrange the terms of peace. The negotiations at this place lasted fromDecember 23, 1917, to February 10, 1918. The Germans had determined tokeep large portions of Russian territory. At the conference the Germandelegates flatly refused to promise to withdraw their troops from theoccupied parts of Russia after the peace. By February 10 hope of anysettlement that would satisfy Russia had disappeared and the Bolshevikdelegates left Brest-Litovsk. The war, so far as Russia was concerned, was at an end, but no treaty of peace had been signed. The Bolshevikgovernment issued orders for the complete demobilization of the Russianarmies on all the battle fronts. 

Germany, determined to compel Russia to accept her terms, renewed hermilitary operations on February 18. The result was that Lenine andTrotzky, the Bolshevik leaders, were forced to agree to the conditionswhich had been laid down by the Central Powers at Brest-Litovsk. Nevertheless the Germans continued their advance, with practically noopposition, to within seventy miles of Petrograd. 

THE SEPARATION OF UKRAINIA AND FINLAND. --Ukrainia, the southwesterncorner of Russia, is the home of a Slavic people--the LittleRussians--closely akin to the Russians proper. The people of Finland, inthe extreme northwest, are of a distinctly different race. In boththese regions there were set up independent governments which resistedthe rule of the Bolsheviki. With the aid of German troops the power ofthe Bolsheviki in the new states was soon destroyed. Through the settingup of these states, particularly Ukrainia, Germany hoped to secure grainsupplies, and to control large iron and coal deposits. Dissatisfactionof the people with German control, however, interfered seriously withthe realizing of such hopes. 

[Illustration: TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK States and Provinces taken fromRussia]

THE PEACE OF BREST-LITOVSK. --On March 3 peace between Russia and theCentral Powers was finally signed at Brest-Litovsk. By the terms of thetreaties Russia was compelled (1) to surrender her western provinces ofPoland, Lithuania, Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland; (2) to recognize theindependence of Ukrainia and Finland; (3) to cede to Turkey certainimportant districts south of the Caucasus Mountains;[5] and (4) to paya tremendous indemnity. The falsity of the German talk of "noannexations and no indemnities" was now evident. Few more disastroustreaties have ever been forced upon a vanquished nation. It has beenestimated that the treaties of Brest-Litovsk took from Russia 4 per centof her total area, 26 per cent of her population, 37 per cent of herfood stuffs production, 26 per cent of her railways, 33 per cent of hermanufacturing industries, 75 per cent of her coal, and 73 per cent ofher iron. 

ROUMANIA MAKES PEACE. --Roumania, deserted by Russia, was forced tomake peace in the spring of 1918, by ceding to her enemies the whole ofthe Dobrudja and also about 3000 square miles of territory on herwestern frontier. The Central Powers, moreover, were given control ofthe vast petroleum fields and the rich wheat lands of the defeatednation. 

A little later, however, the Russian province of Bessarabia decided tounite itself to Roumania, as most of its people are of the Roumanianrace. 

THE RUSSIAN SITUATION IN 1918. --In spite of the Brest-Litovsktreaties, the Allies continued to regard Russia as a friendly nation. President Wilson took the lead in this attitude. It was felt that theRussian people were sadly in need of assistance, but just how thisshould be given was a serious problem. 

The question was complicated by the presence in Russia of a large armyof Czecho-Slovaks (check´o-slovaks´). These soldiers were natives of thenorthwestern Slavic provinces of Austria-Hungary. They had been part ofthe Austrian army during the victorious Russian campaigns in Galicia andhad been taken prisoners. The Czecho-Slovaks had always sympathized withthe Allied countries and had fought for Austria unwillingly. Many, indeed, had later fought as part of the Russian army. When Russia leftthe war they feared that they might be returned to the hated Austriangovernment. To avoid this their leaders sought and obtained from theBolshevik government permission to travel eastward through Russia andSiberia to the Pacific. Here they planned to take ship and after avoyage three quarters around the globe take their place in the armies ofthe Allies. The long journey began. Then the Bolsheviki, probably actingunder German orders, recalled the permission they had given. TheCzecho-Slovaks went on nevertheless, determined to proceed even if theyhad to fight their way. They were opposed at different points byBolshevik troops with the assistance of organized bodies of German andAustrian prisoners, but the Czecho-Slovaks were victorious. In fact, with the aid of anti-Bolshevik Russians they seized control of most ofthe Siberian railroad, and of parts of eastern Russia. 

ALLIED INTERVENTION IN RUSSIA. --At last the Allied nations and theUnited States decided that it was time to undertake militaryintervention in Russia. This was carried out in two places. Bodies ofAmerican and Japanese troops were landed on the east coast of Siberia tocoöperate with the Czecho-Slovaks. The latter, thus reënforced, changedtheir plans for leaving Russia and decided to fight for the Allied causewhere they were. They were encouraged by the fact that they wererecognized by the Allies and by the United States as an independentnation. 

Another small Allied army was landed on the north coast of Russia andmarched south against the Bolsheviki. Large parts of Russia north andeast of Moscow declared themselves free of Bolshevik rule. It was thehope of the Allies that that rule--now marked by pillage, murder, andfamine--would shortly be overthrown and that a new Russia would rise andtake its place among the democracies of the world. 

THE WESTERN FRONT. --Early in 1918, after the failure of the Germanpeace offensive in the west, rumors came from Germany of preparationsfor a great military drive on the western front. The "iron fist" and the"shining sword" were to break in the doors of those who opposed aGerman-made peace. There were good reasons for such an attack in thespring of 1918. Germany had withdrawn many troops from the east, wherethey were no longer needed to check the Russians. Further, although afew American troops had reached France, it was thought that not manycould be sent over before the fall of 1918, and the full weight ofAmerica's force could not be exerted before the summer of 1919. It wasto Germany's interest to crush France and England before the power ofthe American nation was thrown into the struggle against her. 

GERMANY'S NEW PLAN OF ATTACK. --The German military leaders thereforedetermined to stake everything upon one grand offensive on the westernfront while their own force was numerically superior to that of theAllies. Their expectation of victory in what they proudly called the"Kaiser's battle, " was based not only upon the possession of greaternumbers, but also upon the introduction of new methods of fighting whichwould overcome the old trench warfare. The new methods comprised threeprincipal features. 

In the first place, much greater use was made of the element ofsurprise. Large masses of men were brought up near the front by nightmarches, and in daytime were hidden from airplane observation by smokescreens, camouflage of various kinds, and by the shelter of woodlands. In this way any portion of the opposing trench line could be subjectedto a heavy, unexpected attack. 

Secondly, the advance was prepared for by the use of big guns inenormous quantities and in new ways. The number of guns brought into usein this offensive far exceeded that put into the Verdun offensive of1916, which had been looked upon as the extreme of possibleconcentration of artillery. The shell fire was now to be directed notonly against the trenches, but also far to the rear of the Alliedpositions. This would break up roads, railways, and bridges for manymiles behind the trenches and prevent the sending of reinforcements upto the front. Vast numbers of large shells containing poisonous"mustard" gas were collected. These were to be fired from heavy guns andmade to explode far behind the Allied lines. By this means suffocationmight be spread among the reserves, among motor drivers, and even amongthe army mules, and by deranging the transport service make itimpossible to concentrate troops to withstand the German advance. 

In the third place, "shock" troops composed of selected men from alldivisions of the army, were to advance after the bombardment, in aseries of "waves. " When the first wave had reached the limit of itsstrength and endurance, it was to be followed up by a second mass offresh troops, and this by a third, and so on until the Allies' defensewas completely broken. 

By their excess in numbers and by these newly devised methods of warfarethe German leaders hoped to accomplish three things: (1) to separate theBritish army from the French army; (2) to seize the Channel ports andinterrupt by submarines and big guns the transportation of men andsupplies from England to France; and (3) to capture Paris and compel theFrench to withdraw from the war. Let us now see how and why the Germansfailed to secure any one of these three objectives, and how the Alliedforces resumed the offensive in the summer of 1918. 

THE GERMAN ADVANCE. --Five great drives, conducted according to thenewly devised methods of warfare, were launched by the Germans betweenMarch 21 and July 15, 1918. The first, continuing from March 21 to April1, called the battle of Picardy, was directed at the point where theBritish army joined that of the French near the Somme River. There wasat this time no unified command of all the Allied armies, and the blowfell unexpectedly upon the British and won much territory before Frenchassistance could be brought up. Outnumbered three to one, the Britishfell back at the point of greatest retreat to a distance of thirty milesfrom their former line. But the extreme tenacity of the British and thearrival of French troops prevented the Germans from capturing theimportant city of Amiens (ah-myăn´), or reaching the main roads toParis, or separating the British and French armies. Learning a neededlesson from this disaster, the Allied nations agreed to a unifiedmilitary command, and appointed as commander-in-chief the French GeneralFoch (fosh), who had distinguished himself in the first battle of theMarne in 1914 and elsewhere. Before this step had been taken GeneralPershing had offered his small army of 200, 000 Americans to be usedwherever needed by the French and the British. 

The second German offensive began on April 9 and was again directedagainst the British, this time farther to the north, in Flanders, between the cities of Ypres and Arras. In ten days the Germans advancedto a maximum depth of ten miles on a front of thirty miles. But theBritish fought most desperately and the German losses were enormous. Atlast the advance was checked and the Channel ports were saved. "Germanyon the march had encountered England at bay"--and had failed to destroythe heroic British army. 

And now came a lull of over a month while the Germans were reorganizingtheir forces and preparing for a still greater blow. Again the elementof surprise was employed. The Allies expected another attack somewherein the line from Soissons to the sea, and their reserves were sodisposed as to meet such an attack. But the German blow was directedagainst the weakest part of the Allied line, the stretch from Rheims toSoissons, where a break might open the road to Paris from the east. Thethird drive began on May 27. For over a week the French were pushedback, fighting valiantly, across land which had not seen the enemy sinceSeptember, 1914. The greatest depth of the German advance was thirtymiles, that is, to within forty-four miles of Paris. The enemy had onceagain reached the Marne River and controlled the main roads from Paristo Verdun and to the eastern parts of the Allied line. 

The fourth drive started a few days later, on June 9, in a region wherean attack was expected. It resulted in heavy losses to the Germans, whosucceeded in pushing only six miles toward Paris in the region betweenSoissons and Montdidier (mawn-dee-dyā´). The advantages of a singlecommand had begun to appear. General Foch could use all the Alliedforces where they were most needed. 

[Illustration: WESTERN FRONT]

The fifth drive opened on July 15 and spread over a front of one hundredmiles east of Soissons. The Allies were fully prepared, and whilefalling back a little at first, the American and French troops soon wonback some of the abandoned territory. 

THE TURNING OF THE TIDE. --A glance at a map of the battle front ofJuly 18 will show that the Germans had driven three blunt wedges intothe Allied lines. These positions would prove dangerous to the Germansif ever the Allies were strong enough to assume the offensive. And justnow the moment came for Foch to strike a great counter-blow. During thespring and early summer American troops had been speeded across theAtlantic until by the Fourth of July over a million men were in France. On July 18 fresh American and French troops attacked the Germans in thenarrowest of the wedges along the Marne River and within a few dayscompelled the enemy to retreat from this wedge. On August 8 a Britisharmy began a surprise attack on the middle wedge, and by the use oflarge numbers of light, swift tanks succeeded in driving the Germansback for a distance of over ten miles on a wide front. 

The offensive had now passed from the Germans to the Allies. UnderFoch's repeated attacks the enemy was driven back first at one point andthen at another. He had no time to prepare a counter-drive; he did notknow where the next blow would fall. By the end of September he hadgiven up nearly all his recent conquests, devastating much of thecountry as he retired. In several places also he was forced stillfarther back, across the old Hindenburg line. In two days (September12-13) the Americans and French under the direction of General Pershingwiped out an old German salient near Metz, taking 200 square miles ofterritory and 15, 000 prisoners. Altogether, by the end of September, Foch had taken over a quarter of a million prisoners, with 3, 669 cannonand 23, 000 machine guns. 

It is said that the complete defeat of the German plans was dueprimarily to three things: "(1) the dogged steadfastness of the Britishand the patient heroism of the French soldiers and civilians; (2) thebrilliant strategy of General Foch, and the unity of command which madethis effective; (3) the material and moral encouragement of the Americanforces, of whom nearly 1, 500, 000 were in France before the end ofAugust. "

THE WAR IN ITALY, THE BALKANS, AND SYRIA. --The summer of 1918witnessed the launching of a great offensive by the Austrians againstthe Italian armies holding the Piave front. It is probable that thechief purpose of this blow was to draw Allied troops into Italy from thebattle front in Belgium and France. The Italians, however, provedthemselves amply able to fight their own battle, and the Austrianattempt was repulsed with tremendous losses. 

The autumn of this year saw important happenings on the Balkan frontalso. This theater of the war had been uneventful for a long time. Thebattle line extended from the Adriatic Sea to the Ægean, and was held bya mixed army of Serbians, Greeks, Italians, British, and French, underthe command of General D'Esperey (des-prā´), with headquarters atSalonica. Opposed to these troops were armies of Bulgarians andAustrians, together with a considerable number of Germans. Encouraged bythe German defeats in the west, which had forced the withdrawal of largenumbers of German troops from eastern Europe, the Allies launched astrong offensive on the Balkan front in the middle of September. Dayafter day their advance continued, resulting in the capture of manythousands of prisoners and the reoccupation of many miles of Albanianand Serbian territory. The campaign was one of the most successful ofthe whole war. Within two weeks the Bulgarians asked for an armistice, accepted the terms that were demanded, and on September 30 definitelywithdrew from the war. Their surrender broke the lines of communicationbetween the Central Powers and Turkey and at one blow destroyed Teutonicsupremacy in the Balkans. An even more important consequence was themoral effect on the general public in Germany, Austria, and Turkey, where it was taken by many as a sign that surrender of the CentralPowers could only be a question of time. 

Meanwhile, events of almost equal importance were taking place inPalestine and Syria. General Allenby had taken Jerusalem in December, 1917. In the fall of 1918 new and important advances were made in thisregion, Arab forces east of the Jordan coöperating with the Britisharmies. By the close of September more than 50, 000 Turkish soldiers andhundreds of guns had been captured. In October General Allenby's mentook the important cities of Damascus and Aleppo, and in Mesopotamiaalso the British began a new advance. Turkey was already asking for anarmistice, and now accepted terms that were virtually a completesurrender (October 31). 

By this time Austria-Hungary was in the throes of dissolution;independent republics were being set up by the Czechs, the Hungarians, the Jugo-Slavs, and even the German Austrians. These revolutions werehastened by the overwhelming victory of the Italians in the secondbattle of the Piave. Their attack began October 24 on the mountainfront, but soon the Allied forces under General Diaz (dee´ahss) crossedthe river and cut through the lines of the fleeing Austrians. In thecapture of large numbers of prisoners and guns the Italians took fullvengeance for their defeat of the preceding year. So hopeless, indeed, was the situation for the Austrians that they too accepted an armisticethat was practically a surrender (November 4). 

GERMAN RETREAT IN THE WEST. --After the Germans had been driven back totheir old lines in France, there was danger that the contest mightsettle down to the old form of trench warfare. But the intricatedefenses of the Hindenburg line, in some cases extending to a depth often miles from the front trenches, did not prove strong enough towithstand the American and Allied advance. Foch attacked the line fromeach end and also in the center. In the north, by October 20, Belgianand British troops had recaptured all the Belgian coast, with itssubmarine bases; and the British had taken the important cities of Lensand Lille, the former valuable on account of its coal mines. In thecenter British and French troops broke through to the important pointsof Cambrai, St. Quentin (săn-kahn-tăn´) and Laon (lahn), while farthereast the French and Americans began an advance along the Meuse River, threatening to attack the German line in the rear. 

By this time it seemed likely that a general retirement from Belgium andFrance had been determined upon by the German leaders. Moreover, theimpending defeat of the German armies led to a new peace drive by theGerman government. On October 6 President Wilson received a note fromthe German Chancellor asking for an armistice, requesting that theUnited States take steps for the restoration of peace, and stating thatthe German government accepted as a basis for peace negotiations theprogram as laid down in the President's message to Congress of January8, 1918 (Chapter XIV), and in his subsequent addresses. In the ensuingcorrespondence several points are worthy of special notice. PresidentWilson opposed any suggestion of an armistice till after the evacuationof Allied territory, or except as it might be arranged by the militaryadvisers of the American and Allied powers, on such terms as would makeimpossible the renewal of hostilities by Germany. He also calledattention to the following point in his address of July 4, 1918, --"Thedestruction of every arbitrary power anywhere that can separately, secretly, and of its single choice disturb the peace of the world, or, if it cannot be presently destroyed, at the least its reduction tovirtual impotence";--stated that the military autocracy still incontrol of Germany was such a power; and insisted on dealing only with anew or altered German government in which the representatives of thepeople should be the real rulers. 

On November 11, while the German armies in France and Belgium were beingdefeated by the Allied and American forces, envoys from the Germangovernment accepted from General Foch an armistice in terms that meantvirtually the surrender of Germany, and thus brought hostilities to anend. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. What is the meaning of camouflage? of smoke screen? What is a convoy? 2. On a map of the Western Front locate the five great German drives of 1918, numbering them from one to five. 3. On a physical map of the Balkan peninsula find the only good land route from the Danube to Constantinople, with its branch to Salonica. 4. Collect pictures showing American soldiers in camps; going to France; and in France. 5. What were the objects of the 1918 offensive of the Germans? 6. In what way did the American troops help besides increasing the number of soldiers fighting the Germans? 7. What is the present condition of the western provinces of Russia? 8. What was the first important battle in which many American troops were engaged? 9. Why was the St. Mihiel salient important: (_a_) for the Germans to hold; (_b_) for the Allies and the United States to win? 10. Explain the importance of Bulgaria's surrender. 

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); _The Study of the Great War_ (C. P. I. ); McKinley, _Collected Materials for the Study of the War; The Correspondence between the Bolsheviki and the German Government_ (C. P. I. ); _National School Service_, Vol. I (C. P. I. ). 

FOOTNOTES:

[5] After driving the Russians out of Asia Minor and taking thedistricts ceded to Turkey, the Turkish forces went on and seized nearlyall of the southern Caucasus before October, 1918. 

CHAPTER XIII

THE UNITED STATES IN THE WAR

PART OF THE NAVY SENT TO EUROPE. --One of the first things done afterour entrance into the war was to send a considerable part of our navy toEurope, not only battleships to augment the fleet that was holding theGerman navy in check, but also a number of swift torpedo boats anddestroyers to aid in reducing the menace from submarines. Hugeappropriations were made by Congress for the purpose of increasing thenumber of lighter craft in the navy. Particularly efficient submarinechasers were developed, called "Eagles, " which, by being made all alike, could be quickly produced in great numbers. 

RAISING THE ARMY. --Great numbers of young men at once enlisted invarious branches of the service. Profiting, however, by the experienceof Great Britain, the government determined on conscription as a moredemocratic method of raising an army. A draft law was passed providingfor the enrollment of all men between the ages of twenty-one andthirty-one. These were examined and classified, and from time to timelarge groups were sent to camps to be trained. Each of these camps cantake care of approximately fifty thousand soldiers. Under a later draftlaw passed in 1918, the age limits for enrolling men were extended toinclude those from eighteen to forty-five. 

OFFICERS' TRAINING CAMPS. --In order to provide officers for such anemergency as now confronted the nation, training camps for officers hadbeen established the previous year at several places in the country. These officers were now called upon to aid the regular army officers intraining the recruits. The officers' training camps have been continuedand increased in number in order that a regular supply of properlytrained officers may be available for the constantly increasing army. 

SUPPLIES AND MUNITIONS. --The industries of the country were compelledto turn their attention to the making of supplies and munitions for ourfighters. The great plants that had been making powder, guns, shells, and other munitions for the Allies started to make these things for theUnited States. This was easy to arrange, since England and France hadabout reached a position where they were able to supply themselves. Besides, great quantities of food and clothing were also needed, and themeat packers and the manufacturers of textiles, shoes, and otherarticles turned their plants to the production of supplies for the army. 

AIRCRAFT. --The war in Europe had shown the high usefulness of aircraftas part of the military forces. Recognizing this, Congress appropriatedtwo thirds of a billion dollars for the purpose of constructingthousands of airplanes and for training thousands of pilots and otherexperts to use them. Unfortunately much time was lost in buildingmanufacturing plants and in experimenting with various types of enginesand other parts of airplanes. Only a small part of the twenty thousandit had been planned to send to France by June, 1918, were completed atthat time. Meanwhile, however, engineers had developed, on the basis ofthe automobile engine, an improved engine known as the Liberty Motor, and the production of efficient airplanes was at last going aheadrapidly. 

_Food and Fuel Control. _--So large a proportion of the population of theEuropean countries is employed in carrying on the war that there hasbeen a constant decrease in the amount of food produced in Europe. Fortunately, up to 1917 this country had enough for itself andsufficient to spare for the Allies and the neutral nations. In 1917there was an unusually short cereal crop all over the world. The resultwas that there was not enough food to go round, if every one in thiscountry ate as much as usual. 

In order that proper conservation of food might be brought about, a foodcommission was created, not only to prevent profiteering, but also todirect how the people should economize in order to help win the war. Shortages in various kinds of food were controlled at first throughvoluntary rationing under requests made by the Food Administrator. Lateron, limits were placed on the amount of wheat, flour, and sugar thatcould be bought by large dealers and bakeries. A certain proportion ofother cereals had to be purchased with each purchase of wheat. Bakerswere required to make their bread with a proportion of other floursmixed with the wheat. These regulations were enforced by suchpunishments as fines, the closing of stores or bakeries, or by deprivingthe offender of his supply for a given length of time. Kitchens wereestablished in large communities where housewives could learn the bestways of making bread with the use of various substitutes for wheat. 

Early in the fall of 1917 it was seen that, because of inadequatetransportation facilities and of a tremendously increasing demand forcoal by the war industries, there would be a shortage of fuel during thewinter. Accordingly a Fuel Administrator was appointed who regulated thedistribution of fuel. Industries essential to the war were supplied, while those that were not doing needful work had their supply reduced orcut off altogether. As it happened, the winter of 1917-1918 wasexceedingly severe, freight congestion became worse and worse, and theshortage in the industrial centers was even greater than had beenanticipated. The control of fuel saved the people of the northeasternsection of our country from much distress, and assured a supply of fuelfor war purposes. 

Later in 1918 householders and mercantile establishments were allowedonly a portion of their usual coal supply, the number of stops made bystreet railway cars was reduced, and window and other display lightingwas forbidden on all but two nights in the week. An act of Congressdirected that from the last Sunday in March till the last Sunday inOctober all clocks must be set one hour ahead of time. This regulationbrings more of our activities into the daylight hours and so cuts downthe use of artificial light. By these methods much coal was conservedfor the use of factories engaged in war work. 

TRANSPORTATION CONTROL. --Soon after war was declared, the railroads ofthe country put themselves at the disposal of the government in order totake care of the increase in transportation service required by thestate of war. The nearly seven hundred railroads of the country wereorganized and run as a single system under the direction of a Railroads'War Board, composed of some of the chief railroad officials. 

Passenger train service was reduced, chiefly in order to provide for thetransportation of several million soldiers to and from training camps. Freight cars and locomotives from one railroad were kept as long as theywere needed in the service of another. The roads no longer competed witheach other for freight, but goods were sent over the road that had, atthe time of shipment, the most room for additional traffic. At the endof 1917, as a measure of economy and to secure even greater unity oforganization, the government took over the control of the railroads forthe period of the war. As Director General of Railroads, the Presidentappointed William G. McAdoo, who was also the Secretary of the Treasury. 

Half a year later, the government likewise took over, for the durationof the war, the operation of telegraph and telephone lines, which wereplaced under the control of the Postmaster-General. 

SHIPBUILDING. --Less than two weeks after the declaration of war theUnited States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation was organizedwith a capital of fifty million dollars all owned by the government. TheShipping Board had been formed some time before to increase the merchantshipping of the country. When war came, more and yet more ships wereneeded, not only to take our armies, and their food and fightingmaterial, to Europe, but also to replace the shipping destroyed bysubmarines. In order that these ships might be built as speedily aspossible it was desirable that the government should direct the work. Existing shipyards were taken over, and new shipyards were built by thegovernment. In the building of ships the original program was more thandoubled, and the United States became the greatest shipbuilding nationof the world. This was made possible largely through the construction ofwhat are known as "fabricated ships"; that is, many ships built exactlyalike, from parts made in quantities. Patterns are made for each specialpiece of steel and sent to steel plants in different parts of thecountry. There dozens of pieces are made exactly like the pattern. Allthe pieces for a ship are sent to the shipyard ready to be riveted intheir proper places. Thus the shipyard can work much faster than if thepieces were prepared at the yard. 

GERMAN SHIPPING SEIZED. --Immediately upon the declaration of war, thePresident ordered the seizure of ninety-nine German merchant shipswhich were in our ports. Most of them had been in harbor since August, 1914. They had been free to sail if they wished, but preferred not torisk capture by British or French warships. 

When the United States officials took charge of these vessels, it wasfound that important parts of their machinery had been destroyed orbroken, under orders from Germany. Repairs were quickly and skillfullymade, the German names of the ships were changed, and a few months laterover six hundred thousand tons of German-built ships were takingAmerican troops and supplies across the seas. 

PAYING FOR THE WAR. --Wars nowadays cost enormous sums of money, onaccount of the highly technical material that is used as well as thegreat size of the armies. There are two ways by which the money can beraised. The government can borrow money, and it can raise money bytaxation. It was found wise to pay for the war by depending on both ofthese methods. 

In May and June our people were called upon to subscribe to an issue oftwo billion dollars' worth of Liberty bonds. Half as much more wasoffered to the government. A second loan for three billions in Novemberwas again oversubscribed by fifty per cent. In 1918 the third loan forthree billion, and the fourth loan, for six billion, were alsooversubscribed. Up to November, 1918, the government asked for fourteenbillion dollars, the people offered to lend about eighteen billiondollars, and the government accepted about sixteen billion dollars. 

In addition to the above, the Treasury department authorized the sale oftwo billion dollars' worth of War Savings Stamps during the year 1918. These stamps represent short-time loans to the government which are sosmall that practically every person is able to invest in them. 

It was deemed important also that the people should pay a largepercentage of the war bill through taxes. Congress therefore passed atax bill which not only increased the income taxes to be paid byindividuals and companies, but also placed heavy taxes on many thingswhich were more or less in the nature of luxuries, or at least were notessential to life. Railroad tickets, admission tickets to amusements ofall sorts, telephone and telegraph messages, and hundreds of otherthings above a certain low minimum cost were taxed. In this way thegovernment raised six or seven billion dollars in a single year, approximately one third of the current cost of the war. 

LOANS TO THE ALLIES. --Our government has from time to time advancedmuch money to the other nations who are fighting Germany. Practicallyall of these loans are in the form of credits with which the Allies payfor materials bought in the United States. Little if any of the money soloaned goes out of the country. 

RED CROSS AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS. --The American Red Cross Society, formed for the relief of suffering through war or other disaster, wasmade ready for extensive work by the subscription of one hundred andfifty million dollars in June, 1917, by the people of the country. Thework was organized on a national basis and in every community there wasformed a Red Cross Chapter to make garments, sweaters, or woolen headcoverings to keep the soldiers warm; to roll bandages; to open canteensor refreshment stations for soldiers while traveling or in camp; totrain nurses to care for the sick and wounded, and to do other work of asimilar sort. 

Other organizations such as the Young Men's Christian Association andthe Knights of Columbus took upon themselves the task of entertainingand making comfortable our soldiers and sailors, providing places wherethey may read, write letters, play games, and otherwise relieve theirminds from the terrible strain of war. 

If our army and navy that are fighting for us in Europe represent thestrength of our country, we can also say that the work of the Red Crossand these other organizations represents the heart of our country. 

THE WORK OF SCHOOLS IN THE WAR. --School pupils are the largest andbest-organized group of the population of the country. It was natural, therefore, for the government to turn to the school children when itwanted a national response. Boys and girls having the lessons of thewar impressed upon them in school, carry the message home. Often in noother way can the parents be reached. 

There are many ways in which the school children gave direct andvaluable help to the nation. It is not possible to do more than merelyhint at some of these. 

The importance of saving and thrift was early impressed on the children, not only through the thrift stamp and Liberty loan campaigns, but alsothrough direct lessons on conserving food, clothing, and public andprivate property. 

Many children planted and took care of war gardens, adding a total ofmany million dollars' worth of food to the nation's supply. Inconnection with the gardens, a canning campaign was conducted whichaimed at the conservation of perishable food that could not be consumedat once. 

The schools rendered valuable service in doing Red Cross work. Both boysand girls knit garments and comforts for our soldiers, and the girlsmade garments for the little children of France and Belgium who had beendriven from their homes by the war. 

RISE IN PRICES. --When a country is at war the government must havewhat it needs, quickly and at any price. The price situation is madeworse if for any reason there happens to be a scarcity of a givenarticle. When the government wants a great quantity of ammunition forwhich it is willing to pay a high price, the manufacturer, desiring toobtain an increased number of workmen quickly, offers unusually highpay. This attracts workmen from other industries, and the latter offerstill higher pay to retain their workmen. In this way, wages rapidly goup and things that have to be produced with labor, like coal, or houses, or ships, rise enormously in cost. The farmer, too, has to pay more forhis help. In order to induce the farmers to plant more wheat, thegovernment fixed a high price for it. This helped to make flourexpensive. Many fishermen went into the navy, or into factories wherethey could get high wages. If they kept on fishing, they thought theyought to make as much money as the men who had given up fishing and goneto make guns and build ships. 

Perhaps the biggest reason for high prices is the actual scarcity ofmany things. Many of the men who do the work of producing are at war. They are using food and clothing much faster than if they were notsoldiers. A soldier needs about twice as much food, and wears out eighttimes as many pairs of shoes, as he did when he was at home. From thesefacts it is easy to see why prices are high during the war. 

OUR ACHIEVEMENTS IN 1917. --- As a result of our unwillingness, before1917, to face the fact that we might sometime be involved in war, thetremendous amount of preparation described in this chapter had to bedone in a few months, or even in a few weeks. When things have to bedone in such a great hurry, missteps are often made and unfortunatedelays result. 

In spite of all difficulties, however, the United States had, at the endof 1917, two hundred and fifty thousand troops in France and a millionand a half in training camps. Guns, rifles, clothing, shoes, food, andother necessary supplies were being produced in sufficient quantities. On the other side of the Atlantic, our engineers and railroad men werebusy constructing docks, warehouses, and miles of railroad for thepurpose of providing bases of supplies for our soldiers in France. Muchof the equipment of these railroads and docks cars, locomotives, andunloading machinery--had been brought from America. 

MORE SOLDIERS SENT TO FRANCE. --As the troops in the various camps andcantonments were trained they were sent to ports on the eastern coastand embarked for France, their places in camp being taken by new groupsof drafted men. Beginning with fifty or sixty thousand each month, thenumber sent abroad was rapidly increased until by the fall of 1918 thetroops were going over at the rate of more than three hundred thousand amonth. By October 15 there were over two million of our soldiers inFrance and another million and more under training in this country. 

DECREASE IN SUBMARINE SINKINGS. --The Germans had boasted in vain thattheir submarines would prevent the transportation of American troops toEurope. Of the hundreds of transports engaged in this work, up toNovember, 1918, only two were sunk while on the eastward voyage, andless than 300 American soldiers were drowned. Moreover, during the year1918 there was a notable decrease in the destruction of merchant vesselsby submarines. This was due probably to a variety of causes, butespecially to the increased protection provided by the convoy system, and to the more efficient methods of fighting the submarines. 

It has been found that it is possible to see a submarine at somedistance below the surface if the observer is in a balloon or anairplane. Therefore the submarine hunters do not need to wait for thesubmarine to show itself. The sea is patrolled by balloons and airplanesin conjunction with fast destroyers. When the aircraft has located asubmarine, the fact is signaled to a destroyer. When the destroyerarrives over the submarine, it drops a depth bomb, which is arranged toexplode after it has sunk to any desired depth in the water. 

It is believed that the submarines are being destroyed faster thanGermany can build them, and also that it is increasingly difficult forGermany to obtain the highly trained crews necessary to manage thecomplex machinery of a submarine. For it must be remembered that thecircumstances under which submarines are destroyed almost always involvethe loss of the crew. 

SUBMARINES RAID THE ATLANTIC COAST. --Unable to face the convoys oftransports, several submarines paid visits to our coast in the summer of1918, and destroyed a considerable number of unarmed vessels, mostlysmall craft. Many of the victims, indeed, were very small fishingboats, which are, by international agreement, exempt from capture ordestruction. 

GERMAN PROPAGANDA. --Before the United States entered the war, ourpeople were divided in their sympathies between the Central Powers andthe Allies. Those who believed that Germany was right were chieflypeople of German birth or descent, though a large majority even of thisgroup did not believe in the things for which Germany was fighting. 

Since the United States was neutral, their attitude was perfectly legal, provided their sympathies did not lead them to commit crimes against theUnited States in their zeal to hinder the cause of the Allies. Unfortunately, ever since we entered the war some of these people, stillkeeping on the side of Germany, have endeavored in every way to preventthe success of the American cause. Some of these men and women areAmerican-born, others have, through naturalization, sworn to uphold thegovernment of the United States, but still others have remained subjectsof the Central Powers. They have organized plots either to destroyproperty, or to spread rumors intended to interfere with the prosecutionof the war and to undermine confidence in the government. 

Munition factories have been blown up, and information has been secretlysent to German authorities concerning the movements of ships so thatthey could be attacked by submarines. Worse than all else, perhaps, isthe circulation of groundless rumors such as those stating that thesoldiers have insufficient food or clothing, or insinuating thatofficers of the government are guilty of outrageous offenses in theirtreatment of men and women who have entered war service. 

THE CITIZEN AND THE PROPAGANDIST. --It is the duty of every truecitizen, boy or girl, man or woman, to do two things to stop thistreason talk. First, when some one tells you a thing about ourgovernment that ought not to be true, and sounds as if the speaker wastrying to undermine the efforts of our country to win the war, ask him, "How do you know?" and then report the matter to the first policeman orother trustworthy person that you meet. The second thing you should dois carefully to avoid spreading any such rumors that you may hear. 

HOW THE GOVERNMENT CONTROLS PROPAGANDA. --Our country has sought tocontrol the treasonable work of these propagandists in three ways. 

First, all who are subjects of any enemy country, and who are abovefourteen years of age, must be enrolled, and must carry a certificatewith them wherever they go. They may not live within a half mile of navyyards, arsenals, or other places where war work is going on, and theymay not go within three hundred feet of any wharf or dock. 

Secondly, those whose conduct has been suspicious, or who have displayedactive sympathy with the enemy in speech or act, as well as certainpersons who were in official relationship with Germany, are interned forthe duration of the war. Internment means that they are under closeguard in a camp, or in a small district, but otherwise have considerablefreedom. 

In the third place, German sympathizers who have committed or haveattempted to commit crimes endangering the lives of our citizens, orinterfering in anyway with the conduct of the war, have been sent toprison for long terms. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Define cantonment; camp; barracks; army post. Describe the insignia of different grades of officers in the army and in the navy. Find some fact about General Pershing; about Admiral Sims. What is meant by propaganda? What is an alien enemy? 2. On a map of the United States mark the chief camps and cantonments. Locate the chief shipbuilding centers. 3. Make a collection of Food Saving notices and of literature and posters about Liberty Loans and War Savings Stamps. Make copies with names and dates of interesting letters from the front. 4. Collect pictures of shipbuilding and of transporting food to Europe. 5. Why did the navy go first to Europe? 6. How does the draft put a man into the army? 7. What factories near your home have done war work? 8. In what ways can a boy or girl save food? 9. Name five things on which you have to pay a war tax. 10. What can a boy or girl do for the Junior Red Cross? 11. Why do clothes and shoes cost more than before the war? 12. Why are some alien enemies put into prison or into detention camps?

 REFERENCES. --_National Service Handbook_ (C. P. I. ); _President's Flag Day Address with Evidence of Germany's Plans_ (C. P. I. ); Pamphlets from National Food Administrator; Pamphlets from National Fuel Administrator; _American Red Cross, Teachers Manual_; _German Plots and Intrigues_ (C. P. I. ); _Conquest and Kultur_ (C. P. I. ); the _World Almanac_. 

CHAPTER XIV

QUESTIONS OF THE COMING PEACE

There are two kinds of problems which must be solved by the Americanpeople before permanent peace conditions can be established. One groupof problems is composed of international questions, largely pertainingto the European states, but in which the United States is vitallyinterested. The other group of problems relates to the restoration ofour people and industries to a peace condition. On some points these twogroups of problems are closely related and cannot be settled separately. Some internal questions will have to be viewed in the light of worldaffairs; and some international problems must be given solutions whichwill have influences within our own country. Ignoring the overlapping ofthe two groups, we shall study the problems of peace in this chapterunder two headings: (1) national problems; (2) international problems. 

I. NATIONAL PROBLEMS

Among the many internal problems which the country will face at theclose of the war, and to which every American should to-day be givinghis earnest thought, the following are specially important. 

GETTING THE MEN HOME. --Even while engaged in the task of getting everyavailable man to the fighting line in Europe, the American authoritieshave found time to think of the return movement. It will be a greatundertaking, requiring many months, to see that each man reachesAmerican shores and after his dismissal is safely sent to his home town. 

THE CARE OF THE WOUNDED. --During the war the greatest pains have beentaken by the medical officers of the army, and by the Red Cross agents, to bring immediate relief to the brave wounded men, and to nurse themback to health. But many of them will have sacrificed an eye or a limb, or will have received wounds which will prevent their engaging in theirprevious occupations. It is the high duty of the nation to save such menfrom a life of pain or of enforced idleness. It should not permit themto subsist by charity, or even pensions. The wounded man, crippled forlife in his nation's service, will be educated in a vocation which willoccupy his mind, make him independent, and render him a respected andself-respecting member of his community. This great educational work hasalready been started, courses of study have been put into operation, andpositions in various industrial plants have been guaranteed to the menafter the training is completed. The nation will perform its whole dutyto its heroes. 

THE RECONSTRUCTION OF INDUSTRY. --The war has called into existencegreat plants for the manufacture of the specialties needed in warfare. Such factories must, after the close of the war, be made over and setto the task of creating goods for the days of peace. Machinery will bereconstructed, agencies for the sale of goods must be established, andforeign trade sought as a possible market for the enlarged production. 

THE REORGANIZATION OF LABOR. --American working people, whether they bemanagers of plants or workmen at the machine, have been wonderfullyloyal to the nation during the war. They have shifted their work, theirhomes, and their aspirations to meet the needs of the war. When peacereturns all this talent and skill must be turned into other channels. This we hope can be accomplished without unemployment on a large scale, and without any loss of time or pay. But it will require great directingability, and a friendly attitude of employees and employers toward eachother. 

FINANCIAL RECONSTRUCTION. --The finances of the government, ofcorporations, and of business men have been greatly changed during thecourse of the war. There may never be a complete return to the oldconditions. But it is certain that peace will create problems of financealmost as serious as those of war. 

LEGISLATIVE CHANGES. --Our legislative bodies, particularly theCongress, will be called upon to pass many laws to aid the country toresume its peaceful life and occupations. All of the problems mentionedhere, as well as many others, will require the enactment of new laws. Weshall need congressmen and state legislators of wisdom, patriotism, andspecial knowledge to act intelligently for the people on these problems. The international settlements mentioned below also may require theaction of the Senate upon treaties, and the action of both houses wherelaws are necessary to carry out our international agreements. The warhas called for statesmanship of the highest order; the coming peace willmake equal demands upon the wisdom and self-control of our statesmen andpoliticians. 

II. INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS

President Wilson, on January 8, 1918, addressed Congress in a speechwhich was designed to set forth the war aims and peace terms of theUnited States. Every American should be familiar with the terms of this"fourteen-point speech. " Each one of the terms advocated by thePresident is given below in the President's own words, and a shortexplanatory paragraph is added to each. 

1. _Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shallbe no private international understandings of any kind, but diplomacyshall proceed always frankly and in the public view. _

The President here speaks against the underhand diplomacy and secretalliances which have been a feature of European history in the past. Bythis practice a few diplomats and monarchs made whatever treaties theywished, not presenting them for ratification to the people'srepresentatives, and yet binding every individual citizen to abide bythe terms adopted. Such secret provisions have often been agreed tosimply upon the whim or the ambition or the likes and dislikes of therulers. They have sometimes been opposed to the true interests of thenations involved. They are undemocratic, and are not in accord withAmerican ideas. 

2. _Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorialwaters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed inwhole or in part by international action for the enforcement ofinternational covenants. _

Since 1793 the United States has stood for the freedom of the seas andthe right of neutrals to carry on their trade in time of war as well asin time of peace. Germany's violation of our rights as a neutral by hersubmarine warfare was one of the causes of our taking up arms againsther. By territorial waters the President here means the waters withinthree miles from shore, which are universally held to be under thecomplete control of the adjoining state. By international covenants areprobably meant such covenants and guarantees as those mentioned inpoints 14, 1, 4, 11, 12, and 13. 

3. _The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and theestablishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nationsconsenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance. _

Economic barriers are mainly restrictions upon trade and commerce. Theserestrictions take various forms; they may be prohibitive customs duties, or excessive port, tonnage, and harbor charges; they may be tradeagreements granting favors to the citizens of one country and _not_ tothose of another. The President urges the establishment of an equalityof such trade conditions. 

4. _Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will bereduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. _

The President here touches one of the most important problems of thecoming peace. This has often been called a war against war; it has beensaid that it will be the last war. The sentiment which leads to suchstatements has its origin in a hatred of militarism. Great armamentswere created because of the danger from Prussian militarism; and greatarmaments will still be necessary unless "this intolerable thing" iscrushed or "shut out from the friendly intercourse of the nations. " Whenit is crushed, some adequate steps must be taken by each state to reduceits armaments, on condition that all other states do the same. But manyproblems will face the world's statesmen in preparing a plan forguaranteed disarmament. How large a force will each nation need tomaintain its "domestic safety"? How shall we be sure that Germany willnot break her promise, as she has so often done in this war? How shallwe be sure that Germany, or perhaps some other state, will not againsecretly prepare for a war while others remain unprepared?

5. _A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of allcolonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle thatin determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of thepopulations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claimsof the government whose title is to be determined. _

In the opening chapters of this book we have seen how colonial rivalrywas one of the causes of the World War. The President urges that thesettlement after the war shall be "free, open-minded, and absolutelyimpartial. " He introduces here the democratic principle that theinterests of the populations in the colonies shall have equal weightwith the just claims of the European states. Such a principle probablywill mean that few if any of Germany's colonies can be returned to her, because her colonial management has been neglectful of the interests ofthe subject peoples. 

6. _The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of allquestions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freestcoöperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her anunhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independentdetermination of her own political development and national policy andassure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations underinstitutions of her own choosing, and, more than a welcome, assistancealso of every kind that she may need and may herself desire. Thetreatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to comewill be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of herneeds as distinguished from their own interests, and of theirintelligent and unselfish sympathy. _

No restatement of the President's words on this subject is necessary. The Russian revolution is one of the most important results of the GreatWar. How can the future welfare of Russia be best secured?

7. _Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys in commonwith all other free nations. No other single act will serve as this willserve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which theyhave themselves set and determined for the government of their relationswith one another. Without this healing act the whole structure andvalidity of international law is forever impaired. _

The evacuation of Belgium will follow the military victories of theUnited States and her associates. The restoration of Belgium will bedifficult to effect. It implies relief to her suffering and starvingpeople, the return of the many exiles to Belgium, the erection of newhomes for them, the reorganization of industry and transportation, andthe repair and rebuilding of her historic edifices. Where will the fundscome from for such work? Germany, the aggressor, surely should bear apart or all of the cost. 

8. _All French territory should be freed and the invaded portionsrestored, and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matterof Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world fornearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once morebe made secure in the interest of all. _

Here the President urges the same treatment for the occupied lands ofnorthern France as for those of Belgium. The devastated lands must bereclaimed, the inhabitants cared for, and adequate means provided bywhich they can earn a livelihood. Further, he advises the return ofAlsace-Lorraine to France. Such action not only will right the wrongdone to France in 1871, but also it will take from Germany much of theiron-producing areas which have made it possible for her to prepare andcarry on this war, and which might permit her to get ready for a yetmore dreadful war in the future. 

9. _A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected alongclearly recognizable lines of nationality. _

We have seen how a considerable area inhabited by Italians was not freedfrom Austrian rule when the Italian kingdom was founded. This territory, called Italia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy), and this population, by itsown desire and by natural right, belong to Italy and should be broughtwithin the nation. 

10. _The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations wewish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freestopportunity of autonomous development. _

Within the Austro-Hungarian boundaries are several nationalities whichhave been subjected to the oppressive rule of peoples different fromthemselves. Their attempts to obtain home rule or independence have beencrushed. America now wishes to secure for these peoples the opportunityto establish governments for themselves. As we have already seen, ourcountry in 1918 formally recognized the independence of one of thesepeoples--the Czecho-Slovaks, or inhabitants of Bohemia and neighboringdistricts. Moreover, in a note to Austria-Hungary, October 18, 1918, President Wilson stated that conditions had changed since January 8, andintimated that both the Czecho-Slovaks and the Jugo-Slavs should begiven independence. 

11. _Roumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated, occupiedterritories restored, Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea, and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another determinedby friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegianceand nationality; and international guarantees of the political andeconomic independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkanstates should be entered into. _

We have here a comprehensive plan for the settlement of the Balkanjealousies, which have disturbed Europe for many years. Evacuation andrestoration is here proposed, as in Belgium and France. Serbia, alwaysthwarted by Austria in her hopes for a port, is to be given access tothe sea. Friendly counsel shall be given the Balkan peoples to aid themin establishing their governments along the lines of nationalities andof historic sympathies. All the countries of the world should unite toguarantee and protect the safety and independence of the governmentsestablished in the Balkan region. 

12. _The Turkish portions of the present Ottoman Empire should beassured a secure sovereignty, but the other nationalities which are nowunder Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life andan absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and theDardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the shipsand commerce of all nations under international guarantees. _

The horrible rule of the Turks over subject peoples must cease. TheTurks, as well as all other peoples, should be allowed the right ofself-government. But their subject peoples must also be protected intheir lives, property, and occupations, and given an opportunity toestablish self-government when they desire it. The Dardanelles straitmust be taken out of the power of the Turks, and placed under thecontrol of the associated nations. 

13. _An independent Polish state should be erected which should includethe territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, whichshould be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whosepolitical and economic independence and territorial integrity should beguaranteed by international covenant. _

A nation composed of Poles would imply the union of parts of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, since all of these three countries took part inthe infamous partition of Poland in the eighteenth century. Access tothe Baltic Sea would be necessary for the prosperity and independence ofthe new state. But such access could be gained only across territorywhich Prussia has held for a century and a half. The associated nationswould guarantee the independence of Poland in the same way that theywould protect Belgium, Serbia, and the other states erected upon theprinciple of national self-government. 

14. _A general association of nations must be formed under specificcovenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of politicalindependence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike. _

This is the most important of the President's suggestions. Without someform of a league of nations it will be impossible to adopt and carry outthe other terms of the President's program. International guarantees, sofrequently mentioned in his proposals, imply some means by which thecountries of the world can act together for their common purposes. Restoration of devastated lands, disarmament, new democraticgovernments, freedom of commerce, --all of these things will remainnothing but rainbow hopes unless the large and small nations of theworld unite for their realization. A League of Nations, more or lessregularly organized, must be formed if the democracies of the worldshall be made safe from future wars of aggression. 

 SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY. --1. Why are waters within three miles of shore considered as territorial waters? (See _War Cyclopedia_, "Marine League. ") What is meant by freedom of the seas? What is meant by the phrase "free ships make free goods"? 2. Make a map of Europe showing what it would be like if all of President Wilson's points were approved at the peace conference. 3. Are there any reasons why every nation should give up its colonies and permit them to be independent states? 4. Why is it dangerous as well as wrong to permit Germany to retain her control over the territory taken from Russia? 5. What was the "wrong done to France (by Germany) in 1870"? 6. What is autonomy? Name the peoples of Austria-Hungary who wish autonomous development, or complete independence. 7. Find some ways by which Poland and Serbia can get access to the sea. 8. Do you think it will take a longer or a shorter time to bring the soldiers home than it did to send them to France? Why? 9. What is meant by rehabilitation of the wounded? Find some ways in which other nations have made their maimed soldiers self-supporting. 10. How is it likely that Constantinople will be controlled after the war? 11. How would the league of nations enforce its decisions? (See President Wilson's second point. )

 REFERENCES. --_War Cyclopedia_ (C. P. I. ); McKinley, _Collected Materials for the Study of the War; War, Labor, and Peace_ (C. P. I. ); _Conquest and Kultur_ (C. P. I. ); _The War Message and the Facts Behind It_ (C. P. I. ); _American Interest in Popular Government Abroad_ (C. P. I. ). 

CHRONOLOGY--PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF THE WAR

(Adapted from "War Cyclopedia" published by the Committee on PublicInformation, Washington, D. C. Events which especially concern the UnitedStates are put in _italic_ type. )

 1914

June 28 Murder of Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Serajevo. 

July 5 Conference at Potsdam (page 70). 

July 23 Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia. 

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. 

July 31 German ultimatums to Russia and France. 

Aug. 1 Germany declares war on Russia and invades Luxemburg. 

Aug. 2 German ultimatum to Belgium, demanding a free passage for her troops across Belgium. 

Aug. 3 Germany declares war on France. 

Aug. 4-26 Most of Belgium overrun: Liege occupied (Aug. 9); Brussels (Aug. 20); Namur (Aug. 24). 

Aug. 4 Great Britain declares war on Germany. 

_Aug. 4 President Wilson proclaims neutrality of United States_. 

Aug. 6 Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia. 

Aug. 12 France and Great Britain declare war on Austria-Hungary. 

Aug. 16 British expeditionary force landed in France. 

Aug. 18 Russia invades East Prussia. 

Aug. 21-23 Battle of Mons-Charleroi. Dogged retreat of French and British in the face of the German invasion. 

Aug. 23 Japan declares war on Germany. 

Aug. 23 Tsingtau (Kiaochow) bombarded by Japanese. 

Aug. 25- Russians overrun Galicia. Lemberg taken (Sept. 2);Dec. 15 Przemysl besieged (Sept. 16 to Oct. 15, and again after Nov. 12). Dec. 4, Russians 3-1/2 miles from Cracow. 

Aug. 26 Germans destroy Louvain, in Belgium. 

Aug. 26 Allies conquer Togo, in Africa. 

Aug. 26-31 Russians defeated in battle of Tannenberg (page 85). 

Aug. 28 British naval victory of Helgoland Bight, in North Sea. 

Aug. 31 Name of St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd. 

Sept. 5 Great Britain, France, and Russia agree not to make peace separately. 

Sept. 6-10 First battle of the Marne (page 81). 

Sept. 7 Germans take Maubeuge, in northern France. 

Sept. 11 Australians take German New Guinea, etc. 

Sept. 12-17 Battle of the Aisne. 

Sept. 16 Russians driven from East Prussia. 

Sept. 22 Three British armored cruisers sunk by a submarine. 

Sept. 27 Invasion of German Southwest Africa by Gen. Botha. 

Oct. 9 Germans occupy Antwerp, the chief port of Belgium. 

Oct. 16-28 Battle of the Yser, in Flanders, Belgium. Belgians and French halt German advance. 

Oct. 17- Battle of Flanders, near Ypres, saving Channel ports. Nov. 15

Oct. 21-28 German armies driven back in Poland. 

Oct. 28- De Wet's rebellion in British South Africa. Dec. 8

Oct. 29 Turkish war ship bombards Odessa, Russia. 

Nov. 1 German naval victory off the coast of Chile. 

Nov. 3-5 Russia, France, and Great Britain declare war on Turkey. 

Nov. 7 Fall of Tsingtau (Kiaochow) to the Japanese and British. 

Nov. 10- Austrian invasion of Serbia (page 87). Dec. 14

Nov. 10 German cruiser "Emden" destroyed in Indian Ocean. 

Nov. 21 Basra, on Persian Gulf, occupied by British. 

Dec. 8 British naval victory off the Falkland Islands. 

Dec. 16 German warships bombard towns on east coast of England. 

Dec. 17 Egypt proclaimed a British protectorate, under a sultan. 

Dec. 24 First German air raid on England. 

 1915

Jan. 1- Russians attempt to cross the Carpathians. Feb. 13

Jan. 24 British naval victory of Dogger Bank, in North Sea. 

Jan. 25- Russians again invade East Prussia, but are defeated inFeb. 12 the battle of the Mazurian Lakes. 

_Jan. 28 American merchantman "William P. Frye" sunk by German cruiser. _

Feb. 4 Germany's proclamation of "war zone" around the British Isles after February 18. 

_Feb. 10 United States note holding German government to a "strict accountability" for destruction of American lives or vessels. _

Feb. 10 Anglo-French squadron bombards Dardanelles forts. 

Mar. 1 Announcement of British "blockade" of Germany. 

Mar. 10 British capture Neuve Chapelle, in northern France. 

Mar. 22 Russians capture Przemysl, in Galicia. 

Apr. 17- Battle of Ypres. First use of poison gas (page 95). May 17

Apr. 25 Allied troops land on the Gallipoli peninsula. 

Apr. 30 Germans invade the Baltic provinces of Russia. 

_May 1 American steamship "Gulflight" sunk by German submarine; two Americans lost. _

May 2 Battle of the Dunajec. Russians defeated by the Germans and Austrians and forced to retire from the Carpathians. 

May 7 British liner "Lusitania" sunk by German submarine (1, 154 lives lost, _114 being Americans_). 

May 9-June Battle of Artois, or Festubert (in France, north of Arras). Small gains by the Allies. 

_May 13 American note protests against submarine policy culminating in the sinking of the "Lusitania. " Other notes June 9, July 21; German replies, May 28, July 8, Sept. 1. _

May 23 Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary. 

_May 25 American steamship "Nebraskan" attacked by submarine. _

June 3 Przemysl retaken by Germans and Austrians. 

June 9 Monfalcone occupied by Italians. 

June 22 The Austro-Germans recapture Lemberg, in Galicia. 

July 2 Naval action between Russians and Germans in the Baltic. 

July 9 Conquest of German Southwest Africa completed. 

July 12- German conquest of Russian Poland; capture of WarsawSept. 18 (Aug. 5), Kovno (Aug. 17), Brest-Litovsk (Aug. 25), Vilna (Sept. 18). 

Aug. 19 British liner "Arabic" sunk by submarines (44 victims, _two Americans_). 

Aug. 21 Italy declares war on Turkey. 

_Sept. 1 The German ambassador, von Bernstorff, gives assurance that German submarines will sink no more liners without warning. _

_Sept. 8 United States demands recall of Austro-Hungarian ambassador, Dr. Dumba. _

Sept. 25- French offensive in Champagne fails to break through GermanOct. Lines. 

Sept. 27 Small British progress at Loos, near Lens. 

Oct. 4 Russian ultimatum to Bulgaria. 

Oct. 5 Allied forces land at Salonica, at the invitation of the Greek government. 

_Oct. 5 German Government regrets and disavows sinking of "Arabic" and is prepared to pay indemnities. _

Oct. 6- Austro-German-Bulgarian conquest of Serbia; fall of BelgradeDec. 2 (Oct. 9), Nish (Nov. 1), Monastir (Dec. 2). 

Oct. 13 Germans execute the English nurse, Edith Cavell, for aiding Belgians to escape from Belgium. 

Oct. 14 Bulgaria declares war on Serbia. 

Oct. 15-19 Great Britain, France, Russia, and Italy declare war against Bulgaria. 

Nov. 10-Apr. Russian forces advance into Persia as a result of pro-German activities there. 

Dec. 1 British under Gen. Townshend retreat from near Bagdad to Kut-el-Amara. 

_Dec. 3 United States Government demands recall of Capt. Boy-Ed and Capt. Von Papen, attachés of the German embassy. _

Dec. 6 Germans capture Ipek, in Montenegro. 

Dec. 15 Sir Douglas Haig succeeds Sir John French in command of the British army in France. 

Dec. 19 British forces withdraw from parts of Gallipoli peninsula. 

 1916

Jan. 8 Evacuation of Gallipoli completed. 

Jan. 13 Fall of Cetinje, capital of Montenegro. 

Feb. 10 Germany notifies neutral powers that armed merchant ships will be treated as warships and will be sunk without warning. 

_Feb. 15 Secretary Lansing states that by international law commercial vessels have right to carry arms in self-defense. _

_Feb. 16 Germany sends note acknowledging her liability in the "Lusitania" affair. _

Feb. 16 Russians take Erzerum, in Turkish Armenia. 

Feb. 16 Kamerun (Africa) conquered. 

Feb. 21- Battle of Verdun (pages 107-108). July

_Feb. 24 President Wilson in letter to Senator Stone refuses to advise American citizens not to travel on armed merchant ships. _

Mar. 8 Germany declares war on Portugal. 

Mar. 24 French steamer "Sussex" is torpedoed without warning (page 115). 

Apr. 18 Russians capture Trebizond, in Turkey. 

_Apr. 18 United States note declaring that she will sever diplomatic relations unless Germany abandons present methods of submarine warfare. _

Apr. 24- Insurrection in Ireland. May 1

Apr. 29 Gen. Townshend surrenders at Kut-el-Amara. 

_May 4 Germany's conditional pledge not to sink merchant ships without warning_ (page 116). 

May 14- Great Austrian attack on the Italians through the Trentino. June 3

May 19 Russians join British on the Tigris. 

May 24 Conscription bill becomes a law in Great Britain. 

May 31 Naval battle off Jutland, in North Sea. 

June 4-30 Russian offensive in Galicia and Bukowina. 

June 5 Lord Kitchener drowned. 

July 1- Battle of the Somme (page 108). Nov. 17

July 27 Germans execute Captain Fryatt, an Englishman, for having defended his merchant ship by ramming the German submarine that was about to attack it. 

Aug. 9 Italians capture Gorizia. 

Aug. 27 Italy declares war on Germany. 

Aug. 27- Roumania enters war on the side of the Allies, and most ofJan. 15 the country is overrun. (Fall of Bucharest, Dec. 6. )

_Oct. 7 German submarine appears off American coast_ and sinks British passenger steamer "Stephano" (Oct. 8). 

Nov. 19 Monastir retaken by Allies (chiefly Serbians). 

_Nov. 29 United States protests against Belgian deportations. _

Dec. 6 Lloyd George succeeds Asquith as British prime minister. 

Dec. 12 German peace offer. Refused (Dec. 30) as "empty and insincere. "

_Dec. 18 President Wilson's peace note. _ Germany replies evasively (Dec. 26). Entente Allies' reply (Jan. 10) demands "restorations, reparation, indemnities. "

 1917

Jan. 10 The Allied governments state their terms of peace. 

Jan. 31 Germany announces unrestricted submarine warfare in specified zones. 

_Feb. 3 United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany. _

Feb. 24 Kut-el-Amara taken by British under Gen. Maude. 

_Feb. 26 President Wilson asks authority to arm merchant ships. _

_Feb. 28 "Zimmermann note" published. _

Mar. 11 Bagdad captured by British under Gen. Maude. 

Mar. 11-15 Revolution in Russia, leading to abdication of Czar Nicholas II (Mar. 15). Provisional Government formed by Constitutional Democrats under Prince Lvov. 

_Mar. 12 United States announces that an armed guard will be placed on all American merchant vessels sailing through the war zone. _

Mar. 17-19 Retirement of Germans to the "Hindenburg line" (page 118). 

_Mar. 24 Minister Brand Whitlock and American Relief Commission withdrawn from Belgium. _

_Apr. 2 President Wilson asks Congress to declare the existence of a state of war with Germany. _

_Apr. 6 United States declares war on Germany. _

_Apr. 8 Austria-Hungary severs diplomatic relations with the United States. _

Apr. 9- British successes in battle of Arras (Vimy Ridge takenMay 14 Apr. 9). 

Apr. 16- French successes in battle of the Aisne between Soissons andMay 6 Rheims. 

_Apr. 21 Turkey severs relations with United States. _

_May 4 American destroyers begin coöperation with British navy in war zone. _

May 15- Great Italian offensive on Isonzo front. Sept. 15

May 15 Gen. Pétain succeeds Gen. Nivelle as commander in chief of the French armies. 

_May 18 President Wilson signs selective service act. _

June 7 British blow up Messines Ridge, south of Ypres, and capture 7, 500 German prisoners. 

June 10 Italian offensive in Trentino. 

June 12 King Constantine of Greece forced to abdicate. 

_June 26 First American troops reach France. _

June 29 Greece enters war against Germany and her allies. 

July 1 Russian army led in person by Kerensky, the Minister of War, begins an offensive in Galicia, ending in disastrous retreat (July 19-Aug. 3). 

July 20 Kerensky succeeds Prince Lvov as premier of Russia. 

July 30 Mutiny in German fleet at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel. Second mutiny Sept. 2. 

July 31- Battle of Flanders (Passchendaele Ridge); British successes. Nov. 

Aug. 15 Peace proposals of Pope Benedict published (dated Aug. 1). _United States replies Aug. 27;_ Germany and Austria, Sept. 21. 

Aug. 15 Canadians capture Hill 70, dominating Lens. 

Aug. 19-24 New Italian drive on the Isonzo front. 

Aug. 20-24 French attacks at Verdun recapture high ground lost in 1916. 

Sept. 3 Riga captured by Germans. 

_Sept. 8 Luxburg dispatches ("Spurlos versenkt") published by United States. _

Sept. 15 Russia proclaimed a republic. 

Oct. 17 Russians defeated in a naval engagement in the Gulf of Riga. 

Oct. 14. - Great German-Austrian invasion of Italy. Italian line shiftedDec to Piave River. 

Oct. 26 Brazil declares war on Germany. 

Nov. 2 Germans retreat from the Chemin des Dames, in France. 

_Nov. 3 First clash of American with German soldiers. _

Nov. 7 Overthrow of Kerensky and Provisional Government of Russia by the Bolsheviki. 

Nov. 13 Clémenceau succeeds Ribot as French premier. 

Nov. 20- Battle of Cambrai (page 119). Dec. 13

Nov. 29 First plenary session of the Interallied Conference in Paris. Sixteen nations represented. _Col. E. M. House, chairman of American delegation. _

Dec. 3 Conquest of German East Africa completed. 

_Dec. 6 U. S. Destroyer "Jacob Jones" sunk by submarine, with loss of over 60 American men. _

Dec. 6 Explosion on munitions vessel wrecks Halifax. 

_Dec. 7 United States declares war on Austria-Hungary. _

Dec. 10 Jerusalem captured by British. 

Dec. 23 Peace negotiations opened at Brest-Litovsk between Bolshevik government and Central Powers. 

_Dec. 28 President Wilson takes over the control of railroads. _

 1918

Jan. 4 British hospital ship "Rewa" torpedoed and sunk in English Channel. 

_Jan. 8 President Wilson sets forth peace program of the United States. _

Jan. 18 Russian Constituent Assembly meets in Petrograd. 

Jan. 19 The Bolsheviki dissolve the Russian Assembly. 

Jan. 28 Revolution begins in Finland; fighting between "White Guards" and "Red Guards. "

Jan. 28-29 Big German air raid on London. 

Jan. 30 German air raid on Paris. 

_Feb. 3 American troops officially announced to be on the Lorraine front near Toul. _

Feb. 5 British transport "Tuscania" with 2, 179 American troops on board torpedoed and sunk; _211 American soldiers lost_. 

Feb. 9 Ukrainia makes peace with Germany. 

Feb. 10 The Bolsheviki order demobilization of the Russian army. 

Feb. 14 Bolo Pasha condemned for treason against France; executed April 16. 

Feb. 17 Cossack General Kaledines commits suicide. Collapse of Cossack revolt against the Bolsheviki. 

Feb. 18- Russo-German armistice declared at an end by Germany;Mar. 3 war resumed. Germans occupy Dvinsk, Minsk, and other cities. 

Feb. 21 German troops land in Finland. 

Feb. 23 Turkish troops drive back the Russians in the northeast (Trebizond taken Feb. 26, Erzerum March 14). 

Mar. 2 German and Ukrainian troops defeat the Bolsheviki near Kief in Ukrainia. 

Mar. 3 Bolsheviki sign peace treaty with Germany at Brest-Litovsk. Ratified by Soviet Congress at Moscow March 15. 

Mar. 7 Finland and Germany sign a treaty of peace. 

_Mar. 10 Announcement that American troops are occupying trenches at four different points on French front. _

_Mar. 11 First wholly American raid, made in sector north of Toul, meets with success. _

Mar. 11 Great German air raid on Paris, by more than fifty planes. 

Mar. 13 German troops occupy Odessa on Black Sea. 

Mar. 21- First German drive of the year, on 50-mile front, extendingApr. 1 to Montdidier (page 143). 

Apr. 9-18 Second German drive, on a 30-mile front between Ypres and Arras. 

May 6 Roumania signs peace treaty with the Central Powers. 

May 7 Nicaragua declares war on Germany and her allies. 

May 9-10 British naval force attempts to block Ostend harbor. 

May 14 Caucasus proclaims itself an independent state; but the Turks overrun the southern part, and take Baku Sept. 19. 

May 21 British transport "Moldavia" is sunk _with loss of 53 American soldiers. _

_May 24 Major General March appointed Chief of Staff with the rank of General. _

May 24 Costa Rica declares war on the Central Powers. 

_May 25- German submarines appear off American coast and sink 19June coastwise vessels, including Porto Rico liner "Carolina" with loss of 16 lives. _

May 27- Third German drive, capturing the Chemin des Dames andJune 1 reaching the Marne River east of Chateau-Thierry. _American Marines aid French at Chateau-Thierry. _

_May 28 American forces near Montdidier capture Tillage of Cantigny and hold it against numerous counter-attacks. _

_May 31 U. S. Transport "President Lincoln" sunk by U-boat while on her way to the United States; 23 lives lost_. 

June 9-16 Fourth German drive, on 20-mile front east of Montdidier, makes only small gains. 

June 10 Italian naval forces sink one Austrian dreadnaught and damage another in the Adriatic. 

_June 11 American Marines take Belleau Wood, with 800 prisoners. _

June 14 Turkish troops occupy Tabriz, Persia. 

_June 15 General March announces that there are 800, 000 American troops in France. _

June 15- Austrian offensive against Italy fails with heavy losses. July 6

_June 21 Official statement that American forces hold 39 miles of French front in six sectors. _

June 27 British hospital ship "Llandovery Castle" is torpedoed off Irish coast with loss of 234 lives. Only 24 survived. 

July 10 Italians and French take Berat in Albania. 

July 13 Czecho-Slovak troops occupy Irkutsk in Siberia. 

_July 15-18 Anglo-American forces occupy strategic positions on the Murman Coast in northwestern Russia. _

July 15-18 Fifth German drive extends three miles south of the Marne, but east of Rheims makes no gain. 

July 16 Ex-Czar Nicholas executed by Bolshevik authorities. 

July 18- Second battle of the Marne, beginning with Foch'sAug. 4 counter-offensive between Soissons and Chateau-Thierry. French _and Americans_ drive the Germans back from the Marne nearly to the Aisne. 

July 22 Honduras declares war on Germany. 

_July 27 American troops arrive on the Italian front. _

_July 31 President Wilson takes over telegraph and telephone systems. _

Aug. 2 Allies occupy Archangel, in northern Russia. 

Aug. 8- Allies attack successfully near Montdidier, and continue theSept. Drive until the Germans are back at the Hindenburg line, giving up practically all the ground they had gained this year. 

_Aug. 15 American troops land in eastern Siberia. _

_Sept. 3 The United States recognizes the Czecho-Slovak government. _

_Sept. 12-13 Americans take the St. Mihiel salient near Metz. _

Sept. 15 Allied army under Gen. D'Esperey begins campaign against Bulgarians. 

_Sept. 16 President Wilson receives an Austrian proposal for a peace conference, and refuses it. _

Sept. 22 Great victory of British and Arabs over Turks in Palestine. 

_Sept. 26 Americans begin a drive in the Meuse valley. _

Sept. 30 Bulgaria withdraws from the war. 

Oct. 1 St. Quentin (on the Hindenburg line) taken by the French. 

Oct. 1 Damascus captured by the British. 

Oct. 3 King Ferdinand of Bulgaria abdicates. 

Oct. 3 Lens taken by the British. 

_Oct. 4 Germany asks President Wilson for an armistice and peace negotiations_ (page 150); _other notes Oct. 12, 20, etc. ; similar notes from Austria-Hungary Oct. 7, and from Turkey Oct. 12. Wilson's replies Oct. 8, 14, 18, 23. _

Oct. 7 Beirut taken by a French fleet. 

Oct. 8 Cambrai taken by the British. 

Oct. 13 Laon taken by the French. 

Oct. 17 Ostend taken by the Belgians. 

Oct. 17 Lille taken by the British. 

Oct. 24- Allied forces (chiefly Italians) under Gen. Diaz win a greatNov. 4 victory on the Italian front. 

Oct. 26 Aleppo taken by the British. 

Oct. 31 Turkey surrenders. 

Nov. 1 Serbian troops enter Belgrade after regaining nearly all of Serbia. 

Nov. 3 Trieste and Trent occupied by Italian forces. 

Nov. 4 Surrender of Austria-Hungary. 

_Nov. 5 President Wilson notifies Germany that General Foch has been authorized by the United States and the Allies to communicate the terms of an armistice. _

Nov. 6 Mutiny of German sailors at Kiel; followed by mutinies, revolts, and revolutions at other German cities. 

_Nov. 7 Americans take Sedan_. 

Nov. 9 British take Maubeuge. 

Nov. 9 Announcement that the German emperor William II "has decided to renounce the throne"; he flees to Holland Nov. 10 and signs a formal abdication Nov. 28

Nov. 11 Armistice signed; Germany surrenders. 

INDEX

Adrianople, taken, 65. Africa, war in, 90-91. Aircraft, 104, 109, 119-120, 153-154. Aisne, battle of, 81. Albania, 23-24, 59-65, 148. Albanians, 62. Allenby, General, 126, 148. Allies, 75. Alsace-Lorraine, 48-50, 13, 28; Wilson on, 175. Americans, see United States. Amiens, threatened, 143. Antwerp, location, 30; captured, 81, 104. Arbitration, 43. Argentina, "_spurlos versenkt_, " 133. Armaments, 36, 41-42, 45. Armed neutrality, 131. Armenia, 110. Australia, 22, 89. Austria, 12, 15-16; see Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary, before the war, 15-17; Balkan ambitions, 52, 63; Triple Alliance, 56-57; backs Turkey, 63, 65; trouble with Serbia, 68-73; precipitates the war, 70, 72; in the war, 84-87, 97-99, 112-114, 122-123, 127-128, 147, 149; Wilson on, 176. 

Bagdad, taken, 125. Balkan states, 23-24, 52-53, 59-66; races in, 59-62; in the war, see Serbia, Bulgaria, Roumania; Wilson on, 177. Balkan Wars, 64-65. Baltic provinces, 30, 137. Battles: Marne, 81; Aisne, 81; Flanders, 82; Tannenberg, 85; Ypres, 95; Mazurian Lakes, 97; Verdun, 107; Somme, 108; Vimy Ridge, 118; Cambrai, 119; Picardy, 143; second Marne, 146; Piave, 147, 149. Beatty, Admiral, 114. Belgium, before the war, 18, 30; neutrality; 19, 78; in the war, 78-80, 149; German occupation of, 82-84; Wilson on, 175. Belgrade, taken, 87. Berlin-Bagdad Railway, 32, 125. Bernstorff, Count von, 128-129. Bessarabia, 138. Bismarck, 12-13. Boers, in the war, 90. Bolsheviki, 123-125, 135-140. Bosnia, 69. Bosporus, 51. Botha, General, 90. Brazil, enters the war, 133. Brest-Litovsk, peace of, 136-138. Brusilov, General, 112. Bukowina, invaded, 112. Bulgaria, before the war, 23-24, 59-65; Balkan wars, 64-65; in the Great War, 97-98, 113, 147-148; surrenders, 148. Bulgars, 61. 

Calais, threatened, 81. Cambrai, battle of, 119; taken, 150. Canada, 22, 118, 119. Casement, Sir Roger, 117. Cavour, Count, 17-18. Central Powers, 65. Chemin des Dames, 119. Chile, naval battle near, 93. Colonies, 10; Germany's desire for, 31, 54-55; Wilson on, 174. Constantine, King, 98. Constantinople, 51-52. Courland, 137. Czar, 23-24, 120-121. Czecho-Slovaks, 139-140. 

Damascus, taken, 148. Dardanelles, 51, 96. Wilson on, 178. Democratic movements, 8, 121. _Der Tag_, 67. D'Esperey, General, 147. Dewey, Admiral, 54. Diaz, General, 149. Dobrudja, 62, 113, 138. Dublin, in rebellion, 117. Duma, 120-121. 

East Prussia, 30; invaded, 85, 97. _Emden_, cruise of, 92-93. England, 21; see Great Britain. Erzerum, captured, 111. Esthonia, 137. 

Falkland Is. , naval battle, 93. Finland, 136-137. Flame-thrower, 95. Flanders, battles of, 82, 143. Foch, General, 143-149. Food and fuel control in U. S. , 154-156. France, before the war, 19-20, 13; Triple Entente, 57-58; enters the war, 73-74; in the war, 77-84, 95, 107-109, 118-120, 141-150. Francis Ferdinand, assassinated, 70. Francis Joseph, 16. Franco-Prussian War, 13, 20, 28-29. Freedom of the seas, Wilson on, 172. 

Galicia, in the war, 86, 97, 112, 122-123. Gallipoli campaign, 96. Garibaldi, 17. Gas, used in warfare, 95, 142. George, Lloyd, on Alsace-Lorraine, 48. Gerard, Ambassador, 129. German propaganda in U. S. , 165-167. Germany, before the war, 12-14; why Germany wanted war, 27-34; German militarism, 34-37; opposition to peace movements, 39, 42-46; colonial ambitions, 31, 53-56; Triple Alliance, 56-57; backs Turkey, 63-65; preparations for Great War, 67-68; precipitates the war, 70, 72-75; in the war, 77-109, 113-150; treatment of occupied territory, 82-84; loses colonies, 89-91; navy, 37, 91-94, 101-103, 114-116, 128-130, 164; blockaded, 92, 100; aircraft, 104-105; peace offensive (1917, 1918), 135-138; new tactics (1918), 141-142; defeated, asks for peace, 149-150. Gorizia, taken, 114. Great Britain, before the war, 21-23; colonies, 11, 22, 105; danger from Germany, 32, 37; Triple Entente, 58; efforts for peace, 72-73; enters the war, 74-75; army in France, 79-82, 95, 108-109, 118-119, 141-149; in Africa, 90; navy, 91-94; in Gallipoli, 96; in Mesopotamia, 111-112, 125; conscription, 116; in Palestine, 125-126, 148. Great War, causes, 5, 27, 34, 48, 67; declarations, 73; in 1914, 77; in 1915, 95; in 1916, 107; in 1917, 118; in 1918, 135; United States in, 130-133, 152; peace problems, 168. Greece, before the war, 23-24, 59-65; Balkan wars, 64-65; in the Great War, 98, 147. Greeks, 62. Grey, Sir Edward, 72. Guynemer, French airman, 119. 

Hague Conferences, 41-46. Hague Conventions, 45. Hague Peace Tribunal, 43-44. Helgoland Bight, battle, 92. Herzegovina, 69. Hindenburg, von, General, 85, 97. Hindenburg line, 118, 149. Holy Allies, 8, 9. Hungary, 15-16; see Austria-Hungary. 

Indemnity, 27, 29. Industrial development of Europe, 9. International law, 38-40, 45. Ireland, rebellion in, 116-117. Isonzo River, 114. Italia Irredenta; Wilson on. Italy, before the war, 17-18; in Triple Alliance, 57; refuses to support Austria against Serbia, 69; neutral, 75; in the war, 99, 114, 127-128, 147, 149. 

Japan, in the war, 89-90, 140. Jerusalem, captured, 126. Joffre, General, 81. Jugo-Slavs, 61, 69-70. Junkers, 14, 30-31. Jutland, battle of, 114-115. 

Kaiser, 13, 14. Kaiser's battle, 141. Kerensky, Alexander, 122-123. Kiaochow, 90. Kiel Canal, 68. Kitchener, Lord, prediction of, 105. Knights of Columbus, 160. Kultur, 34. Kut-el-Amara, 111-112, 125. 

Laon, taken, 150. League of Nations, Wilson's proposal, 179. League of Three Emperors, 56. Lemberg, taken, 86, 97. Lenine, 123, 136. Lens, taken, 149. Liberty motor, 154. Liege, taken, 79. Lille, taken, 81, 149. Lithuania, 137. Little Russians, 136. Livonia, 137. Loans, U. S. , 158. London, air raids, 104. Lorraine, 28; see Alsace-Lorraine. Lusitania, sunk, 102-103. Luxemburg, 78, 79. 

Macedonia, 61-65. Maps: Europe, 6; Berlin-Bagdad railway, 32; Alsace-Lorraine, 49; Italia Irredenta, 50; Balkan States, 60; Western Front in 1914, 80; Eastern Front in 1914, 85; German colonies and early naval engagements, 88; Turkey, 110; European Fronts in 1917, 124; Naval War Zones in 1917, 128; Brest-Litovsk Treaty, 137; Western Front in 1918, 145. Marne, battles of the, 81, 146. Mazurian Lakes, battle of, 97. Mesopotamia, war in, 111, 125. Militarism, 34. Mine fields, in the sea, 91-92. Mittel-Europa, 64. Montenegro, 59, 61, 64, 98. Morocco question, 55. Munitions, ministers of, 105. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, 7, 19. Napoleon III, 20. National aspirations, 9, 15, 117, 136-137. Nations, community of, 38-39, 179. Naval operations, 91-94, 100-103, 114-116, 129, 152, 163-165. Neutral trade, 100-102. Nicholas II, 40, 121. 

Palestine, war in, 125-126, 148. Pan-Germanists, 31. Pan-Serbism, 70-71. Pan-Slavic movement, 52. Paris, threatened, 77-81, 142, 144. Passchendaele Ridge, taken, 119. Peace, movement, 40; proposed by Germany, 135-138, 150; with Russia and Roumania, 137-138; questions of the coming peace, 168-179. Pershing, General, 143, 146. Persius, Captain, quoted, 129. Pétain, General, 108. Petrograd, revolutions at, 121, 123. Philippines, German fleet at, 54. Piave River, 128, 147, 149. Picardy, battle of, 143. Poison gas, 95, 142. Poland, in the war, 84-86, 97, 137; Wilson on, 178. Potsdam conference, 70. Propaganda, 165-167. Prussia, 12-14, 27, 28, 35; see Germany. Przemysl, 86, 97. 

Red Cross, 160. Rheims, bombarded, 119. Riga, taken, 124. Roosevelt, President, 45, 55. Roumania, before the war, 23-24, 59-65; Balkan War, 65; in the Great War, 112-113; peace, 138. Roumanians, 62. Russia, before the war, 24-25; Balkan ambitions, 51-53, 63; Triple Entente, 57-58; enters war, 73-74; in the war, 84-89, 97, 110-112, 122-124, 136; Revolution, 120-123; Bolsheviki control, 123; separate peace, 135-138; Allied intervention, 138-140; Wilson on, 174. 

St. Quentin, taken, 149. Salonica, 65; Allied army at, 98, 147. Samoan difficulty, 54. Schools, work of, 160. "Scrap of paper, " 78. Serajevo, assassination at, 70. Serbia, before the war, 23-34, 59-65; Balkan wars, 64-65; trouble with Austria-Hungary, 69-73; in the war, 87, 98, 147-148; Wilson on, 177. Serbs, 61, 68-70. Shipbuilding in U. S. , 157. Shock troops, 142. Siberia, in the war, 139-140. Sick man of Europe, 63. Sinn Fein rebellion, 116-117. Slavs, 52, 61. Smuts, General, 90. Socialists, in Russia, 122-123. Somme, battle of the, 108-109. South Africa, 22, 90-91. Spanish America, in the war, 133. _Spurlos versenkt_, 133. Submarine warfare, 101-103, 115-116, 128-130, 163-165. Survival of the Fittest, 33. _Sussex_, torpedoed, 115-116. Syria, war in, 148-149. 

Tanks, 109, 119, 146. Tannenberg, battle of, 85. Tirpitz, von, Admiral, 101. Townshend, General, 111-112. Transylvania, 112-113. Trebizond, captured, 111. Trench warfare, 82. Trentino, 51, 114. Trieste, 16, 51, 114, 127. Triple Alliance, 56-57. Triple Entente, 57-58. Trotzky, 123-136. Turkey, before the war, 23-24, 52, 53, 62; Balkan wars, 64-65; enters the war, 87-89; in the war, 96, 110-112, 125-126, 138, 148; Wilson on, 178. 

U-boats, 101; see Submarine warfare. Ukrainia, 136-137. United States, danger from Germany, 54-55; neutral trade, 100, 102, 131; protests against submarining, 103, 116, 129; enters the war, 130-133; army in France, 145-147, 150, 163; in the war, 152-167; navy, 152; raising an army, 152-153; aircraft, 153; food control, 154; fuel control, 155; transportation control, 156; shipbuilding, 157; seizes German ships, 158; paying for the war, 158-159; Red Cross, etc. , 160; rise in prices, 161; German propaganda, 165-167; peace problems, 168-171. 

Venezuela, Germany in, 55. Venice, threatened, 128. Verdun, battle of, 107-108. Victor Emmanuel, 18. Vienna, conference of 1815, 7. Vimy Ridge, taken, 118. 

War, see Great War; war as a profitable business, 27. War Savings Stamps, 159. Wilson, President, _Lusitania_ case, 103; _Sussex_ case, 116; breaks with Germany, 128-129; asks for declaration of war, 132; fourteen-point address (Jan. 8, 1918), 135, 171-179; peace notes of 1918, 150. Wounded, care of, 169. 

Young Men's Christian Association, 160. Ypres, battle of, 95. Yser River, 82. 

Zeppelins, 104. Zimmerman note, 130.