[Illustration: THE FIRST STEAM RAILWAY Painted by Edward L Henry, N. A. Copyright by C. Klackner]

 A HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY YEAR BY YEAR

 BY

 EDWIN EMERSON, Jr. 

 Member of the American Historical Association, New York Historical Society, Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, Honorary Member of the Royal Philo-Historical Society of Bavaria, etc. , etc. 

 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY GEORG GOTTFRIED GERVINUS

 ILLUSTRATED WITH SIXTEEN COLORED PLATES AND THIRTY-TWO FULL-PAGE, HALF-TONE CUTS AND TWO MAPS

 _IN THREE VOLUMES--VOLUME TWO_

 [Illustration]

 NEW YORK

 P. F. COLLIER AND SON

 MCMII

 COPYRIGHT, 1900

 By EDWIN EMERSON, Jr. 

 [Illustration]

 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

 VOLUME TWO

 FULL PAGES IN COLOR

 THE FIRST STEAM RAILWAY. Painted by Edward L. Henry _Frontispiece_

 BALAKLAVA. Painted by Elizabeth Thompson (Lady Butler)

 SOLFERINO. Painted by E. Meissonier

 LAST MOMENTS OF MAXIMILIAN. Painted by J. Paul Laurens

 FULL PAGES IN BLACK AND WHITE

 AMERICAN INVENTORS. Painted by C. Schussele

 THE KING OF ROME. Painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence

 LORD BYRON. Painted by Maurin

 BEETHOVEN AND HIS ADMIRERS. Painted by A. Grafle

 QUEEN VICTORIA TAKING THE OATH. Painted by Sir George Hayter

 LORD TENNYSON. Painted by Frederic Sandys

 WASHINGTON IRVING AND HIS FRIENDS. Painted by Daniel Huntington

 THE BATTLE OF INKERMANN. Painted by Gustave Doré

 WAGNER AND LISZT. Painted by W. Beckmann

 OPENING OF THE OPERA. Painted by Edouard Detaille

 EXECUTION OF SEPOY REBELS. Painted by Verestchagin

 THE EMPEROR OF CHINA RECEIVING THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS. 

1816

[Sidenote: Parliamentary rule in France]

[Sidenote: Revival of French letters]

An era of peace and reconstruction had begun. After a generation of war andturmoil France was started on her new career of parliamentary government. The brief period of retaliation ended with the so-called amnesty act ofJanuary, which condemned Napoleon and all his relatives to perpetual exile. The Chambers now entered into a prolonged discussion of the propositionsfor a new election law. The Ministry was headed by the Duc de Richelieu, who had taken the place of Talleyrand and Fouché. The latter was compelledto leave France forever. Marshal Gouvion St. Cyr, who succeeded Davoust, reorganized the army on a permanent footing of military equality whichsatisfied even Napoleon's veterans. In the Chambers, the Comte d'Artoisrepresented the ultra-royalist right wing, while the left was brilliantlyled by Lafayette, Manuel, and Benjamin Constant. Guizot, during the sameyear, for the first time ascended the tribune as spokesman of the moderateparty--the so-called Doctrinaires. Chateaubriand so offended the king byhis book "La Monarchie selon la Charte" that his name was crossed from thelist of the Council of State. Yet he remained the foremost man of lettersin France. 

[Sidenote: Béranger]

Béranger was the foremost lyric poet. A typical song by him is thatrendered by Thackeray:

 With pensive eyes the little room I view, Where, in my youth, I weathered it so long; With a wild mistress, a stanch friend or two, And a light heart still breaking into song: Making a mock of life, and all its cares, Rich in the glory of my rising sun, Lightly I vaulted up four pair of stairs, In the brave days when I was twenty-one. 

 Yes; 'tis a garret--let him know't who will-- There was my bed--full hard it was and small; My table there--and I decipher still Half a lame couplet charcoaled on the wall. Ye joys, that Time hath swept with him away, Come to mine eyes, ye dreams of love and fun; For you I pawned my watch how many a day, In the brave days when I was twenty-one. 

 And see my little Lizette, first of all; She comes with pouting lips and sparkling eyes; Behold, how roguishly she pins her shawl Across the narrow easement, curtain-wise; Now by the bed her petticoat glides down, And when did woman look the worse in none? I have heard since who paid for many a gown, In the brave days when I was twenty-one. 

 One jolly evening, when my friends and I Made happy music with our songs and cheers, A shout of triumph mounted up thus high, And distant cannon opened on our ears: We rise, --we join in the triumphant strain, -- Napoleon conquers--Austerlitz is won-- Tyrants shall never tread us down again, In the brave days when I was twenty-one. 

 Let us be gone--the place is sad and strange-- How far, far off, these happy times appear; All that I have to live I'd gladly change For one such month as I have wasted here-- To draw long dreams of beauty, love, and power, From founts of hope that never will outrun, And drink all life's quintessence in an hour, Give me the days when I was twenty-one!

It was the period of a new revival for French literature. 

[Sidenote: Reaction in southern Europe]

In the other Latin countries, Spain, Portugal and Italy, the restoration ofthe old monarchies was not attended by like beneficent results. In Spain, the re-establishment of the Inquisition stifled free thought and freespeech to such a degree that some of the most progressive Spaniardsemigrated to the revolted Spanish dependencies in America. The return ofBourbon rule in Naples and Sicily was made odious by a general suppressionof Freemasons and kindred secret societies. 

[Sidenote: Metternich's influence]

[Sidenote: German Confederation established]

[Sidenote: The Frankfort Diet]

In the German States, similar measures of persecution were invoked againstthe student societies at the universities. The University of Erfurt wassuspended. The Duke of Hesse, who had gained early notoriety by renting hissubjects to foreign armies, now revived corporal punishment together withthe stocks and other feudal institutions. In Wurtemberg serfdom wasre-established. Throughout Germany the reactionary suggestions of PrinceMetternich were carried into effect. A good opportunity for Metternich toassert his ascendency was presented by the first session of the new GermanDiet. Late in the year the delegates from all the States of the NewGermanic Confederation met at Frankfort, Austria holding the permanentpresidency. Count Buol von Schauenstein opened the Diet with a solemnaddress, which fell flat. First of all, it was settled that Hesse wouldhave to cede a large part of Westphalia to Prussia. Next, the title of theDuke of Cambridge to rule as Regent in Hanover was fully recognized. Inall resolutions relating to fundamental laws, the organic regulations ofthe Confederation, the _jura singulorum_ and matters of religion, unanimitywas required. All the members of the Confederation bound themselves neitherto enter into war nor into any foreign alliance against the Confederationor any of its members. The thirteenth article declared, "Each of theconfederated States will grant a constitution to the people. " The sixteenthplaced all Christian sects on an equality. The eighteenth granted freedomof settlement within the Confederation, and promised "uniformity ofregulation concerning the liberty of the press. " The fortresses ofLuxemburg, Mainz and Landau were declared common property and occupied incommon by their troops. A fourth fortress was to be raised on the UpperRhine with twenty millions of the French contribution money. This was neverdone. For future sessions of the Diet the votes were so regulated that theeleven States of first rank alone held a full vote, the secondary Statesmerely holding a half or a fourth of a vote, as, for instance, all theSaxon duchies collectively, one vote; Brunswick and Nassau, one; the twoMecklenburgs, one; Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Schwartzburg, one; the pettyprinces of Hohenzollern, Lichtenstein, Reuss, Lippe, and Waldeck, one; allthe free towns, one; forming altogether seventeen votes. In constitutionalquestions the six States of the highest rank were to have each four votes;the next five States each three; Brunswick, Schwerin, and Nassau, each two;and all the remaining princes each, one vote. This arrangement, as itturned out, proved fruitful of endless trouble. 

[Sidenote: Unfair representation]

Austria and Prussia at that time contained forty-two million inhabitants;the rest of Germany merely twelve million. The power of the two predominantStates, therefore, really were in proportion to that of the rest of Germanyas seven to two, whereas their votes in the Diet stood merely as two toseventeen, and in the plenary assembly as two to fifteen. 

[Sidenote: Prussia predominant]

Though Prussia had lost Hanover and East Friesland, she had receivedsufficient compensation still--thanks to Hardenberg's diplomacy--to starther on her future career as the predominant German State. Incorporated withthe Prussian provinces now were half of Saxony, the Grandduchy of Posen, aportion of Westphalia, nearly all of the Lower Rhine region from Mainz toAix-la-Chapelle, and Swedish Pomerania, for which Prussia paid some eightmillion thalers by way of indemnity. 

[Sidenote: Restoration of the Netherlands]

In Holland, the new Stadtholder, Prince William Frederick of Orange-Nassau, having incorporated Belgium as an integral part of the kingdom of theNetherlands, set himself to nullify the French racial traits of his Belgiansubjects. A suggestion of future strife on this score could already befound in Van der Palm's memorial on "The Restoration of the Netherlands, "published during this year. 

[Sidenote: England's commanding position]

[Sidenote: Industrial depression]

[Sidenote: Art and Letters]

The final settlement of Napoleon's great upheaval of Europe left Englandfeverish and exhausted. The prolonged financial strain of twenty years ofwar had saddled Great Britain with a national debt of eight hundred millionpounds. Of material gain there was little to show but the acquisition ofCeylon and the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch; of the former Frenchcolony of Mauritius, and of a few West Indian islands. The continuedpossession of the Rock of Gibraltar, and of Malta, the old stronghold ofthe Knights of Malta, together with the British protectorate over the IonicIsles, assured to England her commanding position in the Mediterranean. Athome the pressure of the heavy taxes required to meet the financiallegacies of the war was imbittered by the general distress of the country. The new tax on the importation of grains resulted in famine prices. Corresponding tariff restrictions abroad kept British markets overstockedwith goods. Mills and factories had to be shut down, while at the same timethe labor market was glutted with several hundred thousand dischargedsailors and soldiers. The starving working people grew bitter in theiropposition to new labor-saving devices. Thus the appearance of the firststeamship on the Thames and of the earliest ships constructed of iron, followed shortly by Sir Francis Reynold's invention of an electricclock-work telegraph and by James Watt's introduction of stereo plates inbook-printing, heightened this feeling. The resentment of laboring menfound expression in riotous meetings at Manchester, Littleport andNottingham. The movement spread to London. A great labor meeting was heldthere on the Spa fields. The favorite newspaper of the workingmen, Cobbett's radical "Two Penny Register, " rivalled the London "Times" inpower. In Parliament the leaders of the radical opposition grew ever moreimportunate. Not until the end of the year did matters mend. The mostcomforting sign of better times was a partial resumption of specie paymentsby the Bank of England, followed shortly by the opening of the firstSavings Bank in London. Other memorable events of the year were theacquisition of the famous Elgin marbles from the Parthenon in Athens, celebrated in Keats's sonnet "On Seeing the Elgin Marbles, " and thepublication of Shelley's long poem "Alastor, " and Leigh Hunt's "Story ofRimini. " A diplomatic setback pregnant with future trouble was thedismissal of Lord Amherst, the British Ambassador at Pekin, for refusing tokow-tow to the Emperor of China. 

[Sidenote: Depression in America]

[Sidenote: Financial relief measures]

[Sidenote: Tariff _vs. _ Free Trade]

[Sidenote: Changes in New England]

In America the depression of commerce and industry resulting from the warwith England continued unabated. To relieve the situation, the Secretary ofthe Treasury, A. J. Dallas, proposed as a measure of relief the charteringof a new national bank with increased capital and enlarged powers and thereadjustment of the tariff by the imposition of higher duties. The bank waschartered for twenty-one years with a capital of $35, 000, 000, a portion ofthe stock to be owned by the government and the institution to have in itsmanagement five government directors in a board of twenty-five. The tariffpolicy of Madison was sustained by the Southern party and opposed by theFederalists, especially in New England. Thus it became more a question ofsectional interests than of abstract political economy. The capital of NewEngland was invested in shipping, so that the exclusion of articles offoreign production was bound to injure, by a high tariff, New England'scarrying trade. On its part, the South sought to establish a home marketfor its cotton--almost the only staple of the Gulf States. Efforts weremade to encourage the domestic manufacture of those coarse fabrics whichwere indispensable in a slave-holding region. The question thus grew into astruggle between slave labor and free trade. The free-trade party was ledby Daniel Webster, and the tariff party by Calhoun. During the first yearof the new tariff the value of foreign imports fell off about thirty-twoper cent. In the adjustment of capital and trade to an enforced industrialpolicy, the American people passed through a commercial crisis whichparalyzed the flourishing sea-ports of the New England coast. Newburyport, Salem, Plymouth, New London, Newport, and intermediate places sank fromlucrative commercial centres into insignificant towns. Manchester, Lowell, Fall River, Pawtucket, Waterbury and other New England cities on the otherhand became great manufacturing places. 

The Fourteenth American Congress, under the leadership of Clay, imposed aprotective tariff of about twenty-five per cent on imported cotton andwoollen goods, with specific duties on coal and iron. The average duties onimports amounted almost to prohibition. Late in the year Indiana wasadmitted as the nineteenth State. 

[Sidenote: War with Florida Indians]

The tranquillity of the end of Madison's administration was broken by newtroubles with the southern Indians. General Jackson by his impulsivemanner of dealing with the Indians of Florida nearly forced the UnitedStates into a war with Spain and England. The Indians had reason tocomplain of the injustice that had marked their treatment by the whites. Florida had become a refuge for runaway slaves from Georgia and SouthCarolina. The treaty of 1814 was repudiated by many of the Creeks, whoresented the new settlements of the whites. Those who were mostdissatisfied made common cause with the Seminoles. For a year, GeneralGaines, in command at the frontier, complained to the authorities atWashington of the conduct of the Indians and Spaniards. General Jackson, towhom the matter was referred, wrote to Gaines that the forts standing inSpanish territory "ought to be blown off the face of the earth, regardlessof the ground they stand on. " In July, a detachment of men and gunboatsunder Colonel Church advanced upon Fort Negro. A shot from one of the boatsblew up the powder magazine. The fort was laid in ruins. Of the 324 inmates270 were killed. Most of the survivors were wounded. 

[Sidenote: Death of Gouverneur Morris]

During this year, the "Washington, " the first American line-of-battle shipput to sea with seventy-four guns on her decks. The first American rollingmill and plant for puddling iron-ore were built at Red Stone Bank inPennsylvania. Bishop Asbury, the founder of Methodism in the United States, preached his last sermon at Richmond, Virginia. During the same year hedied at the age of seventy-one. Other noted Americans who died this yearwere Gouverneur Morris of New York, and Spaulding, the reputed author ofthe book of Mormon. 

[Sidenote: Death of Miranda]

[Sidenote: Independence of Argentine]

Miranda, the South American revolutionist, expired on July 14, in a dungeonat Cadiz. A British officer who saw him shortly before his death, describedhim as "tied to a wall with a chain about his neck like a dog. " Ever sincehis defeat and detention in Venezuela, his last years had been spent incaptivity. He passed from prison to prison--now at San Carlos, now in PortoRico, and finally in Spain. Miranda's failure to obtain grants of amnestyfor Bolivar and his fellow rebels, when he came to terms with the Spanishgeneral Monteverde, left him discredited with the patriots of SouthAmerica. In the meanwhile, Miranda's friend, San Martin, was fighting inChile and Peru for South American independence, and was aided in hisstruggle by Louis Beltran, an unfrocked friar. On July 9, the independenceof Argentine was proclaimed. Pueyrredon was made President of the newrepublic. Paraguay, Uruguay and Bolivia established independentgovernments. 

[Sidenote: The struggle in Venezuela]

After Miranda's defeat and the fall of Porto Cabello, Bolivar had fled toCuraçoa. He enlisted a corps of refugees in Cartagena and headed anexpedition into New Granada. There he rallied more revolutionists abouthim, and, capturing Madalena from the Spaniards, fought his way through toCaracas. He was welcomed there with extravagant demonstration as the"Savior of Venezuela. " After one more victory on the field of Araure hisstar declined. The Spanish general, Boves, defeated him at La Puerta, andtook a terrible vengeance on the patriots. The wounded and prisoners werekilled on the field; the homes of all reputed rebels were burned to theground; and the entire population of Aragua was massacred. 

[Sidenote: Spanish vengeance]

[Sidenote: Bolivar's adventures]

Montalvo, the Spanish War Minister, reported officially: "General Bovesdoes not distinguish between the guilty and innocent--soldiers ornon-combatants. All alike are killed for the crime of being born inAmerica. " Bolivar retired to New Granada and thence to Jamaica. An attemptto assassinate him there failed; for the negro cut-throat who hadundertaken to murder Bolivar killed the wrong person. Bolivar crossed overto Hayti. There he raised a new expedition. A negro leader, Petion, thenacting-governor of Hayti, helped him in this enterprise, and stronglyadvised him to proclaim the freedom of all slaves as the first step onlanding in his country. "For, how can you free your country, " said Petion, "if you don't free all the people in it?" Bolivar heeded his advice. Withsix ships and one hundred and fifty men, he set out to reconquer Venezuelafrom Spain. He landed at Margerita, where he had the good fortune tocapture several Spanish ships. With them he returned to Santo Domingo formore men and ammunition. Petion furnished him with funds. Thus reinforced, Bolivar made a dash for Barcelona in Venezuela. The end of the struggle wasat hand. 

1817

[Sidenote: Return of Bolivar]

[Sidenote: General Piar shot]

[Sidenote: O'Higgins]

[Sidenote: San Martin]

Bolivar landed on the north coast of Venezuela on the first day of the newyear. His landing place, Barcelona, was a small town at the foot of theMaritime Andes, so unprotected against attack that he resolved to leave itat once. He marched his force in the direction of Santa Fé in New Granada, hoping to push through to Peru. Marino and Piar, two insurgent leadersoperating in the south, joined forces with Bolivar, and brought 1, 200additional men. By the time their joint column had penetrated well intoOrinoco, the three leaders were at odds with each other. Piar tried toincite revolt among his followers. Bolivar caused Piar to be seized, andafter a drum-head trial had him shot. In the meanwhile a Spanish force hadswooped down on Barcelona, and massacred the inhabitants. Things were atthis pass when the standard of revolt was once more raised in Chile byBernado O'Higgins. He was a natural son of Ambrosio, and had just returnedfrom school in England. At the time the supreme command of therevolutionary forces was given to him this famous South American leader wasstill a young man, as was his chief lieutenant, MacKenna. By his cleverhandling of the campaigns that followed he won the title of "El PrimerSoldado del Nuevo Mundo"--the first soldier of America. It was still at theoutset of his career, in 1817, that help came to the Chileans from BuenosAyres across the Andes. The man who brought this aid was San Martin. 

At Mendoza, on January 17, San Martin reviewed his little army of 5, 000, all Gaucho horsemen, as lightly clad and provisioned as the Indians of thePampas. The women of Mendoza presented the force with a flag bearing theemblem of the Sun. San Martin held the banner aloft, declaring it "thefirst flag of independence which had been blest in South America. " Thissame flag was carried through all the wars along the Pacific Coast. Andunder its tattered shreds San Martin was finally laid to rest sixty yearslater. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Chacabuco]

[Sidenote: Acuoncagua]

Marching from Mendoza, San Martin made a feint of crossing the Andes by wayof Planchon, thereby inducing a Spanish column under Captain-General Marcodel Ponte to concentrate at Talca. During the progress of these movements, San Martin and his followers crossed the mountains by the steep route ofPutaendo and Cuevas. Three hundred miles of the stiffest mountain ridingwere covered in less than a fortnight. Early in February, San Martin'sarmy, now barely 4, 000 strong, descended upon Villa Nueva. On February 7, they fought their first battle on Chilean soil with the Spanish outposts atChacabuco. Driving the Spaniards before him, San Martin, advanced into theplain, and presently joined forces with O'Higgins' infantry. New mountswere provided for the cavalry. At the strong post of Acuoncagua theSpaniards made a stand, but they were outnumbered by the insurgents. SanMartin delivered a frontal attack, while O'Higgins outflanked the enemywith an impetuous charge, with the result that the whole Spanish force wasrouted beyond recovery. The officers fled to Valparaiso. By the middle ofFebruary, San Martin entered Santiago de Chile. A new republican junta wasformed and complete independence of Spain was declared. O'Higgins assumedthe position of dictator. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Talca]

[Sidenote: Battle of the Maypo]

[Sidenote: Liberation of Chile]

All Chile was free now except in the south. General Ordoñez, commanding theSpanish forces there, was defeated and fell back to Talcahuano. San Martinprepared to invade Peru. Anticipating such an attack, Abascal, the SpanishViceroy of Peru, despatched Osorio with an expedition of 3, 500 veterans, who had just arrived from Spain, to Talcahuano. As soon as thesereinforcements came, Ordoñez set out from Talcahuano with the vanguard tomarch on Santiago de Chile, and met the patriot forces near Talca. Therevolutionists largely outnumbered the Spaniards, but were poorlydisciplined and ill-provisioned. While they lost time the Spanish maincolumn under Osorio came up. Ordoñez took advantage of the clumsymanoeuvres of the revolutionists to drive a sharp attack between theirtwo wings, piercing their centre. The battle was won after the firstfifteen minutes. O'Higgins was wounded and had to be carried out of thefight. San Martin, with his right wing, fell back on San Fernando. Withgreat difficulty O'Higgins managed to reach Santiago, where he waspresently joined by San Martin. Steadily the Spanish column advanced onSantiago. The two revolutionary leaders by almost superhuman effortssucceeded in rallying and equipping a force of 5, 000 defenders. On April 5, the Spanish army appeared before Santiago de Chile. Near the Maypo, ninemiles from Santiago, the revolutionists took up a strong position. Osorioopened the battle about noon with artillery. Soon all the troops wereengaged, the fiercest fight raging around a hacienda where San Martin andO'Higgins had their headquarters. Several times the ranch was lost andretaken. By sundown the Spaniards advanced all along the line. The battleseemed lost to the patriots. At this juncture, as the famous regiment ofBurgos on the Spanish right was drawing in its deployed lines for a finalcolumn attack, Colonel O'Brien, at the head of the insurgent cavalryreserves, charged into the opening and overthrew the Burgos battalions. O'Higgins immediately charged the rest of the Spanish right wing, and SanMartin simultaneously attacked in the centre. The whole Spanish army gaveaway. More than 2, 000 Spaniards were killed and wounded. Osorio with hisstaff escaped to Peru. The victory of Santiago not only freed Chile, butleft Peru open to the revolutionists. 

[Sidenote: Monroe's Presidency]

In the United States of North America, during this interval, a newPresident had begun his administration. James Monroe was inaugurated asPresident in his fifty-ninth year. He had been a member of the ContinentalCongress, and at thirty-six a Minister to France. Under Madison he servedas Secretary of War. Crawford, Calhoun, Meigs, Wirt and Rush were membersof his Cabinet, and were all of the dominant Democratic-Republican party. Business throughout the country began to revive almost at once when there-chartered National Bank went into operation in Philadelphia on the dayof Monroe's inauguration. 

[Sidenote: "Era of good feeling"]

In June, President Monroe undertook a three months' personal inspection ofthe military posts of the country. Passing through New York, Boston andPortland, and crossing New Hampshire and Vermont to Ogdensburg, he took aboat to Sackett's Harbor and Niagara. From there he went to Buffalo andDetroit, and returned to Washington. Everywhere the people greeted him bythousands. Monroe on this occasion wore the three-cornered hat, scarlet-bordered blue coat and buff breeches of the American Revolutionaryarmy. The "Boston Journal" called the times the "Era of Good Feeling, " andthe expression has passed into American history as a characteristic ofMonroe's entire administration. 

[Sidenote: Western prairies settled]

It was an era notable for the extraordinary growth of the Western States. Settlers were encouraged to buy government land on the instalment plan, andthe States refrained from levying taxes on these lands until years afterthe settlers had received their title deeds. Endless processions of prairiewagons passed through New York and Pennsylvania. On one turnpike alone, 16, 000 vehicles paid toll during the year. Pittsburg at this time had apopulation of 7, 000 persons. The log cabin was the house of all, with itsrough chimney, its greased paper in a single window, its door with latchand string, a plank floor and single room, corn husk brooms and its Dutchoven. In the newly broken ground corn and wheat were planted, which, whenharvested, were thrashed with the flail and winnowed with a sheet. Littlesettlements sprang up here and there on the rolling prairie, withstore-taverns, blacksmith shops and mills. This a thousand times repeatedwas seen in western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois andMichigan. 

[Sidenote: Steam navigation]

[Sidenote: The Erie Canal]

[Sidenote: "Thanatopsis"]

During the same year the newly organized territory of Mississippi, formedfrom a division of Alabama, was admitted as the twentieth State to theUnion. The first line of steam propelled ocean packets was organized to runbetween New York and Liverpool. In the western frontier town of St. Louisthe first steamboat made its appearance. On July 4, ground was broken forthe Erie Canal, which was to connect the city of New York with the greatinland waters. On the strength of this progressive achievement De WittClinton became a candidate for the governorship of New York. Among othernotable events of this year were the foundation of the New York StateLibrary, Gallaudet's foundation of the first school for the deaf and dumbat Hartford, and the establishment of the earliest theological seminariesof the Episcopal Church in America, as well as of the first UnitarianDivinity School at Harvard. William Cullen Bryant, barely come of age, published his master work, "Thanatopsis, " in the "North American Review. "

[Sidenote: Stenography]

[Sidenote: German liberalism]

[Sidenote: The Wartburg festival]

[Sidenote: European courts alarmed]

[Sidenote: Advances in scholarship]

[Sidenote: African missionary work]

In other parts of the world, likewise, the return of peace was followed bya general advance in culture and civilization. Shortly after there-establishment of the American National Bank, Canada followed suit withgovernment banks at Montreal and Quebec. Hanka, in Bohemia, claimed to havediscovered the famous medieval lyrics of Rukopis Kralodvorsky written atthe end of the thirteenth century. Across the border in Poland the newUniversity of Cracow began its career. In Munich, Franz Gabelsbergerinvented the first working system of shorthand, which, in a perfected form, is still in use in Germany. During this year common school education tookan immense stride in Germany, after the establishment in Prussia of adistinct Ministry for Public Education. Unfortunately the government sooncame into conflict with the bolder spirits at the universities. By reasonof the more liberal privileges allowed to it by the Duke of Weimar, theUniversity of Jena took the lead in the national Teutonic agitationinaugurated by Fichte. On October 18, the students of Jena, aided bydelegates from all the student fraternities of Protestant Germany, held afestival at Eisenach to celebrate the three-hundredth anniversary of theReformation. It was also the anniversary of the battle of Leipzig. Fivehundred ardent young men, among them scholars who had fought at Leipzig, Ligny and Waterloo, assembled in the halls of Luther's Wartburg Castle. They sang and drank, and fraternized with the members of the militia ofEisenach. In the evening they had a torchlight procession and lighted ahuge bonfire on the hill opposite the castle. In imitation of MartinLuther's burning of the Pope's Bull they consigned a number of their petaversions to the flames. Thus they burned a soldier's straight-jacket andcorporal's cane, as well as a recent pamphlet by one Schmalz written indefense of the old Prussian bureaucracy. Rash words were uttered about thebroken faith of princes. They were aimed at King Frederick William ofPrussia, who had promised to give his country a constitution, but hadfailed to keep his word. The Wartburg festival, childish as it was in manyof its manifestations, created singular alarm throughout Germany andelsewhere. The King of Prussia sent his Prime Minister, Hardenberg, toWeimar to make a thorough investigation of the affair. Richelieu, the PrimeMinister of France, wrote from Paris whether another revolution wasbreaking out; and Metternich insisted that the Duke of Weimar shouldcurtail the liberties of his subjects. The heavy hand of reaction fell uponall German universities. German scholars were compelled to turn theirinterests from public affairs to pure science and scholarship, to thebenefit of German learning. The study of history and archeology took anupward turn with Brentano's publication of old German ballads andLachmann's original version of the Nibelungen songs. At this time anItalian archeologist, Belzoni, was adding new chapters to ancient historyby his original researches in Egypt, which resulted in the removal of theColossus of Memnon to Alexandria, and in the opening of the great Cephrenpyramid. In distant South Africa the first English missionaries began theirlabors among the blacks. Although the Governor of Natal at first refused topermit Robert Moffat, the first Wesleyan missionary in those parts, todisturb the Kaffirs with his preachings, Moffat pressed on undismayed andsoon established a mission beyond the Orange River. 

[Sidenote: Green Bag inquiry]

[Sidenote: Manchester Blanketers]

[Sidenote: Dissatisfaction in England]

In England, industrial depression dragged on. Early in the year riots brokeout in London on the opening of Parliament. While driving to the House ofLords, the Prince Regent, now grown thoroughly unpopular on account of thescandals with his wife, was hooted by a crowd in St. James's Park. Thepolice claimed that an air gun had been discharged at the Prince and madean attack on the crowd. A number of persons were injured. This was followedin February by the great Green Bag Inquiry, when Lord Sidmouth laid beforeParliament a green bag full of reports concerning seditions. Bills wereintroduced to suspend the habeas corpus act and to provide for the coercionof public meetings. Seditious publications were likewise to be suppressed. In March occurred the rising of the so-called Blanketers inManchester--dissatisfied workingmen who started in a body for Londoncarrying blanket rolls and other necessaries. Their march was stopped bythe military. In April, seven members of the so-called society of Ludditeswere hanged at Leicester for breaking labor-saving machinery. Shortlyafterward eighteen persons were hanged for forging notes on the Bank ofEngland. It was found that since the redemption of specie payments no lessthan 17, 885 forged notes had been presented. Nearly two hundred personswere apprehended and tried in court for this offence. Shortly afterwardanother insurrection which broke out in Derbyshire, and which was led byJeremiah Brandrett, was suppressed by soldiers. 

[Sidenote: "The Revolt of Islam"]

[Sidenote: "Lalla Rookh"]

[Sidenote: John Keats]

[Sidenote: "Blackwood's"]

While the working classes of England and Ireland were thus strugglingagainst their miseries, English literature shone forth in new splendor. Shelley brought out his "Revolt of Islam" and Tom Moore published his"Lalla Rookh. " John Keats at the age of barely twenty-one published hisfirst poems. The volume attracted little attention. The appearance ofBlackwood's new magazine in Edinburgh, on the other hand, was hailed as anevent in English letters. 

[Sidenote: French letters]

[Sidenote: Béranger]

In France, likewise, the return of peace gave a new lease of life toliterature. The French Academy was reorganized to consist of forty members, who were elected for life, and who were to be regarded as "the highestauthority on questions relating to language, grammar, rhetoric, poetry andthe publication of the French classics. " Chateaubriand was the Academy'sforemost member. Béranger on the other hand, albeit his lyrics had reachedthe height of their popularity, fell into official disfavor by reason ofhis glorification of Napoleonic times, as exemplified in his ballads "LaVivandière, " "La Cocarde Blanche, " or "Le Juge de Charenton. " The lastpoem, with its veiled allusions to the Lavalette episode, was made thesubject of an interpellation in the Chamber of Deputies. While this wasstill pending further offence was given by the publication of Béranger'ssatirical piece on "The Holy Alliance. " Béranger had to give up hisposition as secretary at the University of France, and was soon afterwardarrested among his boon companions at Madame Saguet's near Le Moulin Vert. He was placed on trial for the alleged blasphemies committed in his song"Le Dieu des Bonnes Gens, " and condemned to spend three months in prisonand to pay a heavy fine. 

[Sidenote: Death of Madame de Staël]

[Sidenote: Death of Masséna]

Other literary events of the year were the publication of Beyle's "Lives ofMozart and Haydn"; the performance of Scribe's early plays, and the deathof Madame de Staël, which occurred on July 14. This gifted daughter ofNecker had not been allowed to return to France until after the fall ofNapoleon. Her last work was a treatise of the Constitutional Government, entitled "Considerations sur les Principaux Evénements de la RévolutionFrançaise, " and published posthumously by her long time German companionand adviser, Schlegel. Marshal Masséna died during the same year. Hisfuneral was attended with imposing military honors rendered him by his oldfollowers and comrades-in-arms, who recalled the triumphs of Rivoli, Essling, and a score of other victories in which this famous warrior hadborne the brunt of the fighting. 

[Sidenote: Wachabite rebellion]

[Sidenote: Seminole war]

This year would have been one of peace, the first since the outbreak of theFrench Revolution, but for another uprising of the Wachabites in Arabiaunder the standard of Tourkee and the re-occurrence of North AmericanIndian troubles. A year had passed after the destruction of Fort Negro inFlorida before the whites found a pretext for another attack. King Natchezwas accused of receiving fugitive negroes, and he replied: "I have nonegroes. . . . I shall use force to stop any armed American from passing mylands or my towns. " The Seminoles looked with alarm on the new forts of theUnited States. At Fowltown, on Flint River, the Indians, in November, putup a war pole, and the chief warned Colonel Meigs in command at Fort Scottnot to cross the Flint River. Gaines reached the place with some regulartroops and volunteers, and Twiggs, with 250 men, moved upon the town, killed some of the people and burned the village. The revenge of theSeminoles was swift and bloody. Settlers were massacred and the property ofthe whites within reach of the Indians was destroyed. Over 2, 700 Seminolestook the field. General Jackson assumed command on the day after Christmas. He declared that so long as the Spaniards held Florida the trouble wouldcontinue. 

[Sidenote: Pindaree war]

[Sidenote: Treaty of Toona]

About the same time the British in India were plunged into further warswith the natives. First the Pindarees sent out plundering bands from Malwa. To suppress them, Lord Hastings had to collect an army of 120, 000, thelargest force yet mustered in India. From Madras, four army divisions underSir Thomas Hislop crossed the Nerbudda, and drove the Pindarees towardBengal. By the great number of his remaining troops Lord Hastings overawedthe neighboring rulers, Peishwa Sindia of the Mahratta, Ameer Khan, Holkarand Runjit Singh of the Punjab. Peishwa Baji Rao was compelled to sign atreaty of neutrality at Toona. In October, thereupon, Lord Hastings leftCawnpore and crossed the Jumna. The Pindarees were routed in a series ofswift-fought engagements. One of their chieftains, Khurin, gave himself upwith his whole household, while another, Chetu, was killed by a tiger whilehiding in the jungle. 

[Sidenote: Mahratta war]

The Peishwa of the Mahrattas, who was biding his time until the Britishforces should withdraw from his dominions, grew impatient and threatenedopen war. To appease him a newly arrived British regiment was withdrawnfrom Toona to Khirki, a village about four miles from the BritishResidency. This concession only encouraged the Peishwa to furtherresistance. 

[Sidenote: Hindu Blondin]

[Sidenote: Outbreak of Poonah]

[Sidenote: Flight of Baji Rao]

The Mahratta war opened with a romantic incident. Trimbukji Dainglia, oneof the favorites of the Peishwa, was held closely confined by the Englishat Thanna for his share in the murder of one of Baji Rao's enemies. Beforethe outbreak of hostilities the Mahrattas managed to get word to him ofwhat was coming. A native groom in the service of one of the Britishofficers passed the window of the prisoner every day leading his master'shorses. As he did so he trolled a native song the purport of which theBritish guards neither understood nor suspected. It has thus beentranslated by Bishop Heber:

 Behind the bush the bowmen hide The horse beneath the tree. Where shall I find a chief to ride The jungle paths with me?

 There are five-and-fifty horses there, And four-and-fifty men; When the fifty-fifth shall mount his steed, The Dekhan thrives again. 

A few days after this Trimbukji Dainglia was missing. He had broken a barfrom its setting, scaled the wall, and joined a party of horsemen lying inwait. With them he fled to the jungles of Kanderish. Just before theoutbreak of hostilities a British officer thought he recognized him atPoonah. On November 5, the British Resident, Elphinstone, left Poonah toinspect the forces at Khirki. On that same day the Mahrattas burnedElphinstone's house and rich Sanskrit library. Baji Rao attacked themilitary post Khirki with 26, 000 men, but was repulsed with a loss of fivehundred. The British immediately despatched an army under General Smith forPoonah. On November 15, they prepared for a general attack on the morrow, but in the night Baji Rao fled from Poonah. Thus he surrendered hisdominions without a blow. 

Appa Sahib, the Rajah of Nagpore, meanwhile had made common cause with BajiRao. On the evening of November 24, he brought up his forces and attackedthe British Residency at Nagpore. The resulting battle of Sitaboldi isfamous in Hindu annals. As Wheeler, the historian of British India, describes it:

[Sidenote: Battle of Sitaboldi]

"The English had no European regiment, as they had at Khirki; they hadscarcely fourteen hundred Sepoys fit for duty, including three troops ofBengal cavalry, and only four six-pounders. Appa Sahib had an army ofeighteen thousand men, including four thousand Arabs, the best soldiers inthe Dekhan; he had also thirty-six guns. The battle lasted from six o'clockin the evening of the 26th of November until noon the next day. For manyhours the English were in sore peril; their fate seemed to hang upon athread. The Arabs were beginning to close round the Residency, when a happystroke of British daring changed the fortunes of the day. CaptainFitzgerald, who commanded the Bengal cavalry, was posted in the Residencycompound and was anxious to charge the Arabs; but he was forbidden. Againhe implored permission, but was told to charge at his peril. 'On my perilbe it!' cried Fitzgerald. Clearing the inclosures, the Bengal cavalry boredown upon the enemy's horse, captured two guns, and cut up a body ofinfantry. The British Sepoys hailed the exploit with loud huzzahs, andseeing the explosion of one of the enemy's tumbrels, rushed down the hill, driving the Arabs before them. The victory was won, but the English hadlost a quarter of their number. "

 [Illustration: LAST MOMENTS OF MAXIMILIAN Painted by J. Paul Laurens From Carbon Print by Braun, Clement & Co. , N. Y. ]

[Sidenote: Appa Sahib's escape]

[Sidenote: Battle of Nahidpore]

[Sidenote: Defence of Korygaun]

[Sidenote: End of Mahratta rule]

Appa Sahib surrendered himself and was placed under arrest. Presently hemade good his escape and found a refuge with the Rajah of Jodhpur. InHolkar's State of Indore affairs ran in a similar groove. The Regent Mothershowed herself inclined to come to an agreement with the British marchingnorthward under Sir Thomas Hislop. But the Mahratta chiefs were bent onwar, and murdered the Regent Mother. A battle, henceforth, was unavoidable. Already the British supply train had been plundered by the Mahrattas. Thebattle was fought on December 21, at Nahidpore. On each occasion Sir JohnMalcolm commanded the British troops and won a complete victory. All theHindu guns and swords fell into British hands. Then came the heroic defenceof Korygaun, still celebrated in British Indian annals. A detachment ofBombay Sepoys and native cavalry, under the command of Captain Staunton andten English officers, in all 800 men with two guns, were caught unawares bythe Peishwa's army of 30, 000 Mahratta Gosains. Captain Staunton's forceintrenched itself in the village of Korygaun and prepared for the worst. The Mahrattas completely surrounded the place and the defenders were cutoff from all water and supplies. Then came a succession of fierce rushes bythe Mahratta horse and foot, every one of which had to be fought off indesperate hand-to-hand encounters. Of the ten white officers eight werekilled; besides them Staunton lost one-third of his Sepoys. The Mahrattasleft 600 on the field. To the present day the exploit is celebrated in thesongs and stories of the Dekhan. The Peishwa witnessed the long fight froma neighboring hill, and was beside himself when his discouraged troopsrefused to renew the battle. After this Baji Rao could no longer hold hisarmy together. By the close of the year his forces were dispersed. It wasthe end of Mahratta rule in the Dekhan. 

1818

[Sidenote: Battle of Ashti]

[Sidenote: Baji Rao's surrender]

Peace was re-established in India shortly after New Year's day. LordHastings would stop at nothing but the absolute deposition of the Peishwa. He had long resolved to reduce Baji Rao to the condition of Napoleon at St. Helena. Accordingly, he delivered the Rajah of Satara from the thraldom ofgenerations, and assigned to him sufficient territory for support. Thisdone he set himself to hunt down the deposed Peishwa. For several monthsBaji Rao remained at large. He made a feeble stand at Ashti, but fled atthe first shot, leaving his army to be defeated by General Smith. It was onthis occasion that the Rajah of Satara fell into English hands. Later inthe year Baji Rao was surrounded by British troops, under the command ofSir John Malcolm. No alternative was left him but to die or give up. Theterms offered by Malcolm were so liberal as to excite astonishment inEurope. While the great Napoleon was condemned to spend his remaining dayson a mere pittance at St. Helena, this most cowardly of Indian princes wasallowed to live in luxury near Cawnpore, on a yearly grant of £80, 000. Hisfriend Trimbukji Dainglia, however, when captured, was condemned to closeconfinement in the fortress of Chunar. 

[Sidenote: Lord Hastings' Indian policy]

The remains of the Holkar states were permitted to endure, nor wouldHastings sanction the proposed dethronement of the family of Jaswant Rao. Holkar was merely required to seize certain territories, and to confirm thegrants already made to Ameer Khan. From a sovereign principality the landwas reduced to a subsidiary state under British guarantee. Otherwise theinfant Mulhar, Rao Holkar, was treated as an independent prince and hisadministration was left in the hands of a native Durbar, aided by theBritish Resident. The policy of Lord Hastings, although severely criticisedin England, must be pronounced a success in the light of later events. Fromthe suppression of the Pindarees and the extinction of the Peishwa in 1818, down to the days of the great mutiny, no serious attempt was made tooverthrow British suzerainty by means of an armed confederation of nativestates. 

In some respects the administration of Lord Hastings marks a new era in thehistory of India. Hastings was the first Governor-General who encouragedthe education of the native population. Early in his administration hedenounced the maxim of his predecessors, that native ignorance would insurethe security of British rule, as an utterly unworthy and futile doctrine. Accordingly, he promoted the establishment of native schools andpublications. 

[Sidenote: Death of Warren Hastings]

[Sidenote: Hastings' career]

The affairs of India were kept before the British public by the reneweddiscussion that followed the death of Lord Hastings' great namesake, WarrenHastings. It was due to the scandals of Warren Hastings' career in India, and his famous impeachment toward the close of the previous century, thatthe administrative reforms and modern rule in India were inaugurated duringthe nineteenth century. This reform began with the act, known at Pitt'sBill, by which the British Crown assumed supreme authority over the civiland military administration of the affairs in India by the British EastIndia Company. Henceforward, no alliances could be formed with any nativeprince without the express sanction of Parliament. This act arose directlyout of Warren Hastings' confession that he had accepted a present of ahundred thousand pounds from Asof-Ud-Daula. Warren Hastings' record, thoughhe was ultimately acquitted, was lastingly besmirched by his dubiousmonetary transactions, and it was for this reason that William Pitt refusedto recommend him for the peerage, or for honorable employment under theBritish Crown. Yet he was the greatest statesman that ever ruled India. Hisoverthrow of the French in India, of the first Mahratta rising, and of theformidable rebellion of Hyder Ali, are among the greatest achievements ofBritish colonial extension. The disgrace of Warren Hastings was a greatevent in English history, but it made no impression on the people in India. They only knew him as one of the greatest of conquerors and theirdeliverer. Philip Francis, who brought about Hastings' downfall, so farfrom supplanting him, is remembered now only as the probable author of theanonymous "Letters of Junius. "

[Sidenote: Ross' and Franklin's Expeditions]

[Sidenote: "Frankenstein"]

[Sidenote: "Endymion"]

[Sidenote: Macadam roads]

[Sidenote: Invention of Velocipede]

Besides the death of Warren Hastings, several other notable eventspreoccupied the attention of Englishmen. During this year Sir John Rosssailed north to discover a northwest passage. Another relief expeditionunder Lieutenant Franklin, which had sailed after him, resulted only infailure. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley published her curious novel"Frankenstein, " and John Keats brought out his long poem "Endymion, " forwhich he was violently assailed by the critics, notably by Jeffries, of"Blackwood's Magazine. " Shelley, Moore, Hunt, and eventually Byron, warmlytook his part. In the meanwhile a number of industrial reforms wereintroduced in England. Infant schools were first thrown open during thisyear, and steam was first used for heating purposes. A company in Edinburghundertook to light the streets with gas. John Loudon Macadam's new systemof road building was successfully introduced. In France similar strideswere made in industrial progress. Joseph Nicéphore Niepce invented hisvelocipede. The kindred invention of the "draisine, " or dandy-horse waspatented for Baron Drais of Sauerbron. These inventions contained the germof the modern bicycle. 

[Sidenote: Congress of Aachen]

[Sidenote: Czar Alexander aroused]

The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, consisting of the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia, aided by ministers of Great Britain and France, signeda convention for the withdrawal of the army of occupation from France, andfor the reception of France into the European concert. For other countriesthe deliberations of this Congress were not so beneficent. Since the PolishDiet in the spring, when Alexander had promised to give all Russia aconstitutional government, a change of spirit had come over the Czar. Thischange has been explained by the revelation of a military conspiracyagainst his person. At all events, Alexander appeared at Aix-la-Chapellewith the most reactionary proposals. Up to this time Metternich, theinveterate foe of liberalism, had found in the Czar his most formidableopponent. Now the Czar distributed among his fellow sovereigns a pamphletwritten by one Stourdza, which described Germany as on the brink ofrevolution, and blamed the universities and public press. Metternichinstantly took his cue from the Czar. Before the end of the conference hedelivered to the King of Prussia and to Hardenberg two papers containinghis recommendations for the management of Prussian affairs. FrederickWilliam was warned against giving his people a national parliament. Afterthe example of the Czar, Metternich inveighed against the universities andthe press. 

[Sidenote: Metternich's sentiments]

"The revolutionists, " he said, "despairing of attaining their endthemselves, have formed the settled plan of educating the next generationfor revolution. The high school establishment is a preparatory school foruniversity disorders. The university seizes the youth as he leaves boyhood, and gives him a revolutionary training. This mischief is common to allGermany, and must be checked by joint action of the governments. Gymnasia(high schools), on the contrary, were first invented at Berlin. For these, palliative measures are no longer sufficient; it has become a duty ofState for the King of Prussia to destroy the evil. The whole institution inevery shape must be closed and uprooted. "

[Sidenote: Prussian reaction]

The reactionary policy outlined in these papers became the guiding star ofKing Frederick William of Prussia. They outline the history of whatactually was carried out in Prussia during the succeeding generation. 

[Sidenote: Misgovernment in Spain]

It was not only in Germany that the new spirit of liberalism gave concernto the members of the Holy Alliance. In Spain it appeared in a moredangerous form, since it was espoused there by the military class. Ferdinand's misgovernment of Spain had soon resulted in an empty treasury, in consequence of which soldiers and sailors received no pay for severalyears. Military revolts were instituted by General Mina, and by Porliar andLacy at this period; but they failed through the indifference of thesoldiers themselves. The government's attempt to offset the numerousdesertions from the army by seizing and enrolling some 60, 000 beggars inmilitary service, proved a complete failure. Napoleon's prediction toRear-Admiral Cockburn that Spain was doomed to lose all her colonies wasreaching fulfilment in America. 

[Sidenote: Defection of Spanish colonies]

Amelia Island, at the mouth of the St. Mary's River in Florida, had longbeen the resort of lawless men, among whom were European adventurersattracted by the South American revolution, and many fugitive slaves fromGeorgia and South Carolina. A plan was formed to organize a revolution onthat island and to add Florida to the revolting South American republics. The forces gathered there became too strong for the Spaniards, andPresident Monroe decided to interfere. Gaines was sent to Amelia Island;but before he arrived, Aury, the commander of the malcontents, hadsurrendered to Commodore Henley. General Jackson, who was operating inthose parts against the Seminoles, declared that "the cause of the UnitedStates must be carried to any point within the limits of Florida where anenemy is permitted to be protected. " All eastern Florida, he set forth tothe President, should be seized when Amelia Island was taken, and should beheld as an indemnity for the outrages of Spain upon American citizens. Thisplan, Jackson said, could be carried out without implicating the UnitedStates. "Let it be signified to me that the province of Florida would bedesirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished. "

[Sidenote: Andrew Jackson in Florida]

[Sidenote: Summary military measures]

[Sidenote: Pensacola occupied]

When the order to assume command reached Jackson, he raised a volunteerforce in Tennessee from among his old soldiers. With these and the troopsleft by Gaines he marched into Florida. On the site of the Negro fort hebuilt Fort Gadsden. He then advanced to the Bay of St. Marks, defeating thefew Seminoles whom he encountered. On April 7, he raised the American flagthere in place of the standard of Spain. Two Seminole chiefs who had takenrefuge on an American vessel in the bay, and who were supposed to haveparticipated in the massacre of a party of Americans, were brought on shoreand hanged. Leaving a strong garrison at St. Marks, Jackson marched ahundred miles to the Indian town of Suwanee, where he hoped to captureBilly Bowlegs and his band. But the Indians, warned of his approach, escaped across the river. Suwanee was destroyed. Jackson, when at St. Marks, had taken prisoner one Arbuthnot, a Scotchman and supposed Indiansympathizer, whom he ordered to be confined until his return. At Suwanee, Captain Ambrister, a former English officer, intending to join the Indians, blundered into Jackson's camp, and was held a prisoner. On his return, Jackson ordered the two men to be tried by court-martial, on the charge ofwarning the Indians of the approach of the American soldiers, and both wereconvicted and executed. Jackson, on reaching Fort Gadsden, received fromthe Spanish Governor of Pensacola a protest against his invasion. He turnedback, occupied Pensacola, and took the Fort of Carrios De Barrancas, towhich the governor had fled. 

[Sidenote: Jackson unrebuked]

[Sidenote: An amicable settlement]

When the news of Jackson's course reached Washington, Congress engaged in aheated debate over his occupation of the forts of a friendly power. Indefending himself Jackson wrote that the Secretary of War had given himfull power to conduct the campaign in the manner which seemed best. Spain, he claimed, had failed to fulfil that article of the treaty by which shewas bound to restrain the Florida Indians from hostilities. Popular feelingproved too strong for Congress to assert its privileges as the solewar-making power. Jackson was not even rebuked for his course. During allthose months, Onis, the Spanish Minister, and Adams were in negotiationover a treaty, which was not ratified until two years later. Florida was tobe ceded to the United States on a payment of $5, 000, 000, to be applied insatisfying the claims of American citizens against Spain. The Sabine River, instead of the Rio Grande, was made the dividing line between the UnitedStates and Spanish territory. The line was to run from the mouth of theSabine to the 32d parallel, thence north to the Red River and along it tothe 100th meridian, thence north to the Arkansas and along that river toits source on the 42d parallel, and thence west to the Pacific. War withSpain was thus averted. 

[Sidenote: The slavery issue]

While the Florida question was under consideration, there arose another farmore momentous to America. Free labor in the North and slave labor in theSouth were brought squarely face to face. Slave labor was fast rising invalue. The new lands of the lower Mississippi opened a vast field for theemployment of slaves in the production of cotton, sugar and tobacco. It wasbelieved the extension of slavery into that new territory would save itfrom gradual extinction. The interstate traffic in slaves was viewed withabhorrence by many leading men in the South. John Randolph, while upholdingslavery, denounced the traffic that was carried on in the Southernplantations. On the other hand it was seen that compromise would be oflittle value if the North only was to be permitted to increase its power bythe admission of new States. New slave States as well were demanded by theSoutherners. 

[Sidenote: Contention over Missouri]

In March, the citizens of Missouri had asked permission to form a Stateconstitution and to be admitted into the Union. It was tacitly understoodthat slavery might be carried into territory east of the Mississippibelonging originally to the existing slave States. But Louisiana, west ofthe Mississippi, belonged to the whole of the United States rather than toany one of the several States. The question now arose whether Congressshould establish slavery anew in territory of the United States. Thealternative was presented to the people of the North whether to submit tothe demands of the South or to consent to a dissolution of the Union. Though represented by a majority in Congress, the Northern States weredefeated after a long struggle. John Quincy Adams doubted if Congress, under the American Constitution, had the right to prohibit slavery in aterritory where it already existed. "If a dissolution of the Union shouldresult from the slave question, " he wrote, "it is obvious that it mustshortly afterward be followed by a universal emancipation of the slaves. "

[Sidenote: American Pension system inaugurated]

[Sidenote: Oregon in dispute]

During this same year Congress first granted pensions to needy veterans ofthe Revolutionary War and soon afterward to the widows and children of deadsoldiers. Thus began the system of American pension legislation for formerAmerican soldiers which was destined to grow to such gigantic proportionsin later years. Up to that time the number of stripes in the American flaghad been eighteen. Now a bill was approved reducing the number of stripesto thirteen, the number of original States comprising the Union. Thenumber of stars was to be made equal to that of the States. Soon afterward, the new flag, with twenty stars in its quartering, was first raised overthe halls of Congress. Shortly after this the Fifteenth Congress adjourned. On October 20, a convention with Great Britain was signed respectingfisheries and boundaries, giving to Americans the right to fish inNewfoundland waters and renewing the agreement of 1815, making the 49thparallel the boundary between the United States and British North America. The convention also provided for the joint occupation of Oregon for tenyears longer. 

The glossy finish to leather known as "patent" leather was first patentedin this year. Another notable invention of the time was the process ofengraving on soft steel. 

[Sidenote: Illinois a State]

The second session of the American Congress was not called until late inthe year. Illinois was then admitted as the twenty-first State of theUnion. 

1819

[Sidenote: Florida ceded by Spain]

[Sidenote: Southern Indians dispossessed]

[Sidenote: Alabama a state]

Early in the year Andrew Jackson was called to Washington. He was the heroof the day. When he visited New York he was received with public honors. OnFebruary 22, a treaty with Spain was adopted by which she surrendered allclaims to Florida and ceded West Florida. The cost of the war to the UnitedStates had been forty million dollars. The year was marked by the enforcedretirement of large bodies of the Cherokees from Georgia to theMississippi. The Cherokees as well as the Creeks, the Choctaws and theChickasaws were greatly perturbed at the prospect of their final removalfrom the land which the United States had guaranteed to them. Partly as aresult of these changes, the Territory of Alabama was admitted to the Unionas the twenty-second State. 

[Sidenote: The Missouri problem]

There were now eleven free and eleven slave States; and serious oppositionarose to the admission of Missouri. In February, the first bill wasintroduced in the House for the admission of that Territory. JamesTallmadge, Jr. , of New York, proposed that there should be no personalservitude in the State except by those already held as slaves, and thatthese should be manumitted within a certain period. This proposition hemodified by moving an amendment providing that the introduction of slaveryshould be prohibited, but that those already slaves in Missouri shouldremain so, and that the children of such slaves should be liberated uponreaching the age of twenty-five. The proposition to hold in slavery ageneration yet unborn was fiercely resented. The two Houses did not agree, and the question went over to another year. The South presented an unbrokenand unyielding front. Caleb of Georgia said that this attempt to interferewith slavery was "destructive of the peace and harmony of the union"; thatthose who proposed it "were kindling a fire which all the waters of theocean could not extinguish. It could be extinguished only in blood. "

[Sidenote: Antagonism to slavery]

[Sidenote: Maine _vs. _ Missouri]

The Missouri question having been left for the next session, the cognateissue concerning a government for the Arkansas country south of parallel33° 30' was taken up. In both Houses an amendment to prohibit slavery waslost. As a compromise a representative from Delaware suggested a divisionof the Western Territory between the free and slave States. The contest wasrenewed at the December session. Resolutions of Northern Legislaturescondemning the placing of slavery under the national government werepresented, and were treated with contempt by the Southern statesmen. Senator Mason of North Carolina said: "They may philosophize at townmeetings about it as much as they please, but they know nothing about thequestion. " In the House the matter was brought up in the same form as inthe previous session. James W. Taylor of New York presented an amendmentprohibiting slavery, but holding in bondage those who were already slaves. He kept this point clearly in view through the debate that followed. Finally the bill was passed by a vote of 91 to 82, the prohibitoryamendment being adopted by a majority of eight. The bill for the admissionof Missouri was attached to that for the admission of Maine. The suggestionof this stratagem was made on the 20th of December by Henry Clay, whodeclared that he did "not mean to give his consent to the admission ofMaine, so long as the doctrine was upheld of annexing conditions to theadmission of States beyond the mountains. " The analogy was scarcely just. Under the Constitution the right was absolute; Maine was a part of theoriginal thirteen States of the Republic. The problem respecting Missouriwas radically different, and resolved itself into the question whetherCongress, under the American Constitution, had the right to create a newState out of the purchased territory, and to admit it to the Union withouta republican form of government. Clay's threat was improved upon. Thejudiciary committee reported the House bill for the admission of Maine, adding an amendment for the admission of Missouri. Roberts of Pennsylvaniamoved to amend the amendment by prohibiting slavery in Missouri, but hismotion was rejected by a majority of eleven (including six Senators fromfree States). A motion to make the admission of Maine a separate questionwas also defeated. The two Houses now stood directly opposed to each other. The Representatives would not retreat from their decision to prohibitslavery in Missouri; the Senate was equally determined that Missouri shouldbe admitted as a slave State. Had the House maintained its ground, theUnited States for the next half century might have had another history. 

[Sidenote: The Missouri compromise]

Senator Thomas of Illinois, who had voted thus far with the South, now cameforward with a compromise. He proposed to prohibit slavery in that portionof the Louisiana Purchase north of 36° 30' excepting Missouri. This wasaccepted in the Senate by thirty-four votes against ten. But when the billcame up two days later for its final passage it received only a majority offour. After much delay the compromise measure was finally passed throughthe House by a majority of 134 to 42 votes. The measure was a Northernvictory, having been carried by Northern votes. For the moment peace wasgained; but the fire was only smothered. On the one side there was a gainof one slave State; on the other side, a mere promise to prohibit slaveryin future States. 

[Sidenote: Modern progress]

[Sidenote: Irving's "Sketch Book"]

Notwithstanding the political agitation, general progress in America waspronounced and rapid during this period. Steam navigation was no longer anovelty. The Erie Canal was well under way. New towns were springing upalong its course. Blanchard invented his lathe for turning irregular forms. The famous Danish physicist, Hans Christian Oersted, made his classicalelectrical experiments with the magnetic needle and laid the foundation ofour modern theory of electromagnetism. The literary event of the year inAmerica was the appearance of Washington Irving's "Sketch Book. " The workfound favor in England, where Sir Walter Scott befriended Irving. 

[Sidenote: Polar expedition]

[Sidenote: Cochrane in Chilean service]

In England, too, it was a period of new industrial and colonial expansion. Following the unsuccessful polar expeditions of the previous year, Lieutenant Franklin undertook his second search for the northwest passage, and a similar expedition, under Perry and Liddon, set out for Arcticwaters. In India, where the Sikhs under Runjeet Singh were engaged in theirgreat conquest of Cashmere, a British settlement was established inSingapore. British supremacy at sea received its tribute in an invitationfrom the Chileans to Sir Thomas Cochrane to command their new navy. Aftertheir victory on the Maypo, the patriot leaders of Chile had set to work tocreate a navy for their country. The British ship "Cumberland" waspurchased in London, and renamed the "San Martin. " Within a few months shecaptured the "Maria Isabella" from the Spanish. The prize was taken toValparaiso, remounted, and renamed the "O'Higgins. " To these ships wereadded the "Galvarino, " "Araucano, " "Interpodo, " and the "Independencia. "With the "O'Higgins" for a flagship, Cochrane took this squadron up anddown the coast of South America, harrying the Spanish sea-ports everywhere. 

[Sidenote: The "Six Acts"]

[Sidenote: Birth of Victoria]

In England, meanwhile, there was renewed agitation for Parliamentaryreforms. Henry Grattan in Parliament moved for a Committee of the WholeHouse to consider the laws excluding Catholics from public offices. Hismotion was defeated by a narrow vote of 243 against 241. Instead of thisreform the British Government, falling in line with the reactionarymeasures of the Continental governments, passed through Parliament theso-called "Six Acts" for the prevention and punishment of sedition inEngland. To latter-day Englishmen this year is principally noted for thebirth of Queen Victoria. The little princess, the daughter of Edward, Dukeof Kent, son of George the Third and Maria Louisa Victoria of Saxe-Coburg, a sister of Leopold I. Of Belgium, was born at Kensington Palace, and wasnamed Alexandrina Victoria. 

[Sidenote: Schopenhauer]

Germans of the present day remember this year for the appearance ofSchopenhauer's great philosophic work "The World, as Will and Idea"--"DieWelt als Wille und Vorstellung. " Schopenhauer, in this book, laid down thedoctrine that the universe, and therefore human life as such, is governedby the conflicting principles of the ungoverned will and of theunattainable ideal. The true solution of life, he held, was to be found insubjecting brute will to the intellectual force of the ideal. 

[Sidenote: Assassination of Kotzebue]

Schopenhauer's book at that time passed almost unnoticed. The educatedclasses of Germany were in too much of a ferment over the recent policerestrictions inflicted upon the universities and public press. By this timeit had become well known what part Czar Alexander had played at theCongress of Aix-la-Chapelle. A vehement outcry arose at the universitiesagainst the interference of foreigners in German affairs. The wrath of theLiberals turned against August von Kotzebue, the prolific playwright, whoheld the office of Russian agent in central Germany. Kotzebue conducted aweekly newspaper at Mannheim in which he inveighed against the Germannational movement of the day, and ridiculed the patriotic eccentricities ofthe students. Having himself studied at Jena, Kotzebue was denounced by thestudents there as a traitor. He was believed to be responsible for theCzar's conversion from liberal ideas to reactionary principles. This beliefcost Kotzebue his life. One Sand, a theological student at Jena, noted forpiety and patriotic ardor, formed a fanatical resolution to do away withthis enemy of the country. An extract from Sand's diary, written on the eveof his last New Year's day, reveals the character of the man: "I meet thelast day of this year in an earnest festal spirit, knowing well that theChristmas which I have celebrated will be my last. If our strivings are toresult in anything, if the cause of mankind is to succeed in ourfatherland, if all is not to be forgotten, all our enthusiasm spent invain, the evil doer, the traitor, the corrupter of youth must die. Until Ihave executed this, I have no peace; and what can comfort me until I knowthat I have with upright will set my life at stake? O God, I pray only forthe right clearness and courage of soul, that in that last supreme hour Imay not be false to myself. " On March 23, Sand sought out Baron Kotzebue inthe midst of his family and stabbed him to the heart. Then he turned thedagger against himself. Unfortunately Sand recovered from his wounds, andthus lived to die on the scaffold. 

[Sidenote: Retaliatory measures]

[Sidenote: German liberals persecuted]

The mad deed was followed by the worst possible results for Germany. Minister Hardenberg, when he heard of the murder of Kotzebue, declared thata Prussian Constitution had now been rendered impossible. Metternich, whowas then in Rome, instantly drew up a scheme for further repressivemeasures and summoned the ministers of the various German States for ameeting at Carlsbad. "By the help of God, " wrote Metternich, "I hope todefeat the German revolution, just as I vanquished the conqueror of theworld. The revolutionists thought me far away, because I was five hundredleagues off. They deceived themselves; I have been in the midst of them, and now I am striking my blows. " A number of innocent persons were arrestedin various parts of Germany under utterly unwarrantable circumstances. Thehouses of professors were searched and private papers were seized. Jahn, the founder of the popular Gymnastic schools, was arrested in Berlin. DeWette, a professor of theology at the University of Berlin, had to flee toSwitzerland on account of a letter of sympathy addressed by him to Sand'smother. With him Oken, the great naturalist, and Corres, the pamphleteer, became exiles in Switzerland. Professor Fries lost his chair at Jena; thepoet Arndt was suspended at Bonn, and his private papers, in garbled form, were published by the government. Many of the younger professors, accompanied by their favorite students, emigrated to America. 

[Sidenote: Convention of Carlsbad]

[Sidenote: Police censors appointed]

[Sidenote: Binzer's poem]

During August the German ministers met at Carlsbad. Their conferences, inthe memory of the German people, are justly associated with the suppressionof intellectual freedom for a whole generation. It was ordered that inevery State within the German federation a strict censorship should beestablished over all publications. Within fifteen days an inquisitorialcommission was called together at Mainz to investigate the students'societies at the universities. The commission was empowered to arrest anysubject in any German State. Special police commissioners were appointed atthe universities, whose duty it was to keep a strict eye on the drift ofthe professor's teachings. Any professor or student expelled from auniversity was not to be employed by any other German government. Thestudents' societies were suppressed, at least to all outward appearance. The poet Binzer wrote a defiant song ending with the lines:

 The Spirit liveth in us all, For God is still our stronghold. 

[Sidenote: Resignation of Wilhelm Humboldt]

[Sidenote: South German liberalism]

So far was repression carried in Prussia that out of 203 students arrestedfor wearing black-red-yellow ribbons, no less than 94 were condemned todeath. Wilhelm von Humboldt, the best and most liberal of PrussianMinisters during the first half of the nineteenth century, resigned hisportfolio in disgust. The zeal with which the Prussian Government acceptedthese measures made it useless for the minor German States to offer muchopposition. Yet they formed the only remaining bulwark againstMetternich's restrictive policy. In spite of his strenuous opposition, therulers of Bavaria and Baden granted to their subjects constitutional formsof government. Representative assemblies with lower and upper houses, afterthe manner of the English Parliament, were established. In Wurtemberg, serfdom was abolished, and a constitution was published a few days beforethe enrolment of the decrees of Carlsbad. 

[Sidenote: Laënnec's stethoscope]

In France, Dr. Laënnec published his epoch-making work "Traitéd'Auscultation Médiate, " the result of his recent experiments in listeningto human heart-beats and lung respirations through a hollow cylinder. Various names were given to the instrument until Laënnec decided to call it"stethoscope, " the name it has ever since retained. Laënnec's contributionsto the study of diseases of the lungs, of the heart and of the abdominalorgans may be said to have laid the foundation of modern clinical medicine. 

[Sidenote: Decazes Prime Minister]

[Sidenote: The Gregoire episode]

[Sidenote: Troubles in Spain]

Parliamentary government in France worked none too smoothly. In theChambers the rise of the independent party and anti-Bourbon faction causedthe Duc de Richelieu to resign. When the news of Kotzebue's assassinationreached Paris, the Comte d'Artois remarked exultingly to the king: "Well, brother, you see what they are driving us to. " Louis XVIII. Intrusted tohis favorite, Decazes, the formation of a new Cabinet. Decazes found itdifficult to select competent men for the various portfolios. His Cabinet, when finally brought together, lacked internal unity and outward support. Its career was early imperilled by the untoward election of Bishop Gregoireof Grenoble, one of the regicides, to the Chamber of Deputies. This popularmanifestation, though sufficiently explained by the sterling publicqualities of the bishop himself, created the utmost apprehension among theRoyalists. Decazes had to bend to the storm, and the election of Gregoirewas declared null and void by the Ministerial majority in the Chambers. TheFrench Royalists next professed to find cause for apprehension in Spain. Danger of war with the United States, before the cession of Florida, hadcaused King Ferdinand of Spain to assemble an army at Cadiz to embark forAmerica. It was now proposed to send these troops to South America to quellthe revolutionary movements there. The return of a number of soldiersstricken with yellow fever in the colonies filled the troops at Cadiz withconsternation. The common soldiers, lying in squalor and inaction at theirbarracks, came to regard their expected order of embarkation as a sentenceof death. Their officers plotted with the secret societies in Cadiz andneighboring towns. Abisbas, the commandant at Cadiz, to safeguard his owninterests pretended to encourage these plots. Then, convinced of theirultimate failure, he arrested the principal leaders by a stratagem andhurried to Madrid to reveal all and claim credit for saving the crown. Theringleaders were imprisoned and the troops were distributed intocantonments. As it turned out this only served to foment the growing spiritof dissatisfaction throughout Spain. 

1820

[Sidenote: Spanish military revolt]

[Sidenote: Riego's plight]

New Year's Day was fixed for the outbreak of revolt by the revolutionistsof Spain. The chosen leaders were Riego, Cabazes and Quiroga. It wasarranged that Quiroga, who was held in light confinement at Medina, east ofCadiz, should gather the battalions outside of Cadiz, throw himself intothe city, and there await the co-operation of his fellow conspirators. Riego with a band of chosen men was to pounce upon the militaryheadquarters at Arcos, and to arrest the general officers before they couldinterfere. Accordingly, Riego, on the first day of January, proclaimed theConstitution of 1812, and, falling upon headquarters, seized the generalofficers and rallied the men to his standard. Quiroga was less successful. After gaining possession of San Fernando at the eastern point of thepeninsula of Leon, he failed to get into Cadiz. The commandant closed thegates against him, and the troops within gave no sign of defection. By thetime Riego arrived, there were but 5, 000 insurgents wherewith to overcomethe strong garrison and fortifications of Cadiz. Leaving Quiroga beforeCadiz, Riego set himself to raise the people of the surrounding towns. Hewas received with kindness, but the obvious weakness of his forcediscouraged others from joining him. Strong forces were sent in pursuit, and the insurgents were compelled to march back and forth through thecountry to escape their pursuers. At Cordova, Riego was made to realizethat the game was lost. The soldiers of the government were upon him, andhe had only some two hundred followers left. The little band took to themountains and there dispersed. 

[Sidenote: Spread of the revolt]

The revolt, despite its miserable end, was followed by widespread results. The example of a bold stroke had been given, and the weakness of thegovernment had been exposed. While Riego's followers were still hunted fromplace to place, the soldiers and citizens of Corona together declared forthe Constitution. The revolutionary movement spread to Ferrol and thencealong the coast towns of Galicia. 

[Sidenote: Cochrane's exploit]

[Sidenote: Abisbas' treachery]

[Sidenote: King Ferdinand succumbs]

In South America, Cochrane in a brilliant action took the Spanishstronghold of Valdivia, held to be a Gibraltar in strength. King Ferdinandin Madrid was terrified. From all points of Spain the commandants wrotethat they could not answer for their garrisons. Abisbas was ordered toreturn to Cadiz with reinforcements. On leaving Madrid he boasted to theking that he knew how to deal with rebels. By the time he reached Ocaña, early in March, he himself proclaimed the Constitution. The news ofAbisbas' defection created consternation in Madrid. On the night of March6, the king convoked his Council of State. On the morrow he issued asummons for the Cortes. This was not enough. Crowds gathered in the streetsand clamored for the Constitution. A report that the guards were on thepoint of going over to the people brought the king around. From the balconyof the royal palace Ferdinand announced his readiness to take the oath tothe Constitution. The next day was spent in riotous rejoicing. The prisonof the Inquisition was sacked and all political prisoners were liberated. On the following day the mob broke into the gates and gardens of the royalpalace. The members of the old municipal council entered the royal privatechamber and called for a fulfilment of the king's public promise. Ferdinandaccepted the inevitable under a smiling exterior, and swore an oath offidelity to the Constitution of 1812. A provisional Junta took charge ofaffairs until the new Cortes should be convened. 

[Sidenote: Duc de Berry assassinated]

The news of the Spanish revolution astounded Europe. In France a fanatic bythe name of Louvel deemed the moment come to strike at the reigning houseof France. Louvel had followed Napoleon to exile in Elba. After the HundredDays he dogged the footsteps of the Bourbon princes with a settled projectof murder. The heir-presumptive to the French crown was the Duc de Berry. If he died without a son the elder Bourbon line was bound to become extinctas a reigning house. On the night of February 13, Louvel attacked the Ducde Berry at the entrance of the opera house and plunged a knife into hisheart. The Duchess was covered with her husband's blood. That night Duc deBerry died beseeching forgiveness for the man who had killed him. KingLouis XVIII. Himself closed the eyes of his nephew. 

[Sidenote: Fall of Decazes' Ministry]

The assassination of the Duc de Berry involved the ruin of the Ministry ofDecazes. The ultra-royalists in their frenzy of grief and indignationcharged their chief opponent with complicity. Clausel de Coussergues, amember of the Court of Cassation, moved the impeachment of Minister Decazesin the Chambers as an accomplice in the assassination. The King himselffelt menaced by the unwarranted accusation. "The Royalists give me thefinishing stroke, " said he; "they know that the policy of M. Decazes isalso mine, and they accuse him of assassinating my nephew. " Yet he had toabandon his favorite to the violent entreaties of the Comte d'Artois andthe Duchesse de Angoulême. Decazes was permitted to retire, and set out forLondon with his new titles of Duke and Ambassador to the Court of St. James. Richelieu was recalled to the Ministry. The Duchesse de Berryretired to Sicily. 

[Sidenote: Rise of the Carbonari]

[Sidenote: Neapolitan military revolt]

[Sidenote: Revolution in Naples]

[Sidenote: Bourbon duplicity]

In Naples and Sicily the recent events in Spain and France exerted apowerful influence over the minds of the people. In southern Italy thesecret society of the Carbonari had become a power in the land. The membersof this society, after the manner of Freemasons, took their name and thesymbolism of their rites from the calling of the charcoal burners. Sincethe revolt against Bourbon tyranny in 1799, the Carbonari had played theirpart as revolutionary conspirators. By the year 1820 it was believed thatone person out of every twenty-five in Naples belonged to the society. Tooffset their hidden power, the government encouraged the foundation of arival society, known as the Calderari, or Braziers. This only made mattersworse. After the success of the revolution in Spain, the head lodge of theCarbonari in Salerno issued orders for a rising in June. Later the date waspostponed. A score of Carbonari serving in the ranks of a cavalry regimentat Nola, persuaded one of the officers, Lieutenant Morelli, to head arevolt in favor of a constitutional government. On July 2, Morelli marchedout with a squadron of 150 men, and proclaimed for the Constitution. Onlyone trooper refused to follow his standard. The others rode along the roadto Avellino and were received with enthusiasm all along the way. Thecountry was ripe for revolt. At Avellino the commandant with all hisgarrison and the Bishop with the townspeople gave them a magnificentreception. The news of the revolt spread like wildfire throughout thekingdom of the Two Sicilies. Everywhere the Carbonari declared in itsfavor. Before the government had taken a single step, the Constitution wasgenerally proclaimed and joyfully accepted by the populace. From Naples theKing sent General Carrascosa to negotiate with the insurgents. In themeanwhile General Pepe, himself a Carbonaro of high rank, hastened toAvellino and placed himself at the head of the revolution. On July 6, theKing published an edict promising a constitution within eight days, andthen, feigning illness, committed the royal authority to his son, the Dukeof Calabria. The Carbonari, recalling the fact that the King, in order topreserve his contingent rights to the Spanish crown, had but recentlyhelped to sign the Spanish Constitution of 1812, insisted that this sameConstitution should be proclaimed for Naples. Old King Ferdinand yieldedand signed an edict to that effect. General Pepe and Morelli, at the headof the garrison of Avellino, and the national guards of Naples, triumphantly entered the city with public honors, and were received by theDuke of Calabria, in his capacity as viceroy. On July 13, the King inperson swore to support the Constitution. Standing before the altar in theroyal chapel, he raised his eyes to the crucifix and prayed that thevengeance of God might fall upon him if ever he broke his oath. Immediatelyafterward he wrote to the Emperors of Austria and Russia, declaring thathis conduct on this occasion was a mere farce and that he regarded hisobligations as null and void. 

[Sidenote: Revolution in Portugal]

[Sidenote: End of Lisbon regency]

The contagion of Spain and Sicily proved too much for the people ofPortugal. The continued absence of the royal family in Brazil, and theunwelcome prolongation of the British regency had long causeddissatisfaction in Portugal. The feeling of discontent was deepened byindustrial and commercial distress which made the manifest prosperity ofBrazil seem all the more galling. Marshal Beresford, the Englishcommander-in-chief of the Portuguese army, was generally execrated for hisbarbarous treatment of military conspirators. After the outbreak of theSpanish revolution, the aspect of affairs became so threatening in Portugalthat Beresford set out for Rio Janeiro to induce the Princes of Braganza toreturn to their Court in Lisbon. Before he could accomplish his purpose, the government that he had left behind him was overthrown by the people. OnAugust 24, the city of Oporto rose against the regency. The officers of thearmy, the magistrates, the priests and townspeople united in declaringagainst the regency. They established a provisional Junta to govern in thename of the King until the Cortes of Portugal could be convened to frame aconstitution. The authority of the regency in Oporto was lost without ablow. The Junta immediately seized the reins of government, and began itscareer by dismissing all English officers and paying the arrears of thesoldiers. In Lisbon the regency itself tried to stem the storm by givingits formal approval to the measures of the Junta of Oporto. The troops ofLisbon, however, would no longer recognize the authority of the government. Within a fortnight the regency was deposed, and a Junta installed in itsplace. Beresford was forbidden to return to Portugal. He went to England, but found there that the British Ministry did not deem it advisable tointerfere further in the domestic affairs of Portugal. Dom Juan VI. , in RioJaneiro, promised to return to Portugal and bestow on his subjects aliberal constitution. 

[Sidenote: British liberalism]

[Sidenote: Sale of Russian fleet]

In England, Lord Beresford's attempt to induce the government to suppressthe revolutionists of Portugal only served to strengthen the popularantipathy that had grown up against the reactionary tendencies of the HolyAlliance. Prior to this an attempt had been made to persuade England toact as instrument of the Alliance by suppressing the rebellious colonies ofSpain in South America. At the last session of the Holy Alliance, theenvoys of Russia and France submitted a paper in which they suggested thatWellington, as "the man of Europe, " should go to Madrid to preside over anegotiation between the Court of Spain and all the Ambassadors, regardingthe terms to be offered to the transatlantic States. If the coloniescontinued rebellious, England's fleet was counted upon to reduce them tosubmission. But the force of liberalism was too strong in England for anyBritish Minister to enter into such a scheme. Then it was that the Czar ofRussia sold a large part of the Russian fleet to Spain. To Englishmen, whohad seen these same ships in their harbors at the time they were held ashostages by England, this action gave but little concern. The scandal thatfollowed in Spain was anticipated in England. On their arrival at Cadiz, the Russian ships were found to be useless rotten hulks. 

[Sidenote: Death of George III. ]

[Sidenote: Queen Caroline's trial]

[Sidenote: Death of the Queen]

Another more trying scandal engrossed public attention in England. OnJanuary 29, old King George III. Had at last sunk into his grave. His son, George IV. , became king, and began his rule with the same Ministry underLord Liverpool that had served him as Prince Regent. The new king's firstpublic act was to call for a bill for the divorce of his wife, Caroline ofBrunswick. The Cabinet refused to favor such a bill. On April 23, Parliament met. The King sent "a green bag" to each House of Parliament, containing a mass of testimony and accusations concerning the queen'sconduct with her Italian chamberlain, Pergami. On June 6, Queen Carolinearrived from Italy. Having been refused passage on a royal ship, shechartered a vessel of her own. This bold step was taken to imply innocence. She was received with great popular demonstrations in her favor. Before asecret committee of Parliament, Queen Caroline offset the King's chargesagainst her by laying stress on his own well-known failings as a husband. On July 5, Lord Liverpool introduced a bill of "Pains and Penalties" todissolve the marriage of Queen Caroline. Her trial was taken up by theHouse of Lords, where she was defended by Lord Brougham. To this day theproceedings of the trial are remembered as one of the most outrageousscandals in England. The feelings thereby engendered in the people havebeen immortalized in the trenchant writings of Thackeray. Before the trialwas concluded, Lord Liverpool's bill was brought up for the third time inParliament. It passed by a majority of a few votes. With so slender anindorsement, the Ministry had cause to tremble for its existence. LordLiverpool prevailed upon the King to recede from his extreme position, and, succeeding in this, moved for the abandonment of the bill. The trial wasquashed. Queen Caroline died shortly afterward. 

[Sidenote: The Missouri Compromise]

[Sidenote: Cabinet in a quandary]

In America, public feeling was no less excited. The occasion for this wasthe first serious clash of the Northern and Southern factions of the UnitedStates over what was known as the Missouri Compromise. On February 18, theMissouri Compromise bill passed the Senate, and on March 2 the House. Itadmitted Missouri as a slave State, and prohibited slavery north ofparallel 36° 30', the southern line of Missouri. Henry Clay declared thatit settled the slavery question "forever. " The bill went to the President. There was still another compromise, and that was in the Cabinet. ThePresident asked advice on two points. The first point was whether Congresshad a Constitutional right to prohibit slavery in a Territory. The Cabinetagreed that the right existed. Then the question arose whether the sectionprohibiting slavery "forever" referred only to the territorial condition, or whether it also applied when the Territory became a State. The Cabinet, with the exception of Adams, agreed that "forever" applied only to theterritorial condition; Adams held that "forever" meant literally forever, in State as well as in Territory. In order to escape this dilemma it wasproposed that the question of "forever, " as relating to States, should beavoided; and that the only question should be, whether the sectionprohibiting slavery in the Territories forever was Constitutional. Theorder of proceeding was reversed; Mr. Adams was to reply in the affirmativewithout giving his reasons, while the others were to explain in writingthat the provision was Constitutional; but "forever" meant only while theterritorial condition existed. With this understanding the bill was signed. It is plain now that in the unsettled point the whole pith and meaning ofthe Missouri Compromise was contained, as the country learned fully anddecisively thirty-five years afterward. 

[Sidenote: Monroe elected President]

New issues then came to the front--protection, internal improvements, andrecognition of the South American republics. Presently, in order topreserve the balance of power between slavery and freedom, it was enactedthat Maine was to be admitted on March 15, making twelve free and twelveslave holding States. A bill was passed pronouncing the maritime slavetrade piracy. On October 20, Spain ratified the treaty ceding Florida. Congress reassembled in November. James Monroe and John Quincy Adams werethe opposing candidates for the Presidency. Monroe received 231 electoralvotes; Adams received one from a New Hampshire elector who voted insympathy with a popular sentiment that Washington should stand alone in thehigh honor of a unanimous choice. 

[Sidenote: Quinine]

In this year the great fever drug quinine was first clearly separated andidentified by Drs. Pelletier and Caventou, who were spurred on to theirlabors by the previous experiments with the drug by Drs. Gomez and Lambert. In its crude form the bark of the chinchona tree had been used for itsmedical properties since times immemorial. 

[Sidenote: Homeopathy]

It was about this time that the German physician Hahnemann's theory ofhomeopathy caused general discussion among medical practitioners andlaymen. Hahnemann's first thesis was that many diseases could most quicklybe eradicated by similar effects--fever with fever, poison withanti-poison. This theory of "like with like"--the Greek homoiahomoiois--was accordingly named by him homeopathy. It was most fullyexpressed in his "Dogma of Rational Healing" and in the later treatise"Chronic Ailments and their Homeopathic Cure. " These books created such awidespread sensation that they were at once translated into severallanguages and ran through a great number of editions. As a matter ofcourse, Hahnemann's peculiar theories were violently combated by his fellowpractitioners. 

[Sidenote: Hydropathy]

Almost at the same time with the rise of the new science of homeopathy cameVincenz Priessnitz's innovation of hydropathy or water cure. He establishedhis first sanitarium at Grafenberg, his birthplace, and in the face ofvehement medical opposition soon won government recognition for hissanitarium. Similar water-cure establishments were erected by manyimitators and followers in Germany and elsewhere. 

[Sidenote: Convention of Troppau]

[Sidenote: Intervention in Naples]

Late in the year Emperor Alexander of Russia and Metternich came togetherto settle on the counter strokes to be delivered against the revolutionistsof Spain and southern Italy. When Metternich first heard of the fall ofabsolute government in Naples he was dismayed. Gentz, who saw him at thattime, has left this record: "Prince Metternich went to-day to inform theEmperor of the sad events in Naples. As long as I know him I have neverseen him so upset by any event. " Metternich had reason to feel alarmed. Arevolution in Naples was almost sure to be followed by an Italian uprisingin the Austrian possessions of Venice and an insurrection in the PapalStates. Had Metternich felt free to follow his own devices, he wouldforthwith have marched an Austrian army into southern Italy to put an endto the troubles there. With all his exasperation he did not feel free tocut loose from joint action with the Czar and with the other sovereigns ofEurope. Thus it came that the summer was spent in arranging for anotherconference of the allied monarchs. They met on October 20, at Troppau inMoravia. The Emperors of Austria and Russia and the King of Prussiareceived one another in state. The envoys of England and France were foundto be in accord against armed intervention in southern Italy. The otherpowers determined to proceed on their course without them. Metternich'sdiplomatic dealings with the Czar were greatly hampered by the cleverintrigues of Count Capodistrias, Alexander's foreign minister. For onceMetternich found himself matched by a diplomat even more subtle thanhimself. In the end, he prevailed over Capodistrias sufficiently toovercome Alexander's scruples against harsh measures in Naples. It wasdetermined to invite King Ferdinand to meet the sovereigns at Leibach, inAustria, and to address a summons to the Neapolitans commanding them toabandon their constitution, under threat of immediate invasion. Accordinglya note was issued from Troppau to all the courts of Europe, embodying thedoctrine of federative intervention, as applied to Naples. 

[Sidenote: King Ferdinand's duplicity]

As soon as King Ferdinand received the summons he prepared to leave Naples. The populace became aroused, and angry crowds surrounded the palace. Ferdinand was not allowed to leave Naples until he had once more sworn onhis honor to maintain the constitution borrowed from Spain. The King tookthis oath as readily as he did the other. Then he journeyed northward. Halfway, at Leghorn, he sent letters to each of the five principal sovereignsof Europe declaring his last declaration just as null and void as hisprevious perjuries. His double-dealing was rather too much even for theHoly Alliance. As Gentz, the secretary of the Congress, expressed himselfin private: "The conduct of this wretched sovereign, since the beginning ofhis troubles, has been nothing but a tissue of weaknesses and lies. Happilythey will remain secret. No Cabinet will care to draw them from thegraveyard of its archives. Till then there is not much harm done. "

[Sidenote: Benjamin West]

Benjamin West, the celebrated American-English artist, died at London inhis eighty-second year. At the opening of the Eighteenth Century, West wasin the forefront of the agitation that grew out of his contested successionto Sir Joshua Reynolds as president of the Royal Academy. Wearied withthese quarrels he visited Paris, where he studied the newly pillagedmasterpieces at the Louvre. He resigned from the Royal Academy, but wasalmost unanimously re-elected. It was then that he painted his famous"Christ Healing the Sick. " His later works failed to attain the success ofhis earlier historical paintings. When West died, his reputation haddeclined appreciably, still a public funeral at St. Paul's Cathedral wasaccorded to him, a unique honor for an American. 

1821

[Sidenote: Congress of Leibach]

[Sidenote: Naples under duress]

The Congress of Leibach met in January. It was attended by therepresentatives of Russia, Austria, Prussia, England, France, Sardinia andModena. When King Ferdinand of Naples arrived he was received by theEmperors of Russia and Austria in person. It was predetermined thatabsolute government in Naples should be restored by Austrian arms. The onlyproblem remaining to diplomacy was to put a respectable face on KingFerdinand's dishonor. Capodistrias offered to make up some fictitiouscorrespondence in which Ferdinand was proudly to uphold the constitutionwhich he had sworn to support, and to yield protestingly to the powers onlyafter actual threats of war. The device was rejected as too transparent. Moreover, the old king scarcely cared how his conduct appeared to hissubjects. A letter was sent in his name to his son, the acting-viceroy, stating that the Powers were determined not to tolerate the order of thingssprung from revolution, and that certain securities for peace would have tobe given. The reference to securities meant the occupation of the countryby an Austrian army. The letter reached Naples on February 9. Three daysbefore the Austrian troops had received their orders to cross the Po. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Rieti]

[Sidenote: Revolt of Piedmont]

The invading army of Austria was 50, 000 strong. The Neapolitan soldiersnumbered a little more than 40, 000, of whom 12, 000 were in Sicily engagedat Palermo in suppressing a counter revolution for home rule. At the firstencounter at Rieti in the Papal territory, the Neapolitans under GeneralPepe were utterly routed. Their forces melted away, as they did when Muratmade his last stroke for Italy and Napoleon. Not a single strong point wasdefended. On March 24, the Austrians entered Naples. Then came a moment ofdanger. Rebellion broke out in Piedmont, and an attempt was made to unitethe troops of Piedmont with those of Lombardy. The King of Piedmont ratherthan sign the Spanish Constitution abdicated his throne. On the refusal ofthe King's brother, Charles Felix, to recognize a constitution, his cousinCharles Albert of Carignano was made the regent and commander of thetroops. He advanced so cautiously that the conspirators at Milan dared notfollow suit with a revolution of their own. In the meanwhile the Czar hadordered 100, 000 Russians to march in the direction of the Adriatic. TheAustrian forces advanced westward from the Venetian strongholds, and, brushing aside all resistance, entered Piedmont. 

[Sidenote: End of Italian revolution]

[Sidenote: Silvio Pellico]

The victory of absolutism in Italy was complete. Courts-martial sat allover Italy. Morelli, the officer who had led out the so-called sacred bandof Nola, was shot. His followers were expressly excluded from all amnestyacts. An attempted insurrection in Sicily cost the conspirators theirlives. Hundreds of persons were cast into prison, or were marched off todistant fortresses in Austria. It was at this time that Silvio Pellico, theauthor of the famous "Prison Records, " was sent to the dungeon ofSpielberg. Then began that long stream of fugitives to England and America. 

[Sidenote: Revolt in Brazil]

[Sidenote: Mexican independence]

[Sidenote: San Martin's Campaign]

The Holy Alliance, sitting at Leibach, thought the time was ripe topronounce its anathema against all peoples seeking their libertieselsewhere than in the grace of their legitimate sovereigns. Yet the spiritof revolt was abroad, and its flames continued to flicker up at widelyseparated points. On February 26, the Portuguese troops in Brazil rose inrevolt. The king, still residing at Rio Janeiro, was compelled to appoint anew Ministry pledged to give to both Portugal and Brazil a newrepresentative system. In Mexico, General Iturbide, at the same time, issued a pronunciamiento, containing his so-called "Plan of Iguala, " whichproposed independence for Mexico under a Spanish Bourbon prince. Severalrebel leaders acquiesced in this, and forced the Spanish viceroy to resign. Juan O'Donoju became acting-viceroy. He signed a treaty with Iturbidevirtually accepting the plan. The people of Buenos Ayres profited by themilitary troubles in Brazil to throw in their lot with that of theArgentine Republic. Their popular idol, San Martin, meanwhile was leadinghis victorious troops from Chile into Peru. Lima, one of the greatestSpanish strongholds in South America, was threatened by the revolutionists. 

[Sidenote: War in Annam]

[Sidenote: Taouk-Wang]

At the other end of the earth, the new force of national feeling showeditself in popular uprisings. In distant Annam the death of EmperorGia-Long, followed by a bloody struggle for the succession between hissons, incited the people to a national demonstration against theencroachments of the French in Tonquin. In China the new Emperor Taouk-Wangwas enthroned. He was the first to throw his whole personal influenceagainst the evils of the opium trade inflicted upon China by Englishmerchants since 1800. 

[Sidenote: Philike Hetairia]

[Sidenote: Ypsilanti]

[Sidenote: Vladimiresco]

In Greece and in the Balkans the people rose against the yoke of Turkey. The plan of the Philike Hetairia--_i. E. _ Patriotic Association--was tobegin their revolution on the Danube, so as to induce Russia to take a handin their favor. They believed that Capodistrias, the Prime Minister ofRussia, himself a Greek, would win the Czar to their cause. Unfortunatelyfor them, Metternich's influence proved stronger than that of the GreekMinister. Capodistrias deemed it advisable to publish a pamphlet warninghis countrymen against any rash step. Failing to win the open support ofCapodistrias, the Hetairists turned to Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, a Greekexile serving in the Russian army. Ypsilanti agreed to raise the standardof revolt in Moldavia. It was arranged that Theodore Vladimiresco, aRoumanian who had served in the Russian army, was to call his countrymen toarms against the Turk. Then the Greeks were to step in, and the help ofRussia was to be invoked. 

[Sidenote: Rising of Roumania]

In February, Vladimiresco proclaimed the abolition of feudal servitude inRoumania, and marched with a horde of peasants upon Bucharest. Early inMarch, the Greek troops at Galatz, let loose by their commander, Karavias, massacred the Turkish population of that town. 

Ypsilanti, waiting on the Russian frontier, crossed the Pruth and appearedat Jassee with a few hundred followers. A proclamation was issued, callingupon all Christians to rise against the Crescent. Ypsilanti went so far asto declare that "a great European power, " meaning Russia, was "pledged tosupport him. " The Greek Hospodar of Jassee immediately surrendered thegovernment, and supplied a large sum of money. Troops to the number of2, 000 gathered around Ypsilanti. The road to the Danube lay open. 

[Sidenote: Ypsilanti repudiated]

[Sidenote: Death of Vladimiresco]

[Sidenote: Georgakis]

Ypsilanti wasted valuable time loitering at Jassee. A month was lost beforehe reached Bucharest. He delayed partly on account of his expectations ofRussian help in response to a letter he had written to the Czar. The delayproved fatal to him. The Czar, now wholly under the influence ofMetternich, sent a stern answer from Leibach. Ypsilanti was dismissed fromthe Russian service. The Russian consul at Jassee issued a manifesto thatRussia repudiated and condemned Ypsilanti's enterprise. The Patriarch ofConstantinople was made to issue a ban of excommunication against therebels. In an official note of the Powers, the Congress of Leibach brandedthe Greek revolt as a token of the same spirit which had produced therevolution of Italy and Spain. Turkish troops crossed the Danube. TheRoumanian peasants, seeing no help from Russia, held aloof. Vladimirescoplotted against the Greeks. It was in vain that brave Georgakis capturedthe traitor at his own headquarters and carried him to his death in theGreek camp. Ypsilanti was defeated in his first encounter with the Turks. He retired before them toward the Austrian frontier. In the end he fledacross the border and was promptly made a prisoner in Austria. Hisfollowers dearly sold their lives. At Skuleni, 400 of them under Georgakismade a last stand on the Pruth. They were surrounded by ten times theirnumber. Georgakis refused to surrender. Bidding his followers flee, at themoment when the Turks broke in the doors, he blew himself up in themonastery of Skuleni. 

[Sidenote: Revolt of Morea]

[Sidenote: Gregorios hanged]

At the news of Ypsilanti's uprising in Moldavia the entire Greek populationof the Morea rose against the Turk. From the outset, the Moreotes waged awar of extermination. They massacred all Turks, men, women and children. Within a few weeks the open country was swept clear of its Mohammedanpopulation. The fugitive Turks were invested within the walls ofTripolitza, Patras, and other strong towns. Sultan Mahmud took promptvengeance. A number of innocent Greeks at Constantinople were strangled byhis executioners. The fury of the Moslem was let loose on the Infidel. AllGreek settlements along the Bosphorus were burned. But the crowning strokecame on Easter Sunday, the most sacred day of the Greek Church. ThePatriarch of Constantinople, while he was celebrating service, was summonedaway by the dragoman of the Porte. At the order of the Sultan he was haledbefore a hastily assembled synod and there degraded from his office as atraitor. The synod was commanded to elect his successor. While thetrembling prelates did their bidding, Patriarch Gregorios was led out inhis sacred robes and hanged at the gate of his palace. His body remainedhanging throughout the Easter celebration, and was then given to the Jewsto be dragged through the streets and cast into the Bosphorus. A similarfate befell the Greek archbishops of Salonica, Tirnovo, and Adrianople. Thebody of Gregorios floating in the sea was picked up by a Greek ship andcarried to Odessa. This return to Christian soil of the remains of thePatriarch was hailed as a miracle in Russia. Gregorios was solemnly buriedby the Russian Government as a martyr. 

[Sidenote: Russia aroused]

[Sidenote: The Czar found wanting]

If the will of the Russian people had been carried out, the Russian armyand nation would have avenged the murder of their high-priest by animmediate war upon the Turks. Strogonov, the Russian Ambassador atConstantinople, at once proposed to his diplomatic colleagues to join himin calling for warships to protect the Christians there. Lord Stranford, the British Ambassador, refused to accede to this proposition. Single-handed, Strogonov presented an ultimatum to the Sultan demanding therestoration of Christian churches and the Porte's protection for Christianworship. A written answer was exacted within eight days. Encouraged byEngland's attitude, the Sultan ignored Strogonov's requests. On July 27, the Russian Ambassador left Constantinople. To the amazement of hismoujiks, the Czar did not declare war. The councils of Prince Metternichprevailed. With the help of the representatives of England, Metternichpersuaded the Czar to view the rebellion of Greece as a mere unfortunatedisturbance. Any countenance of it, he argued, would imperil the peace ofEurope. 

[Sidenote: Rising of the Greeks]

[Sidenote: Ali Pasha]

[Sidenote: Moreote campaign]

[Sidenote: Petrobei]

[Sidenote: Kolokotrones]

[Sidenote: Maurokordatos]

[Sidenote: Massacre of Navarino]

[Sidenote: Sack of Tripolitza]

The murder of the Greek Patriarch was followed by risings of the Greeksthroughout continental Greece and the Archipelago. Here, as in the Morea, the cause of Greek freedom was disgraced by massacres, and indignities toTurkish women. The Sultan's troops, led by able commanders, retaliated inkind. Khurshid, with a large Turkish army, besieged Janina. He held firmlyto his task, even after his whole household fell into the hands of theMoreotes. The Greeks in Thessaly failed to rise, and thus the borderprovinces were saved for the Ottoman Empire. The risings in remoterdistricts were soon quelled. In Epirus, Ali Pasha, the Albanian chieftain, was surrounded by overwhelming numbers and lost his life. On the Macedoniancoast the Hetairist revolt, in which the monks of Mount Athos took part, proved abortive. Moreover, the desultory warfare on water carried on by theislanders of Hydra, Spetza, and Psara served only to annoy the Turks. Thereal campaign was waged in the Morea, where Tripolitza, the seat of theTurkish Government, was besieged by the insurgents. Demetrios Ypsilanti, Prince Alexander's brother, landed on the coast and was welcomed as aleader by the peasants in arms. Three other leaders rose to prominence. First, in the eyes of the people, came Petrobei, chief of the family ofMauromichalis. Surrounded by his nine sons, this sturdy chieftain appearedlike one of the old Homeric kings. Second in popular favor wasKolokotrones, a typical modern Clepht, cunning and treacherous, but a bornsoldier. The ablest political leader was Maurokordatos, a man of somebreadth of view and foresight, but over-cautious as a general. The earlyinsurgent successes were marred by bad faith and gross savagery. On thesurrender of Navarino, in August, a formal capitulation was signed, safeguarding the lives of the Turkish inhabitants. In the face of thiscompact the victorious Greeks put men, women and children to the sword. Twomonths later the Turkish garrison of Tripolitza, after sustaining a siegeof six months, began negotiations for surrender. In the midst of the truce, the Greek soldiery got wind of a secret bargain of their leaders to extendprotection for private gain. In defiance of the officers, the peasantsoldiers stormed Tripolitza and scaled the walls. Then followed three daysof indiscriminate looting and carnage. By thousands, the Turks, with theirwomen and children, were slaughtered. Kolokotrones himself records how herode from the gateway to the citadel of Tripolitza, his horse's hoofstouching nothing but human bodies. 

[Sidenote: Philhellenism]

The Greek struggle for independence aroused conflicting emotions in Europe. The passionate sympathy of the Russians rested wholly on their religiousbonds. The more enlightened Philhellenes of France and Germany affected tosee in this struggle a revival of the ancient Greek spirit that blazedforth at Thermopylæ and Marathon. For this same reason, perhaps, Metternichand his colleagues in the Holy Alliance looked upon the Greek revolutionwith an evil eye. Any cause espoused by the hot-headed liberals at theuniversities in those days of itself became obnoxious to the reactionaryrulers of the German and Austrian states. 

[Sidenote: Lord Byron's Greek lyrics]

The sympathy with the Greeks was most pronounced in England. There thestirring lyrics of Lord Byron had reached the height of their popularity. His songs of Greece and Greek freedom were justly regarded as among hisbest. It was but a short time before this that the poet, to use his ownphrase, had awakened one morning to find himself famous. Now his Greeksongs were hailed by the whole world as classics. Notable among them werethe "Isles of Greece, " embodied in the third canto of his "Don Juan" withthe famous stanza:

 The mountains look on Marathon-- And Marathon looks on the sea; And musing there an hour alone I dreamed that Greece might still be free. 

And the equally celebrated lines from "The Bride of Abydos":

 Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime? Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime!

[Sidenote: Death of Keats]

[Sidenote: Byron's satire]

[Sidenote: Keats's work]

In English literary annals this year was marked furthermore by the death ofJohn Keats. He was but twenty-five, still in the first flush of his genius. Keats was buried in Rome, where he died. On his gravestone is the epitaphcomposed by himself: "Here lies one whose name was writ in water. " It wasgenerally assumed in England that the poet's death was caused by hisanguish over the merciless criticisms of "Blackwood's Magazine" and the"Quarterly Review. " Lord Byron was unkind enough to exploit this notion inhis "Don Juan":

 John Keats, who was killed off by one critique, Just as he really promised something great If not intelligible, without Greek Contrived to talk about the gods of late Much as they might have been supposed to speak. Poor fellow! His was an untoward fate; 'Tis strange the mind, that very fiery particle, Should let itself be snuffed out by an article. 

As a matter of fact Keats died of consumption. The ravages of this diseasein his case were accelerated by his feverish passion for poetry, his loveaffair with Fanny Brawne, financial embarrassments, and only to a slightextent by the inevitable disappointment arising from adverse criticisms. What Byron did for modern Greece in England, Keats may be said to have donefor ancient Greece. The beautiful songs of Greece, embodied in "Endymion"and "Hyperion, " no less than the enthusiastic odes and sonnets in praise ofHellenic works of art, opened the eyes of many of the contemporaries ofKeats to the enduring beauties of Greece. It was in his exquisite "Ode toa Grecian Urn, " that Keats expressed his poetical master passion forbeauty:

 Beauty is truth, truth beauty--that is all Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. 

 [Illustration: LORD BYRON Painted by Maurin]

[Sidenote: "Adonais"]

Shortly after Keats's death appeared one of the most beautiful of Shelley'slonger poems--"Adonais, " written as an elegy on the death of Keats:

 I weep for Adonais--he is dead. Oh, weep for Adonais! though our tears Thaw not the frost which binds so dear a head! And thou, sad Hour, selected from all years To mourn our loss, rouse thy obscure compeers, And teach them thine own sorrow! Say. "With me Died Adonais; till the Future dares Forget the Past, his fate and fame shall be An echo and a light unto eternity. "

[Sidenote: Wilhelm Meister]

[Sidenote: Rise of romantic literature]

[Sidenote: Victor Hugo]

Other literary events of the year were the publication of Goethe's "WilhelmMeister's Wander Jahre, " and of Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin's first longpoem, "Ruslan and Ludmilla. " In this epic, written during Pushkin's earlybanishment to Bessarabia, an old Russian theme of the heroic times of Kievwas treated much after the manner of Byron's romantic examples. In Francethe romantic period in literature was inaugurated by young Victor Hugo, who, but the year before, had been crowned as "Maître des jeux floraux" fora prize poem on Henri IV. Now Chateaubriand, in his journal "LeConservateur, " welcomed him as "Un enfant sublime. " By his own romanticfollowers Hugo was hailed as chief of their poetic "Bataillon Sacré. "During the same year the poet, then barely nineteen, married MademoiselleFoucher, a girl of fifteen. 

[Sidenote: Death of Napoleon]

The most important event of the year for Frenchmen was the death ofNapoleon Bonaparte at Longwood, in St. Helena. He died on May 5, aftertaking the holy sacrament. He left a last will with several codicils. In itNapoleon made the following declarations:

[Sidenote: Napoleon's will]

"I die in the Apostolical and Roman religion, in the bosom of which I wasborn more than fifty years ago. It is my wish that my ashes may repose onthe banks of the Seine, in the midst of the French people whom I have lovedso well. I have always had reason to be pleased with my dearest wife, MariaLouisa. I retain for her, to the last moment, the most tender sentiments. Ibeseech her to watch, in order to preserve my son from the snares which yetenviron his infancy. I recommend to my son never to forget that he was borna French prince, and never to allow himself to become an instrument in thehands of the triumvirs who oppress the nations of Europe: he ought never tofight against France, or to injure her in any manner; he ought to adopt mymotto--_Everything for the French people_. I die prematurely, assassinatedby the English oligarchy and its tool. The English nation will not be slowin avenging me. The two unfortunate results of the invasions of France, when she had still so many resources, are to be attributed to the treasonof Marmont, Augereau, Talleyrand, and Lafayette. I forgive them--may theposterity of France forgive them as I do! I pardon Louis for the libel hepublished in 1820; it is replete with false assertions and falsifieddocuments. I disavow the 'Manuscript of St. Helena, ' and other works, underthe title of 'Maxims, Sayings, ' etc. , which persons have been pleased topublish for the last six years. Such are not the rules which have guided mylife. I caused the Duc d'Enghien to be arrested and tried because that stepwas essential to the safety, interest and honor of the French people, whenthe Comte d'Artois was maintaining, by his own confession, sixty assassinsat Paris. Under similar circumstances I should act in the same way. "

[Sidenote: The bequests]

To his son and immediate relatives, Napoleon left most of his personaleffects. Among his relatives and favorite followers he distributed a sum of6, 000, 000 francs, left in the hands of his bankers at the time of hisflight from Paris; likewise the proceeds of a possible sale of hisconfiscated crown jewels. Count Lavalette and the children of Labédoyèrewere remembered with bequests of 100, 000 and 50, 000 francs, respectively. The final clauses were:

"To be distributed among such proscribed persons as wander in foreigncountries, whether they be French, Italians, Belgians, Dutch, Spanish, orinhabitants of the departments of the Rhine, under the directions of myexecutors, one hundred thousand francs. To be distributed among those whosuffered amputation, or were severely wounded at Ligny or Waterloo, who maybe still living, according to lists drawn up by my executors. The Guardsshall be paid double, those of the Island of Elba quadruple, two hundredthousand francs. "

[Sidenote: Cantillon remembered]

A curious bequest was that of 10, 000 francs to Cantillon, a Frenchsubaltern, who was tried and acquitted for the attempted assassination ofthe Duke of Wellington in Paris on February 11, 1818. Napoleon thusexplained this bequest:

[Sidenote: Last fling at Wellington]

"Cantillon had as much right to assassinate that oligarchist as the latterhad to send me to perish upon the rock of St. Helena. Wellington, whoproposed this outrage, attempted to justify it by pleading the interest ofGreat Britain. Cantillon, if he had really assassinated that lord, wouldhave pleaded the same excuse, and been justified by the same motive--theinterest of France--to get rid of this general, who, moreover, by violatingthe capitulation of Paris, had rendered himself responsible for the bloodof the martyrs Ney, Labédoyère, etc. , and for the crime of having pillagedthe museums, contrary to the text of the treaties. "

This last legacy was not paid until 1855, when Napoleon III. Discharged it. 

[Sidenote: Fall of Richelieu's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Villèle Prime Minister]

Late in the year the Ministry of Duc de Richelieu succumbed to themachinations of Comte d'Artois. Before his resignation, Richelieucomplained to the Count, reminding him of his promises of support at thefirst formation of the Cabinet. "The fact is, my dear Duke, " repliedMonsieur, "if you allow me to say so, you have taken my words tooliterally. And then the circumstances at that time were so different. " ThePrime Minister rose abruptly and sought out the King. "Monsieur has brokenhis word of honor, " he said, "he has broken his word as a gentleman. " "Whatwould you have me do?" said Louis XVIII. "He conspired against Louis XVI. ;he conspires against me; he will conspire against himself. " The explosionof a barrel of gunpowder in the royal palace raised apprehensions ofanother painful scene, like that preceding the fall of the Ministry ofDecazes. Richelieu resigned, and Villèle took his place. Chateaubriand wassent to London as Ambassador. While Parliamentary government in Francelabored thus under the onslaughts of the Royalist plotters in the Chambers, the so-called Era of Good Feeling in America was continued under the secondadministration of President Monroe. 

[Sidenote: Inauguration of Monroe]

[Sidenote: Missouri admitted to Statehood]

The 4th of March fell on a Sunday, and Monroe was the first President to beinaugurated on the 5th. Missouri was admitted conditionally, and, on August10, the President proclaimed its admission as the twenty-fourth State amida tempest of political excitement. The contest over the slavery questionwas now supposed to be forever settled. In the debates of 1821, the Housestood firmly against Missouri's admission as a slave State, and the Senatewas equally determined that the colored citizens of other States should bedenied citizenship in Missouri if the people so desired. At last it came toa conference committee. It was decided that the State should be admitted, as soon as its Legislature would agree that the section of the Constitutionin question should not be construed as authorizing a law excluding anycitizens of other States from the immunities and privileges to which theywere entitled under the Constitution. The Legislature of Missouri gave thispledge, but it remained open whether free negroes and mulattoes werecitizens in other States, and whether they were to be made citizens inMissouri. In the admission of Missouri there was for the first time anunmixed issue on the question of a free government or a slave-holdinggovernment in the United States. Doubtful dealings on the part of theSenators from Indiana and Illinois were followed by an attempt to makethese States both slave-holding States, in face of the binding law of theOrdinance of 1787. A popular movement led by Governor Edward Coles ofIllinois defeated this project. 

[Sidenote: Liberia]

[Sidenote: Junius Brutus Booth]

On May 5, the territory of Liberia was secured on the west coast of Africa, and a colony was founded for the repatriation of negro slaves, withMonrovia for a capital. During this same period Junius Brutus Booth madehis first appearance in America, as Richard III. , at Richmond. Late in theyear the remains of André, the British officer who was shot as a spy duringthe American Revolution, were placed on a British ship for interment inWestminster Abbey. 

1822

[Sidenote: Greek independence declared]

[Sidenote: Sack of Chios]

[Sidenote: Kanaris' exploit]

Greek independence was declared on January 27. After the fall of Ali Pashain February, the Sultan was able to turn his undivided attention to theGreek revolt. In March, a body of Samian revolutionists landed in Chios andincited the islanders to rise against the Turk. They laid siege to thecitadel held by a Turkish garrison. Had the fleet of the Hydriotes helpedthem, they might have prevailed. As it was they rendered themselves a preyto the Turkish troops on the mainland. An army of nearly 10, 000 Turkslanded in Chios, and relieved the besieged garrison. Then the fanaticalMoslems were let loose on the gentle inhabitants of the little island. Thousands were put to the sword. The slave markets of Northern Africa wereglutted with Chian women and children. Within a month the once lovelyisland was a ruined waste. All Greece and Europe was filled with horror. Maurokordatos, now at the head of Greek affairs, was bitterly blamed fornot sending over a fleet to save Chios. One single Greek took it into hishands to avenge his countrymen. The Turks were celebrating their sacredmonth of Ramazan. On the night of June 18, the festival of Biram, theTurkish fleet, under command of Kara Ali, was illuminated with coloredlanterns. On that night Constantine Kanaris, a sea-captain from Psara, drove a fire-ship into the midst of the Turkish fleet. Sailing close up tothe admiral's flagship he thrust his bowsprit into one of the portholes. Then setting fire to the pitch and resin on board his ship, he dropped intohis small boat and pulled away. A breeze fanned the flames, and in a momentthe big Turkish man-of-war was afire. The powder magazine blew up and thelifeboats went up in flames. The burning rigging fell down upon the doomedcrew, and the admiral was struck down on his poop-deck. The ship was burnedto the water's edge. The Turkish fleet scattered before the shower ofblazing sparks, and was only brought together under the guns of theDardanelles. This exploit made Kanaris the hero of Greece. Within the sameyear he repeated the feat. 

[Sidenote: Morea reinvaded]

[Sidenote: End of Philhellene corps]

[Sidenote: Defence of Argos]

[Sidenote: Turks demoralized]

The Sultan had thrown his whole land force into the Greek mainland. Khurshid, after his defeat of Ali Pasha, marched to Larissa, in Thessaly. Thence two armies, 50, 000 strong, under Bramali and Homer Brionis convergedupon the Morea. In the face of so formidable an invasion, Maurokordatostook the field himself. He mismanaged things badly. At Arta he sacrificedhis choicest regiment, the famous corps of Philhellenes, composed offoreign officers and commanded by men who had won distinction in Napoleon'scampaigns. They were cut down almost to a man. Maurokordatos fell back toMissolonghi. In the meanwhile Dramalis with 25, 000 foot and 6, 000 horsepenetrated into the Morea. The Greek Government at Argos dispersed. Allwould have been lost for the Greeks had Dramalis not neglected to cover themountain passes behind him. While he marched on to Nauplia, the Greekmountaineers rose behind him. Demetrios Ypsilanti, the acting-president ofGreece, with a few hundred followers threw himself into Argos. There heheld the Acropolis against the Turkish rearguard. Kolokotrones, calling outthe last men from Tripolitza, relieved Ypsilanti at Argos. The mountainpassage was seized. Dramalis had to give up his conquest of the Morea, andfight his way back to the Isthmus of Corinth. Without supplies and harassedby hostile peasant forces the Turkish army became badly demoralized. Thousands were lost on the way. Dramalis himself died from over-exposure. The remainder of his army melted away at Corinth under the combined effectsof sickness and drought. 

[Sidenote: Capodistrias resigns]

A decisive turn in the Greek war for independence was reached. Europerealized that the revolt had grown to the proportions of a national war. Popular sympathy in Russia became more clamorous. Capodistrias, the RussianPrime Minister, rightly measured the force of this long pent-up feeling. Unable to move the Czar, who still floundered in the toils of the HolyAlliance, Capodistrias withdrew from public affairs and retired to Geneva. 

[Sidenote: Suicide of Castlereagh]

[Sidenote: Canning]

[Sidenote: Iturbide Emperor of Mexico]

[Sidenote: Battle of Pichincha]

[Sidenote: San Martin retires]

[Sidenote: Battle of Junin]

[Sidenote: Ayacucho]

[Sidenote: Independence of Brazil]

In England, the suicide of Castlereagh brought Canning once more intoprominence. Robert Peel was made Home Secretary. Canning's long retirementafter the fiasco of his American policy, and his breach with Castlereagh, had served to chasten this statesman. As leader of the opposition, he hadlearned to reckon with the forces of popular feeling. When he returned topower in 1822, he was no longer an ultra-conservative, but a liberal. Henow made no disguise of his sympathies with the cause of Greece, and withthe struggle for independence in South and Central America. There thecourse of freedom had gathered so much momentum that it was plain to allthat Spain could never prevail without help from others. In Mexico, uponthe refusal of Ferdinand VII. To accept the separate crown of Mexico, General Iturbide proclaimed himself emperor. On May 19, he assumed thedignity. As Augustine I. , he was crowned in the Cathedral of Mexico inJuly. At the same time San Martin and Bolivar met at Guayaquil to disposeof the destinies of South America. San Martin had just succeeded inliberating Peru, and had made his triumphal entry into Lima. Bolivar hadbrought aid to Ecuador, and established independence there. José de Sucre, whom Bolivar called the "soul of his army, " defeated the Spaniards in thefamous battle of Pichincha, fought at a height of 10, 200 feet above thesea. When Bolivar and San Martin met on July 25, San Martin announced hisdetermination to give a free field to Bolivar. The two men parted at agreat public love-feast at which San Martin toasted Bolivar as the"liberator of Colombia. " In his farewell address he said: "The presence ofa fortunate general in the country which he has conquered is detrimental tothe state. I have won the independence of Peru, and I now cease to be apublic man. " Speaking privately of Bolivar, he said: "He is the mostextraordinary character of South America; one to whom difficulties but addstrength. " With his daughter Mercedes, San Martin retired to Europe, todwell there in obscurity and poverty. Bolivar, with Generals Sucre, Millerand Cordova, assembled a great liberating army at Juarez. After apreliminary victory at Junin, Bolivar returned to Lima to assume the reignsof government, while his generals pushed on against the forces of theSpanish viceroy. Late in the year a decisive battle was fought at Ayacucho. The revolutionists charged down the mountain ridges upon the Spaniards inthe plain, and utterly routed them. The viceroy himself was wounded, with700 of his men, while 1, 400 Spaniards were killed outright. In thesecasualties the unusual disparity between killed and wounded reveals theunsparing ferocity of the fight. In Brazil a peaceful revolution waseffected in September. After the return of Juan VI. To Portugal his son DomPedro reigned as regent. On September 7, he yielded to the demands of hisAmerican subjects, and proclaimed the independence of Brazil. He wasdeclared constitutional emperor of Brazil on October 12, and was crowned assuch shortly afterward at Rio Janeiro. 

[Sidenote: Discontent in Spain]

[Sidenote: Foreign aid invoked]

The South American colonies had now in great part secured independence. Spain was thereby robbed of her best resources. As financial distressbecame more widespread, the spirit of discontent rose. The King's plottingswith the extreme Royalists of France lost him the confidence of hissubjects. In the south the triumphant party of the so-called Exaltadosrefused obedience to the central administration. The municipal governmentsof Cadiz, Cartagena and Seville took the tone of independent republics. Inthe north, the Serviles, instigated by French agitators and their money, broke into open rebellion. After the adjournment of the Cortes, Ferdinandattempted to make a stroke for himself. The Royal Guards were ordered tomarch from Aranjuez to Madrid to place themselves under the King's personalcommand. The people took alarm, and several regiments of disaffectedsoldiers were induced to head off the guards. A fight ensued in the streetsof Madrid. The guards were scattered. The King found himself a prisoner inhis own palace. He wrote to Louis XVIII. That his crown was in peril. TheBourbon sympathizers in the north at once seized the town of Seo d'Urgel, and set up a provisional government. Civil war spread over Spain. Napoleon's final prophecy that Bourbon rule would end in the ruin of Spain, and the loss of all the best colonies was near fulfilment. It was then thatthe Continental powers of Europe proposed to interfere on behalf of theSpanish monarchy. The death of old Minister Hardenberg in Berlin did notloosen Metternich's hold on Prussia. Emperor Alexander hoped to conciliatehis army, burning to fall upon the Turk, by treating them to a lightcampaign in Spain. In France, the Spanish war party likewise had the upperhand. 

[Sidenote: Monroe Doctrine]

Nothing could save Spain; but Spanish South and Central America presentedanother issue. The new republics had developed a thriving trade with GreatBritain and the United States of America, which made it impossible forthese countries to ignore their flags. In America, Henry Clay on the floorof Congress, had already urged the recognition of South Americanindependence. In his annual message to Congress in 1822 President Monroetook up the question. On behalf of the United States he declared that, theAmerican continents were henceforth not to be considered a subject forfurther colonization by any European power. "In the war between Spain andher colonies, " said President Monroe, "the United States will continue toobserve the strictest neutrality. . . . With the existing colonies ordependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall notinterfere. But with the governments who have declared their independenceand maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great considerationsand on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interpositionfor the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other mannertheir destiny by any European power, in any other light than as themanifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States. "

[Sidenote: Jefferson's indorsement]

[Sidenote: Canning's part]

[Sidenote: Fyffe's comment]

It was the famous Monroe Doctrine, a doctrine that in its substance, if notin words, had already served as the guiding star of Thomas Jefferson's andMadison's foreign policy. It is related that President Monroe, applying toThomas Jefferson for his opinion on the matter, was surprised at thepositive nature of the reply which he received. "Our first and fundamentalmaxim, " said Jefferson, "should be never to entangle ourselves in thebroils of Europe; our second, never to suffer Europe to intermeddle withcis-Atlantic affairs. " At the same time that America thus flung down hergauntlet to Europe, Canning, on behalf of the British Ministry, proposed toinform the allied Cabinets of England's intention to accredit envoys to theSouth American republics. Assured of the support of the United States, andof Great Britain as well, South America could feel free to work out her owndestiny. This was the master-stroke of Canning's career. When brought tobay afterward in Parliament, he could proudly boast: "I called the NewWorld into being, in order to redress the balance of the Old. " To AmericansCanning's boast has ever seemed to rest on a flimsy foundation. As Fyffe, the English historian of modern Europe, has justly said, "The boast, famousin our Parliamentary history, has left an erroneous impression of the partreally played by Canning at this crisis. He did not call the New World intoexistence; he did not even assist it in winning independence, as France hadassisted the United States fifty years before; but when this independencehad been won, he threw over it the ægis of Great Britain, declaring that noother European power should reimpose the yoke which Spain had not been ableto maintain. "

[Sidenote: Death of Shelley]

At the time that Canning made British liberalism respected abroad, literaryEngland suffered another irreparable loss by the death of Percy ByssheShelley. The last few weeks had been spent by Shelley in Italy in thecompany of Trelawney, Williams and Lord Byron. Before this Maurokordatos, now battling in Greece, had been their constant companion. In June LeighHunt arrived. Shelley and Williams set out in a boat to meet him atLeghorn. The long parted friends met there. On July 8, Shelley and Williamsset sail for the return voyage to Lerici. Their boat was last seen tenmiles out at sea off Reggio. Then the haze of a summer storm hid it fromview. Ten days later Shelley's body was washed ashore near Reggio. It wasidentified by a volume of Sophocles and of Keats's poems found on hisperson. In the presence of Byron, Trelawney and Leigh Hunt, Shelley'sremains were cremated on the shore. His ashes were buried in the sameburial ground with Keats, hard by the pyramid of Caius Cestius in Rome. 

[Sidenote: Lyric quality of his work]

[Sidenote: Shelley's career]

[Sidenote: Shelley's threnody]

Shelley's poetry belongs primarily to the Revolutionary epoch in modernhistory. Though he wrote several long narrative poems and one greattragedy, he was above all a lyric poet--according to some the greatestlyric poet of England. His life, like his poetry, was almost untrammelledby convention. Both gave great offence to the stricter elements of Englishsociety. In some respects Shelley was peculiarly unfortunate. At the age ofeighteen, after his expulsion from Oxford University, he married HarrietWestbrook, a girl of sixteen, and then found himself unable to supporther. Later he abandoned her and eloped with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin. Within a year his first wife committed suicide, and, three weeks later, Shelley married Mary Godwin. The tragedy stirred up much feeling among hisfriends. Among others the poet-laureate, Southey, remonstrated withShelley. Shelley replied: "I take God to witness, if such a Being is nowregarding both you and me, and I pledge myself, if we meet, as perhaps youexpect, before Him after death, to repeat the same in His presence--thatyou accuse me wrongfully. I am innocent of ill, either done or intended. "Next came Shelley's trouble with the Chancery. Lord-Chancellor Eldenrefused to give to Shelley the custody of his own children on the groundthat Shelley's professed opinions and conduct were such as the lawpronounced immoral. Shelley replied with his famous poetical curse "To theLord Chancellor. " While the poem stands as a masterpiece of lyric invectiveit did not mend matters for Shelley in England. In many of his other poemshis detractors saw nothing but the glorification of revolution, incest, andatheism. When he wrote a satirical drama on so delicate a subject as theunhappy affairs of Queen Caroline, even his publisher turned against him. Yet the charm and beauty of Shelley's purely lyric pieces was such that hemust ever stand as one of the foremost poets of England. Either his"Adonais" or the beautiful "Ode to the West Wind, " would alone haveperpetuated his name in English letters. One of Shelley's most exquisitepieces, written shortly before his death, has come to stand as the poet'sown threnody:

 "When the lamp is shattered The light in the dust lies dead-- When the cloud is scattered The rainbow's glory is shed. When the lute is broken, Sweet tones are remembered not; When the lips have spoken, Loved accents are soon forgot. 

 As music and splendor Survive not the lamp and the lute, The heart's echoes render No song when the spirit is mute, No song but sad dirges, Like the wind through a ruined cell, Or the mournful surges That ring the dead seaman's knell. "

[Sidenote: Revival of letters]

[Sidenote: Golden age of music]

During this same year Thomas de Quincey published his "Confessions of anOpium Eater, " a masterpiece of balanced prose. In other parts of the world, likewise, it was a golden period for literature. In France, Victor Hugopublished his "Odes et Poésies Diverses, " a collection of early poems whichcontained some of his most charming pieces. The rising Swedish poet, Tegnér, brought out his "Children of the Last Supper. " In Germany, HeinrichHeine, then still a student at Bonn, issued his earliest verses. ForGermany this was no less a golden age of music. Beethoven, though quitedeaf, was still the greatest of living composers. His great ChoralSymphony, the ninth in D minor, was produced during this year, as was hisSolemn Mass in D major. As a virtuoso he was rivalled by Hummel, who atthis time gave to the world his famous Septet, accepted by himself as hismasterwork. Two other German composers so distinguished themselves thatthey were invited to London to conduct the Philharmonic accompaniments. They were Carl Maria von Weber, who had just brought out his brilliantopera, "Der Freischütz, " and Ludwig Spohr, who performed in London his newSymphony in D minor. Of other composers there were Franz Schubert, whosemelodious songs and symphonies won him the recognition of the Esterhazysand of Beethoven. Among those whose career was but beginning were JacobMeyerbeer, a fellow pupil with Weber under Abbé Vogler at Vienna, and FelixMendelssohn, the precocious pupil of the famous pianist Moscheles. 

[Sidenote: Death of Herschel]

Sir Frederick William Herschel, the greatest modern astronomer, died atSlough in England. Herschel was born in 1738 at Hanover. He was a musicianof rare skill and a self-taught mathematician of great ability. In 1757, hedeserted the band of Hanoverian Guards in which he played the oboe, although a mere boy, and fled to England, where he taught music andachieved success as a violinist and organist. His studies in sound andharmony led him to take up optics; and from optics to astronomy the stepwas short. Dissatisfied with the crude instruments of his time, he made hisown telescopes; for it was his ambition to be not a mere star-gazer, but anearnest student of the heavens. By day, he and his brother and sisterground specula; by night he observed the heavens. His astronomical workincludes a careful study of variable stars; an attempt to explain therelation of sun-spots to terrestrial phenomenæ; the determination that theperiods of rotation of various satellites, like the rotation of our ownmoon, are equal to the times of their revolutions about their primaries;and the discovery of the planet Uranus and two of its satellites, and ofthe sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn. His greatest work was his studyof binary stars and the demonstration of his belief that the law ofgravitation is universal in its application. His labors were invariablysystematic, and were characterized by dogged, Teutonic perseverance. Hisdiscoveries were never purely accidental, but were made in accordance witha well-conceived plan. 

[Sidenote: Death of Canova]

Late in the autumn news came from Venice that Canova, the celebratedsculptor, had died. Antonio Canova was born in 1757 at Passaguo nearTreviso. He was first an apprentice to a statuary in Bassano, from whom hewent to the Academy of Venice, where he had a brilliant career. In 1779 hewas sent by the Senate of Venice to Rome, and there produced his Theseusand the Slain Minotaur. In 1783, Canova undertook the execution of the tombof Pope Clement XIV. , a work similar to the tomb of Pope Clement XIII. Hisfame rapidly increased. He established a school for the benefit of youngVenetians, and among other works produced the well-known Hebe and thecolossal Hercules hurling Lichas into the sea. In 1797, Canova finished themodel of the celebrated tomb of the Archduchess Christina of Austria. Napoleon called the rising sculptor to France, and he there executed thefamous nude portrait of Napoleon now preserved in Milan. After his returnto Italy he fashioned his Perseus with the Head of Medusa at Rome. When theBelvidere Apollo was carried off to France, this piece of statuary wasthought not unworthy of the classic Apollo's place and pedestal in theVatican. Among the later works of Canova are the colossal group of TheseusKilling the Minotaur, a Paris, and a Hector. After Napoleon's second fallin 1815, Canova was commissioned by the Pope to demand the restoration ofthe works of art carried from Rome. He went to Paris and succeeded in hismission. At his return to Rome in 1816, the Pope created him Marquis ofOrchia, with a pension of 3, 000 scudi, and his name was entered into theGolden Book at the Capitol. His closing years were spent in Venice. Therehe died October 13, 1822. 

[Sidenote: Congress of Verona]

[Sidenote: England slighted]

Upon Canning's accession to the Ministry in England, Wellington wasappointed representative of Great Britain at the Congress of Powersconvened at Vienna. The unsettled state of public opinion kept Wellingtonin England and later at Paris. He did not join the Congress until after itsadjournment to Verona, to dispose of purely Italian affairs. Thus ithappened that the supplementary meetings at Verona became the real EuropeanCongress of 1822. With the Neapolitan problem practically settled, and theGreek war with Turkey at a standstill, the situation in Spain was the mostvital issue. The Czar of Russia and Metternich were determined not totolerate the Constitution of the Spanish liberals. Alexander hoped to makegood Russia's non-intervention in Greece by marching a victorious army intoSpain. The extreme Royalists of France, on the other hand, were so bent onaccomplishing this task themselves that they were resolved not to permitany Russian troops to pass through France. With the spectre of a generalEuropean war thus looming on the horizon, England endeavored to hold thebalance for peace. Acting under the instructions of Canning, Wellingtondeclared that England would rather set herself against the great alliancethan consent to joint intervention in Spain. In his despatches to Canning, Wellington expressed his belief that this would result in a decision toleave the Spaniards to themselves. The only result was that England wasleft out of the affair altogether, as she had been in the case of Naples. It was partly owing to this international slight that Canning put his footdown so firmly in behalf of Portugal and the South American colonies. 

[Sidenote: French attitude toward Spain]

At the Congress of Verona, Metternich once more won the day. With thisbacking, the French envoys, Montmorency and Chateaubriand, in defiance oftheir home instructions, committed France to war with Spain. An agreementwas reached that, in default of radical changes in the SpanishConstitution, France and her allies would resort to intervention. On thepart of England, Wellington rejected this proposal, but all the otherpowers consented. When the French Ambassadors returned to France, theirPrime Minister, Villèle, vented his dissatisfaction by repudiating hisenvoys. He addressed himself to the foreign Ambassadors at Paris with arequest that the allies' demands on Spain be postponed. Montmorency at onceresigned. No notice was taken of Villèle's request except by England. TheKing himself went over to the war party and appointed Chateaubriand hisMinister of Foreign Affairs. Great Britain's tentative offer of mediationwas summarily rejected by France. To Villèle, King Louis XVIII. Thusexplained his attitude: "Louis XIV. Destroyed the Pyrenees; I shall notallow them to be raised again. He placed my house on the throne of Spain; Ishall not allow it to fall. "

1823

[Sidenote: French invasion of Spain]

The Spanish Government was resolved to maintain the national independenceof Spain. It would make no concession. The French Ambassador in Madrid wasrecalled. At the opening of the French Chambers in January, the Kinghimself announced his decision: "I have ordered the recall of my Minister. One hundred thousand Frenchmen, commanded by a prince of my family, whom Ifondly call my son, are ready to march with a prayer to the God of St. Louis that they may preserve the throne of Spain to the grandson of HenriIV. They shall save that fair kingdom from ruin and reconcile it toEurope. " By the middle of March, the Duke of Angoulême and his staff leftParis. On April 7, the French vanguard crossed the Bidassoa, and the Dukeentered Irun, welcomed by Spanish royalists. About the same time the Cortesand Constitutional Ministry left Madrid, and compelled King Ferdinand VII. To accompany them to Seville. The forces of the Spanish Government fellback without striking a blow. Bands of freebooters calling themselvesroyalists went pillaging throughout the northern provinces. The commandantof Madrid felt constrained to beg the French to hasten their advance lestthe city fall a prey to the freebooters. Already the looting of the suburbshad begun, when the French entered the Spanish capital on the 24th of May. A regency was appointed under the Duke of Infantado. The Continental powerssent accredited representatives to Madrid. Meanwhile the Cortes withdrew toCadiz. King Ferdinand refused to accompany them; so they suspended hispowers and appointed a regency over his head. The French prepared to laysiege to Cadiz. 

[Sidenote: Revolution in Portugal]

[Sidenote: Independence of Central America]

[Sidenote: The South American struggle]

Civil war broke out in Spain. Across the border in Portugal, Dom Miguel, the second son of the absent king, excited a counter revolution. This stateof affairs in the Peninsula gave a finishing stroke to the royal cause inAmerica. In Central America, the revolutionists of Costa Rica andGuatemala, who had made common cause with Mexico, proclaimed theirindependence. In Mexico, Santa Anna proclaimed the republic at Vera Cruz. Emperor Iturbide, who felt his throne tottering beneath him, retired, andwas banished from Mexico with an annuity. His sympathizers in Costa Ricawere overthrown in a battle at Ochomoco. On the first day of July, CostaRica was united with its neighboring States in the federation of CentralAmerica. Nor had Peru been idle. Two royalist armies under Santa Cruz hadentered the upper provinces. During the summer months they overran thecountry between La Paz and Oruro. But in early autumn they were forced backby the revolutionists under Bolivar, who entered Lima on September 1, andhad himself proclaimed dictator of Peru. In Brazil, during this interval, the Constitutional Assembly had been convoked in accordance with DomPedro's promise. Under the leadership of the two Andrade brothers thedelegates insisted on the most liberal of constitutions. Dom Pedro's firstattempt to suppress the liberal leaders was foiled by the Assembly. Finallyhe dissolved the contentious assembly and exiled the Andrade brothers toFrance. In the provinces of Pernambuco and Ceara a republic was proclaimed. Rebellion broke out in Cisplatina. 

[Sidenote: Warring factions in Spain]

[Sidenote: Siege of Cadiz]

In Spain, the two opposing regencies vied with each other in retaliatorymeasures. Odious persecutions were instituted on both sides. In vain theDuke of Angoulême tried to restrain the reprisals of the Spanish royalists. In August he appeared before Cadiz. He called upon King Ferdinand topublish an amnesty and restore the medieval Cortes. But the SpanishMinistry, in the King's name, sent a defiant answer. Cadiz was thereuponbesieged. On August 30, the French stormed the fort of the Trocadero. Threeweeks later the city was bombarded. For the Spanish liberals, the cause hadbecome hopeless. The French refused all terms but the absolute liberationof the King. On Ferdinand's assurance that he bore no grudge against hiscaptors, the liberals agreed to release him. At last, on the 30th ofSeptember, Ferdinand signed a proclamation of absolute and universalamnesty. Next day he was taken across the bay to the French headquarters. The Cortes dissolved. 

[Sidenote: Release of Ferdinand VII. ]

The Duke of Angoulême received King Ferdinand with misgivings. Already hehad written to France: "What most worries the liberals is the question ofguarantees. They know that the King's word is utterly worthless, and thatin spite of his promises he may very well hang every one of them. "Angoulême's first interview confirmed his impression. In reply to hisdemand for a general pardon, Ferdinand pointed to the ragged mob shoutingin front of his windows, and said: "You hear the will of the people. "Angoulême wrote to Villèle: "This country is about to fall back intoabsolutism. I have conscientiously done my part, and shall only express mysettled conviction that every foolish act that can be done will be done. "

[Sidenote: Royalist reprisals]

[Sidenote: Riego executed]

Within twelve hours Ferdinand annulled all acts of the ConstitutionalGovernment during the preceding three years. By approving an act of theregency of Madrid, which declared all those who had taken part in theremoval of the King to be traitors, Ferdinand practically signed the deathwarrant of those men whom he had just left with fair promises on his lips. Even before reaching Madrid, Ferdinand VII. Banished for life from Madridand from the country fifty miles around it every person who had served thegovernment in Spain during the last three years. Don Saez, the King'sconfessor, was made Secretary of State. He revived the Inquisition, andordered the prosecution of all those concerned in the pernicious andheretical doctrines associated with the late outbreak. Ferdinand justifiedhis acts with a royal pronunciamiento containing this characteristicpassage: "My soul is confounded with the horrible spectacle of thesacrilegious crimes which impiety has dared to commit against the SupremeMaker of the universe. . . . My soul shudders and will not be able to returnto tranquillity, until, in union with my children, my faithful subjects, Ioffer to God holocausts of piety. " Thousands of persons were imprisoned, orforced to flee the country. On November 7, Riego was hanged. Young men wereshot for being Freemasons. Women were sent to the galleys for owningpictures of Riego. 

The Duke of Angoulême was indignant and would have nothing more to do withthe King. In a parting letter of remonstrance he wrote: "I asked yourMajesty to give an amnesty, and grant to your people some assurance for thefuture. You have done neither the one nor the other. Since your Majesty hasrecovered your authority, nothing has been heard of on your part butarrests and arbitrary edicts. Anxiety, fear, and discontent begin to spreadeverywhere. " Angoulême returned to France thoroughly disenchanted with thecause for which he had drawn his sword. 

[Sidenote: The French elections]

In France, as in England, the return of absolute rule in Spain was viewedwith extreme disfavor by the Liberals. The success of the French arms, tobe sure, gave the government an overwhelming majority at the elections. Thevoice of the Liberals was heard, however, in the first debate over theSpanish war. Manuel, a Liberal deputy, denounced foreign intervention inSpain. He said: "Can any one be ignorant that the misfortunes of theStuarts in England were caused by nothing so much as the assistance grantedthem by France--an assistance foreign to the Parliament and to the people. The Stuarts would have avoided the fate that overtook them had they soughttheir support within the nation. " For this alleged defence of regicideManuel was excluded from the Chambers. On his refusal to give up hisconstitutional rights, he was forcibly ejected by the National Guards. "Itis an insult to the National Guard, " exclaimed the venerable Lafayette. Inspite of the momentary triumph of the Royalists, Guizot's final verdict onFrench intervention in Spain expresses the true attitude of France:

[Sidenote: Guizot's verdict]

"The war was not popular in France; in fact, it was unjust, becauseunnecessary. The Spanish revolution, in spite of its excesses, exposedFrance and the Restoration to no serious risk; and the intervention was anattack upon the principle of the legitimate independence of States. Itreally produced neither to Spain nor France any good result. It restoredSpain to the incurable and incapable despotism of Ferdinand VII. , withoutputting a stop to the revolutions; it substituted the ferocities of theabsolutist populace for that of the anarchical populace. Instead ofconfirming the influence of France beyond the Pyrenees, it threw the Kingof Spain into the arms of the absolutist powers, and delivered up theSpanish Liberals to the protection of England. "

During this year in France occurred the deaths of Dumouriez, the famousgeneral of the Revolution, and of Marshal Davoust, the hero of Eckmühl, Auerstädt, and a score of other victories won during the Napoleoniccampaigns. At Rome, Pope Pius VII. , the one time prisoner of Napoleon, diedin old age, and was succeeded by Pope Leo XII. 

[Sidenote: Death of Jenner]

[Sidenote: Vaccination]

Dr. Edward J. Jenner, the great English surgeon and originator ofvaccination, died in the same year at London. Jenner was led to his greatdiscovery by the remark of an old peasant woman: "I can't catch smallpox, for I have had cowpox. " In 1796, Jenner performed the first vaccination ona boy patient, James Phipps, whom he subsequently endowed with a house andgrounds. The scientific results of this experiment and those that followedwere embodied by Jenner in his "Inquiry into the causes and effects of thevariolæ vaccinæ, " published on the eve of the Nineteenth Century. Unlike somany other medical innovations, Jenner's epoch-making cure for the dreaddisease of smallpox won him almost instant general renown. Parliament, in1802, voted him a national reward of £10, 000, and a few years later addedanother gift of £20, 000. After his death a public monument was erected toJenner's memory on Trafalgar Square. 

[Sidenote: Amherst Governor in India]

In India, Lord Hastings retired from the governorship at Calcutta and wassucceeded by Lord Amherst. At the time of his accession to office, Dutchinfluence had already become paramount in Borneo, whereas the British werefirmly settled in Singapore. 

[Sidenote: American letters]

In North America it was a year of industrial progress. On October 8, thefirst boat passed through the new Erie Canal from Rochester to New York. InBrooklyn the first three-story brick houses were built and the paving ofstreets was begun. The new system of numbering houses came in vogue. Theearliest steam printing press was set up in New York and issued its firstbook. The manufacture of pins was begun, and wine in marketable quantitieswas first made in Cincinnati. American letters saw the appearance ofCooper's novels, "The Pioneers" and the "Pilot. " Halleck published hisfamous poem, "Marco Bozarris. " During this year an American squadron underCommodore Porter put an end to piracy and freebooting in the West Indies. On the first day of December the Eighteenth Congress met and Henry Clay wasonce more elected Speaker of the House. 

1824

[Sidenote: American high tariff]

[Sidenote: Southern ascendency waning]

In January, a protective tariff bill was introduced in the AmericanCongress. It was opposed by the South and by New England. On May 22, Congress, by a majority of five in the House and four in the Senate, passedClay's measure. The average rate of tariff was thirty-seven per cent. Before the passage of the bill England had been importing goods morecheaply than Americans could manufacture them. American manufacturers couldnow sell their goods at a profit. Even then there were believers in freetrade, who held that the country would naturally produce that which wasprohibited, and that the productions which were brought into existence bytaxation put a portion of the people into unprofitable employment, advantageous only to the manufacturers. But the Middle and Western States, with the aid of the representatives from the manufacturing districts of NewEngland, were strong enough to give the tariff a small majority. From 1824the imposition of protective duties has been the bone of contention of thetwo great political parties in America. The economical struggle betweenprotection and free trade has since gone on with varying features. Political leadership in the United States was passing from the South to theNorth. New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio were fast pushing to the front. Buffalo had 20, 000 population; and other interior towns were growingrapidly. Millions of acres of valuable lands were put under cultivation inthe central and western counties of New York and Pennsylvania and in Ohio;manufacturing industries multiplied. From a sparsely inhabited country in1800, Ohio had grown, in 1824, to be the fifth State in population. 

[Sidenote: American letters]

American letters were enriched in this year by Irving's "Tales of aTraveller, " Paulding's "John Bull, " Bancroft's "Politics in AncientGreece, " and Verplanck's "Revealed Religion. "

[Sidenote: South American republics recognized]

During the first session of Congress a special message from PresidentMonroe recommended the establishment of intercourse with the newindependent States of South America--Venezuela, New Granada, Buenos Ayres, Chile and Peru. Congress voted for recognition by an overwhelming majority, and the President signed the bill. The United States was the first amongthe civilized powers to welcome the new republics. 

The struggle for independence in South America was furthered more than everby the unsatisfactory state of affairs on the Peninsula. In Spain thereturn of absolute rule was still followed by a reign of terror. The peoplethere relapsed into medieval barbarism. 

[Sidenote: Portuguese Constitution triumphant]

[Sidenote: Growth of republican sentiment]

[Sidenote: Iturbide shot]

[Sidenote: Santa Anna in power]

In Portugal, the revolution stirred up by Dom Miguel ended with theexpulsion of that prince from Lisbon. His father, Dom Pedro, in Brazil, thought it wise to recognize the liberal constitution imposed upon him byhis people. In the other Latin-American countries the people rebelledagainst one-man rule. In Chile, General O'Higgins was forced to resign hisdictatorship and a provisional Triumvirate assumed the government. At Lima, Bolivar found his powers curtailed. Mariano Prado was elected president. The feeling against imperialism was so strong in Central America that allthe smaller States joined in confederation to ward off this dangerthreatening them from Mexico. The Junta of San Salvador went so far as topass a resolution favoring annexation by the United States of North Americain case the Mexican imperialists crossed its borders. Eventually SanSalvador, together with Nicaragua and Costa Rica, joined the CentralAmerican Union. The first Congress in Costa Rica elected Juan Morapresident. In Mexico, in the meantime, a strong provisional government wasestablished by Santa Anna. Ex-Emperor Iturbide, who in defiance of hisexile returned to Mexico, was arrested as he landed at Sota la Marina inJuly. He was taken to the capital, tried, condemned, and shot. As he faceddeath he said: "Mexicans, I die because I came to help you. I die gladly, because I die among you. I die not as a traitor, but with honor. " WithIturbide out of the way, Santa Anna established a government strong enoughto accomplish the annexation of California. Henceforth there was no dangerof a return to Spanish rule. In England, Canning followed Monroe with anabsolute recognition of the independent governments in America. 

[Sidenote: Death of Byron]

[Sidenote: Rhegas' hymn]

By this time public opinion in England had been aroused in behalf of theGreeks still struggling for their independence from the yoke of Turkey. Apowerful impetus was given to this feeling by the tragic death of LordByron in Greece. A few months before the poet had sailed from Genoa forGreece to take active part in the war for freedom. He died of fever atMissolonghi on April 19, at the age of thirty-six. One of his last poemswas a spirited translation of Rhegas' famous Greek national hymn:

 Sons of the Greeks, arise! The glorious hour shines forth, And, worthy of such ties, Display who gave us worth!

 Sons of Greeks! let us go In arms against the foe, Till their hated blood shall flow In a river past our feet. 

 Then manfully despise The Turkish tyrant's yoke, Let your country see you rise, Till all her chains are broke. 

 Brave shades of chiefs and sages, Behold the coming strife! Greeks of past ages, Oh, start again to life!

 At the sound of my trumpet, Break your sleep, join with me! And the seven-hill'd city seek, Fight, and win, till we are free!

[Sidenote: Goethe on Byron]

[Sidenote: Mazzini's verdict]

[Sidenote: Shelley's estimate]

[Sidenote: Symonds' judgment]

[Sidenote: Byron's best works]

Byron's death served the Greek cause better perhaps than all he could haveachieved had his life been prolonged. It caused a greater stir throughoutContinental Europe than it did in England. In truth Byron's poetry wasmore appreciated by the world at large than by his countrymen--a literaryanomaly that has prevailed even to the end of the Nineteenth Century. Goethe said of Byron after his death: "The English may think of Byron asthey please; but this is certain, that they can show no poet who is to becompared with him. He is different from all the others, and for the mostpart greater. " Mazzini, many years later, concluded his famous essay onByron and Goethe with this vindication of the English poet's claim: "Theday will come when Democracy will remember all that it owes to Byron. England too, will, I hope, one day remember the mission--so entirelyEnglish, yet hitherto overlooked by her--which Byron fulfilled on theContinent; the European cast given by him to English literature, and theappreciation and sympathy for England which he awakened among us. " Shelley, who knew Byron intimately, has given perhaps the best expression to theEnglish view of him. He said of him in 1822: "The coarse music which heproduced touched a chord to which a million hearts responded. . . . Spacewondered less at the swift and fair creations of God when he grew weary ofvacancy, than I at this spirit of an angel in the mortal paradise of adecaying body. " To most Englishmen of his day, Byron, like Shelley, appeared as a monster of impious wickedness. Unlike Shelley, he attainedthereby the vogue of the forbidden. His earliest poems achieved what theFrench call a _succès de scandal_. His satire, "English Bards and ScotchReviewers, " brought to the youthful poet a notoriety amounting to fame. After the publication of the first two cantos of "Childe Harold, " in 1812, according to his own phrase, he awoke to find himself famous, and became aspoiled child of society. Trelawney has recorded that Byron was what Londonin the days of the Prince Regent made him. One of Byron's ablest critics, Symonds, has put this even more strongly: "His judgment of the world wasprematurely warped, while his naturally earnest feelings were overlaid withaffectations and prejudices which he never succeeded in shaking off. . . . Itwas his misfortune to be well born, but ill bred, combining the pride of apeer with the self-consciousness of a parvenu. " Byron's life in Londonbetween 1812 and 1816 certainly increased his tendency to cynicism, as didhis divorce from his wife. While these experiences distorted his personalcharacter, they supplied him, however, with much of the irony wrought intohis masterpiece, "Don Juan. " His poetic genius derived its strongeststimulus from his imbittered domestic life and from his travels in Spain, Italy and Greece. This twofold character of the poet it is that is revealedin his best poems, "Childe Harold" and "Don Juan. " He used both works asreceptacles for the most incongruous ideas. "If things are farcical, " heonce said to Trelawney, "they will do for 'Don Juan'; if heroical, youshall have another canto of 'Childe Harold. '" This means of disposing ofhis poetic ideas accounts for the great volume of Byron's verse as well asfor its inequality. That "Don Juan" was never finished cannot therefore beregretted. 

[Sidenote: His last verses]

Byron's last verses were lines written on January 22, 1824, at Missolonghi. To one of his English military associates in the expedition of Lepanto heremarked: "You were complaining that I never write any poetry now. This ismy birthday, and I have just finished something which, I think, is betterthan what I usually write. " They were the famous lines, "On this Day Icomplete my Thirty-sixth Year":

 'Tis time the heart should be unmoved, Since others it hath ceased to move; Yet, though I cannot be beloved, Still let me love!

 My days are in the yellow leaf; The flowers and fruits of love are gone; The worm, the canker, and the grief Are mine alone!

 * * * * *

 Awake! (not Greece--she is awake!) Awake my spirit! Think through whom Thy life-blood tracks its parent lake, And then strike home!

 If thou regret'st thy youth, why live? The land of honorable death Is here--Up, to the field, and give Away thy breath!

 Seek out--less often sought than found-- A soldier's grave, for thee the best! Then look around, and choose thy ground, And take thy rest!

[Sidenote: Russian suzerainty rejected by Greeks]

[Sidenote: Ibrahim invades Greece]

[Sidenote: Sack of Psara]

When Byron died, Missolonghi had been delivered from its first siege. Greece was plunged in civil war. Kolokotrones, who set himself up againstthe government of Konduriottes and Kolletes, was overthrown and lodged ina prison on the island of Hydra. An offer of Russian intervention at theprice of Russian suzerainty was rejected by the Greeks. Encouraged by this, the Sultan appealed to his vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt, to help himexterminate the Greeks. The island of Crete was held out to Mehemet Ali asa prize. The ambitious ruler of Egypt responded with enthusiasm. He raisedan army of 90, 000 men and a fleet, and sent them forth under the command ofhis adopted son Ibrahim. Early in the spring the Egyptian expedition landedin Crete and all but exterminated its Greek population. The island ofKossos was next captured; and its inhabitants were butchered. In July, theTurkish fleet took advantage of the Greek Government's weakness to make adescent upon Psara, one of the choicest islands of Greece. In spite ofdesperate resistance, the citadel of Psara was stormed, and the Psarioteswere put to the sword. Thousands were slain, while the women and childrenwere carried off as slaves. How little the miseries of the Greeks affectedthe rulers of Europe may be gathered from this bright side light onMetternich given by his secretary Gentz:

[Sidenote: Metternich's comment]

[Sidenote: Defeat of Turkish fleet]

"Prince Metternich was taking an excursion, in which unfortunately I couldnot accompany him. I at once sent a letter after him from Ischl with theimportant news of the Psariote defeat. . . . The prince soon came back to me;and (pianissimo, in order that friends of Greece might not hear it) wecongratulated one another on the event, which may very well prove thebeginning of the end for the Greek insurrection. " The Greeks, instead ofdesponding, were aroused to fiercer resistance than ever. A Hydriote fleetfoiled Ibrahim Pasha's attempt on Samos. When he tried to return to Cretehis fleet was beaten back with a signal reverse. Finally, late in the year, the Egyptians succeeded in eluding the vigilance of the Hydriotesea-captains, and regained their base of supplies in Crete. 

[Sidenote: Burmese war]

[Sidenote: Siege of Rangoon]

[Sidenote: British checked at Donabew]

While Canning's Ministry was still preparing the ground for Europeanintervention in Greece, the British Government in India found itself withanother native war on its hands. In 1822, the Burmese leader Bundula hadinvaded the countries between Burma and Bengal. The Burmese conquered theindependent principalities of Assam and Munipore, and threatened Cachar. Next Bundula invaded British territory and cut off a detachment of Britishsepoys. It was evident that the Burmese were bent on the conquest ofBengal. Lord Amherst, who had assumed charge early in 1824, sent anexpedition against them under Sir Archibald Campbell. The resistance of theBurmese was despicable. The British soldiers nowhere found foes worthy oftheir steel. In May, the British expedition, having marched straight toBurma, occupied the capital Rangoon, which was found deserted and denudedof all supplies. Ill fed and far from succor, the British had to spend arainy season there. Taking advantage of their precarious position, Bundulareturned late in the year with an army of 60, 000 men. The Englishmen werebesieged. In December they made a successful sortie and stormed theBurmese stockades. Bundula with the remains of his army was driven up thebanks of the river Irawaddy. They made a stand at Donabew, some forty milesfrom Rangoon, where they held the British in check. 

[Sidenote: German letters]

The rest of the world throughout this year lay in profound peace. InGermany the rulers of the various principalities were allowed to continuetheir reigns undisturbed. Only in Brunswick the assumption of thegovernment by Charles Frederick William met with the disapproval of theGerman Diet. Although pronounced incapable of reigning, he succeeded nonethe less in clinging to his throne. A more important event for theenlightened element in Germany was the appearance of the first of Leopoldvon Ranke's great histories of the Romance and Teutonic peoples. In therealm of poetry a stir was created by the publication of Rueckert's andBoerne's lyrics, and Heinrich Heine's "Alamansor" and "Ratcliffe. "

[Sidenote: French literature]

[Sidenote: Clericals in the ascendant]

[Sidenote: Chateaubriand dismissed]

[Sidenote: Death of Louis XVIII. ]

In France, Lamartine brought out his "Death of Socrates, " and Louis Thierspublished the first instalments of his great "History of the FrenchRevolution. " Simultaneously there appeared François Mignet's "History ofthe French Revolution. " While these historians were expounding the lessonsof this great regeneration of France, the Royalists in the Chambers didtheir best to undo its work. After the ejection of Manuel from theChambers, and the Ministers' consequent appeal to the country, theelections were so manipulated by the government that only nineteen Liberalmembers were returned to the Chambers. Immediate advantage was taken ofthis to favor the Clericals and returned Emigrées, and to change the lawsso as to elect a new House every seven years, instead of one-fifth part ofthe Chamber each year. Monseigneur Frayssinous, the leader of theClericals, was made Minister of Public Instruction. The friction betweenPrime Minister Villèle and Chateaubriand was ended by Villèle's summarydismissal of Chateaubriand as Foreign Minister. Chateaubriand at oncebecame the most formidable opponent of the Ministry in the "Journal desDébats, " and in the Chamber of Peers. At this stage of public affairs LouisXVIII. Died, on September 16, with the ancient pomp of royalty. Before heexpired he said, pointing to his bed: "My brother will not die in thatbed. " The old King's prophecy was based on the character of the Frenchpeople as much as on that of his brother. Indeed, Louis XVIII. Was the onlyFrench ruler during the Nineteenth Century who died as a sovereign in hisbed. He was duly succeeded by his brother, Count of Artois, who took thetitle "Charles X. " and retained Villèle as Minister of France. 

1825

[Sidenote: Charles X. ]

Charles X. Was crowned King of France in the Cathedral of Rheims. His firstpublic measure was the appropriation of a million francs to indemnify theFrench Royalists, whose lands had been confiscated during the FrenchRevolution. Next came the proposal of a law on sacrilege, and one forprimogeniture. Both bills were strenuously opposed by the Liberals. Broglieexclaimed: "What you are now preparing is a social and politicalrevolution, a revolution against the revolution which changed France nearlyforty years ago. " Old Lafayette was glad to leave the country to visitNorth America. 

[Sidenote: American election contest]

[Sidenote: John Quincy Adams President]

[Sidenote: Henry Clay rewarded]

[Sidenote: Changes in American politics]

[Sidenote: Adams's first message]

In the United States the election of 1824 had to be decided by the House ofRepresentatives. For the Presidency the candidates were Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, Crawford and Clay, and for the Vice-Presidency Calhoun, Sanford, Macon, Jackson, Van Buren and Clay. They all belonged to theDemocratic-Republican party. Jackson had received the highest number ofelectoral votes--99 were for him and 84 for Adams. Calhoun, as candidatefor Vice-President, led with 182 votes. In the House of RepresentativesClay, as leader, opposed Jackson. Adams was declared President, withCalhoun for Vice-President. The electoral vote of thirteen States was givento Adams, while Jackson received seven. John Quincy Adams was thenfifty-eight years of age. Washington had made him Minister to The Hague, and then to Lisbon, and in 1797 his father, then President, sent him asMinister to Berlin. In 1803, he was United States Senator. Six years laterhe was Minister to Russia. During both of Monroe's terms he was Secretaryof State. Upon his inauguration as President, Adams made Clay Secretary ofState. Wirt, McLean and Southard were retained in the Cabinet. Theadherents of Jackson declared that a bargain had been made between Clay andAdams, who then paid Clay they alleged for his support in the "scrub race"for the Presidency. Randolph characterized the supposed arrangement as a"bargain between the Puritan and the Black Leg, " and in consequence waschallenged by Clay to fight a duel. Neither was injured. The election wasfollowed by an immediate reorganization of political parties, on thequestion of supporting Adams's administration. Whether the successor ofAdams should be a Northerner or a Southerner was the question at issue. Hisopponents were slave-holders and their Northern friends; his supporters, the antagonists of the Democratic party, whether known as NationalRepublican, Whig or Republican party, all of which terms were in use. Forthe first time the new Congress, under the reapportionment, represented theentire population of the country, with New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio inthe lead. In the Senate were men of brilliant promise. Clay was still aleader, and so was Webster, in the rising majesty of his renown. Thecontest between the parties was narrowed down to two great issues--internalimprovements under national auspices and tariff for the protection ofmanufactures. President Adams in his first message gave opportunity forconcerted opposition. He took advanced ground in favor of nationalexpenditure on internal improvements, and urged the multiplication ofcanals, the endowment of a national university, expenditures for scientificresearch, and the erection of a national observatory. He announced that aninvitation had been accepted from the South American states to a conferenceat Panama, in regard to the formation of a political and commercial leaguebetween the two Americas. The Senate requested President Adams to give itinformation "touching the principles and practice of the Spanish-Americanstates, or any of them--in regard to negro slavery. " The subject wasdebated for almost the entire session. When enough had been said to showthat slavery must not be interfered with, the delegates were nominated andan appropriation was made. The delegates never went. 

[Sidenote: Erie Canal completed]

[Sidenote: Beneficial results]

On November 4, the first boat travelling along the new Erie Canal reachedNew York. Through the efforts of De Witt Clinton, the State of New Yorkwithout Congressional aid had completed the great Erie Canal. Its annualtolls were found to amount to half its cost. The financial and commercialresults of the great work were immediate and manifest. The cost ofcarrying freight between Albany and New York was reduced from the 1820 rateof $88 per ton, to $22. 50, and soon to $6. 50. Travel was no lessfacilitated, so that it was possible for emigrants to reach Michigan, Illinois and Wisconsin cheaply. These fertile States grew accordingly inpopulation. In 1825 the Capitol at Washington was nearly completed; theouter walls proved to be uninjured by the fire of 1814. The foundation ofthe central building had been laid in 1818, and this edifice was nowcompleted on its original plan. 

[Sidenote: Lafayette visits America]

The American visit of the old Marquis de la Fayette--to give him his Frenchname--was celebrated with national rejoicings. Years ago, when he left theAmerican republic after its independence was achieved, it was a poor, weakand struggling nation. Its prosperity and increasing power now amazed him. The thirteen colonies along the coast had increased to twenty-fourindependent, growing and progressive commonwealths, reaching a thousandmiles westward from the sea. Lafayette was the nation's guest for a year. On June 17, 1825, just fifty years after the battle of Bunker Hill, he laidthe cornerstone of the obelisk which commemorates that battle in Boston. Onthis same occasion Daniel Webster made one of his great speeches. Lafayettereturned to France in the American frigate "Brandywine, " named in honor ofthe first battle in which Lafayette fought and was wounded half a centurybefore. Congress presented him with a gift of $200, 000 in money, and with atownship of land in recognition of the disinterested services of hisyouth. 

[Sidenote: Argentine Republic]

Shortly before President Adams accepted the invitation to send NorthAmerican representatives to the proposed Congress of Panama, thirteenindependent States joined at Buenos Ayres in a powerful confederation andformed the Republic of Argentine. A national constitution was adopted andRivadiera elected President. The new republic was soon called upon to proveits mettle in the war levied against it by Brazil for the possession ofUruguay. In the end Uruguay remained a part of Argentina. Brazil hadpreviously achieved its complete independence from the mother country byassuming the public debt of Portugal, amounting to some ten milliondollars. England gave its official recognition to these new changes ofgovernment as it had to the others. 

[Sidenote: Burmese reverses]

[Sidenote: New British acquisitions]

The British war against the Burmese was nearly over. Early in the year theBritish forces left at Rangoon advanced up the river Irawaddy towardDonabew. The first attempt to take this stronghold was repulsed, whereuponthe British settled down to a regular siege. While trying to get the rangewith their mortars the gunners succeeded in killing Bundula, the chieftainof the Burmese. His brother flinched from the command of the army and waspromptly beheaded. The Burmese forces went to pieces. The British proceededto Prome, and inflicted another crushing defeat on the remainingdetachments of the Burmese army. At the approach of the British column theBurmese rulers at Ava became frantic. All the demented women that could befound in and about Ava were gathered together and conducted to the frontthat they might bewitch the English. When this measure proved ineffectual, Prince Tharawadi tried to stem the British approach, but could not get hisfollowers to face the enemy. All the country from Rangoon to Ava was underBritish control. The Burmese came to terms. As a result of the conflict theterritories of Assam, Arrakan and Tenaserim were ceded to the British. 

[Sidenote: Crisis in Bhurtpore]

[Sidenote: Summary British dealings]

While the British were still in the midst of this campaign a crisisoccurred in Bhurtpore. The sudden death of the Rajah there left nosuccessor to the throne but an infant son of seven. He was proclaimed Rajahunder the guardianship of his uncle. A cousin of the dead king won over thearmy of Bhurtpore, and putting the uncle to death imprisoned the littleRajah. Sir David Ochterlony, the aged British Resident at Delhi, interferedin behalf of the little prince and advanced British troops into Bhurtpore. His measures were repudiated by Lord Amherst. Sir David took the rebuff somuch to heart that he resigned his appointment. Within two months after hisretirement the old soldier died in bitterness of soul. The sequelvindicated his judgment. In defiance of the British Government, the usurperof Bhurtpore rallied around him all the dissatisfied spirits of theMahrattas, Pindarees, Jats and Rajputs. Lord Amherst was forced to retreatto Vera. The British army under Lord Combermere crossed the border andpushed through to Bhurtpore. The heavy mud walls of the capital had to bebreached with mines. The usurper was deposed and put out of harm's way in aBritish prison. With the restoration of the infant Prince in Bhurtpore, alldanger of another great Indian rising seemed at end. 

 [Illustration: SOLFERINO Painted by E. Meissonier From Carbon Print by Braun, Clement & Co. , N. Y. ]

[Sidenote: The first railway]

At home in England it was a period of unprecedented scientific andindustrial development. Following Faraday's recent conversion of theelectric current into mechanical motion, Sturgeon invented the prototype ofthe electro-magnet. The first public railway for steam locomotives wasopened between Stockton and Darlington by Edward Peese and GeorgeStephenson--an innovation which caused great excitement throughout England. On the opening day, September 27, an immense concourse of people assembledalong the line to see the train go by. Nearly every one prophesied that the"iron horse" would be a failure. The train weighed about ninety Englishtons, and consisted of six wagons loaded with coal and flour, then acovered coach containing directors and proprietors, with twenty-one coalwagons fitted up for invited passengers, nearly 600 in number. Stephenson'sengine, named the "Locomotion, " had a ten-foot boiler and weighed not quite1, 500 pounds. As six miles an hour was supposed to be the limit of speed, it was arranged that a man on horseback should ride on the track ahead ofthe engine carrying a flag. The train was started without difficulty amidcheers. Many tried to keep up with it by running, and some gentlemen onhorseback galloped across the fields to accompany the train. After a fewminutes, Stephenson shouted to the horseman with the flag to get out of theway, for he was going to "let her go. " Ordering the fireman to "keep herhot, lad, " he opened wide the throttle-valve and the speed was quicklyraised to twelve miles an hour and then to fifteen. 

[Sidenote: Stephenson's practical demonstration]

The runners on foot, the gentlemen on horseback and the horseman with theflag were left far behind. So, with the cross-beams and side-rods tremblingfrom the violent motion, the red-hot chimney ejecting clouds of blacksmoke, amid the cheers of the delighted spectators and to the astonishmentof the passengers--the immortal George Stephenson brought his train safelyinto Darlington. 

As the "Newcastle Courant" (October 1, 1825) put it, "certainly theperformance excited the astonishment of all present, and exceeded the mostsanguine expectations of every one conversant with the subject. The enginearrived at Stockton in three hours and seven minutes after leavingDarlington, including stops, the distance being nearly twelve miles, whichis at the rate of four miles an hour; and upon the level part of therailway, the number of passengers was counted about four hundred and fifty, and several more clung to the carriages on each side. At one time thepassengers by the engine had the pleasure of accompanying and cheeringtheir brother passengers by the stage coach, which passed alongside, and ofobserving the striking contrast exhibited by the power of the engine and ofhorses; the engine with her six hundred passengers and load, and the coachwith four horses and only sixteen passengers. "

[Sidenote: Immediate railroad development]

So successful was the Stockton and Darlington railway that a bill wasbrought in Parliament for the construction of a railroad between Liverpooland Manchester after Stephenson's plan. The scheme was violently opposed. Its detractors, among whom were Lords Lefton and Derby, declared thatStephenson's locomotive would poison the air, kill the birds as they flewover them, destroy the preservation of pheasants, burn up the farms andhomesteads near the lines; that oats and hay would become unsalable becausehorses would become extinct; travelling on the highways would becomeimpossible; country inns would be ruined; boilers would burst and killhundreds of passengers. Indeed, there was no peril imaginable that was notpredicted to attend the working of a railroad by steam. 

When Stephenson was examined by a Parliamentary committee, one of themembers put this question: "Suppose, now, one of these engines to be goingalong a railroad at a rate of nine or ten miles an hour, and that a cowwere to stray upon the line, and get in the way of the engine, would notthat, think you, be a very awkward circumstance?" "Yaw, " repliedStephenson, in his broad Northumbrian dialect, "ay, awkward--for the_coo_. " On account of his speech Stephenson was denounced as a "foreigner, "and the bill was thrown out by the committee, by a vote of 37 against 36. After a second Parliamentary battle, the bill was passed through bothHouses by a majority of forty-seven votes. The passage of the act cost£27, 000. 

[Sidenote: Other modern inventions]

[Sidenote: English financial crisis averted]

[Sidenote: Canning's attempted reforms]

Almost coincidentally, Faraday found that benzine was a constituent ofpetroleum, a discovery destined to affect the modern construction ofautomobile vehicles toward the close of the century. A number of otherachievements made this an important year for science in England. JohnCrowther took out a patent for his invention of a hydraulic crane. Thesteam jet was first applied to construction work by Timothy Hackworth. Joseph Clement built a planing machine for iron. One of the earliest chainsuspension bridges was erected at Menai Strait by Thomas Thelford, and atthe same time Brunel sunk his first shaft for the Thames tunnel. Significant of the industrial revival of those days was the opening ofmechanics' institutes at Exeter and Belfast. In Canada, the newly foundedMcGill College was raised to the rank of a university. A financial measureof far-reaching import was the Bank of England's sudden diminution of itscirculation to the extent of £3, 500, 000 by the combined exertions of thebank and of the royal mint. A crisis in public funds was thus averted. Themost important political measure of the year was Canning's attempt torepeal the political disabilities of the Catholics in England. A bill tothis effect was passed through the Commons, but was thrown out by the Houseof Lords. Canning's friend Huskisson inaugurated a commercial policy, whichwas founded on the theory of free trade, destined to bring about the repealof the corn laws. 

[Sidenote: Greek reverses]

[Sidenote: Nauplia and Missolonghi besieged]

[Sidenote: Greece devastated]

The situation in Greece was calculated to stiffen the backbone of Canning'sforeign policy. On February 22, Ibrahim's Egyptian army had crossed the seaunopposed and overran the Morea. The Greeks were defeated near Nodoni, andthe garrison of Sphakteria was overwhelmed. The forts of Navarinocapitulated. In vain was old Kolokotrones released from his prison tooppose the onslaught of Ibrahim's Arabs. The Greeks were driven backthrough Tripolitza, and did not succeed in making a stand until the Turksreached Nauplia. Here Demetrios Ypsilanti with a few hundred men repulsedthe Turkish vanguard at Lerna. Ibrahim settled down to the siege of Naupliaand of Missolonghi. The country round about was laid waste and the peoplekilled. Ibrahim's hordes even cut down all trees and saplings. Thus thefertile mountains and hillsides of Greece were changed into the barrenrocks they are to-day. Nothing so excited the sympathy of the lovers ofliberty in Europe as these wanton ravages on classic soil committed by thesavages of the desert. Even Alexander of Russia was so moved by the risingindignation of his people that he dissolved diplomatic conferences at St. Petersburg in August. He issued a declaration that Russia, acting on itsown discretion, would put a stop to the outrages of Greece. Accompanied bythe leaders of the Russian war party, he left St. Petersburg and travelledto the Black Sea. All Europe waited for the long-threatened Russian advanceon Constantinople. Suddenly news arrived that the Czar had died atTaganrog. 

[Sidenote: Death of Czar Alexander]

[Sidenote: Alexander's early reforms]

[Sidenote: Russian letters stimulated]

Alexander expired on November 19 (December 1), in the arms of EmpressElizabeth. His last hours were clouded by revelations of a plot toassassinate him. As if to recant his reactionary measures of the last fewyears, he said: "They may say what they like of me, but I have lived andwill die republican"--a curious boast which is justified only by theearlier years of Alexander's reign. In the beginning of his rule the Czarreversed the despotic tendencies of his predecessors. Free travel waspermitted; foreign books and papers were allowed to enter; the betterclasses of the community were exempted from corporal punishments; theemancipation of serfs was begun, and the collegiate organization of theadministration was supplanted by ministries modelled after those of thechief European countries. As early as 1802 Alexander could boast of aCabinet as good as that of any constitutional monarch. Another far-reachingreform was the reorganization of Russian public education, and theencouragement given to the publication of Bibles. A temporary relaxation ofthe censorship resulted in the foundation of societies of literature and ofsuch journals as the "Russian Messenger, " "The Northern Mercury, " and the"Democrat. " Writers like Pushkin and Gogol brought forth their earliestworks. Koltsov discovered a new source of poetry in the popular songs. Lermontov sang the wild beauty of the Caucasus, and Ozerov wrote hisclassical drama "Dmitri Donskoi, " which recalled the struggles of Russiaagainst the Tartars. Modern romantic tendencies were advanced byJoukovsky's translation of Schiller's and Byron's poems. Ginka composed thescores for his earlier operas. 

[Sidenote: Changes for the worse]

[Sidenote: Araktcheyev]

[Sidenote: The Russian succession]

[Sidenote: Conflicting proclamations]

[Sidenote: Nicholas, Czar of Russia]

[Sidenote: Moscow mutiny]

[Sidenote: Miloradovitch shot]

[Sidenote: End of revolt]

When Alexander came under the influence of Madame de Krüdener and the morebaneful ascendency of Metternich everything was changed for the worse. Thepublication of Bibles was stopped; the censorship was re-established in itsfull rigor; Speranski's great undertaking of a Russian code of laws wasnipped in the bud; Galytsin, the liberal Minister of Publication, had toresign, and Araktcheyev, a reactionary of extreme type, was put in hisplace. Some idea of the dark days that followed may be gathered fromAraktcheyev's first measures. The teaching of the geological theories ofBuffon and of the systems of Copernicus and Newton were forbidden ascontrary to Holy Writ. Medical dissection was prohibited, and the practiceof medicine was reduced to that of faith cure. All professors who hadstudied at seats of learning abroad were dismissed. Then it was that thesecret societies sprang up in Poland and in the north and south of Russia. One of the foremost conspirators was Pestel, who had undertaken to frame anew code of laws for Russia. When Alexander died, Russia was on the brinkof a military revolution. It was the intention of the conspirators toassassinate the Czar in the presence of his troops and to proclaim aconstitution; but his unexpected departure to the Black Sea frustrated theplan. Alexander's death threw the Russian court into confusion. For a whileit was not known who was to succeed him. The supposed heir to the thronewas Alexander's brother, Constantine. Unbeknown to the people he hadformally renounced his right to the throne. At the time of his brother'sdeath he was in Warsaw. His younger brother, Nicholas, at St. Petersburg, had him proclaimed emperor. When they brought him Constantine's writtenabdication, Nicholas refused to acknowledge it and caused the troops totake their oath of allegiance to his brother. Constantine in Warsawproclaimed Nicholas emperor. Nicholas would not accept the crown unless bythe direct command of his elder brother. At length the matter was adjusted, after an interregnum of three weeks. On Christmas Day, Nicholas ascendedthe imperial throne. The confusion at St. Petersburg was turned to accountby the military conspirators who had plotted against Alexander's life. Tothe common soldiers they denounced Nicholas as a usurper who was trying tomake them break their recent oath to Constantine. When ordered to take theoath to Nicholas, the Moscow regiment refused, and marched to the openplace in front of the Senate House. There they formed a square and werejoined by other bodies of mutineering soldiers. It is gravely asserted byRussian historians that the poor wretches, ignorant of the very meaning ofthe word constitution, shouted for it, believing it to be the name ofConstantine's wife. An attack upon them by the household cavalry wasrepulsed. When General Miloradovitch, a veteran of fifty-two battlesagainst Napoleon, tried to make himself heard, he was shot. The mutineerswould not listen even to the Emperor. Not until evening could the new Czarbe brought to use more decisive measures. Then he ordered out the artilleryand had them fire grapeshot into the square. The effect was appalling. In afew minutes the square was cleared and the insurrection was over. Itsleaders were wanting at the moment of action. A rising in the south ofRussia was quelled by a single regiment. Before the year ended, Nicholaswas undisputed master of Russia. 

[Sidenote: Death of Fresnel]

By the death of Augustin Jean Fresnel, France lost a brilliant scientist, who shares with Thomas Young the honor of discrediting the old emissiontheory of light, and of formulating the undulatory theory. 

[Sidenote: Death of David]

Jacques Louis David, founder of the new French school of classicism inpainting, died at the close of the year at Brussels. Many of his paintingswere on exhibition before the fall of the old régime in France. In the daysof the French Revolution, David was a Jacobite and friend of Robespierre, and suffered in prison after the latter's fall. It was not, however, untilthe time of the First Empire that David's fame spread. He then reached thezenith of his success. His masterpieces of this period are "NapoleonCrossing the Alps"--a canvas on which is founded Hauff's story of "ThePicture of the Emperor"--"The Coronation of Napoleon, " "Napoleon in HisImperial Robes, " and the "Distribution of the Eagles. " Equally famous ishis portrait of "Madame Recamier resting on a Chaiselongue. " After the fallof the First Empire, David was exiled from France, and retired toBrussels. David, unlike so many other beneficiaries of the Empire, remainedwarmly attached to Napoleon. Once when the Duke of Wellington visited hisstudio in Brussels and expressed a wish that the great artist would painthim, David coldly replied, "I never paint Englishmen. " In his decliningyears he painted subjects taken from Grecian mythology. Among the paintingsexecuted by David during his banishment were "Love and Psyche, " "The Wrathof Achilles, " and "Mars Disarmed by Venus. " The number of David's pupilswho acquired distinction was very great, among whom the best known wereGros, Gérard, Derdranais Girodet, Jugros, Abel de Pujel and Droming. 

1826

[Sidenote: Czar Nicholas' measures]

[Sidenote: Ryleyev and Pestel hanged]

[Sidenote: Russian laws codified]

Driven to assert his rights to the crown by bloodshed, Nicholas I. Showedhimself resolved to maintain the absolute principles of his throne. Heaccorded a disdainful pardon to Prince Trubetskoi, whom the conspirators ofthe capital had chosen as head of the government. The mass of misledsoldiery was likewise treated with clemency. But against the realinstigators of the insurrection the Czar proceeded with uncompromisingseverity. One hundred and twenty were deported to Siberia; and the fiveforemost men, among whom were Ryleyev, the head of the society in thenorth, and Pestel, were condemned to be hanged. All died courageously. Pestel's chief concern was for his Code: "I am certain, " said he, "that oneday Russia will find in this book a refuge against violent commotions. Mygreatest error was that I wished to gather the harvest before sowing theseed. " In a way the teachings of these men gave an impetus to Russia thattheir death could not destroy. Even the Czar, with his passion for militaryautocracy, made it his first care to take up the work of codifying theRussian laws. Alexis Mikhaielovitch during the next four years turned outhis "Complete Code of the Laws of the Russian Empire. "

[Sidenote: Persian war]

[Sidenote: Defence of Choucha]

[Sidenote: Russian victories]

[Sidenote: Persia abandoned by England]

[Sidenote: Russia's ultimatum to Turkey]

[Sidenote: Massacre of Janizaries]

The military ambitions of Nicholas found a vent in the direction of Persia. The encroachments of Ermolov, the Governor-General of the Caucasus, soexasperated the Persians that soon a holy war was preached against Russia. Ebbas-Mirza, the Prince Royal of Persia, collected an army of 35, 000 men onthe banks of the Araxes. A number of English officers joined his ranks. Nicholas at once despatched General Kasevitch with reinforcements forErmolov. Ebbas-Mirza was checked on his march on Tivlas by the heroicdefence of Choucha. In the meanwhile the Russians concentrated theirforces. The Persian vanguard, 15, 000 strong, was defeated at Elizabethpol. On the banks of the Djeham, Paskevitch, with a division of the Russianarmy, overthrew the main body of the Persians and forced them back over theAraxes. The Persians continued their resistance, relying on the terms ofthe treaty of Teheran, wherein England had promised financial and militarysubsidies in case of invasion. The English, promise was not kept. Henceforth the Persians were at the mercy of the Russian army of invasion. Almost simultaneously a rebellion against the Chinese Government broke outin Kashgar. Undeterred by this diversion, Nicholas took up a vigorous standagainst the Turks. In March he presented an ultimatum insisting on theautonomy of Moldavia, Wallachia and Servia, and on the final cession toRussia of disputed Turkish territory on the Asiatic frontier. Turkeyyielded. Nicholas then joined in an ultimatum with England and France foran immediate stop of the Turkish outrages in Greece. In this matterNicholas, who regarded the Greeks as rebels, showed himself more lenient tothe Turks, and negotiations with the Porte were permitted to drag. TheSultan profited by the lull to execute a long contemplated stroke againstthe Janizaries. The whole of this famous corps of bodyguards was massacred. 

[Sidenote: Death of Bennigsen and Rostopchin]

During this year two men died in Russia who had distinguished themselves atthe time of Napoleon's invasion. One was General Bennigsen, a soldier ofGerman extraction and training, who took a leading part in all the Russiancampaigns against Napoleon. The other was Prince Rostopchin, who asGovernor of Moscow consigned that city to the flames after Napoleon'striumphant entry. 

[Sidenote: Death of Hastings and Heber]

[Sidenote: Alfred Tennyson]

[Sidenote: English letters flourishing]

[Sidenote: Scientific progress]

England lost two men who had distinguished themselves in India. One was theMarquis of Hastings, who had but lately relinquished hisGovernor-Generalship of British India, and whose rule there both from amilitary and from a political-economical point of view must be regarded aspre-eminently successful. The other was Reginald Heber, the Bishop ofCalcutta, who endeared himself to Anglo-Indians by his translations of thefolk songs and classic writings of Hindustan. In other respects this yearis notable in English literary annals. Alfred Tennyson published hisearliest verses in conjunction with his brother; Elizabeth Barrett alsobrought out her first poems; Macaulay had begun to captivate England by hisessays; Thomas Hood issued his "Whims and Oddities"; Scott and Coleridgewere then in the heyday of literary favor. Scott had just brought out his"Talisman" and "The Betrothed, " and now published "Woodstock. " Coleridgecontributed his "Aids to Reflection. " A new impetus was given toscholarship by the foundation of the Western and Eastern literaryinstitutions of England, and the establishment of a professorship forpolitical economy at Oxford. London University was chartered. Drummond'snamesake, Lieutenant Thomas Drummond, perpetuated his name by hislimelight, produced by heating lime to incandescence in the oxy-hydrogenflame. 

[Sidenote: English lotteries suppressed]

While Herschel was working out his spectrum analysis, Fox Talbotcontributed his share by his observation of the orange line of strontium. John Walker perfected his invention of friction matches. Industrially, onthe contrary, England still suffered from the canker of the corn laws andthe recent financial crisis resulting from the operations of ill-fatedstock companies. In Lancashire nearly a thousand power looms were destroyedby the distressed operatives. Some relief was given by Canning's abolitionof all public lotteries. 

[Sidenote: Louis I. Of Bavaria]

[Sidenote: Munich embellished]

[Sidenote: German romantic literature]

[Sidenote: "Die Wacht am Rhein"]

[Sidenote: Froebel]

In Germany, arts and literature flourished in the same degree. King LouisI. Of Bavaria, upon his accession to the throne, gathered about him inMunich some of the foremost artists and writers of Germany. The capital ofMunich was embellished with public monuments; public buildings weredecorated with fresco paintings, and art galleries were established. TheUniversity of Bavaria was transferred from Landshut to Munich, and otherinstitutions of learning were erected by its side. Streets were widened, new avenues and public squares laid out, and public lighting introducedthroughout the city. Within a short time the quasi-medieval town of Munichwas changed into a modern metropolis and became the Mecca of German art. Among the artists who gathered round Louis of Bavaria were Moritz vonSchwind, Cornelius, Hess, Raupp, and the elder Piloti. Among the writerswho drew upon themselves the notice of this liberal king were the Count ofPlaten, who during this year published his "Ghazels" and the comedy "TheFatal Fork"; and Hauff, who brought out his romantic masterpiece, "Lichtenstein. " Of the rising writers, Heinrich Heine alone withstood theblandishments of Louis with verses of biting satire. Little noticed at thetime was the appearance of Reichardt's "Wacht am Rhein, " a song which wasdestined to become the battle hymn of Germany. Scant attention, likewise, was given to Froebel's epoch-making work, "The Education of Man. " On theother hand much pother was made over some curious exchanges of sovereignty, characteristic of German politics in those days. The Dukes ofSaxe-Coburg-Gotha-Meiningen exchanged their respective possessions. Saalfeld Meiningen received Gotha. Altenburg was assigned toSaxe-Hilburghausen, which latter principality in turn was relinquished toMeiningen. The settlements of the succession in those petty principalitiescalled forth volumes of legal lore. 

Jens Baggesen, the most prolific Danish humorist, died this year, seventy-two years of age. After his death Baggesen's writings declined inpopularity. 

[Sidenote: American semi-centennial]

[Sidenote: Death of Jefferson and Adams]

[Sidenote: "The Father of Democracy"]

In America, the people of the United States commemorated thesemi-centennial of their independence. The Fourth of July, the date of thedeclaration of American independence, was the great day of celebration. Theday became noted in American history by the simultaneous death of twopatriots: Jefferson and Adams. Thomas Jefferson's greatest achievements, asrecorded by himself on his gravestone at Monticello, were his part in thedeclaration of American independence, in the establishment of religiousfreedom and in the foundation of the University at Virginia. He was themost philosophic statesman of his time in America. Much of the subsequenthistory of the United States was but the development of Jefferson'spolitical ideas. His public acts and declarations foreshadowed the policiesof his most worthy successors. The essentials of the Monroe Doctrine, ofthe emancipation of slaves, as well as of the doctrine of State rights andof American expansion, can all be traced back to him. Thus he has come tobe venerated by one of the two great political parties of America as "TheFather of Democracy. "

[Sidenote: Jefferson's principles]

[Sidenote: Third term discountenanced]

Jefferson's principles were stated in his first inaugural address: "Equaland exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious orpolitical; peace, commerce and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none; the support of the State governments andall their rights as the most competent of administrations for our domesticconcerns; the preservation of the general government in its wholeconstitutional vigor, as a sheet anchor of peace at home and safetyabroad. . . . The supremacy of civil over military authority; economy inpublic expense, honest payment of public debts; the diffusion ofinformation; freedom of religion; freedom of the press and freedom of theperson, under the protection of the habeas corpus and trial by jury. " WhenJefferson's second term as President came to an end he retired from theWhite House poorer than he had entered it. A third term was declined by himwith these words: "To lay down a public charge at the proper period is asmuch a duty as to have borne it faithfully. If some termination to theservices of a chief magistrate be not fixed by the Constitution or suppliedby practice, this office, nominally four years, will in fact become forlife; and history shows how easily that degenerates into an inheritance. "Together with Washington's similar action, this established a custom whichhas since been followed in the North American Republic. 

[Sidenote: John Adams's career]

Jefferson's predecessor, John Adams, who died on the same day, thoughlikewise a model President, was less fortunate in his career. Hisadministration was a struggle almost from beginning to end. The troubleswith France, though not attaining the dignity of international warfare, presented all the difficulties of such a war. Adams's extreme measuresagainst domestic danger, as embodied in his "alien and sedition laws, " wereunfortunate. They were in fact an infringement of the rights of freespeech and personal liberty, and were with justice denounced asunconstitutional and un-American. His departure from the American Bill ofRights among other things effectually prevented his re-election asPresident. His wisest closing act was the appointment of John Marshall tothe Chief Justiceship of the American Supreme Court. 

[Sidenote: Stars of the stage]

[Sidenote: "The Last of the Mohicans"]

In the annals of the American stage the season of 1826 is remembered forthe first appearance of the three great actors Edwin Forrest, Macready andJames H. Hackett, the American comedian. The same year saw the firstappearance of Paulding's "Three Wise Men of Gotham, " and Cooper's "Last ofthe Mohicans. "

[Sidenote: Philhellenic efforts]

The Greek cause found friends in Switzerland, England and America. Twoloans for $14, 000, 000 were raised in London by American and Englishsubscriptions. Both loans were disgracefully financed. Barely one-half ofthe amount was finally accounted for. With the proceeds contracts were madefor eight warships. The "Perseverance, " a steam corvette, mounting eight68-pound cannon, reached Nauplia in September. The "Hope, " a staunchfrigate of 64 guns, built in New York, arrived in December. She wasrechristened the "Hellas. "

[Sidenote: Dom Pedro IV. ]

The death of Dom Juan de Braganza in March had placed the throne ofPortugal as well as that of Brazil at the disposal of his oldest son, DomPedro IV. , at Rio. Under the terms of England's mediation of the previousyear, Dom Pedro renounced the throne of Portugal in favor of his infantdaughter, Maria Gloria, while at the same time he conferred upon Portugal aliberal constitution, the so-called Charta de Ley, similar to that concededto Brazil in 1822. 

[Sidenote: Dom Miguel's revolt]

[Sidenote: Canning's policy]

Dom Pedro IV. Had intrusted the throne of Portugal to the regency of hissister Maria Isabella, on condition that his infant daughter should marryher uncle, Dom Miguel. It was his intention that the infant Princess shouldbe recognized as Queen, while Dom Miguel would reign as regent. Under theleadership of Marquis de Chaves, instigated by Dom Miguel, severalprovinces revolted and declared for Miguel as absolute king. Conquered inPortugal, the insurgents retired to Spain, where they were well received. The Portuguese constitutional government called for help from England. France threatened to invade Spain. Canning acted at once: "To those whoblame the government for delay, " declared Canning in Parliament, "theanswer is very short. It was only last Friday that I received the officialrequest from Portugal. On Saturday the Ministers decided what was to bedone. On Sunday our decision received the King's sanction. On Monday it wascommunicated to both Houses. At this very moment the troops are on theirway to Portugal. " It was then that Canning delivered the great speech indefence of his foreign policy which he closed with Shakespeare's famouslines:

 Oh, it is excellent To have a giant's strength. And it is tyrannous To use it like a giant. 

1827

[Sidenote: Portuguese revolt suppressed]

On the first day of January an English army corps under Clinton was landedat Lissabon and a squadron of eleven British ships of the line came toanchor at the mouth of the Tagus. The news of this foreign interventiondismayed the revolutionists. On the banks of the Mondego the Marquis deChaves, with 10, 000 rebels, still commanded the approach to Coimbra. OnJanuary 9, a drawn battle was fought with 7, 000 constitutional troops underSaldanha. Next morning Dom Miguel's followers, on the news of anapproaching British column, quitted the field and dispersed. The Spanishtroops on the frontier disarmed those that crossed into Spain. 

[Sidenote: Dissatisfaction in France]

In France, the government of Charles X. , after some violent attacks in theChambers, recalled the Swiss brigade sent to protect the royal family inMadrid. There was trouble enough at home. The clerical reaction in Francebrought about a popular outcry against the order of the Jesuits. On theoccasion of a royal military review on April 29, some of the companies ofthe National Guards shared in demonstrations against them. "I am here, "said the King, "to receive your homage, not your murmurings. " The entireNational Guard of Paris was disbanded by royal ordinance. 

[Sidenote: Russians invade Persia]

Early in the spring the Russian forces under Paskievitch had crossed theAraxes and forced the defiles of the Persian frontier. By a rapid flankmovement an army of 10, 000 Persians was detached and brought to surrender. Erivan, the bulwark of Persia, was taken by assault. The triumphant Russiancolumn entered Pauris, the second city of the kingdom. Thence an advancewas made on Teheran. 

[Sidenote: Intervention in Greece favored]

These easy victories in Persia left the Czar free to resume his threateningattitude toward Turkey. In this he received the hearty support of Canning. A protocol at St. Petersburg, concluded between the Duke of Wellington andNesselrode, formed the basis for Anglo-Russian intervention in the East. The royalists of France were won over by an offer from the Greek insurgentsto place the Duke of Nimours on the throne of Greece. Without giving actualsupport to the proposed intervention the French ambassador inConstantinople was instructed to act with his English and Russiancolleagues. Under the weight of this combination even Prince Metternichgave way. 

Affairs in Germany were calculated to excite his alarm. At Dresden theaccession of Anthony Clement to the crown of Saxony met with extremedisfavor on the part of the Saxon people by reason of Anthony's pronouncedCatholicism. Soon his measures provoked a rising of the people. Anthony hadto resign, and Frederick Augustus II. Became regent. 

[Sidenote: Death of Hauff]

In Wurtemberg, where public affairs had taken a more liberal turn, thedeath of Wilhelm Hauff, the young author, was felt as a great loss. Hauffdied in his twenty-fifth year, while still in the first promise of hisliterary activity. His stories of the Black Woods and his Oriental Tales, together with his medieval romance "Lichtenstein, " modelled after the bestof Walter Scott's romances, have assured him a prominent place in Germanletters. 

[Sidenote: Laplace]

[Sidenote: The nebular hypothesis]

On March 15, Marquis Pierre Simon de Laplace, one of the greatestmathematicians and physical astronomers of all time, died at Arcueil. Laplace was born in 1749, in Normandy. Although a poor farmer's son, hesoon won the position of a teacher at the Beaumont Military School ofMathematics, and later at the Ecole Militaire of Paris. One of the earlynotable labors of Laplace was his investigation of planetary perturbations, and his demonstration that planetary mean motions are invariable--the firstimportant step in the establishment of the stability of the solar systemand one of the most brilliant achievements in celestial mechanics. In his"Exposition du Systeme du Monde" was formulated the theory called the"nebular hypothesis, " the glory of which he must share with Kant. "He wouldhave completed the science of the skies, " says Fourier, "had the sciencebeen capable of completion. " As a physicist he made discoveries that werein themselves sufficient to perpetuate his name, in specific heat, capillary action and sound. In mathematics he furnished the modernscientist with the famous Laplace co-efficients and the potential function, thereby laying the foundation of the mathematical sciences of heat andelectricity. Not satisfied with scientific distinction, Laplace aspired topolitical honors and left a public record which is not altogether to hiscredit. Of his labors as Minister of the Interior, Napoleon remarked: "Hebrought into the administration the spirit of the infinitesimals. " Althoughhe owed his political success, small as it was, to Napoleon--the man whomhe had once heralded as the "pacificator of Europe"--he voted for hisdethronement. 

[Sidenote: Death of Beethoven]

Shortly after the death of Laplace, Ludwig van Beethoven died in Vienna onMarch 26. The last years of his life were so clouded by his deafness and bythe distressing vagaries of his nephew that he was often on the verge ofsuicide. In December, 1826, he caught a violent cold, which brought on hisultimate death from pneumonia and dropsy. Beethoven, though he adhered tothe sonata form of the classic school, introduced into his compositionssuch daringly original methods that he must be regarded as the first of thegreat romantic composers. Some of his latest compositions notably, were sovery unconventional that they found no appreciation, even among musicians, until years after his death. Technically, his art of orchestration reachedsuch a perfection of general unity and elaboration of detail that he muststand as the greatest instrumental composer of the nineteenth century. Theprofound subjective note that pervades his best compositions lifts hismusic above that of his greatest predecessors: Bach, Haydn and Mozart. 

[Sidenote: Beethoven's career]

[Sidenote: Notable compositions]

[Sidenote: "Fidelio"]

[Sidenote: Beethoven's declining years]

Beethoven came of a line of musical ancestors. His grandfather andnamesake was an orchestral leader and composer of operas. His father was aprofessional singer, who took his son's musical education in hand at theage of four. At eight the boy was a fluent performer both on the violin andon the piano. When but ten years old Beethoven produced his firstpianoforte sonata, and was installed as assistant organist in the ElectoralChapel at Bonn. When the lad visited Vienna, in 1787, his extemporizationson the piano made Mozart exclaim: "He will give the world something worthlistening to. " It was Haydn that persuaded Beethoven's patron to send theyouth to Vienna; there he became Haydn's pupil and received materialsupport from Prince Lichnovsky, one of his warmest admirers. From his firstentrance into the musical circles of Vienna, Beethoven was justly regardedas a highly eccentric man. His generosity of soul and transcendent geniusmade all those that learned to know him condone his freaks. It was afterthe opening of the Nineteenth Century that Beethoven reached his freestcreative period. Between 1800 and 1815 he composed the first six of hisgreat symphonies, the music to "Egmont, " the best of his chamber-musicpieces, fourteen pianoforte sonatas, among them the "Pastorale" and the"Appassionata, " and his only opera "Fidelio. " This opera, which was firstnamed "Leonore, " with an overture that was afterward abandoned, had itsfirst public performance in Vienna just before Napoleon's entry into thecapital in 1805. After three representations it was withdrawn. Nearly tenyears later, after complete revision by Beethoven, "Fidelio" achieved itsfirst great success. The great "Heroica Symphony" composed at the same timewas originally dedicated to Bonaparte. When Napoleon had himself proclaimedEmperor, Beethoven tore up the dedication in a rage. It was subsequentlychanged "to the memory of a great man. " After 1815, when the composer hadgrown quite deaf, his compositions, like his moods, took a gloomy cast. Theextravagances of his nephew, whose guardianship he had undertaken, causedhim acute material worries. In truth he need have given himself no concern, for his admirers, Archduke Rudolph and Princes Lobkovitz and Kinsky, settled on him an annuity of 4, 000 florins; but to the end of his days theunhappy composer believed himself on the verge of ruin. When he died, hisfuneral was attended by the princes of the imperial house and all thegreatest magnates of Austria and Hungaria. Twenty thousand persons followedhis coffin to the grave. 

 [Illustration: BEETHOVEN AND HIS ADMIRERS Painted by A. Grafle]

[Sidenote: English officers in Greece]

[Sidenote: Fall of Athens]

[Sidenote: Turks reject armistice]

By this time a number of foreign volunteers had flocked to Greece. LordCochrane, an English naval officer of venturous disposition, was appointedHigh Admiral. Sir Richard Church was put in command of the Greek landforces. Early in May, Church and Cochrane sought in vain to break the lineof Turks under Kiutahi Pasha pressing upon Athens. They were defeated withgreat loss, and on June 5 the Acropolis of Athens surrendered to the Turks. In July a treaty for European intervention in Greece was signed in London. Turkey and Greece were summoned to consent to an armistice, and to acceptthe mediation of the powers. All Turks were to leave Greece, and the Greekswere to come into possession of all Turkish property within their limits onpayment of an indemnity. Greece was to be made autonomous under theparamount sovereignty of the Sultan. The demand for an armistice was gladlyaccepted by Greece. But the Sultan rejected it with contempt. The conductof the Turkish troops in Bulgaria caused the Bulgarians to rise and callfor Russian help. 

[Sidenote: Death of Canning]

[Sidenote: Canning's policy]

It was at this crisis of European affairs that Canning died. His Ministry, brief as it was, marked an epoch for England. Unlike his predecessors, George Canning was called to the Ministry by a king who disliked him. Whathe accomplished was done amid the peculiar embarrassments and difficultiesof such a situation. On the other hand, it freed him from certainconcessions to the personal prejudices of his sovereign that hampered otherMinisters. Thus he was able to introduce in Parliament his great measurefor the removal of the political disabilities of the Catholics, a reform onwhich so great a Prime Minister as the younger Pitt came to grief. Had thismeasure passed the House of Lords it would stand as the crowning act ofCanning's administration. By an irony of fate the same Canning that sobitterly opposed the French Revolution and the claims of America achievedhighest fame by his latter day recognition of the rights of revolution inthe New World. 

[Sidenote: William Blake]

[Sidenote: Artist and poet]

[Sidenote: Blake's mysticism]

[Sidenote: Thomson's lines]

William Blake, the English poet and artist, died at Fountain Court inLondon on August 12. While Blake's poems and paintings belonged to theEighteenth Century, chronologically, the spirit of his works, with itsextraordinary independence of contemporary fashions, make him a herald ofthe poetic dawn of the Nineteenth Century. An engraver by profession andtraining, Blake began while still very young to apply his technicalknowledge to his wholly original system of literary publication. As a poethe was not only his own illustrator, but his own printer and publisher aswell. Beginning with the "Poetical Sketches" and his delightful "Songs ofInnocence, " down to the fantastic "Marriage of Heaven and Hell, " all ofBlake's books, with the exception of his "Jerusalem" and "Milton, " wereissued during the Eighteenth Century. Blake's artistic faculties seemed tostrengthen with advancing life, but his literary powers waned. He producedfew more satisfying illustrations than those to the Book of Job, executedlate in life. His artistic work also was left comparatively untainted bythe morbid strain of mysticism that runs through his so-called "propheticwritings. " The charm of Blake's poetry, as well as of his drawings, was notfully appreciated until late in the Nineteenth Century. Charles Lamb, to besure, declared, "I must look upon him as one of the extraordinary personsof the age, " but his full worth was not recognized until Swinburne andRossetti took up his cause. In America, Charles Eliot Norton, at Harvard, was Blake's ablest expounder. Famous are James Thomson's lines on WilliamBlake:

 He came to the desert of London town, Gray miles long; He wandered up and he wandered down, Singing a quiet song. 

 He came to the desert of London town, Mirk miles broad; He wandered up and he wandered down, Ever alone with God. 

 There were thousands and thousands of human kind, In this desert of brick and stone; But some were deaf and some were blind, And he was there alone. 

 At length the good hour came; he died As he had lived, alone; He was not missed from the desert wide, Perhaps he was found at the Throne. 

[Sidenote: Richard Bright]

In this year Dr. Richard Bright of London published his famous "Reports ofmedical cases with a view to illustrate the symptoms and cure of diseasesby a reference to morbid anatomy. " A special feature of the book was a fulldescription of Bright's discoveries in the pathology of the peculiardisease of the kidneys which bears his name. Bright, in response to urgentdemands, lectured more fully on his great discovery before the LondonCollege of Physicians and Surgeons. 

[Sidenote: Delacroix]

Eugene Delacroix, the great exponent of French romantic art, and a pupil ofGuerin, exhibited this year his "Christ in the Garden of Olives. " He hadpreviously exhibited "Dante and Virgil, " which created a sensation by itsrich coloring. This was followed by his "Massacre of Scio, " "The Death ofthe Doge, " "Marino Faliero, " "Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi" and"Death of Sardanapalus. " Not until some time after his death was herecognized as the greatest early master of the French art after David. Thegreat majority of his works, embracing mural paintings and pictures ofimmense size, are to be found in the principal churches and galleries ofFrance. 

[Sidenote: Wellington Prime Minister]

[Sidenote: Powers intervene in Greece]

[Sidenote: Greek Naval victory]

[Sidenote: Turkish warships stopped]

[Sidenote: The Morea ravaged]

[Sidenote: An international demonstration]

After the brief interregnum of Goderich's administration in England, Canning was succeeded by his rival, the Duke of Wellington. The good senseand great renown of this distinguished soldier promised strength andprestige to his administration. For a while the change of Ministry broughtno avowed change in Canning's plans. Huskisson and Palmerston were retainedin the Cabinet, and Canning's policy of active intervention in Greece wasupheld. In consequence of the Turkish refusal of mediation, the warcontinued on both sides. The Turks got heavy reinforcements from Egypt, anda strong expedition was on the point of leaving Navarino to make a descentupon Hydra, the last stronghold of the insurrection. An Anglo-French fleetunder Admirals Codrington and Regnier made a demonstration in Greek waters. The foreign admirals exacted a promise from Ibrahim that he would make nomovement until further orders should arrive from Constantinople. An oralagreement to this effect was reached late in September. A few days laterthe Greeks in free continuance of hostilities won a brilliant naval victoryin the Gulf of Corinth. The hero on this occasion was Captain Hastings, anEnglish volunteer. Ibrahim was so incensed that he sailed out of Navarinoand made for Patras. Codrington threw his British squadron across thetrack of the Egyptian ships and forced them to turn back by a threat tosink them. It was regretted at the time that Codrington did not compelIbrahim to take his expedition out of Greek waters back to Alexandria. Asit was, Ibrahim returned to Navarino, and there found orders from theSultan to carry on the war without regard to Western intermeddling. AnotherTurkish column was forthwith despatched into the Morea and devastated thatcountry with fire and sword. Clouds of smoke revealed to the European navalofficers how the Turks had met their proposals for peace. AdmiralCodrington sent messages to Ibrahim, calling for instant cessation ofhostilities, for the evacuation of the Morea, and the return of his fleetto Constantinople and Alexandria. The answer to this message was thatIbrahim had marched into the Morea and could not be reached. The threesquadrons of England, Russia and France cruising off Zante immediately cametogether. They consisted of twenty-nine vessels, ten ships of the line, tenfrigates, four brigs and five schooners. United in one column, undercommand of Codrington as senior admiral, they sailed for Navarino. 

Codrington was unhampered by instructions. He could feel sure of thesupport of his government, however, for in his pocket was a confidentialnote from the Duke of Clarence, the royal commander of the navy, encouraging him to "find" a quarrel with the Turkish admiral. 

[Sidenote: Navarino]

On October 20, the three squadrons sailed into Navarino harbor in battlearray, and came to anchor within pistol shot of the Turkish fleet, composed of seventy warships, forty transports and four fire-ships, anchored under cover of the land batteries. To windward of the Britishcorvette "Dartmouth" lay a Turkish brulote or fire-ship. A gig was sent todemand the withdrawal of this dangerous vessel. The Turks fired on the boatwith cannon-shot and musketry. When Codrington sent a boat to the Egyptianflagship, Moharem Bey, the admiral, opened with his guns. One shot struckthe "Asia, " Codrington's flagship, and his pilot was killed. Codringtonopened with all his guns. The British broadsides soon reduced the Egyptianflagship on one side, and a Turkish man-o'-war on the other side to merewrecks. The French and Russians joined in. The Moslem ships, which had asuperiority of 800 guns, replied with spirit. At close range they foughtthe combined fleets of their hated Christian adversaries. From thesurrounding shores 20, 000 Moslem soldiers discharged their guns into theland-locked harbor. The fight lasted from three in the afternoon untilseven in the evening. All bravery was in vain when pitted against Westernseamanship and gunnery. In the course of a short afternoon one Turkish shipafter another was sunk or blown to pieces. By sundown little was left ofthe Turkish fleet but a mass of wreckage. Only fifteen ships escaped, to bescuttled by their own sailors. Four thousand Moslem seamen lost theirlives. All night long the Turkish gunners on shore kept up their fire. Onthe morrow, when Ibrahim returned to Navarino, he found the waters of theharbor strewn with wreckage and the floating bodies of his sailors. One ofthe best accounts of the battle of Navarino has been given by Eugène Sue, the novelist, who then served as surgeon on one of the French vessels. 

[Sidenote: Greece saved]

The island of Hydra and with it all Greece was saved. The subsequent courseof Sultan Mahmoud was that of blind infatuation and fury. So far fromaccepting the European demands for an armistice, he put forward aperemptory request for an indemnity for the losses inflicted upon him. TheAmbassadors of the Powers quitted Constantinople. It was then that the lossof Canning was felt in England. Instead of pursuing the vigorous policy towhich it stood committed by the battle of Navarino, Great Britain hungback. Further intervention, with the profits accruing therefrom, was leftto Russia. 

1828

[Sidenote: Peace of Tourkmanchay]

The time for undisturbed intervention in the East was most auspicious forRussia. Peace with Persia was concluded early in the year. By the treaty ofTourkmanchay, Fet Aly of Persia ceded to Russia the provinces of Erivan andNakhitchevan and paid an indemnity of 20, 000, 000 roubles. The river Araxeswas recognized as the frontier of both states. England's ascendency inPersia was effectually set at naught. Even in China Emperor Taouk-Wang feltencouraged to issue edicts prohibiting England's pernicious opium trade onthe Chinese coast. Russia's armies were now let loose on Turkey. 

[Sidenote: Independence of Greece]

[Sidenote: Capodistrias summoned]

[Sidenote: Russia's double game]

[Sidenote: Understanding with France]

In the meanwhile, the Greeks profited by the Turkish check at Navarino toassert themselves as an independent people. On January 18, Capodistrias, the former Prime Minister of Russia, was summoned from Geneva and madepresident of the Greek republic. His term of office was to last sevenyears. This eminent statesman justified his selection by immediatebeneficent measures. A grand council of state was established and anational bank opened in Athens. With the help of France, immunity fromfurther incursions from the Turks was practically assured. To preserve the_status quo_ in Greece, Russia undertook to limit its single handed war onTurkey to operations on the mainland and in the Black Sea. Within thewaters of the Mediterranean the Czar proposed to continue as an armedneutral in harmony with the other Powers under the treaty of London, and, to allay the apprehensions of Austria, the Russian forces in the Balkanswere ordered to carry their line of operations as far as possible fromAustria's sphere of influence. A still more effectual check on Austria wassecured by the Czar's secret encouragement of French aspirations toward theRhine. Charles X. Exposed the plot when he said: "If the Czar attacksAustria, I will hold myself in reserve and regulate my conduct according tocircumstances. If Austria attacks, I will instantly march against her. " AsPrince Metternich put it, "The two powers were at one: France against theEuropean _status quo_; Russia against that of the Orient. "

[Sidenote: Holy War proclaimed in Turkey]

[Sidenote: Russia declares war]

[Sidenote: Early success]

Although the recent Turkish concessions to Russia left to the Czar noground for war, a pretext was supplied by Sultan Mahmoud himself. With trueTurkish infatuation he chose this moment to issue a direct challenge toRussia. The Czar was denounced as the instigator of the Greek rebellion, and the arch enemy of Islam. The treaty of Akerman was declared null andvoid. A holy war was proclaimed against the Muscovites. "The Turk does notcount his enemies. If all the unbelievers together unite against us we willenter on the war as a sacred duty, and trust to Allah for help. " Thisproclamation was followed by the expulsion of all Christians fromConstantinople. Unfortunately for the Sultan, his recent massacre of theJanizaries deprived him of the flower of his troops, and the reorganizationof the Turkish army, which was the motive of that act, was only under way. For seven years the Russians had been preparing for this war. Nicholas lostno time in answering the Sultan's challenge. He replied with a declarationof war on April 26. Field Marshal Wittgenstein crossed the Pruth, whilePaskievitch entered Asia Minor. The Russian troops overran the Roumanianprovinces, Wallachia and Moldavia. The Danube was crossed early in June, under the eyes of the Czar. Unable to meet their enemy in the open field, the Turks withdrew into their strongholds, Ibraila and Silistria on theDanube, Varna and Shumla in the Balkans. The Russians besieged and stormedIbraila, and thence pushed on through the Dubrudsha toward the Black Sea. In the meanwhile Paskievitch in Asia Minor defeated two Turkish armies andcaptured Erzeroum. 

[Sidenote: Brionis victorious]

[Sidenote: Surrender of Varna]

After these early successes the Russian operations began to lag. The Czar'spresence at headquarters was a source of embarrassment rather than ofstrength. Wittgenstein committed the error of dividing his army into threeslender columns. Too weak to conduct forward operations, they were held incheck before Silistria, Varna and Shumla. The Russian transport service, none too good at best, collapsed under the threefold strain. The ill-fedsoldiers wasted away by thousands. At length Homer Brionis, the commandantof Shumla, took advantage of the weakness of his besiegers. On September 24he broke out of Shumla and marched to the relief of Varna. The Czar, notwithstanding the evident weakness of his troops, ordered his cousin, Eugene of Wurtemberg, to check the Turkish advance with a frontal attack. The result was a severe defeat. Had Brionis marched onward Varna would havebeen relieved. He clung to Shumla, however, and the Turks at Varna wereforced to surrender. It was late in autumn now, and cold weather put a stopto the campaign for the year. The display of military weakness seriouslyinjured the prestige of Russia. The manifold mistakes of this campaign havebeen unsparingly laid bare in a famous monograph of Moltke. Henceforth thesuccessful prosecution of the war became a _sine quâ non_ for Russia. 

[Sidenote: Turks evacuate Morea]

[Sidenote: Vacillation in France]

During the progress of these events, French forces were landed in Greece. They occupied Navarino, Patras and Modon. The Turks gave in and consentedto evacuate the Morea. In France, the ultra-royalist measures of Charles X. Gave rise to an ever growing spirit of dissatisfaction. The death ofManuel, the outcast of the Chambers, was made the occasion of a greatpublic demonstration. The coalition of Liberals with a faction of Royalistsopposed to the Ministry had a brilliant triumph. Villèle's Cabinet offeredto resign. Instead of that, the King placed Martignac above him. "You aredeserting M. Villèle, " said the Princess Royal to the King. "It is yourfirst step downward from the throne. " The Duc de Broglie wrote: "Should wesucceed, after the fall of the present Ministry, in getting through theyear tranquilly, it will be a triumphant success. " By way of concession tothe Liberals, a royal edict suppressed all the educational institutionsmaintained by the Society of Jesus. The effect of this measure was offsetlater in the year by renewed imprisonment and a heavy fine inflicted uponBéranger for writing political songs. 

[Sidenote: South American revolutions]

[Sidenote: Mitré's résumé]

Latin attempts at parliamentary government in America were productive ofeven more discouraging results. In the Argentine Republic, the army, afterdefeating the Brazilians, was led against its own government by GeneralLavalle. The administration was overturned and President Dorrego was shot. General Rosas became the leader of the Federalist forces and took the fieldagainst the revolutionists. In Chile, the different parties contending forthe government patched up a precarious peace which was not destined to lastlong. In Colombia, the Nueva Granada of the Spaniards, Bolivar clung to thedictatorship. A new proclamation of dictatorial powers was issued by him onFebruary 10. Soon afterward an insurrection broke out against him led byPeadella. Scarcely had this uprising been quelled when an attempt was madeto kill Bolivar at his seat of government. Henceforth the history of LatinAmerica degenerated into an endless series of revolutions andcounter-revolutions. The only real strength supplied to the variousrepublican governments, so called, was that derived from strong personalcharacters, yielding one-man power. General Mitré, the great statesman andhistorian of South America, has drawn up this striking résumé of the fateof the foremost leaders of Spanish American revolutions. Their story is thequintessence of the subsequent turbulent career of Latin America during theNineteenth Century. 

[Sidenote: The gratitude of republics]

"The first revolutionists of La Paz and of Quito died on the scaffold. Miranda, the apostle of liberty, betrayed by his own people, died, aloneand naked, in a dungeon. Moreno, the priest of the Argentine revolution, and the teacher of the democratic idea, died at sea, and found a grave inthe ocean. Hidalgo, the first popular leader of Mexico, was executed as acriminal. Belgrano, the first champion of Argentine independence, who savedthe revolution, died obscurely, while civil war raged around him. O'Higgins, the hero of Chile, died in exile, as Carrera, his rival, haddone before him. Iturbide, the real liberator of Mexico, died a victim tohis own ambition. Montufar, the leader of the revolution at Quito, and hiscomrade Villavicencio, the promoter of that of Cartagena, were strangled. The first presidents of New Granada, Lozano and Torres, fell sacrifices tocolonial terrorism. Piar, who found the true base for the insurrection inColombia, was shot by Bolivar, to whom he had shown the way to victory. Rivadavia, the civil genius of South America, who gave form to herrepresentative institutions, died in exile. Sucre, the conqueror ofAyacucho, was murdered by his own men on a lonely road. Bolivar and SanMartin died in exile. "

[Sidenote: Dissension in North America]

[Sidenote: New tariff]

[Sidenote: North _vs. _ South]

In North America, likewise, the radical issues between the Northern andSouthern States produced ever more dissensions and discord. The question ofState sovereignty was prominent in the discussion of the tariff law of1828, and assumed more and more a sectional aspect. The North had grownrich and prosperous; when under free trade her energies were directed toagriculture and commerce. This was the more emphasized when, under aprotective policy, her labor and her capital were devoted to thedevelopment of manufactures. The Southern States had originally desired aprotective policy for their own supposed advantage; now they demanded freetrade for the same reason. But the North had put much money intomanufactures, and therefore demanded that Congress, which had placed her inthis position, should protect her in it. So the tariff of 1828, the highestadopted in the United States up to that time, was a more comprehensivemeasure than any which preceded it, and was adjusted throughout toencourage Northern industry. New England was largely at one on thissubject, and the Middle and Western States were practically united. Thus itbecame a question of party politics. From the tariff of 1828 dates a newera in American Federal legislation. The division between the North and theSouth began. Led by Daniel Webster, the New England States became advocatesof the protective system. The question, from being a national issue, becamedistinctly sectional. 

[Sidenote: Injustice to Indians]

[Sidenote: State rights precedent]

State sovereignty was the most important problem that presented itselfduring John Quincy Adams's administration. The trouble with the Creek andCherokee Indians in Georgia brought this issue to the front. These tribeswere now partially civilized, and were tilling their lands in contentment. Although they held their lands under treaty with the United States, Georgiasought to eject them. Instead of protecting the Indians the nationalgovernment allowed Georgia to have its way and sent them to the IndianTerritory. Thus was an individual State permitted to act in defiance of thenational government. 

[Sidenote: Industrial development]

[Sidenote: Webster's Dictionary]

[Sidenote: The "Book of Mormon"]

In other respects, it was a year of great prosperity and progress for theUnited States. The differences with British North America in regard toboundaries and to the proposed joint settlement of Oregon were amicablysettled by arbitration. The question of indemnities arising out of thedifferences with England was likewise satisfactorily adjusted. England'srecent introduction of railroads was eagerly followed up in America. Therails of the first American steam road were laid at Baltimore. They weremade of wood covered with iron bars. At Baltimore, too, the manufacture offire bricks was begun. Boston harbor beheld its first steamboat. The newcanal between Providence and Worcester was opened and produced an instantincrease of traffic for New England. In the other Eastern States factoriesgrew in number and new processes were introduced. Thus, the first varnishmade in America was produced at New York. Damask table linen wasmanufactured at Pittsburg. The first straw paper was turned out atMeadville, Pennsylvania. The planing mill was introduced. The FranklinInstitute at Philadelphia awarded to Stephen Boyden of Newark the premiumfor his malleable castings. Arts and literature likewise flourished. Amongthe new paintings exhibited during this year in America were Inman'sportrait of Halleck, Stuart's "Jared Sparks, " Greenough's "ChantingCherubs, " Dunlap's "Calvary" and Thomas Cole's "Garden of Eden. " At Bostonthe first lithographic press was established. Noah Webster published hisdictionary. Fenimore Cooper brought out his American romances, "ThePrairie" and "Red Rover, " while Richard H. Dana published his "Buccaneer. "A book of singular fruition was Joseph Smith's "Book of Mormon, " acorrupted version of Spaulding's "The Manuscript Found. "

[Sidenote: Heine's "Book of Songs"]

About the same time Wergeland in Norway published his tragedy, "Sinclair'sDeath. " In Germany the appearance of the "Book of Songs, " instantly raisedHeine to the foremost rank among German lyric poets. The early influence ofByron was revealed by his masterly translations from "Manfred, " and of theopening stanzas of "Childe Harold" and the lines addressed to "Inez. " Mostfelicitous was Heine's German version of Byron's famous farewell to hiswife:

 "Fare thee well, and if forever, Still forever, fare thee well. "

Heine's own lyrical pieces, now put forth in profusion, were fully equal tothose of his English prototype. The "Book of Songs" throughout breathedthe spirit of the poet's sad boast:

 "From my heavy sorrows Made I these little songs. . . . "

Heine's love songs, alone, by their subtile fusion of exquisite simplicitywith cynicism in a perverse form, won him immediate recognition outside ofGermany. This in itself has never been forgiven by the Germans. Suchprejudice did not deter German song composers from setting to music Heine'smelodious verses. Franz Schubert, the foremost song composer, just beforehis death found inspiration in Heine's poems for his famous "Swan Song. "

[Sidenote: Death of Schubert]

Schubert died in Vienna on the 19th of October, at the age of thirty-one. Notwithstanding his brief career and lack of systematic schooling, he wasone of the most prolific as well as original of German composers. Hisearliest extant song, "Hagar's Lament, " was written at the age of fourteen. Such early master works as "Margaret at the Spinning Wheel, " and the"Erl-King, " both written for Goethe's words, mark the swift development ofhis genius. During his eighteenth year, when he wrote the "Erl-King, " hecomposed no less than 144 songs. On one day alone he wrote eight. Besidesthis he composed two operettas, three song plays, three other stage pieces, four masses and several cantatas. In spite of his astonishing fecundity theyoung composer suffered signally from lack of recognition. His whole lifewas a long-drawn battle for subsistence. All his efforts to obtain a steadyincome were unavailing. Though he composed scores for no less thanseventy-two of Goethe's lyrics, that great poet was indifferent to theyoung composer. Beethoven, too, gave him but reluctant recognition. Notuntil the year of his death did Schubert succeed in giving a public concertthat was a pecuniary success. He was wretchedly underpaid by hispublishers, and his greatest works utterly failed of contemporaryrecognition. He died in the depths of poverty. In accordance with his lastrequest, Schubert was buried in the eastern graveyard at Waehring, close tothe grave of Beethoven. Schubert achieved immortal fame as the creator ofthe modern lyric song. No less original were his effective transfers of thesong motive to pianoforte music, as shown in his "Moments Musicales" and"Impromptus. " Some of his symphonies, notably that in C and the "Fragment"in B minor, are equal to those of Beethoven. 

[Sidenote: Moratin]

Spain lost one of her most distinguished modern playwrights by the death ofNicolas Fernandez de Moratin, a pupil of Goldoni, and the author of suchenduring Spanish comedies as "El Baron, " "La Mogigata" and "El Sí de LasNiñas. " Besides his plays, Moratin also wrote an authoritative work on the"Origins of the Spanish Stage. "

Toward the end of the year the disorders in Portugal appeared to havesubsided sufficiently to warrant the withdrawal of the British troops. DomMiguel, the regent, promptly proclaimed himself King. After having graspedthe reins of power, one of his first measures was the dissolution of theseven ancient estates of Portugal. In Spain King Ferdinand VII. , inDecember, celebrated his wedding to Maria Christina of Naples. 

[Sidenote: Huskisson]

[Sidenote: O'Connell]

[Sidenote: Robert Peel]

Domestic affairs in England at this turn furnished an all-absorbing topic. In the Cabinet, Huskisson's strong stand on the rotten borough question, with his desire to accord Parliamentary representation to the workingpeople of Birmingham, had caused his expulsion from the Duke ofWellington's councils. His resignation was followed by that of the formermembers of the Canning Cabinet. Among those chosen to supply their placewas Vesey Fitzgerald, member for County Clare in Ireland. His acceptance ofoffice compelled him to go back to his constituents. It was then thatDaniel O'Connell, the great leader of the Catholic Association in Ireland, saw his chance to strike a blow for Catholic emancipation. Thoughdisqualified from sitting in the Commons as a Catholic, O'Connell ranagainst Fitzgerald. From the first Fitzgerald's cause was hopeless. Thegreat landowners, to be sure, supported his cause with all their wealth andinfluence, but the small freeholders, to a man, voted against him. After afive days' poll, Fitzgerald withdrew from the contest. The result was thatthe hitherto irresistible influence of England's territorial aristocracylay shattered. The Protestant conservatives of England were filled withconsternation. Every debate in Parliament showed that the Catholic partywas daily gaining strength, while the resistance of the government becameweaker. It was clear that something must be done. At this crisis RobertPeel, hitherto the champion of the Protestant party in the House ofCommons and Cabinet, became convinced of the necessity of yielding. He lostno time in imparting this conviction to the Duke of Wellington, his chief, and therewith offered his resignation. Wellington had learned a lesson fromthe events that followed Huskisson's withdrawal. He refused to let Peel go. Reluctantly he became a party to Peel's change of views. As late asDecember 11, Wellington wrote a letter to the Catholic primate of Ireland, deferring all hope of Catholic emancipation to the distant future. Beforethe year closed, however, Wellington, armed with the arguments of Peel, wrung from the King the Crown's consent to concede Catholic emancipationwithout delay. Peel, as the author of this radical measure, consented totake charge of the bill in Parliament. 

1829

[Sidenote: Wellington's change of front]

At the opening of Parliament in England, the concessions of the governmentin regard to Catholic emancipation were revealed in the royal speech, delivered by commission. The great Tory party, thus taken unawares, wasfurious. The Protestant clergy opposed the bill with all their influenceand clamored for a dissolution of Parliament. In the excited state ofpublic feeling, an immediate appeal to the country would undoubtedly havewrecked the bill. Unable to carry out such a plan, the Tory oppositionshowed itself ready to unite with any party in order to defeat the measureand wreak vengeance on its framers. Within the Cabinet itself, Wellington'schange brought him bitter opposition. When the bill was brought intoParliament in March, the Attorney-General, Sir C. Wetherell, not contentwith refusing to draw the bill, sprang up to explain his position. 

[Sidenote: Wetherell's attack]

"Am I, then, " he exclaimed, "to blame for refusing to do that, in thesubordinate office of Attorney-General, which a more eminent adviser of theCrown, only two years ago, declared he would not consent to do? I dare themto attack me! I have no speech to eat up. I have not to say that a thingis black one day and white another. I would rather remain as I am, thehumble member for Plympton, than be guilty of such treachery, suchcontradiction, such unexplained conversion, such miserable and contemptibleapostasy. . . . They might have turned me out of office, but I would not bemade such a dirty tool as to draw _that_ bill. I have therefore declined tohave anything to do with it. " Of course, Wetherell was at once dismissed. 

[Sidenote: Defeat of Peel]

[Sidenote: Emancipation of English Catholics]

But an opportunity to avenge his dismissal was soon afforded. Robert Peel, since he was not suffered to withdraw from the Ministry, felt in honorbound to go back to his constituents at Oxford. The Protestant party thathad sent him to Parliament now opposed him with a simple country gentleman, in no wise his Parliamentary equal. Peel was crushingly defeated. On theother hand, the Whig party almost in a body went over to the government. With their help the Catholic Emancipation act was passed. The Tories waitedonly for the time to strike down their former leaders. 

[Sidenote: Reforms in India]

[Sidenote: Fanny Kemble]

[Sidenote: Humphry Davy]

[Sidenote: Thomas Young]

The precarious position of Wellington's Ministry at home was offset by afirm policy abroad. In British India the new Governor-General, LordBentinck, upheld British prestige by his firm abolition of the nativecustom of burning widows and by his extermination of the roving gangs ofThugs. In regard to the Eastern Question and the war in the Balkans, England came to an agreement with Austria to frustrate Russia's plans withrespect to Constantinople. Thanks to this _entente cordiale_ between thetwo countries, enterprising English capitalists and engineers were allowedto put into operation the first line of steamboats that plied the waters ofthe Danube. Among other minor events of interest to Englishmen during thisyear, may be mentioned the first public appearance of Fanny Kemble, theactress, and the earliest boat race between student crews from theUniversities of Oxford and Cambridge. England lost two of her famousscientists during this year--Sir Humphry Davy and Thomas Young. Davy wasborn in 1778 and died in Geneva. Besides inventing the miner's safety lamp, with which his name will be forever associated, he made valuableexperiments in photography; discovered that the causes of chemical andelectrical attraction are identical; produced potassium and sodium by theelectric current; proved the transformation of energy into heat; formulateda theory of the properties of particles of matter (or atoms); and maderemarkable experiments which led to the theory of the binary composition ofchemical compounds. Young was born in 1773. At Cambridge they called him"Phenomenon Young, " because he was said to know everything. In truth, Youngdeveloped into the most profound English scientist of the century. Whenonly twenty he was asked to read papers before the Royal Society. In 1801he delivered the Bakerian lecture, his subject being "The Theory of Lightand Colors. " That lecture marks an epoch in physical science; for itbrought forward for the first time convincing proof of the correctness ofthe undulatory theory of light. The intangible substance which pulsatesand undulates to produce light, Young christened the "luminiferous ether. "And the term is still to be found in our scientific vocabulary. 

 [Illustration: AMERICAN INVENTORS Painted by C. Schussele

 1 Dr Morton, Etherization 2 Bogardus, Iron Architecture 3 Colt, Revolvers 4 McCormick, Reapers 5 Saxton, Coast Survey Machinery 6 Goodyear, Vulcanizing Gum Elastic 7 Cooper, Gelatine 8 Prof Henry, Electricity as a Motor 9 Mott, Works in Iron 10 Dr Nott, Management of Heat 11 Ericsson, Caloric Engine Monitors, etc. 12 Sickles, Steam Cut off, etc. 13 Morse, Telegraph 14 Burden, Horseshoe Machine 15 Hoe, Rotary Press 16 Bigelow, Carpet Loom 17 Jennings, Friction Matches 18 Blanchard, Eccentric Lathe 19 Howe, Sewing Machine]

[Sidenote: War in the Balkans]

[Sidenote: Battle of Kulevtcha]

[Sidenote: Fall of Adrianople]

[Sidenote: Powers save Turkey]

[Sidenote: Russia's hold on Turkey]

In the Balkans Russia's war with Turkey was waged with vigor. The wintermonths had been spent in bringing up reserves. The Czar withdrew frominterference at headquarters, and Wittgenstein was superseded by GeneralDiebitsch, a trained Prussian soldier. This general made preparations tocross the Balkans as soon as Silistria should have fallen, without waitingfor the fall of Shumla. On the other side of the Balkans the Russian fleetmade a diversion so as to prepare the way for joining forces on the banksof the Black Sea. In accordance with these plans Diebitsch sent a strongforce against Silistria. Before anything had been effected in front ofSilistria, Reshid Pasha, the Turkish Grand Vizier, moved eastward fromShumla and took the field against the weak Russian forces at Varna. He losttime, however, and suffered himself to be held at bay by the Russians. Diebitsch hurried across Bulgaria in forced marches. Coming up in Reshid'srear he could either fall upon Shumla or force the Turks to open battle. Hechose the latter course. The Turks, harried in their rear, attempted toregain the roads to Shumla. On June 10, the two forces met in a pitchedbattle at Kulevtcha. Reshid was badly defeated, losing 5, 000 men andforty-three guns, but made good his retreat to Shumla. Diebitsch had to laysiege to Shumla. Soon after this, Silistria fell into the hands of theRussians. Turning Varna over to the Bulgarians, and leaving a blockadingforce before Shumla, Diebitsch boldly crossed the Balkans. The resistanceof the Turks was weak. On August 19, the Russians appeared beforeAdrianople. In the Black Sea the Russian frigate "Mercury" defeated twoTurkish men-of-war. The Turks were seized with terror. Adrianoplesurrendered without a blow. In the Morea the Turks evacuated Tripolitza andMissolonghi and acknowledged the independence of Greece. The ports of theBlack Sea, almost as far south as the Bosphorus, fell into Russian hands. Flying columns of the Russian army penetrated down to the Ægean coast andas far as the Euxine. Yet the Russians were so weak in numbers thatanything like determined resistance could easily have checked them. As itwas, all Turkish resistance collapsed before the Russian onward marchtoward Constantinople. The Sultan appealed to the Powers for help. Englandand Austria intervened, and peace was forced upon Russia. The treaty ofAdrianople, signed on September 14, confirmed to Russia its protectorateover the Danubian principalities. No Mussulman was to be permitted to staywithin the principalities, and all Turkish lands were to be sold withineighteen months. No fortified point on the left bank of the Danube was leftto Turkey. Territory in Asia was ceded to Russia, as well as the ports ofPoti and Anapa on the Black Sea. The waters of this sea were thrown open tointernational navigation; and the straits of Constantinople and theDardanelles were declared open to the merchant ships of all powers atpeace with the Porte. The payment of a money indemnity of 2, 000, 000 roublesto Russia was deferred, thus leaving to Russia the means for exertingpressure on the Yildiz Kiosk. 

[Sidenote: French ambitions]

[Sidenote: Polignac Prime Minister]

[Sidenote: Liberal opposition]

Russia's acceptance of foreign mediation at Adrianople broughtdisappointment to France. Reverting to Napoleonic ambitions, King Charles'sMinisters had proposed a partition of the Ottoman Empire on the basis of ageneral rearrangement of Europe. Russia was to have the Danubian provincesnear the Austrian empire, Bosnia and Servia; Prussia was to have Saxony andHolland; Belgium and the Rhine provinces were to fall to France, and theKing of Holland was to be installed in the Sultan's divan atConstantinople. It was a chimerical project which it was hoped might avertthe impending troubles at home by dazzling acquisitions abroad. Aformidable majority had been raised up against the government by itspersistent encroachments upon the freedom of speech and of the press. Martignac's Ministry resigned and Prince Polignac, a crony of the King, wasput in his place. In August, the "Journal des Débats" thundered againsthim: "Now again is broken that bond of love and confidence which joined thepeople to the monarch. The people pay a million of taxes to the law; theywill not pay two millions on the orders of the Minister. What will he dothen? Will he bring to his assistance the force of the bayonet? Bayonets inthese days have become intelligent. They know how to defend the law. Unhappy France, unhappy King!" The Bertins were prosecuted for thatarticle and condemned. It only made matters worse. Societies were formedthroughout France to refuse the payment of taxes should the governmentattempt to raise them without the consent of the Chambers. In the face ofthis growing popular opposition, the King and his Minister resolved toprepare an expedition against Algiers. As Guizot put it, "They hope to getrid of their difficulties through conquest abroad and a resulting majorityat home. " The death of Paul Barras about this time served to reviverevolutionary memories in France. 

[Sidenote: The Schlegels]

The memory of Madame de Staël and her struggle for freedom of speech and ofliterary opinion against Napoleon were recalled by the death of herlong-time friend and biographer, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm von Schlegel, brother of August Wilhelm, the German poet. Karl studied at Göttingen andLeipzig, devoting most of his time to the classics. It was his ideal tobecome the "Winckelmann of Greek Literature. " Schlegel's first publicationwas "Greeks and Romans. " In 1798 he wrote "Lucinda, " an unfinished romance, and "Alarcos, " a tragedy. In 1803 he joined the Roman Church, and severalyears later was appointed an imperial secretary at Vienna. He served asConsul of Legation for Austria in the German Diet at Frankfort. Besides hispublished lectures, Schlegel's chief works are: "History of the Old and NewLiterature" (1815), "Philosophies of Life" (1828), "Philosophy of History"(1829), and the posthumous work "Philosophy of Language. " His wife, adaughter of Moses Mendelssohn, was the author of several works publishedunder Schlegel's name. During the same year Pope Leo XII. Died at Rome andwas succeeded by Pius VIII. 

[Sidenote: Andrew Jackson inaugurated]

In the United States of North America, John Quincy Adams was succeeded byAndrew Jackson. Calhoun was re-elected Vice-President. A motley crowd ofbackwoodsmen and mountaineers, who had supported Jackson, crushed into theWhite House shouting for "Old Hickory. " For the first time the outgoingPresident absented himself from the inauguration of his successor. He hadremained at his desk until midnight of the previous day signingappointments which would deprive Jackson of so much more patronage. Jacksontook his revenge by the instant removal of 167 political opponents. Hisremark, "To the victor belong the spoils, " became a byword of Americanpolitics. The system of rotation in office dates from his administration. 

[Sidenote: "The Kitchen Cabinet"]

[Sidenote: "Pocket Vetoes"]

[Sidenote: Peggy O'Neill]

Jackson's first Cabinet was headed by Van Buren, with Samuel D. Ingham forSecretary of the Treasury. The President also encouraged a set ofconfidential advisers, among whom Kendall, Lewis and Hill were the mostinfluential. They came to be known as the "Kitchen Cabinet. " The regularmembers of the Cabinet were treated as mere head clerks. In one weekJackson vetoed more bills than any of his predecessors had done in fouryears. Other bills he held back until after the adjournment of Congress, and then failed to sign them. The bills remained, as it were, in thePresident's pocket. This new method of vetoing became notorious as the"Pocket Veto. " In other respects Jackson's first administration was stormy. International relations were repeatedly threatened by the long-standingcontroversy over the indemnity for French spoliations. An adjustment of theindemnity claims with Denmark was likewise forced to an issue. At home, Jackson's abandonment of the principle of extreme protection and hishostility to the United States Bank lost him the support of the looseconstructionists. As a Freemason, the President was likewise opposed by thenew anti-Masonic party in politics. In a quarrel over the character of thewife of Secretary Eaton, the beautiful Peggy O'Neill, all Washington wasinvolved. It was commonly believed that the subsequent break-up ofJackson's Cabinet was caused by the social bickerings among the wives ofthe members. Van Buren was the first to resign. Soon he was appointedMinister to England, but the Senate rejected him through the vote ofVice-President Calhoun. Jackson afterward took his revenge by defeatingCalhoun's aspirations to the Presidency through Van Buren. The new Cabinetconsisted of Livingston, McLean, Cass, Woodbury, Tracy and Berry. By reasonof the new protective tariff, the States of Georgia and South Carolina, toward the close of 1829, returning to the Kentucky Resolutions of 1799, affirmed the right of any State to declare null and void any act ofCongress which the State Legislature deemed unconstitutional. This was thedoctrine of nullification which grew to secession in 1860. 

[Sidenote: American development]

The industrial progress of the United States was little affected by thepolitical dissensions during Jackson's first Presidential year. On July 4, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was opened. The first trip of an Americanlocomotive was made on the Carbondale and Honesdale road. Throughout thecountry many canals were opened; to wit, the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, the Delaware and Hudson, and the Oswego in New York; the Farmington inConnecticut, and the Cumberland and Oxford Canal in Maine. Among theliterary productions of the year were a collection of minor poems by EdgarAllan Poe, Parkman's earlier essays, Cooper's "Wept of the Wish-ton-Wish, "Sparks's "John Ledyard, " and Washington Irving's "Granada. "

[Sidenote: Early automobile vehicles]

In England the first successful experiments with steam-propelled stagecoaches were made by Sir Goldsworth Gurney. These machines were theprecursors of the latter-day automobile vehicle. This account of a ride inthe Gurney stage coach was published by the "United Service Journal":

[Sidenote: A contemporary description]

"We numbered four in a coach attached to the steam carriage, and we hadtravelled without difficulty or mishap as far as Longford, where they wererepairing the bridge over the Cambria. On this was a large pile of bricks, so high as to conceal what was happening on the other side. Precisely atthe moment we began to cross the bridge the mail-coach from Bath arrived onthe other end. As soon as we perceived it we shouted to the driver to takecare; but, as he was not aware of the extraordinary vehicle he was goingto meet, he did not slacken speed. To avoid a collision, Mr. Gurney guidedour steam carriage into the pile of bricks. Some damage to our apparatusresulted, but was repaired in less than a quarter of an hour. As to thehorses of the coach, they had taken the bit between their teeth and had tobe cut loose. 

"Upon our arrival at Melksham, we found that there was a fair in progress, and the streets were full of people. Mr. Gurney made the carriages travelas slowly as possible, in order to injure no one. Unfortunately, in thattown the lower classes are strongly opposed to the new method oftransportation. Excited by the postilions, who imagined that the adoptionof Mr. Gurney's steam carriage would compromise their means of livelihood, the multitude that encumbered the streets arose against us, heaped us withinsults, and attacked us with stones. The chief engineer and another manwere seriously injured. Mr. Gurney feared we could not pursue our journey, as two of his best mechanics had need of surgical aid. He turned thecarriage into the court of a brewer named Ales, and during the night it wasguarded by constables. "

[Sidenote: Jobard]

[Sidenote: Jobard's impressions]

To have assisted at the experiment of Gurney's steam carriage was, in thosedays, almost a title to glory. These carriages became speedily one of thecuriosities of London. Foreign travellers who printed accounts of theirjourneys, did not fail to devote a chapter to the new means of locomotion. Jobard, the Belgian savant and economist, was of the number, and so wereCuchette, St. Germain Leduc and C. G. Simon, three prominent scientificwriters of that time. Jobard's impressions noted down at the time areworthy of record: "My first visit in England was to the starting station ofSir Goldsworth Gurney's steam omnibus, running between London and Bath. This carriage does not differ materially from other stage-coaches, nor hasit had any serious mishap as yet. For my benefit it manoeuvred back andforth over the street pavement and later on the smooth macadam of thehighway, without any apparent difficulties of guiding. The drivers of otherstage-coaches are agreed that the thing is a success, and that before longit will do them much harm. "

[Sidenote: Lamarck]

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, a forerunner of Charles Darwin died in this year. As early as 1801 Lamarck had outlined his ideas of the transmutation ofspecies and attempted to explain the manner in which that transmutation hadbeen brought about. There is no such thing as a "species, " he held; thereare only individuals descended from a common stock and modified instructure to suit their environment. Lamarck was scoffed at in his owntime; he was respected as a naturalist, but unrecognized as a prophet. 

1830

[Sidenote: First sewing machine]

Early in the year, Bartholemy Thimonnier, a French tailor, took out apatent for his invention of a sewing machine. It was an invention destinedto revolutionize the manufacture of clothing and the matter of dress in allcivilized countries. Thimonnier's device was a chain stitch sewing machineworked with a treadle. It had taken the inventor, ignorant as he was ofmechanics, four years of painful application to perfect it. The first torecognize the real value of the invention was M. Beunier, supervisor ofmines at Paris. He took Thimonnier to Paris and installed him as a partnerand manager of a large clothing firm that manufactured army uniforms. Theyset up eighty machines and did so well with them that the workmen of Paris, profiting by the revolutionary disturbances of the times, wreaked theirvengeance on the new labor-saving device by wrecking the establishment. Theinventor was compelled to flee for life. During the same year, anotherFrenchman, Charles Barbier, invented the system of raised printing for theblind. 

[Sidenote: Sir Thomas Lawrence]

Sir Thomas Lawrence, the celebrated English portrait painter, died at theoutset of the year. In his early youth at Bristol and Oxford, this artistshowed marked talent for portraiture, and became a pupil of Sir JoshuaReynolds at the Royal Academy. His delicate pastel portraits obtained greatvogue in the most aristocratic circles of London. On the death of hismaster, Lawrence was appointed painter to the King. He became thefashionable portrait painter of the age. As such, Lawrence was summoned toAix-la-Chapelle during the International Congress of 1818 to paint thevarious dignitaries of the Holy Alliance. While at Vienna he painted thefamous pastel of Napoleon's son, the little King of Rome--by all odds themost charming of all the many likenesses of that unfortunate eaglet. Lawrence returned to England a few days after the death of Benjamin West, and was immediately elected to succeed him as President of the RoyalAcademy. He held this office for ten years, until his death. Among the mostnoted works of Lawrence, executed during this time, were the portraits ofMaster Lambton and of the Duke of Wellington. Lawrence's ambitious essaysbeyond the limits of portrait painting, such as his once celebrated"Satan, " obtained no lasting success. After the artist's death a number ofhis best known canvases were collected for permanent exhibition in theWaterloo Gallery of Windsor. 

[Sidenote: Lister's microscope]

In this year Joseph Jackson Lister, an English amateur optician, contributed to the Royal Society the famous paper detailing his recentexperiments with the compound microscope. Aided by Tully, a celebratedoptician, Lister succeeded in making of the microscope a practicalscientific implement rather than a toy. With the help of his owninstrument Lister was able to settle the long mooted question as to thetrue form of the red corpuscles of the human blood. 

[Sidenote: Conquest of Algiers]

[Sidenote: England's vain protest]

In the face of the menacing attitude of the liberal elements of France, which had been rendered more acute by the King's increase of the Chamber ofPeers to the detriment of the Deputies, the French Government launchedforth upon the conquest of Algiers. It was believed to be an auspiciousmoment. The Sultan's reluctant acknowledgment of the independence ofGreece, April 25, showed how powerless he was. The Dey of Algiers hadinsulted France by his discourteous treatment of a French consul. Herefused the satisfaction demanded by France. On the failure of a blockadeto reduce the city of Algiers, an expedition commanded by Bourmont set outfor Africa in spring. A landing was successfully effected by the middle ofJune. Early in July, Algiers was taken. Immense spoils, valued at48, 000, 000 francs, were seized by the French. England grew apprehensive. George IV. Had just died (June 26), and the Duke of Wellington, who wasretained in power by the new king, William IV. , demanded from the FrenchGovernment an engagement to retain none of its new conquests. "Never, " saidLord Alverdon to Lavel, the French Ambassador, "never did France, under theRepublic or under the Empire, give England such serious ground of complaintas she has been giving us for the last year. " It was in vain. The seethingspirit of the people in France seemed to demand an outlet. The victoriesof French arms in Africa were cast before the French people as a sop. Thepermanent annexation of Algiers was announced. It was too late. 

[Sidenote: "Hernani"]

[Sidenote: Théophile Gautier]

[Sidenote: Honoré de Balzac]

[Sidenote: French Government outvoted]

[Sidenote: Charles Xth's Coup d'État]

The heated spirit of the rising generation had already been revealed in thehysterical demonstrations that occurred on the occasion of the firstperformance of Victor Hugo's "Hernani" on February 25. Conspicuous amongthe leaders of the literary tumult was Théophile Gautier, then a youth ofeighteen, but already an author and an _Hugolâtre intransigeant_, who ledthe claque on this first night resplendent in a rose-colored doublet andstreaming long hair. With him was young Balzac, who had just won renown andnotoriety by his "Physiologie du Mariage, " and the first of his "ContesDrôlatiques. " In March, the Liberals in the Chambers declared their want ofconfidence in the government by a majority of forty votes. Charles X. , staking all on the success of his Algerian campaign, dissolved theChambers. "No compromise, no surrender, " was the motto of the Royalists asthey appealed to the people. The result was an overwhelming majorityagainst the government. No less than 202 deputies pledged to oppositionwere elected. The whole of France was now waiting for the _coup d'état_, and Europe waited with France. "Your two weakest points are the electorallaw and the liberty of the press, " said Metternich to the French Ambassadorin Vienna, "but you cannot touch them except through the Chambers. A _coupd'état_ would ruin the dynasty. " The Czar, in St. Petersburg, spoke in alike strain to the Duc de Mortemart. Charles X. Could not be restrained. "There are only Lafayette and I who have not changed since 1789, " said theKing. On July 24, a Sunday, after attending mass, Charles X. Signed theorders that were to rid him of his Chambers. All his Ministers signed withhim. "For life and for death, gentlemen, " said the King. "Count upon me asI count upon you. "

[Sidenote: Thiers]

[Sidenote: Marmont]

[Sidenote: The July revolution]

The Orders in Council appeared in the "Moniteur" the next day. It was saidthat Sauvo, the editor of the "Moniteur, " as he gave the order to go topress, exclaimed: "God protect the King. " The publication of the edictcaused an instant extraordinary fall in stocks. Thiers thundered against itin the "Journal des Débats. " Government troops seized the printing pressesof the leading journals. Murmuring crowds gathered on the streets. The Kingappointed Marshal Marmont commandant of Paris. It was the last stroke, forMarmont was popularly execrated as the betrayer of Napoleon. The NationalGuards brought forth their old tricolor cockades of the Revolution and theEmpire. Though military patrols tramped the streets, the night passedquietly. Next morning all work stopped, and the people fell to buildingbarricades. Whole streets were torn up. The pupils of the PolytechnicSchool broke open the gates and the tricolor flag floated on the towers ofNotre Dame. Marshal Marmont reported to the King: "Sire, it is no longer ariot, but a revolution. There is urgent need for your Majesty to take meansof pacification. Thus the honor of the Crown may yet be saved. To-morrowit will be too late. " The King's answer was to declare Paris under a stateof siege. The so-called "Great Week, " or "three days' revolution, " hadbegun. The bourgeoisie or middle class and all the students joined therevolt. Before nightfall 600 barricades blocked the streets of Paris. Everyhouse became a fortress. "Where do the rebels get their powder?" asked theKing in astonishment. "From the soldiers, " was the curt reply of theProcureur-General. 

[Sidenote: Charles X. Obstinate]

[Sidenote: Fall of Ministry]

[Sidenote: An interim republic]

[Sidenote: Duke of Orleans summoned]

In the evening the Hôtel de Ville was captured. That evening the Ministerstried to enlighten the King, but he only replied: "Let the insurgents laydown their arms. " While the discharges of artillery shook the windows ofthe palace the King played whist. Next day two line regiments openly joinedthe revolt. The Louvre was stormed. Still the King at St. Cloud would notyield. "They exaggerate the danger, " said he. "I know what concessionswould lead to. I have no wish to ride like my brother on a cart. " Insteadof concessions he vested the command in the Dauphin, having grownsuspicious of Marmont. The mob sacked the Tuileries and hoisted thetricolor flag on the clock tower. At the Hôtel de Ville a municipalcommission was installed, composed of Lafayette, Casimir Périer, GeneralLobau and Audry de Puyraveau. At last, when it was too late, the Kingcountermanded his obnoxious orders and dismissed Polignac with hisMinistry. The people no longer paid attention to the King's acts. He wasdeclared deposed. A republic was proclaimed and its presidency offered toLafayette. But the old hero declined the honor. With Thiers he threw hisinfluence in favor of the Duke of Orleans. The Duke of Orleans, the son ofPhilip Egalité, of Revolutionary fame, was invited to Paris to exercise thefunctions of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. The deposed King at St. Cloud hastened to confirm the appointment. The Duke of Orleans respectfullydeclined the royal appointment. "You cannot receive things from everybody, "said Dupont. General Lafayette soon came to pay his respects. "You know, "said he, "that I am a republican, and consider the Constitution of theUnited States as the most perfect that has been devised. " "So do I, "replied the Duke; "but do you think that in the present condition of Franceit would be advisable for us to adopt it?" "No, " answered Lafayette; "whatthe French people must now have is a popular throne, surrounded byrepublican institutions. " "That is just my opinion, " said Prince LouisPhilippe. 

[Sidenote: Charles X. Abdicates]

Lafayette's conversation with the prince led to the so-called programme ofthe Hôtel de Ville. "I shall not take the crown, " said the Duke of Orleans, "I shall receive it from the people on the conditions it suits them toimpose. A charter will henceforth be a reality. " At last Charles X. Abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. The Duke ofOrleans refused to recognize the claims of Henri V. , and France and Europewere with him. Charles X. Relinquished further hopes. 

[Sidenote: Louis Philippe, King of France]

The Dauphin, formerly Duke of Angoulême, in like manner resigned his rightsto his nephew. The act was signed on the 2d of August. Charles X. Now setout for Normandy with his guards, commanded by Marmont, and, on August 16, embarked at Cherbourg in two American vessels, with the Dauphin andDauphiness, the Duchess of Berry, the Duke of Bordeaux, and a numeroussuite of attendants. The ships sailed for England, and, anchoring atSpithead, the royal fugitives took up their residence at Lulworth Castle, in Dorsetshire, but eventually removed to Holyrood Castle at Edinburgh, which was placed at their disposal by the British Government. On August 9, Louis Philippe, on the formal request of the two Chambers, accepted thecrown of France with a solemn oath to uphold the Constitution. 

[Sidenote: Louis Philippe's previous career]

[Sidenote: Sojourn in America]

[Sidenote: "Le Roi Citoyen"]

[Sidenote: A new power in France]

The overthrow of the Bourbons was not a revolution in the sense of thegreat French Revolution of the previous century. It resulted chiefly in thetransfer of government from one political faction to another. LouisPhilippe, raised to the throne by reason of his supposed democraticprinciples, rather than for his royal lineage, was a Republican only inname. His early education, together with that of his brothers, was directedby the Countess of Genlis. On the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, theyoung Prince, then Duke of Chartres, fought with distinction by the side ofKellermann and Dumouriez at Valmy and Jemmapes. He accompanied the latterwhen he took refuge in the camp of the imperialists in April, 1793. Afterthe death of his father, Philippe Egalité, refusing to bear arms againstFrance, he joined his sister and Madame de Genlis in Switzerland, wherethey lived for some time under an assumed name. In 1795 he travelled intothe north of Germany, Sweden and Norway, and in the following year sailedfrom Hamburg for the United States of America. Here he was joined by histwo brothers, and after some years in America, during which they were oftenin distress, the three princes went to England in 1800. The Duke of Orleansnow obtained a reconciliation with the heads of his family, Louis XVIII. And the Count of Artois. Subsequently he became a guest at the court ofFerdinand IV. , the dispossessed King of Naples, at Palermo; and here wascelebrated, in November, 1809, his marriage with the Princess Marie Amelie, daughter of that monarch. Upon the restoration of Louis XVIII. Here-entered France, and took his seat in the Chamber of Peers; but havingfallen under suspicion of disaffection, he once more retired to England anddid not reappear in France till 1817. During the remainder of the reign ofLouis he took no part in public affairs and lived in tranquillity at hisfavorite villa of Neuilly. He was a "citizen king, " only in so far as hesent his children to the public schools and walked about the streets ofParis with an umbrella under his arm. The most lasting effect in France ofthe July revolution was the obliteration of clerical influences in theadministration and public education. The Royalist nobility likewise lostwhat political ascendency they had regained during the Restoration. Henceforth the party in power was that of the bourgeoisie or great middleclass of France, of which Louis Philippe himself was the self-constitutedrepresentative. 

[Sidenote: Revolution in Belgium]

[Sidenote: Bombardment of Antwerp]

[Sidenote: Talleyrand's last mission]

[Sidenote: Belgian Independence recognized]

Outside of France, on the contrary, the effects of the short revolutionwere far-reaching. In the Netherlands ever increasing friction between theDutch-speaking Protestants of Holland and the French Catholics of Belgiumhad excited the country to the point of revolution. Recent repressivemeasures on the part of the Dutch Government made matters worse. On August25, the performance, at the Brussels Opera House, of Auber's "La Muette diPortici, " with its representation of a revolutionary rising in Naples, gavethe signal for revolt. From the capital the insurrection spread throughoutBelgium. The King summoned the States-General to The Hague and agreed to anadministrative separation of Belgium and Holland; but the storm was notquelled. On the appearance of Dutch troops in Brussels, barricades wereerected and the insurgents drove the soldiers out of the city. For severaldays fighting continued in the outskirts. A provisional government declaredthe independence of Belgium. Mediation by a conference in Holland wasfrustrated by the bombardment of Antwerp by its Dutch garrison. The FrenchLiberals were burning to give assistance. Austria and Russia stood ready toprevent their intervention by force of arms. Louis Philippe, while holdingthe French war party in check, felt constrained to look about him for anally. In this extremity Prince Talleyrand, the old-time diplomat of theBourbons, the Republic, the Empire and the Restoration, now in hiseightieth year, was sent to London. He approached Wellington and the newKing with such consummate address that an understanding was soon reachedwith England, which set at naught all projects of European armedintervention on behalf of the Prince of Orange. Such intervention could nothave failed to drag the French into war. Now it was agreed that theregulation of Belgian affairs should be submitted to a conference atLondon. In the interim Belgian independence was accepted in effect andhostilities ended. 

[Sidenote: Leopold of Coburg declines Greek crown]

In Greece, the government of Capodistrias was beset with such difficultiesthat it was decided to invite some European prince to set up aconstitutional monarchy. The throne was offered to Prince Leopold ofCoburg, the husband of the late Princess Charlotte of England. Leopoldaccepted, but when he learned that the Powers would not grant completeindependence to Greece, without restoring Ætolia, Thessaly and the fertileislands of Samos and Candia to the Sultan, he withdrew his acceptance. 

[Sidenote: Revolution in Poland]

[Sidenote: War declared on Russia]

Peace had scarcely been restored in the Netherlands when the spirit ofrevolt, travelling northward, seized the ardent people of Poland. Alexander's recognition of home rule in Poland had given the Poles aparliament and army of their own. After the Polish conspiracies at theoutset of Nicholas's reign, Alexander's successor would no longer invokethe Polish Diet, and Russian troops and officers were sent into Poland. Ofcourse this was bitterly resented. Plans for an uprising had already beenmade in 1828 during the Turkish war. The example of the successful risingsin Paris and Brussels now brought matters to a head. On November 29, therevolt broke out in Warsaw. The Polish regiments of the garrison joined theinsurgents. The Russian troops, finding the odds against them, withdrew. Grandduke Constantine narrowly escaped with his life. A provisional PolishDiet was convoked. Prince Czartoryski was elected President. The Poles, inremembrance of the late Czar's kindly attitude toward them, flatteredthemselves that the fruits of their revolution might be left to them. Lubecki, the former chief of the Imperial Council in Poland, with twoassociates, set out for St. Petersburg to voice the Polish demands forconstitutional government before the Czar. It was even proposed thatconstitutional government should be conceded to those Russian provincesthat had formerly belonged to Poland. On the way to St. Petersburg the eyesof the envoys were opened as they met the formidable columns of Russiantroops marching to the Polish frontier. Forthwith, Lubecki forsook thecause of Poland. His colleagues found difficulty in obtaining a hearingfrom the Czar. When they were finally admitted to the imperial palace, Nicholas gave them clearly to understand that Poland had but twoalternatives, unconditional submission or complete subjugation. When thisanswer reached Warsaw it was too late to swing the outside Polish provincesand Lithuania into the movement. Yet the Polish Diet, in a spirit ofpatriotic frenzy amounting to national suicide, passed a resolutiondeclaring that the House of Romanoff had forfeited the Polish crown. Feverish preparations were made for a life and death struggle with Russia. 

[Sidenote: Revolt in Spain]

The fall of the Bourbons in France had once more raised the hope of theSpanish Liberals. On the other hand, King Ferdinand's abolition of theSalic law of succession in Spain, so as to assure the throne to his newwife, raised up a party of absolutists against him. His brothers, DonCarlos and Francisco, became the heads of this movement and rallied theirsupporters around them, in the Basque provinces. In Portugal kindreddissensions rent the land in twain. Dom Miguel's claims to the crown weredisputed on behalf of the constitutional government by the Duke of Palermo. Across the seas, Dom Pedro of Brazil proclaimed himself the legitimate heirto the throne of Braganza. 

[Sidenote: Death of Bolivar]

Like other South American States, Brazil was itself a prey to internaldissensions and civil strife. To put an end to the recurrent revolutions ofSouth America, Simon Bolivar conceived a scheme for a Pan-American Congressto weld together all the quasi-republican governments of the SouthernHemisphere and Central America. Unfortunately for this project, Bolivar'sown aspirations to dictatorial rule told against him. His chief opponentswere those who were striving for a disruption of the Colombian Union. Hisown States, Peru and Bolivia, had already declared against him. TheCongress finally voted to give Bolivar a pension of $3, 000 a year oncondition that he should leave America forever. Bolivar's pride was stungto the quick. He resigned all public offices and honors, and went toCaracas to sail for England. He died at Santa Marta, on the sea-shore, onDecember 17. His last words were: "The people send me to the tomb, but Iforgive them. "

[Sidenote: Bolivar's career]

In Bolivar, South America lost the most fiery of her liberators. Born atCaracas, in 1783, he was pre-eminently a child of the modern spiritengendered by the French Revolution of 1792. He saw Spain in the days ofits quasi-medieval darkness, and was in Paris at the close of the greatrevolution. Later he was a witness of Napoleon's coronation as King ofItaly, and saw for himself the benefits of republican institutions in NorthAmerica. The turning-point in his career was the loss of his young wifeafter two years of domestic happiness. As he said himself: "I loved my wifeso much that at her death I made a vow never again to marry. I have kept myoath. Perhaps, had I not lost her, my career would have been different. Imight not, then, have been General of the Liberators. My second visit toEurope would never have been made. The ideas which I imbibed during mytravels would not have come to me, and the experience I have had, the studyof the world that I have made, and of men and things--all this, which hasso well served me, would never have been. Politics would never haveattracted me. But the death of my wife caused the love of my country toburn in my heart, and I have followed the chariot of Mars rather thanCeres' plow. "

[Sidenote: Van Diemen's Land]

[Sidenote: Extermination of natives]

In the new English penal colony of Van Diemen's Land in Australia, theTasmania of latter days, the self-assertive and domineering traits of theAnglo-Saxon race were no less apparent among the convicts than among thefew free settlers. A few years before this the colonists had proclaimedthemselves independent of New South Wales and established a separategovernment. The Van Diemen's Land Company received a grant of twenty-fivethousand acres; white population increased; religious, educational andcommercial institutions were founded. The natives were all butexterminated. During this year Governor Arthur made an extraordinaryattempt to settle the native problem. His idea was to catch all theaborigines of the island and pen them up on the narrow neck of land knownas Tasman's Peninsula. Upward of three thousand five hundred white persons, including three hundred soldiers, turned out for the exciting operation ofclearing Van Diemen's Land by means of a cordon across the island. Allseemed to be going well until the line of beaters contracted, when it wasfound that the natives were in the rear, instead of in the front. Theattempt proved a total failure; only two natives were captured. The totalcost of the expedition amounted to £35, 000. The individual measures of thesettlers against the despised natives proved more efficacious. Within a fewyears, when the last of the Tasmanian aborigines were transferred from themainland to Flinder's Island, by the instrumentality of George AugustusRobinson, it was found that but three hundred were left. The whitepopulation--largely of convict antecedents--by this time numbered more than15, 000 persons. 

[Sidenote: North American dissensions]

[Sidenote: Nullification debate]

[Sidenote: Webster's declaration]

In North America the doctrine of nullification, newly put forth, emphasizedthe growing differences between the Northern and Southern States. The greatdebate between Hayne and Webster came about casually in the course of adiscussion of the sale of public lands. The topic of nullification wasdragged in by Southern speakers. Webster felt called upon to uphold thecause of the Northern States. Smarting under some of his animadversions ofSouthern sloth, Hayne made a two-day speech in which he inveighed againstthe spirit of the New Englanders. His own State, South Carolina, and hersister States in the South, he declared, would defend their sovereignrights, or "perish in the last ditch. " Webster's reply to those propheticwords was the grandest oratorical effort of his life. He declared for thecontinued union of all the States in all their strength: "Liberty andUnion, now and forever, one and inseparable. " Jackson's progressive foreignpolicy poured oil on the troubled waters. His repeal of the shipping actsof 1818 and 1823 brought about a resumption of direct trade with the WestIndies. On October 5, Jackson was able to issue a proclamation announcingthe opening of permanent trade with all ports of the West Indies, Bermudas, Bahamas, the Gulf of Mexico and South America. 

[Sidenote: Anglo-American treaty]

[Sidenote: O'Connell's State trial]

[Sidenote: Anti-reform utterances]

[Sidenote: Wellington unpopular]

[Sidenote: Fall of Ministry]

[Sidenote: Earl Grey, Prime Minister]

This friendly treaty with America was the last satisfactory measure passedby Wellington's Ministry in England. As elsewhere in Europe the success ofthe sudden revolution in Paris created a great stir, and was brought hometo Englishmen all the more forcibly by the deposed king's flight to Englishshores. In Ireland, matters were stirred up by Daniel O'Connell, who nowcommenced an agitation for the repeal of the union with England. Hisprosecution for treason became a State trial. O'Connell's ultimateconviction once more alienated the powerful Catholic Association ofIreland. The Duke of Wellington became so prejudiced against reform that hedeclared in Parliament: "I am not only averse to bringing forward anymeasure of this nature, but I will at once declare, so far as I amconcerned, so long as I hold any station in the government of the country, I shall always feel it my duty to resist such a measure when proposed byothers. " After this declaration the fall of the Ministry was assured. Stocks fell in London from 84 to 77 points. Abuse and obloquy were heapedupon the Ministers from every quarter. Caricatures of them were stampedeven on handkerchiefs and calico aprons. The Duke was mostly represented inthe livery of an old hackney coachman, while Sir Robert Peel figured as arat catcher. The King no longer concealed his dislike of Wellington, who informer days had mortally offended him by his support of Admiral Cockburn, resulting in the resignation of the Prince as Lord High Admiral of England. As soon as Parliament was reopened late in the year, a significant rebuffwas administered to the Ministry by the Crown. The King preferred todeliver his speech in person. In the face of the Prime Minister'sdeclaration against reform, Sir Harry Parnell, even before the delivery ofthe King's speech, announced a bill for the revision of the civil list. Parnell's motion was carried. Brougham followed this up with a motion for areform of the rotten borough system. Rather than submit to anotherinevitable defeat Wellington's Ministry resigned. Earl Grey, leader of theWhig opposition, was made Prime Minister. Brougham was raised to thepeerage, and accepted the post of Lord Chancellor. Palmerston wasreappointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Lord Grey's appointment of six orseven of his relatives to administrative posts weakened his Ministry fromthe outset. 

1831

[Sidenote: Belgian conference]

[Sidenote: Leopold, King of Belgium]

[Sidenote: Luxemburg question]

[Sidenote: Dutch invasion of Belgium]

[Sidenote: French counter-invasion]

[Sidenote: Foreign intervention]

Under the leadership of Lord Palmerston, the Belgian Conference in Londonwas conducted to a successful issue. Early in January the representativesof the Powers signed a protocol defining the limits of Belgium and Hollandand apportioning to each country its share in the national debt. Theproblem of providing an acceptable government for Belgium still remained. The Belgians themselves would have welcomed incorporation into France. Withthis object in view they elected for their sovereign the Duc de Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe. When a proclamation to this effect was madeon February 3, Louis Philippe, acting under Talleyrand's advice, withheldofficial sanction. Privately he had encouraged his son's candidacy, themore so as a Bonapartist rival, the son of Eugene Beauharnais, was in thefield. The conference at London determined not to permit Belgium thus tobecome a dependency of France. The British Government decided that it wouldno longer discountenance armed intervention in Belgium against Frenchschemes of aggrandizement. Talleyrand obtained the best terms open to hissovereign by insisting on the withdrawal of the Bonapartist pretender. Theselection of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who had just been disappointedin his aspirations for the empty throne of Greece, was encouraged by Franceon the understanding that Leopold, if elected King of Belgium, should marrya daughter of Louis Philippe. Leopold was elected on June 4, and acceptedthe crown only on the condition that the London Conference should modifyits territorial arrangements of January. This brought up the Luxemburgquestion. Since the Paris treaty of 1814, the formidable stronghold ofLuxemburg, though under the sovereignty of the King of Holland, wasmaintained as the strongest border fortress of the German Confederation. Now, the Luxemburgers had made common cause with the Belgians. Leopoldaccordingly insisted that Luxemburg should be treated as an integral partof Belgium. The powers at London yielded to this demand sufficiently toannul the declarations of January, with the promise of a future settlementof the status of Luxemburg. On this repudiation of the recent internationaldeclaration in favor of the Netherlands, the King of Holland took up arms. A Dutch army of 50, 000 advanced into Belgium. Leopold at once appealed toFrance for assistance. A French army marched into Belgium from the otherside. The powers at London made haste to intervene. A British fleet made ademonstration before Antwerp. Under pressure Leopold signed an agreement toraze the fortifications on the Belgian frontier. Reluctantly the King ofHolland recalled his army. Under the threat of another armed coalitionagainst France, Louis Philippe withdrew his forces. Outward tranquillitywas once more restored. No immediate settlement, however, was reached inregard to Luxemburg. The union of the Luxemburgers with the Belgiansremained in effect, while on the other hand strong German garrisonscontinued to hold the fortifications. For years to come this remained avexatious problem. 

[Sidenote: Difficulties in Greece]

[Sidenote: Holocaust of Greek fleet]

[Sidenote: Mavromichalis imprisoned]

[Sidenote: Assassination of Capodistrias]

After the restriction of the Greek frontiers by the Powers, Capodistrias'government was appreciably weakened. As difficulties thickened about him, he resorted to the restrictive measures he had become accustomed to whilePrime Minister of Russia. He felt that the cause of Greece would bejeopardized unless order was maintained at any cost. When the oldrevolutionary leaders became turbulent, Capodistrias only put hisgovernment on a firmer basis. Mavrocordato, Konduriottes and Miaulis atthis juncture waited upon the President as a committee from the oppositionand demanded the withdrawal of the obnoxious measures. Capodistrias wouldnot yield, and the popular leaders betook themselves to Hydra. Preparationsfor civil war were begun. The President sent out an expedition to suppressthem. To prevent the fleet from falling into his hands at Paros, Miaulisset fire to the "Hellas, " the American-built frigate, and that ship andtwenty-eight others were burned to the water's edge. Among those that wereimprisoned by Capodistrias was Petro Mavromichalis, the hero of the Morea. The Russian admiral sailed to Nauplia to intercede in his behalf, but invain. Mavromichalis' brother and son, Constantine and George, appealed tothe President in person, but were put under arrest themselves. On October9, Constantine and George Mavromichalis fell upon Capodistrias as he wasgoing to church and shot him dead. One of the assassins was killed on thespot while the other was executed later. Capodistrias' brother, Augustine, assumed charge. His government was short-lived. After a few months hesailed away with his brother's body to Corfu. 

[Sidenote: Revolt in Bologna]

[Sidenote: Menotti]

[Sidenote: Mazzini]

[Sidenote: Papal legate repudiated]

In the meantime another blow for national unity was struck in Italy. On thedeath of Pius VIII. , late in 1830, Gregory XVI. Was elected. He hadscarcely been installed in the chair of St. Peter, when a report reachedhim that Bologna had revolted against papal rule. On February 3, Menottiraised the signal of revolt at Modena. He was lured into the power of theGrandduke of Modena, but the insurrection spread so rapidly throughout thenorth of Italy that the Grandduke had to fly to Austria. Menotti wascarried to Austria and there put to death. It was about this time thatMazzini made his first public appearance as a revolutionist and wasimprisoned. Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Benvenuti to Bologna as a legate totreat with the rebels, but the legate was made a captive and the revoltspread southward to the papal dominions. In his extremity the Pope calledupon Austria for help. 

[Sidenote: Austrian intervention invoked]

[Sidenote: Attitude of France]

Austria, whose own dominions in Italy were threatened, had every reason togrant this request. The only obstacle was the threatening attitude ofFrance. Before sending out his troops, Metternich took pains to ascertainthe immediate intentions of France. The official answer given to theinquiries of the Austrian Ambassador in Paris, was that Austrianintervention in favor of the sovereigns of Parma and Modena, who wererelated to the House of Hapsburg, might be tolerated. An extension of suchintervention to the Papal States or to Piedmont would certainly constitutea _casus belli_. In token of this declaration, the French Ambassador atConstantinople was instructed to make overtures for an offensive anddefensive alliance to the Sultan. 

[Sidenote: Metternich diplomacy]

[Sidenote: Papal dominions invaded]

[Sidenote: Casimir Périer's French policy]

In this crisis Metternich put forth all the powers of statesmanship at hiscommand. He declared that it was better for Austria, if necessary, toperish by war than by revolution. On the instant he assured to Russia thesupport of Austria against the Poles, while he worked upon the fears ofLouis Philippe by pointing to the presence of young Louis Bonaparte and hisbrother with the Italian insurgents. As a last resort he could always letloose upon France Napoleon's son, the Duke of Reichstadt, now growing tomanhood at Vienna. In defiance of the French declaration, Austria advanceda strong army through northern Italy into the papal dominion. Theinsurrection was ruthlessly stamped out. Louis Philippe did nothing. Lafayette resigned his Ministry in chagrin. He was succeeded by CasimirPérier, a constitutional statesman of modern mold. On behalf of France heput forward a double-edged demand that the Austrians should evacuate thepapal dominions as soon as the papal government should reform its abuses. For the first time in their history, Austria and the Papacy were made todeclare for constitutional reforms. A conference at Rome agreed upon theschemes of reforms to be instituted by the Pope. Further pretext forrevolution was thus removed. In July, the last Austrian forces werewithdrawn from the Papal States. 

[Sidenote: War in Poland]

[Sidenote: Early successes]

[Sidenote: Polish disasters]

[Sidenote: Ostrolenka]

[Sidenote: Ravages of cholera]

[Sidenote: Death of Diebitsch]

[Sidenote: Civil war in Poland]

[Sidenote: Paskievitch, Russian commander]

[Sidenote: Fall of Warsaw]

The Polish struggle, during the earlier part of this year, had assumed theproportions of a national war. In February, the Russians took theoffensive. General Diebitsch at the head of a column of 120, 000 men marchedinto Poland. In the first encounters against the Polish forces, who wereled by officers who had served under Napoleon, the Russians sustained suchlosses at Stoczek, Grochov and Bialolenska that Diebitsch had to call forreinforcements. The main body of the Russian army had to abandon the bankof the Vistula. Three detached corps remained stationed there. The Polishgeneral, Skrzynecki, who had succeeded Prince Radzivil in the command, thentook the offensive. He defeated the Russians under Geismas at Waver, andGeneral Rosen at Dembevilkie and Igknie, but then stopped short. In themeanwhile a Polish expedition into Volhynia failed completely. Dvernickiwas driven back into Gallicia. Another Polish expedition sent intoLithuania under Vilna likewise ended in disaster. The main body of thePoles had to cross the Prussian frontier. Only one division under Dembinskirecovered the road to Warsaw. In the interval, the Polish army underSkrzynecki fought a pitched battle on May 26 with the right wing of theRussian main army at Ostrolenka. After a severe fight the Poles had to fallback over the Narev. Cholera now broke out in both camps. General Diebitschand Grandduke Constantine on the Russian side succumbed to the disease. During this breathing space for the Poles, a revolution against theprovisional government broke out in Warsaw. The streets ran with blood. Czartoryski fled in disguise. General Krukoviecki was made dictator. Heshot a number of the mutineers and replaced Skrzynecki by Dembinski. Prussia and Austria turned against the Poles. The Prussian arsenals andmilitary stores at Dantzig and Koenigsberg were placed at the disposal ofDiebitsch's successor, General Paskievitch. He crossed the Vistula atWarsaw and marched on the capital along the left bank. On September 6, theRussians attacked Warsaw from the side of Vola and Czyste. On the Polishside Wysocki, who had begun the revolution, and General Suvenski, who hadlost a leg at Borodino, were killed. Krukoviecki offered to capitulate. TheRussians demanded unconditional surrender. The Polish Diet deposedKrukoviecki and put Niemoievski in command. Paskievitch ordered a generalattack on the city. The Russians stormed the ramparts and Warsawcapitulated. "Sire, Poland lies at your feet, " wrote Paskievitch to theCzar. It was the truth. At Plock 20, 000 Poles laid down their arms. Ramarino took 15, 000 into Gallicia. 

[Sidenote: Poland's aspirations crushed]

[Sidenote: Polish patriots scatter]

Emperor Nicholas made an example of Poland. All those who had borne aprominent part in the insurrection were banished to Siberia. Theconstitution granted by Alexander was annulled. No more Polish Diets weretolerated. Poles in public office were superseded by Russians. The Polishsoldiers and officers were mustered into Russian ranks and distributed overwidely different points of the empire. The country was divided into Russianprovinces, and Russian systems of taxation, coinage and of administrationof justice were imposed upon Poland. In Lithuania, the Polish language wasbanished from the schools. The University of Vilna was suppressed. Henceforth the ancient spirit of Poland lived only in those foreign exileswho fomented revolutionary risings in Italy, France, Austria and Germany. 

[Sidenote: Spirit of revolt in Germany]

[Sidenote: Liberal leaders lost]

Until the subjugation of Poland, the German governments, apprehensive ofthe course that events might take, had shown moderation in meeting theliberal movements incited by the French and Polish revolution. Troublefirst broke out in Brunswick and Hesse, the two worst-governed States ofGermany. The despotic princes of Brunswick and Hesse had to resign, andreforms were instituted by their successors. In Hanover and Saxony, too, the people had to be appeased by parliamentary concessions and an extensionof the liberty of the press. In the Bavarian Palatinate, where Frenchinstitutions and ideas prevailed, the tricolor of France and the flag ofPoland were saluted side by side with the red, black and gold banner ofancient Germany. After the fall of Warsaw the governments of Prussia andAustria insisted on new reactionary measures. The Diet of the GermanConfederation began a campaign against all liberal tendencies. Germanliberalism during this dark period lost some of its foremost leaders by thedeaths of Stein the statesman, Arnim the poet, Niebuhr the historian, andHegel the philosopher. 

[Sidenote: Death of Hegel]

[Sidenote: German emigration to America]

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was born in 1770 at Stuttgart. He held chairssuccessively at the Universities of Jena, Heidelberg and Berlin. His worksreached an aggregate of eighteen volumes. As a philosopher he was one ofthe most brilliant exponents of modern rationalism. He reached thisstandpoint by pushing to their extreme logical conclusions thephilosophical doctrines enunciated by Kant. Hegel's most lasting worksproved to be his "Phenomenology of the Mind, " "History of Philosophy, " and"Philosophy of Religion. " At the time of Hegel's death there was a generalexodus of German liberals to Switzerland, France and America. 

Despite a small but influential class of Americans who copied foreignmanners, the United States of America had gained something of a nationalcharacter in European estimation. In the New World alone, labor was deemedcompatible with gentility. The increasing facilities of traffic andmanufacture gave a tremendous impulse to the development of the country. Thus a surprising number of railroads were opened in the States of NewYork, Pennsylvania and Ohio. Improvements connecting Philadelphia andPittsburg were completed at a cost of twelve million dollars. Severalthousand miles were covered by canals. 

[Sidenote: Development of the United States]

[Sidenote: Chicago founded]

[Sidenote: Black Hawk war]

The American census of 1831 showed nearly 13, 000, 000 inhabitants, adoubling of the population since the beginning of the century. An area of725, 406 square miles of territory was contained in thirty-four States andthree Territories. The population spread westward, no longer in largegroups, but in small bodies of pioneers, travelling along the chief rivers. West of the Missouri River all was still virgin soil. During this yearSchoolcraft discovered the source of the Mississippi. The settlement ofChicago was laid out and the first sale of lots there was held. A boundaryand commercial treaty was concluded with Mexico in the spring. Later in theyear President Jackson obtained from the French Government a promise of25, 000, 000 francs indemnity for the spoliations on American commerce madeunder Napoleon. On April 21, the so-called Black Hawk war broke out withthe Indian tribes of the Sacs and Foxes. Some 6, 500 soldiers weredespatched to subdue them. In this war it so happened that Abraham Lincolnand Jefferson Davis served as captain and lieutenant. 

[Sidenote: Abolitionist movement]

[Sidenote: William Garrison]

[Sidenote: Nat Turner's revolt]

The issue of slavery was brought to the front early in the year. On thefirst day of January, Garrison's "Liberator" appeared in Boston. Garrisonadvocated immediate and unconditional emancipation of the black slaves. Inhis first issue he said: "I will not retreat a single inch, and I will beheard. " It was not long before Garrison made himself heard, and gatheredabout him a few men and women as determined as himself. Among them was theyoung poet Whittier, Louis Tappan, and Lucretia Mott, the Quaker. A stormof obloquy and persecution was raised against Garrison. Social and publicostracism was visited upon him and his fellow abolitionists. Garrison'sefforts to free the negroes were made especially unwelcome in the South byan insurrection of blacks led by Nat Turner of South Hampton. The revoltwas speedily suppressed, and Turner with seventeen of his followerssuffered death by hanging. Turner's attempt called forth a debate ofseveral weeks in the Virginia Legislature, remarkable throughout for itsexposure of the evils of slavery and their bad effect on nationalprosperity. 

[Sidenote: Death of Monroe]

[Sidenote: Monroe's career]

One of the foremost statesman of the day was lost to America by the deathof James Monroe. He expired on July 4, the third President to die onIndependence Day. Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758. He was educated atWilliam and Mary College, studied law under Jefferson, and became a memberof the Continental Congress at twenty-five. He saw his first militaryservice in the War of the Revolution. Appointed Minister to France in 1794he was recalled in 1796, and was Governor of Virginia from 1799 to 1802. Hethen returned to France as envoy extraordinary and helped to accomplish thepurchase of Louisiana. In 1811 he was again made Governor of Virginia. Heserved as Secretary of State under Madison from 1811 to 1817 and also asSecretary of War from 1814 to 1815. When the War of 1812 emptied thenational treasury he pledged his personal credit for the defence of NewOrleans. In 1816 he was elected President of the United States. Whileserving his second term as President, Monroe sent to Congress the famousmessage against European intervention in South America, which haspermanently linked his name with the doctrine of "America for theAmericans. " His name has been preserved likewise in Monrovia, the capitalof Liberia, the negro free state in Africa, which was founded under hisauspices. 

[Sidenote: The Reform Bill]

Throughout this year in England raged the great debate over thegovernment's proposed reform of the rotten borough system. A bill to thiseffect was introduced by Lord Russell on March 1, immediately after theopening of Parliament. In the seven days' debate that followed the bestspeakers of England took part, among them Lord Palmerston, Sir Robert Peel, Daniel O'Connell, and young Macaulay, who had only just entered Parliament. By the opponents of the bill reform was denounced as revolution. Thegovernment of the United States of North America was cited as a deterrentexample. Thus Sir Robert Peel said:

[Sidenote: Robert Peel's speech]

[Sidenote: America a "Deterrent Example"]

"Many experiments have been tried to engraft democratical on monarchicalinstitutions, but how have they succeeded? In France, in Spain, inPortugal, in the Netherlands, in every country on the face of the earth, with the exception of the United States, has the experiment of forming apopular government, and of uniting it with monarchy, been tried; and how, I will again ask, has it succeeded? In America, the House has been toldthat the most beneficent effects of a representative form of government areplainly visible. But I beg to remind the House that there is a widedifference indeed between the circumstances of this country and of America. In the United States the Constitution has not been in existence more thanforty years. I will not say it has been deteriorating, for I wish to avoidall invidious phrases; but it has been rapidly undergoing a change from arepublic to a mere democracy. The influence of the executive--the influenceof the government--has been daily becoming less, and more power hasconsequently been vested in the hands of the people. And yet, in thatcountry, there is land uncultivated to an extent almost incalculable--thereis no established church, no privileged orders--property exists on a verydifferent tenure from that on which it is held in this country; thereforelet not the people of England be deceived, let them not imagine, from theexample of the United States, that because democracy has succeeded andtriumphed there, it will also succeed and triumph here. "

[Sidenote: Reform Bill debate]

[Sidenote: Exciting elections]

[Sidenote: Tories defeated]

[Sidenote: Cobbett's state trial]

Altogether seventy-one speakers joined in the debate. In the end thegovernment obtained a second reading of the bill by a bare majority of one. The opposition had made a motion to withdraw the bill. After anotherprolonged debate this was carried against the government by a majority ofeight. Parliament was dissolved as both Houses were on the point ofcarrying a motion asking the King not to consent to a dissolution. Theelections which followed were turbulent in the extreme. Throughout Englandthe reformers raised the cry: "The bill, the whole bill, and nothing butthe bill. " It was then that the custom of electioneering by means ofprocessions and bands of music came into vogue. When the results of theelections were announced it was found that the Tories had lost more than ahundred seats. On the other hand a few of the most prominent supporters ofthe government suffered signal defeat, notably Lord Palmerston andCavendish. On the Tory side, young Gladstone, then still a student atOxford, came into notice by his warm speech against the proposed reform. Parliament was reopened with another hot debate on the all-engrossing bill. It was passed to a second reading by a strong majority of 135 votes. Scarcely had this been accomplished when the government was embarrassed byWilliam Cobbett's state trial for sedition. Throughout the trial theAttorney-General treated Cobbett with marked courtesy, speaking of him as"one of the greatest masters of the English language who had ever composedin it. "

[Sidenote: Macaulay]

[Sidenote: Commons pass Reform Bill]

[Sidenote: Rejected by the Lords]

In truth Cobbett's pure, virile, racy, Saxon style, while it delighted menof taste, was also intelligible to the humblest commoner, and accounted insome measure for the tremendous popularity of his journal, the "PoliticalRegister. " The government was unable to secure Cobbett's conviction and hewas suffered to escape punishment by a disagreement of the jury. After thisinterlude the debate on the Reform Bill went on. On the second night ofthe debate Thomas Babington Macaulay delivered his first reform speech. When he sat down he had taken rank among the best Parliamentary orators. "Portions of the speech, " said Sir Robert Peel, "were as beautiful asanything I have ever heard or read. It reminded me of old times. The namesof Burke, Fox and Canning during the evening were linked with that of Mr. Macaulay. " The "Spectator" computed the number of speeches which weredelivered in committee between the middle and end of July at more than twohundred. Sir Robert Peel alone spoke forty-eight times, while Wetherell, the Tory wag of the House, spoke fifty-eight times. Finally the Oppositionwas caught unawares late one night on September 19, when they could musterbut fifty-eight votes before the doors closed for division, and the billwas thus passed to its third reading. The Tories took pains to be presentin force a few days afterward, when the final passage of the bill wasmoved. After a last passionate debate lasting through three days and nightsthe Commons passed the bill by a majority of 106 votes. That same nightEarl Grey proposed the bill before the Lords. Addressing himself to thebishops he said significantly: "I specially beg the spiritual portion ofyour lordships to pause and reflect. If this bill shall be thrown out by anarrow majority and the scale should be turned by the votes of theprelates, what would be their situation? Let them set their houses inorder!" These menacing words gave great offence to the clergy. The Duke ofWellington spoke strongly against the measure. The bill was thrown out bythe Lords after an all-night debate. 

[Sidenote: Riots in England]

The immediate effect was a sharp decline in stocks. A few hours after theHouse of Peers adjourned at six o'clock in the morning, a run for goldbegan on the Bank of England. The simultaneous effort of the French toabolish their hereditary peerage was hailed as an omen of what was comingin England. Riots broke out all over England. The return to Bristol of SirC. Wetherell, one of the chief opponents of the bill, was made the occasionof ominous demonstrations. A riotous mob burned the mansion house over hishead. Next, the Bishop of Bristol was driven from his episcopal seat. Themob fired the mansion house, the bishop's palace, the excise office, thecustom house, three prisons, four toll houses, and forty-two private housesof prominent Tories. 

No one was injured until the troops were called in to disperse the mob. Then a number of rioters were sabred and shot. About the same time riotsbroke out at Bath, Worcester, Coventry, Warwick, Lichfield, Nottingham andCanterbury. With difficulty Archbishop Howley of Canterbury was rescuedfrom the hands of an infuriated mob. The Bishops of Winchester and Exeterwere burned in effigy before their very palaces. The Bishop of London didnot dare to hold services at Westminster. The news from France served toincrease the alarm. Disturbances of a far more serious character werereported from Lyons. 

[Sidenote: Reform Bill up again]

Late in the year, after another rejection of the Reform Bill by the Lords, the bill was triumphantly reintroduced in the Commons. The question now wasno longer, "What will the Lords do?" but, "What will be done with theLords?" Rather than risk the threatening downfall of the House of Peers, the Ministers reluctantly determined to pack the Upper House by thecreation of a sufficient number of new peers pledged to vote for the ReformBill. A verse attributed to Macaulay ran:

 What though now opposed I be, Twenty peers shall carry me, If twenty won't, thirty will, For I'm his Majesty's bouncing Bill. 

"Thus, " as Molesworth, the historian of the Reform Bill, has put it, "amidthe anxieties of the reformers on one hand, and the dread of revolution onthe other, amid incendiary fires and Asiatic cholera spreading throughoutthe country, amid distress of trade and dread of coming bankruptcy, theyear 1831 went gloomily out. "

1832

[Sidenote: English sedition trials]

[Sidenote: Fall of Grey's Cabinet]

[Sidenote: Wellington impotent]

[Sidenote: The King humiliated]

[Sidenote: Passage of Reform Bill]

[Sidenote: Changes effected]

The new year opened in England with a series of trials arising out of thedisturbances which followed the rejection of the Reform Bill in the Houseof Lords. A great number of rioters were convicted. Altogether, seven menwere put to death at Bristol and Nottingham. The officers who commanded thetroops during the riots were court-martialed. When Parliament reassembled, the Commons once more passed the Reform Bill and carried it up to theLords. In the course of the renewed debate on the Reform Bill in the Houseof Peers the Duke of Wellington announced that he had reason to believethat the King did not approve of the bill. The statement was confirmed bythe King's refusal to create new peers wherewith to pass the bill throughthe Upper House. Thereupon Lord Grey and his colleagues resigned from theMinistry. The King accepted their resignation. Monster petitions wereimmediately sent in to the Commons from Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds andother great centres of population, urging the Commons to refuse thesupplies until reform should have been secured. Once more stocks fellsharply. For the express purpose of embarrassing the King's chosensuccessors for the Cabinet, runs were made on the Bank of England, and onthe savings banks at Birmingham and Manchester. The streets of London werecovered with placards: "Go for gold and stop the Duke!" In the face of thisagitation the Duke of Wellington declined the King's offer to form aMinistry. Sir Robert Peel likewise declined. As a last resort Wellingtonconsented to form a Ministry, but could not get together a Cabinet strongenough to stem the storm. The Iron Duke's popularity as well as the King'swas at an end. When the King came up to London, accompanied by his sons, they were received with hoots and insults. Missiles were thrown at theroyal carriage, and the Life Guards had to fight a way through the mob withtheir swords. The King was driven to the humiliating expedient of recallinghis dismissed Ministers. William IV. Now consented to create the requirednumber of new peers. Lord Brougham gave mortal offence to the King by arequest that he should put his promise in writing. With the King's writtenpledge in their hands the Ministers obtained an agreement from theiropponents to pass the bill without further coercion. Early in June, atlength, the Reform Bill passed through the House of Lords after a thirdreading. One hundred and six peers voted for it and only twenty-two againstit. On this occasion Sir Robert Peel made a remark to which his subsequentchange of front gave peculiar significance: "Whenever the government comesto deal with the corn laws, the precedent formed by the present occasionwill be appealed to. " The reform measure, as at last adopted, swept away142 seats in the Commons. It gave to the counties sixty-five additionalrepresentatives and conferred the right of sending members to Parliament onManchester, Birmingham, Leeds and thirty-nine other large towns hithertounrepresented. The King showed his disapproval of the reform byperemptorily declining to give his assent to the bill in person. TheCrown's sanction was given by commission. This ended all agitation for thetime being. 

[Sidenote: Otto, King of Greece]

It was in May that the great Powers, in response to another appeal fromGreece, suggested Prince Otto of Wittelsbach, the second son of thePhilhellene King of Bavaria, for the vacant throne. This choice wasratified in October amid general rejoicings by the population of Greece. 

[Sidenote: Foreign intervention in Italy]

In Italy, early in the year, the Pope's failure to carry out his promise ofreform created new troubles. An amnesty, which had been granted by thelegate Benvenuti, was disregarded and the papal soldiery practiced allmanner of repression. Another revolt broke out and once more the Austrians, at the Pope's request, crossed the frontier. They restored order so wellthat they were actually welcomed as protectors against the ruthlesscondottieri of the papal troops. Austria's intervention was resented byFrance as a breach of the peace. Casimir Périer, now on his deathbed, despatched a French force to Ancona. The town was seized before theAustrians could approach it. Austria accepted the situation, and bothpowers in Italy remained face to face jealously watching each other. HadCasimir Périer lived he might have made Ancona a lever for effecting thedesired reforms at Rome. As it was, the French garrison at Ancona remainedmerely as a balancing point between the contending parties in Italy. 

[Sidenote: Death of Cuvier]

[Sidenote: Cuvier's Works]

France in the same year lost one of its distinguished men of science, bythe death of Baron Cuvier, the great naturalist. Georges Leopold Cuvier wasborn in 1769 at Montbeliard. After studying at Stuttgart he became privatetutor in the family of Count D'Hericy in Normandy, where he was at libertyto devote his leisure to natural science and in particular to zoology. Anatural classification of the _Vermæ_ or worms was his first achievement. The ability and knowledge shown in this work procured him the friendship ofthe greatest naturalists of France. He was invited to Paris, took a chairat the Ecole Centrale, and was received by the Institute as a member of thefirst class. His lectures on natural history, distinguished not less forthe elegance of their style than for profound knowledge and daringspeculation, were attended by some of the most accomplished persons ofParis. In January, 1800, Cuvier was appointed to the Collège de France. Under Napoleon, who fully recognized his merits, Cuvier held importantoffices in the department of public instruction. Under the Restoration hewas made one of the forty members of the French Academy. In 1831, a yearprior to his death, he was appointed a Peer of France. Among the numerousworks by which Cuvier greatly expanded the study of natural history may bementioned as foremost "Researches into Fossil Bones, " "Discourse of theRevolutions on the Surface of the Globe, " "A Course of ComparativeAnatomy, " "Natural History of Fishes, " and his great work, "The AnimalKingdom, " with its subdivisions into the four great classes--vertebrates, mollusks, articulates and radiates. 

[Sidenote: Death of Goethe]

On March 22, Wolfgang von Goethe, Germany's foremost man of letters, expired at Weimar. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born in 1749, atFrankfort-on-the-Main, the son of a councillor under the old German empire. His best traits were inherited from his mother. As he himself sang in lateryears:

 Vom Vater hab ich die Statur, Des Lebens ernstes Fuhren, Vom Mutterchen die Frohnatur Und Lust zum Fabuliren. [A]

[Footnote A: From my father I have my stature And serious view of life; From dear little mother my glad heart And fondness for telling stories. ]

[Sidenote: Goethe's career]

[Sidenote: "Goetz von Berlichingen"]

[Sidenote: "The Sorrows of Werther"]

[Sidenote: Goethe at Weimar]

[Sidenote: "Hermann und Dorothea"]

His father had him educated for the study of law. In his sixteenth year hewas sent to the University at Leipzig. Later he went to Strasburg, where hebecame acquainted with the poet Herder, and had his first love affair withFriederike Brion of Sesenheim, whose charm has been kept alive in Goethe'sautobiography, "Dichtung und Wahrheit. " In 1772 he returned to Frankfortand practiced law. While thus engaged he wrote his firstromantic-historical play, "Goetz von Berlichingen. " In the following yearhe published his sentimental romance, "The Sorrows of Werther, " based in ameasure on one of his own unfortunate love affairs at Wetzlar. Both ofthese early works achieved instant success. "The Sorrows of Werther"inaugurated in German literature what is known as the period of storm andstress. Disenchantment of life, or "Weltschmerz, " became a fashionablemalady. The romantic suicide of Goethe's sentimental hero Werther was apedby a number of over-susceptible young persons. Wieland drew the attentionof the Duke of Weimar to Goethe, and the young poet was invited to Weimar. He remained under the patronage of this enlightened prince until the end ofhis days. At Weimar, Goethe was the centre of a court comprising some ofthe foremost spirits of Germany. The little capital became a Mecca forpoets, scholars, artists and musicians from all over the world. Goethe'sonly rival poet in Germany, Schiller, was drawn into the circle and the twobecame life-long friends. Most of Goethe's lyric poems were written duringthe first ten years at Weimar. At the outbreak of the French Revolution heaccompanied the Duke of Weimar in one of the campaigns against France. Thethrilling atmosphere of the Revolution furnished him with a literarybackground for his epic idyl, "Hermann und Dorothea. " Goethe's subsequentjourney to Italy, which was a turning-point in the poet's career, wascommemorated in his "Letters from Italy"--a classic among German books oftravel. Another eminently successful creation was the epic of "Reynard, theFox, " modelled after the famous bestiary poems of early Flemish andFrench literature. 

 [Illustration: THE KING OF ROME Painted by Sir Thomas Lawrence]

[Sidenote: Goethe's dramas]

[Sidenote: "Wilhelm Meister"]

[Sidenote: "Dichtung und Wahrheit"]

[Sidenote: "Faust"]

During the same period Goethe wrote four of his greatest dramas, "Iphigeniein Tauris, " "Torquato Tasso, " "Egmont, " and the first part of "Faust. "Later he wrote his great prose work, "Die Wahlverwandtschaften, " aquasi-physiological romance; "Wilhelm Meister's Lehr und Wander Jahre, " anarrative interspersed with some of Goethe's finest lyrics, such as thesongs of Mignon and of the old harper, as well as the famous critique ofHamlet. The height of Goethe's superb prose style was reached in "Dichtungund Wahrheit, " which stands as one of the most charming autobiographies ofall times. Goethe's versatility as a writer and man was shown not only byhis free use of all literary forms, but also by his essays on such abstrusesubjects as astrology, optics, the theory of color, comparative anatomy andbotany. Shortly before his death, the poet finished the greatest of hisworks, the tragedy "Faust. " He died in the eighty-third year of his life, uttering the words "More Light. " Goethe was entombed in the ducal vault atWeimar, by the side of his friends, Friedrich Schiller and Carl August ofWeimar. 

[Sidenote: Goethe's genius]

Like Heine, Goethe offended his fellow Germans by his apparent lack ofpurely national and patriotic sentiments. To the present day his outspokenadmiration of Napoleon and his cold abstention from the ardent enthusiasmof the Prussian war of Liberation have not been forgiven by certainGermans. As a man, Goethe has been denounced as an egotist, for theapparently selfish character of his relations with women, ending with hismarriage to a woman far below him. On the other hand, Goethe must beregarded as the most universal literary genius produced by Germany. Hestands in line with those master spirits of all ages, Homer, Virgil, Dante, Cervantes, Shakespeare and Molière. 

[Sidenote: Death of Scott]

[Sidenote: Walter Scott's poems]

[Sidenote: "The Waverley Novels"]

[Sidenote: Scott a bankrupt]

[Sidenote: Literary drudgery]

A few months after the death of Goethe, in September, Sir Walter Scott diedin England. Goethe was accustomed to speak of Scott as "the greatest writerof his time. " Shortly before his death Goethe said: "All is great inScott's 'Waverley Novels'--material, effect, characters and execution. "Scott himself derived much of his inspiration from Goethe's writings. Oneof his earliest works was a translation of "Goetz von Berlichingen. " Thecreation of Mignon, in "Wilhelm Meister, " furnished Scott with thecharacter of Fenella in his "Peveril of the Peak. " Scott began his careeras a writer with a translation of Buerger's "Ballads. " His most successfulmetrical pieces, "The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border, " "The Lay of theLast Minstrel, " "Marmion, " and "The Lady of the Lake, " for the most partappeared during the opening years of the Nineteenth Century. Then came thegreat series of the "Waverley Novels, " named after the romance of"Waverley, " published anonymously in 1814. The series comprised suchclassics as "Guy Mannering, " "The Heart of Midlothian, " "Kenilworth, ""Quentin Durward, " and "Ivanhoe. " Scott's historical romances, based asthey were on painstaking researches into old chronicles, revived inEnglishmen an interest in their own past. The romance of the Middle Ageswas recognized for the first time, if in an exaggerated degree, throughoutthe civilized world. The romantic movement in French literature, now infull swing, was directly inspired by Scott. Notwithstanding his greatsuccess as a writer, Scott's later career was clouded by difficulties anddebt. Through his friendship with Canning early in his career he obtainedthe post of court clerk in Edinburgh. This left him leisure to edit anumber of literary works, such as the editions of Swift, Dryden and SirTristan. The great popular success of his novels soon made him rich. Hishospitality at Abbotsford grew so lavish that in order to defray hisexpenses he joined in a financial partnership with his publishers. Thefailure of the Bank of Constable, in 1826, and the consequent failure ofthe house of Ballantyne, ruined Scott. His debts amounted to £117, 000. Inhis efforts to earn enough money wherewith to pay this enormous sum, Scottbecame a literary drudge. It was at this time that he wrote hisseven-volume history of the life of Napoleon Bonaparte, "Tales of aGrandfather, " and a two-volume "History of Scotland. " His work as ahistorian was by no means equal to that of his purely literary creations. In 1830, as the result of overwork, Sir Walter Scott suffered from a strokeof paralysis. A journey to Italy brought no relief. Two years later hedied. He was buried at Dryburgh Abbey. For several generations after hisdeath Scott remained one of the most popular authors of England. 

[Sidenote: Advances in Medicine]

A remarkable instance of good resulting from evil was afforded this year bythe revolting murders committed by Burke and Hare in Edinburgh. These twomen deliberately killed a number of persons to sell their bodies to medicaldissecters. The discovery of their crimes led to a Parliamentaryinvestigation in the course of which Sir Astley Cooper boldly stated thatany man's body could be obtained in the United Kingdom if enough money wereoffered. The scandal resulted in the passage of an Anatomy Act licensingthe traffic in human bodies within strict limitations. Before this reformsurgeons experimenting in human anatomy had to rely on body-snatchers fortheir material. The repeal of the old laws on this subject removed much ofthe odium hitherto attached to the science of dissection, while theincrease of experimental material gave a fresh impetus to the study ofanatomy. 

[Sidenote: Death of Napoleon II. ]

A menace to the royal crown of France was removed by the death ofNapoleon's son, the young Duke of Reichstadt, erstwhile King of Rome. Heexpired at Schoenbrunn, after an empty life spent under Metternich'stutelage in Vienna, and was buried there. His death at the time wascommemorated in the famous German ballad, beginning with the lines:

 In the gardens of Schoenbrunn Lies buried the King of Rome. 

The French playwright Rostand made the life and death of this unfortunatePrince the subject of a romantic tragedy "The Eaglet, " in which SarahBernhardt achieved so striking a success at the close of the NineteenthCentury. 

[Sidenote: Attempted revolts in France]

[Sidenote: Repressive measures]

The removal of another menace to Louis Philippe's throne was accompanied bycircumstances less tragic. In April, the Duchesse de Berry, wearying of herexile, crossed over to Marseilles and travelled thence in disguise toChâteau Plassac, in the Vendée, where she summoned the Royalists to arms. She was betrayed into the hands of constables sent to arrest her, and wasplaced in safe keeping at Château Blaye on an island in the Gironde. Theaffair took an awkward turn for the cause of the Orleanists in France, whenthe Duchess gave birth to an infant daughter, whose parentage she found itdifficult to explain. Next, the death of General Lamarque, a popularsoldier of France, started an insurrection at Paris in the summer. Anattempt was made to build barricades, and conflicts occurred in thestreets, but the National Guard remained true to the army and the King, andthe revolt was soon put down. The government of Louis Philippe resorted tosevere repressive measures, and trials for sedition were common. In Germanya revolutionary appeal to arms, made at a popular festival at the Castle ofHomburg, near Zweibrücken, resulted in renewed reactionary measures. TheGerman Diet, at the instance of Metternich, declared that the refusal oftaxes by any legislature would be treated as an act of rebellion. Allpolitical meetings and associations were forbidden and the public press wasgagged. 

[Sidenote: Naval demonstration at Lisbon]

[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]

The excesses of Dom Miguel's followers in Portugal were followed by moreserious international results. A series of wanton attacks upon foreignsubjects in Lisbon called for outside intervention. English and Frenchsquadrons appeared in the Tagus. Lord Palmerston, the British ForeignSecretary, declared himself satisfied after Portugal had apologized andpaid an indemnity to the British sufferers. The French admiral, unable toobtain quick redress, carried off the best ships of the Portuguese navy. The worst result for Dom Miguel was the foreign encouragement given to hisbrother, Emperor Pedro of Brazil, who was preparing an expedition againsthim in the Azores. Some of the best British naval officers and veterans ofthe Peninsular War were permitted to enlist under Dom Pedro's banner. Captain Charles Napier took charge of Dom Pedro's navy. In July a landingwas made near Oporto, and that important city was captured by Dom Pedro'sforces. Dom Miguel was constrained to lay siege to Oporto. Thus the civilwar in Portugal dragged on. 

The most formidable revolt of the year was that of Mehemet Ali, the Viceroyof Egypt, against his suzerain, Sultan Mahmoud of Turkey. The disappointingresults of Egypt's participation in Turkey's war in Greece left Mehemet Alidissatisfied. He considered the acquisition of Crete by Egypt but a poorrecompense for the loss of his fleet at Navarino. 

[Sidenote: Mehemet Ali's revolt]

[Sidenote: Siege of Acre]

[Sidenote: Turkish reverses]

[Sidenote: Russian intervention]

A quarrel with the Pasha of Acre, Abdallah, gave Mehemet Ali a chance forEgyptian aggrandizement in that direction. Egyptian forces under thecommand of Mehemet Ali's adopted son Ibrahim marched into Palestine andlaid siege to Acre. That stronghold resisted with the same stubbornnessthat Bonaparte had encountered years before. The protracted struggle theregave the Sultan time to prepare an expedition wherewith to intervenebetween his warring vassals. He took the part of the Pasha of Acre. Aproclamation was issued declaring Mehemet Ali and his son rebels. A Turkisharmy under Hussain Pasha entered Syria. The fall of Acre, while therelieving army was still near Antioch, enabled Ibrahim to throw his fullforce against the Turks. In the valley of the Orontes the two forces met. The Turkish vanguard was routed and the Turkish main column fell back onAleppo, leaving Antioch and all the surrounding country to the Egyptians. The Pasha of Aleppo, won over by Mehemet Ali, closed the gates of his cityagainst Hussain's disordered forces. The Turks retreated into the mountainsbetween Syria and Cilicia. The Egyptians pursued. At the pass of Beilan astand was made by Hussain. The fierce mountain tribes turned against him, and with their help Ibrahim won a signal victory over the Turks, on July29. The retreat continued through Cilicia far into Asia Minor. Afterseveral months a new Turkish army under Reshid Pasha, Ibrahim's colleaguein the siege of Missolonghi, advanced from the north. A pitched battle wasfought at Konieh on the 21st of December. The Turks were utterly routed. The army was dispersed and Reshid himself was made a prisoner. The road toConstantinople now lay open to Mehemet Ali. Sultan Mahmoud was so alarmedthat he turned to his old adversary, Russia, for help. General Muravieffwas summoned to Constantinople and was empowered to make terms for Turkeywith Mehemet Ali. 

[Sidenote: Affair of Quallah Buteau]

In America, likewise, President Jackson had found it necessary to assertthe rights of the United States by means of a punitive expedition. Thisgrew out of the affair of Quallah Buteau on the Island of Sumatra in theDutch East Indies. The American ship "Friendship" had put in there duringthe previous year to load with pepper. The captain, whose men were onshore, permitted the crew of a Malay boat to come on board. There was not asign of danger, when suddenly the Malays attacked the Americans, killingthe first officer and two sailors and plundering the vessel. They thentried to beach the vessel, but two other American ships compelled theMalays to flee. The Rajah of Quallah Buteau appropriated the plunder andrefused to return it. Commodore Downs, with the frigate "Potomac, " wasordered to Sumatra. He reached there early in February. Finding thatnothing could be accomplished by peaceful means he landed two hundred andfifty of his sailors under command of Lieutenant Shubrick. The Malaysrefused to give or receive quarter. Their palisades were torn down andturned into a bridge, and the fort was stormed. The Stars and Stripes werehoisted. Another fort with its magazines was blown up. The town wasoccupied. In all one hundred and fifty Malays were killed and wounded, among them the Rajah. The total loss of the Americans was two men. Theoffending town was razed. 

[Sidenote: Struggle over United States Bank]

Jackson's domestic policy during this year brought him into conflict withtwo powerful factors. One was the United States Bank at Philadelphia. Jackson disapproved of the Bank on the ground that it failed to establish asound and new form of currency. A financial panic had been caused byworthless paper currency issued by so-called "wildcat" bankinginstitutions. A petition for the renewal of the National Bank's charter, which was to expire in 1836, was laid before the Senate. Both Houses passeda bill to that effect. Jackson vetoed it, and a two-thirds vote wherewithto override his veto could not be obtained for the measure. Jackson thenordered the Bank's deposits removed. He read to the Cabinet a long paper, in which he accused the officers of the Bank of mismanagement andcorruption, and stated that he would assume the entire responsibility forthe removal of the deposits. The Bank made a stubborn fight and spent over$50, 000 in defending itself. In the Senate, Benton was the chief opponentof the Bank, and Webster was its principal defender. In December, thePresident sent a message to Congress recommending the removal of the publicfunds from the National Bank to certain State banks. Congress refused toremove the funds. 

[Sidenote: American tariff legislation]

[Sidenote: South Carolina nullification]

[Sidenote: Jackson's vigorous measures]

The passage of a new tariff law, on July 14, which was considered harmfulto Southern interests, brought the Federal Government into armed conflictwith the South. On November 19, a State Convention met at Columbus, SouthCarolina, in response to a call of the Legislature, and on the 24th anullification ordinance was adopted. The tariff laws were declaredunconstitutional, and therefore "null and void and no law, nor binding uponthe State. " On December 10, President Jackson issued a proclamation againstnullifiers, threatening them with trial for treason. Governor Hamilton ofSouth Carolina in reply warned citizens not to be diverted from theirallegiance to their State by this Federal proclamation. Jackson summonedGeneral Scott to Washington and sent a part of the army to Charleston witha ship of war to collect the revenues. On December 28, J. C. Calhounresigned the office of Vice-President on account of Jackson's proclamation. He was forthwith elected Senator from South Carolina. 

[Sidenote: Treaty of Payne's Landing]

[Sidenote: Troubles with Indians]

[Sidenote: Black Hawk War]

It was during this year that renewed troubles with the Seminoles in Floridaresulted in one of the most serious Indian wars of the century. By thetreaty of Fort Muller, in 1823, the Indians were to be confined to areservation on the eastern peninsula, but the Territorial Legislaturepetitioned Congress for their removal. Finally, in 1832, the treaty ofPayne's Landing stipulated that seven Seminole chiefs should examine thecountry assigned to the Creeks west of the Mississippi, and that if theycould live amiably with the Creeks, the Seminoles were to be removed withinthree years, surrendering their lands in Florida, and receiving an annuityof $15, 000 and certain supplies. President Jackson sent a commission to theWest to convince the seven chiefs that the country was eminentlydesirable, and a supplementary treaty from these seven was obtained withoutconsulting the rest of the Seminoles. Many Seminoles were opposed to movingWest through fear of the Creeks. The Sacs and Foxes and Winnebago Indiansof Wisconsin by treaty, in 1830, had ceded their lands to the UnitedStates, but they still refused to leave their territory. Governor Reynolds, of Illinois, called out troops to compel them to go to the lands set apartfor them, west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk returned, but was againdriven off. In 1832 he came back with a thousand warriors and Indianwarfare broke out. Generals Scott and Atkinson were sent with troops toRock Island. It was the first time that a steamboat was used as a militarytransport. The force was there divided. General Scott could effect nothing, but General Atkinson pushed on, and in August defeated the Indians and tookBlack Hawk and his two sons prisoners. 

[Sidenote: Cholera reaches America]

[Sidenote: Death of Charles Carroll]

In many other ways public attention was engrossed in America. On June 21, the Asiatic cholera appeared in New York with appalling results. Theepidemic spread to Philadelphia, Albany, Rochester, and westward. A numberof new railroads were opened in New York and Pennsylvania. The firsthorse-drawn street cars began running in New York. On July 2, theAgricultural Society of New York was founded, and the first public trialwas held of Obett Hussy's new reaping machine, which Cyrus MacCormick alsoclaimed as his invention. The device was destined to give a tremendousimpetus to agriculture in the development of the western prairies. Aboutthe same time the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, Charles Carroll of Maryland, died at the age of ninety-six. In Americanletters, this year is noted for the appearance of Smith's national anthem, "My Country, 'tis of Thee. " Among the books that attracted attention wereWhittier's "Moll Pitcher, " Sparks's "Gouverneur Morris, " and Irving's"Alhambra. " James Gordon Bennett began the publication of the "New YorkGlobe. "

1833

[Sidenote: American abolition movement]

At the very outset of this year in America the slavery question burst intoflame. The abolition movement inaugurated by Garrison and Whittier in theNorth was in full sway. In the slave-holding States large rewards wereoffered for the apprehension of Garrison, Whittier and others connectedwith the publication of the Boston "Liberator, " Philadelphia "Freeman" andNew York "Emancipator. " The legislatures of Northern States were calledupon to suppress anti-slavery societies by penal enactments. GovernorEdward Everett of Massachusetts and Governor Marcy of New York commendedsuch legislation. Prominent Northern citizens travelling in the South werearrested, imprisoned and flogged for flimsy reasons. At New York, Montpelier, Utica, Boston, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and Alton, meetingswere broken up, houses sacked, newspapers destroyed and public hallsburned. Berry's "Philanthropist" at Cincinnati and Lovejoy's "Observer" atAlton were destroyed and Pennsylvania Hall at Philadelphia, a costlybuilding intended for anti-slavery discussion, was burned on the day afterits dedication, at which a poem by Whittier had been read. The firemenrefused to extinguish the flames. In Boston, Garrison was dragged throughthe streets with a rope around his neck. Whittier and Thompson tried tolecture against slavery in Boston, but their meeting could not be held inthe face of the following placard posted in all parts of Boston:

[Sidenote: A typical manifesto]

"That infamous foreign scoundrel, Thompson, will hold forth this afternoonat 46 Washington Street. The present is a fair opportunity for the friendsof the Union to snake Thompson out. It will be a contest between theAbolitionists and the friends of the Union. A purse of _one hundreddollars_ has been raised by a number of patriotic citizens to reward theindividual who shall first lay violent hands on Thompson, so that he may bebrought to the tar-kettle before dark. Friends of the Union, be vigilant!"

[Sidenote: Wendell Phillips]

These events inspired Wendell Phillips, who was present at a meeting inFaneuil Hall, Boston, called to approve these outrages, to take an openstand in favor of the rights of the people, which were threatened, and gaveto the cause for thirty years his active brain and eloquent tongue. 

[Sidenote: Compromise tariff]

As a counterpart to the popular excesses in behalf of slavery, theCatholics of New England had to suffer persecution. At Charlestown, inMassachusetts, a mob burned the Ursuline Convent. Another indignationmeeting was held at Faneuil Hall in Boston to denounce this outrage. As aconcession to the Southern agitators, the American Congress, on February26, adopted a so-called "Compromise tariff. " The new bill cut down allduties of over twenty per cent by one-tenth of the surplus of each year, so as to bring about a uniform rate of twenty per cent within a decade. Onthe other hand, Congress passed a "force bill, " which empowered thePresident to execute the revenue laws in South Carolina by force of arms. AState Convention in South Carolina for its part repealed the ordinance ofnullification, but proceeded to declare the new Federal force bill null andvoid. 

[Sidenote: Death of Randolph]

On May 24, John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, a descendant of Pocahontas, died at the age of sixty. He commenced public life in 1799, and servedthirty years in Congress. There he became distinguished for his eccentricconduct, his sharpness of wit, and his galling sarcasm, which made himfeared by all parties. He had to resign from the Cabinet under odiouscharges. In 1830, Jackson appointed him Minister to Russia. Randolph'sspeeches are still widely read. 

[Sidenote: Texas filibusters]

In the extreme South the American settlers of Texas, aided by DavyCrockett's filibusters from the United States, began a war for independenceagainst Mexico. 

[Sidenote: English abolition movement]

[Sidenote: Gladstone's first speech in Parliament]

[Sidenote: Misgovernment in Ireland]

[Sidenote: Irish resentment]

The abolition of slavery was likewise the most absorbing topic that came upduring this year in the Parliament of England. Young Gladstone, the newlyelected member from Newark, taunted with his father's slave-holding methodsat Demerara, made his maiden speech in Parliament on this subject. One whoheard the rising orator recorded: "Burke himself could not be moresympathetic, more earnest, and more strong. " Another engrossing topic wasthat of Ireland. The state of Ireland at this period, as conceded by aTory historian of modern England, was a disgrace to the history of theNineteenth Century. So wretched was the government of this unhappydependency that during the year 1832 alone nearly 1, 500 people weremurdered and robbed in Ireland. Instead of giving to Ireland a betteradministration, Parliament passed another coercion bill. Tithes for theProtestant clergy were collected at the point of the bayonet. The cause ofIreland, as heretofore, was pleaded most eloquently by Daniel O'Connell. Hedenounced the Irish Church bill as "the basest act which a nationalassembly could sanction. " The people became so enraged that when anEnglishman was killed in a riot the coroner's jury returned a verdict ofjustifiable homicide. The Court of King's Bench quashed the verdict andtried the murderer before a jury. He was acquitted in the face of theclearest proofs against him and in direct contravention of the instructionsof the judge. The spirit of the English aristocracy was indicated by thefact that a bill for relieving Jews from their civil disabilities wasthrown out by the House of Lords. 

[Sidenote: Death of Wilberforce]

On July 26, William Wilberforce died in his seventy-fourth year. He livedlong enough to hear that the bill for the abolition of slavery in theBritish colonies, to which he had devoted the greater part of his life, hadpassed its second reading, and that success was assured. Of all Englishadvocates of human freedom he was the most persevering and faithful. Aftera distinguished Parliamentary career of forty-five years, he gave up allpolitical ambitions to devote himself to the cause of humanity andreligion. He had been the intimate friend and associate of Pitt, Fox, G. Milner, Brougham and Macaulay. His wish that he be buried simply andprivately was not granted by England. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to the tombs of Pitt, Fox and Canning. Around his open grave stoodthe royal dukes of Sussex and Gloucester, the Duke of Wellington, LordChancellor Brougham, the venerable Archbishop Howley, with otherrepresentatives from the House of Lords and Commons. 

[Sidenote: Tractarian Movement]

[Sidenote: Newman]

[Sidenote: Dr. Arnold]

It was at this period of the ecclesiastical history of England that theTractarian Movement began at Oxford. It is a significant fact that the"Tracts for the Times" appeared at Oxford within less than a year after thepassage of the Reform Bill. The connection of the two movements has beenrevealed in Newman's "Apologia Pro Vita Sua. " In January, Dr. Arnold, thecelebrated headmaster at Rugby, published his "Principles of ChurchReform. " He aimed at a reunion of all Christians within the pale of a greatnational church. In the discussion that followed, the foremost spirits wereNewman, Froude, Dr. Pusey, and Keble, the sweet singer of the Church ofEngland, whose "Christian Year" will live as long as that Church endures. 

[Sidenote: Browning]

[Sidenote: Keane]

[Sidenote: Steel pens]

[Sidenote: Electro-magnetism]

Enlightened Englishmen were further stirred at this time by the publicationof Robert Browning's "Pauline, " a narrative in unusually virile verse, andby Edmund Keane's original creation of the character of "Othello. " The newinvention of steel pens first came into general use during this same year, as did Hansom's "safety cab, " and Lord Brougham's favorite style ofcarriage. Robert Brown, an English scientist, in the course of hismicroscopic studies of orchids happened to make the important discovery ofthe nucleus of cells. Joseph Saxton, an American, constructed the firstelectro-magnetic machine in England. 

[Sidenote: Bismarck]

[Sidenote: Revolt at Frankfort]

[Sidenote: Caspar Hauser]

The invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph was claimed by Gauss andWeber in Germany. The first telegraph actually constructed and used was setup at Göttingen. Among those who witnessed it was young Bismarck, who hadalready achieved a reputation as a duellist among the students ofGöttingen. An impulse toward his political ambitions of the future maypossibly have been given by the sensational events at Frankfort during thisyear. A band of misguided enthusiasts attempted to establish German unityby a _coup de main_. They overpowered a small detachment of guards andhoisted the black-red-gold banner of Germany. The expected rising of thepopulation did not follow. The little band of revolutionists was dispersedat the first appearance of a strong military force. It is characteristic ofthe premature nature of this movement that it excited less seriousattention in Germany than the death of Caspar Hauser, a freak foundling, whose unexplained origin has remained one of the mysteries of theNineteenth Century. 

[Sidenote: Teplitz conference]

[Sidenote: Zollverein]

The affair at Frankfort received the usual serious consideration byMetternich, who arranged for meetings of the allied monarchs atMünchengrätz, and of their ministers and authorized representatives atTeplitz. The most beneficial measure agreed on at these meetings was thecomprehension of all German States in a tariff union known as theZollverein. 

[Sidenote: Otto's reign in Greece]

Full recognition was given to Prince Otto of Wittelsbach as King of Greece. The young prince, then in his eighteenth year, had already landed atNauplia. He commenced his reign with a regency consisting of Bavaria'sablest ministers, Count Armandsberg, Von Maurer, and Heideck. King Louis ofBavaria commemorated the accession of his son to the throne of Greece byerecting a number of monumental buildings at Munich in imitation of thearchitecture of ancient Greece, and by mural paintings in the arcades ofhis palace garden depicting all the most famous places and incidents of theGreek struggle for independence. 

[Sidenote: French painters]

[Sidenote: Death of Legendre]

In France, a new impetus was likewise given to art. Jean Baptiste Leloirbegan his career as a painter of religious and historical subjects;Lecquereux, the great historical painter, stood already at the zenith ofhis power, and Corot's exquisite landscapes were receiving their fullmeasure of appreciation. In French letters, this year is noted for thefirst appearance of Balzac's "Eugénie Grandet" and Prosper Mérimée's"Double Erreur. " Legendre, the great French mathematician, died during thisyear. 

[Sidenote: Treaty of Keteya]

[Sidenote: Compact of Unkiarskelessi]

[Sidenote: Moltke]

It was the foreign policy of France to supplant Russia as mediator betweenTurkey and Egypt. Admiral Roussin had made it plain to the Sultan that ifSyria could not be reconquered from the rebellious Mehemet Ali except byRussian forces the province was more than lost to Turkey. Accordingly, aFrench envoy was sent to Mehemet's victorious son, Ibrahim, with powers toconclude peace on any terms. The French suggestions were adopted on April10, in the treaty of Keteya. The Sultan made over to his viceroy all ofSyria and a part of Adana. The Egyptians consented to leave Anatolia. TheSultan took the spoliation so much to heart that he turned from France. Once more he entered into negotiations with Russia. Russian warships werepermitted to enter the Dardanelles, and Russian troops camped side by sidewith the Turks on the east bank of the Bosphorus. A secret treaty fordefence and offence was concluded between Russia and Turkey at the palaceof Unkiarskelessi: The Porte undertook to close the Dardanelles to thewarships of all other nations whenever Russia should be at war. Thus theentrance to the Black Sea was made practically a Russian stronghold. Assoon as the purport of this treaty was apprehended it had the effect ofuniting the rest of Europe against Russia--notably, France and England. Henceforth Russia's ascendency in the East was watched by the chancelleriesof Europe with growing suspicion. Sultan Mahmoud set himself seriously toreorganize his army after Western models. Following the example of MehemetAli, he summoned foreign officers to his general staff. It was then thatMoltke, the subsequent strategist of Germany, entered Turkish service. 

[Sidenote: Portuguese civil war]

[Sidenote: Civil war in Spain]

[Sidenote: Revolt in Cuba]

Lord Napier's namesake, Captain Charles Napier, had won fresh laurels inthe Portuguese war for the succession to the throne. In command of thefleet fitted out by Dom Pedro of Brazil he attacked and annihilated DomMiguel's navy off St. Vincent. Napier's colleague, Villa Flor, landed hisforces and marched on Lisbon. The resistance of Dom Miguel's forces wasovercome. On July 28, Dom Pedro was able to enter Lisbon as a victor. Stillthe struggle went on. Among those who linked themselves with Dom Miguel wasDon Carlos, the rebellious pretender to the throne of Spain. Upon the deathof King Ferdinand VII. , in September, and the coronation of the InfantaIsabella as Queen of Spain under a regency, Don Carlos was proclaimed kingby his followers. The Basque provinces declared in his favor. Civil warbegan. Had Don Carlos crossed the border at once he might have captured hiscrown. Unfortunately for his cause, he lingered in Portugal until the endof the year. The regency of Spain, in the face of this embarrassment athome, was called upon to proceed energetically against a revolutionaryrising in Cuba under the leadership of Manuel Quesada. Henceforth the Pearlof the Antilles was no longer the "ever faithful Isle. "

1834

[Sidenote: Death of Pedro IV. ]

[Sidenote: Quadruple alliance]

[Sidenote: Foreign intervention in Portugal]

[Sidenote: Pretenders withdraw]

The death of Pedro IV. , the Emperor of Brazil and claimant king ofPortugal, made matters worse in Portugal. Diego Antonio Fergio set himselfup as Regent. Monasteries were suppressed and the Society of Jesus wasexpelled from the kingdom. Dom Miguel continued his fight for the throne. Don Carlos, the Spanish pretender, remained with him. The situation grew sothreatening for the established governments in Portugal and Spain thatthey, too, combined for mutual defence. Queen-Regent Christina of Spainfound that she would have to rely for support upon the Spanish Liberals. Martinez de la Rosa was made Prime Minister. His first measure was to givehis country a constitution, which was ratified, on April 10, by royalstatute. He then entered into negotiations with Portugal as well as withEngland and France to crush the two rebellious pretenders by a combinedeffort. On April 22, a fourfold treaty was signed at London by the terms ofwhich the Spanish and Portuguese Governments undertook to proceedconjointly against Miguel and Carlos. England promised to co-operate withher fleet. France agreed to send an army into the Peninsula if called upon. Before the treaty had been ratified even by the English Parliament andFrench Chambers, General Rodil marched a Spanish division into Portugal. Dom Miguel's forces were driven before him. The threatening demonstrationsof British cruisers and the simultaneous publication of the terms of thequadruple alliance in Lisbon and Madrid cowed the revolutionists. On May22, Dom Miguel yielded. On the promise of a handsome pension, he renouncedhis rights to the crown of Braganza and agreed to leave Portugal forever. Don Carlos, while declining thus to sell his rights, took refuge with theBritish admiral on his flagship and was taken to London. 

[Sidenote: Return of Don Carlos]

[Sidenote: Zumalacarregui]

For a while it seemed as if order had been restored in the Peninsula. Theproblem of Portugal was settled. Don Carlos' shrewd move, however, leftmatters open in Spain. The pretender had not been made a prisoner of war, nor was he placed under any constraint or obligations. After a shortresidence in England he crossed the Channel, and, travelling through Francein disguise, reappeared on July 10 in Navarre, where Zumalacarregui, abrigand chief of considerable military ability, was conducting brilliantoperations against the Spanish government forces. Of the detachments sentagainst him one after another was defeated in the mountains of Navarre. 

[Sidenote: Spanish reverses]

All manner of help from the peasants was obtained by a system of ruthlessintimidation. The personal presence of Don Carlos strengthened the cause. It was in vain that old General Mina, who had won renown in these parts tenyears ago, was sent against the Carlists. Unable to cope with them, theold soldier resigned from his command. The Spanish Minister, Valdes, thereupon took the field himself. His attempt to operate in Navarre with alarge army resulted in the worst defeat that had yet befallen thegovernment forces. He had to retreat before the victorious Carlists. Zumalacarregui prepared to cross the Ebro to march upon Madrid. 

[Sidenote: Delacey's expedition to Spain]

[Sidenote: French intervention refused]

[Sidenote: Fall of La Rosa's Ministry]

The Spanish Ministry in alarm turned to its allies for aid. The EnglishGovernment would render no further aid beyond that already given by theBritish squadron in Spanish waters. Permission, however, was granted toenroll volunteers for the Spanish cause in England and in Ireland. ColonelDelacey Ebbons raised a corps of needy adventurers, and, having beensupplied with arms and funds, crossed over to Spain. The first appeal forFrench intervention resulted in like failure. France had cause to hesitatebefore embarking in another Peninsular War. Lord Palmerston's refusal onbehalf of the British Government to co-operate with France in any suchundertaking gave Louis Philippe reason to reflect. A large party in France, moreover, was in sympathy with Don Carlos. The Spanish Government wasinformed that French military assistance, under the circumstances, wasimpossible. The first result of this refusal was the downfall of La Rosa'sMinistry in Spain. The civil war continued. 

[Sidenote: Revolts in France]

[Sidenote: Fall of Broglie's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Thiers, Prime Minister]

[Sidenote: Death of Lafayette]

In France, domestic troubles rather than international questions were theproblems of the day. On April 5, a violent outbreak had been precipitatedby Mazzini among the workingmen of Lyons, which arose from a labor strikeinvolving thousands. Soon the whole city was in uproar. Barricades werethrown up. Blood was shed in hand-to-hand fights with the troops. Similaroutbreaks had been prepared at St. Etienne, Vienne, Grenoble, Châlons, Auxerre, Arbois, Marseilles, and Luneville. The insurrection spread toParis. On April 13, a conflict of some workmen with the troops was followedby the building of barricades all over the city. The revolt was ruthlesslysuppressed by General Bugeaud, the commandant of Paris, who was henceforthdenounced as a butcher. After it was all over the Ministry of Duc deBroglie fell in consequence of an adverse vote of the Chambers on thesubject of the indemnities due to America. The succeeding Ministry lastedjust three days. Then came the recall of Thiers, Guizot, Duchatel, Humann, and Rigny. Marshal Mortier became President of the Council. The Chamber ofDeputies was dissolved. The aged Prince Talleyrand quitted the embassy atLondon. A proposal to form a Ministry headed by Marquis de la Fayette forthe last time brought the name of that venerable hero into the publicaffairs of France. Shortly afterward he died in peace at La Grange, surrounded by his children and calling for his dead wife. His burial in thegraveyard of Picpus, consecrated to the memory of the victims of theTerror, was left undisturbed by political demonstrations. 

[Sidenote: Lafayette's career]

The name of Lafayette is indissolubly linked with the cause of the AmericanRevolution and struggle for independence. To join the revolutionists'cause, Lafayette not only had to sacrifice his private fortune andbrilliant prospects at home, but also to leave a young, dearly-loved wifewith an unborn babe. Throughout the weary struggle of America against theoverwhelming power of England, Lafayette, together with Kosciusko and DeKalb, stood by Washington and the cause for which he had drawn his sword. Lafayette's presence in the American army, and the example of his constantfinancial sacrifices for the American cause, were instrumental in winningFrance over to that offensive alliance against England which helped to turnthe tide of war against that country. Throughout his subsequent career, Lafayette sustained the reputation he had won in early manhood. He was oneof the few prominent figures of the French Revolution who emerged from thatordeal with untainted reputation. From then until his closing days he wasthe foremost champion of liberal thought and political freedom in France. 

[Sidenote: Delaroche]

[Sidenote: Death of Blackwood]

Another distinguished Frenchman who died during this year was Jacquard, theinventor of the loom which bears his name. In the French Salon in spring, "The Execution of Lady Jane Grey in the Tower, " by Paul HippolyteDelaroche, took the highest prize. The picture was a happy medium betweenthe ultra-romantic method of Delacroix and the classicism of David. Threeyears previous to this, Delaroche sent to the Salon his famous paintings"Cromwell at the Bier of Charles I. , " and "The Children of Edward IV. Inthe Tower. " At this same time he was engaged on the greatest of his works, "The Hemicycle, " now in the Hall of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. England lost three men prominent in letters, Blackwood, Lamb, andColeridge. Blackwood's contribution to English letters was the "EdinburghMagazine, " founded and maintained by him from 1817 until his death. 

[Sidenote: Charles Lamb]

[Sidenote: "Essays of Elia"]

Charles Lamb appeared in the world of letters as "Elia, " a fancifullyadopted name of an Italian fellow clerk at the South Sea House, where Lambserved his literary apprenticeship. While serving as a clerk for the SouthSea Company he published his first poems at the age of twenty-two, followedshortly by "Rosamond Gray" and "John Woodville, " at the beginning of thecentury. With his sister Mary he shared in the publication of the twochildren's books, "Tales from Shakespeare" (1806), and "Poetry forChildren" (1809). During this same period he compiled and edited the famous"Specimens of Dramatic Poets Contemporary with Shakespeare. " The "Essays ofElia, " which made Lamb's reputation, did not appear until 1823. The charmof these essays is a frank note of autobiography tempered by a kindly humorand whimsicality peculiar to Lamb. His fond appreciation of the poetry ofElizabethan days, as revealed in these essays, was instrumental in bringingabout that revival of Shakespeare and old English poetry which set in earlyin the Nineteenth Century. 

[Sidenote: Death of Coleridge]

Thus it happened that Lamb and Coleridge were intimately associated. Lamb'sfirst poems appeared in a volume of Coleridge's. Lamb repaid the debt byhis tribute to Coleridge in his letters. There he has aptly described himas a "logician, metaphysician and bard. " It so happened that both friends, who were almost of the same age, died in the same year. 

[Sidenote: The "Lake School"]

[Sidenote: "Rime of the Ancient Mariner"]

[Sidenote: Swinburne on Coleridge]

Samuel Taylor Coleridge was born in 1772 at Ottery St. Mary, in Devonshire, the son of a clergyman. He studied at Cambridge and then went to London, where he enlisted as a trooper in a regiment of dragoons. Finding militaryservice uncongenial, he obtained a discharge and devoted himself toliterature. Together with Southey and Lovell he undertook to found acommunistic colony on the banks of the Susquehanna in America. The projectfailed from lack of money. The three friends married the three sistersFireckes of Bristol and settled in Stowey. There Coleridge, Southey andWordsworth founded their so-called "Lake School of Poetry. " Coleridge hastold in his "Biographia Literaria, " how the "Lyrical Ballads, " issued atthat time, derived their inspiration from two sources; to wit, supernaturalthemes, which appealed to Coleridge, and homely every-day subjects, whichWordsworth loved to beautify. Occasionally Coleridge tried himself in theother field, as in his "Lines to a Young Ass. " In the same year Coleridgebrought out the famous "Rime of the Ancient Mariner, " his "Odes, " and wrotehis first version of "Christabel. " The period at Nether Stowey, from 1797to 1798, was Coleridge's most fruitful year as a poet. All his best poeticworks had their origin at that time. Swinburne has said of Coleridge: "Forheight and perfection of imaginative quality he is the greatest of lyricpoets, this was his special power and is his special praise. " Much of thecharm and magnetic suggestion of his famous poem "Christabel" rests on itsexquisite vowel-music. The same is true of his wonderful "Rime of theAncient Mariner. " There the running prose glossary accompanying the poemdisplays the same delicate, fanciful tone as his most musical verse. Bythese two poems alone Coleridge proved himself the most successful of theEnglish poets who have tried to imbue their verse with an eerie sense ofthe invisible and the unreal:

 Like one that on a lonesome road, Doth walk in fear and dread, And, having once turned round, walks on, And turns no more his head; Because he knows a frightful fiend, Doth close behind him tread. 

[Sidenote: "Aids to Reflection"]

[Sidenote: "Sartor Resartus"]

After his twenty-fifth year, Coleridge's poetic qualities declined. As aresult of his travels in Germany he published, in 1800, a translation ofSchiller's "Wallenstein, " after which he reluctantly undertook to edit the"Morning Post, " a government organ. In 1804 he went to Malta as secretaryof Governor Ball. His last works were "Biographia Literaria" (1817), "Zapolya" (1818), "Aids to Reflection" (1825), "Constitution of the Churchand State" (1826), as well as his posthumous "Literary Remains, ""Confessions of an Inquiring Spirit, " and the "Theory of Life. " In Englishliterary annals this year is noted likewise for the appearance of Carlyle's"Sartor Resartus. "

[Sidenote: The Church of Ireland]

[Sidenote: Royal interference]

[Sidenote: Earl Grey resigns]

A Parliamentary bill admitting dissenters to university honors in Englandwas thrown out by the House of Lords. Another bill for the removal of thecivil disabilities of the Jews was again carried in the Lower House only tobe rejected by the Lords. Next, another coercion bill against Ireland wasintroduced by the Ministry early in July. In the Commons much fault wasfound with the Government's manner of dealing with Irish questions. Inspite of the concessions to O'Connell, that formidable leader had not beenwon over. The Tories held that the Ministry had gone altogether too far. Atthis critical moment, on the King's birthday, the Irish prelates, with thePrimate at their head, presented an address signed by fourteen Irishclergymen in which they deprecated the proposed changes in the disciplineof the Church in Ireland. Instead of leaving the reply to his Ministers, the King answered it in person: "I had been by the circumstances of my lifeled to support toleration to the utmost extent of which it is justlycapable, but toleration must not be suffered to go into licentiousness. . . . I have spoken more strongly than usual, because of unhappy circumstancesthat have forced themselves on the observation of all. The words which youhear from me have not been learned by heart, but do indeed flow from myheart. " This speech was received with transports of joy by the opposition. Earl Grey and his colleagues, on July 9, handed in their resignation. Viscount Melbourne was called in with a heterogeneous Cabinet. During thisinterregnum, on October 16, the two Houses of Parliament burned down. Westminster Hall, the Abbey and the Speaker's residence were saved, but allthe rest, including the interior of the tower and the library ofParliament, was destroyed. 

[Sidenote: Troubles in China]

[Sidenote: Opium trade resented]

[Sidenote: Lord Napier's defiance]

[Sidenote: British ships fired on]

The most serious of the many embarrassments inherited from theAdministration of Grey was the trouble with China, that had arisen out ofthe East India Company's opium trade in the Far East. When the charter ofthe East India Company was renewed in 1834, it was shorn of its monopoly ofthis trade. The consequent extension of the trade in opium, so strenuouslyopposed by the Chinese Government, incensed Emperor Taouk-Wang. LordNapier, the new British Commissioner, reached the Canton River in July. Hisinstructions from Lord Palmerston were to foster the English opium tradenot only at Canton, but to demand an extension of the trade to other partsof the Chinese empire. The Chinese mandarins, under instructions from theViceroy of Canton, refused to have anything to do with Napier. He waslampooned in Chinese prints as "the foreign eye. " The Viceroy issued anedict forbidding the British Commissioner to proceed up the river. At thesame time all trade with English merchants was suspended. In defiance ofthe Chinese orders Lord Napier left Macao, and sailing up the river madehis way to the English factory at Canton. There he found himself isolated. An Imperial proclamation declared that the national dignity was at stake, and ordered all Chinese subjects to keep away from the Englishmen. TheCanton factory was deserted by all of its coolies and domestic servants. Lord Napier, ailing in health as he was, found his position untenable. Hesent a final defiance to the Viceroy of Canton: "The merchants of GreatBritain wish to trade with all China on principles of mutual benefit. Theywill never relax in their exertions until they gain this. The Viceroy willfind it as easy to stop the current of the Canton River, as to carry intoeffect his insane determination. " After this the Viceroy sent his troopsinto the foreign settlements, and ordered the Bogue forts to fire on anyEnglish ship that attempted to pass. On September 5, two British ships inthe river were fired upon by the Chinese. The English merchants petitionedLord Napier to retire to Macao. This he did with a futile protest againstChina's acts "of unprecedented tyranny and injustice. " Lord Napier died, leaving to others the settlement of the difficulties which his presence hadintensified. 

[Sidenote: Lord Melbourne dismissed]

[Sidenote: Peel dissolves Parliament]

The death of Earl Spencer, which raised Lord Althorp, his son, to the UpperHouse, gave the King a chance to get rid of his new advisers. When LordMelbourne, on November 14, submitted to the King the changes he proposed tomake in the Ministry in consequence of the vacancies in the Exchequer, William IV. Expressed his disapproval and called in the Duke of Wellingtonin his stead. The Duke advised that the task of forming a new Cabinet beintrusted to Sir Robert Peel, then in Rome. Sir Robert arrived in Londonon December 9, and at once accepted the task imposed on him. The oppositionagainst his new-formed Ministry was so strong that it was decided to appealto the country. On December 30, Parliament was dissolved. 

[Sidenote: American slavery agitation]

[Sidenote: "Atherton Gag"]

[Sidenote: American events]

In North America, the contest between the Northern and Southern States inregard to slavery steadily gathered force. President Jackson, in his annualmessage, called attention to "the fearful excitement produced in the Southby attempts to circulate through the mails inflammatory appeals addressedto the slaves. " The Federal postmasters of the South and in several citiesof the North were encouraged in the practice of rifling the mails ofpossibly offensive matter. John Quincy Adams was threatened with publiccensure at the bar of the House for proposing to print a petition forfreedmen. All attempts to get such petitions before Congress were defeatedby a standing rule known as the Atherton Gag. During this year the nationaldebt was almost liquidated by Jackson's payment of $4, 760, 082. A measurewas passed through Congress establishing the value of gold and silver. Goldflowed into the Treasury through all channels of commerce. The mint waskept busy, and specie payments, which had been suspended for thirty years, were resumed. Gold and silver became the recognized currency of the land. The President's measures against the National Bank were less successful. OnMarch 28, the Senate debated Clay's resolution censuring the President forhis removal of the government deposits. A joint resolution by both Housesof Congress was passed, in the Senate, June 3, by a vote of 29 to 10. Otherevents of the year of interest to Americans were the popular riots thatthrew New York into a turmoil on the occasion of the first mayoraltyelection in that city, the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Legislatureof Illinois, the establishment of the Indian Territory; and the firstappearance of Bancroft's "History of the United States. "

[Sidenote: Friction matches]

Of world-wide interest was the emancipation of all black slaves in theBritish West Indies, South Africa, and other colonies; the establishment ofthe German tariff union, including all German States except Austria; thetransfer of the capital of Greece from Nauplia to the site of Athens; thefoundation of the free university of Brussels, and the death of the greatGerman theologian Schleiermacher. An innovation that was destined to add tothe convenience and comfort of domestic life throughout the world was theintroduction of lucifer matches during this year. 

1835

[Sidenote: Irish balance of power]

[Sidenote: Gladstone's anti-Irish speech]

[Sidenote: O'Connell's reply]

On February 19, Parliament reassembled. It was found that a workingmajority of Tories had been returned, but the first vote on the King'sspeech revealed a junction of the Whigs with O'Connell's Irish party, whichforeboded disaster to the government. For the first time in Parliamentaryhistory the Irish members held the balance of power. In vain did Sir RobertPeel attempt to stave off his downfall by the introduction of welcomemeasures of reform. Once more it was on a question affecting Ireland thatthe government was defeated. This was Peel's high commutation bill. LordRussell in reply moved that the surplus revenues of the Irish Church beused for non-ecclesiastical purposes. In the debate that followed, Gladstone spoke strongly against the measure. For this early speech, embodying as it did views so radically different from those of his laterlife, he was constantly reproached during his career. It ended with thewords, "I hope I shall never live to see the day when such a system shallbe adopted in this country; for the consequences of it to public men willbe lamentable beyond all description. " O'Connell said in reply: "I shallcontent myself with laying down the broad principle that the emoluments ofa church ought not to be raised from a people who do not belong to it. . . . All that the Catholics of Ireland require is justice--equal and even-handedjustice. "

[Sidenote: Fall of Peel's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Melbourne's second Administration]

When the matter came to a vote the government was defeated by a majority ofthirty-three. On April 8, the resignation of the Ministry was announced toParliament. The King sent for Earl Grey, and, on his refusal to form aMinistry, was driven to the humiliating expedient of recalling LordMelbourne. On April 18, a new Cabinet was formed, composed largely of themen who had been so summarily dismissed by the King a few months before. Lord Melbourne's second Administration was marked by the elevation of thesettlements of South Australia to a Crown colony. The city of Melbourne, which was founded that year, was named in his honor. 

[Sidenote: Death of William Cobbett]

An extraordinary career was ended, on June 18, by the death of WilliamCobbett, from overwork in Parliament. With but little school education, this remarkable man succeeded in becoming not only one of the foremostprose writers of English, but the leader of a great popular party. 

[Sidenote: The Orange Lodges]

[Sidenote: Duke of Cumberland implicated]

During the early part of Lord Melbourne's Administration, the discontentand irritation prevailing in Ireland were heightened by the agitationagainst the Orange lodges. The original purpose of these lodges had been todefend, against the Stuarts and their supporters, the Protestant ascendancywhich had begun with the reign of William of Orange. The lodges had grownin strength until, in 1835, it was estimated that they numbered 140, 000members in Ireland, and as many as 40, 000 in London alone. The Grand Masterof all the Orange Lodges was no less a personage than the Duke ofCumberland, the King's brother. It was believed in Ireland that aconspiracy existed on the part of the Orangemen to set aside the PrincessVictoria, the next heir to the throne, in favor of the Duke of Cumberland. The subject was brought to the notice of Parliament by Hume and O'Connell, who drew special attention to the illegal introduction of Orangemen intothe British army, under warrants signed by the Duke of Cumberland. Thescandal grew to such an extent that the Duke of Cumberland hastened todissolve the order before a resolution condemning his conduct could passthrough the Commons. 

[Sidenote: D'Urban in South Africa]

[Sidenote: Beginning of Boer trek]

In South Africa, another war over boundary questions broke out between theDutch and English settlers and the Kaffirs. Sir Benjamin d'Urban advancedthe frontier of Cape Colony to the Keir River. The Zulu chief, Dingaan, onthe assassination of King Chaka, who had welded together a confederation ofwarlike tribes, succeeded to his powers. In the midst of these difficultiesan advance guard of Boers, exasperated by Great Britain's abolition of theold Dutch moot courts or "Heemraden, " and of slavery in Cape Colony, trekked across the Orange River and founded a colony of their own. 

[Sidenote: South American disorders]

[Sidenote: Revolution of Texas]

In South America, political changes rapidly followed one upon the other. Rocafuerte seized the reins of power in Ecuador. About the same timeGeneral Rosas had himself re-elected for fifteen years as dictator of theArgentine Republic. President Santa Cruz of Bolivia made a raid into Peru, and in his absence the State of Bolivia promptly fell a prey to internaldisorders. In Mexico, General Santa Anna established his rule as dictator. The affairs of Texas soon demanded his attention. On December 20, Texasdeclared itself independent of Mexico. Support came from the United States. The revolution began with the battle of Gonzales, in which 500 Americanstook part. The Mexicans were defeated. Soon afterward Goliad and the strongcitadel of Bexar, known as the Alamo, were taken and the Mexican forcesdispersed. 

[Sidenote: Osceola in Florida]

[Sidenote: Treaty of Payne's Landing disputed]

In the meanwhile the Seminole war in Florida had assumed a serious aspect. The chief Indian leader who opposed the removal of the Seminoles west ofthe Mississippi was Osceola, son of a half breed squaw and an Englishman. His wife, the daughter of a slave, had been seized and returned to hermother's master. Thenceforth Osceola became an uncompromising enemy of thewhites. The Indian controversy with the American Government turned on theinterpretation of a pronoun in the treaty of Payne's Landing. PresidentJackson held that the word "they" in the most important clause of thetreaty relating to the compensation of the despoiled Indians referred onlyto the deputies who executed the document, whereas Osceola contended thatit was meant to stand for all the Indians. The continued quibbling soenraged Osceola that he drove his knife into the table exclaiming: "Thenext treaty I will execute is with this. "

[Sidenote: American progress]

[Sidenote: New York conflagration]

[Sidenote: Death of Justice Marshall]

Among the intellectual and scientific achievements of this year in Americamust be reckoned Colt's invention of a revolver and the manufacture ofpins. Longfellow brought out his "Outre-Mer, " and Audubon published his"Birds of America. " On December 16, a disastrous fire destroyed most of thecommercial houses of New York City. In all 530 houses burned down and$18, 000, 000 worth of property was consumed. Chief Justice Marshall of theUnited States Supreme Court died during this year, eighty years of age. Asa member of Congress, a Cabinet officer, and the foremost jurist of theUnited States, Marshall won lasting distinction. His ability as a writerwas conspicuously displayed in his popular "Life of Washington. "

[Sidenote: Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria]

[Sidenote: Wilhelm von Humboldt]

[Sidenote: Andersen's Fairy Tales]

In Europe, in the meanwhile, there had been some significant changes. OnMarch 2, Emperor Francis of Austria died at the age of sixty-seven. Thesuccession of Archduke Ferdinand to the throne produced no change in thenational policy. Metternich was retained at the head of affairs. Almost ofmore moment to Germany was the death of Karl Wilhelm von Humboldt, thediplomat, and brother to Alexander, the great German explorer andphilosophic writer. Besides his services as a statesman at the time of theinternational conferences at Paris and Vienna, he is distinguished for hisphilological researches in the Basque and Kauri languages. About the sametime Hans Christian Andersen, the Danish author, published his firstcollection of fairy tales. The book had an immediate success, and after itstranslation into German achieved a world-wide reputation. Varioustranslations from the German version and from the original had large salesin England and America. 

[Sidenote: Artistic activity in France]

[Sidenote: May riots of Paris]

[Sidenote: Fieschi's infernal machine]

[Sidenote: Second campaign in Algiers]

In France, too, notwithstanding political disturbances, fine arts andletters flourished. New creations appeared from the pens of Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Balzac, De Vigny and Alfred De Musset. Théophile Gautierbrought out his masterpiece "Mademoiselle de Maupin. " Among the musiciansat Paris, Meyerbeer, Auber, Berlioz, Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Spontini, and Schapa were at the height of their activity. Politically it was a yearof disturbances for France. The opening of the State trial of last year'sconspirators before the Chamber of Peers was followed by diatribes in thepress. The liberties of the press were further restricted. Riots againbroke out in May. After all, but one man was condemned to death. Most ofthose who were implicated were sentenced to transportation. New laws forthe repression of sedition were proposed by the Cabinet. Then it was thatthe first serious attempt was made on the life of Louis Philippe. Alreadyseven projects of assassination had been discovered and frustrated, when agrand review of the National Guards, on July 28, gave an opportunity for atelling stroke. At the moment when the royal procession arrived on theBoulevard Temple, an infernal machine was set off by a Corsican namedFieschi. The King was saved only by the fact that he had bent down fromhis horse to receive a petition when the machine was discharged. Amongthose that were struck down were the Dukes of Orleans and Broglie, MarshalMortier, General Verigny, and Captain Vilate. The perpetrators of the crimewere put to death. In French foreign affairs a renewed uprising of Arabtribes under Abd-el-Kader necessitated another military campaign inAlgeria. 

In Greece, King Otto, having come of age on June 1, dissolved the Bavarianregency and assumed his full royal powers at Athens. His reign, lackingthough it was in national spirit or sympathies, assured to Greece an era ofundisturbed peace and tranquillity. 

[Sidenote: Seminole War]

Toward the close of the year, the American Government's attempt to removethe Seminole Indians from their hunting grounds in Florida resulted in asanguinary Indian war. Micanopy the Seminole Sachem and Osceola were theIndian leaders. Osceola opened hostilities with a master stroke. OnDecember 28, he surprised General Wiley Thompson at Fort King. Thompson hadwantonly laid Osceola in chains some time before. Now Osceola scalped hisenemy with his own hands. On the same day, Major Dade, leading a reliefexpedition from Tampa Bay, was ambushed and overwhelmed near Wahoo Swamp. Only four of his men escaped death. Within forty-eight hours, on the lastday of the year, General Clinch, commanding the troops in Florida, won abloody fight on the banks of the Big Withlacoochee. 

1836

[Sidenote: Withlacoochee]

[Sidenote: Creek Indians subdued]

[Sidenote: Fight in Wahoo's swamp]

Throughout this year the Seminole War in Florida dragged on. Gaines'scommand was assailed by the Indians near the old battleground of theWithlacoochee on February 27. In May, the Creeks aided the Seminoles inFlorida, by attacking the white settlers within their domain. Success madethem bold, and they attacked mail carriers, stages, river barges andoutlying settlements in Georgia and Alabama, until thousands of whitepeople were fleeing for their lives from the savages. General Scott was nowin chief command in the South, and he prosecuted the war with vigor. TheCreeks were finally subdued, and during the summer several thousand of themwere forcibly removed to their designated homes beyond the Mississippi. Governor Call of Georgia marched against the Seminoles with some twothousand men in October. A detachment of five hundred of these had a severecontest (November 21) with the Indians at Wahoo swamp, near the scene ofDade's massacre. As in so many other engagements with the Seminoles intheir swampy fastnesses, both sides claimed the victory. 

[Sidenote: Diet of Pressburg]

[Sidenote: Magyar demands]

[Sidenote: Kossuth]

[Sidenote: Scechenyi]

[Sidenote: Transylvanian Diet]

[Sidenote: Vesselenyi]

In Europe, early during 1836, the conclusions reached by the long-sittingDiet of Hungary opened the eyes of the new Emperor of Austria and ofMetternich to the changed spirit within their own dominions. For many yearsduring the long period when the government did not dare to convoke theDiet, the Hungarians in their county assemblies had opposed a steadyresistance to the usurpations of the crown. These county assemblies, rejoicing as they did in the right of free discussion, and the appointmentof local officials, were one of the hardiest relics of home rule existinganywhere in Europe, comparable only to the democratic government of theSwiss cantons and to the old English town meetings reconstituted in NewEngland. By banishing political discussion from the Diet to the countysessions, Metternich only intensified the provincial spirit of oppositionwhich he thought to quell. When the Hungarian Diet reassembled at Pressburgat last, the new spirit showed itself in the demand of the Magyars for thesubstitution of their own language, in all public debates, for the oldercustomary Latin. The government speakers, who attempted to address thedeputies in Latin, were howled down by the Magyars. When the governmentforbade the publication of all Magyar speeches, Kossuth, one of theyoungest of the deputies, circulated them in manuscript. After thedissolution of the Diet, in summer, he was punished for this act ofdefiance by a three years' imprisonment. The foremost leader of theHungarian Liberals at this time was Count Scechenyi, a Magyar magnate ofnote. He it was that opened the Danube to steam navigation by thedestruction of the rocks at Orsova, known as the Iron Grates, and to him, too, Hungary owes the bridge over the Danube that unites its double capitalof Budapesth and Ofen. Of the Hungarian noblemen he was one of the few whorecognized the injustice of the anomalous institution which restrictedParliamentary representation to the noblemen, and absolved them at the sametime from taxation. The new liberal spirit thus manifested was turned intorevolutionary channels by Metternich himself. The dissolution of theHungarian Diet and the subsequent imprisonment of deputies whose personsshould have been inviolable aroused bad blood among the Magyars. This wasmade worse by the peremptory dissolution of the Transylvanian Diet, wherethe Magyar element likewise predominated. The leader of the Transylvanianopposition, Count Vesselenyi, a magnate in Hungary, betook himself to hisown county session and there inveighed against the government. He wasarrested and brought to trial before an Austrian court on charges of hightreason. His plea of privilege was supported by the Hungarian countysessions as involving one of their oldest established rights. In the faceof this agitation Count Vesselenyi was convicted and sentenced to exile. Henceforth opposition to the government and hostility to all thingsAustrian were synonymous with patriotism in Hungary. 

[Sidenote: Poland restive]

The discontent in Hungary and the Slav provinces of Austria was fomented bya keen sympathy with the misfortunes of Poland groaning under the yoke ofRussia. Notwithstanding Austria's official conference with Russia, Polishrefugees were received with open arms in Galicia, Bohemia and Hungary. 

[Sidenote: The great Boer trek]

[Sidenote: Piet Retief]

[Sidenote: Zulu treachery]

[Sidenote: Massacre of Weenen]

In various other parts of the world the spirit of revolution would not bequelled. More Dutch settlers in South Africa sought relief from Britishinterference with their customs and the institution of slavery byemigrating into the virgin veldt lying to the north of their formersettlements. It was in vain that the British authorities of Cape Colonytried to stop this "great trek. " Rather than submit to British domination, the Boers preferred to renew the inevitable struggle with the wild beastsand the savages of the African wilderness. While one part of the emigrantbody remained in the Transvaal and Northern Free State, the foretrekkerspassed over the Drakensberg Mountains into Natal, under the leadership ofPiet Retief. The land of Natal was at that time practically unpopulated. Chaka and his warriors had swept the country clean of its nativeinhabitants, so Dingaan considered it within his sphere of influence. TheBoers accordingly made overtures to Dingaan, Chaka's successor, who residedat his kraal on the White Umvolosi, a hundred miles distant in Zululand, for the right to trek into this country. This was granted after the Boershad undertaken to restore some cattle of the Zulus stolen by the Basutos. Athousand prairie wagons containing Boer families trekked over theDrakensberg into Natal, and scattered over the unpeopled country along thebanks of the Upper Tugela and Mooi Rivers. Piet Retief, with sixty-fivefollowers, went to visit Dingaan in his kraal. They were made welcome. Asolemn treaty of peace and friendship was drawn up by one Owens, an Englishmissionary with the Zulus. During a feast, the Boers, disarmed and whollyunprepared for an attack, were suddenly seized and massacred to a man. Thenthe Zulus, numbering some ten thousand warriors, swept out into the veldtto attack the Boer settlements. Near Colenso, at a spot called Weenen(weeping), in remembrance of the tragedy there enacted, the Zulusoverwhelmed the largest of the Boer laagers, and slaughtered all itsinmates--41 men, 56 women, 185 children and 250 Kaffir slaves. In spite ofthis and other battles the Boers held their ground. 

[Sidenote: South Australia settled]

[Sidenote: British seize Aden]

The Englishmen likewise extended their colonial conquests. The unsettledBushland of South Australia was colonized by Captain Hindmarsh and hisfollowers. They founded the city of Adelaide, named after the consort ofWilliam IV. A wrecked British ship having been plundered by Arabs, theSultan of Aden, under a threat of British retaliation, was made to cedeAden to Great Britain. New claims for territory were preferred by GreatBritain against the Republic of Honduras, in Central America. 

[Sidenote: Mexican independence acknowledged]

[Sidenote: Defence of the Alamo]

[Sidenote: Joaquin Miller's lines]

The neighboring republic of Mexico, under the dictatorship of Santa Anna, at last succeeded in having its independence formally acknowledged bySpain. On March 6, Santa Anna, having raised a new force of 8, 000 men, marched on Fort Alamo, which had been left in charge of a small garrison ofAmericans under Colonel Jim Bowie. All night they fought. Every man fellat his post but seven, and these were killed while asking quarter. Heredied David Crockett, the famous American frontiersman, whose exploits hadmade him so popular in Tennessee, that, though unable to read, he wasthrice elected to Congress. Joaquin Miller, the American poet, based onthis encounter his stirring ballad on "The Defence of the Alamo":

 Santa Anna came storming, as a storm might come; There was rumble of cannon; there was rattle of blade; There was cavalry, infantry, bugle and drum, -- Full seven thousand, in pomp and parade, The chivalry, flower of Mexico; And a gaunt two hundred in the Alamo!

[Sidenote: Battle of San Jacinto]

On April 21 was fought the decisive battle of San Jacinto, in which SantaAnna with 1500 men was defeated by 800 Texans under Sam Houston. On thenext day General Santa Anna was captured. He was compelled to acknowledgethe independence of Texas, but the people of Mexico refused to ratify hisact. Nonetheless serious hostilities against the Texans were abandoned. 

[Sidenote: Peru and Bolivia joined]

The abolition of slavery in Bolivia gave a new impetus to the government ofthat republic. President Santa Cruz of Bolivia felt encouraged by this toattempt to carry out his pet project of the amalgamation of Peru withBolivia. A prolonged guerilla war was the result. 

[Sidenote: Spanish rule in Cuba and Philippines]

[Sidenote: Civil war in the Peninsula]

[Sidenote: Portuguese slave trade abolished]

The example of these movements in Central and South America encouraged therevolutionists of Cuba to keep up their struggle against the rule of Spain. Unfortunately for them, the apparent weakness of the Spanishconstitutional government at Madrid did not extend to the more distantpossessions of Spain. The only result of the rising of Manuel Quesada wasthat Cuba was deprived of her representation in the Spanish Cortes. In thePhilippine Islands, Spanish rule was extended to the Island of Sulu. On thePeninsula, on the other hand, matters went from bad to worse. The Carlistwar continued unabated. On May 5, General Evans, commanding theconstitutional troops and foreign volunteers, won a victory over theCarlists at Vigo, but within a few months he was himself defeated at SanSebastian. On Christmas Day, another crushing defeat was inflicted on theConstitutionalists by the Carlist leader Espertero at Bilboa. In Portugalthe marriage of Princess Maria II. To Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gothawas followed by fresh disorders. Revolution broke out at Lisbon, on August9, and could be subdued only by the re-establishment of the Constitution of1832. On November 8 came another popular rising. It was a sign of the timesand of a more liberal turn of affairs at Lisbon that one of the firstmeasures of the new government was a total abolition of Portuguese slavetrading. 

[Sidenote: British reforms]

[Sidenote: Charles Dickens]

[Sidenote: "Pickwick Papers"]

[Sidenote: Marryat]

[Sidenote: Landor]

[Sidenote: Death of Mill]

[Sidenote: Wheatstone]

[Sidenote: Balfe]

Reform of all kinds had become popular in England under the dexterousresistance of O'Connell, who held the balance in Parliament. The governmentwas induced to bring in a corporation reform bill for Ireland. An officialregister of births, deaths, and marriages was conceded to the dissenters. Next came the abolition of one of the most barbarous practices of Englishand Irish law courts. Up to this time prisoners accused of felony were notallowed to be defended by counsel. At the instance of Lord Lyndhurst thiswas now changed. Another gain for humanity was made by the abolition of thelaw which required that persons convicted of murder should be executed onthe next day but one. On the other hand a bill for the abolition ofimprisonment for debt miscarried. The most potent plea against the abusesof this particular relic of barbarism in England was put forth by CharlesDickens in his "Pickwick Papers. " These serial papers relating the humorousadventures of Mr. Pickwick and his body servant Sam Weller, when brought inconflict with the English laws governing breach of marital promise anddebt, had an immense success in England and all English-speaking countries. Already Dickens had published a series of "Sketches of London, " under thepseudonym of Boz, while working as a Parliamentary reporter for the"Morning Chronicle. " The success of the "Pickwick Papers" was such that hefelt encouraged to emerge from his pseudonym and to devote himself entirelyto literature. Other literary events of the year in England were thepublication of the initial volumes of Lockhart's "Memoirs of the Life ofSir Walter Scott, " of Captain Marryat's "Mr. Midshipman Easy, " and "ThePirate and the Three Cutters, " and of Landor's "Pericles and Aspasia. " Thefirst Shakespeare jubilee was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon in thespring. A loss to English letters was the death of James Mill, the greatpolitical economist, in his sixty-third year. About this time Wheatstoneconstructed his electro-magnetic apparatus by which he could send signalsover nearly four miles of wire. The Irish composer Balfe began hisbrilliant career as a composer of English operas with the "Siege ofRochelle, " produced at Drury Lane in London. About the same timeMendelssohn brought out his "St. Paul" in Düsseldorf. 

[Sidenote: Death of La Malibran]

[Sidenote: Her operatic career]

[Sidenote: Alfred de Musset's lines]

Maria Felicitá Malibran, the great contralto singer of the early part ofthe Nineteenth Century, died on September 23, at Manchester, in hertwenty-eighth year. Taken from Paris to Naples at the age of three, shemade her first appearance as a public singer in her fifth year. Two yearslater she studied solfeggio with Panseron. At the age of sixteen she madeher début as Rosina in "Barbiere di Seville" at London. The success of herfirst appearance was so great that she was at once engaged for the season. Next she appeared in New York, where she was a popular favorite for twoyears, singing in Mozart's "Don Giovanni, " in "Tancred, " "Romeo andJuliet, " and two of her father's operas. Here she married a Frenchmerchant, Malibran. After her separation from him she returned to Paris, where she was engaged as prima donna at a salary of 50, 000 francs. Thereafter she sang at every season in Paris, London, Milan, Rome andNaples. For one engagement of forty nights in Naples she received 100, 000francs. Both as a singer and woman she exercised an extraordinaryfascination over her contemporaries. Only a few months before her death shemarried the violinist De Beriot. In England she suffered a severe fallfrom her horse, which shattered her health. After this she literally sangherself to death. Her loss was mourned most of all in France, where herdeath has been commemorated by Alfred de Musset's beautiful threnody endingwith the lines:

 Die, then. Thy death is sweet, thy goal is won; What is called genius by men here below Is the great cry for Love; all else is but show; And since, soon or late, human love is undone, It is for great hearts and great voices like thine To die as thou didst--for Love all-divine. 

[Sidenote: Meyerbeer's "Huguenots"]

[Sidenote: Gounod]

[Sidenote: Chopin]

[Sidenote: Liszt]

[Sidenote: Georges Sand]

[Sidenote: Death of Ampère]

In France, great strides had been made in music, art and literature. Giacomo Meyerbeer, whose real name was Jacob Beer, surpassed the success ofhis "Robert le Diable" with his greatest opera "Les Huguenots, " produced onFebruary 20, at the Paris Opera House. The success of this masterpiece sodisheartened Rossini that he resolved to write no more operas, and withdrewto Bologna. Charles François Gounod, on the other hand, now began hismusical career by entering the Paris Conservatory. Frederick Chopin, thePolish composer, at this time was at the height of his vogue as the most_recherché_ pianist of Paris. He was the favorite of a circle of friendsconsisting of Meyerbeer, Bellini, Berlioz, Liszt, Balzac, and Heine. It wasduring this year that Liszt introduced Chopin to Madame Dudevant, betterknown as Georges Sand, the famous French novelist. Their attachment was thetalk of Paris. André Marie Ampère, the noted French mathematician andphysicist, died during this year at sixty-one years of age. He was theinventor of the electrical unit of measure which bears his name. 

[Sidenote: Thiers Prime Minister]

[Sidenote: Algerian reverses]

[Sidenote: Thiers resigns]

[Sidenote: Fiasco of Strasburg]

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon exiled]

[Sidenote: Amnesty acts]

Politically it was a turbulent year for France. On the question of thebudget the Ministry was defeated in January and had to resign. The newMinistry called in went to pieces on February 22, when Guizot and DeBroglie retired from the Cabinet. Thiers was placed at the helm. On June26, another attempt to assassinate the King was made by Louis Alibaud, aformer soldier of the south who had taken part in the revolution of July. The military expedition to Algeria under Marshal Clauzel and the Duke ofOrleans first met with distinguished success. The French army occupiedMascera. But later the unfortunate issue of an expedition against the townof Constantine caused the retirement of Marshal Clauzel as Governor-Generalof Algeria. Commander Changarnier at the head of a French battalion wasbeaten back step by step by an overwhelming body of Achmet Bey's cavalry ofthe desert. The question of French intervention in Spain resulted in thedownfall of the Ministry of Thiers. King Louis Philippe, ever since LordPalmerston's chilling reply to his overtures for joint intervention, wasopposed to such a project. "Let us aid the Spaniards from a distance, " saidhe, "but never let us enter the same boat with them. Once there we shouldhave to take the helm, and God knows where that would bring us. " Hedemanded the retirement of the French corps of observation in the Pyrenees. Thiers was utterly opposed to this: "Nothing can bring the King tointervention, " said he, "and nothing can make me renounce it. " OnSeptember 6, the Cabinet resigned, having been in power but six months. Count Molé was charged with forming a new Ministry. A new cause ofdisquietude was given late in October by Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte atStrasburg. On the last day of that month, Louis Napoleon, with no othersupport than that of Persigny and Colonel Vauterey, paraded the streets ofthat town and presented himself at the barracks of the 4th regiment ofartillery. He was received with the cry "Vive l'Empereur. " An attempt towin over the soldiers of the other barracks failed. The young prince wasarrested. Ex-Queen Hortense interceded in his behalf. The attempt to regainthe Napoleonic crown had been so manifest a fiasco that Louis Philippethought he could afford to be generous. Louis Napoleon was permitted totake himself off to the United States of America with an annuity of fifteenthousand francs from the royal purse. His adherents were taken before thecourt at Colmar and were all acquitted by the jury. A simultaneous militarymutiny at Vendome was treated with like leniency. After the death ofex-King Charles X. , Prince Polignac and other of his Ministers who had cometo grief after the revolution of 1830 were sent out of the country. Ageneral amnesty was announced. 

[Sidenote: American elections]

[Sidenote: The "Gag Law"]

[Sidenote: Smithson's bequest]

[Sidenote: Jackson's specie circular]

The arrival of Prince Louis Napoleon created little stir in the UnitedStates. The people there were in the midst of a Presidential election. President Jackson wished Vice-President Van Buren to be his successor. Hetherefore recommended that the Democratic nomination should be by nationalconvention. The National Republicans had by this time generally adopted thename of Whigs. They supported William H. Harrison and John McLaine of Ohiowith Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. The opposition hoped to throw thePresidential election into the House, but did not succeed in doing so. Amajority of Van Buren electors were chosen by 761, 549 votes against 736, 656divided among the other candidates. Congress met on December 5. Arkansasand Michigan were admitted as new States of the Union. Before thisJackson's Administration had won a complete success over his opponents. ThePresident gave his sanction to a Congressional resolution in favor of theSouth, that "all petitions, memorials, and resolutions relating to slaveryshall be laid on the table, and no further action whatever shall be hadthereon. " A select committee resolved that "Congress cannotconstitutionally interfere with slavery in the United States and it oughtnot to do so. " The so-called "Gag Law" was adopted by 117 over 68 votes. About this same time Congress accepted the bequest of James Smithson, anEnglishman, who left $515, 169 to be expended in America "for the generaldiffusion of knowledge among men. " After the fall of the United StatesBank, a number of State banks were formed, many of which were withoutadequate capital. Their notes were used in large quantities for thepurchase of public lands from the United States. Thereupon PresidentJackson issued the so-called specie circular, ordering federal agents toreceive no other money but gold and silver. This caused such a demand forspecie that many of these minor banks fell into difficulties. By the closeof the year bank failures had become so numerous that a financial crisiswas at hand. 

[Sidenote: Death of Madison]

Ex-President James Madison died this year at the ripe age of eighty-five. His entire career was such as to make him one of the great line of SouthernPresidents of Virginian stock: Washington, Jefferson and Monroe. 

[Sidenote: Seminole War]

[Sidenote: American railroad development]

The military campaign against the Seminoles was far from satisfactory. Manyof the soldiers sent into Georgia and Florida succumbed to disease. Theyhad to abandon Forts King, Dane and Micanopy, giving up a large tract tothe Indians. The Indians were defeated in battle at New Mannsville, and inthe fall of the year General Call rallied them on the Withlacoochee, butcould not drive them into the Wahoo Swamp. A change in commanders was oncemore made, and Jesup succeeded Call. With 8, 000 men he entered on a wintercampaign. The Indians were forced from their positions on theWithlacoochee, and were pursued toward the Everglades, and at the end of1836 sued for peace. On December 15, the Federal Post-Office andPatent-Office burned down. Irreparable loss was caused by the destructionof 7, 000 models and 10, 000 designs of new inventions. At the close ofJackson's Administration some three thousand miles of railroad had beenconstructed. Eight years previously, when he came into office, no railwayhad ever been seen in America. 

1837

[Sidenote: American financial crisis]

[Sidenote: Government relief measures]

[Sidenote: Sub-Treasury system]

[Sidenote: Texas independent]

The financial crisis of this year was not only one of the most severe, butalso the most remarkable in the financial history of the United States. ACongressional act of the previous year provided that after January 1, 1837, all surplus revenues of the government should be divided as loans among theStates. The amount to be distributed this year aggregated $28, 000, 000. Nopart of this large sum was ever recalled. When the government called forits deposits in order to distribute the surplus an immediate shrinkage ofspecie was the result. As bank after bank suspended, it was found that thepaper issue had increased from $51, 000, 000 in 1830 to $149, 000, 000 in 1837. Jackson's attacks on the National Bank had shaken public confidence in thisinstitution, and it likewise suspended specie payments. The mercantilefailures of a single fortnight in New York City amounted to $100, 000, 000. Arepeal of Jackson's order that payments for public lands should be in coinfilled the National Treasury with paper money. Congress met in specialsession to relieve the financial distress. A law was passed authorizing theissue of $10, 000, 000 in Treasury notes. This brought some relief. PresidentVan Buren's first message recommended the adoption by the government ofthe Sub-Treasury plan. A bill for the establishment of an independenttreasury passed the Senate, but was defeated in the House by a union ofWhigs and Conservatives. The Sub-Treasury plan, as eventually carried out, provided for complete separation of the National Bank and the government, and established the principle that the government revenues should bereceived in coin only. President Van Buren in his message speciallydeprecated any interference by Congress in the struggle between Texas andMexico. Texas, which had been bargained away by Southern votes in 1819, wasnow an eagerly desired prize. It had now become a part of Coahuila, and haddeclared its independence. Still Congress persisted in its attempt tointerfere, but a bill to that effect was voted down by the adherents of thePresident. 

[Sidenote: Distress in Spain]

In Mexico, Bustamente had again become President. In the neighboring Stateof Colombia, President Marquez, likewise, had himself re-elected. Theinfluence of North American progress was shown in Cuba by the opening ofthe first railway there, long before the mother country, Spain, could boastof such an advance in civilization. There the civil war was still drainingthe resources of the country. On May 17, General Evans took Trun, butfailed to follow up his success. In Portugal, the restoration of Pedro'sCharta de Ley was proclaimed by the Duke of Terceira. 

[Sidenote: Fall of Guizot]

[Sidenote: Death of Fourier]

In France, an unfortunate attempt to fix large dowries on the Duc deNemours and the Queen of the Belgians raised an outcry against the privateavarice of the King. As the result of the Ministerial crisis that followedthe defeat of these measures in the Chambers Guizot had to retire from theMinistry. Molé remained in charge with the reconstituted Cabinet. Thesuccess of a second expedition against Constantine, in which the Duc deNemours gained distinction, invested Molé's new Ministry with a certainpopularity. Measures for a general political amnesty and for the closing ofgambling houses were readily voted by the Chambers. The people of Pariswere kept amused first by the marriage of the Duc d'Orleans to PrincessHélène of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and by the subsequent wedding of PrincessMarie d'Orleans, the amateur sculptress, to Duke Alexander of Wurtemberg, adilettante, like herself, in letters. The occasion provoked the German poetHeine, then lying ill at Paris, to some of his most pungent witticisms. Ailing though he was, Heine was made a member of the new "Société des Gensde Lettres, " founded by Balzac, Lamennais, Dumas and Georges Sand. Furtherevents in French letters were the publication of Eugène Sue's"Latréaumont, " and the appearance of the early part of Michelet's "Historyof France. " François Charles Marie Fourier, the philosophic writer andfollower of St. Simon, died in his sixty-fifth year. Before his death hiswell-elaborated system of communism, as put forward in his "Traité del'Association Domestique et Agricole, " had found general acceptance amongthe radical orders of France. 

[Sidenote: Death of Leopardi]

[Sidenote: Ode to Brutus Minor]

[Sidenote: A self-apostrophe]

Count Giacomo Leopardi, the foremost lyric poet of modern Italy, died onJune 14. Leopardi's genius was tinctured with pessimism. Like Byron, he waspowerfully moved by the painful contrast between the classic grandeur ofancient Italy and the degeneracy of its latter days. The tendency towardpessimism was increased by his own ill health. His first works were theresult of his eager study of classic antiquities. Thus he brought out a newedition and translation of Porphyrios' "De vita Plotini. " His earliestverses, such as the fine "Ode to Italy, " and his poem on a projectedmonument for Dante, already contained the strain of sadness that ranthrough all his later poems. On the publication of Leopardi's firstcollection of verses, Niebuhr, the Prussian Ambassador at Rome, offered hima professorship at Berlin, but the poet's failing health preventedacceptance. Religious dissensions with his father depressed his spiritsstill more. He gave expression to his increasing sadness in the beautifulode on the "Minor Brutus. " In 1825 he took part in bringing out the famous"Antologia" at Florence, and also issued an edition of Petrarch and twocollections of Italian verse. Another collection of his own poems waspublished in 1826, followed by the prose dialogues "Operette Morali. " In1833, declining health led Leopardi to withdraw to Naples. One year beforehis death he brought out a last collection of poems distinguished alike forpoignant pessimism and for their high lyric beauty. Characteristic ofLeopardi's verse is this poem addressed to himself:

 Now lie forever still, My weary heart. Farewell, my last illusion The dream that we endure. Farewell! Too surely I know my end, and now of self-deception The hope long since and dear desire has left me. Be still forever! Enough Of fluttering such as thine has been. Vain, vain Thy palpitation, the wide world is not worth Our sighs; for bitter pain Life's portion is, naught else, and slime this earth. Subside henceforth, despair forever! Fate gave this race of ours For only guerdon death. Then make a sport Of thine own self, of nature, and the dark First power that, hidden, rules the world for harm-- And of the infinite emptiness of all. 

[Sidenote: Death of Pushkin]

[Sidenote: Lermontov]

Russia lost her foremost man of letters at this period by the death ofCount Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin, as the result of a duel. His lastwork, the drama "Boris Goudunov, " was left uncompleted. After his recallfrom his exile in Bessarabia, Pushkin had been appointed as imperialhistorian by Czar Nicholas, in which capacity he wrote a history of Peterthe Great and an account of the conspiracy of Pugatshev. Of his poeticworks, the most important was "Eugene Onegin, " an epic written after themanner of Byron's "Don Juan. " "Eugene Onegin" has remained one of theclassics of Russian literature throughout the Nineteenth Century. Pushkin'sbrother poet Lermontov, then an officer of the Guards, wrote a poemdemanding vengeance for Pushkin's death. He was banished to the Caucasus, and his writings were suppressed. Under a false name he now wrote hisfamous epic: "Song of Czar Ivan Vasilyevitch. "

[Sidenote: The first kindergarten]

[Sidenote: German clerical struggle]

A joyful event in German letters was the great festival at Mainz in honorof Gutenberg and his invention of the art of printing. Froebel opened hisfirst kindergarten at Blankenburg in Thuringia. Auerbach, the popularnovelist, brought out his "Spinoza. " Much was made by Germans of theopening of the first railway between Dresden and Leipzig, and of theinvention of coal-tar colors, or aniline dyes, by a process destined torevolutionize the arts of coloring and dyeing throughout the world. A greatstir was created by the imprisonment of the Archbishop of Cologne at Mindenafter a quarrel with the Prussian Government concerning marriages betweenpersons of different creeds. He was forbidden to go to Bonn. Backed by theHoly See in Rome, he continued to defy the Protestant authorities. 

[Sidenote: Death of William IV. ]

[Sidenote: Victoria's accession]

A change of rule, fraught with future consequences for Hanover, resultedfrom the death of William IV. , King of England and Hanover, on the 20th ofJune. By the death of the old King, his niece, Victoria Alexandra, then inher eighteenth year, became Queen of England. Miss Wynn, in her "Diaries ofa Lady of Quality, " has told how the news was brought to the young Princessat Kensington by the Archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Howley) and the LordChamberlain (Marquis Conyngham): "They did not reach Kensington Palaceuntil five o'clock in the morning. They knocked, they rang, they thumpedfor a considerable time before they could rouse the porter at the gate;they were again kept waiting in the courtyard, then turned into one of thelower rooms, where they seemed forgotten by everybody. They rang the bell, and desired that the attendant of the Princess Victoria might be sent toinform Her Royal Highness that they requested an audience on business ofimportance. After another delay, and another ringing to inquire the cause, the attendant was summoned, who stated that the Princess was in such a deepsleep that she could not venture to disturb her. Then they said, 'We arecome on business of state to the Queen, and even her sleep must give way tothat. ' In a few minutes she came into the room in a loose white nightgownand shawl, her nightcap thrown off, and her hair falling upon hershoulders, her feet in slippers, tears in her eyes, but perfectly collectedand dignified. "

[Sidenote: Her first Privy Council]

Lord Melbourne, the Prime Minister, was summoned, and at eleven o'clockthat same morning a Privy Council was held, which is thus described byCharles Greville, an eye-witness: "Never was anything like the firstimpression she produced, or the chorus of praise and admiration which israised about her manner and behavior, and certainly not without justice. Itwas very extraordinary, and something far beyond what was looked for. Herextreme youth and inexperience, and the ignorance of the world concerningher, naturally excited intense curiosity to see how she would act on thistrying occasion, and there was a considerable assemblage at the palace, notwithstanding the short notice which was given. The first thing to bedone was to teach her her lesson, which for this purpose Melbourne hadhimself to learn. . . . She bowed to the Lords, took her seat, and then readher speech in a clear, distinct, and audible voice, and without anyappearance of fear or embarrassment. "

[Sidenote: Hanover separates from England]

[Sidenote: Ernest, King of Hanover]

[Sidenote: Royal breach of faith]

[Sidenote: Revolt at Göttingen]

The first signature to the Act of Allegiance was that of Ernest, Duke ofCumberland, eldest surviving brother of the late King William. To himpassed the crown of Hanover, which for a hundred and twenty-five years hadbeen held by the occupants of the British throne. Under the Salic law, restricting succession to the male line, Hanover now became separated fromEngland. On June 28, the new King arrived in Hanover. He refused to receivethe deputation of the estates that had come to greet him. Dispensing withthe formality of taking the required oath to the constitution, he dissolvedthe estates. The validity of the Hanoverian Constitution was next called inquestion, and the restoration of the less liberal constitution of 1819 wasordained. The first to protest against this royal breach of faith wereseven professors of the University of Göttingen. Among them were the twobrothers Grimm, to whom the German language and literature are so deeplyindebted, and Gervinus, the great historian of modern Europe. Theprofessors were instantly dismissed. This high-handed act provoked aninsurrection among the students, which had to be quelled by troops, withbloodshed. 

The departure of the unpopular Duke of Cumberland and the dissolution ofthe embarrassing connection with Hanover wrought distinct relief to thepeople of England. According to usage on the accession of a new sovereign, Parliament was dissolved, in this instance by the Queen in person. Shedrove to the House of Lords in state, and created a sensation by her youthand graciousness. What she said of her own good intentions, her confidencein the wisdom of Parliament and the love of her people and her trust inGod, was re-echoed throughout the English dominion. Her popularity speedilybecame unbounded. The change in the person of the sovereign was a greatadvantage for the Melbourne Ministry. They had no longer to fear such asummary dismissal or interference by the throne as they had suffered duringthe last reign. The dissolution of Parliament only resulted in their favor. The Tories were in despair. The departure of the Duke of Cumberland, theirpower behind the throne, had deprived them of a leader. The old Duke ofWellington regarded the accession of a female sovereign a probable bar tohis return to power. To a friend he said: "I have no small talk, and Peelhas no manners. "

[Sidenote: The Victorian era]

The Victorian era in England, a period comparable for brilliancy only tothat of Queen Elizabeth, began indeed under auspicious circumstances. Inthe field of letters there was the galaxy of diverse spirits: Southey, Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Browning. A new start was given to English proseby such powerful writers as Lord Macaulay, Carlyle, Charles Dickens, andWilliam Makepeace Thackeray, who brought out his "Yellowplush Papers" thisvery year. Another newcomer in the field of romance was the Irishnovelist, Charles Gaines Lever, whose early "Adventures of Harry Lorrequer"found instant favor. Among the women writers were Maria Edgeworth, JaneAusten, and Elizabeth Barrett. Great strides were also made in science. Shortly after the appearance of Whewell's "History of Inductive Sciences, "the Ornithological and Electrical Societies were founded at London. Theprinciple of working clocks by electricity was advanced by Alexander Bain. Wheatstone and Cooke invented the magnetic needle telegraph. Ericsson's newscrew steamer "Francis Bogden" was found to develop a speed of ten miles anhour. John Upton patented his steam plow, and the first photographic printson paper were made by Fox Talbot. 

[Sidenote: Macaulay joins Cabinet]

[Sidenote: Famine in India]

[Sidenote: Boers defeat Zulus]

When Parliament was reconvened, Lord Macaulay was added to the Cabinet. Inthe northwestern provinces of East India a widespread famine, which costthe lives of 8, 000 natives, necessitated relief measures on a large scale. In the midst of these troubles the death of the ruling King of Delhi causeda vacancy, which was filled by Mahmoud Bahadour Shah, the last titularGreat Mogul under the protection of the British colonial government. InSouth Africa some measure of home rule was accorded to Cape Colony by theinstitution of a representative legislative council under a governorappointed by the Crown. To the north of Cape Colony the Boer emigrantscarried on their war of revenge against the Zulus. In a fierce battle onDecember 16, at Blood River, the Boers under Maritz and Potgieter utterlydefeated Dingaan's warriors. Pantah, the brother of Dingaan, became King ofthe Zulus. The anniversary of this battle was ever after celebrated as aholiday by the Boers. A settlement was founded in the conquered land, andthe first church was built on the site of Pietermaritzburg, named after theBoer leaders. 

[Sidenote: Canada restive]

[Sidenote: Papineau]

[Sidenote: The "family compact"]

On December 22, the British Parliament received the news of rebellion inLower Canada. The distress occasioned by the financial panic of this yearin the United States had spread to Canada. It found vent in agitationagainst English rule on the part of the French Canadians. On the occasionof the announcement of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne, when TeDeums were sung in the churches, the French Canadians signified theirdisapproval by walking out of church. Louis Joseph Papineau, Speaker of theLower House, led the opposition to the government proposals regarding theapplication of the revenues of the province. The home government kept up anarrow "British party" devoted to the so-called interests of the mothercountry. The majority in the Legislative Council constantly thwarted theresolutions of the vast majority of the popular Assembly. In Upper Canada, a British and official class practically held within its control thegovernment of the province. This class became known as the "familycompact. " The public offices and lands were parcelled out among themselvesand their followers. 

[Sidenote: Supplies refused]

The immediate points in dispute in 1837 were, that the government retainedin its service certain officials contrary to the wishes of theRepresentative Assembly, and insisted on paying their salaries out ofcolonial funds. The Representative Assembly declined to furnish thesupplies, complained of arbitrary infringement of the Constitution, anddemanded that the Legislative Council, instead of being nominees of theCrown, should be made elective. 

[Sidenote: Lord Russell's measures]

When intelligence reached England that the Assembly obstinately refusedsupplies for the payment of public officials, and of the arrears, which upto that time amounted to nearly one hundred and fifty thousand poundssterling, Lord John Russell carried in the English House of Commons aseries of resolutions rejecting the demand for an elective legislativecouncil and other changes in the Constitution, and empowering the executivegovernment to defray the expenses of the public service out of theterritorial and casual revenues. 

[Sidenote: Fils de la Liberté]

[Sidenote: Mackenzie]

[Sidenote: American filibusters]

[Sidenote: Sinking of "Carolina"]

[Sidenote: Major Head's measures]

On November 6, the so-called "Fils de la Liberté" rose in Montreal underthe leadership of Papineau. In Upper Canada, a similar rising was headed byWilliam Lyon Mackenzie, a journalist. On December 4, an attempt was made tosurprise Montreal. With the help of the militia the insurgents weredefeated, on December 4, at St. Eustace. The leaders of the insurrection atToronto fled to the United States and persuaded Van Rensselaer with othercitizens of Buffalo to join them. On December 12, they seized Navy Islandin Niagara River, established a provisional government, and issued papermoney. Loyalists of Canada attempted in vain to capture the place. OnDecember 29, they attacked the steamer "Carolina" and sent her over theFalls, resulting in the loss of several lives. This incident caused greatexcitement, both in England and this country. President Van Buren issued aproclamation of neutrality forbidding all interference in Canada, and sentGeneral Wool with a military force to compel obedience to the proclamation. In Upper Canada, Major Head--afterward Sir Francis Head--undertook tosuppress the rebellion by throwing the Canadians on their honor. Trustingto the good will of the people, he sent all the regular soldiers out of theprovince to the assistance of Governor Gosford in Lower Canada. The planworked well. The Canadians, proud of the confidence reposed in them, enrolled themselves in the militia to the number of ten or twelve thousand, and when Mackenzie and the rebels assembled to show fight, they were routedat the first encounter, and the rebellion in Upper Canada was at oncesuppressed. But Major Head's policy was not approved by the BritishGovernment, and Head had to make way for Lord Durham, the newly appointedGovernor of Canada. 

1838

[Sidenote: Lord Durham in Canada]

[Sidenote: Napierville]

[Sidenote: Prescott]

[Sidenote: Durham repudiated]

[Sidenote: Canadian interregnum]

Early in the year the Canadian insurgents and their sympathizers at NavyIsland were compelled to surrender. United States troops were posted at thefrontier. In the meanwhile Lord Durham had taken charge in Canada withdictatorial powers. He undertook to remodel the Constitution of Canada. Hisfirst act was a proclamation of amnesty from the Queen. The beneficenteffect of this was spoiled by a clause of exceptions providing for theperpetual banishment of a number of men implicated in the recent rising. OnApril 2, Lunt and Matthews, two conspicuous rebels, were hanged. LordDurham's confession that his measures were illegal evoked a storm inParliament. Lord Brougham, who had a personal quarrel with him, led theopposition there. In Canada, Mackenzie promptly proclaimed a republic. OnJune 5, a fight between the rebels and British troops near Toronto quelledthe rebellion for a short time. Within a few months it broke out again atBeauharnais. A pitched battle was fought at Napierville early in November. After their defeat there, the rebels made another stand at Prescott onNovember 17, but suffered so crushing a defeat that the insurrection wasbelieved to have been ended. In the meanwhile, Lord Brougham had succeededin passing a bill through the House disapproving Lord Durham's measures. Durham, he said, had been authorized to make a general law, but not to hangmen without the form of law. To save his own Administration Lord Melbourneon the next day announced that the Cabinet had decided to disallow Durham'sexpatriation ordinances. Durham was called upon to proclaim to therebellious colonists that the ordinance issued by him had been condemned byhis own government. Venting his mortification in a last indignantproclamation, he quitted Canada without waiting for his recall. By theexpress orders of the government the honors usually paid to aGovernor-General were withheld from him. Lord Durham returned to England abroken-hearted and dying man. He was succeeded by Sir John Colbourne. Hisfirst measure was to offer a reward of £1, 000 for the apprehension ofPapineau. The storm of indignation that followed was so violent thatColbourne incontinently threw up his post, and hastened back to England. The Hudson's Bay Fur Company improved the interval of the interregnum tomonopolize the functions of government in the vast regions of the extremenorth of America. An expedition was sent out to explore the northernmostcoast. The United States also fitted out an Antarctic exploring expedition, consisting of six vessels, under the command of Lieutenant Wilkes. 

[Sidenote: Renewed agitation in England]

[Sidenote: People's Charter]

In the British Parliament, the question of the adoption of the ballot wasraised by Duncombe, but Lord John Russell spoke against it, stating thatthe majority of the people were against fresh changes, or any renewal ofthe agitating circumstances which preceded the Reform Bill. But twentymembers voted with Duncombe, of whom six were asked to meet six members ofthe Workingmen's Association to discuss a programme of action. At thatmeeting a document in the shape of a Parliamentary petition was preparedcontaining "six points, " which were: Universal suffrage, or the right ofvoting by every male of twenty-one years of age; vote by ballot; annualParliaments; abolition of the property qualification for members ofParliament; members of Parliament to be paid for their services; equalelectoral districts. At the conclusion of the meeting, Daniel O'Connellrose and handed the petition to the secretary of the Workingmen'sAssociation, saying, "There, Lovett, is your Charter. Agitate for it andnever be content with anything else. "

[Sidenote: Feargus O'Connor]

[Sidenote: Chartist leaders]

The "People's Charter" was submitted to a large public meeting andenthusiastically approved, and the leaders of the movement began toorganize. They soon fell into two factions; those who were in favor offorce and those in favor of agitation only. The leader of both parties wasFeargus O'Connor, an Irish barrister, and once a follower of O'Connell, with whom he subsequently quarrelled. Associated with him as leaders of themovement at various periods were Lovett, Heatherington, Henry Vincent, Ernest Jones, and Thomas Cooper "the poet of Chartism. "

 [Illustration: QUEEN VICTORIA TAKING THE OATH Painted by Sir George Hayter]

[Sidenote: French expedition to Mexico]

[Sidenote: Coast towns bombarded]

In France, the sympathies of the people with the cause of the FrenchCanadians were kept under firm control by the government of LouisPhilippe. A dissolution of the Chambers, which modified the condition ofthe Assembly, served to strengthen the Ministry of Molé. To vent thefeelings excited in behalf of the Frenchmen of Canada, the FrenchGovernment picked a quarrel with the Republic of Mexico. Reparation wasdemanded late in March for injuries inflicted on French residents duringthe internal dissensions of Mexico. The demand was refused. A Frenchsquadron of warships, under Admiral Baudin and Prince de Joinville, wassent out to blockade the coast of Mexico. On November 27, San Juan de Ulloawas bombarded. Vera Cruz likewise suffered bombardment. The ArgentineRepublic became involved and declared war on France. French cruisersblockaded Buenos Ayres. 

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon returns]

[Sidenote: Alexandre Dumas]

On the occasion of his mother's death, Prince Louis Napoleon returned toEurope. His book, "Idées Napoléoniennes, " which was widely read throughoutFrance, at once drew attention upon him. At the request of the FrenchGovernment he was expelled from Switzerland. Louis Philippe's friend, Alexandre Dumas, at this time achieved a popular success with his book "LeCapitaine Paul. " Dumas's romantic plays and several of his latest comedies, written in the style of Scribe, were at the height of their vogue. 

[Sidenote: Daubigny]

In the French salon of this year, François Daubigny, the great pupil ofDelaroche, first exhibited his early masterpieces, "Banks of the RiverOulins" and "The Seine at Charenton. " Both paintings were purchased by theFrench Government. 

[Sidenote: Poe]

[Sidenote: Hawthorne]

[Sidenote: Emerson]

[Sidenote: Wendell Phillips]

In America, a new writer had arisen in Edgar Allan Poe, who disputed thefield with Longfellow and Whittier. Poe's "Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, "a story of marine adventures, which had begun in Poe's own journal, "TheMessenger, " was published in complete form by Harpers. Before this severalof his works, among them that of "Ligeia, " had already brought him intosome prominence. Nathaniel Hawthorne during this same year wrote his earlystories, which were afterward collected under the title of "Twice ToldTales. " Ralph Waldo Emerson at Concord, Massachusetts, had begun to deliverthose penetrating lectures which, rewritten in the form of essays, laterestablished his rank as the foremost philosophic writer in America. WendellPhillips made his appearance as a lecturer against slavery in Boston. Shortly before this a pro-slavery mob at Alton, Illinois, murdered the Rev. E. P. Lovejoy and destroyed the press and building of his newspaper, published in the interests of abolition. Abraham Lincoln, who had beenre-elected to the Legislature of Illinois, voiced a strong protest againstthis and other pro-slavery tendencies in Illinois. 

[Sidenote: Removal of Cherokees]

Other acts of persecution during this year brought lasting disgrace uponAmerica. In direct violation of the Federal treaties with the Indians theState troops of Georgia forcibly removed 16, 000 Cherokees from their landsin that State. Nothing was done to alleviate the sufferings of theCherokees, who were driven from their settlements in midwinter. Theresulting death rate was fearful. More than 4, 500 Indians, or one-fourthof the whole number, perished before they reached their destination in thedistant Indian Territory. 

[Sidenote: Persecution of Mormons]

The members of the new sect of Mormon, numbering some 12, 000 souls, weredriven from their homes at Nauvoo in western Missouri. They went across theplains of Iowa, stopping temporarily at Council Bluffs. From there theypassed over the great American prairies, and, crossing the Rocky Mountainrange, settled near the Great Salt Lake of Utah. 

[Sidenote: Record transatlantic trip]

Chicago was incorporated with a population of 4, 170 residents. Much commentwas excited by a record trip of the steamboat "Great Western, " whichsteamed from Bristol, England, to New York in fifteen days. Among those wholived to witness this event was John Stevens, one of the pioneers of modernsteamboat building. Shortly afterward he died in his eighty-ninth year. 

[Sidenote: Indian truce broken]

[Sidenote: Betrayal of Osceola]

[Sidenote: Zachary Taylor in Florida]

Within a short time after suing for peace, the Southern Indians broke thetruce and made a determined effort to take Fort Mellon. In this they wereunsuccessful. In March, at Fort Dade, five of the chiefs signed anagreement, in which they stipulated to cease from war until the governmentdecided whether they might remain in Florida. Some seven hundred Indiansand negroes were taken by the government before its decision was announced, and were sent off to Tampa for shipment. In violation of a flag of truce, Osceola and several of his principal chiefs were seized and sent to FortMoultrie as prisoners. Their treatment there was such that Osceola soondied. In May, Colonel Zachary Taylor succeeded Jesup. The remaining forcesof the Indians were now wary. They scattered in the swamps, eludingattempts of organized troops to capture them. In December, Colonel Taylorset out with over a thousand men for their almost inaccessible haunts. OnChristmas Day they found the Seminoles prepared to receive them nearOkeechobee Lake. After a hard fought battle, in which Taylor lost 139 men, the Indians once more retreated into the swamps of Florida. 

[Sidenote: Boers in Natal]

[Sidenote: Pretorius]

In South Africa during this year, the new community of Dutch settlers, whohad evaded English jurisdiction, soon revived their peculiar institutionsin the region that is now Natal--from the Drakensberg to the sea at Durban, and from the Tugela River to the Umzimbolbu. The fight against the Africansavages continued. Early in the spring, a Boer expedition was defeated bythe Zulus, who followed up their advantage by an attack on the nearest Boerlaager. Seventy Boers, with their Kaffir servants, were massacred. A largeBoer settlement, numbering some 800 persons, was saved from exterminationonly by a timely relief expedition under Pretorius, in December. On theother side troubles arose between the Boers and the Bechuanas inconsequence of King Moroka's prohibition of the importation of spirituousliquors into Bechuanaland. The growth of a new Dutch State to the north ofCape Colony caused uneasiness among the British authorities at Cape Town. Amovement was started to extend British rule to Natal, and to secure theimportant seaport of Durban. 

1839

[Sidenote: French hold on Mexico]

[Sidenote: Ancona evacuated]

[Sidenote: Status of Belgium]

[Sidenote: Fall of Molé's Ministry]

[Sidenote: French provincial government]

[Sidenote: Parisian revolt suppressed]

The French expedition against Mexico was brought to a successful closeafter the capture of the fort of San Juan d'Ulloa and the town of VeraCruz. General Santa Anna's attempt to relieve Vera Cruz resulted only inanother upheaval of the government at the capital. President Bustamente hadto call in a new Ministry, with which, through the mediation of England, negotiations for peace were undertaken. On March 9, the terms of peace wereconcluded. Mexico had to pay an indemnity of $600, 000. Further use for theFrench squadron in American waters was found in the complicated affairs ofthe small South American republics at the mouth of the Plata and thealleged injuries suffered by Frenchmen from the disordered state of affairsin Hayti. On the other hand, France withdrew its troops from the citadel ofAncona in the Papal dominions, simultaneously with the withdrawal of theAustrian forces of occupation from the Papal States. The long-pendingdifficulties between Belgium and Holland were brought to a settlement atlast by the King of Holland's acceptance of the conditions of separationfixed by the international conference. The abandonment of Casimir Périer'svigorous foreign policy in Europe was viewed with regret by the Liberalparty in France. Guizot combined with Thiers and Odilon Barrot against theMinistry, and thus accomplished its downfall, though they retained MarshalSoult, the most popular member of Molé's Cabinet. "I must have that gallantsword, " remarked Louis Philippe. Their efforts to conduct the governmentproved a failure. The King established a provisional government in theirplace, which prolonged the crisis. On May 12, an insurrection broke out inthe most populous quarters of Paris. Under the leadership of Barbes, Bernard and others, attacks were made on the Hôtel de Ville, the Palace ofJustice and the Préfecture of Police. The revolt had to be put down bymerciless measures. Marshal Soult was placed at the head of the governmentto the exclusion of Guizot and Odilon Barrot, while Thiers was madepresident of the Chambers. Guizot employed his leisure time to write hisfamous "Life of Washington. " About the same time Daguerre published his newinvention of making the sun prints which were called daguerreotypes afterhim. A life pension of 6, 000 francs was awarded to him by the government ofLouis Philippe. The interest in the family of Bonaparte and its dreadedpretensions in France was revived by the death of Letizia Buonaparte, themother of Napoleon, in her eighty-ninth year. The first problem confrontingthe new administration of France was the fresh trouble that had broken outin the Orient. 

[Sidenote: Turkish-Egyptian War]

[Sidenote: Battle of Nissiv]

[Sidenote: Abdul Medjid, Sultan]

The long-brewing war between Sultan Mahmoud of Turkey and his vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt, broke out in May. In the face of new assurances ofpeace, the Sultan ordered his commander-in-chief of the Euphrates tocommence hostilities. The Turkish troops crossed the Euphrates on May 23. In spite of the good counsels of Moltke and other European officers at theTurkish headquarters, the Turks were outmanoeuvred by the Egyptian forcesunder Ibrahim. June 24, Ibrahim Pasha inflicted a crushing defeat on theTurkish army at Nissiv. All the artillery and stores fell into his hands. The Turkish army dispersed in another rout. Mahmoud II. Did not live tohear of the disaster. One week after the battle of Nissiv, before news fromthe front had reached him, he died. The throne was left to his son, AbdulMedjid, a youth of sixteen. 

[Sidenote: Turkish fleet betrayed]

[Sidenote: Anglo-French intervention]

[Sidenote: French diplomacy offset]

Scarcely had the new Sultan been proclaimed when the Turkish admiral, Achmet Fevzi, who had been sent out to attack the coast of Syria, sailedinto Alexandria and delivered his fleet over to Mehemet Ali. Turkey, nowpractically rulerless, was left without defence, on land and on water. Mehemet Ali not only declared Egypt independent of the Porte, but, encouraged by France, prepared to move on Constantinople. In this extremitythe foreign Ambassadors at Constantinople addressed a collective note tothe Divan, announcing European intervention. Shortly afterward a squadronof British and French warships sailed into the Dardanelles for theostensible purpose of protecting Constantinople against Mehemet Ali, inreality to prevent Russia from profiting by the terms of its treaty ofUnkiar Skelessi. In vain did Russia propose to join the coalition. Therecent acquisition of Aden gave England the upper hand. Russian diplomacyaccordingly directed itself toward effecting a breach between the allies. Agood opening was afforded by the French intrigues at Cairo, which fell inwith the ambitions of Mehemet Ali. As a result, France was graduallycrowded out of the European coalition during the course of 1839. 

[Sidenote: Decamps]

At the French Salon of this year Decamps exhibited his celebrated"Punishment of the Hooks, " "Executioners at the Door of a Prison, " and"Children Playing with Turtles. " Decamps with Delacroix, the leader of theFrench school of romanticism, was praised at this time for the exceedingcharm of his colors. 

[Sidenote: Rise of English Conservatives]

England during this period passed through a Cabinet crisis. The popularityof Melbourne's Ministry was waning. Lord Melbourne was a typical Whig, opposed to the policy of the Tories, or, as they were beginning to becalled at that time, the Conservatives. The alteration in title isattributed to John Wilson Croker, who, in the "Quarterly Review, " referredto "what is called the Tory, but which might with more propriety be calledthe Conservative party. " This new name was indorsed by Lord John Russell, who said, "If that is the name that pleases them, if they say that the olddistinction of Whig and Tory should no longer be kept up, I am ready, inopposition to their name of Conservative, to take the name of Reformer, and to stand by that opposition. " Sir Robert Peel defined Conservatism whenhe said, "My object for some years past has been to lay the foundation of agreat party, which, existing in the House of Commons, and deriving itsstrength from the popular will, should diminish the risk and deaden theshock of collisions between the two branches of the legislature. "

[Sidenote: Fall of Melbourne Ministry]

[Sidenote: Bedchamber question]

In May, the government's proposition to suspend the Constitution of Jamaicabrought about the fall of the Ministry. The measure was sustained by amajority of only five. The Queen sent for Sir Robert Peel. Her wish toretain as ladies of her household the wife and sister of two members of thelast Cabinet brought forth a respectful remonstrance from Peel. The Queenreplied in this wise: "The Queen having considered the proposal made to heryesterday by Sir Robert Peel, to remove the Ladies of her Bedchamber, cannot consent to a course which she considers to be contrary to usage, andis repugnant to her feelings. "

[Sidenote: Queen Victoria yields]

This ended Peel's attempt to form a Ministry and Melbourne was recalled. The question created much discussion at the time. Lord Brougham maintainedthat Lord Melbourne "had sacrificed liberal principles and the interests ofthe country to the private feelings of the sovereign. " "I thought, " hesaid, "that we belonged to a country in which the government by the Crownand the wisdom of Parliament was everything, and the personal feelings ofthe sovereign were absolutely not to be named at the same time. " In theend the Queen yielded her point. A statement was put forth that "the Queenwould listen to any representation from the incoming Prime Minister as tothe composition of her household, and would arrange for the retirement, oftheir own accord, of any ladies who were so closely related to the leadersof Opposition as to render their presence inconvenient. "

[Sidenote: Chartist agitation]

On behalf of the Chartists large public meetings were organized in Londonand in all parts of England at which violent speeches were made. On the 1stof April, at a public meeting in Edinburgh to support the Ministry, theChartists took possession of the platform, ejected the Lord Provost, andpassed their own resolutions. On the same day at Devizes, in Wiltshire, Vincent entered the town at the head of about a thousand men, carryingsticks, and attempted to address them in the market-place. In May, theChartist National Convention removed from London to Birmingham. There theywere met by a mob of five thousand persons and conducted through theprincipal streets to the meeting-place. 

[Sidenote: Chinese oppose opium trade]

[Sidenote: English opium destroyed]

[Sidenote: British resentment]

[Sidenote: Chinese orders defied]

[Sidenote: Opening of hostilities]

[Sidenote: Sea fight off Chuenpee]

[Sidenote: British squadron sails for China]

Meanwhile, Great Britain was embroiled in another Oriental war. Thedespatch of Admiral Maitland and Captain Elliot to China to deal with thedifficulties growing out of the English opium trade there only served tomake the situation more acute. In January, Emperor Taouk-Wang ordered LinTsiaseu, Viceroy of Houk Wang, to proceed to Canton to put a definite stopto the opium traffic. The peremptory instructions given to CommissionerLin were "to cut off the fountain of evil, and if necessary to sink theBritish ships and to break their caldrons, since the hourly thought on theEmperor's part was to do away with opium forever. " Within a week of Lin'sarrival at Canton he issued an edict wherein he stigmatized the foreignersas a heartless people who thought only of trade and of making their way bystealth into the Flowery Land, whereas the laws of England, he asserted, prohibited the smoking of opium in their own country. A demand was made tosurrender to him all stores of opium within three days. To enforce thisdemand, Chinese troops were concentrated around the European settlement. Eventually more than 20, 000 chests of opium were seized and dumped into thesea. After this triumph, Lin wrote a letter to Queen Victoria calling uponher government to interdict the importation of opium. At the same time amemorial was sent to England by the British merchants of Canton begging thegovernment to protect them against "a capricious and corrupt government"and demanding compensation for the opium confiscated by the Chinese. On thepart of the British Government no answer was vouchsafed to the demands ofthe viceroy. In China, matters took their course. Captain Elliot at Canton, on May 22, issued a notice in which he protested against the action of theChinese Government "as utterly unjust per se, " and advised all Britishmerchants to withdraw to Hong Kong. The merchants acted on the suggestion, and the English factory at Canton, which had existed for nearly 200 years, was abandoned. The British sailors in Chinese waters threw off allrestraint. Frequent collisions occurred between them and the natives. Inone of them a Chinaman was killed. The Chinese viceroy denounced this actas "going to the extreme of disobedience to the laws" and demanded thesurrender of the British sailor who perpetrated the murder. This demand wasflatly refused. The Chinese thereupon refused to furnish further suppliesto the ships and prohibited all British sailors from coming ashore onChinese soil. The official notice said: "If any of the foreigners be foundcoming on shore to cause trouble, all and every one of the people arepermitted to withstand and drive them back, or to make prisoners of them. "The English naval officers retaliated by sending out their men to seize byforce whatever they needed. A boat's crew of the British ship "Black Jack"was massacred. Thus hostilities began. Two British men-of-war exchangedshots with the forts in the Bogue. On November 3, the two frigates "Volage"and "Hyacinth" were attacked by twenty-nine junks-of-war off Chuenpee. Aregular engagement was fought and four of the junks were sunk. On the newsof the fight at Chuenpee, Emperor Taouk-Wang promoted the Chinese admiral. On December 6, an imperial edict prohibiting all trade with Great Britainwas issued. Already a strong British squadron was on its way to China. 

[Sidenote: War with Afghans]

[Sidenote: Fall of Kandahar]

[Sidenote: British enter Kabul]

[Sidenote: Failure of Russian counter move]

Simultaneously with these troubles the British had become embroiled in warwith the Afghans. The ostensible purpose was to depose Dost Mohammed Khanfrom his usurpation of the throne of Afghanistan. In reality this chieftainhad aroused the ire of England by entering into negotiations with Russia, after Lord Auckland had declined to call upon Runjit Singh to restorePeshawar to Afghanistan. When it was learned that a Russian mission hadbeen received at Kabul, the British Government resolved to dethrone DostMohammed Khan and to restore Shah Shuja to the throne of Kabul. War wasdeclared at Simla. Columns were sent out from Bombay and Bengal and wereunited at Quetta under the command of Sir John Keene. Kandahar was capturedin April. In July, Ghasni was taken by storm. It was on this occasion thatSir Henry Durand, then a young subaltern, distinguished himself by blowingup the Ghasni gate. In August, the British entered Kabul. Dost MohammedKhan fled over the Oxus into Bokhara. Shah Shuja was restored as ruler ofAfghanistan under the tutelage of a British resident minister. In responseto Dost Mohammed's appeals, the Russian Government sent out an expeditiontoward Khiva, in November; but the winter weather in the mountains was sosevere that the expedition had to return. 

[Sidenote: British colonial problems]

Other problems engaged the attention of the British Colonial Office. Arebellion in Borneo had to be suppressed by force of arms. In Canada, thenew Governor-General, Charles Pollot Thompson, later Lord Sydenham, foundit difficult to carry out Durham's scheme of union. In November, martiallaw had to be declared again at Montreal. The reported discovery of goldby Count Strzelescki in New South Wales, and the discovery of copper inSouth Australia, drew great numbers of emigrants thither. New Zealand wasincorporated in New South Wales. The wild financial speculations engenderedby these changes plunged almost all of Australia into bankruptcy. In CapeColony the public school system was introduced by Sir W. Herschel. 

[Sidenote: Industrial development]

[Sidenote: Charles Darwin]

In England, it was a period of material advances in civilization. Postalreforms were introduced by Sir Roland Hill. In July, a bill for pennypostage was introduced in Parliament, resulting in a new postage lawproviding a uniform rate of fourpence per letter. New speed records weremade on land and on water. While the steam packet "Britannia" crossed fromHalifax to Liverpool in ten days, the locomotive "North Star" accomplisheda run of thirty-seven miles in one hour. Wheatstone perfected his inventionof a telegraph clock. A patent was obtained for the process of obtainingwater gas. Charles Darwin, having returned from his scientific travels onH. M. S. "Beagle, " published his "Journal of Researches. "

[Sidenote: Death of Schelling]

[Sidenote: Agassiz]

A loss to German philosophic literature was the death of Joseph Schelling, whose theories formed the main inspiration of the romantic poet Novalis. Agassiz, the naturalist, published his original researches on fresh-waterfishes. 

[Sidenote: Schwann's cell theory]

[Sidenote: Liebig's theory of fermentation]

It was then that Dr. Theodore Schwann, stimulated in his microscopicresearches by the previous discoveries of Robert Brown, Johannes Müllerand Schleiden, propounded the famous cell theory in his work, "MicroscopicResearches Concerning the Unity in the Structure and Growth of Animals andPlants. " Schwann's book became a scientific classic almost from the momentof its publication. It was Schwann, too, who, simultaneously with Cagniardla Tour, discovered the active principle of gastric juice to be thesubstance which he named pepsin. The cell theory was for some time combatedby the most eminent German men of science. Thus Liebig, in apparentagreement with Helmholtz, took a firm stand against the new doctrine withhis famous "theory of fermentation" promulgated this same year. 

[Sidenote: Death of William Smith]

[Sidenote: The new geology]

In England, William Smith, "the father of English geology, " died. Born in1769, Smith, like many another English scientist, was self-taught andperhaps all the more independent for that. He discovered that the fossilsin rocks, instead of being scattered haphazard, are arranged in regularsystems, so that any given stratum of rock is labelled by its fossilpopulation; that the order of succession of such groups of fossils isalways the same in any vertical series of strata in which they occur, andthat a fossil, having once disappeared, never reappears in a later stratum. The facts which he unearthed were as iconoclastic in their field as thediscoveries of Copernicus and Galileo. 

[Sidenote: Spanish civil war]

[Sidenote: Carlist reverses]

[Sidenote: Flight of Don Carlos]

[Sidenote: Decline of Spain]

In Spain, a signal defeat of the Carlists at Pennecerrada during theprevious year had caused a decisive turn in the civil war. Don Carlos'attempted march on Madrid had to be abandoned, and was followed by theretreat of his forces to the Ebro. General Espartero forced back theCarlist forces step by step, and carried the fight into the Basqueprovinces. There the struggle degenerated into a war of extermination. TheCarlist leaders turned against one another. The priests excommunicated thegenerals, and the generals in turn shot the priests. At last, by the middleof September, so many of the insurgents had surrendered to Espartero thatDon Carlos found himself almost without followers. He gave up the struggleand fled into France. This ended the civil war. It had lasted six wearyyears, and had proved almost as disastrous for Spain as the greatPeninsular War. Robbed of her former colonial resources, excepting onlythose from Cuba and the Philippines, Spain's finances were all but ruined. Of industrial progress there was next to none. The country relapsed intosemi-barbarism. 

[Sidenote: American Whig Convention]

[Sidenote: Henry Clay's candidacy. ]

[Sidenote: Financial failures]

[Sidenote: Longfellow's poems]

In the United States, prominent Northern abolitionists met at Warsaw, NewYork, and resolved to form an independent political party. A WhigConvention, the first of such gatherings, was held at Harrisburg, fifteenmonths before the next Presidential election. Harrison was nominated forPresident and John Tyler for Vice-President. In the West, Henry Clay, popularly known as "Harry of the West, " was the ideal of a strong minority. His repeated failures to attain the Presidency led to the remark: "He istoo good a man to be President. " The first session of the Twenty-sixthCongress opened in December. An organization of the House was at lasteffected by John Quincy Adams, who put a question to vote which theSpeaker had refused to present. The Representatives indulged for the firsttime in the practice of "pairing off. " Adams opposed this, declaring thatit was a violation of the Constitution, of an express rule of the Housewhich the Representatives owed to their constituents. Another event of theyear in America was the failure of the United States Bank at Philadelphia, in consequence of speculations in cotton, as the result of which thegovernment lost $2, 000, 000 of its deposits. Other bank failures followed. Mississippi repudiated $5, 000, 000 of its State bonds. The first power loomfor making carpets was set up at Lowell, Massachusetts. Charles Goodyearobtained his first patent for making vulcanized rubber. The expressbusiness was organized by Harndon, who sent his first pack from New York toBoston by the public messenger. Longfellow published his romance"Hyperion, " and "Voices of the Night, " a collection of verses embracingsome of his most widely known poems. In the same year appeared Willis's"Letters from Under a Bridge" and Cooper's "History of the Navy. "

Toward the close of the year, Queen Victoria held a Privy Council atBuckingham Palace, at which she announced her intention to marry hercousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

[Sidenote: Queen Victoria's betrothal]

Greville wrote in his diary that "about eighty Privy Councillors werepresent, the folding-doors were thrown open, and the Queen came in, attiredin a plain morning gown, but wearing a necklace containing Prince Albert'sportrait. She read the declaration in a clear, sonorous, sweet tone ofvoice, but her hand trembled so excessively that I wonder she was able toread the paper which she held. "

All this time the agitation for the People's Charter in England went onunabated. In the autumn, St. Paul's Cathedral in London was temporarilytaken possession of by a large body of Chartists. Churches were likewiseentered in Manchester. 

[Sidenote: Popular riots in England]

[Sidenote: The Charter propaganda]

At Newport, in Monmouthshire, an organized attempt was made, under theleadership of John Frost and Zephaniah Williams, to rescue Henry Vincentfrom prison. Armed with guns, crowbars and pick-axes the mob poured intothe town twenty thousand strong. They were met by a small body of soldiery, and after a sharp conflict were scattered with a loss of ten killed andfifty wounded. The leaders were arrested and condemned in court. A vastperiodical literature kept alive the agitation. Among the new Chartistnewspapers were the "Northern Star, " the property and the organ of FeargusO'Connor; the London "Despatch"; the Edinburgh "New Scotsman"; theNewcastle "Northern Liberator"; the Birmingham "Journal, " and many others. 

1840

[Sidenote: England declares war on China]

The Chinese edict prohibiting all trade and intercourse with England wasput in force on January 5. The English missionaries in China fled to HongKong, which port was put in readiness for defence against the Chinese. Great Britain declared war, and sent out an expedition consisting of 4, 000troops on board twenty-five transports, with a convoy of fifteenmen-of-war. 

[Sidenote: End of Dingaan]

In South Africa, during January, the Boers inflicted a crushing defeat onthe Zulus under Dingaan. The Zulu King himself was killed. His brother, Upanda, succeeded him as ruler. 

[Sidenote: Union of Upper and Lower Canada]

[Sidenote: Canadian boundary commission]

On the other side of the globe, the legislative union of Upper and LowerCanada was at last effected, after a separation of forty-nine years. Eachhad equal representation in the common legislature, with practicalconcession on the part of the mother country of responsible government. Kingston was selected as the new seat of government, to be shiftedpresently to Montreal. To settle the long pending boundary dispute betweenCanada and the United States, a commission was appointed, consisting ofLord Ashburton for England and Daniel Webster for America. Between the lineclaimed by Great Britain and that demanded by the United States lay 12, 000square miles of territory. The commission sat all the year. 

[Sidenote: American Presidential election]

[Sidenote: Morse]

[Sidenote: Draper]

[Sidenote: Florence]

[Sidenote: Fanny Ellsler]

The American Senate early in the year passed the Sub-Treasury bill. By thismeasure it was required that the national funds should be kept atWashington, and in federal sub-treasuries in some of the large cities, subject to the orders of the Washington office. The first NationalConvention against anti-slavery met at Albany. James G. Birney, aKentuckian, was nominated for President. The Whigs were incensed at thenomination and Birney withdrew. The Democratic National Convention atBaltimore unanimously renominated Van Buren. The political campaign thatfollowed began a new era in American elections. The facilities of transiteffected by the railroads now first rendered possible immense gatherings atcentral points. In May, 20, 000 political followers gathered at Baltimore inHarrison's interest. The contest had just opened, when a leading Democraticpaper stated "if some one would present Harrison with a barrel of cider hewould sit down on a log content and happy the rest of his days. " The logcabin and hard cider jug forthwith became the emblems of the Whigs. Logcabin songs were heard, with shouts for "Tippecanoe, and Tyler too. " Allthe Middle States gave their majorities to Harrison. Harrison and Tylerwere elected by a vote of 1, 275, 017 to 1, 128, 702 for Van Buren. It was apolitical revolution, breaking the Democratic success of forty years. Itwas during this year that Samuel F. B. Morse obtained his first Americanpatent on the telegraph. William Draper of New York turned out the mostsuccessful daguerreotype portraits yet obtained. Florence, the actor, madehis first appearance at the National Theatre in Philadelphia, while FannyEllsler appeared at the Park Theatre in New York City. Ralph Waldo Emersonpublished the "Dial. " Other notable publications in American letters werePoe's "Tales of the Arabesque and Grotesque, " Willis's "Loiterings ofTravel, " Cooper's "Pathfinder, " and Dana's "Two Years Before the Mast. "

[Sidenote: New Mexico]

[Sidenote: Yucatan]

[Sidenote: Revolution in Mexico]

[Sidenote: Dom Pedro II. Of Brazil]

[Sidenote: General Lavalle shot]

In Central and South America, it was likewise a year of politicalupheavals. The Yankee settlers of Texas maintained their independenceagainst Mexico. Their movement was joined by the Northern States along theRio Grande. The independent State of New Mexico was formed. Yucatanlikewise became an independent government. On July 25, a revolution brokeout in the City of Mexico. General Urrea captured in person PresidentBustamente. After two days Bustamente was released on a pledge of generalamnesty and administrative reforms. Santander, the first President ofColombia, died in May. The election of Marquez to the Presidency wasfollowed by civil war. The province of Cartagena seceded from Colombia. Theunion of Central American States was dissolved, and Costa Rica became anindependent republic. In Brazil, another political overturn resulted inmaterial changes in the Constitution. In July, the Brazilian Legislaturedeclared Dom Pedro II. , then still under age, Emperor of Brazil. In theArgentine Republic, General Lavalle, who had taken the field against hisopponents, was utterly defeated and shot. A new treaty was concludedbetween Argentina and Montevideo. 

[Sidenote: Hawaiian Islands recognized]

In the distant South Seas, the Hawaiian Islands were recognized as anindependent kingdom by the Powers on the condition that free access begiven to white missionaries and the teachings of Christianity. 

[Sidenote: Oriental problems]

[Sidenote: Egypt's status defined]

In regard to the affairs of the Orient, the Powers found agreement moredifficult. France gave continued support to the pretensions of Mehemet Aliof Egypt against Turkey. The French scheme to anticipate Russia's designson Constantinople by a dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and theestablishment of Mehemet Ali at Constantinople found little favor with thePowers. The Russian statesmen understood the true weakness of Turkey, andwere willing to bide their time. Metternich and Lord Palmerston clung tothe belief that the Ottoman Empire could still be reconstructed. Thus LordPalmerston said at this time: "All that we hear about the decay of theTurkish Empire, and its being a dead body, or a sapless trunk, and soforth, is pure and unadulterated nonsense. " Metternich affected to lookupon Mehemet Ali as a mere rebel. At last, on July 15, the negotiators ofGreat Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia, without waiting for France, concluded a treaty at London. Egypt was offered to Mehemet Ali inperpetuity with southern Syria for his lifetime. If this offer was notaccepted within ten days, Egypt alone was to be ceded; if, after twentydays, this alternative were not accepted, joint action was to be takenagainst Mehemet Ali. 

[Sidenote: France slighted]

[Sidenote: French pretensions on the Rhine]

[Sidenote: Becker's Rhine song]

[Sidenote: Musset's defiance]

The exclusion of France from the concert of Europe aroused a storm of angerat Paris. Guizot, the French Ambassador at London, expostulated with LordPalmerston. Thiers, then at the head of affairs in France, issued ordersfor an increase of the strength of army and navy. The long-delayedfortifications at Paris were begun. Military spirit was so awakened inFrance that the familiar cry was raised to avenge Waterloo and recover theRhine. The Germans fiercely resented this threat of invasion, promptedlargely by French exasperation over the turn which Egyptian affairs hadtaken. Even the Rhenish provinces, which owed so much to France, shared inthis national feeling. It was at this time that Becker, himself a man fromthe Rhine, wrote the lines which in later years became one of Germany'smost famous war songs:

 "Sie sollen ihn nicht haben Den freien deutschen Rhein. "

Alfred de Musset answered this with his defiant verses:

 "Nous avons eu votre Rhin Allemand, "

[Sidenote: Napoleonic memories]

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's second fiasco]

Under the stress of this new military ardor in France, agitation wasrevived for the return of Napoleon Bonaparte's remains from St. Helena toFrance. The consent of the British Government having been obtained, adecree to this effect was passed by the French Chambers. Other eventshelped to fan to fresh life the smouldering flames of Napoleonicimperialism. Thus the death of Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's eldestbrother, and of Marshal MacDonald, hero of Wagram, recalled a host ofNapoleonic memories. On August 6, Prince Louis Napoleon deemed the timeripe for another Napoleonic rising. Crossing over from England with GeneralMoltenon and fifty followers he attempted to incite an insurrection atVimereux near Boulogne. He hoped to re-enact the events after Elba. Oncemore his plans ended in a fiasco. "Bonaparte or not, I see in you only aconspirator, " exclaimed Colonel Puygelier. The conspirators fled back totheir boat and capsized. Louis Napoleon was taken and sentenced to lifeimprisonment within the fortress of Ham. As a sop to popular feeling, KingLouis Philippe permitted the bronze statue of the Great Napoleon to bereplaced on the column of the Grande Armée in Paris. 

 [Illustration: WASHINGTON IRVING AND HIS FRIENDS Painted by Daniel Huntington

 1 Henry T Tackerman 2 Oliver Wendell Holmes 3 William Gilmore Simms 4 Fitz Greene Halleck 5 Nathaniel Hawthorne 6 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 7 Nathaniel Parker Willis 8 William H Prescott 9 Washington Irving 10 James K Paulding 11 Ralph Waldo Emerson 12 William Cullen Bryant 13 John P Kennedy 14 J Fenimore Cooper 15 George Bancroft]

[Sidenote: Prince Consort Albert]

[Sidenote: First attempt to assassinate Victoria]

In England, great popular rejoicings had been occasioned by the marriage ofQueen Victoria to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg. A bill was passedappointing the Prince Consort regent of England in case of the Queen'sdeath. The royal couple were well matched. The credit of having broughtabout this marriage was chiefly due to Lord Melbourne. The tactful conductof Prince Albert after the marriage fully justified his choice. Yet PrinceAlbert was never popular in England. Parliament cut down his proposedincome from the Crown by nearly one half. The lower classes were prejudicedagainst him as a foreigner, while the nobility and army turned against himwhen they found that he preferred the society of men eminent for theirintellectual attainments to that of dukes and marquises. On June 10, aninsane pot-boy named Oxford attempted to assassinate the Queen and thePrince Consort with a pistol. The would-be assassin was confined in anasylum. On November 21, Queen Victoria gave birth to her eldest child, Augusta, who subsequently became Empress of Germany. 

[Sidenote: First Charter petition]

[Sidenote: Jack Frost's revolt]

Other English events of domestic importance were the passage of thevaccination act, the introduction of screw propellers in the British navy, and the State trial of the three leaders of the Chartist movement of theprevious year. A monster petition subscribed by 1, 280, 000 signatures on agreat cylinder was rolled into Parliament. In it were embodied new demandsfor a bill of rights, or the "People's Charter, " comprising universalsuffrage, including that of woman, secret ballots, payment of Parliamentaryrepresentatives, and the like. The denial of this petition provoked apopular uprising under the leadership of Jack Frost at Newport, which hadto be suppressed by the military. After a sensational trial, the leaderswere condemned to deportation. 

[Sidenote: Death of Beau Brummel]

Echoes of the English Regency were re-awakened by the death of "Beau"Brummel, a dandy after the manner of the French exquisites. It was a boastof this leader of fashion that he spoiled twenty-five cravats before onewas tied to his liking. The Prince Regent in his dress imitated Brummel. The offended beau retaliated one day, when some of his friends saluted thePrince on Rotten Row, by asking, "Who is your fat friend?" Leigh Huntimproved upon this in his "Examiner" by describing the Prince as "acorpulent Adonis of fifty. " For this Hunt was sentenced to imprisonment fortwo years and fined £500. After George IV. Became king, Brummel fell intodisfavor and had to leave London. Years later, the bankrupt beau, who hadbeen cheated out of a snuff-box by Prince George, presented the King withanother in token of submission. In the words of Thackeray, "the King tookthe snuff, and ordered his horses, and drove on, and had not the grace tonotice his old companion--favorite, rival, enemy, superior. " Poor BeauBrummel died in extreme poverty. Some of the striking episodes of thebeau's career were dramatized in a play, which has kept alive the memory ofthis lesser light of modern English society. 

[Sidenote: Death of Paganini]

[Sidenote: Foremost violin virtuoso]

[Sidenote: Genius and charlatan]

[Sidenote: Paganini's compositions]

The career of another striking figure of the Nineteenth Century was endedby the death of Paganini, the most remarkable of violin virtuosi. The sonof a poor shopkeeper, with little musical knowledge, but of someproficiency on the mandolin, Paganini received an indifferent earlyschooling in music. After the boy had come under the tutelage of Costa, theorchestral leader of Genoa, his progress on the violin was rapid. At theage of eight he composed a violin sonata. Soon he surpassed hisinstructors. At sixteen he ran away from his father, after a concert atLucca, and made a tour of his own through Italy. Already he was addicted togambling and other forms of dissipation. At Leghorn he had to sell hisviolin to pay a gambling debt. A Frenchman, M. Levron, lent him his ownGuarnero violin. When he heard him play on it he was so charmed that hemade him a present of the instrument. Paganini kept the Guarnero throughoutthe rest of his life. It was the turning-point of his career. After twoyears of incessant practice, Paganini appeared in public again at Lucca, where he aroused unbounded enthusiasm by his novel performances on the Gstring. For the next twenty years he travelled and played throughout Italy, vanquishing all rivals. His superstitious countrymen believed him to be inleague with the Evil One, an impression which Paganini loved to confirm bydark utterances and eccentricities of dress. Not until 1828 did he leavehis own country to gather foreign laurels. His first appearance at Viennawas an unprecedented triumph. The Emperor appointed him court violinist andthe city of Vienna presented him with a gold medal. From there he made atriumphal tour through Europe, appearing in Berlin, Paris and London. Hewas acknowledged the most wonderful violinist that had ever been heard. Hesoon amassed a colossal fortune. Withal, Paganini was almost as much acharlatan as he was an original genius. He liked to impress his audiencesby fantastic eccentricities and by mere tricks of legerdemain, such asdropping and catching his instrument, or breaking one string after anotherto finish his concert on one alone. Other tricks of virtuosity, such astuning up the A string by a semi-tone, left hand pizzicato, or his doublethirds, were executed with such stupendous technique that they heldconnoisseurs and amateurs spellbound. His individuality, in fact, was soabnormal that it rendered him unfit to play with others in quartets orother chamber music. As a man he had all the worst faults of a genius. Thevast sums of money which he accumulated were gambled away. His whole lifewas disgraced by unbridled sensuality coupled with sordid avarice. Thisexplains in a measure Paganini's inferior rank as a composer. Famous arehis variations on the tune "God Save the King, " his "Studies, " his twentyvariations on "Il Carnevale di Venezia, " and the concert allegro "PerpetualMotion. " The celebrated twenty-four violin capricci, written early inPaganini's career, have been rendered familiar by their transcriptions tothe pianoforte by Schumann and Liszt. Paganini died from the results ofdissipation. He left his famous Guarnero fiddle to his birthplace, Genoa. 

[Sidenote: Frederick William IV. King of Prussia]

In Germany, King Frederick William III. Of Prussia died in his sixty-sixthyear. He was succeeded by Frederick William IV. The pending dispute betweenthe Prussian Government and the Vatican, arising out of the refusal of theRhenish priests to sanction marriages between Catholics and Protestants, found a temporary adjustment by the new king's concessions to the clergy. 

[Sidenote: Religious discussions]

[Sidenote: Chinese naval brigade]

[Sidenote: Capture of Chusan]

In England, too, church questions temporarily rose uppermost during debatesin Parliament over the proposed government assistance to schools in whichthe Douay Bible, or Roman Catholic version of the Scriptures, was used. Onaccount of these Parliamentary debates, and the attempted reform of Irishregistration by which more Roman Catholic voters were to be admitted, aloud anti-Popery cry was raised by the English Tories. Once more the Houseof Peers rejected a bill for removing the political disabilities of theJews, after its passage through the Commons by a handsome majority of 113yeas. The attention of Englishmen at this time was diverted to questions offoreign policy. The British expedition against China had arrived at themouth of the Canton River in June. A naval blockade was established inChinese waters. The Chinese retaliated by offering a reward for everyEnglishman taken, and a prize of $20, 000 for the destruction of a Britishman-of-war. Sir Gordon Bremer sent an expedition against the Island ofChusan. The Chinese officials refused to surrender until after the city ofTinghai had been all but demolished by the English guns. Tinghai was made aBritish base of supplies, but proved a very unhealthy place. The Chinesecapture of an English subject, Vincent Stanton, was followed by a Britishexpedition into the Canton River. The barrier forts, after a heavybombardment, were taken by storm. Stanton was released. The British fleetmade demonstrations at Amay, Ningpo, and in the Gulf of Pechili. EmperorTaouk-Wang sent for troops from the interior. Mandarin Lin, who had enteredinto negotiations with the British, was degraded and was succeeded byViceroy Keshen of Peiho. Keshen received Lord Palmerston's formal demandsupon China and forwarded them to Pekin. By dilatory tactics he succeeded ingaining a breathing space. 

[Sidenote: Burmese expedition]

[Sidenote: Sikhs restive]

[Sidenote: Fall of Kelat]

[Sidenote: Todd leaves Herat]

In India, the British occupation of Kabul continued. New trouble broke outin Burma where the British Resident was expelled from Ava. An expeditionhad to be sent against Burma. The death of Runjit Singh led to a series ofrevolutions which shook the Sikh dominion to its foundations. Thesuccessive deaths of Runjit Singh's son and grandson, who had succeeded himas Maharajas, led to a general belief that they had been murdered by thePrime Minister, Dhian Singh. All the chief Sirdars rose against Dhian. TheSikh army of Khalsak, numbering 7, 000 soldiers, became a menace forHindustan. In July, the British garrison of Kelat in Beluchistan wasoverpowered by the natives. Lord Auckland had to prepare another expeditionto restore English prestige in that quarter. Kelat was retaken by theBritish in November. New complications arose at Herat. This had long beenthe bone of contention between Great Britain and Russia in Central Asia. British ascendency over Herat had been gained by large financial subsidies, which had been spent in frustrating the designs of the Persians andRussians in that quarter. Major d'Arcy Todd, the English envoy at Herat, incensed by King Kamram's continued dealings with Russia, withheld thefurther payment of the British subsidies, unless British troops wereadmitted to Herat. The situation became so acute that Major Todd on his ownauthority threw up his post and left Herat. It was a severe setback forBritish influence in Central Asia. Lord Auckland in exasperation dismissedhis erstwhile ambassador from political employ. Todd found a soldier'sdeath on the field of Ferozeshahar. The continued rebellion of theSarawacks in Borneo gave the British an opportunity for interference there. Sir James Brooke, at the head of a British expedition, helped the Sultan ofBorneo in quelling the rising. 

[Sidenote: Turkish-Egyptian War]

[Sidenote: Mehemet Ali brought to terms]

The operations of the international coalition against Mehemet Ali of Egypthad now begun. Though the Viceroy's soldiers lay on Turkish soil without afoe before them, and France stood at his back, Mehemet Ali found himselfcheckmated. While Russia undertook to keep Ibrahim's army out ofConstantinople, all French support was neutralized by Germany'smobilization on the Rhine. A naval squadron, composed of British andAustrian warships, was free to land the Turkish forces in Syria. On October10, Commodore Napier bombarded Beyrout. The Syrians were armed againsttheir Egyptian oppressors. On November 3, the British and Austrian fleetscaptured Acre. Ibrahim, with the remains of his army, fell back toward theEgyptian frontier. When the British fleet arrived before Alexandria, Mehemet Ali made haste to come to terms. In contravention of the ultimatumof the Powers, he was allowed to retain his hereditary dominion over Egyptupon relinquishment of Syria, and of the Turkish fleet, which had beenbetrayed into his hands. Sir Charles Napier in later years, while speakingof his part in this expedition in Parliament, said: "I was ashamed for mycountry and for myself. "

[Sidenote: Fall of Thiers' Ministry]

[Sidenote: Oriental affairs readjusted]

The humiliating position forced upon France caused the downfall of theMinistry of Thiers. Marshal Soult was placed at the head of affairs. Guizotwas recalled from his embassy at London to take the portfolio of ForeignAffairs. He succeeded in restoring France to her former place in theconcert of Europe. The French Government joined with the other powers inthe restoration of the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire by which allforeign warships were excluded from the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. Russia thereby virtually conceded the abrogation of her treaty of UnkiarSkelessi. On the other hand, Sebastopol and the Russian arsenals of theEuxine were thus safeguarded against any maritime attack except by Turkey. 

[Sidenote: Napoleon's body returned]

The revival of the Napoleonic legend by such writers as Béranger, Lamartine, and Victor Hugo, together with other influences which served tokeep bright the glories of the Empire, bore their fruit in the return ofNapoleon's remains to France. On October 15, his body had been removed fromthe simple tomb at St. Helena. On November 30, the ship bearing Napoleon'sremains arrived at Cherbourg. A million francs were voted by the Chambersfor the new sepulchre under the dome of the chapel of the Hôtel desInvalides. On this occasion great publicity was given to Lord Palmerston'sletter to Ambassador Granville: "The government of her British Majesty hopethat the promptness of their response to this French request will beconsidered in France as a proof of their desire to efface all traces ofthose national animosities which, during the life of the Emperor armedagainst each other the French and English nations. The government of herMajesty are confident that if such sentiments still exist anywhere, theywill be buried in the tomb in which the remains of Napoleon are to belaid. " Napoleon's reburial was witnessed by a million of persons includinga hundred and fifty thousand soldiers drawn up in line to do him honor. Theceremonies were attended by the royal family and all the dignitaries ofFrance, excepting only the immediate relatives of the great Napoleon. As ithappened, those of the Napoleonides that were not dead were either in exileor in prison. 

[Sidenote: Floods in France]

[Sidenote: Earthquake of Zante]

Shortly before this, great havoc had been wrought in France by disastrousinundations of the Saone and Rhone. The water, which covered 60, 000 acres, and flooded Lyons, rose higher than it had within 250 years. In Greece, atremendous earthquake laid the city of Zante in ruins. These catastropheswere made the object of special study in Germany and Switzerland, whereAgassiz was in the midst of his epoch-making discourses on the glacialperiod. 

[Sidenote: Isabella abdicates]

[Sidenote: Rule of Espartero]

Toward the end of the year wretched Spain suffered another politicalupheaval. After the last abandonment of the cause of Don Carlos by GeneralCabrera, in July, the Queen-Regent found herself confronted by a strongdemocratic party both in the Cortes and the country. The scandals of herprivate life undermined her political authority. By an insurrection atBarcelona she was forced to call in General Espartero, the chief of theProgressist party, as her Prime Minister. Rather than submit to his demandsshe abdicated the Regency in October and left Spain. Espartero, toward theclose of the year, was acknowledged by the Cortes as Regent of Spain. Hisfirst measures turned a large part of the people against him. On December29, as a result of the growing discussions between the government and theclergy, the Papal Nuncio was expelled from Madrid. Thereafter Espartero andthe clerical party of Spain were at daggers' points. 

[Sidenote: Overbeck]

This year Friedrich Overbeck finished his masterpiece, the "Triumph ofReligion and the Arts. " This German artist, at the time when the classicismof David was at its height, had become his most strenuous opponent, and hadbrought about the regeneration of the German religious school of painting. He and several of his followers formed the Nazarites, whose fundamentalprinciple was that art existed only for the service of religion. Overbeck'sfrescoes of the "History of Joseph" and "Jerusalem Delivered" are bestknown. Among his paintings of this period, "The Entrance of Christ intoJerusalem" at Luebeck, "Christ on the Mount of Olives" at Hamburg, and "TheCoronation of Mary" in the Cathedral of Cologne, are the most celebrated. 

1841

[Sidenote: British capture Bogue forts]

[Sidenote: Hong Kong ceded to Britain]

The dilatory tactics of Viceroy Keshen in China had prolonged thenegotiations there for several weeks. In the meanwhile a large Chinese armywas gathering in the interior. Early in the year, after the arrival of theBritish plenipotentiaries, orders were issued for an attack on the Bogueforts. On January 7, 1, 500 British troops were landed on the flank and rearof the forts at Chuenpee. After a sharp cannonade by the fleets, the fortswere carried by a storming party under Captain Herbert. Simultaneously theforts at Taikok were destroyed by the fleet, and their Chinese garrison wasrouted by landing parties. Several Chinese junks were sunk during theengagement. In all the Chinese lost some 1, 500 men in casualties; theBritish losses were small. After the capture of the Bogue forts, ViceroyKeshen came to terms. He agreed to pay a large money indemnity and to cedeHong Kong absolutely. On January 29, Hong Kong was declared a Britishpossession, and was heavily garrisoned with the troops transferred fromChusan. The importance of the new acquisition was scarcely realized byEnglishmen at the time. 

[Sidenote: Chinese convention repudiated]

[Sidenote: British threaten Canton]

[Sidenote: English opium factory destroyed]

[Sidenote: Canton bombarded]

[Sidenote: Heavy ransom exacted]

[Sidenote: British camp attacked]

[Sidenote: More ransom saves Canton]

The suspension of hostilities proved but temporary. Keshen was degraded andbanished. Emperor Taouk-Wang issued an edict that he was resolved "todestroy and wash the foreigners away, without remorse. " Keshen's successor, Elang, repudiated the convention signed by his predecessor. On February 25, the British proceeded to attack the inner line of forts guarding theapproaches to Canton. The formidable lines of Anunghoy, with batteries oftwo hundred guns, were carried in the first rush. In quick succession theother positions of the Chinese were taken, until, on March 1, the Englishsquadron drew up in Whampoa Reach, under the very walls of Canton. On thearrival of Sir Hugh Gough, to take command of the British forces, a briefarmistice was granted. After a few days, hostilities were renewed by thecapture of the outer line of defences. Under the threat of immediatemilitary occupation, the Viceroy of Canton came to terms. On March 18, theBritish reoccupied their opium factories in Canton. Emperor Taouk-Wang'santi-foreign policy remained unshaken. He appointed a new commission ofthree mandarins to govern Canton, and collected an army of 50, 000 men inthat province. In May, Captain Elliot was insulted in the streets ofCanton. He sent for reinforcements from Sir Hugh Gough at Hong Kong. Anotice was issued advising all Englishmen to leave Canton that day. On thefollowing night the Chinese sacked the opium warehouses and fired upon theBritish ships lying at anchor. Fire rafts were let loose against thesquadron, but drifted astray. The British promptly took the offensive. Theysunk forty war junks, and dismantled the Chinese batteries. On May 24, SirHugh Gough arrived at Canton with all his forces. The fleet advanced up theMacao passage, and troops were landed under unusually difficultcircumstances. The Chinese failed to take advantage of this, preferring toawait the British attack in a strong line of intrenchments north of thecity. On May 25, two British columns of 2, 000 men each, with sixteen piecesof artillery and fifty-two rockets, advanced to the attack across thesacred burial grounds. Three of the hill forts were carried with slightloss. At the fourth fort desperate resistance was encountered. After thisfort had succumbed to a bayonet attack the Chinese rallied in an open campone mile to the rear. Intrenchments were thrown up with remarkablerapidity. The British troops, led by the Royal Irish Fusiliers, streamedover the open ground and scattered the remaining forces of the Chinese. Thebrilliancy of this exploit was dimmed by the slaughter of Chinamen whileasking quarter. The British losses were 70 killed and wounded. A generalattack on the city was ordered for the next day. A fierce hurricane anddeluge of rain frustrated this plan. During the day the Canton mandarinscame to terms. They agreed to pay an indemnity of $6, 000, 000, and towithdraw their troops sixty miles from the city. A few days after this, when $5, 000, 000 of the indemnity had already been paid, the Chinese brokethe armistice by an attempt to surprise the British camp. Instead ofdriving the attack home, the Chinese soldiers, some 10, 000 in number, contented themselves with waving their banners and uttering yells ofdefiance. The British artillery opened on them, and a running fight ensued. In the midst of it a violent thunderstorm burst over Canton. A detachmentof Madras Sepoys lost its way, and was all but overwhelmed by the Chinese. They had to be extricated by a rescue party of marines, armed with the newpercussion gun, which was proof against wet weather. Under threat ofimmediate bombardment, the payment of more ransom was exacted from Canton. In the end the city was spared, to remain, according to the Englishformula, "a record of British magnanimity and forbearance. "

[Sidenote: Reduction of Amoy]

[Sidenote: Chinese reverses]

[Sidenote: An Indian diversion]

After this the opium trade reverted to its former footing. To bring theChinese Emperor, himself, to terms, Sir Henry Pottinger, the new Britishplenipotentiary, sailed northward, and appeared before the seaport of Amoy, nominally at peace with England. The Viceroy of Amoy sent a flag of truceto demand what was wanted. He was called upon to surrender the town. Thishe refused to do. The British ships at once engaged the land batteries, andlanding parties were sent around the rear. The Chinese gunners were drivenfrom their pieces, but several of their officers committed suicide. Thecommandant of the chief fort drowned himself in the face of both armies. The capture of Amoy remained barren of useful results. The British fleetproceeded northward until scattered by a hurricane in the Channel ofFormosa. Coming together off Ningpo, the fleet attacked Chusan for thesecond time. Spirited resistance was offered by the Chinese. In thedefence of the capital city Tinghai, Keo, the Chinese general-in-chief, waskilled. All his officers fell with him. Leaving a garrison at Chusan, theBritish attacked Chinhai on the mainland. Here the Chinese suffered theirheaviest losses. After this victory the city of Ningpo was occupied withoutopposition. The inhabitants shut themselves up and wrote on their doors:"Submissive people. " Nevertheless, Ningpo was put to ransom, under threatsof immediate pillage. More British troops and warships were arriving tocarry the war to the bitter end, when news arrived of disastrous events inAfghanistan. Troops had to be diverted in that direction, and a moredefinite settlement of the Chinese question was accordingly postponed. 

[Sidenote: Corn Law agitation]

[Sidenote: Richard Cobden]

[Sidenote: Defeat of Melbourne's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Parliamentary precedents defied]

[Sidenote: Adverse elections]

[Sidenote: Peel, Prime Minister]

The attention of Englishmen at home was all but engrossed by domestictopics. In Parliament, the opposition found its strongest issue in the longdemanded reform of the Corn Laws. Various circumstances, such as increaseof population and bad harvests, contributed to bring this issue to thefront. The retaliatory tariffs adopted by America, Russia, France, Swedenand the German Zollverein had their serious effect on British trade. Theresulting financial depression engendered discontent. It was at this timethat Richard Cobden came into prominence with his free trade views. Thenbegan the great struggle over the Corn Laws which, until its settlement, remained the most important question of the day in England. LordMelbourne's Ministry by its attempt to adjust the sugar bounties, andincidentally the Corn Laws, dealt the first formidable blow against thegreat system of monopoly called protection. The government's proposals onthat subject were denounced as an encouragement of the produce of thesugars of Cuba and other slave states at the expense of the British WestIndies, where slavery had been abolished. As a result the anti-slaveryWhigs joined with the Tories, under the leadership of Peel. The governmentwas defeated by a majority of thirty-six votes. In contravention ofParliamentary customs, Lord Melbourne's Ministry did not hand in theirresignations, neither did they see fit to dissolve Parliament. WhenParliament met again Sir Robert Peel, amid tumultuous cheering from hisfollowers, moved a direct vote of want of confidence in the government. Bya majority of one the motion was carried. The dissolution of Parliament wasannounced on the morrow. The appeal to the country resulted in a stronggain of Conservatives. The moribund Ministry made another attempt to carrytheir measures before retiring from office. Sir Robert Peel, in hisproposals for a sliding scale in the duties on corn, already showed somebias toward that free-trade policy to which he afterward became committed. On the first division on this question the government was outvoted by amajority of sixty-four. Melbourne's resignation was of course followed bythe elevation of Peel to the Prime Ministry. Lord Palmerston was replacedby the Earl of Aberdeen in the Foreign Office. Lord Lyndhurst was retainedin the Chancellorship. The leadership of the Upper House was left to theDuke of Wellington, who joined the Cabinet without taking any office. 

[Sidenote: Growth of mission work]

Throughout the year industrial distress prevailed in England and Ireland, with the usual consequence of an increase in crime. The vigorous support ofBritish trade in the Far East was followed by an extension of Christianmissions. Thus missionary work was resumed in China, while Livingstonepreached the Gospel to the Hottentots of South Africa. The growth incolonial bishoprics caused Sidney Smith to say that soon there would not bea rock in the ocean without an English bishop and archdeacon. During thisyear adhesive postage stamps were first used in England. Wheatstonepatented his alphabetic printing telegraph, and telegraph wires were strungas far as Glasgow. Almost simultaneously with the death of Hook, theBritish humorist, the new publication of "Punch, or the London Charivari, "made its appearance. One of its earliest contributors was GeorgeCruikshank, the caricaturist. 

[Sidenote: William H. Harrison inaugurated]

[Sidenote: Death of Harrison]

[Sidenote: Tyler, tenth President]

[Sidenote: Canadian boundary treaty]

[Sidenote: American financial policy]

In British North America, the first Parliament of Canada was opened withgreat ceremony in June. After the changes in the Ministry, Sir CharlesBagett became Governor-General of Canada. In the United States, GeneralHarrison was inaugurated as President. It rained on his inauguration day, and the aged General suffered so from exposure that he contractedpneumonia. One month later he died. The clamor of office-seekers during hisbrief tenure contributed largely to his death. Harrison had been active inpublic life since he was Secretary of the Northwest Territory in 1797. Heacquired a national reputation by his victory over the Indians atTippecanoe. He served as Senator from Indiana from 1825 to 1828, when hebecame Minister to the Republic of Colombia in South America. Congress, after some debate, passed a bill to appropriate one year's Presidentialsalary to General Harrison's widow. Vice-President Tyler became President. A Virginian by birth, he was committed to the Southern theory of Staterights. In his first message he recognized the veto of the United StatesBank measure as approved by the nation. This caused a decisive break withthe holdover Cabinet. All the members resigned except Daniel Webster, whowas retained to complete the Canadian boundary treaty with England. Theline at length agreed upon gave to the United States 7, 000 square miles, and to Great Britain 5, 000, with the navigation of the St. John's River. Lord Ashburton in a speech at New York declared that never again could warbe possible between the two countries. Tyler's new Secretary of State wasUpham. The first measure of the Whigs was the repeal of the independentTreasury act of the previous Congress, and the next was the establishmentof a general system of bankruptcy, and for distribution of the public landrevenue. The former was more than a bankrupt law; it was practically aninsolvent law for the abolition of debts at the will of the debtor. Thebill passed both Houses. The land-revenue distribution was made imperativeby the fact that various American States and municipalities owed$200, 000, 000 to European creditors. These became uneasy, and wished theFederal Government to assume their debts. The system was first favored in1838, and again in 1839, and in 1840 became a national issue. AlthoughCalhoun and Benton both opposed the measure as a squandering of the publicpatrimony, it passed by a party vote. 

[Sidenote: Tyler's vetoes]

[Sidenote: Loss of Whig support]

A compromise tariff measure, advocated by Clay, provided for an upwardscale of duties, to reach their maximum during the following year. The billwas vetoed by the President. Another important measure was that for therechartering of the National Bank. It passed both Houses by a close vote, but Tyler vetoed it, to the consternation of the Whigs. On the second votethe necessary two-thirds majority was not obtained. Thus the second attemptto resuscitate the old United States Bank resulted in failure. After thisthe Whigs withdrew their support from the Administration they had put intooffice. 

During this year, in America, the grain drill was patented. Wilkes exploredthe coast of California. Graham's Magazine was published--one of the firstAmerican literary magazines of high pretensions. Among its earliestcontributors was Edgar Allan Poe. At the same time Longfellow published hisballads, Cooper his "Deerslayer, " and Ralph Waldo Emerson brought out hisphilosophical lectures in essay form. 

[Sidenote: Close of Seminole War]

War with the Seminoles continued unabated. In the spring, General WilliamJ. Worth had been appointed to succeed Armisted. During the summer, Worthdispersed his troops into small parties, which ascended the rivers andpenetrated the swamps to the islands to which the Indians had retired. Worth brought Chief Coacoochee to Tampa in irons. To secure peace, Worthbade him name five of his fellow chieftains, who were to return to theIndians and inform them that unless they should appear at Tampa within agiven time and give themselves up, Coacoochee and his fellow prisonerswould forthwith be hanged. The Indians came within the appointed time. Asone band after another surrendered they were sent West to Mississippi. Thecost of the war from first to last had been $40, 000, 000, which was twicethe sum paid for the Territories of Louisiana and Florida together. It wasestimated that for each black slave brought back from Florida to hisowners, three white men had lost their lives, and $80, 000 had beenexpended. 

[Sidenote: Latin-American upheavals]

In Mexico, the Presidency of Bustamente was superseded by that of GeneralSanta Anna. The northern States of Mexico maintained their independentattitude. The State of Costa Rica attempted to withdraw from the ascendantinfluence of Guatemala. About the same time the city of Cartago wasdestroyed by an earthquake. In Colombia, Marquez maintained himself asPresident against his opponents. The States of Panama and Veragua secededfrom the Colombian Union, but the President prevailed upon them to returnto the confederation. In South America, an expedition from Peru invadedBolivia and laid siege to La Paz, only to be driven back. Peru was nowinvaded by an army from Bolivia, but General Bolnes, the newly electedPresident of Chile, interfered on behalf of Peru. 

[Sidenote: Revolts in Spain]

In Spain, General Espartero throughout this year continued his precariousrule. In October, Generals O'Donnel and Concha headed a rising at Pambulnain behalf of the former Queen-Regent Christina. The Queen's guard repelledan attack of Don Diego Leon on the palace. On October 15, Don Diego wascaptured and shot. One week later O'Donnel fled to France. On the same day, General Zurbano gained possession of the citadel and port of Bilbao. Hedeclared himself in favor of the Queen-Regent. 

[Sidenote: French Algerian victories]

On the other side of the Pyrenees the restoration of the French _ententecordiale_ with England and the other European Powers was manifested in theconclusion of the International Convention of Alexandria in July, and thequintuple treaty for suppression of the slave trade proposed by the BritishGovernment. The French cry for the forcible recovery of the Rhine frontierdied down and public funds rose accordingly. Alfred de Musset's secondinvective poem on "Le Rhin Allemand" scarcely raised a stir. All desire formilitary conquests was satisfied for the moment by the exploits of Frencharms under General Bugeaud and the Duc d'Aumale in Algeria. For once theArab chiefs of the Desert were cowed into submission. The effect of the Ducd'Aumale's triumphal return was spoiled somewhat by the attempt toassassinate him on September 13. Under Guizot's guidance the FrenchChambers showed their appreciation of the flourishing state of literaturein France by their amendments to the copyright law, extending theprovisions of copyright to a period of thirty years after an author'sdeath. 

[Sidenote: Death of Lermontov]

[Sidenote: Lermontov's work]

Michel Jurgevitch Lermontov, the Russian poet, died on July 27, as theresult of a duel in the Caucasus. His romance, "A Hero of Our Time, " wasthe immediate cause of the duel. This poet was the Russian spokesman of theso-called Weltschmerz (world-sorrow) which had come into vogue with the"Sorrows of Werther. " Following in the wake of Chateaubriand and Byron, Lermontov wrote epic poems in a pessimistic, cynical strain, withoutattaining quite the bitterness of spirit of a Byron or Heine, nor themelancholy lyric beauty of a Lenau or Leopardi. Pre-eminent, on the otherhand, are his poetical descriptions of the scenery and wild national traitsof the Caucasus, which furnished the background for almost all of hispoems. Noteworthy among his epics are "The Circassian Boy, " "Ismail Bey, ""Valerik, " "Hadshy-Abrak, " and "The Demon. " Under Czar Nicholas, Lermontov's works were forbidden in Russia. After having been banished tothe Caucasus, for demanding revenge for Pushkin's death, the poet publishedhis last brilliant epic, "Song of Czar Ivan Vasilyevitch, " under apseudonym. 

[Sidenote: German letters]

[Sidenote: Prussian General Estates]

In Germany, too, letters and arts were flourishing. In Vienna, NikolausLenau (Baron Strehlenau) and his friend, Anastasius Gruen (CountAuersperg), were the leaders of a literary movement which found itscounterpart in the so-called "Young German" movement of the north, whereFerdinand Freiligrath, Laube, Gutzkow, and Emanuel Geibel came under theban of the German Bundesrath. The great political event of the year was themeeting of the first General Estates, convoked at Berlin. The new king'shostile attitude toward their popular demands for constitutional rights andlarger liberties soon destroyed the hopes of liberal Germans for a changeof spirit in the government of Prussia. A more material advance incivilization was assured by the opening of the first railway from Berlin toMagdeburg. 

[Sidenote: Cornelius]

Peter von Cornelius, one of the leaders of the religious Catholic movementin art which had followed the classicism of the first decade of thecentury, was commissioned by the King to decorate the cemetery at Berlin. These decorations afterward, as well as the mural paintings in the Churchof Saint Louis at Munich, proved to be his masterpieces. 

[Sidenote: Defence of Jellalabad]

The British occupation of Afghanistan had continued since the last year. The expenses of the occupation were so heavy that economy was imperative. As soon as the British Resident cut down the subsidies paid to Shah Shujathe situation took a sinister turn. In October, Sir Robert Sale left Kabulwith a brigade of British troops to reopen communications with Jellalabad, which had been interrupted by hostile mountain tribes. He got to Jellalabadonly after a desperate struggle and heavy losses. His subsequent defence ofthat stronghold against the Afghans is one of the heroic traditions ofBritish India. 

[Sidenote: Massacre of Kabul]

[Sidenote: Afghans up in arms]

At Kabul, in the meanwhile, the garrison had been removed from the citadelof Bala Hasir to open cantonments outside of the city. Sir WilliamMacNaghten, the British Resident, had been appointed Governor of Bombay, and was about to be succeeded by Sir Alexander Byrnes. Byrnes took up hisabode in the centre of the city amid the turbulent bazaars. On November 2, the people of Kabul rose against the English. Byrnes barricaded his houseand sent to MacNaghten for help. On the advice of General Elphinstone, MacNaghten decided to wait for further information before acting. The delaywas fatal for Byrnes. He held out with thirty-two others from eight in themorning until two in the afternoon. Then the ammunition gave out. The mobrushed in and tore the house to pieces. Byrnes and twenty-three of hisfollowers were massacred. One hour later a British relief corps tried toenter the city. All Kabul turned against them. The British were forced toretire. The news of this set Afghanistan wild. Thousands of armedmountaineers flocked to Kabul, and the whole nation rose against theforeigners. The British troops were cut off from all supplies. Theymaintained their precarious position only by lavish promises of ransom. Atlength, after many parleys, a meeting was arranged, for December 23, between MacNaghten and the Afghan chiefs. When the English envoy walkedinto the meeting the Afghans fell upon him, and he was slain by AkbarKhan. 

1842

[Sidenote: MacNaghten's murder unavenged]

[Sidenote: The retreat from Kabul]

[Sidenote: Disaster of Khaibar Pass]

The situation of the British in Afghanistan was so critical that they couldnot avenge the murder of their countrymen. Negotiations were actuallyrenewed with Akbar Khan upon his statement that he had not meant to murderthe British envoy, but had been goaded into the act by the taunts ofMacNaghten. Promises of safe conduct were obtained. In January the Britishforces began their retreat from Kabul. Then followed a series oftreacheries and mutual breaches of faith. Akbar Khan and his hordes ofAfghans dogged the retreating column exacting further concessions. TheEnglish women and children were demanded as hostages. From the heights ofthe Khaibar Pass, the Ghilzai mountaineers poured a destructive fire intothe Englishmen. Akbar Khan's followers made common cause with them. Thousands of Englishmen were slain, or perished in the deep snows of theKhaibar Pass. The wounded and those who fell behind were butchered by theAfghans. A fortnight sufficed to cut the whole column to pieces. Of theentire force of 4, 000 soldiers and 12, 000 followers, one single survivorsucceeded in reaching Jellalabad. He was a British surgeon named Brydon, who dragged himself on all fours out of reach of the Afghans; but he livedto tell the tale for more than thirty years afterward. 

Colonel Stoddart and Captain Connelly had been sent as British emissariesto Bokhara. When the news of the British massacre at Kabul reached Bokhara, both men were promptly thrown into prison. Later, when the news of theBritish disaster in the Khaibar Pass reached Bokhara, the Ameer had the twoenvoys taken from their dungeons. They were publicly beheaded in themarket-place of Bokhara. 

[Sidenote: Lord Ellenborough in India]

[Sidenote: Jellalabad relieved]

[Sidenote: Recapture of Kabul]

[Sidenote: British vandalism]

Such was the state of affairs in India when Lord Ellenborough landed atCalcutta in February, to succeed Lord Auckland as Governor-General. Thefirst trying need was to rescue the remaining British garrisons atJellalabad and Kandahar. General Pollock, with a strong force of Sepoys, was sent through the Punjab and Peshawar. In April, he pushed his waythrough the Khaibar Pass, in the face of fierce resistance from themountaineers. The relieving force reached Jellalabad none too soon. GeneralSale and his garrison were fighting for time. In a last sortie they hadjust inflicted a telling defeat on Akbar Khan and his besieging army. FromKabul the boy sovereign of the Afghans fled out of Akbar Khan's reach andput himself under the protection of General Pollock. Akbar Khan now wroteto General Pollock, offering to deliver up his British prisoners andhostages if he would withdraw from Afghanistan. Lord Ellenborough showedhimself inclined to accept this proposition. The British officers at thefront were furious. General Pollock wrote to Nott at Kandahar not to moveuntil further instructions, while he himself reported to headquarters thathe could not retire to Jellalabad for want of transports. Eventually, LordEllenborough consented to modify his instructions. Without waiting forthis, General Nott was already marching on Kabul. Pollock, accompanied bySale, left Jellalabad to support Nott's advance. In the Tezeen Valley theBritish came upon the scene of one of the bloodiest massacres of theretreat from Kabul. The sight of the murdered bodies of their comradesexasperated the soldiers. The heights around were bristling with AkbarKhan's men. In the face of a murderous fire from their matchlocks, theBritish stormed the heights and gave no quarter. Akbar Khan fled into thenorthern hills. In September, Nott's column took Kabul and hoisted theBritish flag over the Bala Hassar. The English captives managed to bribetheir keepers and to join the rescuing army, amid general rejoicings. TheBritish conquest of Afghanistan was followed by barbarous deeds ofvandalism. The great bazaar of Kabul, one of the handsomest stonestructures of Central Asia, was blown up by gunpowder. The city itself wasturned over to loot and massacre. The bloodcurdling atrocities of the whitemen on that occasion kept alive the fierce hatred of all things British inAfghanistan for years to come. By the express orders of Lord Ellenboroughthe sacred sandalwood gates of Somnath, which had adorned the tomb ofMahmud of Ghasni since the Eleventh Century, were brought away as trophiesof war. 

[Sidenote: Boers driven from Natal]

[Sidenote: Foundation of Transvaal]

In South Africa, too, the seeds of enduring hatred were sown at this time. Scarcely had the new Boer community in Zululand become well settled when aproclamation was issued in Cape Town, declaring that Natal should become aBritish territory. Soldiers were despatched to Durban to support thisclaim. After some sharp fighting the Boers were driven out of the seaport. When the British Commissioner arrived at Pietermaritzburg, a stormy massmeeting was held. For two hours Erasmus Smith, the Boer predicant, arguedin vain in behalf of his flock. In the end the Boer women passed aunanimous resolution that rather than submit to English rule they wouldemigrate once more. Pointing to the Drakensberg Mountains, the oldest ofthe women said: "We go across those mountains to freedom or to death. " Overthese mountains almost the whole population of Natal trekked their way intothe uninhabited regions beyond. Only 300 families remained, the ancestorsof some 10, 000 Afrikanders of Natal in later days. On the other side of theOrange and Vaal Rivers the Boer emigrants founded once more theircommonwealth, known later as the Transvaal, or South African Republic. 

In Australia the first representative constitution was granted to theEnglish colonists of New South Wales. Almost simultaneously with this beganthe agitation for separating Victoria from New South Wales. 

[Sidenote: "The Sliding Scale"]

[Sidenote: British Income Tax]

In England, early in the Parliamentary session, Sir Robert Peel on behalfof the government moved his famous bill for a sliding scale of the dutieson corn. In the debate that followed, the most notable speeches were madeby Cobden and Macaulay, who advocated complete free trade. In spite of allopposition, the bill in an unamended form reached its third reading and waspassed on the 5th of April. The most serious difficulty confronting thegovernment was a financial deficit of £2, 570, 000, to which had to be addedthe heavy expenditures for the wars in India and China. To fill up thisdeficiency, Peel resorted to the levy of an income tax. To make thisunpopular tax more acceptable a number of minor mischievous taxes wereabolished. Thus rendered palatable, this bill, too, was carried throughParliament with tolerable speed, and was passed with handsome majorities byboth Houses. It called for a tax of sevenpence on every pound of annualincome above £150. 

[Sidenote: Copyright reform]

[Sidenote: "Lays of Ancient Rome"]

[Sidenote: "Locksley Hall"]

In emulation of the new provisions for copyright in France, a bill wasbrought in to extend English copyright from twenty-eight to forty-twoyears. Among the considerations which prompted Parliament to perform thislong delayed act of justice was the recent lamented death of Sir WalterScott. The royalties on his works were the only resource left to hisfamily, and the copyright on the most important of them, the WaverleyNovels, was about to expire. Southey, the Poet Laureate, before his recentillness, it was stated, had been deterred from undertaking a projectedgreat work by the unsatisfactory copyright provisions. Wordsworth was aboutto lose the fruits of some of his earliest and most patriotic poems. Amongthose who actively pressed the measure were Charles Dickens and ThomasCarlyle. The sixty years' copyright demanded in Carlyle's petition was notobtained; but authors were allowed to retain the property of their worksduring life, while their heirs could possess it for seven years after theirdeath. Coincident with this literary victory came other triumphs inliterature. Thomas B. Macaulay published his "Lays of Ancient Rome"; AlfredTennyson brought out "Locksley Hall" and other poems; Bulwer Lyttonfinished "Zanoni"; the new Shakespeare Society issued some twenty volumesof researches. A new impetus to the making of books and printing was givenby Woolwich's new system of electrotyping, and Charles Young's new deviceof a type-setting machine, first employed on the "Family Herald. "

It was then, too, that Dr. Julius Robert Meyer, an obscure physician inHeilbronn, published a paper in Liebig's "Annalen, " entitled "The Force ofInorganic Nature. " Not merely the mechanical theory of heat, but the entiredoctrine of the conservation of energy was clearly formulated. It is truethat he was anticipated in a measure by Mohr, and that Helmholtz moreexhaustively demonstrated the truth of the hypothesis of the conservationof energy; but Helmholtz himself hailed Meyer as the rightful claimant ofthe honor of having first clearly formulated the doctrine. 

[Sidenote: Second Charter petition]

[Sidenote: The "Sacred Month"]

A great gain for humanity was made in Lord Ashley's successful bill for therestriction of work done by women and children in mines and collieries. Under the leadership of O'Connell's former Irish rival, Feargus O'Connor, the agitation for a People's Charter was revived. On May 2, another monsterpetition, containing nearly three and a half million signatures, was rolledinto Parliament. Too voluminous to pass through the doors, it had to be cutup and carried into the hall by sixteen men. A motion to consider it wasviolently opposed by Macaulay. Once more the petition was rejected by 287over 49 votes. Now followed one of the most singular labor strikes ofEngland. This was the so-called sacred month, or thirty days' idleness tobe enforced throughout the United Kingdom. Within a few days the Chartistscould boast that for fifty miles round Manchester every loom was still. Theattempt to extend the strike to London was followed by the arrest ofO'Connor and nearly a hundred of his associates. They were tried andconvicted, but owing to a flaw in the indictment sentence could not becarried out. The agitation was made to appear more serious by two attemptsto assassinate the Queen in May and July, but the young Queen was notdeterred thereby from making her first visit to Scotland. 

[Sidenote: Chinese opium war]

[Sidenote: Fall of Chapoo]

[Sidenote: Shanghai occupied]

[Sidenote: Assault of Chinkiangfoo]

[Sidenote: China brought to terms]

[Sidenote: Treaty ports designated]

[Sidenote: Opium forced upon China]

In August, the Duke of Wellington was reinstated as commander-in-chief ofthe British army. Among the military reforms undertaken was the generalintroduction of the percussion-cap musket in the infantry, and the use ofthe carbine in the artillery. The war in China was brought to a close. Thelong period of inaction following the occupation of Ningpo had been brokenin March by Chinese attempts to recapture Ningpo, Chinhai and Chusan. Inall three places the British beat off their assailants. At Ningpo theChinese succeeded in breaking through the south and west gates, and reachedthe centre of the city only to be mowed down there by the Britishartillery. At Tszeki a strong Chinese camp was captured by the British. TheChinese losses on this occasion were over a thousand killed, including manyof the Imperial Guards. The British casualties did not exceed forty. Anaval expedition next attacked Chapoo, China's port of trade with Japan. The main body of the Chinese was routed, but 300 of their soldiers shutthemselves up in a walled inclosure, and held their ground untilthree-fourths of their number were slain. As heretofore, the Britishcasualties were small. The important city of Shanghai was captured withoutappreciable resistance. The most serious affair of the war was the attackon Chinkiangfoo on the southern bank of the Yangtse-Kiang at one of theentrances of the great canal. A part of the Manchu garrison held out thereuntil shot down to the last man. The inner Tartar city was only taken afterthe Manchus had first killed the women and children and then themselves. The immediate losses of the British were nearly two hundred. Owing to theintense heat, they failed to bury the bodies of the Chinese. Pestilence andcholera broke out, and caused more serious losses than befell the mainforce sent against Nanking. On August 5, the British fleet appeared beforeNanking, the second city of the empire. It was then that Minister Elepoo, the leader of the Chinese peace party, prevailed upon Emperor Taouk-Wang togive in. On August 26, peace was concluded on board the British flagship"Cornwallis. " China paid an indemnity of $21, 000, 000, and confirmed thecession of Hong Kong to England. The English opium factory at Canton was tobe reinstalled, and, in addition to this, foreign trading was to be allowedat the ports of Shanghai, Ningpo, Amhoy and Foochow, after a tariff shouldhave been agreed upon and consular officers appointed. The final ceremoniesof peace were marred by barbarous injuries inflicted upon the famousporcelain tower of Nanking by a party of British officers and soldiers. Inthe words of a British historian: "The only weak point in the commercialtreaty was that it contained no reference to opium. Sir Henry Pottingerfailed to obtain the assent of the Chinese government to its legalization. "In reply to Sir Henry Pottinger's final demand for legalization of theopium trade in China, Emperor Taouk-Wang delivered this ultimatum: "True, Icannot prevent the introduction of the poison; but nothing will induce meto raise revenue from the vice and misery of my people. " The emperor, himself a reformed opium smoker, had lost three sons by this vice. All thistime American, Dutch and Russian trade with China had been continued. President Tyler made it the subject of his message to the American Congressduring this year. From the first any American traffic in opium wasdiscouraged. 

[Sidenote: Webster-Ashburton agreement]

[Sidenote: "Battle of the Maps"]

[Sidenote: American interests in Hawaii]

[Sidenote: Daniel Webster resigns]

The Webster-Ashburton treaty, regulating the northeastern boundary betweenthe United States and Canada, was signed on August 9. A strip of territoryclaimed by the State of Maine was ceded to Canada, while a more importantstrip was yielded to Vermont and New York. The treaty also provided for ajoint repressive action against the slave trade, and for the extradition ofcriminals. It was Webster's greatest achievement in diplomacy, as wasindicated by the fact that the American Senate, notwithstanding itshostility to President Tyler, ratified it by a three-fourths vote. InEngland more serious opposition was encountered. In Parliament the treatywas termed "Ashburton's Capitulation, " and Lord Palmerston went so far asto attribute its concessions to Ashburton's partiality toward his Americanwife. The ratification of the treaty was followed by an internationalcontroversy known as "The Battle of the Maps. " An early map found by JaredSparks, the American historian, in the Library of Paris, had been used inthe Senate to insure the ratification of the treaty without the knowledgeof Lord Ashburton. When this became known in England it was denounced asunderhand dealing. Frantic search in the archives of the British Museumbrought to light another map, bearing the autograph indorsement of KingGeorge III. As it turned out, this only sustained the American contentions, and was used in Parliament to vindicate Lord Ashburton, just as Sparks'smap had been used in behalf of Webster. Credit also belongs to Webster forhis strong stand made at the time the Hawaiian Islands were threatened bya French expedition. It was then stated, as reiterated by President Tylerto Congress, that, in view of the preponderant intercourse of the UnitedStates with those islands, the American government would insist that noEuropean nation should colonize or possess them, nor subvert the nativegovernments. After a settlement of these international questions, DanielWebster was permitted to resign his secretaryship to join the Whigopposition on the floor of the House. His resignation was the more readilyaccepted since he was known to be out of harmony with the Administration'sdesigns against Mexico. As the son of President Tyler has recorded: "Thetime had come when it was necessary to have in the office of the Secretaryof State one who would go the full length of the Texas question. Certainly, that man was not Webster. " In the Senate, Henry Clay resigned his seat, thebetter to carry on his canvass as a candidate for the Presidency. 

[Sidenote: First American submarine cable]

At the time that Charles Dickens paid his first visit to America theagitation for a better copyright law was renewed, and was in a measuresuccessful. Dickens's early impressions of the United States, as publishedlater in England, were distinctly unfavorable to the American people. Hadhe lingered longer he might have witnessed the laying of the firstsubmarine telegraph between Governor's Island and New York City. In theextreme West another outlet toward the Pacific Ocean was found by Fremontand Kit Carson in the south pass of the Rocky Mountains. 

[Sidenote: Latin-American affairs]

In Central America, General Morazan invaded Costa Rica to re-establish byforce the federation of the Central American States. At first he waswelcomed by the population and recognized as President of Costa Rica. Butlater, as the guerilla war dragged itself out, the opposition gainedground. José Maria Alfaro was recognized as President. In South America, General Rosas made another attempt to subject Montevideo. Gold wasdiscovered in Uruguay. In the West Indies, the restoration of peace in Cubawas followed by educational, far-reaching reforms. Another revolution inHayti provoked French interference. 

[Sidenote: French-Algerian campaign]

The French squadron that had made demonstrations in the Caribbean Seapresently descended upon the Marqueso Islands in the southern Pacific. Theislands were annexed to France. In Africa, the war against Abd-el-Kader waspushed forward. The Arabs attacked Mostaganem and Arzee and lured Yussuf, the commander of the new French corps of native Spahis, into an ambush. General Vallè, with a division of 9, 000 men, drove Abd-el-Kader from anintrenched pass between Medah and Muzaia; but the French lost heavily. TheAlgerian war during this year alone cost 12, 000 lives and 50, 000, 000francs. Vallè was superseded by Bugeaud. 

The French general elections had just resulted in favor of the government, when, on July 13, the Duke of Orleans was killed by a fall from hiscarriage. After this event the Chambers fixed the succession to the throneupon the Duke of Nemours, until the children of the Duke of Orleans shouldbe of age. 

[Sidenote: Louis Blanc]

[Sidenote: Proudhon]

[Sidenote: Eugène Sue]

[Sidenote: "Stendhal"]

By this time the socialistic theories of Saint Simon and Fourier wereexploited still further by Louis Blanc and Proudhon. Blanc's writings hadan immense vogue among the workmen of Paris. This was especially true ofhis "Organisation du Travail, " published this year, wherein he proclaimedthe opportunity to work as a social right. Proudhon carried Etienne Cadet's"Icarian" theories so far that in his famous book, "What is Property?"after describing the conditions under which property is held according tothe Napoleonic Code, he delivered the categorical dictum, "If this beproperty, then property is theft. " Other popular books of the day wereEugène Sue's "The Mysteries of Paris, " "Le Morne au Diable, " and GeorgesSand's famous novel "Consuelo. " Marie Henri Beyle, known better under hispseudonym, "Stendhal, " died during this year. As a novelist he was theprecursor of the naturalistic school of romance in France, and was lateracknowledged as such by Balzac, Flaubert and Emile Zola. His powers ofprose were most ably demonstrated in the novel "Rouge et Noir, " treating ofthe adventures of a worldly Abbé. 

[Sidenote: Cherubini]

Another notable figure in Paris passed away with Luigi Cherubini, the greatItalian composer. Cherubini, many of whose works were brought out duringthe previous century was so popular by the beginning of the NineteenthCentury, that he was esteemed above Beethoven. A Viennese critic whoventured to say that Beethoven's "Fidelio" was of equal merit withCherubini's "Fanisca" was laughed to scorn. Cherubini's best opera, "TheWater Carrier, " was brought out in Paris and London in 1800 and 1801. Owingto his disregard of Napoleon's musical opinions, Cherubini found himselfout of favor throughout the First Empire in France. He retired to theestate of his friend, Prince de Chimay, and would have given up music butfor the latter's request to write a Mass for his chapel. The result was thecelebrated three-part Mass in F, which proved such a success that Cherubinithenceforward devoted himself to sacred music. After Napoleon's fall hereceived an appointment at the Paris Conservatory of Music, from thedirectorship of which he did not retire until 1841. Cherubini's voluminouscompositions reveal him as one of the great modern masters of counterpoint. His great skill and erudition show to the best advantage in his sacredmusic. 

[Sidenote: Bunsen]

[Sidenote: Gervinus]

[Sidenote: Forecasts of German union]

Germany about this same time lost her great Oriental scholar, F. W. Genesius. Bunsen invented his carbon battery. Gervinus, the banishedHanoverian professor, brought out his History of German Literature, whichended with a stirring appeal for political unity. The same ideal, in ameasure, was voiced during the ceremonies commemorating the resumption ofwork on the great Cathedral of Cologne. King Frederick William IV. OfPrussia, fresh from the riots of Berlin, declared: "The spirit that buildsthis cathedral is the same that has broken our chains, and the disgrace offoreign domination over this German river--it is the spirit of Germanstrength and unity. " Even Archduke John, the uncle of the Emperor ofAustria, proposed this toast: "No Austria, no Prussia; but a great unitedGermany--firm-rooted as her mountains. "

[Sidenote: Reforms in Russia]

[Sidenote: Gogol]

[Sidenote: Turgenyev]

In Russia, a concession to modern ideas was made by Czar Nicholas, in hisukase of April 14, permitting the great landholders to liberate theirserfs. Another imperial ukase deprived the Roman as well as the Greekclergy of all church lands upon condemnation proceedings and money paymentsby the government. Russian literature, notwithstanding the strictcensorship, flourished during this period. A new source of poetry wasdiscovered by Koltsov in the Slavic folk songs. Griboyodov's new comedy, "Gore Ot Ouma" (Too Clever by Half), had already become one of the stockpieces. The success of this play was rivalled by Gogol's comedy, "TheRevisor. " In 1842, this same writer brought out his celebrated romance, "Dead Souls. " Ivan Turgenyev was just entering upon his career. 

Toward the close of the year new troubles broke out in Spain. In November, a popular insurrection at Barcelona was joined by the National Guards. Following upon a bitter fight in the streets of the city, on November 15, the Guards retired into the citadel, where they held their ground. Afterone month's stubborn resistance there, they were subjected to such heavyartillery fire that they were glad to surrender to Espartero's governmentforces on Christmas Eve. 

1843

[Sidenote: Napier's desert march]

To carry on the British war with Afghanistan it was necessary to passtroops through Scinde. The Ameers remonstrated. Emaun-Ghur, in the Desertof Beluchistan, was a stronghold where the Ameers could gather a numerousarmy unobserved by the English. Sir Charles Napier determined to strike forthis point with a small force, capable of speedily traversing the desert. On the night of January 5, he commenced his perilous adventure. With 360Irish soldiers on camels, with 200 of the irregular cavalry, with tencamels laden with provisions, and with eighty carrying water, he set forth. 

[Sidenote: Emaun-Ghur reduced]

[Sidenote: Battle of Meanee]

When the fortress, which no European eye had before seen, was reached, itwas found deserted. Immense stores of ammunition had been left behind. Napier mined Emaun-Ghur in twenty-four places, and blew up all the mightywalls of its square tower. After great privations on the march back, Napierand his men rejoined the main army on the 23d near Hyderabad. The Duke ofWellington said that the march to Emaun-Ghur was one of the most arduousmilitary feats of which he knew. On February 12, the Ameers at Hyderabad, who, according to the British Resident himself, had been "cruellywronged, " came to terms. On the day after their apparent submission theBritish Resident, Major Outram, was attacked by the infuriated Beluchees. With a hundred followers he barely succeeded in fighting his way through totwo British war steamers lying in the river. Napier, with his 2, 600 men, now moved against the Beluchee army, numbering nearly 10, 000. On February17, the day of the battle of Meanee, Napier wrote in his journal: "It is myfirst battle as a commander. It may be my last. At sixty it makes littledifference what my feelings are. It shall be do or die. " It proved anall-day fight. Most of the white officers fell. In the end, Napier closedthe doubtful struggle by a decisive cavalry charge. The Sepoy horsemencharged through the Beluchee army and stormed the batteries on the ridge ofthe hill of Meanee. 

[Sidenote: Hyderabad]

Napier followed up his victory the next day by a message sent intoHyderabad that he would storm the city unless it surrendered. Six of theAmeers came out and laid their swords at his feet. Another enemyremained--Shere Mahomed of Meerpoor. On March 24, Napier, with 5, 000troops, attacked this chief, who had come with 20, 000 Beluchees before thewalls of Hyderabad. Napier won another brilliant victory, which wasfollowed up by the British occupation of Meerpoor. The spirit of theBeluchees was so broken that after two slight actions in June, when ShereMahomed was routed and fled into the desert, the war was at an end. Scindewas annexed to the British Empire. 

[Sidenote: English free-trade agitation]

[Sidenote: Irish disaffection]

[Sidenote: O'Connell arrested]

[Sidenote: Anti-corn law league]

[Sidenote: Mill's "System of Logic"]

[Sidenote: Death of Southey]

[Sidenote: Ballad of Blenheim]

At home, in the meanwhile, the Chartist agitation, with its "sacred month"strike, was carried over into this year, while the leaders were triedbefore the Lancashire Assizes. Popular meetings were held at Birmingham, Manchester and London. O'Connor, after his suspension of sentence in court, made the mistake of setting himself against the anti-corn law agitation ledby Cobden and Bright. To most Englishmen of the day the free-trade issueappeared the most momentous. O'Connor's star paled accordingly. Early inthe year a new free-trade hall had been opened in London, the largest roomfor public meetings in the United Kingdom. A dozen lecturers were keptbusy. Cobden alone addressed some thirty great country meetings during thefirst half of the year. At the same time the Irish agitation for repeal ofthe legislative union with England assumed formidable proportions. TheIrish secret society of the "Molly Maguires" spread alarmingly. On March16, Daniel O'Connell addressed 30, 000 persons at Trim, urging repeal of theact of united legislation for Ireland and Great Britain. A few months laterseveral hundred thousand people gathered on the hill of Tara to listen tohis eloquent words. As a result of this agitation, O'Connell, with severalof his followers, was arrested, in October, on charges of sedition. Simultaneously with this the so-called "Becca Riots" against turnpikesbroke out in Wales. One month after O'Connell's arrest the greatestfree-trade meeting of the year was held at Manchester. Both Cobden andBright made speeches against the corn laws. One hundred thousand poundswere collected on the spot from wealthy manufacturers who attended themeeting. This opened the eyes even of the editors of the London "Times. "Under the caption "The League is a Great Fact, " it announced that a newpower had arisen in the State. This reluctant concession of the leadingTory paper of England caused a great sensation. Other events that excitedthe attention of Englishmen were the erection of the great Nelson column inTrafalgar Square and the opening of the Thames tunnel for pedestrians. Thousands of curious Londoners passed through its shaft, measuring 1, 300feet in length. Nasmyth invented his steam hammer. Mill published his"System of Logic. " The event of the year in English letters was the deathof Robert Southey, the Poet Laureate. During the last few years his brainhad softened, and his mind had become enfeebled. Southey was born atBristol in 1774. He was educated at Westminster School and Baliol College, Oxford. While still at college he brought out two volumes of poems, together with Robert Lovell. His first long narrative poem, "Joan of Arc, "was written at the age of nineteen, and gave him, as he called it, "aBaxter's shove into the right place in the world. " At the opening of theNineteenth Century, he published the "wild and wondrous song" of "Thalaba, the Destroyer, " founded on Moslem mythology. "Kehema, " founded on Hindulore, followed. In 1803, after some years of wandering, the poet went tolive at Greta Hall, near Keswick, which remained his home until his death. Besides a long line of prose works, Southey wrote innumerable short poems. Famous among them is the ballad of the battle of Blenheim, with its homelyirony:

 "With fire and sword the country round Was wasted far and wide, And many a childing mother then And new-born baby died; But things like that, you know, must be At every famous victory. "

[Sidenote: Brilliant occasional pieces]

[Sidenote: Southey's works]

[Sidenote: "Stanzas in My Library"]

Southey nourished a passionate hatred against Napoleon Bonaparte. Again andagain he invoked the Muse against the world conqueror. Thus he wrote toLandor in 1814: "For five years I have been preaching the policy, the duty, the necessity of declaring Bonaparte under the ban of human nature. " Underthis stress of feeling he wrote his great "Ode During the Negotiations forPeace. " It was the most powerful of his occasional pieces. In 1813, he wasmade Poet Laureate. As such, it fell to him to write another occasionalpiece on the death of the Princess Charlotte. The grace and beauty of hislines on this occasion have long outlived the memory of that lamentedprincess. Unlike his great contemporaries, Lord Byron and Sir Walter Scott, Southey never achieved a great material success. Having married young, heoften walked the streets, so he himself confessed, "not having eighteenpence for a dinner, nor bread and cheese at his lodgings. " In 1835, when hewas sixty-one years old, he wrote to Sir Robert Peel while declining theoffer of a baronetcy, "Last year for the first time in my life I wasprovided with a year's expenditure beforehand. " Yet his works at this timefilled nearly a hundred volumes. In the words of his brother poets:

 "Southey's epics crammed the creaking shelves. "

It was in his declining age that he wrote the prophetic "Stanzas Written inMy Library":

 My days among the Dead are passed: Around me I behold, Where'er these casual eyes are cast, The almighty minds of old; My never-failing friends are they, With whom I converse day by day. 

 * * * * *

 My hopes are with the Dead, anon My place with them will be, And I with them shall travel on Through all Futurity; Yet leaving here a name, I trust, That will not perish in the dust. 

[Sidenote: Wordsworth, Poet Laureate]

[Sidenote: "The Lost Leader"]

After Southey's death, William Wordsworth was made Poet Laureate. Hisacceptance of this benefice from the government incensed his more radicalfriends. Robert Browning then wrote the famous invective lines entitled"The Lost Leader":

 Just for a handful of silver he left us, Just for a ribbon to stick in his coat-- Found the one gift of which fortune bereft us, Lost all the others, she lets us devote; They, with the gold to give, doled him out silver, So much was theirs who so little allowed: How all our copper had gone for his service! Rags--were they purple, his heart had been proud! We that had loved him so, followed him, honored him, Lived in his mild and magnificent eye, Learned his great language, caught his clear accents, Made him our pattern to live and to die! Shakespeare was of us, Milton was for us, Burns, Shelley, were with us--they watch from their graves! He alone breaks from the van and the freemen, He alone sinks to the rear and the slaves!

[Sidenote: Prescott's "Conquest of Mexico"]

[Sidenote: Edgar Allan Poe]

[Sidenote: "The Gold Bug"]

America this year lost three of her prominent literary men by the deaths ofAllston, the poet and painter, Noah Webster, the lexicographer, and Key, the author of "The Star-Spangled Banner. " The historian Prescott nowbrought out his great "Conquest of Mexico. " Longfellow published his"Spanish Student. " Edgar Allan Poe entered upon his new journalisticventure "The Stylus. " For this he wrote his stories of "The Tell-TaleHeart, " "Leonore, " and his "Notes upon English Verse. " For otherpublications he wrote "The Pit and the Pendulum, " and the striking poem, "The Conqueror Worm. " His fearful tale of the "Black Cat" was published inthe "Saturday Evening Post. " At this time he was ailing in health, whilehis young wife, Virginia, was dying. During these trying months hisprincipal income was a hundred dollar prize received for his famous storyof "The Gold Bug, " published in the "Dollar Newspaper. " The judgesconfessed later that they awarded the prize to this contribution largely onaccount of its neat handwriting. 

[Sidenote: Oregon controversy]

[Sidenote: Texas unannexed]

On June 17, the new Bunker Hill Monument of Boston was dedicated amidimpressive ceremonies. Daniel Webster, who as a young man had spoken therewhen the cornerstone was laid by Lafayette, was once more the orator of theday. In the South, Jefferson Davis began his political career as a memberof the Mississippi Convention, as did Andrew Johnson of Tennessee, who wasthen elected to Congress. The pending negotiations with Great Britainconcerning the possession of Oregon were made more momentous by the exodusof some thousand American emigrants from Missouri, on an overland journeyto distant Oregon. The first session of the Thirty-eighth Congress, inDecember, showed a Democratic majority in the House of sixty-nine votes. Under the Whig régime, the policy of a great navy had been developed. Abill for a large increase in ships was passed. Tyler's last messagerecommended the annexation of Texas, for which a treaty was pending. It wasvoted down in the Senate by a two-thirds vote. 

[Sidenote: Central-American upheavals]

Under the shadow of impending war with the United States, a newConstitution was proclaimed in Mexico. Santa Anna prepared for the conflictby assuming the practical powers of a dictator. In Ecuador, too, a newConstitution was adopted. General Flores had himself made President for athird time. When the opposition to him became too formidable, he consentedto yield and quit the country after accepting a bonus of $20, 000 and thetitle of generalissimo. Another revolution in Hayti resulted in theexpulsion of President Boyer. 

[Sidenote: Revolution in Spain]

[Sidenote: Isabella proclaimed queen]

[Sidenote: Spanish marriage projects]

In Spain a revolutionary junta in June once more assumed power atBarcelona. Other parts of the country declared for the ex-Queen RegentChristina. On July 15, General Narvaez compelled the surrender of Madrid toChristina. General Espartero laid siege to Seville. On November 8, theSpanish Cortes proclaimed as queen, Princess Isabella, then in herthirteenth year. With the crown of Spain on the head of a young girl, andno immediate successor in sight but her sister, the King of France and hisPrime Minister, Guizot, deemed the time ripe for action. It was proposed tomarry both Spanish princesses to the sons of Louis Philippe, so as tosecure the throne of Spain to the House of Orleans, as it had once beensecured to that of Bourbon. For the French people the interest in Spain wasrevived by Gautier's new book, "Tras los Montes. " During the negotiationsover the new extradition treaty with England, the project wasconfidentially broached to Lord Aberdeen. He gave his consent to theproposed marriage of the Duke of Montpensier to the Infanta Fernanda, onthe express understanding that it should not be celebrated until QueenIsabella had been married herself, and had children. For some time stillthe plan hung fire. 

In the meanwhile, Hungary was once more in uproar. Kossuth, after hisrelease from prison in 1840, had become the spokesman of the new generationof Magyars. The other wings of the Hungarian party were led by Scechenyiand Déak. 

 [Illustration: THE EMPEROR OF CHINA RECEIVING THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS]

[Sidenote: Hungarian reform movement]

[Sidenote: Clash at Agram]

[Sidenote: Kossuth's oratory]

By the time the Hungarian Diet of 1843 was convoked, all parties united indemanding the most important reforms, _i. E. _ of a new electoral system, anew criminal code, trial by jury, and official recognition of the Magyarlanguage. One of the first resolutions of the Lower Chamber was that nolanguage but Magyar should be permitted in debate, and that all personsincapable of speaking Magyar should gradually be excluded from all publicemployment. Against the prohibition of Latin in the Diet, the Croatiansappealed to the government. The Emperor promptly vetoed the resolution. Upon the publication of the imperial rescript a popular storm broke forthin Hungary. At Agram, the capital of Croatia, the two factions fought onthe streets. The Austrian Cabinet receded from its position. A compromisewas accepted whereby Latin was to be permitted in the Hungarian Diet forthe next six years. Of all the important schemes for reform brought beforethe Hungarian Diet of this year, only the language compromise became law. This was due to the fact that the members of the Lower House were bound tovote as directed by the Provincial Assemblies, which vetoed everythingaffecting their local interests. To do away with this anomaly Kossuth andhis followers now set themselves to bring their appeal before the countryat large. Kossuth dropped the pen and became an orator. 

[Sidenote: Algerian campaign]

[Sidenote: "Foreign Legion" formed]

In other parts of the world the spread of Western civilization was carriedon with accustomed vigor. A French squadron seized Tahiti in the SocietyIslands. In Algiers the war against Abd-el-Kader was kept alive byoccasional raids and by buying over the less faithful of his followers. Thenatives were enrolled in the French army in regiments of Turcos, Zouavesand Spahis. The barbaric glamour of their oriental garb, as well as thereputation of their dashing leader, Colonel Lamorcière, attracted manyFrenchmen and foreign adventurers to this service. Soon there were enoughmen to form the famous "Foreign Legion. "

[Sidenote: Chinese treaty ports opened]

[Sidenote: British seize Sindia]

In China, after the ratification of the Nanking treaty, the five treatyports were opened to all foreigners on the same footing as to Englishmen. Long before this, the Russians had already established themselves incertain parts of China. The smouldering resentment against the white menfound vent in the truculent doings of the anti-foreign society of the"Green Water Lily" in Hoonan. Now trouble broke out in the Punjab. JankojiBao Sindia had died in February, and his widow, a girl of twelve, now ruledover the Sikhs. She outwitted her native Minister, who was supported by theBritish. Lord Ellenborough hastened to interfere. He ordered the Britisharmy to advance to Gwalior, under Sir Hugh Gough, in December. All Sindiamade common cause against the foreigner. The Sikh warriors tried to opposethe British advance in two simultaneous battles at Maharajpore and Punniar, fought on the twenty-ninth day of December. Both engagements resulted intheir defeat. The Queen and her Ministers submitted to England's terms. They were deposed. The Sikh army was reduced to 6, 000 men. 

1844

[Sidenote: Texas]

[Sidenote: Calhoun becomes Secretary of State]

[Sidenote: Texan annexation rejected]

Tyler's scheme for the annexation of Texas to the North American Union wasuppermost in American affairs from the outset of this year. After theretirement of Daniel Webster from the State Department, active effortstoward that end were begun. The Mexican Government, learning of thismovement, notified the United States that annexation would be regarded as acause for war. Texas first asked for American interference, and, failing inthis, came to an agreement with Great Britain. In return for England'saction in securing the recognition of independence by Mexico, Texas pledgeditself not to be annexed to any other country. This agreement was approvedin Mexico. The Texan debt was largely owed in England, and it was thepolicy of Lord Aberdeen, accordingly, to encourage her independence. InFebruary, a note by Lord Aberdeen was transmitted to the AmericanGovernment, stating that Great Britain desired to see slavery abolished inTexas, as elsewhere, but disclaimed any intention unduly to force thatpoint. This statement in itself whetted the desire of the Southern Statesof the Union to incorporate Texas among the slave-holding States. Calhoun, who as early as 1836 had demanded the annexation of Texas on behalf of theinterests of Southern slavery, was invited to join Tyler's Cabinet asSecretary of State. The office had been rendered vacant by the calamitousexplosion of a new monster gun on the U. S. S. "Princeton, " killing Secretaryof State Upshar and Secretary Gilmer of the Navy in the immediate vicinityof President Tyler. Calhoun entered office on March 6, and on April 12 theTexan treaty of annexation was signed. On April 18, Calhoun answered LordAberdeen's note, declaring that "the British avowal made it the imperiousduty of the Federal Government to conclude in self-defence a treaty ofannexation with Texas. " As to this transaction, Von Holst, Calhoun'sbiographer, has said: "It may not be correct to apply, withoutmodification, the code of private ethics to politics; but, however flexiblepolitical morality may be, a lie is a lie, and Calhoun knew there was not aparticle of truth in these assertions. " The annexation treaty was held backin the American Senate until the Democratic Convention of 1844 had declaredfor the reannexation of Texas. In the hope that this would secureratification the treaty was submitted in June, but the Senate once morerejected it by 35 to 16 votes. Undismayed by this, President Tyler withinthree days sent another message to the House of Representatives asking forreconsideration of the subject, but the matter went over until after thePresidential campaign in the autumn. Henry Clay's vacillating standthroughout this controversy proved fatal to his Presidential aspirations. 

[Sidenote: Anti-Mormon riots]

[Sidenote: Brigham Young]

During this same year, the Indians surrendered the regions adjoining LakeSuperior, which were promptly settled by white men. Iron was thendiscovered at Marquette and copper at Kewenaw Point. At Nauvoo, Illinois, where the Mormons had just erected a temple, their revival of patriarchalpolygamy excited the wrath of the people. Riots broke out June 27. TheMormon leader, Joseph Smith, and his brother, who had been lodged in jail, were killed. Brigham Young thenceforth became the leader of the Mormons. 

[Sidenote: Morse's telegraph]

[Sidenote: Wells' anæsthetic discovery]

By means of a Congressional grant of $30, 000, Samuel B. F. Morse constructedhis first telegraph line over the forty miles between Baltimore andWashington. The first message, "What hath God wrought?" is still preservedby the Connecticut Historical Society. Before this Alfred Vail hadperfected his telegraph code of alphabetical signs, with his dry pointreading register and relay key. Now Ezra Cornell contributed his inventionof an inverted cup of glass for insulating live wires. Dr. Horace Wells, adentist of Hartford, Connecticut, first employed nitrous oxide gas, popularly known as laughing gas, in extracting one of his own teeth. 

[Sidenote: Death of John Dalton]

In England, Faraday published his first "Experimental Researches inElectricity. " The anonymous publication of "Vestiges of the Natural Historyof Creation, " containing the first enunciation of Darwin's doctrine of theorigin of species by evolution, was followed by a storm of controversy. Another subject for controversy was furnished by the invention of the newtonic system in music (Do re mi fa). Kingsley brought out his "VillageSermons, " while Max Müller came into prominence by his new edition andtranslation of "Hitopadesa, " a collection of old Hindu fables. Thenecrology of the year in England includes John Dalton, the physicist, andSir Francis Burdett, the parliamentarian and popular leader, who did somuch for liberty of speech and of the press. John Dalton, a strangelyoriginal genius, and perhaps the greatest theoretical chemist of hisgeneration, first came into prominence by showing that water existed in airas an independent gas. The wonderful theory of atoms, on which the wholegigantic structure of modern chemistry rests, was the logical outgrowth ofthe original conception of this country-bred, self-taught Quaker. 

[Sidenote: O'Connell's trial]

[Sidenote: Government monopoly of English railways]

[Sidenote: Y. M. C. A. Founded]

A feature of the year was the sensational trial of Daniel O'Connell and hisassociates on charges of sedition in Ireland. On May 30, O'Connell wassentenced to imprisonment for one year and fined £2, 000. After LordHeytesbury's advent as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland the judgment of the IrishCourt of Queen's Bench against O'Connell was reversed and O'Connell and hisassociates were liberated. Baring's bill for a renewal of the Bank ofEngland's charter was passed with a handsome government majority. The newRoyal Exchange was opened by the Queen in October. Another measure whichwas speedily passed through Parliament, owing to the slight importanceattached to it, was Gladstone's bill requiring the railroads of England toprovide proper accommodations and to run cheap trains daily. The governmentwas authorized, with the approval of Parliament, to undertake the gradualpurchase of all existing railways before the year 1866. At this same timethere were but fourteen miles of railroad in all British America. Minorevents of importance to Englishmen were the foundation of the Young Men'sChristian Association by certain drygoods clerks of London, and thedemolition of the notorious Fleet Prison, made immortal by the novels ofDickens. 

[Sidenote: Secession of Santo Domingo]

The discovery of gold in South Australia drew hordes of immigrants to thatcolony. Others were attracted to America by the discovery of diamonds inBrazil. In the West Indies, the successful rising against President Boyerof Hayti resulted in the foundation of the Black Republic of Santo Domingo. President Rivière, at the head of 20, 000 negroes from Hayti, was defeatedand had to abandon his attempt to subdue the Dominicans. Guerriersuperseded him as President of Hayti. The warlike spirit of these negroesspread to the neighboring island of Cuba. Various armed risings of theblacks in the province of Santiago and elsewhere were sternly put down bythe Spaniards and their white descendants in Cuba. 

[Sidenote: Otto's reign in Greece]

A bloodless revolution in Greece resulted in the dismissal of King Otto'sBavarian Ministry and the King's acceptance of a Constitution, which leftthe King almost as absolute as before. Yet his government was weak andslipshod. The wretched fiscal system and heavy taxation of the old Turkishrégime were retained, while ill-managed innovations from Bavaria, such asmilitary conscription, drove large numbers to brigandage. As an Americantraveller remarked at the time: "The whole Greek Government is one enormousjob. "

[Sidenote: Revolt of Calabria]

The long-smouldering discontent of the common people in Italy and Sicily, fomented by the secret agitation of such men as Mazzini and Garibaldi, found premature vent in a popular insurrection in Calabria. The revolt wasruthlessly put down. The patriotic leaders, Attilio and Emilio Bandiero, with eighteen others, were shot for their part in the affair. 

[Sidenote: Death of Bernadotte]

On March 8, Bernadotte, latterly known as King Charles XIV. Of Sweden, diedin his eighty-first year. During the last years of his reign he receivedmany signs of love and appreciation from his adopted people, notably on theoccasion of the twenty-fifth anniversary of his coronation. Shortly beforehis death this self-made king asserted with good reason: "No one living hasmade a career like mine. "

[Sidenote: Progress in Sweden]

[Sidenote: Geijer]

[Sidenote: Tegnér's "Frithiof's Saga"]

The reign of Bernadotte produced a new line of eminent scientists and wasthe golden age of Swedish literature. Berzelius remolded the science ofchemistry and founded theoretical chemistry. Elias Fries devised a newsystem of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zoologist, also became thefounder of a new science, comparative archeology. Schlyter brought out acomplete collection of the old Scandinavian laws, a work of equalimportance to philology and jurisprudence. Ling invented the Swedish systemof gymnastics and founded the Institute of Gymnastics in Stockholm, wherehis Swedish massage or movement cure was further developed. Geijer, as aphilosopher, was a follower of Hoeijer, while as a historian he attainedforemost rank in Sweden. As a poet and composer, Geijer also attainednoteworthy success. Professor of History at Upsala, he was accused ofatheism, but acquitted. His political career was equally remarkable. Geijerwas a firm supporter of the government until fifty-seven years of age, whenhe joined the opposition. Swedish writers were divided in factions asopposed to each other as political parties. The old Gustavian school, ofwhich Leopold remained the last representative, was attacked by the "NewSchool, " which was inspired by German Romanticism. Of this so-called"phosphoristic" school Atterbom was the leader. Stagnelius, the young poet, who died early, belonged to the same group. The New School was in turnopposed by the Gothic Society or Scandinavian School, among whom were Lingand Geijer. Franzen and Wallin devoted themselves to religious poetry. Themost famous of all modern Swedish poets was Esaias Tegnér, whose"Frithiof's Saga" achieved an international reputation. Politically, he wasconspicuous for his inveterate hostility to the "Holy Alliance" and itsreactionary spirit in state, church and literature. 

[Sidenote: Oscar I. Of Sweden]

Bernadotte's son, Oscar I. , was forty-five years old when he ascended thethrone. Like his father, he was a patron of the fine arts. Upon hisaccession several important reforms were at once enacted by the newRiksdag. It was decided that this assembly should meet every third insteadof every fifth year; the liberty of the press was extended, and equalrights were accorded to women in certain matters of inheritance and ofmarriage. This last reform aroused so much criticism that a powerfulopposition was organized in the Riksdag, under the leadership ofHartmansdorff and Bishop Wingan. 

[Sidenote: Death of Thorvaldsen]

[Sidenote: The great sculptor's career]

Albert Bertal Thorvaldsen, the great Danish sculptor, died suddenly onMarch 25, at Copenhagen. Thorvaldsen was the son of an Icelandic sailor, who incidentally earned a living by carving wooden figure-heads for ships. The boy was born at sea, in 1770, while his mother was making a voyage toCopenhagen. At the age of twenty-four, young Thorvaldsen, who had attendedthe Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Copenhagen, won the grand prize, whichenabled him to pursue his studies at Rome. His first work was the model ofa colossal statue of Jason, a marble execution of which was ordered byThomas Hope, the English banker. For this work Thorvaldsen asked sixhundred sequins. Hope offered him eight hundred. Yet Thorvaldsen did notfulfil his contract with Hope until fourteen years had passed. At the houseof Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt, in Rome, Thorvaldsen met Count von Moltke, who commissioned him to execute two statues of Bacchus and Ariadne. Aboutthe same time he made his famous "Cupid and Psyche" for the Countess vonRonzov. The fame of these statues and others was such that the Academy ofCopenhagen bestowed upon the young sculptor another prize of four hundredcrowns. 

[Sidenote: Famous works]

[Sidenote: A Napoleonic order]

[Sidenote: "Morning and Night"]

In the spring of 1805 Thorvaldsen made his first important bass-relief, "The Abduction of Brisëis, " which still remains one of the most celebratedof the sculptor's works. Orders now began to come in from all over theworld. Marquis Torlogna commissioned Thorvaldsen to make companion piecesto Canova's famous group "Hercules and Lycas" in the Palazzo Brazzino, while a government representative of the United States offered to pay fivethousand crowns apiece for colossal statues of a Liberty and a Victory tobe erected in the city of Washington. These and other works Thorvaldsen wasprevented from executing by his unfortunate entanglement with Signorad'Uhden, whose fits of jealousy imbittered his life. About this time thesculptor formed life-long friendships with his German fellow-sculptor, Rauch, and with Prince Louis of Bavaria, who commissioned him to execute anAdonis for the Munich Museum, and to restore the Ægean marbles latelyacquired by that prince. Napoleon's visit to Rome in 1811 resulted in acharacteristic order. The Emperor left to Thorvaldsen the choice of thesubject, but gave him only three months' time wherein to finish his models. The sculptor accordingly executed his colossal frieze presenting the "Entryof Alexander the Great into Babylon. " It remains one of the largest andmost ambitious of Thorvaldsen's works. It was intended for the Temple ofGlory, now the Church of the Madeleine in Paris, and the price stipulatedby Napoleon was 320, 000 francs. Before Thorvaldsen could execute the friezein marble, Napoleon suffered his reverses and was exiled to Elba. TheBourbon Government in France refused to take the monument. A replica inmarble now adorns the Palace of Christianborg in Denmark. No less abortivewas Thorvaldsen's undertaking of a great monument intended to commemoratethe re-establishment of Poland. The monument was ordered in 1812, afterNapoleon's entry into Warsaw. By the time the work was finished Poland wasno more. To the year 1815 belong Thorvaldsen's famous bass-reliefs "TheWorkshop of Vulcan, " "Achilles and Priam, " and the two well-knownmedallions, "Morning" and "Night, " which were reproduced a thousand-foldthroughout Europe. They were conceived, it is said, during a sleeplessnight, and were modelled in one day. 

Despite the urgent requests of his countrymen, Thorvaldsen would not beweaned from Rome. About this time Thorvaldsen produced his famous "DancingGirl, " "Love Victorious, " "Ganymede and the Eagle, " and "A Young Shepherdwith his Dog. " It was then, too, that he modelled the portrait of LordByron which served for the monument subsequently erected to that poet inthe library of Trinity College, Cambridge. 

[Sidenote: "The Lion of Luzerne"]

[Sidenote: Thorvaldsen in Copenhagen]

At last, after thirty-three years of absence from home, Thorvaldsenresolved to return to Denmark. On the way he stopped at Luzerne inSwitzerland, and there executed the famous Lion of Luzerne, carved into thesolid rock of the Alps. When he modelled this monument, Thorvaldsen hadnever seen a live lion. From Luzerne, Thorvaldsen proceeded straight toCopenhagen. He was received like a royal sovereign. At Copenhagen theartist began his great series of sculptural embellishments for theCathedral. As completed, they comprised almost all his works on religioussubjects, among them the colossal "Christ and the Twelve Apostles, " thegrand frieze of "Christ on the Road to Calvary, " "The Baptism of Christ, ""The Preachings of St. John the Baptist, " "Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, "and "The Lord's Supper. " From Copenhagen Thorvaldsen went to Warsaw, wherehe executed a bust of Emperor Alexander, and an equestrian statue of PrincePoniatovski. This monument did not reach Warsaw until 1829. It was neverput up. What became of it is still a matter of conjecture. 

[Sidenote: Roman honors]

[Sidenote: Thorvaldsen's friends]

[Sidenote: Sculptures for Germany]

[Sidenote: The Thorvaldsen Museum]

The accidental collapse of Thorvaldsen's studio at Rome, and the damagedone to several of his sculptures there, hastened his return to that city. On the death of Pope Pius VII. , shortly afterward, Thorvaldsen wascommissioned by Cardinal Consalvi to execute a monument to his memory. Thedeath of Canova having left the Academy of St. Luke without a president, Pope Leo XII. Himself nominated Thorvaldsen as Canova's successor. Whenobjections were raised that he was a heretic, the Holy Father asked: "Isthere any doubt that Thorvaldsen is the greatest sculptor in Rome?" "Thefact is incontestable, " answered the prelates. "Then Thorvaldsen shall bemade president, " said Leo XII. The office was held by the Danish sculptorfor the full term of three years, when he was glad to resign it. Justbefore the outbreak of the Paris Revolution of 1830, Thorvaldsen wascommissioned to execute a colossal bust of Napoleon I. He entered upon thistask with enthusiasm. During the trying times of the revolution at Rome, Thorvaldsen formed a close friendship with Horace Vernet, the Frenchartist, and Felix Mendelssohn, the German composer. Mendelssohn would playon the piano in Thorvaldsen's studio at Rome, while the sculptor worked onhis models. About this time, too, occurred the famous interview betweenThorvaldsen and Walter Scott. Neither understood the other's language, yetthey took a warm liking to each other. Later, Thorvaldsen modelled a bustof Sir Walter Scott. Shortly after the Revolution of 1830, the new FrenchGovernment of Louis Philippe appointed Thorvaldsen an officer of the Legionof Honor. At the invitation of King Louis of Bavaria, Thorvaldsen went toMunich. There he finished his monument to Prince Eugene, the equestrianstatue of Elector Maximilian, and another model of his famous "Adonis, "ordered by that art-loving King. For the city of Mainz he finished hismodel of Gutenberg, for which he refused to receive any pay, while for thecity of Stuttgart he made a monument of Schiller. On Thorvaldsen's returnto Rome, his stay there was brought to an end by an epidemic of cholera. The government of Denmark sent a royal frigate to Leghorn to bringThorvaldsen and all his sculptures back to his native land. Arriving inCopenhagen, the old artist was received with even greater honor thanbefore. The Castle of Nysoe was put at his disposal, and there he executedhis last works, among them a statue of himself. In his seventy-second yearhe died very suddenly, while attending a performance at the Royal Theatreat Copenhagen. His obsequies were marked by all the pomp and ceremony dueto a sovereign of Denmark. Four years later, after the completion of theThorvaldsen Museum, his remains were laid in the vault that had beenprepared for him there, amid the rich collection of his masterpieces. 

[Sidenote: The master's pupils]

As a sculptor, Thorvaldsen's name will always be linked with that of hisgreat rival and contemporary, Canova. Both sculptors are equally remarkablefor the way they returned to the classic traditions of Hellenic sculpture. It can be said of them that they bridged the chasm of nearly two thousandyears that had elapsed between antiquity and modern times. It was reservedto their successors to introduce a modern note in sculpture. Like Canova, Thorvaldsen exerted great influence on almost all the sculptors who came toRome in his day. Thus Rauch declared himself indebted to him for the purityof his style. From his school in turn issued Riechel of Dresden, Drake, Wolff and Blauser of Cologne. Among the friends of Thorvaldsen, whoprofited by his councils, were Dannecker, Schadow and Schwanthaler. AtRome, Tenerini, Louis Bienaimé, Pierre Galli and Emile Wolff provedthemselves apt pupils of the Danish master, while, at Copenhagen, Thorvaldsen's influence was kept alive by Bisson. 

[Sidenote: Death of Saint Hilaire]

[Sidenote: Comte]

[Sidenote: Lacordaire]

[Sidenote: "Count of Monte Cristo"]

In France two other great personages of Napoleonic days passed away withJoseph Bonaparte, the great Napoleon's brother and quondam king of Naplesand Spain, and Jacques Lafitte, Napoleon's banker, to whose honor wereintrusted the millions left behind by Napoleon, when he fled from Paris. More lamented than their death, perhaps, was that of Etienne GeoffroySaint-Hilaire, the great French naturalist. Born in 1772, he first cameinto prominence as the curator of the wild animals in the Jardin desPlantes. Here he formed his life-long friendship with Cuvier. GeneralBonaparte took him along on the expedition to Egypt, where Saint-Hilairehelped found the Institute of Cairo. In 1807 he was admitted into theFrench Institute, and two years later was appointed Professor of Zoologyand Comparative Physiology in the Faculty of Sciences. This chair heretained until his death. Starting as a pure zoologist, Saint-Hilairebecame the founder of the science of philosophical anatomy. This newdoctrine was fully expounded in his "Philosophie Anatomique" (1818-1822). Other important works of Saint-Hilaire were "Histoire Naturelle desMammifères, " collaborated with Cuvier (1819-1837); "Principes de laPhilosophie Zoologique" (1830), and "Etudes Progressives d'un Naturaliste. "During this same year Comte published his "Discours sur l'Esprit Positive. "Père Lacordaire brought out his "Funeral Orations, " while CharlesLenormais, with others, published the great French work on "CeramographicMonuments. " Practical effect to the teachings of Saint-Simon, Fourier andLouis Blanc was given by the establishment of the so-called Crèches, orinfant asylums for the temporary care of children of working mothers. Thegreatest literary success of the year was that of Alexandre Dumas's serialnovel, "The Count of Monte Cristo. "

[Sidenote: French war with Morocco]

[Sidenote: Hawaiian independence guaranteed]

The foreign affairs of France throughout this year were conducted byGuizot. As a result of the military occupation of Algiers, war with Moroccobroke out in May. The Prince de Joinville bombarded and captured thefortified town of Mogador. Marshal Buguead won a signal victory over theMoors on the banks of Isly. After the defeat of the rebellious subjects ofthe Sultan of Morocco, this potentate, Abder Rahman, made common cause withthe French against Abd-el-Kader. A French treaty with China was negotiatedby Guizot in October. In regard to the vexed problem of Tahiti and theHawaiian Islands an understanding was reached with the other Powers. Amendswere made to England for the French indignities to the British Consul atTahiti, while the independence of Hawaii was guaranteed by a jointdeclaration of France, Great Britain and the United States. Toward theclose of the year the uncertainties of government in Spain were once moremade manifest by a military insurrection, headed by General Zurbano. 

1845

[Sidenote: Poe's "Raven"]

At the beginning of the year, in America, came a literary sensation ofunwonted brilliancy. In the New York "Evening Mirror, " January 29, EdgarAllan Poe's famous poem "The Raven" was reprinted from the advance sheetsof "The American Whig Review, " in which the name of the author was maskedunder the pseudonym of "Quarles. " The poem was copied all over America andsoon reached England. Baudelaire translated it into French. As Poe'sbiographer, Woodberry, has said: "No great poem ever established itself soimmediately, so widely and so imperishably in men's minds. " A literarytradition has it that Poe only received ten dollars for this masterpiece, and had to wait a year and more for his money. 

[Sidenote: Texas annexed to the United States]

[Sidenote: Florida admitted to Union]

[Sidenote: James K. Polk, President]

[Sidenote: Oregon dispute settled. ]

War between the United States of North America and Mexico was now seen tobe inevitable. On January 25, a joint resolution for the annexation ofTexas passed through the American House of Representatives by a vote of 120to 98, and through the Senate by 27 over 25 votes. On March 1, PresidentTyler signed the bill. The tactics by which Texas was annexed were similarto those by which the Missouri Compromise had been forced through Congressin 1820, and the nullification compromise in 1833. It meant a distinctgain for the pro-slavery party in the United States, and was denounced assuch by the abolitionists of the North. Both in Mexico and in the UnitedStates active preparations were now made for war. American ships were stillwelcomed in the ports of Mexico, the more so since many of them broughtneeded munitions of war. In the United States strenuous efforts were madeto settle all pending differences with other countries. In February, GreatBritain had already accepted the forty-ninth parallel as a boundary lineagreeable to the governments of both countries, and soon the Oregonboundary dispute was likewise settled by treaty. Caleb Cushing's treatywith China was ratified by the Senate. Florida was admitted into the Unionon March 3, the day before Tyler ceased to be President. James K. Polksucceeded him as the eleventh President. He had represented Tennessee inthe House for fourteen years, serving twice as Speaker. Having declined there-election to Congress, he was chosen Governor of his State. Hisnomination to the Presidency had been brought about by accident. Immediately after his inauguration, Polk appointed James Buchanan as hisSecretary of State. Polk in his inaugural address suggested a settlement ofthe Oregon boundary dispute with England on the line of 54° 40'. TheDemocratic platform of 1844 had declared: "Fifty-four-forty, or fight. " Inother words, both Great Britain and the United States claimed the countryon the Columbia River. When Calhoun proposed a line of boundary along theforty-ninth degree of latitude, the British Ministry made a counterproposition, accepting the line to the summit and thence along the ColumbiaRiver to the Pacific. Despite much talk of war, Calhoun's successor in theend accepted the British proposition of a boundary along the line of fortydegrees, continuing to the ocean. 

[Sidenote: Death of Andrew Jackson]

By the aid of the Whig Senators a treaty on this basis was approved by theSenate. With this question out of the way, the brunt of preparing for warnow fell upon the new administration. Troops were massed within strikingdistance, and General Taylor was put in command of the American army. Heproceeded to St. Joseph's Island, and from there crossed over to CorpusChristi on the mainland, near the mouth of the Neuces. At this point moretroops were concentrated to remain in winter quarters until the opening ofhostilities. On June 8, Andrew Jackson died at "The Hermitage" inTennessee. He had lived there quietly ever since his retirement from thePresidency. One of his last acts was to write a public letter to PresidentPolk, wherein he urged him to prompt action in the Oregon boundary matterso as to be ready for decisive measures in Texas. 

[Sidenote: Slave trade under ban]

[Sidenote: General Zurbano shot]

The frustration of the British attempt to keep slavery out of Texas wasoffset in other directions. A convention was concluded between Ecuador andGreat Britain to suppress slave trading in that region. In Cuba, likewise, General Concha took measures for the total suppression of the slave trade. A law was passed making the trade a criminal offence in the Spanish WestIndies. The government of Spain after much reluctance recognized theindependence of Venezuela. Affairs in Spain had taken a new turn. OnJanuary 21, General Zurbano was betrayed into the hands of his enemies andwas shot. The Cortes adopted a reactionary constitution. 

[Sidenote: Atrocities in Algiers]

In France, a Liberal majority in the Chambers, after a prolonged struggle, brought about the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the midst of this movement, Cavaignac, the great opposition journalist, expired. The French war inAlgeria by this time had degenerated into mere guerilla fighting. The chiefevent of the year brought execration upon the arms of France. A tribe ofKabyles had taken refuge in the caves of Dahra. Unable to dislodge themfrom there, General Pelissier gave orders to smoke them out. Some fivehundred of the tribesmen, among them women, children and aged people, weresuffocated. 

[Sidenote: Colonial expansion]

[Sidenote: Sikhs belligerent]

Colonial extension in other parts of the world was carried on in likeaggressive manner. Thus a joint expedition of France and Great Britain madean attack on Tamatave in Madagascar, but failed of success. Another jointexpedition of the two powers forced the Republic of Argentine to concedefree navigation of the La Plata River. From China concessions were wrestedby which Christian missionaries were to be admitted to all of the fivetreaty ports. As a consequence of these concessions a virulent hatred ofthe foreigners sprang up among the common people of China. In SouthAfrica, Governor-General Maitland of Cape Colony earned the everlastinghatred of the Boers by sending out an armed expedition to assist the blackwarriors of Griqualand against the Boers. In India, affairs at Lahore hadreached a crisis. There the boy Maharajah, with his regent mother and herfavorite sirdar, Lal Singh, were at the mercy of their Sikh soldiery. Tosave themselves they determined to launch their army upon the British. 

[Sidenote: John Franklin's Arctic quest]

[Sidenote: Conflagration of Quebec]

[Sidenote: Irish famine]

[Sidenote: Peel's Cabinet resigns]

British enterprise found a vent in other ways beyond colonial conquests. Inthe spring of this year Sir John Franklin sailed out once more with the"Erebus" and "Terror, " in quest of the Northwest Passage. The last messagefrom him was received in July. News also reached England that he hadentered Lancaster Sound, but it was long after that before anything washeard concerning him. Since then more than thirty Arctic expeditions havesearched in vain for the body of Franklin. About the same time thatFranklin sailed on this expedition, a great fire in Quebec destroyed 1, 650houses, rendering 12, 000 people homeless. Just one month later, on June 29, a second fire destroyed 1, 365 houses. Two-thirds of the city was laid inashes. Another serious calamity was the Irish famine of this year, causedby the failure of the potato crop. The distress thus occasioned increasedthe agitation against the corn laws. As during the preceding year, greatmass meetings were held in Birmingham and Manchester. Sir Robert Peel, early in the year, had showed his new leanings toward free trade, by theintroduction of a bill for the abolition of import duties on no less thanfour hundred and thirty articles. The government's discrimination in favorof the duties on sugar provoked a long debate in Parliament. Gladstonecontinued to support his old colleagues in the government, while Cobden andBright led the opposition on the floor of the House. By the time Parliamentwas prorogued in August, the Ministry had won a complete victory. Thespread of the famine during the summer, when almost all harvests failed, reacted powerfully upon the government. A strong public letter from the penof Lord Russell brought the precarious position of the government home tothe Cabinet. Sir Robert Peel admitted the necessity of an absolute repealof the corn laws. Rather than confess such a complete change of position, Peel's Cabinet resigned. Lord Russell was summoned to form a new Cabinet. 

[Sidenote: Death of Hood]

[Sidenote: Thomas Hood's Works]

During this interim the practice of duelling in England, but recentlycountenanced in the army by the Duke of Wellington, fell under lastingdisfavor by the fatal outcome of an army duel, in which Lieutenant Hawkeskilled Lieutenant Seaton. About the same time occurred the death of ThomasHood, the poet and humorist. Born in 1798, as a son of a bookseller, hesoon became a writer. As one of the editors of the "London Magazine, " hemoved among all the principal wits of the day. His first book, "Odes andAddresses to Great People, " was written in conjunction with J. H. Reynolds, his brother-in-law. This was followed by "Whims and Oddities, " in proseand verse; "National Tales, " and "The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies, " abook full of imaginative verse. Hood's rich sense of humor found scope inhis "Comic Annual, " appearing through ten successive years, and hiscollection of "Whimsicalities. " Among his minor poems, "The Bridge ofSighs" and "The Song of the Shirt" deserve special mention. 

 [Illustration: LORD TENNYSON Painted by Frederic Sandys]

[Sidenote: Death of Sydney Smith]

[Sidenote: Pungent satire]

Sir Sydney Smith, the essayist, died shortly before this. Born in 1771, hestudied for orders and became a clergyman. At the opening of the NineteenthCentury he entered the field of authorship with the publication of "SixSermons Preached at Charlotte Chapel. " Then came the famous "Letters on theCatholics, from Peter Plymley to his Brother Abraham. " This bookestablished Sydney Smith's reputation as a satirist. For nearly twentyyears he published no more books, though a constant contributor to the"Edinburgh Review. " Some idea of Sydney Smith's pungent style may bederived from his famous remarks on England's taxation during the wars withNapoleon: "The schoolboy, " he said, "whips his taxed top; the beardlessyouth manages his taxed horse with a taxed bridle on a taxed road; and thedying Englishman, pouring his medicine which has paid seven per cent, intoa spoon which has paid fifteen per cent, flings himself back upon hischintz bed which has paid twenty-two per cent, and expires in the arms ofan apothecary, who has paid a license of one hundred pounds for theprivilege of putting him to death. His whole property is then immediatelytaxed from two to ten per cent. Large fees are demanded for burying himin the chancel; his virtues are handed down to posterity on taxed marble, and then he is gathered to his forefathers to be taxed no more. "

[Sidenote: Meagre literary remains]

It was Sydney Smith, too, who asked the famous question: "Who ever reads anAmerican book?" In 1824 Sydney Smith broke his long silence as an author, with the fervent pamphlet "The Judge that Smites Contrary to the Law. " Thiswas followed by a long series of open letters on clerical and politicalquestions of the day. Shortly before his death he brought out a collectionof sermons. A posthumous work was his collection, "Elementary Sketches ofMoral Philosophy. " Sydney Smith's case has been held up, together with thatof Swift, as an example of political ingratitude. Despite all his laborsfor the Whig cause, but slender recognition was given to him by hispolitical friends in office. The excuse for not making him a bishop wasthat his writings were generally regarded as inconsistent with clericaldecorum. Like Jeffrey, Wilson and other distinguished contributors toEnglish periodical literature at this time, he left no truly great work toposterity. 

[Sidenote: Elizabeth Fry's work]

Elizabeth Fry, the great English prison reformer, died on October 15. Sheit was that improved the condition of women prisoners at Newgate. Later herinfluence was apparent in most of the reforms introduced into the jails, houses of correction, lunatic asylums and infirmaries of England, theabuses of which were so eloquently voiced by Dickens. 

[Sidenote: Peel recalled]

[Sidenote: A premature announcement]

Lord John Russell's attempts to form a new Ministry proved unsuccessful, largely because Lord Howick--who by the death of his father had become EarlGrey--refused to join the new Ministry on account of his objections to theforeign policy of Lord Palmerston. Sir Robert Peel was presently recalled. All of his colleagues retained their posts, except Lord Stanley, supersededby Gladstone. Soon after Peel's re-entry into office, the London "Times"announced that the Cabinet had decided on proposing a measure for therepeal of the corn laws. This premature announcement was one of the moststartling journalistic achievements of the time. Notwithstanding all thepublished denials it was generally believed, and was followed by a greatfall in the price of corn. 

[Sidenote: War with Sikhs]

[Sidenote: Moodkee]

[Sidenote: Ferozeshahar]

In the mind of the Ministry, as well as of the country at large, thethreatening state of foreign affairs claimed precedence. In Autumn the Sikharmy of the Khalsa had crossed the Sutlej, to the number of 60, 000warriors, 40, 000 armed followers and 150 guns. Sir John Little marched outof Ferozepore with 10, 000 troops and 31 guns to offer battle, but the Sikhspreferred to surround them. Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Gough and Sir HenryHardinge, the new Governor-General, hurried toward the frontier with alarge relieving force. On September 18, they met the army of Lal Singh atMoodkee and won a slender success. But for the flight of Lal Singh, theSikhs might have claimed the victory. The British troops now advanced onthe Sikh intrenchments, Ferozeshahar, where they effected a junction withLittle. On December 21, the British advanced in force, but encountered suchstubborn resistance that the day ended in a drawn battle. Not until aftersunset did Gough's battalions succeed in storming the most formidable ofthe Sikh batteries. After a night of horrors the battle was resumed. TheSikh soldiers, who had risen in mutiny against their own leaders, fell backand yielded their strong position. The second army of the Sikhs under TejSingh came up too late. After a brief artillery engagement, all the Sikhforces fell back across the Sutlej River. 

1846

[Sidenote: Battle of Sobraon]

[Sidenote: End of first Sikh war]

In January, the hostile forces on both sides of the Sutlej River in Indiawere reinforced. The Sikhs recrossed the river, entered British territory, and hostilities were renewed. On January 27, Sir Harry Smith defeated apart of the Sikh forces at Aliwal. The Sikhs threw up intrenchments atSobraon. On February 10, the British army advanced to the attack underGough and Hardinge. The battle proved one of the hardest fought in thehistory of British India. Advancing in line, the British had two battalionsmowed down by the Khalsa guns. Tej Singh broke down the bridge over theriver. After fighting all day, the British at last succeeded in driving theSikhs into the Sutlej at the point of the bayonet. The victory was dearlywon. The British losses were 2, 000 men, while the Sikhs were said to havelost 8, 000. This practically ended the first Sikh war. The British armycrossed the Sutlej River by means of their pontoons, and, pushing on toLahore, there dictated terms of peace. An indemnity of a million and a halfpounds was exacted. It was paid by Gholab Singh, the Viceroy of Cashmereand Jamu, upon British recognition of his independence of the SikhGovernment at Lahore. The British frontier was extended from the banks ofthe Sutlej to those of the Ravi. 

[Sidenote: English internal affairs]

[Sidenote: Death of Clarkson]

[Sidenote: Disraeli]

[Sidenote: Repeal of corn laws]

[Sidenote: Fall of Peel's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Richard Cobden's reward]

[Sidenote: Modern progress]

[Sidenote: Astronomical discoveries]

[Sidenote: Sue's "Wandering Jew"]

In England, Sir Henry Hardinge's services in the Sikh war were rewarded byhis elevation to the peerage. The distress of the previous year continued, owing partly to a commercial panic brought on by overspeculation inrailways, and partly to a repeated failure of the crops. To relieve thepotato famine in Ireland, Parliament voted £10, 000, 000 for that country. Inthe midst of this general distress the twopenny omnibuses made their firstappearance in London, and the first issue of the "Daily News" appeared inthe metropolis. Leigh Hunt brought out his stories from the Italian poets. Sir Aubrey De Vere, the Irish poet, died in his thirty-ninth year. A fewyears before his death he had published his "Song of Faith" and otherpoems. A posthumous publication was the poetic drama "Mary Tudor. " ThomasClarkson, the great anti-slavery advocate of England, died soon afterward, in his eighty-sixth year. Early during the first Parliamentary session SirRobert Peel avowed his complete change of face in regard to the corn laws. The rage of the protectionists was voiced by Benjamin Disraeli, then knownchiefly as a writer of novels remarkable for the wild exuberance of theirfancy. He denounced Peel as a political trimmer and no more of a statesman"than a boy who steals a ride behind a carriage is a great whip. " Peel, inspeaking for the principle of free trade, declared that England hadreceived no guarantees from any foreign government that her example wouldbe followed. Notwithstanding their hostile tariffs, however, he showed thatthe value of British exports had increased above £10, 000, 000 since thefirst reductions in the tariffs were made. On June 26, a bill for the totalrepeal of the corn laws was at last accepted. It passed through the Commonsby a majority of 98 votes, while in the House of Peers, largely through theefforts of the Duke of Wellington, a majority of 47 was attained. The wrathof the defeated protectionists found vent on the same day when anotherIrish oppression bill was brought before the House. Lord Bentinck, as themouthpiece of the protectionist party, launched forth in vehement invectiveagainst Sir Robert Peel, "his forty paid janizaries, and the seventy othermembers who, in supporting him, blazoned forth their own shame. " Inconclusion, Lord Bentinck called upon Parliament to "kick the bill and theMinistry out together, " exclaiming, "It is time that atonement should bemade to the betrayed honor of Parliament and of England. " After this speechthe Ministry called for a vote of confidence. It was denied by a majorityof 73 votes against the government. On June 29, Sir Robert Peel announcedhis resignation. In a final speech he gave all credit for the repeal of thecorn laws to Richard Cobden. A few weeks later a testimonial of £80, 000 wasplaced at the disposal of Richard Cobden for his eminent services inpromoting the repeal of the corn laws. On July 16, Lord Russell succeededPeel as Prime Minister. His Cabinet included the Marquis of Lansdowne, Viscount Palmerston, Earl Grey, Earl Granville, Lord Auckland andGladstone. The Duke of Wellington was retained in supreme command of thearmy. Unlike other heroes, he lived to see several monuments raised to hisfame. Thus the grand Wellington Monument in London, made chiefly fromcaptured cannon, was erected at the corner of Hyde Park. Otherwise it was ayear of bridge building in England. At Newcastle a high level bridge waserected, while at Conway and at the Menai Strait work was begun on two ofthe greatest tubular bridges of England. In Germany, Schoenbein inventedgun-cotton. About the time of the death of Friedrich Bessel, the greatGerman astronomer, one of the greatest triumphs of abstract astronomicalreasoning was achieved. In France, Leverrier had worked out the position ofthe planet Neptune, finally determining it on September 23. He communicatedthis to Johann Gallé at Berlin, who discovered the planet on the samenight. Adams, in England, a few months previous, had made calculations tothe same effect, and communicated with Challis, but owing to delays Challisdid not discover the planet until after Gallé. The Royal AstronomicalSociety at London awarded its gold medal to each as equally deserving. Within a few days after this discovery, on October 10, a satellite ofNeptune was discovered by Laselle. Eugène Sue, moved by the popularagitation against the Jesuits, wrote his novel of the "Wandering Jew, "first published in serials. 

[Sidenote: Attempts to kill French king]

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham]

Another attempt to kill King Louis Philippe by one Lecompte in April hadbeen frustrated by the Guards. On July 29, Joseph Henry risked his life inthe seventh attempt at the assassination of the King. Louis Bonaparte, thequondam king of Holland, who resigned his throne rather than submit to hisbrother Napoleon's demands, died in his sixty-eighth year. His namesake, Prince Louis Napoleon, imprisoned in the fortress of Ham, succeeded inmaking a sensational escape disguised in the garb of a stone mason. Oncemore he returned to his exile in England. 

[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein question]

On July 8, King Christian VIII. Of Denmark published an open letter inwhich he reasserted the union of the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein withDenmark regardless of the differing systems of succession prevailing inthese provinces. The question of succession was so intricate that theChancelleries of Europe despaired of satisfactory solution. Inasmuch asSchleswig and Holstein had been recognized as German principalitiesentitled to representation in the Germanic Confederation, the German peopleas such objected to their absolute incorporation with Denmark. The stormraised over King Christian's letter was such as to forebode no othersettlement than by arms. 

[Sidenote: Gioberti]

[Sidenote: Pius IX. ]

[Sidenote: Early Papal measures]

Pope Gregory XVI. Died at Rome in his eighty-first year. At the time of hisdeath the Papal prisons were filled with conspirators and reformers, amongwhom were some of his best subjects. His death gave new hope to thefollowers of Gioberti, whose political dreams depicted a new Italy, regenerated by the moral force of a reforming Papacy. Austria's candidatefor the Papacy having failed to secure the requisite number of votes in theCollege of Cardinals, Mastai Ferretti, Bishop of Imola, was elected, and onJune 17 assumed the title Pius IX. The choice of this popular prelate wastaken to be a tribute to Italian feeling. The first acts of Pio Nonoconfirmed this impression. Universal amnesty was extended to politicalprisoners. Hundreds of Italian patriots who had been sentenced toimprisonment for life were set free. When, in addition to this, permissionwas given to the citizens of Rome to enroll themselves in the new civicguard, all Rome gave itself up to popular rejoicings. The climax ofnational enthusiasm was reached when the new Pope took occasion to voice aformal protest against the designs of Austria upon Ferrara. 

[Sidenote: Revolt of Cracow]

[Sidenote: Anarchy in Austrian-Poland]

[Sidenote: Cracow incorporated in Austria]

[Sidenote: Tennyson on Poland]

For the time being the Austrian Government was too preoccupied with itstroubles at home to carry its Italian policy to extremes. The Polishrefugees at Paris had long determined to strike another blow for thefreedom of their country. It was arranged that the Polish provinces inAustria and Prussia should rise and revolt, early during this year, andextend the revolution to Russian Poland. But the Prussian Governmentcrushed the conspiracy before a blow was struck. In Austria the attempt wasmore successful. Late in February insurrection broke out in the free cityof Cracow. General Collin occupied the city, but his forces proved tooweak. The Polish nobles around Tarnow in Northern Galicia raised thestandard of revolt. Some 40, 000 Polish insurgents marched on Cracow. Asevere reverse was inflicted upon them by the government troops. Now thepeasants turned against the nobles, burning down the largest estates andplunging the country into anarchy. The landowners, face to face with thehumiliating fact that their own tenants were their bitterest foes, chargedthe Austrian Government with having instigated a communistic revolt. In acircular note to the European courts, Metternich protested that theoutbreak of the Polish peasantry was purely spontaneous. A simultaneousattempt at revolution in Silesia was ruthlessly put down. Austria, Russiaand Prussia now revoked the treaty of Vienna in regard to Poland. Cracow, which had been recognized as an independent republic, was annexed byAustria with the consent of Russia and Prussia, and against the protests ofEngland, France and Sweden. New measures of repression against Polishnational aspirations were taken in Russia. The last traces of Poland wereblotted from the map of nations. It was then that Tennyson wrote his famoussonnet on Poland:

 "How long, O God, shall men be ridden down, And trampled under by the last and least Of men? The heart of Poland hath not ceased To quiver, tho' her sacred blood doth drown The fields, and out of every smouldering town Cries to Thee, lest brute Power be increased. "

In Russia during this year Otto von Kotzebue, the great navigator andArctic explorer, died in his fifty-ninth year. 

[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]

Almost simultaneously with the attempted revolution of Poland, anotherrevolt broke out in Portugal. On April 20, the northern provinces roseagainst the Ministry of Costa Cabral, the Duke of Tomar. After desultoryfighting, the Duke of Plamella, one of the commanders of the constitutionalarmy, gave up the struggle. He resigned his post and was banished from thecountry. Late in the year the Marquis of Saldanha, with a force of Pedroloyalists, defeated Count Bonfinn at the Torres Vedras. 

[Sidenote: Spanish princesses married]

In Spain, the long-pending diplomatic struggle over the Spanish marriagesculminated, on October 10, in the wedding of Queen Isabella to her cousin, Don Francisco d'Assisi, Duke of Cadiz. Put forward by France, this princewas physically unfit for marriage. Simultaneously with the Queen's wedding, her sister was married to the Duke of Montpensier, the son of LouisPhilippe. Thus the King of France and his Minister, Guizot, had their way. 

[Sidenote: Guizot's doubtful success]

Lord Palmerston's candidature of the Prince of Saxe-Coburg for QueenIsabella's hand was foiled. It proved a doubtful success for France. The_entente cordiale_ between France and Great Britain was broken. Guizot wascharged in the Chambers with sacrificing the most valuable foreign alliancefor the purely dynastic ambitions of the House of Orleans. Having cut loosefrom England, Guizot now endeavored through his diplomatic envoys to form anew concert of Europe from which England should be left out. 

[Sidenote: Oregon treaty signed]

[Sidenote: Rae's Arctic explorations]

Great Britain's diplomatic dispute with America, concerning thenorthwestern boundary, was satisfactorily settled by the Oregon treaty, signed on June 15. Before this a peremptory demand had been put forward bythe American Congress that the joint occupation of Oregon should cease. TheBritish originally claimed all the territory west of the Rocky Mountains, from Mexico to Alaska. For years the land was settled jointly. Now theforty-ninth degree of northern latitude was accepted as the boundarybetween British North America and the United States. The Columbia River wasretained by the United States, with free navigation conceded to Englishships, while the seaport of Vancouver, the importance of which was not asyet recognized, fell to England. The value of this possession was soonrevealed. Agents of the British Hudson's Bay Company selected Victoria, onthe Island of Vancouver, as the most promising British port in the Pacific. During this same year, Dr. John Rae, by sledge journeys of more than 1, 200miles, explored the northernmost region, Boothia, wherein was determinedthe northern magnetic pole. 

[Sidenote: Ether in surgery]

[Sidenote: Chloroform]

On October 16, Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston, to whom Drs. Wells and Morton hadcommunicated their discoveries with sulphuric ether, demonstrated thepotency of the drug in a public test. A severe operation was performed atthe Boston Hospital, in the presence of some of the foremost medical men ofthe city, while the patient remained unconscious. The news was heraldedabroad and was received by medical men throughout the world as a newrevelation. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, the famous physician and author, named the new method "Anæsthesia. " The credit of the new discovery wasclaimed forthwith by several persons--notably by Dr. Charles T. Jackson ofBoston, and Dr. Crawford W. Long of Alabama. A few months after the valueof ether in surgery had come to be clearly recognized, a Scotch surgeon, Sir J. V. Simpson, discovered that chloroform could be administered withanalogous effect. 

[Sidenote: Mexican war begun]

[Sidenote: Mexican success]

[Sidenote: American reverse at Fort Brown]

[Sidenote: Palo Alto]

[Sidenote: Resaca de la Palma]

[Sidenote: Invasion of Mexico]

In the United States, during this period, the long-expected war with Mexicowas well under way. By a joint resolution of Congress, Texas had at lastbeen admitted into the Union. General Taylor took position in Texas, opposite Matamoras on the Rio Grande, where the Mexican troops weregathering. Taylor presently moved his troops to Point St. Isabel. There afleet of seven ships brought supplies. Leaving a part of his force there, he marched to a point on the Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, where he builtFort Brown, named after Major Brown, whom he left in command. The groundwas malarious, and many soldiers died of disease. On April 12, the Mexicangeneral, Ampudia, moved forward with a strong force to drive Taylor beyondthe Rio de la Nueces. Ampudia demanded that Taylor should withdraw withintwenty-four hours, but Taylor refused to leave what he claimed to be thesoil of the United States. Ampudia hesitated, and General Arista wasappointed in his place. Learning that two vessels with supplies for theMexicans were about to enter the Rio Grande, Taylor caused the river to beblockaded, at the "cost of war. " Arista prepared to attack Fort Brown, andcut off communication between Taylor and his supplies. Captain Thornton'scommand, sent out to reconnoitre, was captured on April 26. Only Thorntonescaped by leaping his horse over a dense hedge. On May 1, leaving MajorBrown in command at the fort, Taylor made a forced march to Point Isabel. The Mexicans promptly sent men across the river to the rear of Fort Brown, and opened fire together with the guns of Matamoras on that work. MajorBrown was first among the killed. Signal guns were fired to recall Taylor. With 2, 300 men he turned back on May 6. Meanwhile, 6, 000 Mexicans hadarrived and taken up a strong position at Palo Alto. On the 8th, Taylorassaulted the superior force confronting him. Two eighteen-pounders and twolight batteries made fearful havoc in the closed ranks of the Mexicaninfantry. The prairie grass between the two armies took fire. Both linesdrew back, but soon renewed the fight. Taylor's left was met by cannonade, but the Mexican column was overthrown and the entire force fell back toResaca de la Palma. The Americans took up their march to Fort Brown. Whenwithin three miles of the fort they encountered the Mexicans, stronglyposted in Resaca de la Palma, a ravine three hundred feet wide borderedwith palmetto trees. Taylor deployed a portion of his force as skirmishers, and a company of dragoons overrode the first Mexican battery. TheAmericans then advanced their battery to the crest. A regiment charged incolumn, and, joined by the skirmishers, seized the enemy's artillery. Afterhard fighting in the chaparral, the Mexicans were put to flight. TheMexicans lost one thousand men, the Americans conceded but one hundred. Refusing an armistice, Taylor crossed the river on May 18, and unfurled theStars and Stripes on Mexican territory. Another attempted stand of theMexicans resulted in worse defeat. Arista's retreat became a rout. Of 7, 000men he brought only 2, 500 to Linares. The American troops occupiedMatamoras, Reinosa and Camargo. The three States of Tamaulipas, Coahuilaand Nuevo Leon were annexed to the territory of the Rio Grande. In theinterior of Mexico a revolution broke out. General Paredes was madePresident. 

[Sidenote: Kearney annexes New Mexico]

[Sidenote: Fremont in California]

In July, Colonel Philip Kearney, with an American force, marched unopposedfrom the Arkansas River and took possession of Santa Fé. On August 1, heannexed the State of New Mexico as a Territory of the United States. InMay, Captain John C. Fremont, in charge of an exploring expedition in theSouth, received a message from Secretary of State Buchanan and SenatorBenton, whose daughter he had married, suggesting that he should remain inCalifornia. Fremont took the hint and returned to Sacramento. There helearned that the Mexican commander was about to take the offensive. He atonce assumed command of the American forces, and on June 15 capturedSonoma. Meanwhile Commodores Sloat and Stockton took possession of thecoast towns as far as Los Angeles, and, on August 13, held Monterey, thecapital of California. Fremont set up a provisional government, placinghimself at the head. In the meantime, the United States had sent a companyof artillery, which took two hundred days in making the journey around theHorn. Among its members were three future heroes of the American CivilWar--Lieutenants Sherman, Halleck and Ord. 

[Sidenote: Tardy declaration of war]

The news of these events did not reach Washington until after Congress haddeclared war on April 26, authorized a call for 50, 000 volunteers, and madean appropriation of $10, 000, 000. Three hundred thousand volunteersresponded. Of these some 75, 000 were enrolled with the regular army of40, 000. President Polk, on May 11, sent to Congress an aggressive measure, announcing that war existed by the act of Mexico. On May 23, Mexico madeher formal declaration of war. General Taylor, with the army of occupation, was ordered to seize and hold points on the Rio Grande. 

[Sidenote: Assault of Monterey]

[Sidenote: Hoffman's stanzas]

[Sidenote: Long armistice]

General Taylor waited at Matamoras until September 19, when, having beenjoined by General Worth, he encamped with 6, 000 men within three miles ofMonterey, a strongly fortified place, ninety miles distant from Matamoras. On the north, Monterey was protected by a strong citadel, with lunettes onthe east, and by two fortified hills on either side of the river just abovethe town. Worth's division planted itself above the city on the Mexicanline of retreat. Garland's brigade, advancing between the citadel and thefirst lunette, reached the city with heavy loss. After three companies hadfailed to move to Garland's support, two other companies passed to the rearof the citadel and compelled the Mexicans to abandon that point. An attempton the second lunette failed with heavy loss to the Americans. The nextmorning Worth endeavored to capture the fortified eminence south of theriver. The Americans advanced in the face of a plunging artillery fire. Ahost of skirmishers clambered over the parapet and turned its guns on thefleeing Mexicans, and, with two supporting regiments moving along theslope, drove the Mexicans out of Fort Saldado. At daybreak the hill on thenorth side of the river was carried. These positions commanded the westernhalf of the city. On the morning of the 23d, the American troops foughttheir way in, but were driven out again. Worth's men then pushed into thetown from the west, and finding the streets swept by artillery, broke intothe houses. On the next morning, September 24, Ampudia capitulated. Thecapture of Monterey inspired the American poet, Charles F. Hoffman, to asong modelled after the famous St. Crispin's Day speech in Shakespeare's"King Henry V. ":

 We were not many--we who stood Before the iron sleet that day; Yet many a gallant spirit would Give half his years if he but could Have been with us at Monterey. 

 Our banners on those turrets wave, And there our evening bugles play; Where orange-boughs above their grave Keep green the memory of the brave Who fought and fell at Monterey. 

An armistice of eight weeks was agreed upon. The armistice was disapprovedby the American Secretary of War, and, in November, General Scott wasordered to take command and conduct the war on his own plans. 

[Sidenote: Revolution in Mexico]

In Mexico, General Paredes, who favored the restoration of monarchicalrule, was opposed by General Alvarez in the south. When Paredes left thecapital to go to the front, revolution broke out behind him. Don MarianoSolas, the commandant of the City of Mexico, summoned to his aid GeneralSanta Anna. On his arrival this popular general, but recently banished fromthe capital, was hailed as the saviour of his country and was invested withthe supreme military command. Paredes went into exile. Santa Anna, afterinexplicable delay, raised war funds to the amount of six million dollars, and advanced toward San Luis Potosi. There the "Napoleon of the West, " asthey called him in Mexico, wasted more precious months. 

[Sidenote: Howe's sewing machine]

[Sidenote: Iowa becomes a State]

On the American side, too, little was done. On August 8, the Wilmot Provisowas considered. It was a proviso to the $2, 000, 000 bill asked by thePresident to arrange peace with Mexico, and it declared it to be "anexpress and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory fromMexico, that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever existtherein. " August 10 the proviso came up for final passage, but John Davisof Massachusetts, in order to defeat action on the bill, held the floortill the session expired. Congress adjourned on that day. Great agitationprevailed in the North over the defeat of this proviso. The Democrats losttheir majority in the Twenty-ninth Congress, owing to the new tariff andthe predominance of pro-slavery issues in the war. Polk had but 110 votesagainst 118 when the new Congress met. Now the new tariff went into effect. Howe, the American inventor, secured a patent for an improvement insewing-machines, which embodied the main features of the machine used atpresent; to wit, a grooved needle provided with an eye near its point, ashuttle operating on the side of the cloth opposite the needle to form alockstitch, and an automatic feed. On December 28, Iowa was admitted to theUnion as the twenty-ninth State. 

1847

[Sidenote: Santa Anna's advance]

[Sidenote: Buena Vista]

General Winfield Scott reached the harbor of Vera Cruz in January, andassumed command of all the American forces. He took with him the bestofficers and troops on the field of action, and left Taylor with only 5, 200men, most of whom were volunteers. Santa Anna, who had gathered 12, 000 meneager to be led against the Americans, was approaching Saltillo. LeavingMonterey on January 31, Taylor reached Saltillo on February 2, and passedon to Aqua Nueva, twenty miles south of Saltillo, where he remained threeweeks. Thence he fell back to a mountain gorge opposite Buena Vista. OnFebruary 22, his troops and those of Santa Anna were within sight of eachother. Under a flag of truce, Santa Anna demanded Taylor's surrender, whichwas refused. The famous battleground, taking its name from the estate ofBuena Vista, is a rugged valley from two to five miles wide, between rockywalls a thousand feet high. The slopes on either side are cut by deepravines. Taylor placed his forces in groups on the crests of the bluffs, atthe base of the eastern mountain, and in the southern edge of the plateau. The Mexican troops attempted to flank his position, but were driven off. The Mexican cavalry were sent to Taylor's rear to intercept the Americanretreat, but they were beaten back after a fierce hand-to-hand fight, ledby Taylor himself. Santa Anna made his first attack in three columns. Twoof these combined and turned the American left. The third, thrown againstthe American right, was forced to retreat, the Americans having formed anew front. Again the Mexicans sought to gain Taylor's rear, but with tworegiments supported by artillery and dragoons, the American commander drovethem back, firing into their heavy mass. 

[Sidenote: Taylor's order to Bragg]

[Sidenote: Conflicting claims of victory]

At one point in the engagement, an Indiana regiment, through a mistakenorder, gave way, thereby placing the American army in peril. But theMississippians and the Kentuckians threw themselves forward; the Indianatroops rallied, and the Mexicans were repulsed. General Taylor, standingnear Captain Bragg's battery, saw signs of wavering in the enemy's line. "Give them a little more grape, Captain Bragg, " he exclaimed--a commandwhich was repeated all over the United States during the political campaigntwo years later. The Mexican column broke, and Taylor drove it up the slopeof the eastern mountain. By means of a false flag of truce the endangeredwing, however, escaped. Santa Anna, forming his whole force into onecolumn, advanced. The Americans fell back, holding only the northwestcorner of the plateau. When morning broke, the enemy had disappeared. TheMexican loss was 2, 000, that of the Americans 746. Henry Clay, a son of theKentucky statesman, as he lay wounded, was despatched by a Mexicanvacquero. Colonel Jefferson Davis commanded with distinction a regiment ofMississippi riflemen. Buena Vista was Taylor's last battle. Its fame washeralded throughout America. Both sides claimed the victory. The Mexicanschanted Te Deums. In the United States the poet Kifer sang:

 From the Rio Grande's waters to the icy lakes of Maine, Let us all exult! for we have met the enemy again. Beneath their stern old mountains we have met them in their pride, And rolled from Buena Vista back the battle's bloody tide; Where the enemy came surging swift, like the Mississippi's flood, And the reaper, Death, with strong arms swung his sickle red with blood. 

After the battle of Buena Vista, General Taylor returned to the UnitedStates, his task finished. The exploit shed such lustre on his name that hewas soon regarded as the fittest candidate for the Presidency. 

[Sidenote: San Juan d'Ulloa captured]

[Sidenote: Battle of Cerro Gordo]

[Sidenote: American advance into Mexico]

In March, Scott's army of 12, 000 landed at Vera Cruz. After four days'bombardment by land and water, the city and castle of San Juan d'Ulloasurrendered. General Worth was left in command at Vera Cruz, and Scottstarted on his march to the City of Mexico, two hundred miles away. SantaAnna, with the flower of his army, awaited him in the strong position ofCerro Gordo, fifty miles northwest. General Twiggs turned the Mexican leftflank. On the following morning, April 18, the Americans attacked in threecolumns. Pellow advanced against the Mexican right, where three hills at anangle in the road were crowned with batteries. Shields' division, climbingby a pass, fell upon Santa Anna's right and rear. Twiggs and Worth, bearing to the right, covered the El Telegrafo Hill, and attacked theheight of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna commanded in person. Carrying thisposition, they turned its guns on the retreating Mexicans. Caught betweenthe columns of Pellow, Twiggs and Worth, Santa Anna's forces surrendered. The American troops thus gained the national road to the capital of Mexico. They had made 3, 000 prisoners and taken forty-three cannon, with $22, 000 insilver and immense munitions of war. They lost, at Cerro Gordo, 481 killedand wounded; the Mexican loss was 2, 000. Jalapa was occupied on April 19, and on the 22d the American flag waved above the Castle of Perote, fiftymiles beyond. Puebla, containing 80, 000 inhabitants, was occupied withoutopposition on May 15. On account of the sufferings of the men in the hotclimate, General Scott rested at Puebla for several months. 

[Sidenote: Doniphan's exploit]

The authority of the United States was established on the Pacific Coast, after a final defeat of the Mexicans at San Gabriel. Colonel Doniphan ofKearney's command, having been left in charge in New Mexico, compelled theNavajo Indians to enter into a treaty of peace, after which he set out with1, 000 Missourians to join General Wool. At Bracto, a Mexican commander witha superior force sent a black flag demanding his surrender. On refusal ofthis summons notice was given that no quarter should be granted. TheMexicans then advanced firing; the Americans lying down to escape thebullets. Cheering, the Mexicans ran forward, when suddenly Doniphan'scommand rose and fired, killing more than 200 Mexicans. The rest turned andfled. Near the capital of Chihuahua, Doniphan, after a sharp encounter, dispersed 4, 000 Mexicans. The Stars and Stripes were raised above thecitadel. In May, Doniphan rejoined Wool at Saltillo. Then followed a longlull in the Mexican campaign. 

[Sidenote: Slavery controversy revived]

The question concerning the power of the American Congress to legislate onslavery again came up in connection with the bill for the establishment ofthe Oregon Territorial government. In February Calhoun had introduced hisnew slavery resolution, declaring the Territories to be the common propertyof all the States, and denying the right and power of Congress to prohibitslavery in any Territory. Thus began the agitation which led to theabrogation of the Missouri Compromise. By the terms of an amendment offeredfor the extension of the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, slavery was to be excluded from all future territory in the West. Thisamendment was lost, but the bill passed with another, incorporating theanti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1787. Calhoun declared that theexclusion of slavery from any Territory was a subversion of the Union, andproclaimed "the separation of the Northern and Southern States complete. "

[Sidenote: John Franklin's career]

[Sidenote: Long overland journey]

[Sidenote: The Northwest Passage]

In British North America a new era of home rule began after the Earl ofElgin took his oath as Governor-General of Canada in January. The imperialgovernment abandoned all control over the customs of Canada. The buildingof the first great Canadian railroad was begun on the main line of theGrand Trunk system. Discouraging reports from the extreme northern regionsof America at last confirmed the impression that Sir John Franklin, withthe other members of his expedition, had perished in the Arctic regions. Aromantic naval career was thus brought to a close. Born in 1786, JohnFranklin entered the British navy at the age of fourteen as a midshipman, and soon saw his first active service at the battle of Copenhagen in 1801. In the following year he was taken on his first trip of exploration toAustralia by his cousin, Captain Flinders of the "Investigator. " In 1818 hewas a member of an expedition sent out by the British Government to attempta passage to India by crossing the Polar Sea. His bold seamanship duringthis voyage brought him into such prominence that during the next year hewas appointed by the Admiralty to command an expedition to travel overlandfrom Hudson's Bay to the Arctic Ocean. During the course of this expeditionhe and his companions walked 5, 560 miles and endured many hardships, ofwhich Franklin wrote a thrilling narrative on his return to England in1822. He then married Eleanor Porden, the author of the heroic poem"Coeur de Lion. " In 1825 he was appointed to the command of anotheroverland Arctic expedition. When the day of his departure arrived, his wifewas dying of consumption. Lying at the point of death as she was, she wouldnot let him delay his voyage, and gave him for a parting gift a silk flagto hoist when he reached the Polar Sea. On the day after Franklin leftEngland she died. When he returned again he was knighted and showered withhonors by various scientific societies of England and France. After servingas Governor of Van Diemen's Land, Sir John, in 1845, was appointed anadmiral, and then another Arctic expedition to discover the NorthwestPassage was organized. He sailed from Sheerness on May 26, 1845, and waslast seen by a whaler in Baffin's Bay. Many years later a record was foundon the northwest shore of King William's Land, announcing that Sir JohnFranklin died in the spring of 1847, and that the survivors of hisexpedition had attempted to make their way back on the ice to the Americancontinent. To Sir John Franklin belongs the honor of the first discovery ofthe northwest passage leading from Lancaster Sound to Behring Strait. 

[Sidenote: O'Connell's last speech]

[Sidenote: Death of O'Connell]

On February 8, Daniel O'Connell, the great Irish Parliamentary leader, madehis last speech in the English House of Commons. The question on which hespoke was a proposed bill for the relief of famine in Ireland: "I amafraid, " he said, in the course of this address, "that the English peopleare not sufficiently impressed with the horrors of the situation inIreland. I do not think they understand the accumulated miseries which mypeople are suffering. It has been estimated that 5, 000 adults and 10, 000children have already died from famine, and that one-fourth of the wholepopulation must perish unless something is done. " Failing in healthhimself, O'Connell went to Italy. At Rome, Pope Pius IX. Prepared amagnificent reception for him. Before he could reach the Eternal City, O'Connell died in his seventy-second year. Lacordaire, who but shortlybefore this had pronounced his greatest of funeral orations over the bierof General Drouot, thus spoke of O'Connell: "Honor, glory and eternalgratitude for the man who gave to his country the boon of liberty ofconscience. Where is a man in the Church since the time of Constantine whohas at one stroke enfranchised six millions of souls?" When the body ofO'Connell was buried at Glasnevin, it was followed to the grave by fiftythousand mourners, among whom Orangemen and Ribbonmen walked side by side. In England, O'Connell's death was regarded with a feeling akin to relief. There his persistent demands of "justice for Ireland" had come to beregarded with derision, bringing him the nickname of "Big Beggarman. "

[Sidenote: Death of Thomas Chalmers]

[Sidenote: "Vanity Fair"]

[Sidenote: "Jane Eyre"]

[Sidenote: Jenny Lind]

Another spirit that won religious renown in England passed away with ThomasChalmers, the great Scotch divine. As a teacher of theology at Edinburgh hewrote no less than twenty-five volumes, the most famous of which is his"Evidences of the Christian Revelations, " a reprint of his article on"Christianity" contributed to the "Encyclopedia Britannica. " In otherrespects it was a notable year for English letters. Charles Dickens hadjust published his famous stories "Dombey and Son" and "The Haunted Man. "The success of these novels was surpassed by that of Thackeray's "VanityFair. " Three writers now made their appearance. Anthony Trollope broughtout his "MacDermotts of Ballycoran"; Emily Brontë published her firstnovel, "Wuthering Heights, " while her sister, Charlotte Brontë, at the sametime achieved an immense success with her story of "Jane Eyre. " Thesesuccesses were more than rivalled by that of Jenny Lind, the great sopranosinger, who made her first appearance in London during this season. Anotherevent for intellectual England was the sale at auction of Shakespeare'shouse at Stratford. It was acquired by a united committee of Shakespearelovers for the sum of £3, 000. 

[Sidenote: Jewish disabilities reconfirmed]

The oft-mooted question of the civil disabilities of the Jews in Englandwas brought up again by the election of Baron Rothschild as a member ofParliament for London, together with Lord John Russell. The Premier, whosename was already identified with the cause of civil and religious liberty, made another strong effort to obtain the recognition of his colleague'sclaim to his seat. He was supported in this not only by most of the Whigsin the House of Commons, but also by three such prominent men of theopposition as Lord Bentinck, Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli, himself ofJewish lineage. As heretofore, this proposed reform was accepted by theCommons only to be rejected by the Lords, now installed in their new Houseof Peers. Otherwise, Lord Russell's Ministry followed largely in thefootsteps of their immediate predecessors. Palmerston pursued his wontedvigorous foreign policy. 

[Sidenote: Don Pacifico affair]

[Sidenote: British retaliation]

[Sidenote: Palmerston obdurate]

It had been customary in Greek towns to celebrate Easter by burning aneffigy of Judas Iscariot. This year the police of Athens were ordered toprevent this performance, and the mob, disappointed of their favoriteamusement, ascribed the new orders to the influence of the Jews. The houseof one Don Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew of Gibraltar, happened to stand nearthe spot where the Judas was annually burned. Don Pacifico was known to bea Jew, and the anger of the mob was wreaked upon him accordingly. On April4, his house was sacked. Don Pacifico made a claim against the GreekGovernment for compensation. He estimated his losses, direct and indirect, at nearly £32, 000. Another claim was made at the same time by anotherBritish subject, Finlay, the historian of Greece. The Greek Government, which was all but bankrupt, was dilatory in settling these claims. ABritish fleet was ordered to the Piræus. It seized all the Greek vesselsbelonging to the government and to private merchants that were found withinthose waters. The Greek Government appealed to France and Russia as Powersjoined with England in the treaty to protect the independence of Greece. France and Russia both made bitter complaint of not having been consultedin the first instance by the British Government, nor was their feelingsoftened by Lord Palmerston's peremptory reply that it was all a questionbetween England and Greece. It was on this occasion that Palmerston madethe famous speech harking back to the sentiment expressed in the old Romanboast "Civis Romanus Sum. "

[Sidenote: Troubles in China]

[Sidenote: Bogue forts recaptured]

[Sidenote: A Chinese protest]

Next, new troubles arose with China. During the previous year riots brokeout in Canton, by reason of a superstitious belief that a weather-vane ontop of the flagstaff over the American Consulate interfered with thespirits of the air. A Chinaman was shot during the riots. The British hadto interfere on behalf of the threatened Americans. The outraged feelingsof the Chinese populace were allayed by a conciliatory declaration ofEmperor Taouk-Wang, to the effect that the Christian religion could becommended as a faith for inculcating the principles of virtue. At the sametime he sent a special commissioner, Ke-Ying, "amicably to regulate thecommerce with foreign merchants at Canton. " Trouble again broke out inMarch, when a small English hunting and fishing party violated theagreement confining them to the foreign concession at Canton. They werepelted with stones by the natives. Sir John Davis denounced this incidentas international outrage, and, in disregard of the accepted treatyprovisions, proclaimed "that he would exact and acquire from the ChineseGovernment that British subjects should be as free from molestation andinsult in China as they would be in England. " On April 1, all the availableforces at Hong Kong were summoned to Canton. Three steamships, bearing tworegiments of soldiers, convoyed by a British man-of-war, attacked the Bogueforts. The Chinese, acting under orders from Ke-Ying, made no resistance. ABritish landing force seized the batteries and spiked the guns. Next, theforts opposite Canton were captured without a blow. Without a shot fired, Canton, on April 3, lay at the mercy of the British guns. Ke-Ying acceptedthe British ultimatum that the whole city of Canton should be opened toEnglishmen two years from date. The agreement was closed with thissignificant statement on behalf of the Chinese Emperor: "If mutualgood-will is to be maintained between the Chinese and foreigners, thecommon feelings of mankind, as well as the just principles of heaven, mustbe considered and conformed with. "

[Sidenote: Nicaragua coerced]

[Sidenote: Threatened intervention in Portugal]

A new phase in Great Britain's boundary dispute with Nicaragua was reachedby a British squadron's abrupt seizure of the harbor of San Juan del Norte, Nicaragua's only seaport on the Atlantic coast. In regard to the demandsmade for the free navigation of the La Plata River, the Argentine Republicat last came to terms. The joint squadrons of England and France thereuponraised their blockade of Buenos Ayres. At London a conference of Englishand French statesmen, to which Spain was likewise admitted, had come to anagreement to interfere on behalf of Queen Maria II. , in Portugal. When thiswas made known, Bandiera, one of the chief partisans of Dom Pedro, announced his submission. Nonetheless, Pedro's followers persevered, and onJune 26 the Junta at Oporto had to capitulate to Pedro's army. 

[Sidenote: German Parliamentary essays]

[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein issue]

In Germany, in the meanwhile, the agitation for Parliamentary governmentsteadily gained ground. In Bavaria, where King Louis's open liaison withthe dancer Lola Montez had turned his subjects against him, the deputiesof the Landtag exerted their power to abolish the crown lotteries by aunanimous vote. In Prussia, King Frederick William IV. At last issued hislong-promised summons for a united provincial Diet. A semblance ofrepresentative government was established. It was at this time thatFrederick William became Elector of Hesse-Cassel. The agitation for arepresentative government grew. On September 12, the Liberals held ameeting at Orthenburg. Within a month the Constitutional party met atHeppenheim, in Hesse. At length a united Prussian Parliament, called theLandtag, was convoked at Berlin. The first question to claim the attentionof this Parliament was that of Schleswig-Holstein. The gauntlet recentlyflung down to the German population of Schleswig and Holstein, by KingChristian VIII. Of Denmark, was picked up not only by the anti-DanishHolsteiners, but by the whole German nation as well. Little Schleswig, withits 160 square miles and 400, 000 inhabitants, was claimed by every Germanas German borderland. King Christian at this time was failing in health. His condition had been aggravated by the recent great fire at Copenhagen, which, amid other costly properties, destroyed invaluable records ofIcelandic literature, including more than 2, 000 unpublished manuscripts. 

[Sidenote: Death of Mendelssohn]

[Sidenote: "Songs Without Words"]

An event of like international importance was the death of FelixMendelssohn-Bartholdy, at the age of thirty-eight. He was the grandson ofthe philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, and the son of the gifted LeaSolomon-Bartholdy, from whom he received his first piano lessons. At theage of ten he joined the Singing Academy of Berlin, where a composition ofhis, the "Nineteenth Psalm, " was performed shortly after his entry. In 1825his father took him to Paris to consult Cherubini, as to his future. Cherubini offered to take him as a pupil, but his father preferred to bringhim up in the musical atmosphere of his own home. There the boy perfectedhimself as a piano player and wrote a host of early compositions. Theoverture to "A Midsummer Night's Dream" was written in 1826, whenMendelssohn was but seventeen years old. Two years later his first opera, "The Marriage of Camècho, " was given at the Berlin Opera. In Berlin, Mendelssohn became the leading figure in the propaganda for the music ofBach. Having undertaken a journey to England, at the suggestion ofMoscheles, he gave a series of concerts there, after which he travelledthroughout Europe. It was at this time that he wrote his "Songs WithoutWords, " and composed the overture, "A Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage. "After filling a musical directorship at Düsseldorf, he was summoned toconduct the orchestra of the Gewandhaus there. This proved an importantturn in his career. In 1841, Frederick William IV. Of Prussia invited himto Berlin, where he organized the famous Cathedral choir. Returning toLeipzig, he founded the musical conservatory in that city. The sudden deathof his favorite sister, Fannie, gave him such a shock that he died within afew months after her. Mendelssohn exerted little influence as an operaticcomposer, but achieved the highest rank by such vocal compositions as theoratorios "St. Paul" and "Elijah, " and some of his beautiful songs, whichhave become folksongs. Of his orchestral pieces, the most famous are hisconcert overtures, such as that of the "Midsummer Night's Dream, " or "RuyBlas, " and his "Funeral March. " The most celebrated of his piano pieces arethe popular "Songs Without Words, " the "Wedding March" and the brilliant"Rondo Capriccioso. "

[Sidenote: Death of Marilhat]

[Sidenote: Gautier on Marilhat]

By the death of Prosper Marilhat, a young artist of great promise was lostto France. But a few years before, Marilhat sent no less than eightmasterpieces to the Salon, but they were received so coldly that the youngartist fell into a state from which death was a happy deliverance. Théophile Gautier wrote of him, "That exhibition was Marilhat's swan song, and the works he sent were eight diamonds. " After Marilhat's death, some ofhis unfinished paintings commanded great prices. Thus his "Entrance toJerusalem, " at the Wertheimer sale at Paris in 1861, fetched 16, 000 francs. Fifteen years later, at the Oppenheim sale in Paris, Marilhat's "Ruins NearCairo" brought no less than 29, 000 francs. It was as a painter of Orientalsubjects that Marilhat won his most lasting distinction. Having travelledto the East with Baron Hugel, he remained for many years in Egypt, paintedportraits of the Khedive and decorated several of the buildings ofAlexandria. In an obituary article published in the "Revue des DeuxMondes, " Théophile Gautier wrote: "Marilhat was a Syrian Arab. He musthave had in his veins some blood of the Saracens whom Charles Martel didnot kill. . . . One of the glories of Marilhat was that he preserved hisoriginality in presence of Decamps. The talents of these two men areparallel lines, it is true, but they do not touch each other. The morefruitful fancy of the one is balanced by the character in the works of theother. "

[Sidenote: Death of Oudinot]

[Sidenote: Death of Grouchy]

[Sidenote: Death of Marie Louise]

[Sidenote: Mérimée and Dumas]

In France the dissatisfaction with Louis Philippe's government, asadministered by Guizot, was steadily increasing. The Socialist party, ledby Louis Blanc, agitated the country for reform. An appeal to Revolutionarytraditions was made by the simultaneous publication of Blanc's andMichelet's histories of the French Revolution. At the same time, Lamartinebrought out his "Histoire des Girondins. " Napoleonic traditions wererevived by a series of events following the death of General Drouot. InSeptember came the death of Marshal Oudinot, the hero of Bitche, Moorlautern, Trêves, Ingolstadt, Ulm, Austerlitz, Jena, Ostralenka, Friesland and Wagram. Oudinot was wounded innumerable times and was twicemade a prisoner. He bore a prominent part throughout the Russian campaignand that of 1814. During the Hundred Days he remained in retirement. Forthis he was made Commander-in-chief of the National Guards under theRestoration, and passed through the campaign of Spain in 1823, when hecaptured Madrid. After his death, Marshal Soult, another veteran of theNapoleonic wars, succeeded him as general commander of the French army. Before this, Marshal Grouchy had likewise expired in his eighty-first year. He it was who was held responsible by Napoleon for the final crushingdefeat at Waterloo. There he failed to support his chief, when Blücher cameto the support of Wellington. To the end of his days, Grouchy insisted thatNapoleon's orders to this effect never reached him, but it was held upagainst him that some of his officers on that occasion had vainly urged himto march on the sound of the cannons at Waterloo. On October 10, JeromeBonaparte, Napoleon's brother and the quondam king of Westphalia, waspermitted to return to France after an exile of thirty-two years. Late inthe year, ex-Empress Marie Louise, Napoleon's second wife, died at the ageof fifty-six in Austria. Never beloved like her predecessor Josephine, shelost the esteem of all Frenchmen by her failure to stand by her husbandafter his downfall and exile to St. Helena, and by her subsequent liaisonwith her chamberlain, Neipperg, to whom she bore several children. Otherevents of lasting interest in France, during this year, were the opening ofthe great canal from Marseilles to Durano, the death of Duc de Polignac, who helped cause the downfall of his royal master Charles X. , and thepublication of Mérimée's "Carmen" and of "Aventures de Quatre Femmes etd'un Perroquet, " by the younger Dumas. 

[Sidenote: Austrians occupy Ferrara]

[Sidenote: Italy aroused]

Under the stimulus of Pius IX. 's apparent sympathy for the cause ofnational unity in Italy, as well as that of the teachings of Mazzini, theItalian patriots took heart again. One group, consisting mostly of thepoliticians and military men of Piedmont, centred their hopes in thetraditional antagonism of the princes of Savoy against Austria. CharlesAlbert of Carrignano, whom Metternich had attempted to exclude from thesuccession, showed marked independence in his dealings with Austria. In1847, the Italian question came uppermost again when the AustrianGovernment, on a new interpretation in one of the clauses in the treaty ofVienna, occupied the town of Ferrara in the ecclesiastical states. Pius IX. Promptly protested against this trespass of his territories. The King ofSardinia openly announced his intention to take the field against Austria, should war break out. English and French warships appeared at Naples. InSicily and southern Italy the attitude of the patriots grew threatening. Apprehensions of a general revolution throughout Italy at length inducedMetternich to agree with the neutral powers on a compromise concerning theoccupation of Ferrara. Lucca was united with Tuscany. Still patrioticpassion seethed in Italy. 

[Sidenote: Mexican campaigns resumed]

[Sidenote: Santa Anna outflanked]

In America, after several months of comparative inaction, the war in Mexicowas renewed with vigor. On August 6, General Scott received reinforcements. Leaving a governor at Puebla, he marched on with 14, 000 men. He met with noresistance at the passes of the Cordilleras. On August 10, from the top ofthe Rio Frio Mountains, the City of Mexico, lying in a fertile, lake-dottedbasin, was in sight. The land around the city was under water, and thecapital was approached by causeways across the low and marshy ground. Thenumerous rocky hills were all fortified. Scott passed around Lake Chalco tothe southwest, and thence moved west skirting the south shore. Santa Anna, intercepting the Americans, took up his headquarters at San Antonio, fivemiles from the city. His position was flanked on the west by broken lava, and on the east by marshy ground. The ground was as bad as could well beencountered. Santa Anna sent orders to General Valencia, who held afortified hill in front of the Americans, to spike his guns, destroy hisstores and retreat, but Valencia refused. Riley, occupying a hill in hisrear, took his intrenchments in reverse. He was cut off both north andsouth; 2, 000 of his force were killed and wounded; a thousand with fourgenerals were captured, and guns, stores and ammunition fell into the handsof the Americans. 

[Sidenote: Battle of Contreras]

The divisions of Pellow and Twiggs were ordered, August 19, to stormContreras. The line between that position and Santa Anne's reserves was cutat the close of the day, and General Persifer F. Smith at sunrise the nextmorning led an assault on the Mexican camp, and in less than half an hourdrove 6, 000 Mexicans out of the fortification. Shortly afterward GeneralWorth attacked Santa Anna and routed the garrison. 

[Sidenote: Churubusco]

The Americans followed to Churubusco on the road to the capital, whereSanta Anna had concentrated his whole force. Here the river was protectedby levees, the head of the bridge strongly fortified, and the stone conventsurrounded by a strong field-work. The attack on the bridge and theconvent was desperate. Pierce and Shields had made a detour to the mainroad in the rear of Churubusco. They struck the Mexican reserves, and allthe troops on both sides were engaged. Worth and Pellow carried the bridgein time to save Pierce and Shields. The Mexican left gave way. A detachmentcrossed the river and threatened the bridge from the rear. Worth threw hiswhole force upon the broken line. Through ditches and over parapets theywent with a rush, and the battle was won. The Americans lost a thousand menand seventy-six officers. 

[Sidenote: Santa Fé captured]

[Sidenote: Mexican reverses]

General Kearney had left Fort Leavenworth in the spring of 1847. To himfell the task of conquering New Mexico and California. On August 18, SantaFé was captured, and all New Mexico submitted. From Santa Fé, Kearney, with400 dragoons, set off for California. Kit Carson, whom he met on the road, informed him that Colonel Fremont had conquered California. On learningthis Kearney sent back most of his force, and with the few remaining pushedon to the coast. In the five distinct victories thus far gained over theMexican army of 80, 000, scarcely 10, 000 Americans had been engaged, 4, 000Mexicans had been killed and wounded, and 3, 000 made prisoners, andthirty-seven pieces of artillery were captured. 

[Sidenote: Another armistice]

Scott again made overtures for peace. He had with him a governmentcommissioner, Trist, who had already made a vain effort to secure peace. Scott accordingly advanced to Tecubaya within three miles of the capital, and on August 21 sent to Santa Anna a proposition for an armistice lookingto negotiations for peace. The proposition was accepted, and Trist enteredthe capital on the 24th, where he remained until September 5. He reportedthat the American proposition had not only been rejected, but that SantaAnna had improved the armistice to strengthen the city's defences. Scottinstantly declared the armistice at an end. 

[Sidenote: Molino del Rey]

Scott had now 8, 500 men and 68 guns. He moved, September 7, upon Molino delRey (King's Mill), a group of stone buildings 500 yards long, forming thewestern side of the inclosure surrounding the rock and castle ofChapultepec, and 1, 100 yards from the castle, which is a mile and a halffrom the city wall. Scott's purpose was to enter the city on the south, andhe considered the castle of slight importance. He supposed that the battleof Molino would be a small affair. Worth anticipated a desperate struggle, and took up his position in the dark on the morning of the 8th. At 3 A. M. He opened fire with his twenty-four pounders, and his storming partyadvanced toward the point where the enemy's batteries had been, but theirposition had been changed, and they suddenly opened fire on the flank ofhis 500. After various contests, the fighting became a struggle for thepossession of the Molino. A desperate and deadly fight took place. Thesouthern gate gave way and the Americans passed in. The fight was renewedwith bayonet and sword, and Worth lost a large number of the flower of hisforces. At last the Mexicans, all but 700, retreated to Chapultepec. On theleft the Americans were received with a murderous fire, which was longcontinued. Their whole artillery was then concentrated upon the Casa Mataand its works, which, after a desperate defence, were abandoned. Except asan outpost to Chapultepec, the position had no value. By Scott's orderWorth withdrew his command, and left to the enemy the field which had beenso dearly won. Of 3, 500 Americans in the fight, 787 had fallen, including59 officers. 

[Sidenote: Chapultepec]

The Rock of Chapultepec rises 150 feet, and is crowned by the great castle. The northern side was inaccessible; the eastern and southern sides nearlyso, and the southwestern and western could be scaled. A zigzag road on thesouthern side was swept by a battery at an angle. The crest was stronglyfortified; ditches and strong walls and a redoubt were constructed atvarious points. The garrison numbered 2, 000, and thirteen long guns weremounted. A select party under Captain Joseph Hooker seized the Molino, andat night Pellow threw his whole force into it. Two forces made a desperateassault on the intrenchments in front, united and passed the Mexicans andmounted the western slope. A party passed around the western front, whichthey scaled, and gained the parapet. Their comrades on the western sideclimbed the southern slope at the same time and joined the two. The wholecastle was occupied. The Mexicans were dislodged and many prisoners weretaken. 

[Sidenote: Fall of City of Mexico]

The approach to the capital was difficult. It was by two roads, each alonga stone aqueduct. On the Belen road the Mexicans were gradually pressedback, however, and the Americans entered the first work, where they wereconfronted by the citadel commanded by Santa Anna. A terrible fire renderedfurther advance impossible. On the San Cosme road the enemy was pursued toa second barricade, which was carried under Lieutenant U. S. Grant andLieutenant Gire. Worth's columns pushed on. Having passed the arches, theybegan breaking their way through the walls of the houses. Howitzers werehauled to the roofs, and at last the main gate was carried. During thenight a delegation proposed a capitulation. Scott refused to grant terms. At dawn Quitman advanced to the grand palace and occupied the Plaza, and anhour later Scott took up his headquarters there. Presently some 2, 000liberated convicts and others began casting paving stones on the soldiers, and it became necessary to sweep the streets with grape and canister. Bythe 15th Scott was in full possession of the City of Mexico. 

[Sidenote: Flight of Santa Anna]

On the morning of September 14, Generals Quitman and Worth raised theAmerican flag over the national palace, and Scott soon afterward reined upat the Grand Plaza, where he removed his hat, and, raising his hand, proclaimed the conquest of Mexico. Santa Anna's men afterward treacherouslyattacked the hospital at Puebla, where were 2, 000 Americans, sick andwounded. They bravely resisted and were presently rescued; the Mexicansbeing routed by General Lane. Santa Anna, again a fugitive, fled for safetyto the shores of the Gulf. 

[Sidenote: Many reputations made]

Among the officers who distinguished themselves were many who gained alasting reputation fifteen years later, during the American civil war; forinstance, Jefferson Davis, Grant, Lee, McClellan, Beauregard, Sherman, Hill, Jackson, Hooker, Longstreet, Buell, Johnston, Lyon, Kearney, Reynolds, French, Ewell and Sumner. 

[Sidenote: Premonitions of trouble in France]

Late in the year simultaneous risings against the Bourbon government ofNaples and Sicily occurred in Calabria and at Messina. In the north aconspiracy against further government by Austria assumed the proportions ofa national movement. In France the popular clamor for reforms grew tothreatening proportions. Prime Minister Guizot declined to enter into anyof the radical schemes for reform. In the Chambers, Guizot declared: "Themaintenance of the union of the Conservative party, of its policy andpower, will be the fixed idea of the rule of conduct in the Cabinet. " Latein December the Chambers met but promised no reforms. Defeated in this, theopposition determined to voice its protests at a political banquet in Parissimilar to those that had been held at Strasburg, Lille, Lyons, Rouen, andother cities. The government forbade the banquet. It was postponed untilthe nest year. Popular passions for the moment were appeased byAbd-el-Kader's final surrender to General Lamorcière in Algeria, and thereported end of the troublesome war with the Arabs. 

1848

[Sidenote: Revolution in Palermo]

[Sidenote: Neapolitan constitution granted]

[Sidenote: Anti-Austrian riots at Milan]

[Sidenote: Northern Italy aflame]

[Sidenote: Revolt at Rome]

[Sidenote: Rome bombarded]

The long seething discontent of the lower classes in Italy, fomented by thenational aspirations of such radical leaders as Mazzini and Manin, hadreached its culmination by this time. The centenary of the expulsion of theAustrians from Genoa had just been celebrated with such enthusiasmthroughout central Italy that Austria was forewarned of the storm that wasabout to burst. Metternich wrote to Apponyi, "The world is very sick. Thegeneral condition of Europe is dangerous. " Communications passed betweenthe patriots in northern Italy and the opponents of the Bourbon governmentin Sicily. On January 12, the people of Palermo rose in revolt. Thegovernment troops were driven from the city. Palermo was bombarded andfighting continued for a full fortnight. In the end the insurgents werevictorious, and a provisional government was established. Other towns inSicily followed suit. On January 27, revolutionary riots broke out inNaples. Threatened by revolution throughout his dominions, King FerdinandII. Of Naples and Sicily, like his grandfather, made haste to proclaim apopular constitution. A Liberal Ministry was called in on January 29. Thecity of Messina was still in full insurrection when the standard of revoltwas raised in northern Italy. In order to deprive the Austrian Governmentof one of its chief financial supports, the patriotic societies of Italyformed a resolution to abstain from the use of tobacco, on which thegovernment had a monopoly. On the following Sunday, Austrian officers, smoking in the streets of Milan, were attacked by the populace. The troopshad to be called to arms, and blood was shed on both sides. Similaroutbreaks followed in Padua and elsewhere. Radetzky, the Austriancommander-in-chief, proclaimed martial law. On February 15, the people rosein Tuscany, and compelled their grandduke to proclaim a constitution. InMarch the insurrectionary movement spread from Lombardy to Piedmont. Therepublic of Venice was proclaimed. The King of Sardinia declared himself insympathy with the liberation of Venice from Austrian rule. For a while PopePio Nono showed similar leanings. On March 15, the Nationalists of Romedeclared against the Pope. The National Guards joined in the movement. ThePapal troops had to be called out to put down the revolt by force of arms. The hordes of Roman lazzaroni or beggars profited by the confusion tocommit hideous crimes. The Pope created a high council and Chamber ofDeputies with privileges of limited legislation, the Pope retaining hisfull veto power on whatever they might decree. But on April 29, after theJesuits had been expelled from Sardinia, Pio Nono turned his back on thesereforms, and returned to the conservative policy of his immediatepredecessors in the chair of St. Peter. His definite refusal to declareagainst Austria provoked another insurrection at Rome. This time the revoltgrew to such proportions that the city had to be subjected to bombardmentby artillery. 

[Sidenote: Spread of the revolution]

[Sidenote: Democratic governments spared]

In the meanwhile a revolution of far more serious proportions had brokenout at Paris. Successful from the start, the contagion of its example hadspread from France to most of the various principalities of Germany, toAustria, Bohemia and Hungary, and thence to almost every quarter in Europe. Few other events afford so striking an illustration of the moderncosmopolitan spirit that had arisen in Europe during the first half of theNineteenth Century. The great revolutions of England, of America and ofFrance, in previous times, affected the rest of humanity only long aftertheir occurrence. The overthrow of Charles X. In 1830 gave rise to more orless abortive revolutions in Belgium, Italy and Poland, as well as some ofthe smaller German States. But the French February revolution of 1848spread instantly to all the civilized communities of the world, exceptSwitzerland, Great Britain, and the United States of North America. Theexemption of these three countries, where alone true democratic forms ofgovernment prevailed, was in itself a revelation of the general discontentof European peoples. Other explanations in plenty have been given, everyone of which contained its measure of truth. To Polish refugees theupheavals of this year have been in part attributed. The rise of the newnational spirit in literature was revealed in Italy and Germany as well asamong the Magyars, Slavs and Greeks. The apparently epidemic character ofthe movement found another explanation in the improved means of transit andcommunication, and the great development of the public press. 

[Sidenote: Changes in Switzerland]

In the countries untouched by revolution internal progress kept pace withthe continued spread of civilization. In Switzerland, the expulsion of theJesuits resulted in the attempted secession of the seven Catholic cantons. This was frustrated by General Dufour's prompt occupation of Freibourg andLuzerne. The so-called Sonderbund of the seceding cantons was dissolved. Inplace of the former union of sovereign cantons, the Swiss republic was nowreconstituted after the model of the United States of North America, as aunion of States with a central federal government at Berne. The Swiss army, postal system and finances were put under federal control and a nationalcoinage was established. The separate interest of the cantons foundrepresentation in the Stænderat, while the Swiss people at large wererepresented in the Nationalrath, the members of which were elected fromdistricts apportioned among the cantons according to equal numbers ofpopulation. 

[Sidenote: England unaffected]

[Sidenote: Insurrection in Tipperary]

[Sidenote: Queen Victoria in Ireland]

[Sidenote: Orange River territory annexed to England]

The people of England, though the stirring events on the Continent werebrought home to them by so many eminent refugees seeking shelter in theirland, held the issues at stake too well settled by their own greatrevolution of 1649 to find a sufficient incentive for another suchmovement. The popularity of the young Queen doubtless contributed its shareto the stability of the government. The renewed demonstrations of theChartists in London were merely co-incident with the revolutionarydemonstrations abroad. Still the influence of contemporaneous events inEurope was strong enough to frighten Parliament into passing an act whichmade the utterance of seditious speeches a felony. A popular insurrectionin Tipperary, Ireland, was made the pretext for once more suspending thehabeas corpus act in Ireland. By the end of July the revolt was put down. Its leaders, John Mitchell, O'Brien and others were apprehended and triedin court for high treason. They were sentenced to death, but the Queenmitigated their sentences to transportation. A calming effect on Irelandwas produced by the personal visit of the young Queen and her royal consortto Ireland. When she held her court at Dublin in midsummer, the mostpoignant causes for discontent were lost sight of amid wild demonstrationsof apparently universal loyalty. A constitution on home rule principles wasproclaimed in West Australia. In South Africa, Sir Harry Smith, theGovernor of Cape Colony, after his successful termination of a fourth warwith the Kaffirs, proclaimed the authority of Great Britain over the OrangeRiver territory. The Boer settlers there under the leadership of Pretoriusfound themselves unable to maintain their independence. The adjoining landsof the Basutos were declared under British protectorate. 

[Sidenote: Massacre of Multan]

[Sidenote: Punjab up in arms]

[Sidenote: Sikhs and Afghans join revolt]

Early in the year, Lord Dalhousie had relieved Lord Hardinge asGovernor-General of India. Up to that time the British occupation of thePunjab had continued without material change. Now a new fiscal system wasto be introduced there to settle up the arrears of Viceroy Mulraj ofMultan. In April, Vance Agnew, a British commissioner, with a militaryescort of three hundred men, arrived at Multan to occupy the citadel assurety for these arrears. The British officers were admitted to the city, but as they emerged from the citadel they were attacked, and all theEnglishmen were massacred. Mulraj called upon the Sikhs to rise against theEnglish. A force of seven thousand British troops were sent against Multan. When they reached the city all the native troops turned against them. Thewhole of the Punjab revolted and a holy war was proclaimed against England. Lord Dalhousie rose to the occasion. As he left Bengal to go to the fronthe delivered a characteristic speech containing the historic declaration:"Unwarned by precedent, uninfluenced by example, the Sikh nation havecalled for war. On my word, sirs, they shall have it with vengeance!" TheSikh garrisons of Peshawar joined in the revolt, which was quickly taken upby the Afghans. George Lawrence, the British Resident there, was carriedoff as a prisoner. In the fort of Attock, Captain Herbert held out for awhile, but in the end was forced to succumb. The first general engagementbetween Lord Gough and Sagr Singh at Ramluggar, late in the year, resultedin a drawn battle. On both sides reinforcements were hurried up wherewithto wage the coming year's campaign. 

[Sidenote: More Arctic expeditions]

[Sidenote: Death of George Stephenson]

[Sidenote: Stephenson's career]

From England, during this time, two more expeditions had been sent out insearch of Sir John Franklin. The first of these was commanded by Sir JamesRoss, the famous Antarctic explorer. The second expedition, whilediscovering no trace of Franklin, claimed that it had discovered the longsought for Northwest Passage. The science of astronomy lost one of its mostdistinguished representatives in England by the death of Caroline Herschel, the sister of the famous discoverer of Uranus. Besides her the necrology ofthe year in England included the two authors, Isaac d'Israeli, the fatherof Lord Beaconsfield, and Captain Frederick Marryat, the romancer of thesea; Lord Alexander Ashburton, the framer of the Canadian boundary treatythat commemorates his name, and George Stephenson, the inventor of thefirst practicable locomotive. Stephenson began life as a pit-engine boy attwopence a day near Newcastle-on-Tyne. Having risen to the grade ofengineman, he was employed in the collieries of Lord Ravensworth improvingthe wagon way and railway planes under ground. In 1814 he completed alocomotive steam-engine, which was successfully tried on the KillingworthRailway. The locomotive "Rocket, " constructed by Stephenson and his sonRobert, which won the premium of five hundred pounds in 1829, offered bythe Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company, ushered in the greatestmechanical revolution since the invention of the steam-engine by Watt. After this Stephenson became a locomotive builder on a large scale andacquired enormous wealth. Another invention standing to the credit ofStephenson was one of the earliest safety lamps, but a committee whichinvestigated the subject accorded to Sir Humphry Davy the priority of thisinvention. During this year Sir Austin Henry Layard published the resultsof his original researches of Nineveh and its remains. Macaulay printed thefirst two volumes of his "History of England, " while Matthew Arnold broughtout his "Strayed Reveller" and other poems. Elizabeth Gaskell published"Mary Barton. "

Of the various expeditions undertaken in search of Sir John Franklin, themost noteworthy perhaps was Dr. John Rae's overland journey through thenorthwestern territory of America from the Mackenzie to the Copper MineRiver. This opened up a vast tract of country to adventurous Canadians. Another lasting benefit was conferred upon Upper Canada by thereorganization of the public school system of Ontario. 

[Sidenote: Peace with Mexico]

[Sidenote: Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo]

[Sidenote: American expansion]

On the part of the United States the war with Mexico was brought to aclose. The President of the Mexican Congress assumed provisional authority, and, on February 2, that body at Guadaloupe Hidalgo concluded peace withthe United States. With slight amendments the treaty was ratified by theUnited States Senate on March 10, and by the Mexican Congress at Querateroon the 30th of May. President Polk, on July 4 following, finally proclaimedpeace. The Americans under the terms of the treaty evacuated Mexico withinthree months, paid Mexico $3, 000, 000 immediately, and $12, 000, 000 in threeannual instalments, and assumed debts of $3, 500, 000 due from Mexico toAmerican citizens. These payments were made in consideration of newaccessions of territory which gave to the United States not only Texas, butArizona, New Mexico and California. The war had cost the United Statesapproximately $25, 000, 000 and 25, 000 men. 

[Sidenote: Gold found in California]

While these negotiations were under way, Colonel Sutter had begun theerection of a mill at Colonna on the American branch of the SacramentoRiver. In January one Marshall, who was engaged in digging a race-way forthe mill for Colonel Sutter, found a metal which he had not seen before, and, on testing it in the fire, found that it was gold. The "finds" weresent to Sacramento and tested, with the result that they were declared tobe pure gold. The mint at Philadelphia also declared the metal to be gold, and the President referred to the fact in his annual message to Congress. 

[Sidenote: Influx of Gold Seekers]

Then the gold seekers poured into California. They arrived in multitudesfrom all parts of America and other countries--thousands tracking acrossthe plains and mountains with ox-teams and on foot, and other thousandscrossing the Isthmus with scarcely less difficulty, while around the Horn asteady procession of ships passed up the coast of South America and Mexicoto the new El Dorado. In two years the population of California increased100, 000, and still the hordes of gold seekers came. 

Wisconsin, the thirtieth State, was admitted May 29. It had been one of thefirst districts to receive the visits of the fur traders and the Frenchmissionaries, who went thither in 1639. 

[Sidenote: Death of John Quincy Adams]

John Quincy Adams was overtaken by death in the midst of his career. OnFebruary 21 he entered the House and took his seat. Suddenly he fell to thefloor, stricken with apoplexy. As he was carried to the Speaker's room andwas laid on a lounge, he feebly murmured: "This is the last of earth. I amcontent. " He died on February 23. 

[Sidenote: His diplomatic career]

[Sidenote: Morse on Adams]

John Quincy Adams's long career is unique in American history. At the ageof eleven he accompanied his father on a diplomatic mission to Europe, andearly acquired a knowledge of French and German. When barely fourteen hewent to St. Petersburg as private secretary to the American Minister, Dana. At sixteen Adams served as one of the secretaries of the AmericanPlenipotentiaries during the negotiations resulting in the treaty of peaceand independence of 1783. At the age of twenty-seven he was appointedMinister to Holland by President Washington, and afterward was Minister toBerlin and Commissioner to Sweden. After serving for some years in theUnited States Senate he was sent, in 1809, as Minister to Russia, where heremained till 1815. Then he was transferred to London, where he residedtill 1817, when he became Secretary of State. His career as President ofthe United States and his subsequent Congressional life was honorable inthe extreme. Yet Adams's biographer, Morse, has aptly said: "Never did aman of pure life and just purposes have fewer friends or more enemies. . . . If he could ever have gathered even a small personal following, hischaracter and abilities would have insured him a brilliant and prolongedsuccess; but for a man of his calibre and influence, we see him as one ofthe most lonely and desolate of the great men of history. "

[Sidenote: James Russell Lowell]

During this year James Russell Lowell published his "Bigelow Papers, " ahumorous satire on the Mexican war in Yankee dialect, the "Indian SummerReverie, " and "A Fable for Critics. "

[Sidenote: Death of Donizetti]

[Sidenote: Early operas]

[Sidenote: Prolific compositions]

On April 8, Gaetano Donizetti--who together with Rossini and Bellini formedthe brilliant triumvirate of Italian composers in the first half of theNineteenth Century--died in his native town of Bergamo. Donizetti composedhis first opera, "Enrico di Borgogna, " in 1819, while serving as a soldierin Venice. Three other operas followed quickly. His fourth, "Zoraide diGranada, " was such a success that he was exempted from further militaryservice in 1822. During the following six years he wrote no less thantwenty-three operas, many of which were cheap imitations of Rossini. In1880, stung by the success of Bellini, he wrote "Anna Bolena, " whichinaugurated his second more original period, which included "LucreciaBorgia" and the immensely popular "Lucia di Lammermoor. " The prohibition ofhis opera "Poliecto, " while he was serving as a director of the NaplesConservatory, so exasperated Donizetti that he betook himself to Paris in1838. There he brought out the "Daughter of the Regiment" and "LaFavorita. " After a few years he went to Vienna, where his "Linda diChamounix, " sung in 1842, achieved an immense success. Having returned toItaly he was stricken with paralysis from overwork in 1845. He neverrecovered. Besides more than threescore of operas, Donizetti composed sevenmasses, twelve string quartets, and a host of songs, cantatas and vespers, as well as pianoforte music. 

[Sidenote: Death of Chateaubriand]

[Sidenote: New world inspirations]

[Sidenote: "Essay on Revolutions"]

[Sidenote: "Atala"]

[Sidenote: "Réné"]

[Sidenote: "Genius of Christianity"]

[Sidenote: "The Last of the Abencerrages"]

[Sidenote: "The monarchy under the Charter"]

[Sidenote: The poet's political career]

Another figure of world-wide renown was lost by the death of the Frenchpoet François René de Chateaubriand. Born at château Combourg in 1768, thescion of one of the noblest families of France, he received a carefuleducation at château Combourg. Roaming about on the sea-shore and in thefamous forest of Brezilien, the youth received his earliest impressions ofthe grandeurs of nature. Shortly before the outbreak of the FrenchRevolution he was sent to Paris, where he received a commission in theroyal army. It was then he published his first poem, "L'Amour de laCampagne, " in the Almanach des Muses. Dissatisfied with the revolutionaryturn of affairs, he resigned his commission in 1790, and journeyed to NorthAmerica. There he travelled extensively, seeking poetic inspiration fromthe wilderness and the primitive customs of the Indians. After the downfallof King Louis XVI. And the French nobility, Chateaubriand hastily returnedto France and joined the army of émigrés under Prince Condé. At the siegeof Thionville he was wounded and went to England. By the timeChateaubriand recovered he found himself in abject poverty, and had tospend his days in bed for lack of fuel. In England, he wrote his "Essai surles Révolutions, " in which he compared the recent rising in France to thatof the English Commonwealth. On the fall of the Directorate he returned toFrance, and became one of the editors of Fontaine's "Mercure de France. " Atthe opening of the Nineteenth Century he published "Atala, " an episode ofhis epic poem "Les Natchez, " treating of the suicide of an Indian virgin, who sought death rather than violate a solemn vow of chastity given to hermother. In 1802 appeared the second episode, "Réné, " a subjective storytreating of the hapless love of a sister for her brother, full of a Frenchform of _maladie du monde_ akin to Goethe's _Weltschmerz_ in the "Sorrowsof Werther. " During the same year, Chateaubriand brought out his famous"Genius of Christianity, or the Beauties of the Christian Religion, " whichachieved an immense success. It won the approbation even of Napoleon, whoappointed Chateaubriand to diplomatic posts at Rome and Vallis. Theexecution of the Duc d'Enghien was so horrifying to Chateaubriand that heforthwith resigned his appointments. After extensive travels throughGreece, Egypt and the Holy Land, Chateaubriand went to Spain, where hefound inspiration at the Alhambra to write "Le dernier des Abencerrages. "There, too, he wrote his story of "The Martyrs, or the Triumph of theChristian Religion, " brought out in Paris in 1809. Less successful was histragedy "Moses. " In 1810, Chateaubriand published the famous politicalpamphlet "La Monarchie selon la Charte, " which was made the basis of thesubsequent royal constitution of France. On the restoration of the Bourbonshe wrote another political pamphlet, directed against Bonaparte, which senthim into exile together with Louis XVIII. During the Hundred Days. On thereturn of Louis XVIII. He was made a member of State, a peer of France, andmember of the French Academy. In 1820 he was sent as ambassador to Berlinand then to London, from where he was recalled into the Cabinet. Crowdedout of the Cabinet by Villèle, he became one of the leaders of theopposition. In 1828, he went on another diplomatic mission to Rome. Therest of his life was uneventful. Shortly before his death he brought outhis complete works, including his latest "Etudes Historiques. " A posthumouswork was his "Mémoires d'Outre-Tombe, " containing the famous comparisonbetween the characters of George Washington and Napoleon Bonaparte. 

[Sidenote: Paris reform banquet]

[Sidenote: Ministry impeached]

In the French Chambers, early in February, a great debate had been held onthe Reform Bill. Guizot, the Prime Minister, held firm in his opposition toall the proposed reforms. It was now proposed to hold the reform banquet, that had repeatedly been prohibited and postponed, on February 22. Thebanquet was once more interdicted, and it was announced that any unlawfulassemblage would be dispersed by force. Thereupon the banquet wasabandoned. The evening papers declared that the deputies of the oppositionhad agreed to abstain from the proposed manifestation. A manifestopublished by the "Journal National" was the cause of a noisy demonstrationin the streets of the 12th Arrondissement. The National Guards were calledout. On the same day fifty-two deputies of the Left laid before theChambers a bill of impeachment against the Ministry. The King and hisadvisers were in a state of blind security. 

[Sidenote: Street demonstrations]

[Sidenote: National Guard disaffected]

On the morning of the eventful 22d of February, the Parisian populacecongregated by thousands near the Madeleine and the Rue Royale, shouting"Vive la réforme; à bas les ministres!" and singing the "Marseillaise. " Notroops made their appearance; but encounters occurred at several pointsbetween the mob and the municipal guards. Still the day passed over withoutserious hostilities. On the next day, the National Guards of Paris werecalled out. Their cry, as they marched through the different quarters ofthe city, was "Vive la réforme!" This emboldened the leaders of therevolutionists. The members of the secret societies flew to arms; and inthe skirmishes which followed between the populace and the regular troops, the National Guard everywhere interfered in favor of the former. Thusconfronted, officers and soldiers hesitated to commit a general assaultupon their fellow citizens. They allowed themselves to be reduced toinaction. The insurrection thus triumphed almost without actual strife. 

[Sidenote: Fall of Guizot's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Barricades erected]

[Sidenote: Thiers' manifesto]

[Sidenote: The last stroke]

[Sidenote: Louis Philippe succumbs]

The King at length became acquainted with the true situation. In theafternoon of the 23d, Guizot tendered his resignation, which was promptlyaccepted, and published as an act of satisfaction on the part of the Kingto the demands of the people. Count Molé was charged with the formation ofa new Ministry. It was now generally expected that tranquillity would be atonce restored. But late at night the detachment of troops posted at theOffice of Foreign Affairs was attacked by a band of rioters. The commandingofficer ordered them to fire, and several persons in the crowd were shotdown. Their dead bodies were paraded through the city. This spectacleraised the indignation of the multitude to the highest pitch. Freshbarricades were erected in all the most populous quarters of the city, andthe soldiers, stupefied and panic-struck, renounced all further oppositionto the revolt. The King now named Marshal Bugeaud to the supreme command ofthe whole military force at Paris. Molé having declined the task ofconstructing a Ministry, the King summoned Thiers to the head of affairs. This statesman, in conjunction with Odillon-Barrot, immediately issued aproclamation announcing their appointment as Ministers, and stating thatorders had been given to the troops to withdraw and abandon the contest. This gave the last blow to the monarchy of Louis Philippe. Marshal Bugeaudresigned his command. The soldiers quitted their ranks, giving up arms andammunition to the insurgents. The National Guard openly joined the massesof the people and marched with them upon the Tuileries. The catastrophe wasnow inevitable. Louis Philippe, feeling that all was lost, signed an actof abdication in favor of his grandson the Comte de Paris, and withdrew toSt. Cloud. 

[Sidenote: Mob invades the Chamber]

An attempt was made to obtain the recognition of the Duchess of Orleans asregent, and thus to preserve the throne to the heir of Louis Philippe, according to the terms of his abdication. The Duchess went to the Chamberof Deputies, holding by the hand her sons the Comte de Paris and the Duc deChartres. They took their seats in front of the tribune. More than onemember spoke earnestly in favor of the regency. In the midst of the debatethe Chamber was invaded by a tumultuous throng of armed men. One of themwas Arnold Böcklin, the Swiss artist, who subsequently rose to highest rankamong the painters of the Nineteenth Century. Marie, a violent Republican, ascending the tribune, announced that the first duty of the Legislature wasto appoint a strong provisional government capable of re-establishingpublic confidence and order. Cremieux, Ledru-Rollin and Lamartine in turninsisted on a new government and constitution to be sanctioned by thesovereign people. The proposition was hailed with tumultuous acclamations. The Duchess of Orleans and her children retired precipitately. 

[Sidenote: Provisional Government formed]

[Sidenote: Fulsome promises]

[Sidenote: Proclamation of French Republic]

The Republicans remained masters of the field. A provisional government wasforthwith nominated. It included the poet Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, Garnier-Pagès and Arago. While the mob was searching the Hôtel de Villethese men conferred in a small out-of-the-way chamber behind locked doors. Louis Blanc, the great socialistic writer, and one Albert, a locksmith, were added to the provisional government. Every half hour Lamartine had toconfront some new crowd of rioters preferring fresh claims. The confusionlasted several days. Throughout this time more barricades were thrown up, until the government gained a breathing space by a promise to distributeone million francs among the laboring men. Louis Blanc and Ledru-Rollinsigned another decree whereby they pledged the government to furnish everyFrenchman with work. With the help of National Guardsmen, and an organizedbody of students, Caussidière, the new police prefect, succeeded at last inkeeping the mob out of the Hôtel de Ville and the Palais Bourbon. OnFebruary 27, the Republic was formally proclaimed from the Place de laBastille. The barricades were levelled and the crowds that had surgedthrough the streets of Paris gradually dispersed. Throughout France theRepublic was accepted without serious opposition. 

[Sidenote: Flight of royal family]

For a while it was feared that Louis Philippe's sons in Algiers, the Duked'Aumale and Prince de Joinville, who commanded the French army and navy, disposing of more than a hundred thousand men, might make a stroke on theirfather's behalf. This hope of the Royalists was doomed to disappointment. Both princes resigned their command, to be succeeded by General Cavignac, who took charge of the forces in the name of the French Republic. The othermembers of the dynasty accomplished their escape from France amid manycurious adventures. After leaving Paris the party separated so as to avoidsuspicion. Louis Philippe and the Queen with a few attendants fled toHonfleur, where they lay for nearly a week in concealment. At length thepacket steamer "Express" was placed at their disposal by the BritishGovernment. On March 4, Louis Philippe, having assumed the name of WilliamSmith, landed at Newhaven in Sussex. With the Queen he proceeded toClaremont, a country-seat belonging to his son-in-law, King Leopold ofBelgium. The Duke of Montpensier with the Duchess of Nemours fled toBelgium, as did the Duchess of Orleans. 

[Sidenote: English Chartists encouraged]

[Sidenote: Inflammatory speeches]

[Sidenote: London ready for revolution]

[Sidenote: Rioters discouraged]

The French Revolution gave quickening impulse to the Chartist movement inEngland. Feargus O'Connor had been returned at the General Election of 1847as member for Nottingham. He threw himself into a renewal of the agitationwith all the strength and vigor of a madman. A National Convention wassummoned, and it was determined that another monster petition should becarried to the House of Commons, to be followed by a procession of half amillion persons. The idea got abroad that a revolution might break out inLondon on the presentation of the petition. Ernest Jones had exclaimed onKensington Common, "Never fear the vile men of the law; the police, thetroops, sympathize with you. Down with the Ministry! Dissolve theParliament! The Charter, and no surrender!" At the National Convention, Vernon declared: "If a few hundreds do fall on each side, they will only bethe casualties in a mighty movement. " On April 10 a great demonstrationwas to be held on Kensington Common. In anticipation, special constables tothe number of 170, 000 were sworn in to keep the peace; troops werequartered in the houses of the main thoroughfares; two thousand stands ofarms were supplied to the officials of the General Post-Office; the CustomHouse, Bank, Exchange, and other public buildings were similarly equipped;the Admiralty was garrisoned by a body of marines, and the Tower guns weremounted. On the eventful morning, London assumed a military guise such asit had never worn before. Traffic was suspended along the streets for fearthat the vehicles should be employed, as in France, in the construction ofbarricades. Finally a proclamation was issued warning people againstcollecting for disorderly purposes. The military arrangements were in thehands of the Duke of Wellington. Owing to these thorough precautions thethreatened mass meeting collapsed. The procession was never held. The wholeaffair was covered with ridicule. The "monster petition" was found tocontain not six million signatures as was alleged, but only 1, 975, 469, andmany of these proved to be fictitious, whole sheets being found to be inthe same handwriting, and containing such names as Victoria Rex, PrinceAlbert, Punch, and so forth. 

[Sidenote: Collapse of Chartism]

[Sidenote: End of Feargus O'Connor]

In the words of a contemporary, "Chartism had received its death-blow. O'Brien, Vincent, and others endeavored to revive it, but in vain. Itsmembers fell off in disappointment and allied themselves with reformers ofgreater moderation, and Feargus O'Connor, who for ten years had madlyspent his force and energy in carrying forward the movement, gave it up indespair. Everything he had touched had proved a failure. From being anobject of terror, Chartism had become an object of ridicule. O'Connor tookthe matter so much to heart that he soon became an inmate of a lunaticasylum, and never recovered his reason. "

[Sidenote: Progress of Italian Revolution]

[Sidenote: Austrians driven northward]

[Sidenote: Radetzky seeks refuge]

All Italy now, from the southern shores of Sicily to the Alps, was in ablaze of insurrection. Venice, Piedmont and Lombardy were in arms. CharlesAlbert, the King of Sardinia, put himself at the head of the movement innorthern Italy. From all parts of Italy volunteers crowded to his banners. In defiance of the Pope's orders a compact body of these volunteers marchedfrom Rome. Radetzky, the Austrian commander, a veteran of all the Austrianwars since the outbreak of the French Revolution, had long prepared forthis struggle by formidable fortifications at Verona. When Milan revoltedand the Austrian Vice-Governor, O'Donnell, was captured, Radetzky evacuatedthe city at the approach of Charles Albert's army from Piedmont. Hisoutlying garrison was cut off by the Italians. Preferring the loss of Milanto a possible annihilation of the army, Radetzky fell back upon Verona. Onthe banks of the Adige, about twenty-five miles east of the Mincio, herapidly concentrated all available forces, while the Italians threw upintrenchments on the Mincio. There, with the armies of Piedmont andLombardy in front of him and the revolutionary forces of Venice behind him, Radetzky stubbornly held his ground. Nothing remained to Austria onItalian ground but Verona and the neighboring fortresses on the Adige andMincio. 

[Sidenote: Kossuth's appeal]

[Sidenote: Magyar Constitution proclaimed]

[Sidenote: Stocks fall in Vienna]

The Austrian Empire itself, by this time, was shaken to its foundations. When the news of the February Revolution in Paris reached Austria theMagyar Diet was in session in Hungary. The success of the revolutionists inFrance inflamed the Liberal leaders in Hungary. Casting aside all reserve, Kossuth declared in the Diet: "From the charnel house of the Viennesesystem a poison-laden atmosphere steals over us. It would paralyze ournerves and pin us down when we might soar. The future of Hungary can neverbe secured while Austria maintains a system of government in directantagonism to every constitutional principle. Our task is to found ahappier future on the brotherhood of all the races in Austria. For a unionenforced by bayonets and police spies let us substitute the enduring bondof a free constitution!" On March 3, the Hungarian Lower House triumphantlypassed a resolution to that effect. The cry for a liberal constitution wasinstantly taken up in the other dominions of Austria. It so happened thatthe Provincial Estates of Lower Austria were to meet about this time. Itwas planned that an address embodying demands similar to those of Hungaryshould be forwarded to the Emperor by this assembly. The politicalagitation in Vienna became feverish. The students indulged in noisydemonstrations. Rumors of the impending repudiation of the paper currencyand of State bankruptcy made matters worse. A sharp decline in stocksshowed Metternich that a public catastrophe was near at hand. 

[Sidenote: Viennese Diet stormed]

[Sidenote: Fighting in the street]

[Sidenote: Imperial palace invaded]

[Sidenote: Downfall of Metternich]

On March 13, the Provincial Diet met. Dense crowds surged about the DietHall. The students marched around in procession. Street orators haranguedthe crowds. The tumult was at its height when a slip of paper was let downfrom one of the windows of the hall, stating that the Diet was inclining tohalf measures. An announcement to this effect was received with a roar offury. The mob overran the guards and burst into the Diet Hall. All debatewas stopped, and the leading members of the Estates were forced to head adeputation to the Emperor's palace to exact a hearing. All the approachesto the palace were choked with people. Street fighting had already begun. Detachments of soldiers were hurried to the palace and to the Diet Hall. From the roof and windows of the Diet Hall missiles were hurled upon thesoldiery. The interior of the Hall was demolished. The soldiers now fired avolley and cleared the Hall with their bayonets. Blood flowed freely andmany were killed. The sound of the shots was received by the crowds aroundthe palace with howls of rage. The whole city was in an uproar. Barricadeswere thrown up and the gunsmith shops were sacked. At the palace, where theEmperor himself remained invisible, Metternich and his assembled Councilreceived the deputation in state. The Council urged the aged Prime Ministerto grant the demanded concession. At length he withdrew into an adjoiningchamber to draft an order annulling the censorship of the press. While hewas thus engaged the cry was raised, "Down with Metternich!" The deputiesin the Council Chamber peremptorily demanded his dismissal. When the oldstatesman returned he found himself abandoned even by his colleagues. Metternich realized that the end had come. He made a brief farewell speech, marked by all the dignity and self-possession of his greatest days, andleft the Council Chamber to announce his resignation to the Emperor. 

[Sidenote: Quiet restored]

[Sidenote: Hungarian demands]

[Sidenote: Kossuth in Vienna]

[Sidenote: Demonstrations of enthusiasm]

The news of Metternich's downfall was received with deafening cheers. Hispersonality was so closely identified with all that was most hateful inAustrian politics that the mere announcement of his resignation sufficed toquell the popular tumult. On the night of March 14, Metternich contrived toescape from Vienna unobserved, and fled across the frontier. On the sameday a National Guard was established in Vienna, and was supplied with armstaken from the government arsenal. The Viennese outbreak gave irresistibleforce to the national movement in Hungary. Now the Chamber of Magnates, which had hitherto opposed the demands of the Lower House, adopted the sameby a unanimous vote. On March 15, a deputation was despatched to Vienna todemand from the Emperor not only a liberal constitution, but a separateMinistry, absolute freedom of the press, trial by jury, equality ofreligion, and a free public-school system. The Hungarians, with Kossuth inthe lead, were received in triumph in Vienna. They paraded through thestreets, and were greeted by Emperor Ferdinand in person. He consented toeverything and issued an imperial rescript, promising a liberalconstitution to the rest of Austria as well. The light-hearted Vienneseindulged in indescribable jubilations. On March 18, the Emperor drovethrough the city. Somebody put a revolutionary banner into his hands. Theblack, red and gold ensign of united Germany was hoisted over the tower ofSt. Stephen. In an intoxication of joy the people took the horses from theimperial carriage and drew it triumphantly through the streets. The regulartroops around the imperial palace were superseded by the new NationalGuards. 

[Sidenote: Germany in a ferment]

[Sidenote: Prussian Assembly convoked]

[Sidenote: King of Prussia cowed]

[Sidenote: Revolt in Berlin]

[Sidenote: Prince William's part]

[Sidenote: King of Prussia submissive]

[Sidenote: Royal promises]

[Sidenote: Rising of Schleswig-Holstein]

[Sidenote: Reverse at Bau]

By this time the same storm of revolution was sweeping over Germany. Popular demonstrations occurred at Mannheim, Cassel, Breslau, Koenigsbergand along the Rhine region in Cologne, Düsseldorf and Aix-la-Chapelle. Apopular convention at Heidelberg, on March 5, had resolved upon a nationalassembly to be held at Frankfort-on-the-Main by the end of March. Electionsfor this assembly were being held throughout Germany. The long-desiredunion of Germany was at last to be accomplished. On March 14, KingFrederick William of Prussia convoked the Prussian Assembly for April 27, to deliberate upon Prussia's part in the proposed German union. Then camethe news of the events in Vienna. Crowds gathered in the streets excitedlydiscussing the events of the day. Attempts on the part of the police todisperse them led to threatening encounters. Under the stress of alarmingbulletins from Vienna, the King issued a rescript on March 18, in which henot only convoked the Prussian Assembly for the earlier date of April 2, but himself proposed such reforms as constitutional government, liberty ofspeech, liberty of the press, and the reconstitution of the GermanicFederation as a national union of states--a realization in brief of all themost ardent ideals of the German Liberals. Now the popular agitatorsproposed a monster demonstration to thank the King for his concessions. Shortly after noon, on March 18, the processions converged upon the palace. Immense crowds filled the streets. The appearance of the King upon thebalcony was greeted with cheers. King Frederick William tried to speak butcould not make himself heard. The troops set out to clear the palacegrounds. Angry shouts arose for the withdrawal of the soldiery. In theconfusion two shots were fired. A panic ensued: "We are betrayed, " criedthe leaders, and called the people to arms. The troops of the garrisoncharged into the rioters. Barricades were thrown up, and here and therechurch bells rang the tocsin. From three in the afternoon until early thenext morning, fighting continued in the streets. The entire garrison ofBerlin was called out and with the help of the bright moonlight succeededin clearing one street after another. Prince William, the future GermanEmperor, gained unenviable notoriety by his zeal. At two in the morningthe King gave orders to stop firing. He issued a proclamation: "To my dearpeople of Berlin, " the mild tone of which only betrayed his weakness. Onthe following day all the troops were withdrawn and ordered out of thecity. Prince William likewise left Berlin in deep chagrin and departed forEngland. His palace had to be protected from the fury of the people byplacards pronouncing it the property of the nation. Once more the riotersappeared before the royal palace with the bodies of some of their slain. The King convoked a new Ministry and consented to substitute armed citizensand students for his royal guards. A general amnesty was proclaimed. OnMarch 21, the King agreed to adopt "the sacred colors of the German Empire"for those of Prussia. After the manner of the weak Emperor of Austria, herode through the streets of Berlin wearing a tricolor sash. Not satisfiedwith this, the revolutionists, on March 22, paraded before the palace withthe open biers of 187 men that had been killed during the riots. Standingon his balcony with bared head, King Frederick William reviewed the ghastlyprocession. In a manifesto published at the close of the day he declared:"Germany is in ferment within and exposed from without to danger from morethan one side. Deliverance from this danger can come only from the mostintimate union of the German princes and people under a single leadership. I take this leadership upon me for the hour of peril. I have to-day assumedthe old German colors, and placed myself and my people under the venerablebanner of the German Empire. Prussia is henceforth merged into Germany. "Thus Frederick William, by word and acts, which he afterward described as acomedy, directly encouraged the imperial aspirations of liberal Germany. The passage of his address in which he spoke of external dangersthreatening Germany came true sooner than was expected. King ChristianVIII. Of Denmark had died early in the year. The fear of revolution atCopenhagen drove his son Frederick VII. , the last of the Oldenburg line, toprick the war bubble blown by his father. On March 22, he called theleaders of the Eider-Dane party--the party which regarded the Eider as theboundary of the Danish dominions, thus converting Schleswig into a Danishprovince--to take the reins of government. The people of Schleswig andHolstein protested. The King was checkmated at Kiel by the appointment of aprovisional government. The troops joined the people, and the insurrectionspread over the whole province. The struggle then began. Volunteers fromall parts of Germany rushed to the northern frontier. The German Bundestagadmitted a representative of the threatened Duchies, and intrusted Prussiawith their defence. An attempt was made to organize a German fleet. GeneralWrangel was placed in command of the Prussian forces despatched towardDenmark. Before he could arrive, the untrained volunteer army ofSchleswig-Holsteiners suffered defeat at Bau. A corps of students from theUniversity of Kiel was all but annihilated. 

[Sidenote: Russia stems revolution]

An attempted rising of the Poles, in the Prussian province of Posen and atCracow, was quickly suppressed. As soon as the news of the revolution inParis reached Russia, the absolute ruler of that vast empire mobilized hisarmies, "so that, if circumstances should demand it, the tide of Anarchycould be dammed. " After the abortive revolt at Cracow, Czar Nicholas issuedan imperial manifesto, closing with a quotation from Isaiah: "Listen, yeheathen, and submit, for with us is God. " When the spirit of revolt spreadto Moldavia and Wallachia, Emperor Nicholas without further ado despatcheda Russian army corps across the Pruth. The Sultan of Turkey was prevailedupon to do the same. Russian and Turkish troops occupied Jassy andBucharest during the summer. 

 [Illustration: OPENING OF THE OPERA Painted by Edouard Detaille Copyright by M. Knoedler & Co. ]

[Sidenote: Frankfort Vor-Parlament]

[Sidenote: Revolution in Baden]

[Sidenote: General Gagern shot]

[Sidenote: Flight of rebels]

The German preliminary Parliament of five hundred delegates had met atFrankfort in April. It lasted but five days. The Republicans foundthemselves outnumbered, when they submitted their scheme for a nationalconstitution. Repulsed in this, the Liberals proposed that they shouldcontinue in session until the real National Parliament should meet, thusextending their function beyond the limits of a mere constituent assembly. Outvoted in this, the leaders of the extreme Republicans resorted to armedrevolt. Assisted by Polish refugees and men from France, they raised thered flag in Baden. Friedrich Hecker, a popular orator and representative ofBaden, headed the movement. George Herwegh, the poet, took charge of therefugees from Switzerland and a group of German operatives recentlyreturned from France. A provisional government was declared in the lakedistrict of Baden. The Parliamentary majority of Frankfort, on breaking up, left behind a committee of fifty to prepare the draft of a constitution. The Bundestag meeting at the same time called for military measures againstthe insurgents. From three sides troops advanced into Baden. A Bavariandetachment marched from Lindau, Swabian troops came from the Black Forest, while from the north Hessian forces were led by General von Gagern, abrother of the new Prime Minister of Hesse. On April 19, Von Gagernencountered the revolutionists under Hecker at Kandern. While haranguingthe insurgents, he was shot from his horse. The troops charged theinsurgents with the bayonet and dispersed them in less than an hour. Fourdays later the revolutionary intrenchments at Freiburg were stormed. On the27th, Herwegh's corps of 1, 000 refugees was dispersed by General Miller. Hecker fled to America. The other leaders likewise made good their escape. On April 29 they issued a manifesto at Strasburg: "An overwhelming numberof imported bestial mercenaries have crushed Republican aspirations inBaden, and have once more subjected the people to the hateful tyranny ofprinces. "

[Sidenote: The cause of Italy]

[Sidenote: Other Powers hostile]

[Sidenote: Italy isolated]

The unexpected outbreak of revolution in Vienna and Hungary had inspiredthe Italians to rebel against Austrian rule with new confidence. On March30, Pio Nono at Rome issued a proclamation to the people of Italy, in whichhe said: "The events which have followed one another with such astoundingrapidity during the last two months are not the work of man. Woe to himwho, in this storm that shatters cedars as well as oaks, hears not thevoice of the Lord. " Under the command of General Durando, a band ofCrociati, or crusaders, marched from Rome against the Austrians. CountBalbo was placed in command of the Piedmontese army. To the remonstrancesof the British Ambassador at Turin, King Charles Albert replied that hemust either march against Austria or lose his crown. England, indeed, wasemphatic in its disapproval of the Italian national movement. In the pagesof the "Edinburgh Review, " Sir Archibald Allison, the court historian, wrote: "It is utterly repugnant to the first principles of English policy, and to every page in English history, to lend encouragement to theseparation of nationalities from other empires. " The new republicangovernment in France, on its part, had no desire to see a strong Italiannational State spring up on its southern frontier. Lamartine, the FrenchForeign Minister, declined Charles Albert's request to sanction hismilitary occupation of Lombardy. A strong French army of observation wasconcentrated on the Italian frontier in the Alps. Germany, which in lateryears was destined to become the strongest ally of Italy, was still sobound up with Austria that when Arnold Ruge in the Frankfort Parliamentdared to express a wish for the victory of Italian arms against Austria, agreat storm of indignation broke out in Germany. As a last resort, CharlesAlbert, on April 6, proposed an offensive and defensive alliance toSwitzerland, but the little republic wisely declined to emerge from itstraditional neutrality. It was then that the Italians raised the defiantcry: "Italia fara de se" (Italy will fight her own battles). When the hardbeset Austrian Government, in a confidential communication of MinisterWessendberg to Count Casati, showed itself inclined to yield Lombardy uponpayment of Lombardy's share in the Austrian national debt, the propositionwas curtly declined. 

[Sidenote: Set-back at Naples]

[Sidenote: Neapolitan forces recalled]

[Sidenote: Pio Nono's allocution]

It was a fatal move. The course of Italy, as Dante once sang, seemed likethat of "a ship without stars in a wild storm. " Affairs took a wrong turnin Naples. There a new popular Parliament had just been elected, which wasabout to meet, when there were some final difficulties between the King andhis Liberal Ministers over the exact wording of the oath of allegiance. Theexcitable Neapolitan populace forthwith became unmanageable. The SwissGuards, who had long been the butt of the people, put down the revoltwithout mercy. Once more King Ferdinand was master. He hastened to dismisshis Cabinet and dissolved the Parliament before it could come to order. Orders were sent to General Pepe, who had marched to the front in northernItaly with 14, 000 men, to return at once. General Pepe, who had alreadyreached Bologna and had entered hostilities under Charles Albert's command, declined to obey the orders of his sovereign. His rank and file troopedback to Naples. Only fifteen hundred Neapolitan volunteers remained withPepe at the front. A number of the officers who returned felt theirdisgrace so keenly that they committed suicide. The Neapolitan fleet, whichhad already succeeded in raising the Austrian blockade of Venice, waslikewise ordered home. A more serious blow to the cause of Italy was PioNono's apparent change of front. On April 29, without previous consultationwith his new Ministry, the Pope issued the famous "Allocution, " in which hedeclared that he had despatched his troops northward only for the defenceof the Papal dominions, and that it was far from his intentions to joinwith the other Italian princes and peoples in the war against Austria. ThePapal Ministry immediately handed in its resignation. The Municipal Councilof Rome called upon the Pope to abstain from interference with his army. General Durando, commanding the Papal troops at the front, had alreadyyielded to their entreaties by crossing the Po. Now he threw in his lotwith Charles Albert. Pio Nono sent a confidential messenger to Naples toarrange for an asylum there, in case the people should turn against him atRome. 

[Sidenote: Garibaldi]

[Sidenote: Battle of Goito]

[Sidenote: Cortatone]

[Sidenote: Surrender of Peschiera]

[Sidenote: Radetzky firm]

Charles Albert on the Mincio lost three precious weeks. His army nownumbered nearly one hundred thousand men, only sixty thousand of whom weretrained soldiers. About this time he was joined by Giuseppe Garibaldi, whohad just returned from the revolutionary battlefields of South America, whither he had been driven an exile from Charles Albert's own dominions. Hewas received with honor, and was put in charge of a volunteer corps whichhe had raised at Milan. The Austrian commander profited by the delay of hisopponents to place his army between the strong fortresses of Verona, Mantua, Legnano and Peschiera, and to draw reinforcements from the Tyrol, until the situation in Austria itself became so threatening that no furtheraid could be given him. In truth, the fate of the Austrian empire nowrested on the aged shoulders of Radetzky. On April 8, the Sardinian army, in a sharp engagement at Goito, effected the passage of the Mincio. TheAustrians lost one thousand men. Siege was now laid to Peschiera. A Tuscandivision moved on Mantua, while the bulk of Charles Albert's army cut offVerona from the roads to the Tyrol. Radetzky was driven to take theoffensive. In a fight at Cortatone he defeated the Tuscans, but withintwenty-four hours the Austrian garrison of Peschiera was brought to thepoint of capitulation. The Italians took two thousand one hundred and fiftymen. On May 6, Charles Albert made an attempt to drive the Austrians out oftheir positions in front of Verona. Repulsed at Santa Lucia, he was forcedto fall back on the Mincio. Under the influence of the peace party, theAustrian Emperor now directed Radetzky to offer an armistice to theItalians. Simultaneously with this, Austrian reinforcements cut their waythrough to Verona. Radetzky sent Prince Felix Schwarzenberg to Innsbruck toimplore the Emperor for permission to continue the combat. This wasreluctantly given. Fearing another reversal of his orders, Radetzkyforthwith threw his army into Venetia. General Durando and his Papal armywere shut up in Vicenza, and compelled to capitulate. The capture ofVicenza was followed by that of all the Venetian mainland east of theAdige. 

[Sidenote: Custozza]

[Sidenote: Fall of Milan]

[Sidenote: Truce of Vigevano]

The republic of St. Mark sought shelter under the royal Ægis of Piedmont. Manin, the liberator of Venice, resigned his presidency and went intoretirement. Charles Albert now moved on Mantua, leaving half his army atPeschiera and further north. Radetzky instantly threw himself on the weaklyguarded centre of the long Sardinian line. Charles Albert sought too lateto rejoin his northern detachments. At Custozza, on July 25, he suffered asignal defeat. While he was thrown back over the Mincio the northerndivisions were also overcome. Charles Albert retreated to Milan closelyfollowed by Radetzky. He declared himself unable to hold the city. Thepeople rose against him. On the night of August 5, he escaped withdifficulty, protected by General La Marmora and a few guards. Milancapitulated on the following day. When the Austrians made their triumphantentry, half of the population left their homes to emigrate to Piedmont andSwitzerland. On August 9, an armistice was arranged at Vigevano. Venicerefused to accept it, and detaching itself once more from Sardinia, restored Manin to power. Garibaldi with his volunteers likewise held aloofand carried the fight into the northern mountains. From there he waseventually dislodged by D'Aspre and crossed the frontier into Switzerland. 

[Sidenote: Raffet's battle scenes]

The picturesque scenes of the revolutionary struggle in Italy have beenperpetuated by Denis-Auguste-Marie Raffet, a pupil of Charlot and of Gros, who had already distinguished himself by his lithographs of the briefBelgian war of 1832, and by his Russian and Oriental sketches made whiletravelling with Prince Demidov. The motley uniforms of the volunteers ofGaribaldi, the Swiss Papal Guards and the Austrian, Piedmontese and Frenchtroops, as well as the picturesque costumes of the Italian peasantry, afforded a great scope for Raffet's brush. One of the most characteristicspecimens of Raffet's art during this period is his well-known picture of"The Evening of the Battle of Novara. "

[Sidenote: Austrian court returns]

[Sidenote: Jellacic ban of Croatia]

[Sidenote: Croats and Serbs secede from Magyars]

[Sidenote: Riots in Vienna]

[Sidenote: Jellacic disavowed]

[Sidenote: Civil War in Hungary]

[Sidenote: Metternich's comment]

The success of Radetzky restored a measure of confidence in Austria. TheEmperor and his court, who had sought refuge at Innsbruck, consented toreturn to Vienna. There the promised elections had been held, and anassembly representing all the provinces of the Empire, excepting Hungaryand Italy, had met in the third week of July. With the armies of Radetzkyand Windischgrätz within call, the Emperor and his Ministry assumed abolder front toward the Magyars. The concessions exacted by Hungary inApril had raised that kingdom almost to the position of an independentstate. Under its separate management of the Hungarian army, Austria foundit difficult even to use her Magyar troops at the front in Italy. TheMagyars showed the same haughty spirit toward the Austrian Serbs, Slavs andCroatians. After Hungary's successful emancipation in March, the Serbs ofsouthern Hungary demanded from Kossuth the restoration of their own localautonomy. The Magyars insisted on maintaining their ascendency, and decreedthat only the Magyar language should be the language of the state. Slavicrace feeling was kindled to sudden hatred. The Croatian national committeeat Agram, that had assumed charge of affairs after the catastrophe inMarch, elected Jellacic, the colonel of the first Croatian regiment, Ban ofCroatia. The appointment was confirmed at Vienna, even before formalnotification had reached the Emperor. On assuming office, Jellacic causedall Magyar officials to be driven out of the country, and broke off allrelations with the Hungarian government at Pesth. Batthyany, the HungarianPremier, hastened to Vienna, and obtained the disavowal of Jellacic. Noattention was paid to this at Agram. Now, General Hrabovsky, commanding thetroops in the southern provinces, received orders from Pesth to suspendJellacic from office and bring him to trial for high treason. In themeanwhile the Serbs, meeting in Congress at Carlowitz on the Lower Danube, proclaimed home rule, elected a Voiovode of their own and authorized him toenter into intimate relations with their fellow Slavs in Croatia. This wasin the middle of May. Vienna during these same days was in a continualuproar. Early in May a report that the Austrian Ambassador at London hadgiven a formal reception to Prince Metternich upon his arrival in Englandcaused an outbreak of popular wrath in Vienna. A mob surrounded the houseof Count Ficquelmont, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and compelled him toresign his office. Detachments of troops patrolled the streets at night. OnMay 15, the people revolted against this measure before the Palace, andcompelled Minister Pillersdorf to sign an order for the withdrawal of thetroops. The Emperor and his family fled to the Tyrol. At Innsbruck, wherehe was received with great demonstrations of loyalty, the Emperor issued arescript in which he declined to return to his capital or to open thenational assembly until order should be restored. In Croatia, on hearing ofHrabovsky's orders, the Palatine was burned in effigy. Batthyany hastenedto Innsbruck to turn this Slavic affront to the crown to account. Byassuring to the Emperor the support of Hungary's troops against theItalians, Batthyany obtained the Emperor's signature to an emphaticcondemnation of Jellacic and his suspension from office. Jellacic then setout for Innsbruck, accompanied by a large deputation of Croats and Serbs. On the day that he arrived at Innsbruck, Batthyany at Pesth published thetext of the Emperor's orders against the Ban. Still Jellacic held hisground. He regained the Emperor's favor by issuing an address to theCroatian soldiers serving in Italy, enjoining them to stand by the colorsno matter what reports reached them from home. He was permitted to returnto Croatia and to resume his government at Agram. As soon as he reachedhome, he declared himself the champion of Austrian unity, and assumeddictatorial powers. Civil war broke out in Lower Hungary. GeneralHrabovsky, when he attempted to occupy Carlowitz, encountered seriousopposition. He was attacked with such vehemence, by the Serbs led byStratimirovic, that he had to beat a retreat. The Hungarian Diet at Pesthcalled for a levy of 200, 000 men to crush the Slavic rebellion. In the faceof a letter from the Emperor, condemning the resistance offered to theHungarian government by the Slavs, Kossuth charged the Austrian Court withinstigating the civil war. Evidence was brought forward to show that theMinister of War at Vienna was encouraging Austrian officers to join theinsurrection. Such was the situation in Austria at midsummer. Acharacteristic comment on this apparently sudden disintegration of theAustrian Empire at this time was furnished by Prince Metternich to hisfellow refugee, François Pierre Guizot, the fallen Prime Minister ofFrance. "During the catastrophes of 1848, " writes Guizot, in his "Mémoirespour servir a l'Histoire de mon Temps, " "meeting Prince Metternich atLondon one day, I said to him: 'Explain to me the causes of your revolutionin Austria. I know why and how things happened in Paris; but in Austria, under your government, I cannot understand. ' He replied with a smile ofmingled pride and sadness: 'I have sometimes ruled Europe, but Austrianever. '"

[Sidenote: The Frankfort Parliament]

[Sidenote: John of Austria elected leader]

[Sidenote: Prussia discredited]

[Sidenote: Foreign Powers intervene]

[Sidenote: Truce of Malmö]

[Sidenote: Frankfort Parliament powerless]

At Frankfort, during this interval, the national parliament of Germany wasconvened on May 18. The event was celebrated throughout Germany with theringing of bells and bonfires at night. In truth, the assembly was suchthat Germany might well be proud of it. Of the 586 delegates, more than ahundred were university professors and scholars of eminence. Among themwere such men as Arndt, the poet, Gervinus and Dahlberg, the historians, with others of like note. A promising unity of ideals seemed to prevail. Heinrich von Gagern, a man of high character and parliamentary experience, was elected chairman by a majority of 305 out of 397 votes. It was hisproposal to create a central executive in the person of a _Reichsverweser_. Archduke John of Austria, one of the most popular of German princes, waselected to this office by an overwhelming majority of 436 votes. TheArchduke, who was then presiding over the new Austrian Assembly at Vienna, accepted the honor. By the time the German Bundestag adjourned, on July 13, everything seemed full of promise. The minor German States formallyacknowledged the new Reichsverweser. King Frederick William of Prussiainvited him, together with many members of the Frankfort Parliament, to theCologne Cathedral festival on August 14. There the King pledged theArchduke at a public banquet: "May he give us, " declared the King, "unitedand free German peoples; may he give us united and free sovereigns. " A fewdays later an event occurred which opened the eyes of the Germans toPrussia's real part in the destinies of Germany. This was the armistice ofMalmö, concluded on August 26, between Denmark and Prussia. The earlyGerman victories at Dannewirk and Oversee had borne no fruit. The Daneswere masters of the sea, and mercilessly ravaged the German coasts, unprotected by any navy. As King Frederick William remarked, it was like afight between a hound and a fish. The Danes took innumerable prizes andcrippled the commerce of the Hanseatic cities. General Wrangel thereuponexacted a contribution of 2, 000, 000 thalers in Jutland. For everyfisherman's hut that the Danish fleet might injure on the German coast, hethreatened to lay a Danish village in ashes. The foreign Powers objected tosuch ruthless campaigning. The Scandinavian States intervened on behalf ofDenmark. Emperor Nicholas of Russia, who regarded the Schleswig-Holsteinmovement as an unjustifiable rebellion, came to their support. LordPalmerston, who had once proposed to end the quarrel by simply cutting thedisputed territory in two, according to the preferences of the inhabitants, now threw in the weight of England with the other Powers. Prussia wasconstrained to withdraw her army. According to the provisions of the sevenmonths' truce forced upon Prussia at Malmö in Sweden, all prisoners were tobe returned, the Schleswig-Holstein army was to be disbanded, while atemporary government of the duchies was to be administered byrepresentatives of Denmark and Prussia. All Germany was in an uproar. TheFrankfort Parliament repudiated the armistice by 238 against 221 votes. Thenew-formed German Ministry resigned. Prof. Dahlmann, one of theprotagonists of the Schleswig-Holstein movement, was commissioned to form anew Ministry. His efforts resulted only in failure. The conviction grewthat the German Parliament was powerless. Presently the Parliament revokedits own decision, approving the armistice by 258 over 236 votes. After all, it was plain that the most momentous German question of the day had beensettled independently of united Germany by Prussia standing alone. In SouthGermany the revolutionists were once more called to arms. 

[Sidenote: The French Republic]

[Sidenote: National workshops]

[Sidenote: Fyffe's judgment]

The new republican government of France had been kept far too busy by thelogical consequences of its revolutionary measures to take any active partin the international settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question. Themajority of the provisional government were moderate republicans, representing the _bourgeoisie_, or middle class, rather than the workmen, but associated with them were such radicals as Louis Blanc, Ledru-Rollinand Albert, a locksmith. During the first few days of the installation theyundertook to guarantee employment to every citizen. It proved a giganticengagement. The mere distribution of idle workmen among the variousindustries in which they were employed called for a new branch of theadministration. The task outgrew all expectations. Within four weeks thenumber of applicants for government work rose from 140 to 65, 000. Under thestimulus of government competition, a series of labor strikes were declaredagainst private factories and establishments. The scheme, as thenattempted, grew utterly unmanageable. As Fyffe has said in his chapter onthis subject: "If, instead of a group of benevolent theorists, theexperiment of 1848 had had for its authors a company of millionairesanxious to dispel all hope that mankind might ever rise to a higher orderthan that of unrestricted competition of man against man, it could not havebeen conducted under more fatal conditions. "

[Sidenote: Radicals outvoted]

[Sidenote: Another attempted revolution]

[Sidenote: National workshop abolished]

The elections of April 23 gave the moderate element a handsome majority. Anattempt to change the elections was frustrated by the National Guard. Strengthened by this manifestation of popular approval, Lamartine and hiscolleagues got rid of their radical associates in the Cabinet. The excludedradicals now planned a new revolution. On May 15, simultaneously with therenewed riots in Vienna, an attempt was made to overthrow the government. On the pretext of presenting a petition on behalf of Poland, a mob invadedthe Chambers and dissolved the Assembly. A provisional government wasinstalled at the Hôtel de Ville. The government supporters rallied theNational Guard. The leaders at the Hôtel de Ville were taken captive. ThePalais Bourbon was cleared, and the Deputies were reconvened in theirassembly hall. Encouraged by this success, the government resolved to riditself of the incubus of the national workshops, after a variety of schemeswith this purpose in view had been brought forward in the Assembly. Thegovernment cut the Gordian knot by a violent stroke. On June 21, an edictwas issued that all beneficiaries of the public workshops between the agesof seventeen and twenty-five must enlist in the army or cease to receivesupport from the State. 

[Sidenote: Paris up in arms]

[Sidenote: Archbishop killed]

[Sidenote: End of bloodshed]

At this time more than a hundred thousand destitute men had flocked to thenational workshops. They rose as of one accord. The rising of June 23 wasthe most formidable yet experienced in Paris. The number of the workmenalone exceeded that of several army corps. The unity of grievances andinterests gave them an _esprit de corps_ similar to that of an army. Thewhole eastern part of Paris was barricaded like a fortified camp. Insteadof a mere revolt, the government found itself entering upon a civil war. General Cavaignac, the Minister of War, was placed in supreme command, theexecutive commission resigning its powers. He summoned all available troopsinto the capital. Regardless of private interests, Paris was treated as agreat battlefield in which the enemy was to be attacked in a mass anddislodged from all his main lines. The barricades were battered down withfield and siege artillery. Four days and nights the fight lasted. Wholehouses and blocks in which the insurgents had found a lodgment had to bedemolished. On the third day the Archbishop of Paris was struck by a bulletwhile trying to stop the bloodshed. On both sides the fight was waged withinexcusable savagery. The National Guard, with a few exceptions, foughtside by side with the regular troops. The workmen, threatened with the lossof their subsistence, fought with the courage of despair. At the point ofthe bayonet they were at last driven into the northeastern quarter of thecity. There, plied with grape and canister from every direction, they werebrought to the point of surrender. 

[Sidenote: Cavaignac]

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon]

After this hard-won victory, the government did not hesitate to transportwithout trial the whole mass of prisoners taken alive. A policy of reactionset in. The government workshops and other concessions to socialism wereabandoned. General Cavaignac, at the direction of the Assembly, retainedhis dictatorial powers until a new Constitution could be drafted. It seemedas if Cavaignac was marked to become the permanent ruler of France, but hisown rigid republicanism stood in his way. It was at this time that PrinceLouis Napoleon once more came into prominence. When he first made hisreappearance in Paris he was requested to leave by the ProvisionalGovernment. Retiring to England, he awaited developments, while his friendsand supporters agitated in his behalf. During the supplementary electionshe was nominated for the Chambers by four districts at once, and, despitethe government's efforts, he obtained a fourfold election. A vote of theAssembly declared the election valid. With unwonted self-command the Princedeclined to take his seat, on the ground that it might embarrass thegovernment in its difficult situation. His letter to the president of theAssembly ended with the significant declaration that if duties should beimposed upon him by the will of the people he would know how to fulfilthem. 

[Sidenote: France spellbound]

Three months later, in the midst of the debates on the constitution, whileCavaignac was still in power, Louis Napoleon was re-elected to theAssembly--this time by five departments. His hour had come. From thismoment he was a recognized aspirant for power. The great name of his uncleshed its glory upon him. The new constitution of the Republic provided thata President with executive powers should be elected by a direct vote of allcitizens. Louis Napoleon at once became a candidate. In an address to thepeople he declared that he would devote himself without stint to themaintenance of the Republic. In well-worded generalities something waspromised to all the classes and parties of France. The other candidateswere Cavaignac and Lamartine. Out of seven millions of votes cast in thiselection, five million went to Louis Napoleon. The mere glamour of animperial name cast a new spell over France. 

[Sidenote: Death of Chopin]

[Sidenote: The pianist's career]

In the midst of these stirring events in Paris, Frederick Chopin, the pianocomposer, died on October 17. Born at Jelisovaya-Volia in Poland, hereceived his early musical education at Warsaw. At the age of nine heplayed a pianoforte concerto with improvisations in public. His firstcompositions were Polish dances. In his fifteenth year he published a rondoand a fantasie. Having perfected himself as a pianist, he set out on aconcert tour through Vienna, Munich, Paris and London. After his firstappearance in Vienna, the foremost musical critic there wrote of him: "Fromthe outset Chopin took place in the front rank of masters. The perfectdelicacy of his touch, his indescribable mechanical dexterity, themelancholy tints in his style of shading, and the rare clearness of hisdelivery are in him qualities which bear the stamp of genius. He must beregarded as one of the most remarkable meteors blazing on the musicalhorizon. " In Paris he gave a concert at Pleyel's house. His reception wassuch that he gave up all idea of proceeding further and made Paris his homefor life. He was welcomed to the intimacy of men like Liszt, Berlioz, Meyerbeer, Bellini, Balzac and Heine. As one after another of his uniquecompositions for the piano appeared, he took rank as the foremost composerfor that instrument. On the publication of his preludes and new Polishdances, Schumann wrote of Chopin: "He is and ever will be the most daringand proud poetic spirit of the time. "

[Sidenote: Chopin and Georges Sand]

In 1836, Chopin met Madame Dudevant, better known as the celebratednovelist Georges Sand. Their attachment was mutual. For her he wrote someof his most inspired pieces. They spent the winter of 1838-39 together onthe Island of Majorca, where Georges Sand nursed Chopin through a severeattack of bronchitis. Of this episode, which had its profound effect onChopin's music, Georges Sand has left an unengaging record in the novel"Lucreticia Floriani, " published shortly afterward, and another in her"Histoire de ma Vie. " Chopin returned from Majorca broken in health. He wassupplanted in Georges Sand's affections by Alfred de Musset. During theseason of 1848-49 he gave concerts in London, whence he returned to Parisonly to die. He was buried at Père la Chaise, between Bellini andCherubini's graves. 

[Sidenote: Sicilian elections]

[Sidenote: King of Sardinia wary]

In Italy, after the armistice between the Austrians and the Piedmontese, matters went from bad to worse. In Sicily, a National Parliament had metand put Ruggiero Settimo at the head of affairs by a unanimous vote. KingFerdinand and the House of Bourbon were declared to have forfeited thecrown of Sicily forever. Elections were ordered to call another Prince tothe vacant throne. England, interested as ever in Sicilian affairs, impressed upon the Sicilian leaders the urgency of an early settlement. Theelections were held in haste. On July 12, at two in the morning, the votewas announced in Parliament. The Duke of Genoa, Albert Amadeus of Savoy, Charles Albert's second son, was elected King. The British and Frenchwarships in Sicilian waters fired a royal salute. For Charles Albert thisonly meant fresh embarrassment. In case of acceptance, he was sure to beinvolved in war with Naples in the south, as well as with Austria in thenorth. When the Sicilian deputies submitted their proposition in Piedmont, on August 27, they obtained no definite reply. 

[Sidenote: Venice steadfast]

[Sidenote: Riots at Bologna]

[Sidenote: Rossi, Papal Minister]

Meanwhile King Ferdinand of Naples gathered his forces to win back Sicily. In the north the cause of Italy was on the wane. Francis V. Was reinstatedas Duke of Modena, with the help of Austrian arms. On his return in Augusthe granted an amnesty, from the benefits of which "only those who had takenpart in the revolution" were to be excluded. Austrian troops under CountThurn likewise occupied the Duchy of Parma, the Duke remaining in Germany. In Tuscany, the Archduke found it difficult to maintain himself atFlorence. His principality was overrun by radical refugees. A revolutionaryjunta at Leghorn threatened to proclaim the republic unless the Duke ofTuscany should appoint a governor in sympathy with their ideas. In hisextremity the Duke sent them Montanelli, a political dreamer, whoproclaimed Jesus Christ as the father of democracy. At Venice the Republicof St. Mark, under Manin's able leadership, still held its own. Austria'soccupation of Ferrara and the Romagna brought new embarrassment to thePope. Baron Von Welden, the Austrian general, made matters worse in theRomagna by his threatening language: "Woe to those who dare to oppose me!"Formal protests were made in vain by Pope Pio Nono and the diplomaticrepresentatives of France and England. The Papal Ministry of Mamianiresigned. The Roman Radicals, under the leadership of Prince Canino, aBonaparte, clamored for war, and some Austrian officers dared to showthemselves in Bologna. They were attacked in the streets and murdered bythe mob. Fighting began around Bologna. Too late the Austrians consented torelieve the Pope from this embarrassment by withdrawing their troops fromhis dominions. The Pope's new Minister, Count Pellegrino Rossi, anunusually able and forceful man who had once acted as an envoy for LouisPhilippe, was denounced as a Frenchman and an enemy to Italy. 

[Sidenote: Bombardment of Messina]

In September, King Ferdinand of Naples, having got rid of his Parliament, launched his forces upon Sicily. General Filangieri, with 12, 000 men, wassent against Messina. There the Neapolitan garrison still held thecitadel--all that remained to Ferdinand of his Sicilian kingdom. Threedays before Filangieri landed, the gunners in the citadel began to bombardthe helpless town lying beneath them. Half of the city was laid in ruins. The foreign warships in the harbor were filled with refugees. It was thisoutrage that gave to King Ferdinand the nickname of "King Bomba. " Theinhabitants remained steadfast. When Filangieri effected his landing, thefight was carried on with ferocity. The fall of the city was followed bybarbarous excesses. For three days incendiary fires raged in the haplesstown. At last the foreign admirals, Parker and Baudin, put a stop to thehorrors, "as against all canons of civilized nations. " An armistice wasestablished between the Neapolitans and the Sicilians. King Ferdinand'sdogged resistance to the remonstrances of the French and EnglishAmbassadors was strengthened by the latest event in Rome. 

[Sidenote: Assassination of Rossi]

[Sidenote: Flight of Pio Nono]

On November 15, as the Roman Chambers were about to be opened, PrimeMinister Rossi was assassinated as he left his carriage to enter theChambers. It was the signal for a new revolt. The delegates in the Hall ofChambers sought safety in flight. The National Guards made common causewith the insurgents. A howling mob beset the Quirinal. But for the resolutestand of the Pope's Swiss mercenaries, the palace would have been stormed. As bullets penetrated the walls of the Pope's ante-chamber, Pio Nonoexclaimed: "Has Heaven no lightning?" For a while the Pope was practicallya prisoner in his palace, while the Prince of Panino and Sterbini, thePresident of the Circolo Popolare, ruled Rome. At last, on the night ofNovember 24, Pio Nono, in the disguise of a groom, escaped from Rome, seated on the box of the carriage of the Bavarian Ambassador, Count Spaur. He fled to Naples. From the Neapolitan fortress Gaeta he sent a letter tohis "dearest son, " the Emperor of Austria, imploring his help against theRepublic of Rome. 

[Sidenote: Revolt in Frankfort]

At Frankfort, the ratification of the armistice of Malmö by the GermanParliament had aroused the Radicals to fury. On September 17, the day afterthe second vote on this matter, a mass meeting was called at Frankfort. Onedelegate, Zitz, proposed the abolition of the Parliament; another, LudwigSimon, declared the time had come to discuss all further questions frombehind barricades. The Municipal Senate of Frankfort, taking alarm, orderedout the city troops and appealed for help to Prussia. On the morrowfighting began in the streets of Frankfort. Barricades had been erectedovernight, and all day long the insurgents held their ground. It was knownthat a Prussian column was approaching. Prince Lichnovsky and General VonAuerswald, two leaders of the Conservative majority in the Parliament, rashly undertook to meet the Prussian troops halfway. At the gates ofFrankfort both men were seized by the insurgents and were lynched by themob. Shortly before midnight the Prussian troops arrived and soon overranthe barricades with their bayonets. On the following day the city was undermilitary rule. 

[Sidenote: South Germany restive]

In other parts of South Germany revolution had broken out anew. The Princeof Sigmaringen was driven from his little domain, which was proclaimed arepublic. Insurgent expeditions were organized in Wurtemberg and Baden. There Karl Blind and Gustav Struve made another attempt on Freiburg. AtStaufen, on September 24, they were beaten back by regular troops underGeneral Hoffmann and fled toward Switzerland. Struve himself was capturednear the frontier. On the same day the German Cabinet at Frankfort wasreinstated. Still the ill success of popular government in Germany broughtthe Parliament into lasting disrepute. 

[Sidenote: Reaction in Berlin]

[Sidenote: Brandenburg Prime Minister]

[Sidenote: Prussian Parliament dissolved]

The reaction was first felt at Berlin. There the return of GeneralWrangel's troops from Denmark was followed by friction between the soldiersand the democratic agitators in the streets. A resolution was passed in thepopular Parliament of Prussia that all officers out of sympathy withdemocratic government should be encouraged to leave the army. The failureof the Minister of War to act on this suggestion was followed by hisdownfall. Having succeeded in this, the parliamentary majority next passeda vote to eliminate the words "by the grace of God" from the titles of theKing. Toward the end of October a national convention of democrats met atBerlin, and held its sessions amid tumultuous scenes in the streets. Inexasperation, the King dissolved the Cabinet that had been forced upon him, and commissioned Count Brandenburg, a natural son of Frederick William II. , to form another. It included Major-General von Strotha, Minister of War, and Otto von Manteuffel, Minister of the Interior. The Parliament sent adeputation to remonstrate with the King. One of the delegates, Jacoby, asthe King terminated the audience, called after him: "Behold the chiefmisfortune of kings, that they will not listen to the truth!" Immediatelyafter this King Frederick William IV. Prorogued the Parliament to the townof Brandenburg. The majority of the delegates declined to adjourn. TheCabinet Ministers, followed by the members that had been outvoted, left thehall. On November 15, the remaining Parliament issued a proclamation to thepeople to withhold all further payment of taxes. General Wrangel posted histroops throughout Berlin. The Municipal Guards of Berlin were dissolved. Anattempt on the part of the Parliament to meet again was easily frustrated. The taxes were collected as before. When the Parliamentary minority came toorder at Brandenburg their sessions were dissolved by royal order. On hisown initiative, King Frederick William IV. Now proclaimed a constitution. The Chambers, provisions for which were contained in this royalconstitution, were to meet at Berlin on February 24, 1849. Such was the endof the People's Parliament in Prussia. 

 [Illustration: WAGNER AND LISZT Painted by W. Beckmann]

About the same time Robert Blum, one of the radical Parliamentarians ofFrankfort, was shot in Austria. Together with Froebel, he had beendespatched to Vienna by the Parliamentary minority in Frankfort withmessages of sympathy for the popular cause in Austria. To offset this, themajority sent two delegates to the Emperor to offer the Parliament's goodservices for mediation with his rebellious subjects. They were coollyreceived. 

[Sidenote: Slav Congress of Prague]

[Sidenote: Bohemian revolt suppressed]

[Sidenote: Ferdinand's duplicity]

[Sidenote: Archduke Stephen withdraws]

[Sidenote: Kossuth in power]

[Sidenote: Murder of General Lamberg]

[Sidenote: Count Zichy shot]

All Austria was in a state of civil war. After the example of the Slavs inServia and Croatia, the Czechs of Bohemia rose at Prague. Austrian-Germanauthority there collapsed. A National Guard was organized, and a popularAssembly convened. In midsummer a Congress of Slavs from all parts ofAustria met at Prague. Popular excitement rose to a threatening pitch. Onthe day that the Panslavistic Congress broke up, barricades were erectedand fighting began in the streets of Prague. The wife of CountWindischgrätz, the military commandant, was killed by a bullet. Windischgrätz, after withdrawing his troops, threatened to bombard the cityunless the barricades were removed. This was not done. Windischgrätz thentook the city by storm. Military law was proclaimed. This success, likethat of Radetzky's arms in Italy, gave new hope to the Austrian Emperor. Hepronounced his veto on Hungary's military measures against Croatia. Ahundred delegates from the Magyar Diet at Pesth posted to Vienna to exactfrom the Emperor the fulfilment of his promises to Hungary. On September 9, the Emperor received them at his palace with renewed assurances that hewould keep his plighted word. A few hours afterward the official "Gazette"published a letter over the Emperor's signature, expressing his fullapproval of Jellacic's measures in Croatia. This was all Jellacic had beenwaiting for. On September 11, he crossed the Drave with his Croatians andmarched upon Pesth. Archduke Stephen, the Hungarian Palatine, took commandof the Magyar army and went to the front. At Lake Balaton he requested aconference with Jellacic. The Ban paid no attention to it. Realizing thesecret support given to Jellacic by the Crown, Archduke Stephen resignedhis command in Hungary. The Emperor now appointed General Lamberg at Viennato the supreme command over the military forces of Hungary as well asCroatia. At the same time the Austrian Cabinet submitted a memorialsuggesting that the laws establishing Hungarian autonomy be declared nulland void. On the publication of this memorial in Pesth, Batthyany'sMinistry resigned. Kossuth openly proposed war with Austria. When Lambergarrived at Pesth, Kossuth prevailed upon the Diet to withhold itsratification of Lamberg's appointment. Should Lamberg attempt to resume hismilitary command Kossuth demanded that he should be outlawed as a traitor. As General Lamberg crossed the bridge at Budapesth he was recognized by thepopulace. A cry was raised that he meant to seize the citadel and bombardthe town. He was dragged from his carriage and torn to pieces by the mob. His body was dragged through the streets, and finally strung up before oneof the government buildings. A few days later, Count Zichy, one of theMagyar magnates, was court-martialled by order of Arthur Goergey, theHungarian Honved leader, for entering into a correspondence with Jellacic, and was shot. 

[Sidenote: Imperial rescript repudiated]

[Sidenote: Troops mutiny in Vienna]

[Sidenote: Flight of Emperor]

On the receipt of this news, Emperor Ferdinand declared the HungarianParliament dissolved, and pronounced all its acts null and void. Jellacicwas appointed representative of Austria in Hungary with command of all theforces. The Magyar Diet repudiated the Emperor's manifesto as a breach ofthe constitution, and pronounced Jellacic a traitor. Jellacic's forces werechecked by the Hungarian army in their advance upon Pesth. General Latour, the Austrian Minister of War, ordered a division of troops at Vienna to goto the support of Jellacic. The Magyar sympathizers at Vienna raised afearful uproar. As the troops were marching out of the city severalbattalions were prevailed upon to mutiny. The Hungarian flag was hoistedabove the Cathedral of St. Stephen. The National Guard joined the mutiny. Other battalions of the line were driven out of the city. The guards at thearsenal capitulated. Vienna was at the mercy of the insurgents. TheEmperor, who had sought refuge at Schoenbrunn, left his palace at four onthe morning of October 1, and fled to Olmütz. 

[Sidenote: Jellacic marches on Vienna]

[Sidenote: Windischgrätz moves from Bohemia]

[Sidenote: Assault on Vienna]

[Sidenote: Arrival of Hungarians]

[Sidenote: Battle of the Schwechat]

As soon as the news of these events reached Jellacic he evacuated histhreatened positions on the banks of the Raab and marched for Vienna. Windischgrätz, with his garrison, set out from Prague. Revolutionists ofall races flocked into Vienna. Among them were the German delegates Froebeland Blum, and the Polish general, Bem. The Hungarians pursued Jellacic nofurther than their frontier. The regiments expelled from Vienna, under thecommand of Count Auersperg, joined forces with Jellacic. The insurgents atVienna manned their fortifications as well as they could, and called uponthe people throughout Austria to take up arms. Emperor Ferdinand, atOlmütz, offset this by an imperial proclamation to his people in which heguaranteed all peasant rights. Prince Windischgrätz was created a fieldmarshal, with full command over all the forces in the empire, except thoseunder Radetzky in Italy. Windischgrätz took immediate steps to effect ajunction with Jellacic by seizing the bridges at Krems and Stein. In vaindid the delegates from Frankfort, who now appeared upon the scene, presenttheir offer of intervention. Windischgrätz would not listen to them. OnOctober 23, the Austrian army, 80, 000 strong, appeared before Vienna. Thedefence of the city had been intrusted to Captain Messenhauser, an officerof the regular army, and to General Bem. Robert Blum, the GermanParliamentarian, fought in the ranks. While Windischgrätz was wasting histime in parleys, an army of 18, 000 Hungarians crossed the frontier andthreatened Jellacic's rear. On October 28, twenty-four hours after the timefixed in Windischgrätz's last ultimatum, he began his assault on the city. In the course of an all-day fight the troops succeeded in taking thesuburbs. The scenes of that night were frightful. The troops bivouacked onthe ramparts. The following Sunday was spent in further parleys. Alreadythe terms of capitulation had been settled, when Messenhauser, from the topof the church of St. Stephen, made out the approaching columns of theHungarians. The news of their arrival was signalled to the city by a columnof smoke rising from the top of the tower. All negotiations for surrenderwere dropped. The Hungarians attacked Jellacic on the banks of theSchwechat, within a few leagues of the capital. The boom of their artillerycould be plainly heard in Vienna. In a frenzy of enthusiasm the Vienneseresumed the struggle. A corps of students attempted a sortie. Unfortunatelyfor them, the engagement on the banks of the Schwechat turned against theHungarians. Shortly after noon they gave way all along the line and fellback toward Hungary. On the ramparts of Vienna the hopeless fight of a fewthousand civilians against an army of 90, 000 men was continued untilnightfall. At six in the evening the troops broke into the city. 

[Sidenote: Fall of Vienna]

[Sidenote: Stadion's Ministry]

[Sidenote: Abdication of Ferdinand]

On the following day, November 1, Prince Windischgrätz declared Viennaunder military law. All arms had to be delivered within forty-eight hours. Arrests and courts-martial followed in profusion. Robert Blum was one ofthe first to be shot. His colleague, Froebel, owed his life to a politicalpamphlet signed with his name, in which he had defended the interests ofAustria against those of a united Germany. A new Ministry was installed, under the leadership of the notorious Prince Felix Schwarzenberg and CountStadion. They announced their programme to be the maintenance of a strongcentral government and the integrity of the Austrian Empire, with quicksuppression of the civil war in Hungary. A new Reichsrath was convoked atthe village of Kremsier, near Olmütz. On December 2, it was announced thatEmperor Ferdinand had resolved to abdicate his throne. His brother, Archduke Francis Charles, renounced the succession. The Archduke's son, Francis Joseph, a youth of eighteen, was declared by a family council tohave attained his majority. In virtue of this he ascended the throne asEmperor. 

[Sidenote: Francis Joseph, Emperor]

[Sidenote: The war in Hungary]

The Hungarian Diet, on learning of this transfer of the crown, refused toacknowledge Francis Joseph as King of Hungary. The whole nation wassummoned to arms. The command of the army was given to Goergey. His firstserious problem was a rising of the Roumanians in Transylvania againstMagyar rule. The Roumanian peasants committed all conceivable atrocities. When they raised the standard of the Empire, the Austrian commander, General Puchner, espoused their cause. Transylvania was lost to Hungary. The Roumanians led by Puchner co-operated with Jellacic's forces inCroatia, and moved on Hungary from that quarter. On December 15, the mainAustrian army, under Windischgrätz, crossed over the River Leitha andinvaded Hungary. Goergey declared from the first that Pesth would have tobe abandoned. Kossuth's frantic efforts to prevent this only served tohamper Goergey's able campaign. One line after another had to be abandoned. At last, toward the close of the year, Kossuth and his Magyar Diet werecompelled to evacuate Pesth. The Hungarian army fell back over the RiverTheiss, upon the fortress of Comorn, and the mountainous regions ofnorthern Hungary. Kossuth's government was established at Debreczin. 

1849

[Sidenote: Bem's aggressive campaign]

[Sidenote: Goergey and Dembinsky]

On January 5, Windischgrätz and Jellacic made their triumphant entry intoBudapesth. The Vienna "Gazette" announced "the glorious end of theHungarian campaign. " Prince Windischgrätz rested on his arms. During thisinterval the Polish general, Bem, who had escaped from Vienna, aroused hiscountrymen in Siebenbürgen and carried the war into that region. TheAustrian troops under General Puchner were beaten in a series ofengagements. Goergey, aided by another Pole, Dembinsky, repulsed theAustrian troops under General Schlik in the north. While Windischgrätzremained idle at Pesth, Klapkah, the new Hungarian Minister of War, organized the Magyar forces and created new defences for his country. 

[Sidenote: Afghan war]

[Sidenote: Chilian Wallah]

[Sidenote: Lord Gough superseded]

[Sidenote: "Battle of the Guns"]

[Sidenote: Punjab annexed to England]

Prince Metternich, whiling away his idle hours among other notable refugeesat London and Brighton, now had the satisfaction of seeing the dangers ofrevolt brought home to the people of England. The tidings of a disaster inAfghanistan provoked an outburst of alarm and indignation in England. OnJanuary 13, Lord Gough had advanced on Sher Singh's intrenchments atChilian Wallah. They were held by 30, 000 Sikhs with sixty guns, screened bya thick jungle. As the British imprudently exposed themselves the Sikhsopened fire. Lord Gough ordered a general charge. The drawn battle thatfollowed proved the bloodiest affair in the history of British India. Driven from their first line of defences, the Sikhs stood their ground inanother stronger position, and repulsed the British attack. Nearly 2, 500British officers and men fell in the fight. In the face of the Afghanrejoicings Lord Gough claimed a victory. The British War Office, however, hastily despatched Sir Charles Napier to India to supersede Lord Gough. There was still time for that commander to retrieve himself. General Whishcaptured the town of Multan, and by terrible bombardment of the citadelbrought Mulraj to surrender. General Whish then joined forces with LordGough in his final struggle with Sher Singh. At Guzerat, on February 22, Lord Gough achieved the crowning victory known as "the battle of the guns. "For two hours a terrific artillery duel was maintained, the Sikhs firingwith all their sixty pieces. Finally the British stormed their batteries ina combined charge of bayonets and cavalry. The Sikh forces were scattered, and their camp, with most of their standards and guns, were captured by theBritish. Dost Muhammad Khan and his Afghans were driven out of Peshawar andnarrowly escaped to Kabul. Mulraj was imprisoned for life. The whole of thePunjab was annexed to British India. A successful administration of thishostile province was Lord Dalhousie's first great triumph. 

[Sidenote: President Taylor inaugurated]

[Sidenote: Development of Western America]

[Sidenote: The "Forty-Niners"]

About the same time, General Taylor, the conqueror of Buena Vista, wasinaugurated as President of the United States. One sentence in hisinaugural address provoked derision: "We are at peace with all the worldand the rest of mankind. " The old Spanish missions in the conqueredterritory were deprived of their wealth and influence. The name of SanFrancisco was adopted in place of Yerba Buena. Besides California, the newterritory included the subsequently admitted States of Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming and Kansas. The Apache andNavajo Indians in those regions gave immediate trouble. The gold seekerstracking across the plains were the first to suffer from the Indians. Stillthe stream of immigrants poured into California. Their halfway stations onthe Missouri River developed into the two thriving towns of Omaha andCouncil Bluffs. The Bay of San Francisco was soon surrounded by asettlement of tents and sheds. A Vigilance Committee took affairs into itsown hands, and administered justice without fear or favor. Six times thenew city was destroyed by fire. Within two months all traces of thedisaster would be lost. California soon had a population entitling it toStatehood. President Taylor eagerly seconded the wishes of the people for agovernment of their own. The first Constitutional Convention of Californiadeclared against slavery. More than $40, 000, 000 worth of gold was producedin the new State, and the first gold dollars were coined. 

[Sidenote: Death of Poe]

[Sidenote: Posthumous poems]

[Sidenote: "The Conqueror Worm"]

The death of Edgar Allan Poe, the American poet, was as tragic as his lifehad been. After the death of his wife, Poe had engaged himself to marry awealthy lady in Richmond, and the wedding day was fixed. On his way to NewYork to settle up affairs in anticipation of his marriage, Poe fell in withsome of his companions in dissipation at Baltimore. He became drunk, wandered through the streets, and was finally taken to a hospital in anunconscious condition. Later he became delirious and finally expired, saying: "Lord, help my poor soul!" After Poe's death the simplest andsweetest of his ballads, "Annabel Lee, " and the wonderful poem of "TheBells, " were published. His former friend and editor, Griswold, published ascathing denunciation of the dead man in the New York "Tribune. " Poe's fameas a master of the weird and fanciful in literature was already establishedwherever his thrilling tales and superb poem "The Raven" had penetrated. Hewas one of the few poets of America at that period who had succeeded inachieving an international reputation. The best of his poems were renderedin choice French by Baudelaire, while his short stories were translatedinto almost all European languages. As his biographer, Woodberry, has said:"On the roll of American literature Poe's name is inscribed with the fewforemost, and in the world at large his genius is established as validamong all men. Much as he derived nurture from other sources, he was theson of Coleridge by the weird touch in his imagination, by the principlesof his analytic criticism, and the speculative bent of his mind. " Mostcharacteristic of Poe's genius perhaps are these lines from his famouspoem "The Conqueror Worm":

 Lo! 'tis a gala night Within the lonesome latter years! An angel throng, bewinged, bedight In veils, and drowned in tears, Sit in a theatre, to see A play of hopes and fears, While the orchestra breathes fitfully The music of the spheres. 

 * * * * *

 That motley drama--oh, be sure It shall not be forgot! With its Phantom chased for evermore By a crowd that seize it not, Through a circle that ever returneth in To the self-same spot, And much of Madness, and more of Sin, And Horror the soul of the plot. 

 * * * * *

 Out--out are the lights--out all! And over each quivering form The curtain, a funeral pall, Comes down with the rush of a storm, And the angels, all pallid and wan, Uprising, unveiling, affirm That the play is the tragedy "Man, " And its hero the Conqueror Worm. 

[Sidenote: Abortive Spanish rising]

[Sidenote: Italian republics]

[Sidenote: Situation in Sicily]

In Europe, the startling upheavals of the previous year were followed by anaftermath no less startling. Even in Spain, where a first attempt atrevolution had easily been crushed at Madrid, Don Carlos deemed the timeripe to join Cabrera's revolutionary rising in Catalonia. On his way therehe was arrested at the French frontier. Deprived of his support, Cabrerahimself had to remove his forces to French soil. In Italy, therevolutionary movement spread. On February 7, Duke Leopold of Florence wasdriven out of Tuscany. A republican government was established at Florenceunder the triumvirate of Guerazzi, Montanelli and Manzoni. Taking refuge ona British man-of-war, the Duke of Tuscany fled to Gaeta to share the Pope'sexile there. On the same day that the new republic was proclaimed atFlorence a popular assembly at Rome formally deposed the Pope from temporalpower and proclaimed the Republic of Rome. The armistice in Sicily wasabout to expire. King Ferdinand's final concessions to his rebellioussubjects were repudiated. Lord Palmerston, who had vainly offered Britishmediation to Ferdinand, on the floor of Parliament openly defended theuncompromising attitude of the Sicilians. In preparation for the inevitableconflict, Filangieri gathered an army of 20, 000 Neapolitans, whileMierolavsky, a Pole, took command of the Sicilian insurgents. 

[Sidenote: Hungarian defeats]

[Sidenote: Austrian reverses]

[Sidenote: Windischgrätz "Reconcentrates"]

[Sidenote: Hungarian declaration of independence]

Meanwhile the tide of war set against the Hungarians. On February 4, Bemwas defeated on the site of his former victory at Hermannstadt. Whileretreating he was defeated again at Paiski. By the middle of February theAustrians succeeded in taking the fortress of Essek from the Hungarians. Toward the close of the month a disastrous defeat was inflicted upon theHungarians under the command of General Dembinsky at Kapolna. Kossuth hadmade the mistake of superseding Goergey by that commander. Now Goergey wasreinstated. The Hungarians rallied. On March 5, the Magyar Csikos, orirregular cavalry, under Janos Damjanies, defeated the Austrians underGeneral Grammont at Szolnok. A few days later the Hungarian army inTransylvania, under General Bem, retrieved their ill-fortune by anotherglorious victory at Hermannstadt. A Russian contingent from Wallachia, which had crossed the frontier to assist the Austrians, was defeated by Bemat Brasso. General Puchner and his Russian allies sought refuge across theborder. Goergey relieved Komorn. The ablest of the Austrian generals, Schlik, was beaten at Hapvan, while Jellacic was overthrown at Isaszteg andGoedoelloe. Prince Windischgrätz had to give up Pesth, or, as he put it inhis immortal thirty-fourth bulletin: "Reconcentrate the army in front ofBudapesth, a movement hastily imitated by the enemy. " Goergey added anothertouch of humor by attributing the Hungarian victory solely to the activityof Windischgrätz and Jellacic. On March 4, Emperor Francis Joseph hadannulled the old Hungarian constitution. Kossuth retaliated in kind. Underhis influence the Magyar Diet at Debreczin pronounced the deposition of theHouse of Hapsburg from the throne of Hungary and declared the independenceof Hungary and the adjoining southern provinces. While the Hungarian army, instead of marching on Vienna, lost valuable time before Ofen, the AustrianGovernment improved the interval to perfect its long-threatened alliancewith Russia. 

[Sidenote: Sardinia renews war]

[Sidenote: Polish leaders]

[Sidenote: The "Five Days' Campaign"]

[Sidenote: Battle of Novara]

[Sidenote: Italian retreat]

[Sidenote: D'Aspre's heavy losses]

[Sidenote: Charles Albert abdicates]

In the interim war had broken out anew in Schleswig-Holstein and in Italy. Before the expiration of the Austrian-Italian armistice, Charles Albert ofSardinia, in a spirited address on February 1, announced his determinationto renew the war. To this desperate resolve he was driven by the increasingturbulence of Italian affairs. The spread of the revolutionary movement tohis dominions could be forestalled only by placing himself once more at thehead of the Italian movement. In some respects the moment appearedpropitious. Charles Albert's army now numbered a hundred and twentythousand men, while Radetzky had little more than seventy thousandAustrians. A characteristic note of the times was the appointment of Polesto command the Italian troops. Prince Chrzanovsky, who had fought underNapoleon at Leipzig and Waterloo, and had subsequently commanded a Russiandivision at Varna, was put in supreme command, seconded by Alexander LaMarmora. Another Pole, or half Pole, Ramorino, who had figured in theunfortunate rising of 1833, commanded the legion of Lombardy. On March 12, the pending termination of the truce was officially announced. At noon onMarch 20, hostilities were to be resumed. The campaign that followed lastedbut five days. Radetzky, by his preliminary feint, made the Italiansbelieve that he would evacuate Lombardy as heretofore; but at the lastmoment he quickly concentrated his five army corps at Pavia. At the strokeof noon, on March 20, he threw his army across the Tessino on threebridges. While the Italians believed that Radetzky was retreating on theAdda, the Austrians were already bivouacking on the flank of thePiedmontese army. Three bloody engagements at Mortara, Gambola andSforzesca, on March 21, ended in a retreat of the Italians all along theline. Ramorino had received orders to move northward and to destroy thebridges behind him. Out of accord with his countryman, Chrzanovsky, hedisobeyed his orders and lingered at Stradella. Radetzky flung his army inbetween, and cut off the Italian line of retreat upon Turin andAlessandria. It was then that Benedek, an Austrian colonel, distinguishedhimself by leading his troops far in advance of the Austrian army, andcutting his way through an Italian brigade, under the cover of night. Atmidnight of March 21, Charles Albert had to order a general retreat onNovara. There Chrzanovsky determined to make a stand with his main columnof about 50, 000 men. Radetzky was in doubt whether the Italians had fallenback on Novara or Vercelli. To make sure he sent his troops in eitherdirection. He himself remained at his headquarters, so as to be ready toride either way. The roar of artillery from Novara, on the morning of March23, told him where the battle was to be fought. There General D'Aspre, commanding the second Austrian army corps, undertook to win some laurels onhis own account by a bold attack on the superior position of the Italians. As Charles Albert rode out of the gate of Novara he received the lastcheers of his devoted Bersaglieri. After a three hours' fight the scaleturned against the Austrians. Count D'Aspre repented of his rashness, andsent for help to Count Thurn at Vercelli. Fortunately for him, Radetzky andThurn had marched in that direction as soon as they heard the sound of thecannon. It was a race between the two divisions. As Radetzky, at the headof the first army corps, galloped through Nebola, the aged marshal met theretreating columns of D'Aspre's second corps. Both the first and the thirdAustrian corps rushed into the battle almost simultaneously. The Italianadvance was checked. At last, when Thurn's fourth corps arrived at sundown, the Austrian bugles sounded for a general charge. The Italian line ofbattle was overthrown. The Austrian cavalry circled around the flank. Whilethe Italians fled into Novara they suffered from the fire of their ownartillery. Charles Albert was one of the last who left the Bicocca to seekrefuge in Novara. The town itself was bombarded by the Austrian artilleryfar into the night. Standing on the ramparts of Novara, Charles Albertrealized the disastrous nature of his defeat. His losses aggregated morethan seven thousand, of whom three thousand had been taken captive. Of theAustrian losses of 3, 158 men, five-sevenths fell to D'Aspre's corps. Theother Austrian divisions were practically intact. The Italians were inconfusion. Charles Albert, who throughout the day had exposed his personwith the utmost gallantry, had to be dragged from the ramparts by GeneralDurando. As the Austrian shells struck all around them he exclaimed, "Leaveme, General. Let it be the last day of my life. I wish to die. " At last heconsented to send his Minister, Cadorna, to Radetzky's headquarters to suefor an armistice. Cadorna was received in an insulting manner. CharlesAlbert came to the conclusion that his own person was an obstacle in theway of peace. That night he resigned his crown. In the presence of hisgenerals he pronounced his eldest son, Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. Accompanied by but one attendant he left Novara, and passed unrecognizedthrough the enemy's lines. Sending a farewell letter to his wife, he wentinto exile. A few months later he died at Oporto in Portugal. 

[Sidenote: Death of Charles Albert]

As Fyffe has said of this unfortunate Prince: "Nothing in his reign becamehim like the ending of it. He proved that there was one sovereign in Italywho was willing to stake his throne, his life, the whole sum of hispersonal interests, for the national cause. . . . The man who, beaten andoutnumbered, had for hours sat immovable in front of the Austrian cannon inNovara, had, in the depth of his misfortune, given to his son not the crownof Piedmont only, but the crown of Italy. "

[Sidenote: Victor Emmanuel yields]

[Sidenote: Italian Princes reinstated]

[Sidenote: French expedition to Rome]

On the day after the battle of Novara, King Victor Emmanuel sought outMarshal Radetzky and came to terms. Venice and the Italian duchies had tobe relinquished to the Austrians. Austrian troops, in conjunction withthose of Piedmont, occupied Alessandria. Piedmont was to reduce its army toa peace footing, to disperse all volunteers, and to pay a war indemnity of75, 000, 000 francs. The Austrian demand that Victor Emmanuel should annulthe liberal constitution granted by his father was unconditionally refused. For this Piedmont had to suffer a prolonged military occupation by Austriantroops, but Victor Emmanuel, by the same token, retained his father'sclaim to the leadership of the national cause of Italy. The victory ofAustrian arms was speedily followed by the return of the princes ofnorthern Italy to their petty thrones. Radetzky's troops undertook thereconquest of Venice. To forestall an Austrian movement against Rome, France undertook to reinstate Pio Nono in the Holy Chair of St. Peter. AFrench expedition under Oudinot, a son of the famous marshal, disembarkedat Civita Vecchia. Mazzini and Garibaldi alone rallied their men to thedefence of the republic. 

[Sidenote: Subjection of Sicily]

In Sicily, hostilities had been likewise renewed on March 29. The Sicilianswere discouraged by the report of the Italian defeats in the north. Filangieri succeeded in capturing Taormina, the Sicilian base of supplies. In the defence of Catania the Polish general commanding the Siciliantroops, Mierolavsky, was severely wounded. At the foot of Mount Etna, theSicilians were again defeated on April 6, Good Friday. Catania was taken. Syracuse surrendered to the Neapolitan fleet. Filangieri's army penetratedinto the interior. In vain did the English and Austrian Ambassadors offermediation. Ruggiero Settimo resigned his Presidency of the SicilianRepublic. The heads of the insurrection fled the country. Palermosurrendered. The customary courts-martial and military executions followed. Until the accession of King Ferdinand's eldest son to the throne, Filangieri ruled as military governor. In commemoration of one of thecities he had laid in ashes, he was created Duke of Taormina. When Englandtried to exact the promised recognition of the Constitution of 1812, KingFerdinand rejected the proposal with the sardonic statement that peace hadbeen re-established in Sicily, and everybody was content. 

[Sidenote: Danish war]

[Sidenote: Dueppel trenches stormed]

[Sidenote: Battle of Gudsoe]

The armistice of Malmö with Denmark expired on February 26. The GermanBundestag mobilized three divisions of the allied German federation. Withina month Prussian, Bavarian and Swabian troops marched into Holstein. APrussian general, Von Prittwitz, assumed supreme command. On April 3, theDanes opened hostilities by a bombardment of the Island of Allston. Thencame the battle of Eckenfoerde, when German shore batteries blew up theDanish ship of the line, "Christian VIII. , " and two smaller vessels, thecrews of which surrendered. On April 13, the Bavarians and Saxons stormedthe intrenchments of Dueppel. One week later, the German troops, inconjunction with the volunteers of Schleswig-Holstein, under Von Bonin, occupied Jutland, and defeated the Danes at Kolding. A Danish advance fromFridericia was repulsed after a seven hours' fight, on May 7, at Gudsoe. The Danes fell back on Fridericia, where they were invested. 

[Sidenote: Francis Joseph's "Constitution"]

[Sidenote: German Constitution adopted]

[Sidenote: German imperial crown rejected]

Meanwhile the German Parliament had met again at Frankfort. After theresignation of the former Austrian chief of the Cabinet, Schmerling, theParliament was split into two factions, according to their preferences fora German union with or without Austria. Early in January it had beendecided to elect some German prince to assume the leadership of Germanaffairs as Emperor of the Germans. To this plan the minor Germansovereigns gave their consent. During the first week of March, when theEmperor of Austria issued his new Constitution, which declared the whole ofthe Austrian Empire under one indivisible constitutional monarchy, it wasplain to the German delegates that Austria could no longer be reckoned on. On March 28, King Frederick IV. Of Prussia was elected by 290 votes. Some284 delegates, among whom were 100 Austrians, abstained from voting. Animperial constitution was adopted which limited the former sovereign rightsof the various principalities, declared for the liberties of speech and ofthe press, religious worship, free public schools, and the total abolitionof all feudal titles of nobility. On April 23, the great Parliamentarydeputation, with President Simpson at its head, came to Berlin to notifythe King of Prussia of his election. To the consternation of all, FrederickWilliam declined the honor. He explained in private that he did not care"to accept a crown offered to him by the Revolution. "

[Sidenote: Saxon revolution]

[Sidenote: South German risings]

[Sidenote: German Parliament dispersed]

The immediate effects of his rejection were new attempts at revolution inGermany. After Frederick William's refusal to enter into the plans of theGerman Parliament, this body fell into utter disrepute. Its radicalelements could no longer be kept in control. Armed revolts, encouraged bythe radical delegates, broke out in Frankfort, Kaiserslautern andthroughout Saxony. The King of Saxony, with his Ministers, Von Beust andRabenhorst, fled from Dresden. From the barricades the provisionalgovernment was proclaimed. The garrison was at the mercy of the insurgents, great numbers of whom flocked to Dresden from Leipzig and Pirna. Prussiantroops overran Saxony. The revolutionary movement spread to Hesse, Baden, the Rhine provinces, Wurtemberg and the Bavarian Palatinate. Encounterswith the troops occurred at Elbafeldt, Düsseldorf and Cologne. The reservesand municipal guards sided with the insurgents. All Baden rose and declareditself a republic, forming an alliance with the revolted Palatinate. Thepeople of Wurtemberg, in a turbulent mass-meeting, demanded coalition withboth of these countries. It was then that the Parliament at Frankfortdecided to hold its future sessions at Stuttgart. Those principalitieswhich had not yet succumbed to revolution withdrew their delegates. Prussianow gave to the Parliament its _coup de grace_ by arrogating to herself allfurther prosecution of the Danish war, on the ground that "the so-calledcentral government of Frankfort had no more weight of its own to affect thebalance of peace or war. " The remnants of the Parliament tried to meet atStuttgart, under the leadership of Loewe and Ludwig Uhland, the foremostliving poet of Germany. When they came together at their meeting hall theyfound the doors blocked by troops. Attempts at protest were drowned by theroll of drums. Under the threat of a volley the delegates dispersed. Suchwas the end of the first German Parliament. 

[Sidenote: Princes reinstated]

[Sidenote: Battle of Fridericia]

Prussian troops advanced into the Palatinate, Baden and Wurtemberg. Afterdesultory encounters with ill-led bands of insurgents, the sovereigns ofthese principalities were reinstated on their thrones by the Prussianarmy. The refugees thronged into Switzerland. In the north, on the otherhand, Prussia's further advance into Denmark was stopped by thethreatening attitude of England, Russia and France. On July 5, the Danesmade a sortie from Fridericia and inflicted a crushing defeat on theSchleswig-Holsteiners, capturing 28 guns and 1, 500 prisoners. The Germanslost nearly 3, 000 men in dead and wounded. 

[Sidenote: Danish armistice]

Five days after this disgrace to German arms, the Prussian Governmentaccepted an armistice, according to which Schleswig was to be cut in two tobe occupied by Swedish and Prussian troops. The provisional government ofthis province was intrusted to a joint commission, presided over by anEnglishman. Holstein was abandoned to its fate. The final downfall of allthe ideals of the German Liberals was followed by a feeling of dejection inGermany akin to despair. The number of immigrants who left Germany to seeknew homes in America and elsewhere rose abruptly to 113, 000 persons. 

[Sidenote: Austrian-Russian alliance]

[Sidenote: Russians invade Hungary]

[Sidenote: Fall of Budapesth]

[Sidenote: Last Hungarian victories]

[Sidenote: Kemmisvar]

[Sidenote: Surrender of Vilagos]

[Sidenote: Batthyany hanged]

[Sidenote: Hungary crushed]

Worse even than in Germany fared the cause of popular government inHungary. On the day that Goergey's Hungarians stormed Ofen (May 21), Emperor Francis Joseph had a personal interview with Czar Nicholas atWarsaw. A joint note announced that the interest of all European Statesdemanded armed interference in Hungary. The Emperor of Russia placed hiswhole army, under the command of Paskievitch, at the disposal of his "dearbrother, Francis Joseph. " On June 3, the vanguard of the Russian main armyoccupied Pressburg. Paskievitch called upon all Magyars to submit. Insteadof that, Kossuth called upon his countrymen to destroy their homes andproperty at the approach of the enemy, and to retreat into the interior asdid the Russians before Napoleon. The rapid course of military events madethis impracticable. While Kossuth and his government retired to Scegedin inthe far southeast, Goergey, with the bulk of the army, took post on theupper Danube to prevent the junction of the Austrians and Russians. Therethe notorious Haynau, who had been recalled from Italy, was in command. While Goergey attacked his left wing on the River Vag, Haynau perfected hisjunction with the Russians. On June 28 their united forces, 80, 000 strong, captured Raab, under the eyes of Francis Joseph. The Russians occupiedDebreczin, while the Austrians moved on Budapesth. Goergey's attempts tostop them resulted only in placing him in a dangerous position between botharmies. On the same day that the Austrians reoccupied Budapesth, theHungarians under Vetter succeeded in inflicting another disastrous defeaton Jellacic at Hegyes. Three days later, Goergey won his last victory overthe Russians at Waitzen. After this the tide of war turned against Hungary. The united army of Austria and Russia exceeded 225, 000 men and 600 guns. The Hungarian resources were exhausted. In the first week of August thefinal conclusion of peace between Austria and Sardinia and the victoriousmovement against Venice put new forces at Austria's disposal. Dembinsky, who was to defend the passage of the Theiss before Scegedin, was defeated, on August 5, at Czoreg with heavy losses. Kossuth now gave the command toBem. He fought the last battle of the campaign at Kemmisvar, on August 9, ending in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians. Bem barely succeeded insaving the remnant of his army by crossing the Moldavian frontier. OnAugust 11, Kossuth at Arad relinquished his dictatorship in favor ofGeneral Goergey. This headstrong soldier, in realization of hishelplessness, led his army of 20, 000 foot, 2, 000 horse and 130 guns withinthe Russian lines at Vilagos and surrendered unconditionally. Goergey'slife was spared. Not so those of his foremost fellow prisoners, who werehanded over to the tender mercies of Haynau. "Hungary, " wrote Paskievitchto the Czar, "lies at the feet of your Majesty. " Goergey's gallingexplanation that he did not deign to surrender to his despised Austrianadversaries was brutally avenged by Haynau. The foremost Magyar officersand statesmen who fell into Austrian hands were court-martialled and shot. Count Batthyany, the former Prime Minister, was hanged as a common felon. Hungary lost all her ancient constitutional rights, besides her formerterritories of Transylvania and Croatia. The flower of her youth wasenrolled in Austrian ranks and dispersed to the most remote garrisons ofthe empire. Her civil administration was handed over to German bureaucratsfrom Austria. The exiled patriots sought refuge in Turkey and in America. 

[Sidenote: Paris insurrection suppressed]

[Sidenote: French enter Rome]

[Sidenote: Flight of Garibaldi]

[Sidenote: Pio Nono firm]

The French interference in Rome aroused the Republicans in France. WhileOudinot was carrying on siege operations against Rome, Ledru-Rollin, inParis, demanded the impeachment of the Ministry. The rejection of thismotion by the Chambers was followed by revolutionary risings at Paris, Lyons, Marseilles and other cities. Then it was shown that France had a newmaster. President Louis Napoleon was on his guard. Large forces of troops, held in readiness for this event, put down the insurrections without muchtrouble. The siege of Rome was pressed to its conclusion. On June 14, Oudinot began his bombardment of Rome. Garibaldi prolonged his defenceuntil the end of the month. Then, when sufficient breaches had been opened, the French stormed the ramparts and entered Rome. Garibaldi attempted tothrow his forces into Venice to prolong the war against Austria. With hisever-dwindling followers he was hunted from place to place. In the end, through the devotion of Italian patriots, he managed to escape to America. On July 14, the restoration of the Pope's authority over Rome was announcedby Oudinot. Pio Nono, however, showed no inclination to place himself inthe power of his protectors. Remaining at Gaeta, he sent a commission ofcardinals to take over the government of Rome. Their first act was torestore the Inquisition, and to appoint a court for the trial of allpersons implicated in the Roman revolution. Thereat great wrath aroseamong the Republicans of France. Louis Napoleon felt compromised. Inreliance on the growing ascendency of Austria, the Pope insisted on hisabsolute rights as a sovereign of Rome. All that Pio Nono would consent to, under the pressure of the French Government, was to suffer his politicalprisoners to go into exile, and to bestow a small measure of local powersupon the municipalities of the various States. 

After the fall of Rome and of Hungary no hope remained for Venice. Afortnight after the surrender of Vilagos, and several months after thesubjugation of the Venetian mainland, the Republic of St. Mark, reduced bycholera and famine, gave up its long struggle. The Austrians re-enteredVenice. 

Having gained a free hand in her Hungarian and Italian dominions, Austriaset to work to recover her ascendency in Germany. 

1850

[Sidenote: Blockade of the Piræus]

[Sidenote: Cholera in England]

At the opening of the year the British Foreign Office determined to bringpressure to bear upon Greece for payment of the public debts which wereowing to English bankers. A British squadron, during January, blockaded thePiræus. On January 17, a resolution was passed in the British House ofLords condemning the foreign policy of the government in Greece. LaterFrance interposed in behalf of Greece and the blockade was discontinued. Throughout the earlier part of the year the scourge of cholera continued inEngland. In London alone the death-rate for a while was 1, 000 per week. More than 50, 000 people died from the epidemic in England and Wales. 

[Sidenote: Death of Wordsworth]

[Sidenote: "Lyrical Ballads" and "Peter Bell"]

[Sidenote: The "Lake School"]

[Sidenote: Wordsworth's doctrine]

William Wordsworth, the English Poet Laureate, died on April 23, at RydalMount. Born at Cockermouth in 1770, Wordsworth received his academiceducation at Cambridge University. Two years after his graduation, he madehis first appearance as a poet with the publication of "An Evening Walk; anEpistle in Verse. " In the same year he published "Descriptive Sketches inVerse, " inspired by a pedestrian tour through the Alps. These poems broughtthe appreciation of Coleridge, and both men soon became friends. Togetherwith Wordsworth's sister they made a tour of Germany. On their return, Wordsworth brought out the first volume of his "Lyrical Ballads, " which wongreat popularity, and the anonymous "Peter Bell, " the most condemned of allhis poems. After his marriage in 1803, Wordsworth settled at Grasmere inthe lake country, where he was joined by Southey and Coleridge. This causedthe writings of all three to be classified under the generic title of "TheLake School of Poetry" by the "Edinburgh Review. " The fame of Wordsworth'spoetic productions, and especially of his sonnets, slowly grew. While hewon the immediate approbation of his countrymen by some of his stirringpatriotic pieces, his strongest appeal to the world at large and to futuregenerations lay in his poetic appreciation of the beauties of nature and ofthe essential traits of human character. As he sang in the famous prefaceto "The Excursion":

 Beauty--a living presence of the earth, Surpassing the most fair ideal forms Which craft of delicate spirits hath composed From earth's materials--waits upon my steps; Pitches her tents before me as I move, An hourly neighbor. Paradise, and groves Elysian, Fortunate Fields--like those of old Sought in the Atlantic main--why should they be A history only of departed things, Or a mere fiction of what never was? For the discerning intellect of man, When wedded to this goodly universe In love and holy passion, shall find these A simple produce of the common day. 

[Sidenote: Ode on immortality]

The annunciation of this doctrine was greeted by the critic of the"Edinburgh Review" with the insolent: "This will never do. " In truth, Wordsworth's fondness for the inner beauty of common things sometimes ledhis verse into the commonplace. Wordsworth reached the height of his poeticfervor in his "Ode on the Intimations of Immortality, " containing thefamous lines:

 Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: The Soul that rises with us, our life's Star, Hath had elsewhere its setting, And cometh from afar. 

[Sidenote: Shelley's sonnet to Wordsworth]

It is at the end of this ode that Wordsworth summed up his veneration fornature in the lines:

 To me the meanest flower that blows can give Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears. 

After the death of his friend Southey, the mantle of the Poet Laureate fellupon him. His acceptance of this honor, and of the humble office of stampdistributer in the counties of Westmoreland and Cumberland, was decried bysome of his fellow poets as a sordid compromise. Robert Browning then wrotehis stirring invective, "The Lost Leader, " while Shelley wrote the famoussonnet addressed to Wordsworth:

 Poet of Nature, thou hast wept to know That things depart which never may return: Childhood and youth, friendship and love's first glow, Have fled like sweet dreams, leaving thee to mourn. These common woes I feel. One loss is mine Which thou too feel'st, yet I alone deplore. Thou wert as a lone star, whose light did shine On some frail bark in winter's midnight roar, Thou hast like to a rock-built refuge stood Above the blind and battling multitude: In honored poverty thy voice did weave Songs consecrate to truth and liberty-- Deserting these, thou leavest me to grieve, Thus having been, that thou shouldst cease to be. 

[Sidenote: "The Prelude"]

Sir Robert Peel's recognition of Wordsworth's genius, on the other hand, was regarded by the English Liberals as one of the brightest points in thatfamous statesman's career. The University of Oxford, shortly afterward, bestowed upon Wordsworth an honorary degree. One of Wordsworth's latestpoems was addressed to the Mount of Wanswell, rising above his country homeat Ambroside, closing with the prophetic lines:

 When we are gone From every object dear to mortal sight, As soon we shall be, may these words attest How oft, to elevate our spirits, shone Thy visionary majesties of light, How in thy pensive glooms our hearts found rest. 

After Wordsworth's death, appeared "The Prelude, or Growth of the Poet'sMind, " an autobiographical poem. 

[Sidenote: Death of Peel]

[Sidenote: First international cable]

[Sidenote: The Koh-i-noor]

The next noted death in England this year was that of Sir Robert Peel, which occurred after a stirring debate on the foreign policy of LordPalmerston in Greece. On the following day Peel was thrown from his horsewhile riding near London. The injuries he received were such that he diedthree days later. A monument to his memory was erected in WestminsterAbbey; but in accordance with his own wish he was buried in the villagechurchyard of Drayton Bassett. Of other events arousing interest inEngland, the most noteworthy was the laying of the first submarine electrictelegraph between England and France. The cable, which was twenty-sevenmiles long and covered with gutta-percha, stretched from Dover to Cape GrisNez. Messages were interchanged, but the cable soon parted. During thesame year the great East Indian diamond, Koh-i-noor, was presented to QueenVictoria. The history of this great jewel was more stirring, in its way, than that of any living man. Its original weight was nearly 800 carats. Bythe lack of skill of the European diamond cutters this was reduced to 270carats. 

[Sidenote: Death of Taouk Wang]

[Sidenote: Hien Fong, Emperor]

[Sidenote: The Taiping rebellion]

[Sidenote: Chinese emigration]

Beyond the immediate shores of England the course of events kept theBritish Colonial Office fully occupied. In Canada, a movement arose for theannexation of British America to the United States. Earl Grey, the ColonialSecretary, took occasion to warn all Canadians against this movement as anact of high treason. In India, the Afghans succeeded in reconquering Balkh. The fifth Kaffir war broke out in South Africa. The affairs of China gavefresh concern. On February 24, Emperor Taouk Wang died in his sixty-ninthyear. The thirty years during which he reigned were among the mosteventful, and in some respects the most portentous, for China. Hisstrenuous opposition to the evils of the opium trade mark him as a wise, ifnot a powerful, ruler. He never wasted the public moneys of China on hisown person, and his expenditures in behalf of the court and mere pomp wereless than that of most of his predecessors. One of Taouk Wang's last actsshowed how his mind and his health had been affected by the recentmisfortunes of the empire. It appeared that the Chinese New Year'sDay--February 12, 1850--was marked by an eclipse of the sun. Such an eventbeing considered inauspicious in China, the Emperor decreed that the newyear should begin on the previous day. The decree was utterly disregarded, and the Chinese year began at the appointed time. Taouk Wang's end washastened by the outbreak of a great fire in Pekin, which threatened theimperial city with destruction. On February 25, a grand council was held inthe Emperor's bedchamber, and Taouk Wang wrote in his bed an edictproclaiming his fourth son, Yihchoo, ruler of the empire. Prince Yihchoo, who was less than twenty years old, took the name of Hien Fong, which meansgreat abundance, and immediately upon his accession drew to his aid hisfour younger brothers, a new departure in Manchu rule. Their uncle, HwuyWang, who had made one attempt to seize the throne from his brother TaoukWang, once more put forward his pretensions. After the imperial Ministers, Kiaying and Muchangah, had been degraded, Hwuy Wang's attempt signallyfailed, but his life was spared. Later in the year, as a result partly ofpoor harvests, the great Taiping rebellion began. The great secret societyof the Triads started the movement by raising an outcry in southern Chinaagainst the Manchus. Their leader, Hung Tsiuen, a Hakka or Romany, proclaimed himself as Tien Wang, which means the head of the Prince. Underthe cloud of the impending upheaval, Chinese coolies in great numbers beganto emigrate to the United States. At the same time the bitter feelingagainst foreigners was intensified by an encounter of the Britishsteamship "Media" with a fleet of piratical Chinese junks. Thirteen of thejunks were destroyed. 

[Sidenote: California an American issue]

[Sidenote: Fugitive slave bill]

In California, where most of the Chinese immigrants landed, this movementwas scarcely considered in the heat of the discussion whether Californiashould be admitted into the Union as a pro-slavery or anti-slavery State. In the American Senate, Henry Clay introduced a bill for a compromise ofthe controversy on slavery. His proposal favored the admission ofCalifornia as a free State. On March 7, Daniel Webster delivered amemorable speech in which he antagonized his anti-slavery friends in theNorth. This was denounced as the betrayal of his constituents. StateConventions in South Carolina called for a Southern Congress to voice theirclaims. Not long afterward a fugitive slave bill was adopted by the UnitedStates Congress. A fine of $1, 000 and six months' imprisonment was to beimposed on any person harboring a fugitive slave or aiding him to escape. Fugitives were to be surrendered on demand, without the benefit oftestimony or trial by jury. This served to terrorize some 20, 000 escapedslaves and created intense indignation in the North. The issues were stillmore sharply drawn by the resignation of Jefferson Davis from the Senate, to run as a State-rights candidate for Governor of Mississippi. HisUnionist rival, Foote, was elected. 

[Sidenote: American filibusters in Cuba]

[Sidenote: Bulwer-Clayton treaty]

[Sidenote: Friction with Portugal]

In the meanwhile trouble had arisen with Spain and Portugal. On May 19, General Narcisso Lopez, with 600 American filibusters, landed at Cardenasto liberate Cuba from the dominion of Spain. He was defeated and hisexpedition dispersed. Another Cuban expedition was agitated in America. OnApril 25, President Taylor felt constrained to issue a second proclamationagainst filibusters. In May, the United States, in conjunction with GreatBritain, recognized the independence of the Dominican Republic. Bothcountries at the same time agreed not to interfere in the affairs ofCentral America. In accordance with this agreement the famousBulwer-Clayton Treaty was completed. It provided that neither countryshould obtain exclusive control over any inter-oceanic canal in CentralAmerica, nor erect fortifications along its line. In June an Americansquadron was sent to Portugal to support the United States demand forAmerican war claims of 1812. The claims were refused and the AmericanMinister was recalled from Lisbon. The American fleet was withdrawn withoutfurther hostile demonstrations. The American President, in pursuance of hispolicy of peace, proclaimed neutrality in the civil war which had arisen inMexico. 

[Sidenote: Shields' prophecy]

[Sidenote: Webster scourged]

The furious slavery debate was resumed when Clay's so-called "Omnibus Bill"was offered for final consideration. It was during this debate that SenatorShields of California uttered his famous prophecy that the United States, so far from dissolving, would within a few generations send its soldiers toAsia and into China. On July 9, Webster soothed the angry passions of thelegislators when he announced that President Taylor was dying. Webster'ssupport of the Compromise Act of 1850, with its fugitive slave bill, dimmed his Presidential prospects. It was then that Whittier wrote thescathing lines entitled "Ichabod":

 So fallen! so lost! the light withdrawn Which once he wore! The glory from his gray hairs gone For evermore!

 Revile him not! the tempter hath A snare for all; And pitying tears, not scorn and wrath, Befit his fall. 

 Oh, dumb be passion's stormy rage, When he who might Have lighted up and led his age Falls back in night!

 Scorn! would the angels laugh to mark A bright soul driven, Fiend-goaded, down the endless dark, From hope and heaven?

 Let not the land once proud of him Insult him now, Nor brand with deeper shame his dim Dishonor'd brow!

 But let its humbled sons, instead, From sea to lake, A long lament, as for the dead, In sadness make!

 Of all we loved and honor'd naught Save power remains, A fallen angel's pride of thought Still strong in chains. 

 All else is gone; from those great eyes The soul has fled: When faith is lost, when honor dies. The man is dead. 

 Then pay the reverence of old days To his dead fame! Walk backward, with averted gaze, And hide the shame!

[Sidenote: Death of Calhoun]

John Caldwell Calhoun, after a final speech on the issues of the country, died on the last day of March. He was the most prominent advocate of Statesovereignty. He was noted for his keen logic, his clear statements anddemonstrations of facts, and his profound earnestness. Webster saidconcerning him that he had "the indisputable basis of high character, unspotted integrity, and honor unimpeached. Nothing grovelling, low, ormean, or selfish came near his head, or his heart. "

[Sidenote: Death of President Taylor]

[Sidenote: Fillmore's Presidency]

On July 9, President Taylor died, and Vice-President Fillmore succeededhim. He received the resignations of all the Cabinet. His new Cabinet washeaded by Webster, Secretary of State (succeeded by Everett in 1852). Thenew fugitive slave bill was signed by Fillmore. But the law was defied inthe North as unconstitutional. Benton called the measure "the complex, cumbersome, expensive, annoying and ineffective fugitive slave law. " InBoston occurred the cases of the fugitives Shadrach, Simms and AnthonyBurns. Fillmore and Webster came to be looked upon in the North as traitorsto the anti-slavery cause. But for this Fillmore would have had a fairchance of re-election to the Presidency. 

[Sidenote: "Uncle Tom's Cabin"]

[Sidenote: "The Scarlet Letter"]

Then appeared in the "National Era" at Washington the opening chapters ofHarriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin. " A million copies of the bookwere sold in America and in Europe. It spread and intensified the feelingagainst slavery. Emerson published "Representative Men"; Hawthorne "TheScarlet Letter"; and Whittier brought out his "Songs of Labor. " Parodi, the Italian singer, made her first appearance in America. She was eclipsedpresently by Jenny Lind, whose opening concert at Castle Garden in New Yorknetted $30, 000 to her manager, Barnum. 

[Sidenote: Russian conscription]

[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein abandoned]

[Sidenote: Ibsen]

Under the stress of another Mohammedan rising against the Christians inSyria and the Balkans, Emperor Nicholas of Russia decreed a notableincrease of the Russian army. Out of every thousand persons in thepopulation seven men were mustered into the ranks in western Russia, thusadding some 180, 000 men to the total strength of the Russian force. Inmidsummer, the city of Cracow, in Poland, was nearly destroyed by fire. Later in the year occurred the death of the Polish general Bem, in Turkey, who had won such distinction while serving the cause of Hungary. Anotherattempt to win Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark was made in summer. Unaidedby the Germans, the Schleswig-Holsteiners, under the leadership ofWillisen, a former Prussian general and distinguished theoreticalstrategist, engaged a superior Danish army at Idstedt. They were beaten. Their defeat had so discouraging an effect that Prussia abandoned thestruggle in their behalf. In Norway, about this time, Henrik Ibsen cameinto prominence with a publication of his early drama "Catalina. "

[Sidenote: Dumas Fils]

In France, the younger Dumas proved himself a formidable rival of hisfather by such works as his "Trois Hommes" and "Henri de Navarre. "

[Sidenote: Death of Balzac]

[Sidenote: "The Human Comedy"]

The death of Honoré de Balzac, the celebrated French novelist, was an eventin literature. Born at Tours in 1799, he soon devoted himself to writing. His first work, the tragedy "Cromwell, " written at the age of nineteen, proved unsuccessful, as did all of his earlier novels, which appeared undera pseudonym. Various unfortunate undertakings, such as the publication ofnew editions of "La Fontaine" and "Molière, " plunged him into debt. Hereturned to writing novels. Not until late was his authorship openlyavowed. By this time several of his stories, such as "Le Dernier Chouan, ""La Femme de Trente Ans, " and his sprightly "Physiologie du Mariage, " hadachieved immense success. Still Balzac failed to turn his successes tofinancial account. He sank ever deeper in debt. In 1843 he turned upon hiscritics with a slashing "Monograph on the Parisian Press. " The major partof his striking, realistic novels was published in the famous series "LaComédie Humaine. " This in turn was divided into these seven parts: "Scenesof Private Life, " "Life in the Provinces, " "Life in Paris, " "In Politics, ""In the Army, " "In the Country, " with "Philosophical Studies" and "Studiesin Analysis. " In his preface of 1842, Balzac thus explained the scheme ofhis work:

 "In giving the general title of 'The Human Comedy' to a work begun nearly thirteen years ago, it is necessary to explain its motive, to relate its origin, and briefly sketch its plan, while endeavoring to speak of these matters as though I had no personal interest in them. This is not so difficult as many imagine. Few works conduce to much vanity; much labor conduces to great diffidence. . . . 

 "As we read the dry and discouraging list of events called History, who can have failed to note that the writers of all periods, in Egypt, Persia, Greece and Rome, have forgotten to give us the history of manners? The fragment of Petronius on the private life of the Romans excites rather than satisfies our curiosity. . . . 

 [Sidenote: The novel defined]

 "A sure grasp of the purport of this work will make it clear that I attach to common, daily facts, hidden or patent to the eye, to the acts of individual lives, and to their causes and principles, the importance which historians have hitherto ascribed to the events of public national life. . . . I have had to do what Richardson did but once. Lovelace has a thousand forms, for social corruption takes the hues of the medium in which it lives. Clarissa, on the contrary, the lovely image of impassioned virtue, is drawn in lines of distracting purity. To create a variety of Virgins it needs a Raphael. 

 "It was no small task to depict the two or three thousand conspicuous types of a period; for this is, in fact, the number presented to us by each generation, and which the Human Comedy must require. This crowd of actors, of characters, this multitude of lives, needed a setting--if I may be pardoned the expression, a gallery. Hence the division into Scenes of Private Life, of Provincial Life, of Parisian, Political, Military and Country Life. Under these six heads are classified all the studies of manners which form the history of society at large. 

 "The vastness of a plan which includes both a history and a criticism of society, an analysis of its evils, and a discussion of its principles, authorizes me, I think, in giving to my work the title 'The Human Comedy. ' Is this too ambitious?"

[Sidenote: Balzac's Works]

Altogether, Balzac brought out more than a hundred prose romances. Theycontain the most graphic pictures of the life of the French people underLouis Philippe. Balzac said of himself that he described people as theywere, while others described them as they should be. A few months beforehis death Balzac improved his circumstances by a marriage with the richCountess Hanska. On his death Victor Hugo delivered the funeral oration, while Alexandre Dumas, his rival throughout life, erected a monument to himwith his own means. 

One week later Louis Philippe, the deposed King of France, died atClaremont in England, in his seventy-seventh year. His career, from thetime that he followed the example of his father, Philippe Egalité, byfighting the battles of the Revolution, and through the vicissitudes of hisexile until he became King in 1830, was replete with stirring episodes. 

[Sidenote: Death of Gay-Lussac]

Gay-Lussac, the great French chemist and physicist, died during the sameyear. Born at Saint Léonard, Haut-Vienne, in 1788, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussacdistinguished himself early in his career as a scientist by his aerialvoyages in company with Biot for the observation of atmospheric phenomenaat great heights. In 1816, he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at thePolytechnic School of Paris, a chair which he held until 1832. Promoted toa professorship at the Jardin des Plantes, Gay-Lussac labored thereincessantly until his death. There is scarcely a branch of physical orchemical science to which Gay-Lussac did not contribute some importantdiscovery. He is noted chiefly for his experiments with gases and for thediscovery of the law of combination by volumes. 

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's presidency]

Louis Napoleon, while administering affairs as President, began to letFrance feel his power. Early in the year he created his incapable uncle, Jerome Bonaparte, a marshal of France. On August 15, his Napoleonicaspirations were encouraged by a grand banquet tendered to him at Lyons. His government felt strong enough to enact new measures for the restrictionof the liberty of the press. 

[Sidenote: Prussian constitution]

[Sidenote: South German alliance]

[Sidenote: Denmark's integrity guaranteed]

[Sidenote: Hessians resist despotism]

In Germany, as well as in Austria and Russia, similar reactionary measureswere enforced. Frederick William IV. Of Prussia for a while appearedanxious to undo the effects of his narrow policy of the previous year. Aconstitution had been adopted in Prussia on the last day of January, and onFebruary 6 the King took the constitutional oath. Austria now began to edgeher way back into the management of German affairs. Under her influenceHanover withdrew from the alliance of the three North German powers, Hanover, Saxony and Prussia. Later Saxony also withdrew. On February 27, the Kings of Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Saxony signed a joint agreement for arestoration of the German Confederation and a maintenance of the federalunion. The Emperor of Austria gave to this scheme his full support. Whenthe Bundestag met again at Frankfort, Austria insisted on her rights as aGerman State. Too late the Prussian representative advocated a Germanfederal State, with Austria excluded. The disastrous failure of Prussianintervention in Schleswig-Holstein about this time brought Prussia intofurther disrepute with the rest of Germany. England, France and Swedenunited to guarantee the integrity of Denmark. Prussia left the Duchies totheir fate. On July 19, Austria called for another assembly of the oldConfederation. Prussia and her adherents could not join. On August 17, theGerman sovereigns met on the call of Austria at Frankfort to consider aplan of federal union. The old Bundestag was reopened at Frankfort onSeptember 2, under the auspices of Austria. Prussia clung to her rivalfederal union. A bone of contention was furnished by the little State ofHesse. The Archduke of Hesse, the most reactionary of German princes, hadresumed his rule with the help of his hated Prime Minister, Hassenpflug. The financial budget of this Minister was disapproved by the HessianEstates. Hassenpflug now dissolved the Assembly and proceeded to levy taxeswithout its sanction. The people refused to pay. The courts decided againstthe government. Even the soldiers and their officers declined to lift afinger against the people. In the face of this resolute attitude the Princeand his Minister fled the country, on September 12, and appealed to the newBundestag at Frankfort for help. The restoration of the Archduke to histhrone was decreed. 

[Sidenote: Prussians intervene]

[Sidenote: Austria prepares for war]

[Sidenote: Prussia cowed]

[Sidenote: Hessia ground under]

Prussia now took a decided stand. On September 26, General von Radowitz, the originator of the North German Union, was placed at the head ofPrussia's foreign affairs. He declared for the cause of the people inHesse. The Prussian troops were withdrawn from Baden over the militaryroads leading through Hesse. To meet this situation, Francis Joseph ofAustria, in October, had a personal interview with the Kings of Bavariaand of Wurtemberg at Bregenz. It was decided to crowd the Prussians out ofBaden and Hesse by moving Bavarian and Austrian troops into thosecountries. Another personal conference between Francis Joseph and CzarNicholas at Warsaw assured to Austria the support of Russia. In vain didFrederick William send his cousin, Count Brandenburg, to win over the Czarto his side. Count Brandenburg met with so haughty a reception that hereturned chagrined, and, falling ill, died soon afterward. Both Austria andPrussia mobilized their armies. At Vienna the Austrian Prime Ministeravowed to the Ambassador of France that it was his policy to "avilir laPrussie, puis la démolir. " On November 8, the vanguards of the Prussian andAustrian troops exchanged shots. The single casualty of a bugler's horseserved only to tickle the German sense of humor. The Prussians retiredwithout further encounters. Radowitz resigned his Ministry. Otto vonManteuffel was put in charge. On November 21, the Austrian Ambassador atBerlin, Prince Schwarzenberg, demanded the evacuation of Hesse withinforty-eight hours. Prussia gave in. Manteuffel requested the favor of apersonal interview at Olmütz. Without awaiting Austria's reply he postedthither. In a treaty signed at Olmütz late in the year, Prussia agreed towithdraw her troops from Baden and Hesse, and to annul her militaryconventions with Baden, Anhalt, Mecklenburg and Brunswick. Thus miserablyended Prussia's first attempt to exclude Austria from the affairs ofGermany. As heretofore, the Prussian-Polish provinces of Posen and Silesiawere excluded from the Confederation. Austria, on the other hand, tried tobring her subjected provinces in Italy and Hungary into the GermanicConfederation. Against this proposition, repugnant to most Germans, Franceand England lodged so vigorous a protest that the plan was abandoned. TheElector of Hesse-Cassel returned to his capital. Under the protection ofthe federal bayonets he was able to bring his wretched subjects to completesubjection. 

[Sidenote: Gervinus]

[Sidenote: Richard Wagner]

[Sidenote: Lenau]

[Sidenote: Lenau's pessimism]

The profound disappointment of the German patriots at the downfall of theirpolitical ideals found its counterpart in German letters and music. GeorgGottfried Gervinus, the historian, who had taken so active a part in theattempted reorganization of Germany, turned from history to purely literarystudies. It was then that he wrote his celebrated "Study of Shakespeare. "Richard Wagner, who had escaped arrest only by fleeing from Dresden, gaveup active composition to write pamphlets and essays, and published hisremarkable essay on "The Revolution and the Fine Arts. " In the meanwhile, Franz Liszt at Weimar brought out Wagner's new operas "Lohengrin" and"Tannhäuser. " Nicolas Lenau, the most melodious of the German lyric poetsafter Heine, died insane. Lenau, whose true name was Niembsch vonStrehlenau, was a Hungarian by birth. He joined the group of German poetsamong whom were Uhland, Gustav Schwab and Count Alexander von Wurtemberg, whose literary aspirations were ridiculed by Heine as "la Romantiquedéfroquée. " Stimulated by his fellow poet Chamisso's voyage to BeringStrait, Lenau sought new inspiration in America. On his return he wrote anumber of poems on America, which were published under the title of"Atlantica. " In later years Lenau's verses, like those of Leopardi inItaly, became ever more melancholy, owing partly to inherited tendencies. In the early forties the poet's pessimism turned into absolute melancholia. 

[Sidenote: Uhland]

[Sidenote: Heyse]

After the death of Lenau the mantle of German poetry fell upon Uhland. Oneof the younger poets, Paul Heyse, at the same time made his firstappearance with the poetic drama "Francesca da Rimini. "

[Sidenote: Babism in Persia]

In this year, Mirza Ali Mohamad, the great founder of the new Bab religionin Persia, with his disciples Aka Mohamad Ali and Sayyid Husayn of Yezd, suffered martyrdom. Sayyid Husayn recanted under torture, but the Bab andAka went firmly to the place of execution. Condemned to be shot, the Babescaped death by an apparent miracle. The bullets only cut the cords thatheld him bound. He was afterward slain by a soldier. His body was recoveredby his disciples. Thus, in the words of Denison Ross, the Persian scholar, "died the great Prophet-Martyr of the Nineteenth Century, at the age oftwenty-seven, having during a period of six brief years, of which threewere spent in prison, attracted to his person and won for his faiththousands of devoted men and women throughout Persia, and having laid thefoundation to a new religion destined to become a formidable rival toIslam. " Further persecution of the Babis during this same year did much toforward the new religion. 

1851

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's measures]

President Louis Napoleon's growing mastery of France was revealed early inthe year. On January 3, as the result of his restrictions of the liberty ofthe press, the Ministry had to resign. The President deprived GeneralChangarnier, a pronounced Republican, of the command of the Paris garrison, and dissolved the Assembly, which might have objected to these measures. 

[Sidenote: Death of Spontini]

[Sidenote: Spontini's career]

Gasparo Spontini, the celebrated Italian composer, died on January 24, athis birthplace in Ancona province. Born in 1774, Spontini was intended forthe priesthood, but while still a lad ran away and took up music. Asympathetic uncle sent him to the musical conservatory at Naples, where hestudied under Sala Tritto. Spontini began his career as a dramatic composerat the opening of the century while acting as orchestral conductor atPalermo. In 1800 he brought out three operas, and wrote others for Rome andVenice, so that by the time he went to Paris in 1803 he had sixteen operasto his credit. His study of Mozart's music served to bring about a completechange in his style. Thus his one-act opera "Milton, " dedicated to EmpressJosephine, may be regarded as the first of his truly original works. Empress Josephine appointed him her chamber composer, and secured a hearingfor his new opera "The Vestal, " produced at the Grand Opera. Napoleonawarded to him the prize for the best dramatic work of that year. In 1810, Spontini became the director of the Italian opera, and there stagedMozart's "Don Giovanni. " Dismissed in 1812, on charges of financialirregularity, he was reappointed as court composer by Louis XVIII. Hisstage pieces in glorification of the Restoration only achieved a _succèsd'estime_. He was glad to accept an appointment to Berlin as court composerfor Frederick William III. There he brought out "Lalla Rookh, " "Alcidor, "and "Agnes Hohenstauffen, " none of which found currency in other cities. His overweening conduct gradually made his position at Berlin untenable. Hewas finally driven out by the hostile demonstrations of his audiences, andretired, in 1841, a broken man. After a few years spent in Paris hereturned to Italy, where the Pope created him a count. Spontini returned tohis birthplace of Magolati village only to die. 

[Sidenote: Prussian events]

[Sidenote: Schleswig-Holstein again]

[Sidenote: Metternich returns]

[Sidenote: Bismarck]

[Sidenote: The Dreibund]

[Sidenote: Austrian-Turkish agreement]

In Germany, King William IV. At Berlin celebrated the 150th anniversary ofthe Prussian monarchy on January 18. A colossal statue of Frederick theGreat was made for this occasion by the sculptor Christian Rauch. At thesame time a further humiliation upon Prussia was inflicted by the militaryoccupation of Schleswig-Holstein by Austria. The Austrian troops, who cameto put a definite stop to hostilities in those provinces, marched intoSchleswig-Holstein over a pontoon bridge laid by the retreating columns ofthe Prussians. As a concession to outraged German feeling, representativesfrom Schleswig-Holstein were to be readmitted to the Diet of the GermanicConfederation. This superannuated Diet met again at Frankfort as in thedays of the Holy Alliance. Before this a conference of Ministers had beenheld at Dresden, at which Prussia was represented by Baron Lamsikell, whilePrince Felix Schwarzenberg appeared for Austria. With the powerful backingof Russia, Austria could force the hand of Prussia into reacceptance of theold order of things. As if to emphasize this, old Prince Metternich madehis reappearance in Vienna as if nothing had happened. On May 30, theConfederate Diet met again at Frankfort. Baron Bismarck was appointed as adelegate from Prussia. On the day after the opening of the Diet, thesovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia met at Olmütz to renew theformer alliance of these countries. A period of reaction set in. ThePrussian Constitution was modified. The Emperor of Austria began to undothe reforms granted by the Liberal Constitution of 1849. On August 20, hearrogated to himself absolute powers in a series of Cabinet letters, inwhich he declared that his Ministers were "responsible to no otherpolitical authority than the throne, " while the Reichsrath was to be merely"considered as the council of the throne. " Before this the Austrian andTurkish Governments had come to a settlement respecting Hungarian andPolish refugees in Turkey. With the exception of Kossuth and seven othersof the foremost leaders of the Hungarian revolution, a so-called amnestywas extended to all refugees, provided they did not set foot in Hungary. About this time another popular rising occurred in Bosnia. A Turkish armywas sent to suppress it, and Austrian troops took up their station on thefrontier. Many of the exiled Hungarians betook themselves to America. Kossuth first went to England. A magnificent reception awaited him there. 

[Sidenote: Palmerston rebuked]

[Sidenote: Boers lose Orange Colony]

Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary, in the meanwhile hadcompromised himself with his colleagues in the Cabinet by his independentthreats of interference in regard to the Hungarian refugees in Turkey. Queen Victoria sent a letter to Prime Minister Russell containing thesesignificant words: "The Queen expects to be kept informed by LordPalmerston of what passes between him and the foreign Ministers, beforeimportant decisions are taken based upon that intercourse; to receive theforeign despatches in good time; and to have the drafts for her approvalsent to her in sufficient time to make herself acquainted with theircontents before they be sent off. " Lord Palmerston replied: "I have taken acopy of this memorandum of the Queen, and will not fail to attend to thedirections which it contains. " Some of the most troublesome foreigncomplications, as often before, first came up for settlement in theColonial Office. Thus, in March a British force under Sir Harry Smithdefeated a commando of Boers at Boomplaatz. Other Boer forces weredispersed. The British flag was hoisted beyond the Orange River and theannexation of that territory to Great Britain was accomplished. 

[Sidenote: Second Burmese war]

[Sidenote: Fall of Rangoon]

In India, war was renewed with the King of Burma. As usual, the troublestarted with complaints of the British merchants at Rangoon calling for theprotection of their country. Lord Dalhousie sent Commodore Lambert toRangoon on the "Fox. " Lambert seized one of the ships of the Burmese kinglying in the river, promising to restore it on receipt of ten thousandrupees as compensation for the injured merchants. In reply the Burmeseopened fire on the "Fox. " Now all Burmese ports were declared in a state ofblockade. Lord Dalhousie sent nineteen steamers and 6, 000 men to Rangoonunder General Godwin. Rangoon was captured after a heavy cannonade. Thethree terraces of the great Pagoda there were carried by storm, and theBritish flag hoisted over the golden dome of the sacred Pagoda. The captureof Rangoon was followed by that of Bassie on the Irawaddy, and Prome. Thewhole of Pegu was annexed to the British Empire. 

[Sidenote: Gold found in Australia]

In Australia great excitement was created by the discovery of gold invarious places. As early as February, gold was found in New South Wales byreturned gold seekers from California. A great number of immigrants rushedinto that province. In July, a squatter on Meroo Creek found a mass ofvirgin gold weighing above a hundred pounds. Thereupon the famous goldfields of Ballarat were opened in Victoria. In October, gold discoverieswere made near Melbourne surpassing all others. As a result of the greattide of immigration that swept into Victoria that province separated itselffrom New South Wales. Melbourne became the capital of Victoria. 

[Sidenote: Crystal Palace show]

In England, throughout the summer, a great international exposition in theso-called "Crystal Palace" erected on Hyde Park attracted visitors from farand wide. A special ode by Alfred Tennyson was sang at the opening:

 Uplift a thousand voices full and sweet, In this wide hall with earth's invention stored, And praise the invisible universal Lord, Who lets once more in peace the nations meet, Where Science, Art and Labor have outpoured Their myriad horns of plenty at our feet. 

The Exposition was the most ambitious affair of the kind held so far. Thebuilding, which covered an area of nineteen acres, cost about £180, 000. Thetotal receipts of the Exposition were more than a half million pounds. Atone time it was calculated nearly a hundred thousand visitors wereassembled under its roof. The difficult problem how to place the exhibitsof various countries was settled by awarding the choice places in anarrangement according to Mercator's projection of the map of the world. Even then Spain refused to be represented at the Exposition unless she wereprovided with an entrance distinct from that of Portugal. 

[Sidenote: Civil war in Portugal]

Portugal was scarcely in a condition to share in any exhibition ofindustrial progress. Another outbreak of the persistent conflict betweenthe Septembrists and Cabralists broke out in April. An insurrection inOporto declared for the fugitive Duke of Saldanha. On April 29, he arrivedat Oporto. The movement assumed such threatening proportions that QueenMaria da Gloria dismissed Count Thomar de Costa Cabral, and made SaldanhaPrime Minister. 

[Sidenote: South American convulsions]

In Portugal's former colonial possessions a civil war, no less wearing, wasmaintained. On October 2, General Urquiza of the Argentine Republic, havingjoined forces with Brazil and Montevideo, compelled General Oribe tocapitulate at Montevideo. This ended the nine years' investment ofMontevideo. Later in the year General Urquiza overthrew General Rosas atMontevideo and proclaimed himself military dictator. In Chile, about thesame time that a violent earthquake wrecked more than four hundred housesat Valparaiso, a military insurrection broke out under Colonel Ourriola. Ina sharp engagement between the government troops and the insurgentsOurriola with three hundred of his followers was killed. The insurrectionwas prolonged by General José Maria de la Cruz. Between four and fivethousand men were killed in the desultory engagements that followed. Atlast the revolt was crushed by the decisive defeat of General Cruz in thebattle of Longamilla. 

[Sidenote: Extension of railways]

In China, the threatening Taiping rebellion gathered force. In Siam, theunusual spectacle was beheld of the simultaneous enthronement of two kingsas rulers of that country. The progress of modern civilization was attestedby the opening of a steam railway in Egypt between the cities of Cairo andAlexandria. In Russia, too, a straight line of railroad was laid over thelong stretch between St. Petersburg and Moscow, and work was begun onothers no less ambitious. 

[Sidenote: American filibusters pardoned]

[Sidenote: American yacht victory]

[Sidenote: Kossuth in America]

[Sidenote: Death of Fenimore Cooper]

[Sidenote: Cooper's novels]

The fears of unpleasant complications between the United States and Spain, by reason of Cuban filibustering expeditions, were allayed by a generalpardon extended to the American filibusters on the part of the Queen ofSpain. On August 11, Lopez had landed with more filibusters in Cuba. He wascaptured shortly after his landing and was shot. The same fate was sharedby his Cuban followers. Only to the American adventurers who accompaniedthe expedition did the Spanish Queen's pardon apply. An event of joyfulinterest to Americans was the victory of the American schooner-yacht"America" over all her English competitors in the yacht races at Cowes onOctober 22. She carried off the trophy of an international cup, which, under the name of the America's Cup, was destined to remain beyond thereach of English racing yachts throughout the rest of the century. Not longafter this the visit of two distinguished Europeans excited generalinterest in America. One was Lola Montez, the famous Spanish dancer, whoserelations with King Louis I. Of Bavaria had resulted in the loss of hiscrown. The other was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, who had beenbrought from England on an American vessel. His reception in Americasurpassed even that which had been accorded to him in England. During thissame year in America occurred the deaths of Audubon, the great naturalist;Gallaudet, the benefactor of deaf-mutes, and James Fenimore Cooper, thenovelist. Cooper was born in Burlington, New Jersey, the son of a wealthyfather, who settled on the shores of Lake Otsego in New York. Afterattending Yale College for three years, Cooper entered the United Statesnavy as a common sailor. He was promoted after some time to the rank ofmidshipman and eventually to that of lieutenant. On his marriage in 1811 heleft the service, and soon began his career as an author. His first novel, "Precaution, " was not promising. In "The Spy, " which appeared in 1821, hegave the first indications of his peculiar originality. It made Cooper'sreputation as an American author. The knowledge that Cooper had acquired inhis father's estate on the borders of the wilderness and later on the seawas turned to account in his many tales of Indian life and sea stories, which took his contemporaries by storm. Most famous among them are:"Deerslayer, " "The Last of the Mohicans, " "Pathfinder, " "Pioneers, ""Prairie, " and the sea tales "The Pilot" and "Red Rover. " His strictures onAmerican customs in "Homeward Bound" and "Home as Found" brought upon himmuch newspaper abuse. About the time of Cooper's death, Francis Parkmanpublished his "Conspiracy of Pontiac, " Longfellow his "Golden Legend, "while Nathaniel Hawthorne brought out "The House of the Seven Gables. "

[Sidenote: Tennyson, poet laureate]

In England, Alfred Tennyson had been selected as the worthiest successor ofWilliam Wordsworth in the office of Poet Laureate. He showed hisappreciation of the honor by his famous dedication to Queen Victoria in"The Keepsake. "

 Revered, beloved--O you that hold A nobler office upon earth Than arms, or power of brain, or birth Could give the warrior kings of old, Victoria--since your Royal grace To one of less desert allows This laurel greener from the brows Of him that utter'd nothing base:

 And should your greatness, and the care That yokes with empire, yield you time To make demand of modern rhyme If aught of ancient worth be there;

 Then--while a sweeter music wakes, And thro' wild March the throstle calls, Where all about your palace walls The sunlit almond-blossom shakes--

 Take, Madam, this poor book of song; For tho' the faults were thick as dust In vacant chambers, I could trust Your kindness. May you rule us long, And leave us rulers of your blood As noble till the latest day! May children of our children say, "She wrought her people lasting good;

 "Her court was pure; her life serene; God gave her peace; her land reposed; A thousand claims to reverence closed In her as Mother, Wife, and Queen;

 "And statesmen at her council met Who knew the seasons when to take Occasion by the hand, and make The bounds of freedom wider yet

 "By shaping some august decree, Which kept her throne unshaken still, Broad-based upon her people's will, And compass'd by the inviolate sea. "

[Sidenote: Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]

Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, daughter of Godwin and wife of the poetShelley, died during this year. She wrote some half dozen novels andstories, the best of which was "Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus. "The weird story, which was written in 1816 in a spirit of friendly rivalrywith Shelley and Byron, achieved great popularity. This was largely byreason of the originality of the author's conception of the artificialcreation of a human monster which came to torment its maker. Mrs. Shelley'slast book was an account of rambles in Germany and Italy. She also broughtout a careful edition of her husband's complete works. 

[Sidenote: Death of Turner]

[Sidenote: "The Slave Ship"]

Joseph M. W. Turner, the most celebrated English artist of the NineteenthCentury, died in this same year. Born in 1775, he displayed his artistictalents at an early age. At the outset of the Nineteenth Century heachieved a national reputation by his "Battle of the Nile, " but did notreach the apotheosis of his fame until Ruskin sang his praises. One of hismost discussed pictures was that of the "Slave Ship, " which has in turnexcited the most scathing ridicule and the most extravagant admiration. Thus George Inness, the American artist, wrote of him: "Turner's 'SlaveShip' is the most infernal piece of clap-trap ever painted. There isnothing in it. " Thackeray confessed with delightful frankness: "I don'tknow whether it is sublime or ridiculous. " Mark Twain, the Americanhumorist, has voiced both of these views at once, whereas Ruskin hasrecorded:

[Sidenote: Ruskin's estimate]

"I believe if I were reduced to rest Turner's immortality upon any singlework, I should choose 'The Slave Ship. ' Its daring conception, ideal in thehighest sense of the word, is based on the purest truth, and wrought outwith the concentrated knowledge of a life. Its color is absolutely perfect, not one false or morbid hue in any part or line, and so modulated thatevery square inch of canvas is a perfect composition; its drawing asaccurate as fearless; the ship buoyant, bending, and full of motion; itstones as true as they are wonderful; and the whole picture dedicated to themost sublime of subjects and impressions (completing thus the perfectsystem of all truth, which we have shown to be formed by Turner'sworks)--the power, majesty, and deathfulness of the open, deep, illimitablesea. "

[Sidenote: Some Turner prices]

The picture, having first been acquired by Ruskin, finally went to America. About this time Turner's canvases began to command fabulous prices. "VanGoyen Looking for a Subject, " sold in 1833 for a few hundred pounds, wasresold in London thirty years later for 2, 510 guineas. At a Turner sale in1878 hitherto unsold canvases and unfinished sketches brought over £73, 000, or about $365, 000. Over a hundred of Turner's paintings and as manysketches and drawings, dating from 1790 to 1850, are now in the NationalGallery of London. 

[Sidenote: Death of Sebastiani]

[Sidenote: Corsican diplomacy]

[Sidenote: Death of Soult]

[Sidenote: Soult's early successes]

[Sidenote: First Peer of France]

[Sidenote: Foremost soldier of Empire]

In France, Marshal Horace François Sebastiani, one of the favorites ofNapoleon the Great, died on July 21 at Paris. Sebastiani was a Corsicanlike Napoleon. He was identified with his great countryman's career frombeginning to end. A soldier of fortune, like his illustrious chief, hedistinguished himself chiefly by his Machiavellian talents for diplomacy. It was he who stirred up Napoleon's first war with England by his famousmission to the East to lay bare England's weakness in that quarter. Afterthis, Sebastiani's name figured in many confidential missions. By hismachinations at Constantinople, at one time he embroiled both England andRussia with Turkey, when such a diversion came most welcome to Napoleon, who was then fighting on the frontiers of Poland. On the downfall ofNapoleon, Sebastiani was temporarily intrusted with the management ofaffairs at Paris. His conduct at this time as at all others laid him opento charges of double dealing and treachery. Napoleon showed hisappreciation of Sebastiani's services by remembering him in his will. Thefamous old marshal's death gave to Prince Louis Napoleon a welcomeopportunity to recall the lost glories of the First Empire. A still betterchance was presently afforded. For, soon after Sebastiani, Marshal Soultdied at château St. Amans, on November 26, in his eighty-second year. Thedeath of this distinguished Marshal-General of France served to recall someof the brightest glories of Napoleonic days. Born in 1769 at St. Amans-la-Bastide, Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult joined the royal army ofFrance at the age of sixteen. He served as a sous-lieutenant under MarshalsLukner and Ustine, and so distinguished himself that he soon won his stepsand was attached as adjutant-general to Marshal Lefebvre's staff. As abrigadier-general he turned the tide of victory at the battle of Fluress. After this he was intrusted with the command of a division, and took partin all the campaigns in Germany, and through the Swiss and Italiancampaigns waged by Massèna. In a sortie from Genoa he was taken prisoner. Set at liberty after the battle of Marengo, he returned to France at thepeace of Amiens, and was made one of the four colonels of the guard of theconsuls. Napoleon Bonaparte, though by no means fond of Soult, was quick todetect his great talents as a soldier. After this a prominent part wasassigned to Soult in all of Napoleon's campaigns. He was one of the firstof the generals selected for the new rank of marshal in 1804, and was thefirst of the marshals to be advanced to the dignity of a peer of France. In1805, Soult led the main column of the Grand Army, which gained theAustrian rear, and thus brought about the disastrous capitulation of Ulm. On the field of Austerlitz he was charged with the execution of thebrilliant manoeuvre which decided the fate of that battle. His share inthe battle of Jena was scarcely less distinguished. After this victory, Soult defeated Kalkreuth, captured Magdeburg, and put to flight Blücher andLestocq. On the bloody field of Eylau, Soult's ardor helped to secure thesemblance of victory for France. In 1808 he was sent to secure the Frenchconquest of Spain. He defeated the Spaniards at Manuessa and fought thebattle at Coruña where Sir John Moore lost his life. The English armyhaving fled, Soult overran Galicia and the north of Portugal, where hestormed Oporto. On the landing of Wellington he retreated before thatcommander into Spain, but after the battle of Talavera once more drove theSpaniards and English before him into Portugal. 

[Sidenote: Last stand at Toulouse]

[Sidenote: Minister of war]

[Sidenote: Marshal-General of France]

After the loss of Badajoz and Ciudad Rodrigo, Soult was recalled to aidNapoleon in Germany after the catastrophe of Moscow. He was the Emperor'schief-of-staff in the battles of Luetzen and Bautzen. On Wellington'sinvasion of France, Soult was sent against him. Marching through the passesof the Pyrenees, he succeeded in inflicting great losses on the English. His attempts to secure Pampeluna and San Sebastian having failed, Soult wascompelled to face Wellington on the soil of France. His dispirited troopswere driven back at Toulouse, where he held his ground tenaciously untilthe allies had lost 5, 000 men. At the Peace of Paris he signed a separatesuspension of arms, and was rewarded for this by Louis XVIII. With thecross of St. Louis and the portfolio of the Ministry of War, but during theHundred Days he declared for Napoleon, and once more served as hischief-of-staff at Waterloo. On his return from exile in 1819 his marshal'sbaton was restored to him. Charles X. Also confirmed him in his rank aspeer. Louis Philippe twice made him Minister of War. At the coronation ofQueen Victoria in 1838, Soult was elected to represent France. When heretired into private life, nearly ten years later, the King revived for himthe ancient dignity of Marshal-General of France. 

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's aspirations]

[Sidenote: Maupas]

[Sidenote: Emphatic disavowals]

By the time of Marshal Soult's death, the storm that arose over LouisNapoleon's abrupt removal of Changarnier had been suppressed with a firmhand. The majority in the Assembly who voted for a revision of theConstitution was found to be ninety-seven less than the three-fourthsrequired, and all further opposition of the Assembly against LouisNapoleon's measures was denounced as factious. Maupas, the obsequious Chiefof Police, discovered dangerous plots against the government and againstthe person of the President. Fears of possible Napoleonic aspirations hadbeen silenced by Louis Napoleon's energetic protests. He himself statedpublicly: "They think that I wish to revive Napoleon. What could I reviveof Napoleon? One sole thing--a crime. I am not a genius--so I cannot copyNapoleon; but I am an honest man--so I will imitate Washington. My name, the name of Bonaparte, will be inscribed on two pages in the history ofFrance. On the first there will be crime and glory; on the second proprietyand honor. And the second, perhaps, will be worth the first. Why? Because, if Napoleon is the greater, Washington is a better man. Between the guiltyhero and the good citizen I choose the good citizen. Such is my ambition. "

[Sidenote: A last denial]

[Sidenote: The Coup d'État]

Later, after a caricaturist had been imprisoned and fined for depictingLouis Bonaparte in the act of shooting at the French Constitution as atarget, Morigny, Minister of the Interior, declared in the Council that "aguardian of public power should never so violate the law, as otherwise hewould be--" "A dishonest man, " interposed President Napoleon. Such was thesituation on the eve of December 2. As Victor Hugo put it, in the openingchapter of his "History of a Crime": "People had long suspected LouisBonaparte; but long continued suspicion blunts the intellect and it wearsitself out by fruitless alarms. " On December 1, the session of the Assemblywas devoted to a discussion on municipal law. It terminated with a peacefultribunal vote. Prince Louis Napoleon held an informal reception at theElysées. During that night, Louis Napoleon, in complicity with the bastardprinces, De Morny, Valevsky, Saint-Arnaud, Persigny, Maupas and others, having made sure of the commanding officers of the troops on duty, causedthe arrest before daylight of all the leading Republicans. It was allegedafterward that Colonel Espinasse, who was in charge of the soldiersstationed at the Legislative Palace, received 100, 000 francs and thepromise of a general's rank for his part in the affair. 

[Sidenote: "Boxed up"]

At the stroke of five in the morning, columns of soldiery filed out of allthe Paris barracks and occupied the commanding positions where barricadeshad been thrown up in former times. At the same time a score of detectivesin closed carriages apprehended the leading members of the Assembly. Amongthem were Cavaignac, Changarnier, Thiers, Bedeau, General Lamorcière, theActing-Secretary of War, and Charras. The government printing establishmentand all the newspaper offices were occupied by troops. Soldiers were placedat the side of the printers, who were then ordered to set up a series ofproclamations. Before six in the morning bands of bill stickers, hired forthe occasion, posted them up all over Paris. At breakfast time, whensixteen deputies and seventy-eight citizens had been arrested and were heldsecure, the Duke of Morny reported the success of the undertaking to LouisNapoleon with the two words: "Boxed up. " Louis Napoleon hereupon issued thefollowing decree in the name of the French People:

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon's manifesto]

 "ARTICLE I. --The National Assembly is dissolved. 

 "II. --Universal suffrage is re-established. The law of May 31 is abrogated. 

 "III. --The French People are convoked in their electoral districts from the 14th December to the 21st December following. 

 "IV. --The State of Siege is decreed in the district of the first Military Division. 

 "V. --The Council of State is dissolved. 

 "VI. --The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of this decree. 

 "Given at the Palace of the Elysée, 2d December, 1851. 

 "LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 

 "DE MORNY, Minister of the Interior. "

[Sidenote: A Napoleonic address]

Together with this decree Louis Napoleon issued this appeal to the people:

 "FRENCHMEN! The present situation can last no longer. Every day which passes enhances the dangers of the country. The Assembly, which ought to be the firmest support of order, has become a focus of conspiracies. The patriotism of three hundred of its members has been unable to check its fatal tendencies. Instead of making laws in the public interest it forges arms for civil war; it attacks the power which I hold directly from the People, it encourages all bad passions, it compromises the tranquillity of France; I have dissolved it, and I constitute the whole People a judge between it and me. The men who have ruined two monarchies wish to tie my hands in order to overthrow the Republic; my duty is to frustrate their treacherous schemes, to maintain the Republic, and to save the Country by appealing to the solemn judgment of France. 

 "Such is my firm conviction. If you share it, declare it by your votes. If, on the contrary, you prefer a government without strength, Monarchical or Republican, borrowed I know not from what past, or from what chimerical future, answer in the negative. 

 "But if you believe that the cause of which my name is the symbol--that is to say, France regenerated by the Revolution of '89, and organized by the Emperor, is to be still your own, proclaim it by sanctioning the powers which I ask from you. 

 "Then France and Europe will be preserved from anarchy, obstacles will be removed, rivalries will have disappeared, for all will respect, in the decision of the People, the decree of Providence. 

 "Given at the Palace of the Elysée, 2d December, 1851. LOUIS NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. "

[Sidenote: The Second December]

[Sidenote: Summary executions]

[Sidenote: Proscription]

During the same day the Assembly was dissolved by troops. Attempts atpublic protests were roughly suppressed. A few barricades were thrown up, but the crowds were quickly dispersed, and those agitators who were caughtwere hurried off to prison. On December 4, the troops were ordered out inforce, and proceeded to clear the streets. Nearly a thousand persons wereshot during the course of the day. The insurrection was stamped out. A fewdays later, when the National Assembly tried to meet again, a hundred andeighty members were arrested. Then appeared two parallel lists of names. One contained the names of those who could be counted on for the purposesof Prince Napoleon. They were all created members of a consultativecommittee, which was to sit "until the reorganization of the legislativeparty. " The other list contained the names of those who were proscribedfrom French territory, from Algeria, and from the colonies "for the sake ofpublic safety. " Among them were Victor Hugo, Thiers, Baune, Laboulaye, Theodore Bac, and Lamarque. Many hundreds of compromised Republicans fledbefore they were proscribed. Others were transported across the borderswithout any publication of the fact. Still others were summarily shot inthe barrack courtyards. 

[Sidenote: The plebiscite]

[Sidenote: Foreign congratulations]

[Sidenote: Palmerston dismissed]

On December 21, the result of the so-called popular plebiscite wasannounced. Louis Napoleon had been elected President for ten years by analleged vote of 7, 473, 431 ays against 641, 341 nays. He was clothed withmonarchical power and was authorized to issue a constitution for France. Outside of France the results of the _coup d'état_ were received withequanimity. Pope Pius IX. Went to a review held by General Gémeau in Romeand begged him to congratulate Prince Louis Napoleon for him. LordPalmerston in London, it was stated, told the French Ambassador that he"entirely approved of what had been done, and thought the President of theFrench fully justified. " The British Ambassador at Paris was instructed tomake no change in his relations with the French Government, and to donothing that might wear the appearance of English interference. It appearedthat Lord Palmerston had once more acted on his own initiative. He wasrequested to resign. Before long the dismissed Minister had an opportunityof showing the government how formidable an adversary he could be. 

1852

[Sidenote: Louis Napoleon in power]

[Sidenote: Empire foreshadowed]

On the first day of January, Louis Napoleon was reinstalled as President ofFrance in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The day was made a public holiday. On New Year's Eve the Diplomatic Corps had congratulated Prince Napoleon atthe Palace of the Tuileries. A few days later some of the more prominent ofthe President's opponents, among them Changarnier and Lamorcière, wereconducted to the Belgian frontier. On January 10, the President banishedeighty-three members of the Legislative Assembly. Some six hundred personswho had been arrested for resisting the _coup d'état_ at the same time weretaken to Havre for transportation to Cayenne. On January 14, the newconstitution was made public. All real powers were vested in the President. He had the initiative for all new measures, as well as the veto ondeliberations of both Senate and Legislative Assembly. The Senators were tobe appointed by him. The sessions of both bodies were to be held behindclosed doors. The impotence of the legislators was offset by their princelysalaries. Senators were to receive 30, 000 francs per year, while theDeputies drew half that sum. The actual sessions of the Legislature werelimited to three years. The President himself was to draw an annual salaryof 12, 000, 000 francs. The money for these expenditures was raised byextraordinary means. A decree on January 22 confiscated all former crownlands and the estates of the Princes of Orleans. The press was gagged by adecree prohibiting the publication of any newspaper without the sanction ofthe government. All liberty poles were chopped down, and the motto of"Liberté, Fraternité, Egalité, " was tabooed. On February 29, the electionsfor the Legislative Assembly were held. The government nominated all thecandidates, and practically all were elected. Late in March, Prince LouisNapoleon opened the Senate and Corps Legislatif. His address throughout wascouched in the language of a monarch. While he conceded the intention ofthe republican reforms to be harmless, he suggested the possibility that hemight be called upon "to demand from France in the interest of peace a newtitle, by which the powers that have been conferred upon me may beconfirmed once for all. " A Cabinet was formed of the President's mostdevoted followers, under the nominal leadership of Persigny. One of thefirst votes of the Legislature, after fixing the President's salary, was agrant of 80, 000, 000 francs for public works wherewith to occupy thelaboring classes. This done, the President made a triumphal tour of France. The government officials saw to it that he received a magnificent welcomewherever he appeared. 

[Sidenote: Death of Schwarzenberg]

[Sidenote: Buol Schauenstein, Austrian Minister]

In the neighboring countries the progress of events in France created lessmisgivings than had the doings of the Republic. In Austria, EmperorFrancis Joseph further undid the work of the recent revolution by his totalabolition of the rights of trial by jury on January 15. Shortly afterward, Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, the Prime Minister, died in Vienna. He was anephew of Charles Philippe, the famous Prince of Schwarzenberg whonegotiated the marriage of Napoleon and Marie Louise, and later led theallied armies against Napoleon. In 1848, Prince Felix Schwarzenbergcommanded a division in Italy. Later he joined Windischgrätz in themilitary occupation of Jena, and soon took charge of the civiladministration of the empire, in which he continued until his death. He wassucceeded by Count Buol von Schauenstein. 

[Sidenote: German affairs]

[Sidenote: The Danish succession]

[Sidenote: German fleet sold]

Throughout the year the affairs in Germany were tranquil. Shortly after thedeath of the old King of Hanover, a tariff union was established withRussia, while a postal and telegraph union was extended to all the GermanStates. Early in the year the King of Prussia revived the old Council ofState as it was before 1848. The Constitution underwent new modifications. In May, a conference of the great Powers met at London to treat of certainGerman affairs. An agreement was signed practically assuring theindependence of the Swiss district of Neuchâtel, which had revolted fromPrussia in 1848. Three days later, on May 8, a protocol was signedconcerning the Danish succession. This intricate problem continued to vexthe souls of diplomats. Lord Palmerston, when interrogated about it, saidthat there were only three persons who understood the Danish succession. One was the Queen Dowager of Denmark, the second was God Almighty, and thethird was a German professor, but he had gone mad. While attempting tosettle the terms of the succession the five great Powers and Sweden signeda treaty guaranteeing the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The throne wasgranted to Christian of Sonderburg-Glücksburg. Christian, Duke ofAugustenburg-Holstein, consented to surrender his rights for a moneyconsideration. The treaty was not recognized by the German Confederation, but was accepted by Hanover, Saxony and Wurtemberg. In June, Germans hadthe humiliating experience of seeing their fleet, the formation of whichwas undertaken in 1848, sold at public auction. All aspirations for seapower had been abandoned by the Bund. In July, Prussia's representative atthe Bund meetings, Baron Bismarck, was sent as envoy to Austria. Throughhis efforts at Vienna the Austrian Government was prevailed upon to jointhe German Zollverein and to sign commercial treaties. 

[Sidenote: Death of Froebel]

During this year in Germany, Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, the Germaneducator, died at Marienthal on July 21, in his seventieth year. After anunsettled and aimless youth, he started teaching, and soon developed asystem which has become famous under the name of Kindergarten (children'sgarden). It was intended to convert schooling into play, which, accordingto Froebel, is the child's most serious business. The first Kindergartenwas opened in 1840 at Blankenburg, Prussia. Meeting at first with littleencouragement, it gradually gained a footing in most civilized countries. Froebel was largely assisted in the propagation of his ideas by theBaroness Marenholz-Buelow. He was the author of "Die Menschenerziehung"(Human Education) and "Mutter und Koselieder, " a book of nursery songs andpictures for children. 

[Sidenote: "Prometheus" affair]

In England, the dismissal of Lord Palmerston left the Foreign Office in anembarrassing position as regarded Louis Napoleon's government. Otherembarrassments were likewise bequeathed. Thus, on January 10, LordPalmerston's successor, Lord Granville, had to disavow to the AmericanMinister the act of the British man-of-war "Empress, " which had fired intothe American steamer "Prometheus. " England offered an apology which wasaccepted. 

[Sidenote: "The Third of February"]

The caustic comments of the English press on French affairs, together withthe free utterances of Victor Hugo and other French exiles on English soil, gave great offence to Louis Napoleon. Count Valevski's diplomatic protestsfound support in the British House of Lords. It was then that AlfredTennyson, undeterred by the supposed reserve of his Poet Laureateship, wrote the invective lines entitled "The Third of February. "

[Sidenote: "Henry Esmond"]

About the same time Thackeray brought out his "History of Henry Esmond, " amasterpiece of English historical fiction. In the dedication to LordAshburton, Thackeray thus announced his departure for America. "My volumewill reach you when the author is on his voyage to a country where yourname is as well known as here. "

[Sidenote: Transvaal's independence recognized]

In South Africa, at the Sand River Convention on January 17, the Britishvirtually accepted the independence of the Transvaal. In the meanwhile thefifth war with the Kaffirs was begun by Sir George Cathcart. Incidentally acrushing defeat was inflicted on the Basutos at Guerea. Toward the close ofthe year the situation grew so alarming that martial law was proclaimed bythe Governor of Cape Colony. All inhabitants were bidden to the frontierfor the defence of the colonies. 

[Sidenote: Progress of Taiping rebellion]

In China, the Taiping rebellion grew ever more threatening. Early in theyear Tien Wang decided to march out of Kmaysi to invade the vast untouchedprovinces of Central China. He averred that he had "the divine commissionto possess the Empire as its true sovereign. " The rebels now became knownas Taipings, after a town of that name in Kwangsi province. Tien Wang beganhis northern march in April. Irritated by the conduct of Tien Wang'slieutenants, the Triads took a secret departure and made peace with theImperialists. Their secession put an end to the purpose of attacking Cantonwhich Tien Wang had cherished, and he made an assault on Kweisling. TheImperial Commissioners at that place having beaten them back failed topursue and conquer them, and they advanced unopposed across the vastprovince of Hoonan. At Changsha they encountered strong resistance. After asiege of eighty days they abandoned the attack and marched northward. Theycaptured Yoochow, which was an important arsenal, and soon afterwardHankow, Manchong and How-Kong were taken. 

[Sidenote: South American struggles]

In the Argentine Republic, the civil war and its consequent upheavals werecontinued. On February 3, General Urquiza, commanding the combined army ofEntre Rios and Brazil, defeated General Rosas at Monte Cazeros, "the gateof Buenos Ayres. " The city capitulated and the civil war seemed ended. Urquiza announced himself as provisional dictator. On May 31, he waselected Provisional President, while Vincente Lopez was elected Governor ofBuenos Ayres. One month later, Urquiza, having won over the army by asudden _coup d'état_, seized the reins of government as dictator. His firstmeasure was to acknowledge the independence of Paraguay. In September, Urquiza's refusal to recognize the political and commercial pre-eminence ofBuenos Ayres produced another revolt. On September 11, the people of BuenosAyres, under the leadership of Bartholomay Mitré, seceded from theconfederacy. Urquiza was compelled to leave Buenos Ayres and proceeded toSanta Fé, where he was acknowledged as President by the thirteen otherprovinces. They bound themselves by a treaty to secure the free navigationof all rivers flowing into the La Plata. On November 20, the Congress ofthe Confederation met at Santa Fé and invested Urquiza with full powers tosuppress the revolution in Buenos Ayres. Urquiza's blockade of the city bysea led to another revolution within the walls of Buenos Ayres. GeneralPintos assumed charge and Urquiza withdrew. 

 [Illustration: EXECUTION OF SEPOY REBELS Painted by Verestchagin]

[Sidenote: Death of Gogol]

[Sidenote: "Dead Souls"]

Nicholas Vasilievitch Gogol died on March 4 at Moscow. Born in 1810, atSoroczince, in the district of Poltava, he began his career as a writerwith poems and a metrical tragedy, written in the dialect of Little Russia. To this period belongs his ballad "Two Fishes. " After travelling inGermany, he was called to a professorship at the patriotic institute of St. Petersburg, where he wrote his famous prose romances in Greater Russiandialect. His "Evenings at a Farm" admitted him to the literary circles ofthe capital and brought him the friendship of his fellow poet, Pushkin. Hewrote a series of short stories, treating of life in the Russian provinces, and among the middle class, which were subsequently published in thecollection of four volumes, entitled "Mirgorod. " In 1833, Gogol brought outhis satirical comedy, "The Commissioner, " in which he laid bare theall-pervading corruption of Russian official life. After prolonged travelsthrough Germany, France, Italy and Palestine, Gogol returned to Russia andsettled near St. Petersburg. He wrote more short stories and descriptionsof travel, and finally published the incomplete satirical novel, "DeadSouls, " which is the best of his works. In this novel he handled Russianlife fearlessly, with satirical comments on the weak points of Russiansociety. It is stated that he finished the story before his death, butburned the manuscript. When he died he was acknowledged as the best writerof satirical prose in Russia. 

[Sidenote: Palmerston's revenge]

[Sidenote: Earl of Derby Premier]

On February 20, Lord Palmerston was enabled to make his former colleaguesin the Cabinet feel his power. Owing to general vague apprehensions thatPrince Louis Napoleon might revive his illustrious namesake's projectsagainst England, a cry had arisen for the strengthening of the nationaldefences. To satisfy this demand, Lord John Russell brought in a localmilitia bill. Lord Palmerston promptly moved an amendment for a generalvolunteer force instead of local militia, thus totally altering the natureof the bill. The amendment was sustained by a majority of eleven votes. Lord John Russell's Ministry thereupon resigned, and the Earl of Derby wascalled in. The most conspicuous member of the new Cabinet was BenjaminDisraeli, who took the portfolio of the Exchequer. Disraeli by this timehad already achieved popularity as an author. Some idea of his personalitymay be gathered from a contemporary's description of his outward appearancein those days:

[Sidenote: Disraeli's appearance]

"Usually he wore a slate-colored velvet coat lined with satin, purpletrousers with a gold band down the outside seam, a scarlet waistcoat, longlace ruffles falling down to the tips of his fingers, white gloves withbrilliant rings outside them, and long black ringlets rippling down overhis shoulders. When he rose in the House, he wore a bottle-green frockcoat, with a white waistcoat, collarless, and a needless display of goldchains. "

[Sidenote: American fisheries dispute]

The new Ministry was so distinctly protectionist that the Anti-Corn LawLeague was reorganized to resume the agitation for free trade. Soon theperennial troubles with America about the fisheries of Newfoundland brokeout afresh. The new Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury, insistedupon a strict fulfilment of the terms agreed upon in the convention of1818. Armed vessels were sent to the coast of British North America. TheUnited States likewise sent a war steamer to the disputed fishing-grounds. Many vessels were boarded for information, but both sides abstained fromgiving serious grounds for complaint. 

[Sidenote: Franklin Pierce elected]

In the United States, the Whigs, encouraged by their success with Taylor, put forth another military officer, General Scott, as their Presidentialcandidate. At the convention held in Baltimore in June, Webster, Fillmoreand Scott were put in nomination. Fifty-two ballots were cast before Scottwas nominated. The candidates before the Democratic Convention in Baltimorewere Buchanan, Cass, Marcy and Douglas. Franklin Pierce was chosen aftermore than forty ballots. The Free Democrats selected John P. Hale andJulian of Indiana. Pierce carried twenty-seven States, to Scott's four, receiving 254 votes to Scott's 42. 

[Sidenote: Death of Clay]

[Sidenote: Death of Webster]

[Sidenote: Webster's oratory]

[Sidenote: The Concord speech]

[Sidenote: Webster in Congress]

Henry Clay died in June. He was a candidate for the Presidency three times. Few Americans have been more idolized than he. His great success waslargely due to his manner, which captivated opponents as well as friends. In will and fine sense of honor he was as firm and lofty as Jackson orJefferson. He it was who said that he would "rather be right thanPresident. " His death was followed in October by that of his great rival, Daniel Webster. This great American orator was born in 1782, the son of aNew England farmer. He was graduated from Dartmouth College, and began thestudy of law. While reading Vattel, Montesquieu, and Blackstone, he ekedout a humble income as a school teacher. He became associated withChristopher Gore, a noted lawyer of those days in Boston, and presentlyacquired a reputation as an orator. An address delivered at Fryeburg in1802 furnished the model for his great Concord speech four years later. Asa result of the speeches in opposition to Jefferson's and Madison's embargopolicy against England, Daniel Webster was elected by the Federalists ofNew Hampshire to represent them in the Thirteenth Congress. HenceforthWebster's stirring addresses were delivered in the national forum of theUnited States. Pitted against such distinguished speakers as Calhoun andHenry Clay, he gradually came to be acknowledged the foremost orator ofAmerica. He was at the height of his reputation when he died. His mostlasting achievement, perhaps, was the conclusion of the famousWebster-Ashburton treaty with England, settling the boundaries betweenBritish North America and the United States. 

Shortly before Webster's death another orator of world-wide reputation washeard at Washington. This was Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian exile. On theoccasion of a banquet tendered to him by the American Congress early in theyear, Kossuth delivered the famous speech in which he compared the RomanSenate of antiquity to that of the New World. 

[Sidenote: Junius Brutus Booth]

Junius Brutus Booth, the great English tragedian, died in America whilereturning from a lucrative tour to California. Booth made his début atCovent Garden Theatre in London in 1814 as Richard III. His personalresemblance to the hunchbacked tyrant conformed so well to the traditionsof the stage, and his personification of the character was in otherrespects so striking, that he eclipsed Edmund Keane, then acting at DruryLane. The rivalry of the two actors grew so intense that Booth was drivenfrom the stage by a serious theatrical riot. In 1821, he made his firstappearance in the United States, again as Richard III. , and was receivedwith such enthusiasm that he settled permanently at Baltimore. From here hemade professional excursions to other American cities. Among his mostfamiliar personations were Iago, Hamlet, Shylock, Sir Giles Overreach, andSir Edmund Mortimer. Over his audiences he ever exercised a wonderfulpower. On his death he left two sons, both actors like himself, and bothdestined to make their mark in life. 

[Sidenote: Death of Tom Moore]

[Sidenote: Moore's American impressions]

The death of Thomas Moore, the Irish poet, excited as much attention inAmerica as it did in England. Born at Dublin in 1779, Tom Moore, as he wasusually called, wrote verses in early youth. Like Pope, he may be said tohave lisped in numbers. At the age of thirteen he was a contributor to the"Anthologia Hibernica. " After graduating at Trinity College he came toLondon, and there dedicated his translation of the poems of Anacreon to thePrince Regent. He became a favorite of fashionable society. Among hispatrons were the Earl of Moira, Lord Holland, the Marquis of Lansdowne, andother noblemen of the Whig party. He obtained the appointment of Registrarto the Admiralty in Bermuda, but on arriving there hired a deputy todischarge the duties of the office and went on a tour to America. Like someother famous travellers, he conceived a poor opinion of the Americanpeople. In commemoration of his trip, Moore brought out "Epistles, Odes andother Poems, " containing many defamatory verses on America. One scurrilousstanza read:

 The patriot, fresh from Freedom's councils come, Now pleas'd retires to lash his slaves at home; Or woo, perhaps, some black Aspasia's charms, And dream of freedom in his bondmaid's arms. 

[Sidenote: "Irish Melodies"]

[Sidenote: "Lalla Rookh"]

In a footnote Moore was careful to explain that this allusion was to thePresident of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. The poems were roughlyhandled by the "Edinburgh Review. " This led to a duel between Moore andJeffrey--a bloodless encounter, which resulted in a life-long friendshipbetween the two men. The same affair produced a quarrel and Moore'ssubsequent friendship with Byron. Throughout this time Moore brought outhis charming "Irish Melodies, " the most popular of all his productions. Messrs. Longwin, the publishers, agreed to give him £3, 000 for a long poemon an oriental subject. Moore retired to the banks of the Dofe, surroundedhimself with oriental books, and in three years produced "Lalla Rookh. " Thesuccess of this work was beyond the expectations of the publishers. Afterachieving this triumph, Moore travelled abroad in the company of thewealthy poet Rogers, and later of Lord John Russell. At Venice he visitedLord Byron. The affairs of his office in Bermuda next called him there, after which he resided in Paris, where he wrote his famous "Fables for theHoly Alliance. " Returning to England, he settled at Bow-wood nearWiltshire, the seat of his life-long friend, Lord Lansdowne. There he spenthis declining years and died in dotage. 

[Sidenote: "Dear Harp of My Country"]

Tom Moore, while a very popular poet, produced few poems of lastingquality. Most characteristic of Moore, perhaps, are his lightest verses, such as "The Time I Lost in Wooing, " the melodious lines "Oft, in theStilly Night, " or the famous Irish apostrophe:

 Dear Harp of my Country! in darkness I found thee, The cold chain of silence had hung o'er thee long, When proudly, my own Island Harp, I unbound thee, And gave all thy chords to light, freedom, and song!

 The warm lay of love and the light note of gladness Have waken'd thy fondest, thy liveliest thrill; But, so oft hast thou echoed the deep sigh of sadness, That ev'n in thy mirth it will steal from thee still. 

 Dear Harp of my Country! farewell to thy numbers, This sweet wreath of song is the last we shall twine! Go, sleep with the sunshine of Fame on thy slumbers, Till touch'd by some hand less unworthy than mine;

 If the pulse of the patriot, soldier, or lover, Have throbb'd at our lay, 'tis thy glory alone; I was but as the wind, passing heedlessly over, And all the wild sweetness I wak'd was thine own. 

[Sidenote: Death of Wellington]

[Sidenote: Wellesley's campaigns]

The death of Wellington, on September 14, was felt as a national loss inEngland. The Iron Duke died in his eighty-fourth year, having grown moreand more infirm in his last few years. Arthur Wellesley, or Wesley, as thename was originally written, singularly enough received his first militaryeducation in France, under the direction of Pignorel, the celebratedengineer. He saw his first active service with the Duke of York'sdisastrous expedition to the Netherlands in 1794. There he gained hiscolonelcy. After his transfer to India he served under his elder brother, Marquis Wellesley, and gained the brilliant victories of Assaye and ofArgaum. On his return from India he was appointed Secretary of Ireland, andthere established the celebrated police force which later served as a modelfor that of London. In 1807, he took part in the expedition againstCopenhagen, and after the death of Sir John Moore was sent to Portugal, where he won the battles of Rolica, Vimiera, the brilliant passage of theDouro, and the hard-fought field of Talavera. The battle of Busaco, thestorming of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the victories of Salamanca andVittoria, followed, and the Viscount successively became Earl and Marquisof Wellington, and a grant from Parliament subsequently placed him inpossession of the domain of Strathfieldsaye. The capture of Pampeluna andSt. Sebastian, and the defeat of the French in the passes of the Pyrenees, enabled him to plant the British ensign on French ground. 

[Sidenote: Wellington's funeral]

[Sidenote: Tennyson's Ode]

The concluding triumphs of Orthes and Toulouse were succeeded by thegeneral peace and by his own promotion to a dukedom, the baton of afield-marshal having previously been conferred upon him for his victory atSalamanca. In 1814, the Duke of Wellington was appointed Ambassador toFrance, and proceeded in that capacity to the Congress of Vienna. Whilethere, the return of Napoleon from Elba once more called him to the field;and on June 18, 1815, he gained his greatest triumph at Waterloo. Afterthis Wellington served his country in the capacity of a diplomat, asCommander-in-Chief of the army, Prime Minister, and again asCommander-in-Chief of the army. A public funeral was of course decreed. William Gladstone pronounced the funeral oration in Parliament. In theprocession that followed Wellington's bier, British soldiers of every armand of every regiment of the service for the first time marched together. From Grosvenor Gate to St. Paul's Cathedral there was not a foot ofunoccupied ground. An unbroken silence was maintained as the processionmoved slowly by to the mausoleum where the remains of England's greatwarrior were to be placed side by side with those of Nelson. AlfredTennyson recited his famous ode on the death of the Duke of Wellington:

 Bury the Great Duke With an empire's lamentation, Let us bury the Great Duke To the noise of the mourning of a mighty nation, Mourning when their leaders fall, Warriors carry the warrior's pall, And sorrow darkens hamlet and hall. 

 * * * * *

 Lead out the pageant: sad and slow, As fits an universal woe, Let the long, long procession go, And let the sorrowing crowd about it grow, And let the mournful martial music blow; The last great Englishman is low. 

[Sidenote: Disraeli and Gladstone]

A new Parliament assembled in November. The result of the elections leftthe government in as hopeless a minority as before. An elaborate system offinance brought forward by Disraeli was rudely handled by Gladstone. Thedebate was one of the fiercest ever heard in Parliament. The excitement onboth sides was intense. Disraeli, animated by the power of desperation, wasin a mood neither to give nor to take quarter. He assailed Sir CharlesWood, the late Chancellor of the Exchequer, with a vehemence which morethan once went to the very limits of Parliamentary decorum. The House hadnot heard the concluding word of Disraeli's bitter and impassioned speech, when Gladstone leaped to his feet to answer him. The Government wasdefeated. Disraeli took his defeat with characteristic composure. Themorning was cold and wet. "It will be an unpleasant day for going toOsborne, " he quietly remarked to a friend as they went down WestminsterHall together and looked out into the dreary street. That day, at Osborne, the resignation of the Ministry was accepted by the Queen. 

[Sidenote: New English Ministry]

The Earl of Aberdeen formed a new Ministry including Lord John Russell asForeign Secretary; Lord Palmerston, Home Secretary; Earl Granville, President of the Council; Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer, while SirW. Molesworth, the historian, was Commissioner of Public Works. The Marquisof Lansdowne occupied a seat in the Cabinet without holding any office. Itwas another Ministry of all the talents. Recent events in France demandedinstant attention, the more so since the municipal council of London hadtaken upon itself to send an address of congratulation to Louis Napoleonupon his assumption of the empire. In the end the British Government tookthe same course. 

[Sidenote: End of French Republic]

[Sidenote: Second Empire]

In Paris, the Senate had been reconvened to consider the reinstitution ofthe empire. Within three days a _senatus consultum_ was ready recommendingthe desired change to another plebiscite. Every one of the Senators, so theParisians suggested, had 30, 000 francs' worth of reasons for advocating thechange. The formality of a plebiscite was accomplished by November 21. Thegovernment functionaries reported 7, 854, 189 yeas against 253, 145 nays. Onthe anniversary of his _coup d'état_ of the previous year, Louis Napoleontook the title of Napoleon III. , by the grace of God and the will of thenation, Emperor of the French. The title was made hereditary. In vain didthe Count of Chambord voice the protest of the Royalists, and Victor Hugo, in his exile on the Island of Jersey, that of the Republicans. France wasonce more under imperial rule, and seemed content to remain so. About thistime the great Crédit Mobilier was established as a joint-stock company byIsaac and Emile Pereire. 

[Sidenote: Holy Sepulchre controversy]

Outside of France, Louis Napoleon's second _coup d'état_ created littlestir. Only Emperor Nicholas of Russia refused to recognize Louis Napoleonas a full-fledged monarch. An ecclesiastical dispute concerning theguardianship of the holy places in Palestine threatened to make troublebetween France and Russia. In the end the Sultan was prevailed upon to signa treaty confirming the sole custody of the Holy Sepulchre to the French. 

1853

[Sidenote: Empress Eugénie]

[Sidenote: French Royalists reconciled]

On January 30, Louis Napoleon married Eugénie Marie de Montijo de Guzman, aSpanish beauty. Raised to the rank of Empress, this ambitious lady at oncebecame a leader of fashion. The Czar of Russia, acting in conformity withthe sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, finally consented to acknowledgeNapoleon III. As Emperor of the French, and Great Britain followed. Strengthened by this outward recognition, Louis Napoleon deemed it safe toextend an amnesty to some 4, 500 political prisoners and Republican exiles. On February 5, however, General Saint-Priest, with many other Royalists, was secretly arrested on charges of communicating with the Comte deChambord and of sending false news to foreign newspapers. Not longafterward a bill was passed restoring capital punishment for attempts tosubvert the imperial government and for plots against the life of theEmperor. On the recognition of the Empire by Great Britain, application wasmade to the English Government for a surrender of the Great Napoleon's lasttestament. The request was granted. Louis Napoleon thereupon undertook tocarry out his famous uncle's bequests. Under the stress of adversity, thetwo branches of the Bourbon family became reconciled to each other. TheDuke de Nemours, on behalf of the House of Orleans, made his peace with theComte de Chambord. Henceforth, the Count of Paris was recognized by theRoyalists of France as the rightful pretender to the crown. 

[Sidenote: Gervinus' State trial]

[Sidenote: Death of Tieck]

In Germany, reactionary measures of repression were still in order. Analleged democratic conspiracy was unearthed at Berlin in March, and anotherin April. In Baden, Georg Gervinus, the historian, on charges of hightreason for writing his "Introduction to the History of the NineteenthCentury, " was sentenced to ten months' imprisonment, and his book wasordered to be burned. The sentence of imprisonment, however, was notexecuted. On April 28, Ludwig Tieck, the great German Shakespearian scholarand romantic poet, died at Berlin. Born in 1778 at Berlin, he entered intoliterary activity at the opening of the Nineteenth Century, and joined theenlightened circle of Weimar. There he issued his great collection ofGerman medieval romances, and of the works of the Minnesingers. It was hewho drew Goethe into the study of Shakespeare, and who persuaded HenrySteffens, the Norwegian philosopher, to try his hand at purely literaryproductions. Together with Schlegel he was the greatest German exponent ofthe works of Shakespeare. 

[Sidenote: Reaction in Italy]

In Italy, likewise, severe measures of reaction were inflicted on thepeople of the governments of Austria, Naples and some of the pettyprincipalities. In Tuscany, the reading of the Bible was prohibited. InFebruary, a revolt at Milan, instigated by Mazzini, was ruthlessly putdown. A few months later a revolutionary plot was revealed at Rome. Somehundred and fifty conspirators were thrown into prison. As heretofore, Garibaldi figured in these movements. In Sardinia alone, under theenlightened Ministry of Count Cavour, the liberal movement for united Italywas encouraged. The Pope's hostile attitude was resented by the passage ofanti-clerical measures in Sardinia. Thus at first ecclesiasticaljurisdiction was abolished, and later bills were proposed for thesuppression of convents and for the ultimate withdrawal of all Statesupport from the clergy. 

[Sidenote: Tommaso Grossi]

In October, while the conspiracy trials were still in full prosecution atMilan, Tommaso Grossi, the Italian romantic poet, died in that city. Grossiwas born at Belland, on Lake Como, in 1791, and at an early age wondistinction by a patriotic satire against Austrian rule in northern Italy. In 1817 he published "La Fuggitiva, " a love story of the French wars, whichfound great favor. Inspired by his intercourse with Manzoni, a few yearslater he wrote "Ildegonda, " a romantic poem treating of the times ofchivalry and cloister life. This poem won a great success. Less happy washis attempt to rival Tasso with an epic poem in fifteen cantos on theCrusades. Among his prose tales, the most lasting in interest are thehistorical novel "Marco Visconti" and the idyl "Ulrico e Lida. " Of hislyric songs, "La Rondiella" achieved the greatest popularity. 

[Sidenote: Gustave Courbet]

Gustave Courbet, the French originator of realism in painting, the authorof "Le Beau c'est le Laid, " the man who claimed that all search for thebeautiful or ideality in art was a gross error, this year exhibited his"Women Bathing, " and again created a stir on the exhibition of his "Funeralat Ornans" and his "Drunken Peasants at Flagny. " This early exponent ofrealism in its most radical form, despite his taste for vulgar types, showed such strength of technique that his landscapes were accepted almostat once as masterpieces. 

[Sidenote: International expositions]

In England, a period of great prosperity had set in, notwithstandingseveral great labor strikes, among them that of the London cabmen, and ofmany thousands of operatives at Stockport and Preston. The success of theCrystal Palace Exhibition had been such that another great IndustrialExhibition was held at Dublin. It was made the occasion of Queen Victoria'ssecond visit to Ireland. International expositions were likewise held atBerlin and in New York. 

[Sidenote: President Pierce inaugurated]

The change of Administration in the United States of North America gave anew tone to affairs there, and incidentally brought America into closertouch with the East. Congress had counted the electoral vote on February 9, giving to Pierce 254 and 42 to Scott. Franklin Pierce was forty-nine yearsof age when he became President, and was the youngest man who had beenelected to that office. During the Mexican war he had fought with creditunder Scott. William L. Marcy became Secretary of State, and Guthrie, McClelland, Jefferson Davis, Dobbin, Campbell and Cushing completed theCabinet. It was said that Pierce came into office with no bitteropposition and went out with none. In his inaugural message he spoke withdoubt concerning his own powers. In truth, he proved himself the tool ofdifferent managers. 

[Sidenote: Kane's Arctic voyage]

The American Government also assisted Grinnell in fitting out a secondexpedition to the Arctic under charge of Dr. Kane, who was surgeon andnaturalist of the former expedition. The ships were frozen fast on theshores of Greenland. Kane's crew, without waiting for relief, set out toreturn in open boats, and after a voyage of 1, 300 miles reached a Danishsettlement in Greenland, where a relief expedition met them. They reachedNew York on October 11, 1855, where they were welcomed as men risen fromthe dead. They brought no news concerning Sir John Franklin. 

[Sidenote: Death of Arago]

Dominique François Arago died on October 2, at the age of sixty-seven. Scientists remember him chiefly for his experiments and discoveries inmagnetism and optics. He was one of the few men who championed Fresnelduring the controversy which raged at the time when the undulatory theoryof light was first announced. As a popular expounder of scientific facts, Arago had few equals. With Gay-Lussac he was the founder of "Annales deChimie et de Physique. " He was also an active politician, and was a memberof the French Provisional Government of 1848. 

[Sidenote: The opening of Japan]

[Sidenote: Japanese dissensions]

[Sidenote: Preparing for intrusion]

A thriving oriental trade had sprung up, fostered partly by the developmentof steam navigation and partly by the discovery of gold in California. Afew years previously a first attempt had been made by the United StatesGovernment to break down if possible the system of exclusion kept up byJapan. Commodore Biddle was despatched with two war vessels. His missionproved unsatisfactory, and the Commodore was subjected to humiliatingexperiences. Early in 1853, President Fillmore sent Commodore Perry with asquadron of four vessels to present a letter from the President of theUnited States to the Mikado of Japan, asking consent to the negotiation ofa treaty of friendship and commerce between the two governments. On July 7, Commodore Perry's squadron steamed into the harbor of Yeddo. Perry got afavorable reception after using his big guns. The President's letter wasleft with the Mikado for the consideration of the Japanese Government, while Perry sailed away, promising to return the following spring. In themeanwhile violent upheavals in Japan resulted from the appearance of theAmerican mission at Yeddo. The appearance of the squadron had long beenanticipated, and was the subject of violent political discussions. Japan atthat time was threatened with civil war. Two parties were disputingconcerning the proper successor to the worn-out Shogun, who had hithertowielded the powers of the impotent Mikado. The head of one party was EeKamong No Kami, the head of the Fudai Daimios. By right he was to beappointed Regent in case of an emergency. The head of the other party wasthe Prince of Mito, one of the "three families, " hereditary Vice-Shogun inYeddo, and connected by marriage with the family of the Emperor and withthe wealthiest Daimios. The two parties made the arrival of the Americansquadron a pretext for grasping at the reins of power. Letters were sent toall the Daimios and Ometkis, requesting their opinions as to the receptionto be given to the Americans. The majority were for resenting any foreigninterference in the affairs of Japan by force. It was agreed, however, thatopen declaration of war had best be deferred until the comparativelydefenceless shores of Japan could be strengthened and sea forts could beerected. Orders were sent to the Daimios to muster the full strength oftheir retainers and munitions of war, for "if Japan does not conquer, itwill be a great disgrace. "

[Sidenote: Taipings capture Nanking]

[Sidenote: Peking threatened]

In China, the Taipings, having captured Kinkiang and Gurking, closelyinvested Nanking. After a fortnight's siege, the city surrendered to anarmed rabble. The Tartar colony of 200, 000 threw themselves upon TienWang's mercy, but not a hundred of them escaped: "We killed them all, " saidone of the Taipings; "we left not a root to sprout from. " The acquisitionof Nanking, the second city in the empire, made the Taipings a formidablerival to the Manchus, and Tien Wang became a contestant with Hienfung forimperial honors. It cut off communication between north and south China. Chinkiangfoo, at the entrance of the Grand Canal, and Yangchow, on thenorth bank of the river, also fell into their hands. Tien Wang proclaimedNanking, the old Ming city, his capital. At a council of war it was decidedto provision and fortify Nanking, and then march against Peking. By theend of May the Taiping army numbered 80, 000. They attacked Kaifong and wererepulsed, but continued their march toward Peking. After crossing theHoang-ho, they were again repulsed at Hwaiking. Passing on, they defeated aManchu force in the Sin Simming Pass, and in September added the provinceof Pechili, and came to Tsing, twenty miles south of Tien-tsin, less than ahundred miles from Peking. The fate of the Manchu dynasty trembled in thebalance. The Mongol levies at last arrived under their great chief, Sankolinsin, and the invaders retired to their fortified camp at Tsinghaiand sent to Tien Wang for succor. At Tsinghai they were closely beleagueredfor some time to come. 

[Sidenote: American declaration as to Cuba]

The recurrence of American filibustering expeditions to Cuba appeared tothe governments of England and France as evidence of an American purpose tosecure Cuba and the West Indian Islands. To avert this, they suggested tothe United States Government to make a treaty which should secure Cuba toSpain. The American Government was asked "to decline now and foreverhereafter all intention to obtain possession of the island of Cuba and todiscontinue all such attempts in that direction on the part of anyindividual or power whatever. " Secretary of State Everett replied that thequestion affected American and not European policy, coming not properlywithin the scope of the interference of European Cabinets; that the UnitedStates did not intend to violate any existing laws; that the AmericanGovernment claimed the right to act regarding Cuba independently of anyother power, and that it could not view with indifference the fall of Cubainto any other hands than those of Spain. This was tantamount to areassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. France did not reply to Everett's note, and the correspondence with the British Foreign Office was scarcely moresatisfactory. 

[Sidenote: Gadsden's Mexican treaty]

A new treaty with Mexico was negotiated by Gadsden, by which the UnitedStates secured Marrila Valley, with 44, 000 square miles, on the payment of$10, 000, 000. This settled the Mexican boundary dispute and averted alldanger of further war. 

[Sidenote: Koszta episode]

Another international complication had arisen with Austria. On June 21, Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee and would-be American citizen, travelling under a United States passport, was arrested by the Austrianconsul at Smyrna. Captain Ingraham of the United States sloop-of-war "St. Louis, " cruising in Turkish waters, hearing of this, put into Smyrna. Inaccordance with the recent treaty governing Austrian refugees in Turkey, hedemanded the surrender of Koszta within eight hours. If the man were notsurrendered he threatened to land marines and take him by force. It wasfinally agreed to leave Koszta in the hands of the French consul, whopresently released him. Austria issued a circular note to the courts ofEurope protesting against the conduct of Captain Ingraham, and followedthis up with a formal protest to the government of the United States. Thereply of the American Congress was to vote a medal for Captain Ingraham. There the incident closed. 

[Sidenote: Austria supports Montenegrins]

[Sidenote: Russia threatens Turkey]

Other affairs absorbed the interest of Austria's Foreign Minister. A treatywas signed with Prussia establishing a virtual defensive and offensivealliance. At the same time Austria joined the German Zollverein for twelveyears. When the Montenegrins rose against their Turkish oppressors, Austriasupported their cause and demanded a redress of their grievances fromTurkey. After protracted negotiations this was granted. The wrongs of theMontenegrins and other Christian subjects of Turkey were warmly espoused byRussia. Czar Nicholas, as the pontiff of the Russian-Greek Church, claimeda protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The pendingdifficulties concerning the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem became part of thecontroversy. On the pretext of legalizing the predominant position of theGreek Church as one of the guardians of the Holy Sepulchre, the Czarassumed a threatening attitude toward Turkey. For a while Lord StratfordCanning, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, succeeded in mediatingbetween Russia and France. A temporary agreement was effected. At thispoint the appearance of a French fleet in Turkish waters gave great offenceto Russia, making it appear that the concessions to France had beenextorted by a menace. Already Sir Hamilton Seymour, the British Ambassadorat St. Petersburg, had been sounded by the Czar. It was on that occasionthat Nicholas uttered the historic phrase that "the sick man was dying, "meaning the Ottoman Empire. It was then, too, that tentative offers weremade to England to let her take Egypt and the island of Candia, providedRussia could make herself mistress of the Balkans. 

[Sidenote: International concern]

The traditional aspirations of Russia toward Constantinople were wellunderstood in Europe. With the exception of Prussia, the European Powers, contrary to the Czar's expectations, were resolved to preserve theintegrity of Turkey. 

[Sidenote: Austria's timely measures]

[Sidenote: Menzikov's mission]

[Sidenote: French-English naval demonstration]

The Continental Powers diplomatically met the Czar on his own religiousground. Protestant England, on the other hand, with no pilgrims to defend, could protest only on the score of preserving the balance of power. Adeeper reason for British opposition lay in the possible opening of theBlack Sea to Russian commerce, and the consequent loss of oriental trade toEnglish merchants. Louis Napoleon, who could hardly begin his imperialreign in France more auspiciously than by avenging the disasters of hisimmortal uncle and of the Grand Army in Russia, entered the lists as thechampion of the Roman Catholic Christians of the Orient. Austria, thoughshe took no active part against her recent ally, ingeniously frustrated theplans of the Russian autocrat by bringing the Sultan to terms in hisattempt to crush the insurgent Montenegrins, who had been incited by Russiato revolt. Thus was Nicholas robbed of his best pretext for impressing hiswill upon Turkey. Chagrined at the triumph of Austria, angered by thedemands made by the French Ambassador, Marquis de Lavalette, in behalf ofRoman Catholic pilgrims, Nicholas sent his Admiral, Prince Menzikov, asAmbassador Extraordinary to the Porte. With unusual ostentation Menzikovgathered the Russian fleet and an army of 30, 000 men at Sebastopol, andthen went alone to Constantinople. He demanded an audience of the Sultan, and on March 2 appeared before him in a plain overcoat and with bootscovered with dust. His appearance was in keeping with his mission. In thename of his master he demanded the protectorate over all Greek Christians. Failing to attain his end, Menzikov, after a six weeks' stay, delivered aRussian ultimatum. Late in May he left Constantinople, prophesying hisspeedy reappearance in uniform. Three weeks later the French and Englishfleets cast anchor in the entrance to the Dardanelles. 

[Sidenote: Russians cross Pruth]

[Sidenote: Cossacks in Danube provinces]

It was not to be expected that a ruler like Nicholas would shrink from war. On July 7, he despatched Prince Michael Gortschakov, together with two armydivisions of 40, 000 men each, respectively commanded by Generals Luedersand Danneberg, across the Pruth, with orders to hold the Danubeprincipalities until the Sultan had granted the Russian demands. SultanAbdul Majid, through his grand vizier, Reschid Pasha, issued a firmanrecognizing the rights of his Christian subjects. Upon crossing the Pruth, the Russian Commander-in-Chief assured the people of Moldavia and Wallachiathat their property and persons would not be molested; but the Russiansoldiers seized the public funds, compelled peasants to give up theircattle and their grain, and pressed the native militia into the Czar'sservice. 

[Sidenote: Turkish ultimatum]

[Sidenote: Russia declares war]

[Sidenote: Oltenizza]

Still, European diplomats hoped to preserve peace. The Porte was persuadednot to regard the invasion of the Danube principalities as a _casus belli_. The conference which was held by the representatives of the Powers resultedin the Viennese mediatory note, by the terms of which the Sultan was toyield to the Czar, with certain restrictions. Russia's claim of aprotectorate was utterly ignored. The Czar accepted the conditions imposed, but held that the note gave him the desired protectorate by implication. InEngland, the press fiercely attacked the faint-hearted politicians of theContinent. Layard, the discoverer of the royal palaces of Nineveh, appearedas the champion of Turkey in the House of Commons. Still more threateningwas the attitude of the war party in Constantinople. The Sultan was forcedto reject the note and to prepare for the storm. Hatred of Russia andreligious fanaticism inspired the Turks with something of the old love ofbattle and lust of conquest. On October 4, an ultimatum was sent to Russiain which war was threatened if the invaded territory were not forthwithevacuated. Russia replied with a declaration of war on November 1. TheSultan, for complying with the wishes of his people, was rewarded by theready payment of heavy war taxes, and by hordes of volunteers flocking toarms. Even Tunis and Egypt placed troops at the disposal of the mothercountry. In a short time a considerable fighting force was gathered underOmar Pasha on the south bank of the Danube. On the 4th of November theriver was crossed and a defeat inflicted on the Russians at Oltenizza. 

 [Illustration: THE BATTLE OF INKERMANN Painted by Gustave Doré From Carbon Print by Braun, Clement & Co. , N. Y. ]

Had the Czar sent his troops into the Balkans immediately after he declaredwar, he might have struck a decisive blow before the Powers could come tothe assistance of the Turks. But he had pledged himself not to cross theDanube when he met the Emperor of Austria at Olmütz, and again when hevisited the King of Prussia in Berlin. Thus he had persuaded them to adopta policy of neutrality. England and France now promised to give Turkeytheir armed support if the Czar persisted in his demands. Their fleetssailed for the Bosphorus. 

[Sidenote: Turkish naval disaster]

At Sinope, a Turkish squadron composed of two steamers, two corvettes andseven frigates rode at anchor under the guns of a small battery. OnNovember 30, the Turks were surprised by a Russian fleet commanded byAdmiral Nachimov, consisting of six ships of the line and threesteamers--all vessels of large size, armed with the smooth-bore shell-gun. For the first time in naval history the disastrous effect of shell fire onwooden ships was demonstrated. Only one Turkish steamer escaped to tell thetale. 

This blow, dealt beneath the very guns of the allied fleets, had itsimmediate effect. Lord Aberdeen, whose foreign policy was far too mild forthe taste of most Englishmen, was so bitterly attacked that he resigned. The return of Palmerston to the Ministry was the signal for war. InDecember, the Vienna Conference sent to Nicholas a second note, demandingthe evacuation of the Danube principalities. 

1854

[Sidenote: Opening of Nebraska]

[Sidenote: American slavery issue revived]

[Sidenote: Rise of Republican Party]

In the American Congress, on January 4, Senator Douglas introduced a billfor opening the Territory of Nebraska. All land west of Iowa and Missourihad been closed against immigrants, so that it was impossible for them tosecure a farm. By "Nebraska" was meant all territory north of Texaswestward to the Rocky Mountains. On January 23, Douglas introduced hissecond bill, repealing the provisions of the Missouri Compromise for theproposed two Territories. This reopened the slavery discussion, whichPresident Pierce six weeks before had declared to be closed forever. At theEast, Mason and Dixon's line between Pennsylvania and Maryland had beenregarded as separating freedom from slavery. At the West, the parallel of36° 30', agreed on in 1820, was regarded as the border line. To cross thisboundary, and remove all obstacles against slavery, promptly became thedetermination of the South. Douglas's bill now declared that the Compromiseof 1850 left the question of slavery to the people within the Territory. General Cass gave to this doctrine the title of "Squatter Sovereignty. " Thebill passed by 113 to 100, and was taken up by the Senate, May 24, andpassed by 35 to 13. President Pierce signed it on May 30. By theprovisions of the bill, the country in question was to be organized intothe Territories of Kansas and Nebraska; the slavery question was to besettled by the residents; the Supreme Court was to determine the title toslaves, if appeal was taken from the local courts, and the Fugitive Slavelaw was to be enforced. The Whig Party was destroyed and the RepublicanParty rose in its place. On July 6, a State Convention of all anti-Nebraskacitizens irrespective of former political affiliations assembled. ThisConvention designated the fusion of Whigs, Free Soilers, "Know Nothings, "and Democrats who opposed the extension of slavery, by the name"Republicans. "

[Sidenote: Opening of Kansas]

[Sidenote: Fraudulent elections]

Within the three months immediately preceding, treaties had been quietlymade with a half score of Indian nations in Kansas, by which the greaterpart of the soil for 200 miles west was opened. In June, within a few daysafter the act had been passed, hundreds of Missourians crossed into Kansas, took up quarter-sections and claimed the right of pre-emption upon theeastern region. In Massachusetts and other Eastern States, societies weremeanwhile formed for the purpose of making Kansas a free State. All theNorthwest was eager to furnish squatters. In the East, Eli Thayer organizedimmigration to Kansas. When the country was thrown open to settlement, thecompany which he had organized took up claims at Lawrence. A population of8, 000 pressed in from the North. Meetings were held in Missouri in theslave interest, which pledged that State to send men to Kansas and removeall the Free State immigrants. A bloody election was held in Kansas. Thepro-slavery Legislature made it a felony to circulate anti-slaverypublications, or to deny the right to hold slaves. Reeder, the newlyappointed first Governor, arrived. An election was ordered to choose adelegate for Congress. Armed Missourians from across the border tookpossession of the polls, and by methods of intimidation elected Whitfield, a slave-holding delegate, to Congress. At a second election 13 StateSenators and 26 members of a Lower House were declared elected. For thispurpose 6, 320 votes were cast--more than twice the number of legal voters. 

[Sidenote: Mexican adjustment]

Foreign affairs for a short while served to distract attention from theall-engrossing subject. Mexican boundary disputes were further ended by arepeal of the obligation of Guadeloupe Hidalgo which required the Mexicanfrontier to be defended against the Indians. For this release the UnitedStates paid to Mexico $10, 000, 000. 

[Sidenote: Reciprocity with Canada]

A reciprocity treaty was made with Great Britain which opened to the UnitedStates all the frontiers of British America except Newfoundland, and gaveto the British the right to share the American fisheries to the 36thparallel. Commerce in breadstuffs, fish, animals and lumber between theUnited States and the British provinces was made free. The St. Lawrence andCanadian Canals were opened to American vessels. All future differenceswere to be settled by arbitration. 

[Sidenote: Fremont in California]

During this year news arrived of the safe arrival of Fremont's fifthexpedition to California. He had crossed the Rocky Mountains at thesources of the Arkansas and Colorado Rivers, passed through the Mormonsettlement, and discovered a number of passes. He was chosen the firstUnited States Senator from California, and served for a short term. 

[Sidenote: Cuban filibusters]

[Sidenote: Ostend manifesto]

On February 28, the American steamship "Black Warrior" was seized in HavanaHarbor, and was confiscated by the Spanish Government on the charge offilibustering. The American House of Representatives prepared to suspendthe neutrality laws between the United States and Spain; but it was finallydecided to demand an indemnity from Spain. This action gave an interest tofilibustering operations in Cuba. Expeditions were fitted out, but werestopped by a proclamation of the President on June 1. The Americanrepresentatives at the courts of England, France and Spain, by direction ofthe President, met at Ostend, Belgium, to confer on the best method ofsettling the difficulties of Cuba and obtaining possession of the island. In the Ostend Circular these diplomats recommended to the government of theUnited States that Cuba should be purchased if possible, and if that couldnot be done that it should be taken by force. "If Spain, actuated bystubborn pride and a false sense of honor, should refuse to sell Cuba tothe United States, then by every law, human and divine, we shall bejustified in wresting it from Spain if we possess the power. " In thisMessrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soule were held to have gone beyond the demandsof public opinion. 

[Sidenote: Course of Taipings]

In their camp at Isinghai the Taiping rebels, in China, were closelybeleaguered through the early part of the year until spring. Theirprovisions then becoming exhausted, they cut their way out and retreatedsouthward. A relieving army from Nanking rescued them from imminentcapture. They then captured Lintsing, where their headquarters remained forsome months. During the rest of the year their successes were unimportant. 

[Sidenote: Orange Free State recognized]

In South Africa, the difficulties of administering the recalcitrantcommunities of the Boers in the Orange River territory proved such thatduring this year the struggle was abandoned as hopeless by the Britishauthorities. The Orange River Free State, organized as an independentrepublic of Dutch settlers, was recognized as such. 

[Sidenote: Espartero in Spain]

On June 28, another military insurrection broke out near Madrid. GeneralEspartero assumed charge of the movement. It found favor in Madrid andBarcelona. Within a fortnight the Ministry was overthrown. On July 19, Baldomero Espartero was welcomed with great enthusiasm on his return topower. On the last day of the month the Queen had to present herself on thebalcony of her palace in Madrid while 3, 000 revolutionists from thebarricades paraded before her. Espartero on his return to power forthwithconvoked the Cortes to frame a new liberal constitution, a task which wasaccomplished before the close of the year. 

[Sidenote: Death of Sontag]

In Mexico, the celebrated operatic singer Henriette Sontag died of cholera. Born at Coblenz in 1805, she made an early début, and appeared withbrilliant success in all the capitals of Europe, where she was recognizedas a worthy rival of Malibran. In 1829 she married Count Rossi, and in thefollowing year retired from the stage. Twenty years later, in consequenceof the loss of her fortune, she returned to the stage, and it was foundthat her voice had lost none of its power and charm. 

[Sidenote: The Crimean war]

In the Balkans, the Servians, Bulgarians and the Bosnians, in view of themeagre success of Russian arms so far, were disinclined to rise againstTurkey. In Greece, on the other hand, Russian partisans succeeded ininciting the populace to revolt. From all sides volunteers rushed to thenorthern frontier. There was even some talk of establishing a new ByzantineEmpire. King Otto, partly from lack of sympathy, but more through fear ofthe Western Powers, whose ships suddenly appeared at the Piræus, opposedthe movement. The Greek volunteers who had gathered at the frontier wereordered to disperse. 

[Sidenote: Kalafat]

[Sidenote: Cetate]

[Sidenote: Russians cross Danube]

[Sidenote: Powers declare war]

The war had so far not fulfilled the expectations of Russia. Not only hadthe Czar's troops been repulsed at Kalafat, despite their greater numbers, but they had also been surprised and beaten at Cetate. The respect whichRussia commanded as a great Power had been engendered largely by hersupposed inexhaustible resources. The Czar was therefore forced to maintainthe old appearance of strength by recruiting troops throughout his empireand by intrusting the command of all his men to Prince Paskievitch, regarded, despite his great age, as the best general of Russia. Operationswere shifted further to the east, partly to still the apprehensions ofAustria, partly in the hope that more Slavic Christians would join theRussian army. In the middle of March, Paskievitch crossed the Danube notfar from the mouth of the Pruth, despite the promises made by the Czar toPrussia and Austria. The Czar's rejection of a second pacific note fromVienna, together with the breach of the promise given to his fellowsovereigns, was followed, on March 28, by a formal declaration of war onthe part of France and England. 

Without effective resistance on the part of the Turks, General Luedersseized the Dobrudsha and joined General Schilder before the walls ofSilistria, while Omar Pasha, in the face of a superior Russian force, wascompelled to retire to the fortress of Shumla. These energetic Russianmovements spurred the Western Powers to greater activity. 

[Sidenote: Allied troops landed]

In April, an English army of 20, 000 men under Lord Raglan, together with aFrench force more than twice as large under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud, distinguished for his deeds in Africa and for his part in LouisNapoleon's _coup d'état_, landed at Gallipolis. The allies bombarded Odessaon April 22, taking good care, however, not to destroy English property inthe city. 

[Sidenote: Austrian-Prussian remonstrances]

[Sidenote: Assault of Silistria]

[Sidenote: Paskievitch withdraws]

[Sidenote: Allies at Varna]

The crossing of the Danube by the Russians led Austria and Prussia to forman offensive and defensive alliance, both agreeing to wage war on the Czarif he sent his armies across the Balkans or incorporated the Danubeprincipalities. But how little Prussia intended to engage in a strugglewith the Czar was indicated by the retirement of Bonin, the Minister ofWar, and of Bunsen, the Ambassador to London. Even a tentative offer ofSchleswig and Holstein made by England could not tempt Prussia to forsakeher old confederate. A joint note was sent to St. Petersburg by Austria andPrussia, demanding the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the invadedterritory of the Danube. Austria concluded a treaty with the Porte, by theterms of which she was to seize the Danube principalities, on the bordersof which she had mobilized her troops. Paskievitch's efforts to reduceSilistria proved fruitless. The courageous example of Mussa Pasha and theskill of Grach, a Prussian officer of artillery, were more than a match forthe strategy of the Russian commanding general. The hostile attitude of theAustrian troops on the frontier of Wallachia and Moldavia, and the landingof French and English expeditions at Varna, caused Paskievitch, on June 21, to withdraw his weakened force across the Danube and the Pruth. In theattempt to reduce Silistria the lives of many Russian soldiers had beensacrificed. Paskievitch himself was slightly wounded. Eighteen months afterhis defeat he died in Warsaw. Schilder, Mussa and Grach, all mortallywounded, had been carried off before him. The losses of the allies werealso serious. An ill-considered march of the French from Varna into theDobrudsha resulted in the loss of 2, 000 men, most of whom succumbed to theinsufferable heat. In the camp at Varna cholera wrought terrible havoc. 

[Sidenote: Ineffectual naval operations]

Upon the sea the allies were no more successful. An English and Frenchfleet, under Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic Sea for thepurpose of persuading Sweden to join France and England, of reducing thefortress of Kronstadt, the key to the Russian capital, and of attacking St. Petersburg itself. Sweden, despite the efforts of the Powers, held alooflike Prussia. The walls of Kronstadt defied the ships. Besides the captureof Bomarsund on August 16, nothing was accomplished. 

[Sidenote: A council of war]

[Sidenote: Before Sebastopol]

[Sidenote: Battle of the Alma]

In Varna, a council of war was held to decide upon the course to be pursuedagainst the Russians. Among others, General Stein, or Ferhat Pasha, as hewas called after his conversion to Mohammedanism, proposed the landing oftroops in Asia in order to drive the enemy from the Caucasus. But St. Arnaud, who felt that he had not long to live, and, therefore, wished toend his career as gloriously as he could, voted for an attack onSebastopol, the naval port of the Crimea. He was supported by Lord Raglan, who desired nothing more fervently than the destruction of the Russianfleet. So far no less than 15, 000 men had perished in the campaign. Theremaining force, composed of 56, 000 soldiers, of whom 6, 000 were Turks, waslanded, on September 14, at Eupatoria on the west coast of the peninsula. To the south of Eupatoria the sea forms a bay which receives the waters ofthe River Tchernaya, flowing past the ruins of Inkermann. Upon the southernside is the fortified city of Sebastopol. On the northern sidefortifications had been built to protect the fleet anchored in the bay. Upon the heights overlooking the river Alma, Prince Menzikov, Governor ofthe Crimea, had stationed his army of 39, 000 men with 106 guns. Althoughthe heights overhanging the Alma are more than five miles long, the Russiantroops by which they were defended formed a front of but three miles. Thisleft the extreme left of the Russians open to an attack by a ford oppositethe village of Almatack. Against Menzikov, Marshal St. Arnaud and LordRaglan could oppose 63, 000 men and 128 guns. The weakness of the undefendedleft flank of the Russian army was discovered from the French ships. St. Arnaud laid his plans accordingly. On the morning of September 20, theattack was begun. The warships steamed up the river and opened fire on theenemy. Bosquet, in command of a French division and a Turkish contingent, was assigned to attack Menzikov's left. He pushed his way through thevillage of Almatack and forded the river. His Zouaves nimbly climbed theheights and reached the feebly defended plateau. Menzikov, busily engagedin resisting the advance of the English against his right, at first refusedto believe the unwelcome tidings. He endeavored to shift a part of hisforce from right to left. Meantime the English, under Lord Raglan, weresubjected to so fierce a fire from the Russian main position that theycould make no headway. They lay passive upon the ground waiting for theFrench under Canrobert and Louis Napoleon to begin the attack in front, andthus divert the attention of Menzikov. Weary of their long delay, LordRaglan took matters into his own hands. The English infantry rose from thefield, advanced upon the Russian main position, and, under a hot fire, stormed the Russian redoubt with dreadful loss. Attacked on the one side bythe English and on the other by the French, Menzikov was compelled to beata retreat. 

[Sidenote: War artists and correspondents]

The battle of the Alma was one of the first modern engagements described byspecial war correspondents in the field. The news of the victory wasdespatched to London with a rapidity prophetic of the feats performed bylatter-day correspondents. Besides the war correspondents, several artistsof note followed the armies of the allies. Among the French painters whohave perpetuated some of the well-known episodes of the Crimean War wereHorace Vernet, who painted a "Battle of Alma, " and Paul Alexandre Protais, a pupil of Desmoulins, who first came into note about that time. Anotherartist who made his early reputation in the war of the Crimea was AdolpheSchreyer. 

[Sidenote: Tolstoi]

On the Russian side, Count Lyof Tolstoi served at the front, together withhis namesake and fellow writer, Count Alexander Tolstoi. There he gatheredimpressions for his stories on the siege of Sebastopol, and for hissubsequent great novel of the Napoleonic invasion, "War and Peace. "

[Sidenote: Cholera]

Besides the news of victory, the Crimean War correspondents told of thesore plight of the English army, of the ravages of cholera, and of thewretchedly organized hospital system. No preparations had been made for avery long campaign. The taking of Sebastopol, it was thought by theEnglish, would present no grave difficulties. 

[Sidenote: Todleben]

But Sebastopol was better prepared to meet an attack than England knew. True it is that early in the war the city might have been taken by a dashfrom the land and sea. But the chance was now gone. Three days after thedefeat of Alma, Menzikov sank seven vessels of the Russian Black Sea fleetin the mouth of the harbor. On all sides the city was strongly fortified inaccordance with the suggestion of Todleben, an ingenious artillery officer. 

[Sidenote: Allies beaten off]

Instead of moving directly upon Sebastopol the allies first marched toBalaklava, further to the south, where they would be in constantcommunication with the ships and could establish a base of supplies. OnOctober 17, an unsuccessful attack was made on Sebastopol. 

[Sidenote: Russian success]

At dawn on October 25, the Russians crossed the Tchernaya and stole rapidlyon until their vanguard had reached a position from which they couldcannonade Canrobert's Hill, the post most distant from the forces of theallies and nearest the village of Kamara. The main Russian army underLiprandi soon came up and began to fire upon Canrobert's Hill and theadjacent works. The English replied with the assistance of a troop of horseartillery and of a field battery. Two English divisions and two Frenchbrigades were sent to the aid of the garrison on the hills. The Russianssucceeded in storming Canrobert's Hill and in capturing the next andsmaller fortification. Threatened by overwhelming numbers, the troops onthe remaining hills withdrew. 

[Sidenote: Balaklava]

Two English cavalry brigades--the Light and the Heavy--commanded by LordLucan, had been manoeuvring to protect Balaklava. The Light Brigade, under Lord Cardigan, faced the Tchernaya; the Heavy Brigade, underScarlett, was on the Balaklava side of the ridge. A great body of Russiancavalry swept down the slope upon the Heavy Brigade, and for a moment threwit into disorder. But Scarlett's men charged the Russians. The two opposingbodies of cavalry clashed and seemed to melt one within the other. Then theRussian horsemen yielded, and fled over the ridge whence they had firstappeared five minutes before. 

[Sidenote: The charge of the Light Brigade]

A disposition on the Russian side to carry off the captured guns inducedLord Raglan to send Lord Lucan an order "to advance rapidly to the frontand try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns. " The order was carriedby Captain Nolan, who found Lucan between his two brigades, with the LightBrigade beyond Woronzov road. Whose "front" was meant Lucan did not know. Nolan conjectured that "the guns" in question were those which had retiredwith the retreating Russian cavalry. Already the Russian cavalry had takenprotection behind its works toward the Tchernaya, and was supported byLiprandi's troops posted along the Woronzov road, and by Russian gunsbearing on the valley from the ridge and from Fedioukin heights. Nolan, Lord Lucan reported later, insisted that these very guns must be regained. Although Lord Cardigan of the Light Brigade shared Lucan's misgivings heobeyed the command. With the order, "The Brigade will advance!" the famouscharge of the Six Hundred began. Nolan galloped obliquely across theBrigade as it started. He was killed by the first shell fired from aRussian gun. Into the thick of the Russians Cardigan rode with his men. Theforlorn exploit has been immortalized by Alfred Tennyson:

 Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. "Forward, the Light Brigade! Charge for the guns!" he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. 

[Sidenote: Liprandi's victory]

The whole Brigade would have been wiped out after the repulse, when theRussian cavalry rode in pursuit, had not several squadrons of Frenchcuirassiers ridden to the rescue. The fact that the Russians retained thehills which they had captured justified Liprandi in claiming the victory. 

[Sidenote: Preparing for battle]

In November, the French infantry in the Crimea numbered 81, 000, the British16, 000, and the Turkish 11, 000. Brave as the Moslems undoubtedly were, theywere not permitted to demonstrate their value in subsequent encounters. While the allies strengthened their batteries and replenished theirmagazines, the Russians likewise fortified their position and gatheredreinforcements. It was a race on both sides for the first delivery of theattack. On November 4, the allied commanders definitely arranged for acannonade and an assault which was to place Sebastopol at their mercy. TheRussians, recognizing their peril, completed the assembly of their forcesto attack the allies and forestall them. In all, Menzikov could oppose115, 000 soldiers to the 65, 000 available men of the allies. The Russiancommander assigned the main attack to General Soimonov with 19, 000 infantryand 38 guns and to General Paulov with 16, 000 infantry and 96 guns. Theregiments in the valley of the Tchernaya, formerly commanded by Liprandi, but now led by Gortschakov, were "to support the general attack by drawingthe enemy's forces toward them. " The garrison of Sebastopol was to coverwith its artillery fire the right flank of the attacking force. Aftereffecting their junction, the two divisions were to place themselves underGeneral Danneberg's command. 

[Sidenote: Inkermann]

Soimonov issued under cover of a thick fog from the fortress before dawn onNovember 5, and to the surprise of the allies began the attack on theEnglish left. The timely arrival of reinforcements under Buller enabled theBritish to repel the Russians. Soimonov was left dead on the field. Theattack of Paulov on the right was no more successful. The Russians werehere repulsed with frightful loss. When Danneberg arrived on the scene hefound that, with Paulov's battalions on Mount Inkermann and with those ofSoimonov, he could recommence the battle with 19, 000 men and 90 guns. Tenthousand of these men were hurled against the English centre and right byDanneberg. The carnage was frightful. Between the hostile lines rose arampart of fallen men. The Russians would probably have swept away theBritish by the sheer force of greater numbers, had they not been taken inthe flank and repulsed by a French regiment which arrived just in time tosave their English comrades. 

[Sidenote: A dear victory]

Although the Russian attacking force had been diminished to 6, 000 men, itwas once more resolutely launched against the enemy, this time against thecentre and left of the allied armies. So impetuous was the assault, thatfor a time the Russians carried all before them. But a simultaneous, irresistible advance of the French and English not only repulsed theattacking force, but drove it off the field. Shortly before noon the battlewas decided. The heavy losses suffered by the Russians enabled the alliesto oppose greater numbers of men against Danneberg's broken battalions andhis still unused reserve, and to make use of their guns, now for the firsttime superior in number to the Russian ordnance. The battle of Inkermannclosed with no grand charge on the one side, nor wild flight on the other. When the Russians saw that success was hopeless, they withdrew gradually, with no attempt on the part of the wearied allies to convert the repulseinto a rout. On both sides, men had been ruthlessly sacrificed. 

[Sidenote: Crimean horrors]

Inkermann was followed by a gloomy winter. The Black Sea was swept byterrible storms which destroyed transport ships laden with stores for thearmy. The horses that charged at Balaklava became unfit for service; themen who had fought at Inkermann languished in field hospitals. In thewretchedly organized lazarets at Scutari the sick and wounded died byscores for lack of proper medical attendance. Shameful frauds wereperpetrated in filling the contracts for preserved meats. With grim humor"Punch" exclaimed: "One man's preserved meat is another man's poison. "After the harrowing misery that prevailed in camp had been pictured in theLondon newspapers, something like system was finally established in thehospitals by the energy of Miss Florence Nightingale. 

[Sidenote: Sardinia's offered help]

Balaklava and Inkermann had a profound effect upon the diplomaticnegotiation of the Powers. England and France attempted to induce Austriaand Prussia to take arms against the Czar. But Prussia would do nothingwithout the Confederation; and Austria would do nothing without Prussia. Buol-Schauenstein, the Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs, would gladlyhave mediated; but the prospects of success were not rosy. To the annoyanceof Austria, Piedmont, which had maintained its position in Italy despiteAustria, offered to take part in the war. Austria saw that she must now actquickly if she wished to preserve her European prestige. On December 2, shesigned a treaty with England and France binding herself not to negotiateseparately with the Czar; to defend the principalities which she hadoccupied in accordance with her compact with Turkey, after their evacuationby the Russians; and to deliberate with the Powers as to the best course tobe pursued if the war were not ended by January 1, 1855. The treaty wasintended merely to thwart Piedmont. 

1855

[Sidenote: Crimean war scandals]

[Sidenote: Parliamentary inquiry]

Complaints of neglect and maladministration in the Crimea waxed everlouder. The reports of the war correspondents at the front arousedindignation in London and Paris. Now the London "Times" came out with aleading article which produced a profound sensation throughout England. Theburden of it was a bitter complaint that "the noblest army ever sent fromour shores has been sacrificed to the grossest mismanagement. Incompetency, lethargy, aristocratic hauteur, official indifference, favor, routine, perverseness and stupidity reign, revel, and riot in the camp beforeSebastopol, in the harbor of Balaklava, in the hospitals of Scutari, andhow much nearer home we do not venture to say. We say it with extremestreluctance, no one sees or hears anything of the Commander-in-Chief. Officers who landed on the 14th of September, and have incessantly beenengaged in all the operations of the siege, are not even acquainted withthe face of their commander. " The exposures of the "Times" were taken up inParliament. Already Lord John Russell had urged upon the Earl of Aberdeenthe necessity of having the War Minister in the House of Commons, andrecommended that Lord Palmerston should be intrusted with the portfolio ofwar. The Prime Minister refused to recommend the proposed change to theQueen, on the ground that it would be unfair to the Duke of Newcastle, against whom, he said, no positive defect had been proved. As soon asParliament assembled on January 25, the opposition moved for a commissionof inquiry "into the condition of our army before Sebastopol, and into theconduct of those departments whose duty it has been to minister to thewants of that army. " Lord John Russell at once wrote to Lord Aberdeen thatsince this motion could not be resisted, and was sure to involve a censureof the War Department, he preferred to tender his resignation. Theretirement of the leaders of the House of Commons served to paralyze thegovernment's resistance. After a debate of two nights the motion for aninquiry was accepted by 305 against 148 votes. As Mr. Molesworth, who waspresent, wrote:

[Sidenote: Aberdeen's Ministry defeated]

"Never, perhaps, had a government been more decisively defeated. When thenumbers were announced, the House seemed to be surprised, and almoststunned by its own act. There was no cheering; but for a few moments a deadsilence, followed by a burst of derisive laughter. The Ministers of courseresigned. "

[Sidenote: Palmerston, Premier]

Lord John Russell and Lord Derby, each in turn, tried to form a Ministry, but both failed. Lord Palmerston was then called in, and succeeded inrallying a Cabinet composed largely of the members of the oldAdministration. Thus Lord Granville, Earl Grey, the Duke of Argyll, LordClarendon and William E. Gladstone were retained. The chief change was theappointment of Lord Panmure to take the place of the Duke of Newcastle asSecretary of War. Lord Panmure, better known as Fox Maule, had alreadyserved as Minister of War during the six years of Lord Russell'sadministration, and had shown himself thoroughly capable in that post. Commissions of inquiry were now sent to the Crimea. At the same timediplomatic conferences were reopened at Vienna. 

[Sidenote: Cavour's master-stroke]

The evident insincerity of Count Buol stirred up a hornet's nest ofindignation. The people of England and France became incensed as they sawthat Austria showed no inclination to fight. Prussia flatly refused toassist Austria in any warlike undertaking. Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia tookadvantage of the situation to join the allies. On April 21 he sent 15, 000men to the Crimea. 

During the diplomatic parleys of the Powers, the siege of Sebastopolwearily dragged along. The commissariat and land-transport systems brokedown. The armies were weakened by cholera, cold, and starvation. Negotiations for peace were set on foot by Austria. A conference was openedat Vienna under promising auspices. 

[Sidenote: Death of Emperor Nicholas]

[Sidenote: The Four Points]

Czar Nicholas, with whom the war was a personal grievance, died on March2--of pulmonary apoplexy, reported the physicians--of bitter disappointmentand despair, claimed his people. His son, Alexander II. , peace-loving as hewas known to be, did not venture to show himself less of a true Russianthan his father. The Conference proved a failure. Lord John Russell, England's representative, was instructed to insist upon the admission ofTurkey into the Concert of Powers. To secure this end, four principalpoints were to be considered, now famous under the name of the FourPoints--the fate of the Danube principalities, the free navigation of theDanube, the limitation of Russian supremacy in the Black Sea, and thepreservation of the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. The attempt to limitRussia's supremacy in the Black Sea was the chief point upon which thePowers could not agree. 

[Sidenote: Changes at the front]

The operations in the Crimea were vigorously renewed. Lord Raglan died andwas succeeded by General Simpson. Long before him, old Marshal St. Arnaudwas carried away by disease. His post was taken by Canrobert, who afterwardresigned in favor of Pelissier. On August 16, the Russians under Liprandimade a desperate effort to raise the siege by an attack on the allies. Theassault was made on the French divisions and on the Sardinian contingent. Liprandi was foiled. Northern Italy was in a delirium of joy when the newscame that the banner of Piedmont had been carried to victory over a greatPower, side by side with the flag of France. The far-sightedness ofCavour's audacious policy was now fully appreciated. 

[Sidenote: Russian works assaulted]

[Sidenote: Zouaves storm the Malakov]

[Sidenote: British beaten off]

[Sidenote: Sebastopol yielded to allies]

[Sidenote: Cost of the great siege]

The repulse proved fatal to the Russians. Nearer and nearer the French drewto the city. But the ingenious Todleben threw up works which also broughtthe Russians closer to the enemy. Sometimes it seemed as if the allies werethe besieged and not the besiegers. Malakov Tower and the Mamelon batteryin front of it were the scenes of bloody conflicts. Night sorties were madeand repelled. On June 7, the English assaulted the quarries in front of theRedan, and the French assailed the Mamelon. Both attempts were successful. On the 18th, a fierce attack was made on the Redan and the Malakovbatteries, which resulted in failure, because the French did not act withsufficient precision. A simultaneous assault was made on the Malakov andthe Redan on September 5. The French upon capturing the Malakov were tohoist their flag, and thereby signal to the English when to move againstthe Redan. A brilliant success was won by the Zouaves. Their tricolor wavedover the ramparts fifteen minutes after they had started to scale the steepheights. The task of the English troops proved more difficult. They werecompelled to advance under a galling fire, but stormed the parapets despitethe resistance which they encountered. The attacking force, however, wastoo small; reinforcements did not come in time, and the remnant of theparty was compelled to withdraw. It was the story of Balaklava told overagain with bloody emphasis--the story of splendid courage on the part ofthe men, of wretched generalship on the part of their commanders. After theattack, the Russians withdrew from the south side of Sebastopol. Thatportion of the city had been so thoroughly bombarded that Gortschakov couldno longer hold out. "It is not Sebastopol that we have left to them, butthe burning ruins of the town, to which we ourselves set fire, " wrote theRussian commander after his brave defence. He could indeed boast that latergenerations would "recall with pride" the great siege and its stirringevents. The investment had lasted eleven months. It involved theconstruction of seventy miles of trenches and the employment of 60, 000fascines, 80, 000 gabions, and 1, 000, 000 sandbags. One and one-half millionshells and shot were fired into the town from the cannon of the besiegers. The Russian forces in and about Sebastopol numbered 150, 000; their lossessustained in its defence amounted, in killed, wounded and missing, to90, 142. The allied armies numbered 80, 650 French, 43, 000 English, and20, 000 Turks in January, 1855. The British troops suffered terribly fromdisease. The forty-one English infantry battalions, which embarkedoriginally, mustered 36, 923, and were reinforced by 27, 884. Their strengthat the conclusion of hostilities was 653 less than it was at the beginning. The Sardinians suffered proportionately. The wastage, due principally todisease, thus amounted to 28, 537 men. 

 [Illustration: BALAKLAVA--"OUT OF THE MOUTH OF HELL--" Painted by Elizabeth Thompson (Lady Butler) Copyright. By permission of Henry Graves & Co. , Ltd. , London]

[Sidenote: The defense of Kars]

With the fall of Sebastopol the war may be said to have ended. A brilliantchapter which had little effect on the Crimean campaign, partly because itoccurred after the fall of Sebastopol, partly because it concerned chieflythe Armenians, was the long defence of Kars by Colonel Williams and WassifPasha against an overwhelming Russian army under General Muraviev. Williamssturdily held his ground, bravely repulsed a violent attack in which theRussians lost over 5, 000 men, and surrendered on November 27, with allthe honors of war, only when starvation stared his little garrison in theface. 

[Sidenote: First ironclads before Kinburn]

[Sidenote: Success of first trial]

Hostilities still continued for a time in the Crimea. The allied fleet wassent to bombard various sea forts. The most important of these navaloperations from a historical standpoint was the expedition against Kinburn, for here it was that the modern ironclad was first tried. On September 5, 1854, Napoleon had ordered the construction of five armored floatingbatteries, which embodied the results obtained in the tests of plating madebefore the War Ministry's representatives at Vincennes. The ships were of1, 400 tons displacement, were armed with eighteen 50-pounder smoothbores, and protected by four inches of iron armor. They were the prototypes of thelater ironclads. Not without some misgivings three of these batteries weresent to the Crimea to join the allied fleet under Admirals Lyons and Bruat. The English squadron consisted of six line-of-battle ships, seventeenfrigates and sloops, ten gunboats, six mortar-boats and ten transports. TheFrench fleet, besides the three armored batteries mentioned, included fourline-of-battle ships, three corvettes, four despatch boats, twelve gunboats and five mortar-boats. The combined fleets prepared to attack theRussian works at Kinburn. On October 18, the bombardment began. Theironclads steamed up to within 800 yards of the main fort; the other shipstook up positions at distances varying from 1, 200 to 2, 800 yards. Withoutappreciable effect the Russian 32-pound and 18-pound shot and shelldropped into the sea from the iron plating of the French ships. Whateverinjury was sustained was caused by the entrance of shot and splintersthrough the portholes. Unable to withstand the well-directed fire of theirinvulnerable enemy, the Russians hoisted the white flag, after having lost45 killed and 130 wounded. The allies lost but two killed and had butforty-five wounded--all on board the armored ships. "Everything may beexpected of these formidable engines of war, " wrote Admiral Bruat in hisreport. The Black Sea was the cradle of the modern ironclad. 

[Sidenote: Achievements in Science and Letter]

Another achievement of far-reaching consequences was Captain HenryBessemer's process for manufacturing steel. He took out a patent for hisinvention of forcing air through liquid molten iron. Other inventions ofinterest were Brewster's prismatic stereoscope, Garcia's laryngoscope (amirror for examining the throat), and Drummond's light, patented by CaptainThomas Drummond. Captain Robert Le Mesurier M'Clure of the "Investigator"received the £5, 000 prize for the discovery of the Northwest Passage andwas knighted. Famous English books of the year were Robert Browning's "Menand Women, " Charles Kingsley's "Westward Ho!" and George Henry Lewes' "Lifeof Goethe. "

[Sidenote: Death of Charlotte Brontë]

Charlotte Brontë, the novelist, died on the last day of March. She was bornin 1824, the daughter of the Rev. Patrick Brontë of Haworth in Yorkshire. In June, 1854, she married her father's curate, the Rev. Archer BellNicholls. Under the pseudonym of Currer Bell she published several novels, in which she displayed great power in the delineation of character. Themost important of these were "Shirley, " "Villette" and the celebrated "JaneEyre. " At the same time her sister, Emily Jane, who published under thename of Ellis Bell, won fame by her novel "Wuthering Heights. " She died sixyears earlier. 

[Sidenote: Corot]

This year Jean-Baptiste Corot, the famous French painter of "PaysageIntime, " and follower and modifier of the new realistic schools under thelead of Courbet, exhibited his "Souvenir de Marcoussy, " which was purchasedlater by Napoleon III. 

[Sidenote: Death of Rogers]

Samuel Rogers, the English poet, wit and patron of art, died, on December18, in his ninety-second year. The son of a banker, he travelledextensively while a young man, and applied himself to the study of art andletters. His first published essays and poetry were an "Ode toSuperstition" and "The Pleasures of Memory. " The death of his father in1793 left him in the possession of an ample fortune, and he lost no time inretiring from active business. In 1798 he published "The Epistle to aFriend" and other poems. During the early part of the Nineteenth Century, Rogers figured in the foremost rank of the literary and artistic society inLondon, where he went by the name of "The Banker Bard of St. James'sPlace. " In 1812 he brought out an epic on "The Voyage of Columbus, " whichmet with indifferent success. This was followed by "Jacqueline" and "HumanLife. " His last and largest publication was his descriptive poem "Italy, "brought out in 1822. Rogers devoted the rest of his literary life to thepublication of exquisitely illustrated editions of his "Italy" and his"Poems. " Shortly after Rogers' death a collection of his witty sayings waspublished under the title of "Table Talk. "

[Sidenote: Horace Vernet]

[Sidenote: His early works]

[Sidenote: Vernet's earnings]

[Sidenote: Highest artistic honors]

At the Parisian Art Exposition of this year, Horace Vernet, the celebratedFrench battle painter, had a Salon devoted entirely to his works. The wallswere covered by his immense canvases. At this time Vernet was the mostsuccessful of French artists. Born at the Louvre at the outbreak of theFrench Revolution, Vernet in his early career was identified with theevents of that epoch. For the Duke of Orleans he painted his celebratedseries of the four revolutionary battles, "Jemmapes, Hanau, Montmirail, andValmy. " In 1812 he received his first important commission from King Jeromeof Westphalia, and in 1813 another from Empress Marie Louise. In 1814, Horace Vernet, with his father and Géricault, fought on the Barrière deClichy, and for his gallant conduct there received the decoration of theLegion of Honor from the hands of Napoleon. After the Restoration, Vernetachieved a great success by his "Battle of Torlosa, " which was purchasedfor 6, 000 francs for the Maison du Roi. At the Salon of 1819 Vernetcontested the field with Géricault and Ingres, whose "Medusa" and"Odalisque" were the success of the season. By his popular lithographs ofNapoleonic scenes, Vernet so jeopardized his interests at Court that it wasthought best for him to transfer his studio from Paris to Rome. On hisreturn from there in 1822 he painted his masterpiece, "The Defence of theBarrier of Clichy, " for which Odiot paid 4, 000 francs. It was presented tothe Chamber of Peers, from which it was transferred subsequently to theGallery of the Louvre. Thenceforward Vernet's pictures, the first of whichhad sold for a few hundred francs, commanded ever higher prices. ForAvignon, his ancestral home, Horace Vernet painted "Mazeppa Pursued byWolves, " a picture which was injured by a sabre stroke in the artist'sstudio. After his election to the Institute, Vernet changed the style ofhis subjects, charging staggering prices. For a ceiling fresco in theMuseum of Charles X. He received 17, 910 francs; for "Phillip AugustusBefore Bovines, " now at Versailles, 24, 775 francs; for "The Battle ofFontenoy, " 30, 000 francs. Still these pictures were scarcely up to thestandard of the "Barrier of Clichy, " and on Vernet's second removal to Romehis art seemed to decline. After many years spent in Rome and with Frencharmies in Algiers and in the Orient, Vernet went to Russia, where he wasreceived with great favor at the Court of the Czar. The highest financialpoint in his career was marked by a 50, 000-franc commission for a portraitof the Russian Empress. He returned to France in good time to receive, in1855, the greatest honors yet showered upon a French painter. 

[Sidenote: "Leaves of Grass"]

[Sidenote: American "Know Nothings"]

In America, Longfellow brought out his "Hiawatha" and Walt Whitmanpublished "Leaves of Grass. " At this period the "Know Nothing" Party hadcome to be a power in politics. The party had started from a New Yorksociety formed to check the influence of the Pope, for purifying the ballotand maintaining the Bible in the public schools. It was called the AmericanParty. Wherever the difference of opinion on the Missouri Compromise in1854 dissolved party ties in the North, multitudes flocked to the newparty. Before 1855 it had a million and a half of voters. In 1854 it allbut wrecked the old organizations. In Virginia, Henry A. Wise, an old Whig, led the Democratic Party, and overthrew the new organization. At theNational Convention of the new party, Southern resolutions were adopted bya vote of 80 to 59. The Northern delegates met and repudiated theanti-slavery alliance. In 1855 the party carried New York, California andMassachusetts, and the Democrats carried New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indianaand Illinois. 

[Sidenote: Stirring party contest]

[Sidenote: Buchanan elected]

The American Convention met in Philadelphia, February 22, and nominatedFillmore and Donelson. On the same day a convention met at Pittsburg toeffect a national organization of the Republican Party, which appointed aNational Convention for the 17th of June, the anniversary of Bunker Hill. The Democratic Convention met at Cincinnati. Pierce, Douglas and Buchananwere candidates. On the seventeenth ballot Buchanan was chosen by unanimousvote with Breckenridge for Vice-President. The Republican Convention met, and in it were King, Clay, Wilson and Wilmot. Fremont was made a candidateby 359 votes against 196 for McLean. For Vice-President, Abraham Lincolnhad 110 votes, but Dayton received the majority. The nominees of theAmerican Convention were afterward withdrawn. The various nominees eachrepresented real issues. Buchanan stood for the South, Fremont fornon-extension, and Fillmore for the Union. The election resulted in thechoice of Buchanan, who received 1, 838, 169 votes, to Fremont's 1, 341, 000, and Fillmore's 875, 000. Of the electoral votes, Buchanan received 174, Fremont 114, and Fillmore 8. 

[Sidenote: Struggle in Kansas]

[Sidenote: "Bleeding Kansas"]

At another election in Kansas to choose members of the TerritorialLegislature, armed bodies from Missouri took possession of the polls andelected a pro-slavery Legislature. Of 6, 218 votes cast but 1, 310 werelegal. Governor Reeder set the election aside and ordered another. May 22, supplementary elections were held and the Free State men won. June 11, Governor Reeder was charged with fraud in the purchase of the Indian lands, and, on July 26, was removed. Dawson was appointed in his place, withWoodson as acting-governor. On July 2, the pro-slavery Legislature met atPawnee, organized, expelled nine Free State members, and adjourned to theShawnee Mission, near the Missouri State line. Thereupon the Free State menmet at Lawrence, repudiated the Shawnee Mission Legislature as spurious, and summoned a new convention at Topeka. The Convention adopted a FreeState Constitution, and nominated Reeder for Congress. On October 1, thepro-slavery party elected Whitfield for Congress by more votes than thecensus list contained. The Free Staters declared the pro-slaveryLegislature to have been elected by fraud. A rival government wasorganized. Discord, violence, and crime prevailed for a year. "BleedingKansas" became an issue in American national politics. 

[Sidenote: Congress takes action]

The House resolved by 101 to 93 votes to send a special committee to Kansasto inquire into the anarchy prevailing there. The committee consisted ofHoward, Sherman, and Oliver. After several weeks' investigation theyreturned and reported that every election in Kansas had been carried byMissourians, and the people had been prevented from exercising theirrights; that the Legislature was illegal and its acts null and void; thatWhitfield held his seat under no valid law, and Reeder had received morevotes than he; that a well-devised election law was necessary, andimpartial judges should be guarded by United States troops, and that theTopeka Free Soil Convention embodied the will of the majority. A billadmitting Kansas under her free constitution was defeated by 107 to 106, but was subsequently passed by 99 to 97. In the Senate the bill wasdefeated. Meanwhile turmoil and disorder continued in Kansas. Finallynegotiations between Shannon, and the Free State leaders suspended the feudfor a time. 

[Sidenote: Mexican filibusters]

[Sidenote: Count Bouldon shot]

[Sidenote: Alvarez revolution]

[Sidenote: Santa Anna withdraws]

[Sidenote: Anarchy in Mexico]

[Sidenote: General Comonfort]

The latest attempts to overthrow the government in Mexico, while theybrought General Santa Anna once more to the head of affairs seriouslyimperilled his position. After the release of the United States Governmentfrom guarding the frontiers of Mexico, the Indians once more becametroublesome. Predatory bands of Apaches and Comanches so ravaged theprovince of Cohauila that the government had to distribute arms among theinhabitants. A filibustering expedition under Major Walker of Kentuckyestablished itself in Lower California. They proclaimed the independence ofthat province, so as to bring about annexation by the United States. Astrong display of Mexican forces had the effect of driving them into Texas. Another filibustering expedition led by a French adventurer who calledhimself Count Raousset de Bouldon terrorized the north. From Guyamas thisexpedition marched inland, but was defeated in the first encounter with astrong Mexican force. Raousset de Bouldon was taken captive and was shot. More serious was a military revolution in the south led by General Alvarez. In his proclamation of Ayutla, Alvarez called for a new Constitution and anew Congress, and promised such reforms as the abolition of personaltaxation, of military conscription, and of the feudal system of passports. Other popular leaders like Bravo and Moreno joined the movement. In vaindid Santa Anna put forth all the powers of a military dictator. Therevolutionists took Monterey, and the insurrection spread throughout thecountry until it reached the capital. Santa Anna gathered fourteen hundredof his best troops and left the City of Mexico to march upon his enemies. Soon the hopelessness of his enterprise became apparent. On the way to VeraCruz he suddenly abdicated, and embarked on August 19 for Havana. Scarcelyhad Santa Anna left Mexico when the country was plunged into newdisorders. General Carrera, on August 15, declared for the plan of Ayutlaand proclaimed himself Vice-President. Funds were raised by a forced loanfrom the clerical orders. Several provinces of Mexico refused to recognizeCarrera. Within a month he had to abdicate. He was succeeded at first byGeneral Diaz de la Vavaga, and then by Juan Alvarez, the leader of thePuros. While he tried to establish his rule, General Vidini in the northstrove to wrest the States of Cohauila, Tamaulipas and Nuego Leon fromMexico, to form an independent republic under the name of Sierra Madre. Before the close of the year Alvarez likewise found his position untenableand resigned. General Comonfort seized the reins of power as substitutepresident--the thirty-sixth President within forty years, the fifth withinfour months. He fell heir to the serious international complication withSpain resulting from the unpaid dividends of Mexico's original debt ofindemnity to that country. 

[Sidenote: Growth of Taiping movement]

In China, the Taiping rebels still holding Lintsing were beset by theimperial troops. They were expelled from the province of Shantung duringthe spring, but on the other hand carried their arms up the Yangtse-Kiangas far as Ichang, and eastward from Nanking to the sea. The establishmentof the Taiping power at Nanking attracted the attention of Europeans. Atlength a ruthless system of capital executions, by which nearly one hundredthousand victims are believed to have perished, terrorized China. 

1856

In America, the increasing virulence of the long controversy over slaverywas brought home to the people by a cowardly assault committed by oneAlbert Rust upon Horace Greeley, the editor of the New York "Tribune, " andone of the leaders of the agitation against slavery. 

[Sidenote: Buford in Kansas]

[Sidenote: The "Kansas War"]

At a Territorial election in Kansas on January 15 a Legislature was chosen, and Robinson was elected Governor under the Free State Constitution. January 26, President Pierce recognized the pro-slavery Legislature inKansas, and, on February 11, by proclamation ordered the dispersion ofarmed invaders of Kansas. The Legislature met at Topeka, March 4, andinaugurated Robinson. Congress appointed a committee to investigate theKansas troubles. On May 5, the Grand Jury of Douglas County foundindictments against Reeder, Robinson and Lane, the Free State leaders. Inthe spring of 1856, Colonel Buford of Alabama, with a thousand young menfrom South Carolina and Georgia, came to Kansas in military array. In May, Lawrence was surrounded by these men bearing Federal arms taken from theUnited States armory. Nearly all the pro-slavery leaders were with them. They demanded the surrender of the people's arms. The inhabitants wereunprepared to resist. The armed pro-slavery force marched through the town, destroying the hotels and printing-offices and the residence of GovernorRobinson, doing a damage of $150, 000. Such was the beginning of the "KansasWar" which continued throughout the year. 

[Sidenote: "Osawatomie Brown"]

Acting-Governor Woodson proclaimed the Territory to be in a state ofrebellion. A large pro-slavery force was gathering at Lecompton and anotherat Santa Fé. Osawatomie was captured, seven men were killed and thirtybuildings burned. Among the killed was a son of John Brown. Atchison'spro-slavery force withdrew into Missouri. On September 1, in a municipalelection at Leavenworth, an armed band of Missourians killed and wounded anumber of Free State men, burned their houses, and compelled one hundredand fifty of them to embark for St. Louis. 

[Sidenote: Fight at Lawrence]

The attack on Lawrence was renewed under the direct authority of thegovernment. Many lives were lost. The United States troops at Leavenworthwere used by Shannon. The Free State Legislature was dispersed by theUnited States forces. Other Missouri forces invaded the Territory anddestroyed Brown's village of Osawatomie, but the Free State men compelledthem to retreat across the Missouri. In September, President Pierceappointed Gray Governor of Kansas. Arriving at Lecompton, he releasedRobinson and other Free State prisoners on bail, and ordered all hostileforces to disband. On September 15, three regiments of Missourians withcannon attacked Lawrence. Governor Gray with United States troopscompelled them to retire. December 15, Lecompton, a partisan judge, wasremoved on demand of the Governor, and Harrison of Kentucky was appointed. The Free State preponderance among settlers constantly increased. Nearlyall the clearing, plowing, and planting was done by Free State men. Allmanner of irregularities constantly thinned the ranks of volunteers fromthe South. Kansas, according to Greeley's expressive phrase, "was steadilyhardening into the bone and sinew of a Free State. "

[Sidenote: Senator Sumner assaulted]

The National Convention of the American Party virtually approved theFugitive Slave law and the Kansas-Nebraska act. In Congress, Sumnerdelivered a philippic on "The Crime against Kansas, " in which he commentedseverely on Senator Butler of South Carolina. Thereupon Preston Brooksbrutally assaulted Sumner in his seat in the Senate. As a result of hisinjuries Sumner was an invalid for four years. 

[Sidenote: Puebla revolts]

In Mexico, President Comonfort had barely reached a temporary adjustment ofdifficulties with Spain when his government was embarrassed by a seriousinsurrection in Puebla. Government troops in overwhelming numbers put abloody end to the revolt. Orihuela, the rebel chief, was shot. 

[Sidenote: Friction with Spain]

[Sidenote: Civil war in Mexico]

A new liberal Constitution in Mexico, proclaimed by President Comonfort, did not mend matters much in that distracted republic. New troubles withSpain arose over unpunished robberies and murders of Spanish subjects. InMarch, diplomatic intercourse between the two countries was severed. Spanish warships were ordered to the Gulf of Mexico. At the last moment, diplomatic mediation on the part of England and France succeeded inaverting war. General Comonfort, finding himself unable to make muchheadway by constitutional means, invoked the help of General Zuloaga, andestablished himself once more as military dictator. When it came todividing the spoils, Comonfort and Zuloaga fell out, and a seven days'conflict resulted. Comonfort's followers were routed. The defeatedPresident had to flee the country. 

[Sidenote: Death of Heine]

[Sidenote: Heine's Muse]

Heinrich Heine, the foremost German lyric poet, died at Paris, February 18. The last ten years of his life were clouded by ill health. Heine derivedhis first poetic inspiration from A. W. Schlegel, while a student at theUniversity of Bonn. In the literary and artistic circle of Rachel Varnhagelin Berlin he found further encouragement in his early literary labors. Hewas a Jew, but, for the purpose of taking up the study of law, he hadhimself baptized a Christian, and became a doctor of law at the Universityof Göttingen. After a journey to England, he gave up law to devote himselfexclusively to the pursuit of letters. In 1827, he brought out his "Buchder Lieder, " and followed this up with the first part of his famous"Reisebilder. " Heine's lyrics, by their unwonted grace and sprightliness, captivated German readers. Some of his songs, like that of the "Lorelei" or"Thou Art Like a Flower, " soon became German folksongs. Morecharacteristic, perhaps, of Heine's light muse are lines like these:

 A youth once loved a maiden, But for another she sighed; This other loved still another And took her for his bride. 

 The maid for spite then married The first that came along; Alas for the youth who loved her, He suffered grievous wrong!

 It is an old, old story, But yet it is ever new, And the one to whom it happens His heart is broken in two. 

[Sidenote: The poet in Paris]

[Sidenote: "La Mouche"]

Shortly after the July Revolution, Heine went to Paris, where he became acontributor to several of the foremost literary journals of the day as awriter of French feuilletons. His French prose style was almost equal tohis brilliant command of German. Not until 1844 did Heine bring out any newGerman poems. Then he published the epic satires "Germany, a Winter'sTale, " and "Atta Troll, a Summer Night's Dream, " two works which arousedintense indignation in Germany. Much was made of the fact that Heineaccepted an annual pension of 4, 800 francs from the government of LouisPhilippe. On the other hand, Heine made the terse observation that wheneverhe was treated with rude discourtesy he could be sure that he had met aGerman. In Paris, the poet was captivated by the charm of young MatildeMirat, his "lotos flower, " as he called her, or also "la mouche. " Theuneducated yet infinitely charming and loyal grisette was the good angel ofHeine's later years. On the eve of the famous duel with his rival poetBörne, in 1841, Heine married Matilde at the Church of St. Sulpice. 

[Sidenote: Deathbed wit]

To his sorrow the poet lived many more years suffering great agony from aspinal complaint which confined him to his bed, or "mattress grave" as hecalled it. His powers of wit and raillery never failed him, even to thelast. On the night before he died an anxious friend called to bid farewell. He asked if the dying man had made his "peace with God. " Heine replied witha wan smile: "Do not trouble yourself. God will pardon me. That's histrade. " These were the last recorded words spoken by Heine. Another storyhas it that when the physician put a handglass to the lips of the dying manand said, "Can you hiss (siffler)?" Heine murmured, "No, not even a play ofScribe. "

[Sidenote: German romantic poets]

Among German writers of this period, Friedrich Rueckert, the lyric poet, and Fritz Reuter, who wrote in Low German dialect, were at the height oftheir activity. Emanuel Geibel presented himself as heir presumptive to themantle of Heine. Unlike Heine, this poet devoted his muse to theglorification of German patriotism. He achieved such a success that he wassoon called to Munich, where he brought out the first "Golden Book ofPoets. " Other German poets, such as Gottfried Kinkel, the revolutionist, Hoffmann von Fallersleben, and Ferdinand Freiligrath, famous outside ofGermany for his happy translations of English and American verse, had towrite their poems in exile. 

[Sidenote: Biela's comet]

On February 18, Wilhelm von Biela, the great German astronomer, died atVenice. Born in 1782 at Rossla in the Hartz Mountains, he entered theAustrian military service in 1805, and was made colonel in 1826, andcommandant of Rovigo in 1832. On February 27, 1826, he discovered thefamous comet named after him. According to Biela's prediction, the cometreturned every six years and thirty-eight weeks until 1852. Thereafter itwas not seen as a comet during the century. Biela also discovered two othercomets. 

[Sidenote: Crimean peace conference]

[Sidenote: Black Sea and Danube opened]

[Sidenote: Status Quo in Balkans]

After the fall of Sebastopol, Austria made another attempt to secure peace. Two of the Powers, France and Russia, were heartily weary of the war. LouisNapoleon had entered the struggle merely to gain military glory andpolitical prestige. He had succeeded in attaining his ends. Alexander II. , who had continued the war largely as a matter of filial piety, was ready toseize the first opportunity to conclude peace with honor. A Congress wastherefore assembled in Paris to draw up terms satisfactory to allconcerned. On March 30, a treaty was signed which gave Kars back to theSultan and restored Sebastopol to the Czar. The Porte was admitted to theConcert of Powers. Most important was the regulation of the navigation ofthe Black Sea. It was decreed in the treaty that "the Black Sea isneutralized; its waters and its ports, thrown open to the mercantile marineof every nation, are formally and in perpetuity interdicted to the flag ofwar of the Powers possessing its coasts or of any other Power. " Patrollingof the sea by small armed vessels was permitted. The Danube was thrown opento the commerce of the world. In order more fully to secure free navigationof the river, the Czar's frontier in Bessarabia was somewhat changed bythe cession of certain territory to Moldavia under the suzerainty of thePorte. Both Wallachia and Moldavia continued under the protection ofTurkey, and were permitted to enjoy their former privileges. The _statusquo_ of Servia was assured. It was further stipulated that, following theancient rule of the Sultans, no foreign war vessels were to pass throughthe Dardanelles and the Bosphorus while Turkey was at peace. To insure theintegrity of the Ottoman Empire, England, France and Austria signed atreaty, on April 15, guaranteeing the independence of the Sultan'sdominions and declaring that any violation of this would call for war. 

[Sidenote: The Paris convention]

Besides drawing up the treaty of peace, the Congress of Paris settledvarious moot points in international law. The plenipotentiaries all agreedto the doctrines: "First, privateering is and remains abolished. Second, the neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband ofwar. Third, neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are notliable to capture under an enemy's flag. Fourth, blockades in order to bebinding must be effective; that is to say, maintained by a force sufficientreally to prevent access to the enemy's coast. " The United States ofAmerica did not subscribe to this convention. 

[Sidenote: Results of Crimean war]

Russia came out of the conflict defeated but respected. She had received acheck in the Black Sea and her frontier line had been readjusted. Still herpolitical losses were trivial. The war most deeply affected Austria. Shehad played a false game and had lost. The sceptre of European leadershipslipped from her. The situation afforded to Bismarck and Cavour theopportunity each was anxiously awaiting. 

[Sidenote: Italy benefited]

Cavour had won his first point. At the Conference of Paris he took hisplace as a representative of Sardinia by right of an alliance with theother great Powers. Then it was seen that every Italian soldier who hadfallen on the Tchernaya, or who had wasted away in the fever-strickencamps, had died indeed for the honor of Italy among the nations of theworld. At the close of the Conference Cavour made a plain statementconcerning the misgovernment of southern and central Italy and the evils ofthe Austrian occupation. When Count Buol von Schauenstein protested, theFrench and English representatives supported Cavour. The effect of theserepresentations was such that there was a sudden change in Austria'srestrictive measures hitherto inflicted upon her Italian dominions. OldMarshal Radetzky, the man of the sword, was retired. The sequestratedItalian estates were returned to their owners. Emperor Francis Joseph camein person to Milan to proclaim a general amnesty. His brother Maximilian, aprince of liberal tendencies, came with his young bride Charlotte to undothe harsh measures of the military government. Maximilian's liberal policyproved too much for the narrow spirit of the Ministry at home. 

[Sidenote: After effects in England]

[Sidenote: Friction with America]

[Sidenote: Australian Home Rule]

One of the first results of the Crimean war was the threatened suspensionof the Bank of England. In November, it was found that the reserve fundsof the Bank had shrunk to £1, 462, 153, while the deposits that might at anymoment be drawn out aggregated £18, 248, 003. In these circumstances, aspecial bill of Parliament authorized a new issue of paper notes for£180, 000 more than the law permitted. Furthermore, the war with Russia leftbehind it a dispute between the governments of Great Britain and of theUnited States. Under the provisions of a recent foreign enlistment bill inEngland, American citizens had been induced to enter the British militaryservice. The American Government complained that the practice was inviolation of international law. The point was practically conceded by theEnglish Government, which at once put a stop to the enlistment of Americancitizens and tendered an apology to the government of the United States. The situation was aggravated by the fact that one of the attachés of theAmerican Legation in London at this very time was refused admission to adiplomatic levee at the Court of St. James because he did not appear incourt dress. The British Minister at Washington received his passports. InAustralia, the first Home Rule Parliament had been opened at Sydney by SirWilliam Denison. The popular elections were conducted under the famousballot system which was afterward adopted in other parts of the world. 

[Sidenote: Singular suicidal mania]

In South Africa, the province of Natal was separated from Cape Colony, andbecame an independent Crown Colony with a constitution of its own. The landof the Basutos, no longer under British protectorate, suffered greatly fromhostile incursions and cattle raids from the Boers. During the summer theKaffirs fell victims to a fatal delusion. Their prophet Amaxosa foretoldthe resurrection of all their dead heroes and warriors, on condition thatthey themselves should put an end to their lives. In all, some 50, 000Kaffirs committed suicide. Emigrants from Cape Colony occupied the Kaffirlands, which had become depopulated. 

[Sidenote: Affair of "The Arrow"]

[Sidenote: British reprisals on China]

[Sidenote: Canton bombarded]

[Sidenote: Insufficient British forces]

In October, the Chinese Emperor, beset as he was by the victorious Taipingrebels, was made to feel the heavy hand of Great Britain. A Portugueselorcha, "The Arrow, " flying the British flag though without Britishregister, was overhauled by the Chinese authorities while at anchor nearDutch Folly. One of her crew had been recognized as one of a band ofpirates who had committed some recent outrages. The Taotai of Canton hadthe offender arrested. Sir John Bowring at Hong Kong at once protested. TheChinese Imperial Commissioner Yeh replied that "The Arrow" was not aforeign vessel, and therefore declined to enter into any discussion abouther. As a first step toward obtaining reparation the British seized aChinese imperial junk and held her in reprisal. As this failed to bring theChinese to terms, Sir Michael Seymour with a British squadron bombarded andseized the barrier forts of Canton. The fleet proceeded up the river, and, after capturing the Chinese fort of Macao Passage, came to anchor beforeCanton. An ultimatum was addressed to Yeh, stating that unless he at oncecomplied with all English demands they would "proceed with the destructionof all the defences and public buildings of the city and of the governmentvessels in the harbor. " No reply was vouchsafed. The Canton forts wereseized by the British and their men-of-war trained guns on the city. Allable-bodied Chinamen were called upon by the Viceroy of Canton to rally forthe defence of their city. The British bombarded Canton and sunk a largefleet of Chinese war junks up the river. A fort at French Folly wasreduced, and the Bogue forts on both sides of the river were captured. TheChinese retaliated by burning the whole foreign settlement, and by choppingoff the heads of all the Englishmen who came into their power. Sir MichaelSeymour found his force inadequate to capture Canton, and had to withdrawfrom his positions while he sent home a request for reinforcements. Theurgency of the request opened the eyes of the British Foreign Secretary tothe gravity of the situation. A force of 1, 500 men was at once sent fromEngland, another regiment from Mauritius, and a division from the Madrasarmy. The situation in India shortly became such that this force neverreached China. 

[Sidenote: British war with Persia]

New difficulties had arisen with Persia respecting Herat. The death of YarMuhammad Khan in 1852 was followed by intrigues in Herat. The provincebecame a bone of contention between the Shah of Persia and the aged DostMuhammad Khan. This ruler's hostility to England during the second Sikh warhad been condoned, and a treaty of friendship concluded between him andLord Dalhousie. In virtue of this treaty the British sided with DostMuhammad. When the Shah moved an army into Herat and captured the capital, England declared war on Persia. Arms and munitions in great quantity werepresented to Dost Muhammad, together with a subsidy of ten thousand poundsa month so long as the Persian war should last. An expedition under SirJames Outram was sent from Bombay to the Gulf of Persia. The capture ofBushire by the English and their victory at Mohamrah brought the Shah ofPersia to withdraw his troops from Afghanistan. Herat was relinquished. While the war lasted a new danger to the British Indian Empire arose atDelhi. In July, the heir-apparent of old Bahadur Shah, the reigning King ofDelhi, suddenly died. A younger queen was believed to have poisoned him. She persuaded Bahadur Shah to proclaim her son heir to the throne. LordCanning withheld Great Britain's recognition. An elder brother wasrecognized as successor by Lord Canning, on condition that he should leaveDelhi upon his succession to the throne and take up his abode at Kutut. Theyoung Queen was moved to wild wrath. She was a daughter of the House ofNadir Shah, burning with the traditional ambitions of her family. Forthwithshe took a part in all manner of intrigues against the English on the sideof Persia as well as of the Afghans. The remarkable outbursts ofanti-British feeling that followed have been credited to her. 

1857

[Sidenote: Chinese war ships sank]

[Sidenote: Assault on Fatshan]

The reverses of the Persians brought the Shah to terms. A treaty of peacewas presently concluded in which all claim to Herat was abandoned byPersia. Early in the year the British expedition in China resumedhostilities. Commodore Elliot with five gunboats and a host of small boatsdestroyed a fleet of forty armed junks. Next an attack was delivered on theChinese headquarters at Fatshan. A flotilla of English small boats cuttheir way through the long line of war junks, and a landing party underCommodore Harry Keppel attacked the main position. The Commodore's boat wassunk and several others had to be abandoned. A number of the Chinese junkswere burned. Keppel's force was found too small to capture Fatshan. SirMichael Seymour decided to postpone further hostilities until the arrivalof the promised reinforcements that were to come after Lord Elgin. Whenthese troops failed to arrive in good time, Lord Elgin went to Calcuttahimself to hasten their despatch. There he found affairs of far moreserious import than those in China. 

[Sidenote: Murmurs in India]

[Sidenote: The greased cartridges]

Some time previously rumors had been circulated concerning a danger toBritish rule in India. Mysterious little cakes were circulated far andwide. Lord Canning, the new Governor-General, was blamed for not takingalarm. A dangerous story got abroad early in the year. The Enfield riflehad been introduced. Its cartridges were greased with animal lubricants. The fat of pigs was hateful to Mohammedans, while that of cows was stillmore of an abomination in the eyes of the Hindus. At Barrackpore, nearCalcutta, where Sepoys were stationed, a Laskar reviled a Brahmin asdefiled by the British cartridges. The whole of the Bengal army was seizedwith horror. The British authorities claimed that none of the greasedcartridges had been issued to the Sepoys. The story of the greasedcartridges ran up the Ganges to Benares, Delhi and Meerut. It was soonnoised abroad that the bones of cows and pigs had been ground to powder andthrown into wells with flour and butter in order to destroy the caste ofthe Hindus so as to convert them to Christianity. 

[Sidenote: Hindu soldiers demur]

In March, incendiary fires broke out at Barrackpore. The Sepoys from theNineteenth Regiment refused to receive the cartridges dealt out to them. There was only one white regiment in the 400 miles between Barrackpore andPatna. After remonstrances had been made by the English officers, theSepoys returned, but there still remained disaffection at Benares, Lucknow, Agra and other places. When it was believed that the excitement was allayedanother outbreak occurred at Lucknow. Lawrence's energetic measuresmaintained order in Oude. The mutiny was only scattered, however. Within aweek Meerut, thirty-eight miles northeast of Delhi, and the largestcantonment in India, was in a blaze. The story of the greased cartridgeshad been capped by that of the bone dust. Some eighty-five of a regiment ofSepoy cavalry refused to take the cartridges and were marched off to theguard-house. During the afternoon of the following Sunday, when theEuropean officers were preparing for church, the imprisoned Sepoys wereliberated with others. They shot down every European they met. 

[Sidenote: The Indian mutiny]

The mutiny became a revolt. The rebellious Sepoys marched on Delhi. Whenthe rebel troops came up from Meerut the English officers prepared to meetthem. Their Sepoys joined the mutineers. The revolt spread throughoutDelhi. In despair, Willoughby blew up the fort with 1, 500 rebels who wereassaulting it. Only four of his command escaped. Willoughby himself diedsix weeks afterward, while India and Europe were ringing with his name. Fifty Englishmen whom the rebels had captured were butchered in cold blood. Delhi on Monday evening was in rebel hands. The remaining officers on theRidge fled for their lives. Their subsequent suffering was one of theharrowing features of the great convulsion. The revolution at Delhi openedLord Canning's eyes. He telegraphed for regiments from Bombay, Burma, Madras and Ceylon. 

[Sidenote: Lahore mutineers foiled]

On May 11, the news of the outbreak at Meerut was brought to theauthorities at Lahore. Meean Meer is a large military cantonment five orsix miles from Lahore, and there were then some four thousand native troopsthere, with only about thirteen hundred Europeans of the Queen's and theCompany's service. There was no time to be lost. A parade was ordered onthe morrow at Meean Meer. On the parade-ground an order was given for amilitary movement which brought the heads of four columns of the nativetroops in front of twelve guns charged with grape, the artillerymen withtheir port-fires lighted, and the soldiers of one of the Queen's regimentsstanding behind with loaded muskets. A command was given to the Sepoys tostack arms. Cowed, they piled their arms, which were borne away at once incarts by the European soldiers. All chances of a rebellious movement wereover for the moment in the Punjab. 

[Sidenote: Situation at Lucknow]

[Sidenote: Massacre of Jhansi]

At three stations--Lucknow, Jhansi and Cawnpore--the mutiny was ofpolitical importance. The city of Lucknow, the capital of Oude, extendedfour miles along the right bank of the river Goomti. The British Residencyand other principal buildings were between the city and the river. TheResidency was a walled inclosure, and near it stood a castellatedstructure, the Muchi Bowun. Since the affair of May 3, Sir Henry Lawrencehad been making preparations for a defence in case of insurrection. Thenative force consisted of three regiments of infantry and one of cavalry, all Sepoys, and there was a European force of 570 men with sixtyartillerymen. Lawrence brought all the European non-combatants within theResidency walls, and established a strong post between the Residency andthe Muchi Bowun to command the two bridges which led to the cantonments. The outbreak began on May 30, when the insurgents rushed to the bridges, and, being repulsed by Lawrence, made off to Delhi. At Jhansi, the garrisonof fifty-five men was butchered in cold blood. 

[Sidenote: Defence of Cawnpore]

[Sidenote: Massacre of Cawnpore]

[Sidenote: Englishwomen spared]

At Cawnpore, on the Ganges, fifty-five miles southwest of Lucknow, thetragedy was even more terrible. Cawnpore had been in the possession of theEnglish for more than fifty years. In May, sixty-one artillerymen and fourSepoy regiments were there. Sir Hugh Wheeler, the commandant, prepared forthe coming storm. He took some old barracks and there quartered the whitewomen, children and invalids. He accepted from the Nana, who professedgreat friendship, 200 Mahrattas and two guns. On the night of June 4, theSepoy regiment at Cawnpore broke out in mutiny. The Nana overtook them onthe road to Delhi and soon returned with them to Cawnpore. Sir Hugh wastaken by surprise on the morning of the 6th, when he received a messagefrom the Nana, announcing that his men were about to attack the Englishmen. Sir Hugh prepared for the defence of the barracks. The mutineers firstrifled the city and cantonment, and murdered all the English who came intheir way. At noon they opened fire on the intrenchments. From the 6th tothe 25th of June, the inmates struggled against fearful odds. Thoughstarving, they resisted successfully. On June 25, Wheeler received aproposal that safe passage would be given to Allahabad to those who werewilling to lay down their arms. An armistice was proclaimed, and nextmorning terms were negotiated. The English were to capitulate and marchout with their arms and sixty rounds of ammunition for each man, to theriver a mile away, where boats would be furnished for all. The next morningthey marched down to the boats--the men on foot, the wounded andnon-combatants on elephants and bullocks. They were all huddled together onboard the boats. Suddenly, at the sound of a bugle, a murderous fire wasopened on them. The women and children, one hundred and twenty-five innumber, were hurried off to prison, and the men were ordered to immediateexecution. All was soon over. Nana was proclaimed Peishwa. Englishreinforcements were coming from Allahabad. Nana hastened back to Cawnpore. There, within a few days, more than two hundred English were takenprisoners. The men were all butchered, and eighty women and children weresent to join those in a house near the Nana. Great excitement prevailed inEngland, where it was believed that these women were subjected to allmanner of outrage and made to long for death as an escape from shame. As amatter of fact the royal widows of the Nana's adoptive father did theirutmost to protect the captive Englishwomen. They threatened to throwthemselves and their children from the palace windows should any harmbefall the English ladies. Thanks to them no worse indignity than thecompulsory grinding of corn was inflicted on the white women. Meanwhile, Colonel Mill was pushing up from Calcutta. In July, he was joined atAllahabad by a column under General Havelock. 

[Sidenote: Havelock to the relief]

[Sidenote: Englishwomen slaughtered]

[Sidenote: Capture of Cawnpore]

In July, Havelock left Allahabad for Cawnpore with 2, 000 men, Europeans andSikhs. He burned to avenge the massacre of Cawnpore. On the 12th and 15thof July he inflicted three defeats on the enemy. When within twenty milesof Cawnpore, having halted for the night, he heard that the women andchildren at Cawnpore were still alive, and that the Nana had taken thefield to oppose him. He broke camp and marched fifteen miles that night. Inthe meantime, the crowning atrocity was committed at Cawnpore. The defeatedrebels had returned to the Nana. On receiving the tidings of their repulse, he ordered the slaughter of the 200 women and children. They were hacked todeath with swords, bayonets, knives and axes. Their remains were throwninto a well. At 2 p. M. Havelock toiled on with a thousand Europeans andthree hundred Sikhs, and without cavalry and artillery, to meet the 5, 000rebels. Failing to silence the enemy's batteries, Havelock ordered abayonet charge. Nana Sahib with his followers took flight. He was neverheard from again. The next morning Havelock marched into the station atCawnpore, and there found the well filled with mangled human remains. OnJuly 20, having been reinforced by General Neill, whom he left in charge atCawnpore, Havelock set out for the relief of Lucknow. 

[Sidenote: The defence of Lucknow]

[Sidenote: Havelock captures Bethan]

The entire province of Oude was in a state of insurrection. The English hadbeen closely besieged in Lucknow since the last day of May. The garrisonhad held out for two months against fifty thousand Hindus. On July 4, SirHenry Lawrence was killed by a shell which burst in his room. Two weekslater, the rebels, learning of the advance of Havelock to Cawnpore, attacked the Residency with overwhelming force, but the garrison at lastcompelled them to retire. By the middle of August, Havelock advanced towardBethan with 1, 500 men. He met the enemy in force, and overcame him with abayonet charge. The Mahratta palace was burned. This ended Havelock's firstcampaign against Lucknow. Without cavalry for the pursuit of the enemy, hefell back to Cawnpore. 

During the months which followed the outbreak at Delhi, all politicalinterest was centred in that ancient capital of Hindustan. Its recapturewas vital to the re-establishment of British sovereignty. In the absence ofrailways the British were slow to cope with the situation. Every Europeansoldier sent for the relief of Delhi from Calcutta was stopped en route. OnJune 8, a month after the affair at Delhi, Sir Henry Barnard took the fieldat Alipano, ten miles away. He defeated the mutineers, and then marched tothe Ridge and reoccupied the old cantonment, which had been abandoned. 

[Sidenote: Defence of Delhi]

[Sidenote: Delhi recaptured]

On June 23, the enemy made a desperate assault, and not long afterwardrepeated the attempt. Reinforcements came from the Punjab. The British nowhad 8, 000 men. With their fifty-four guns they could shell the besiegers. At last, at 3 a. M. On September 14, three columns were formed for a sortie, with one in reserve. They rushed through the broken walls, and the firstand second columns met at the Kabul Gate. Six days of desperate fightingfollowed. On September 20, the gates of the old fortified palace werebroken open, but the inmates had fled. Thus fell the imperial city. TheBritish army lost 4, 000 men, among them Brigadier-General Nicholson, wholed the storming party. The great mutiny at Delhi was stamped out, and theBritish flag waved over the capital of Hindustan. This was the turningpoint of the Sepoy mutiny. 

[Sidenote: British vengeance]

[Sidenote: Delhi princes murdered]

The capture of Delhi was followed by acts of barbarous retribution. Hinduprisoners were shot from the mouths of cannon. Hodson, of "Hodson's Horse, "a young officer who had once been cashiered for high-handed conduct inIndia, offered to General Wilson to capture the king and the royal familyof Delhi. General Wilson gave him authority to make the attempt, butstipulated that the life of the king should be spared. By the help ofnative spies Hodson discovered that when Delhi was taken the king and hisfamily had taken refuge in the tomb of the Emperor Hoomayoon. Hodson wentboldly to this place with a few of his troopers. He found that the royalfamily of Delhi were surrounded there by a vast crowd of armed adherents. He called upon them all to lay down their arms at once. They threw downtheir arms, and the king surrendered himself to Hodson. Next day the threeroyal princes of Delhi were captured. Hodson borrowed a carbine from one ofhis troopers and shot the three princes dead. Their corpses, half naked, were exposed for some days at one of the gates of Delhi. Hodson committedthe deed deliberately. Several days before, he wrote to a friend to saythat if he got into the palace of Delhi, "the House of Timour will not beworth five minutes' purchase, I ween. " On the day after the deed he wrote:"In twenty-four hours I disposed of the principal members of the House ofTimour the Tartar. I am not cruel; but I confess that I do rejoice in theopportunity of ridding the earth of these ruffians. "

[Sidenote: The Princess of Jhansi]

[Sidenote: An Amazon's death]

The mutineers had seized Gwalior, the capital of the Maharajah Scindia, whoescaped to Agra. The English had to attack the rebels, retake Gwalior andrestore Scindia. One of those who fought to the last on the mutineers' sidewas the Ranee, or Princess of Jhansi, whose territory had been one of theBritish annexations. She had flung all her energies into the rebellion. Shetook the field with Nana Sahib and Tantia Topi. For months after the fallof Delhi she contrived to baffle Sir Hugh Rose and the English. She ledsquadrons in the field. She fought with her own hand. She was foremost inthe battle for the possession of Gwalior. In the garb of a horseman she ledcharge after charge, and she was killed among those who resisted to thelast. Her body was found upon the field, scarred with wounds enough to havedone credit to any hero. Sir Hugh Rose paid her a well-deserved tributewhen he wrote: "The best man upon the side of the enemy was the woman founddead, the Ranee of Jhansi. "

[Sidenote: Relief of Lucknow]

Lucknow was still beleaguered. Late in September, Havelock had prepared fora second attempt to relieve that place. Sir Colin Campbell had reachedCalcutta as Commander-in-Chief. Sir James Outram had come to Allahabad onSeptember 16. He joined Havelock with 1, 400 men. With generous chivalry the"Bayard of India" waived his rank in honor of Havelock. "To you shall beleft the glory of relieving Lucknow, " he wrote. "I shall accompany you, placing my military service at your disposal, as a volunteer. " On September20, Havelock crossed the Granges into Oude with 2, 500 men. Having twicedefeated the enemy, on September 25 he cut his way through the streets ofLucknow. Late in the day he entered the British cantonments. The defence ofthe Residency at Lucknow was a glorious episode in British annals. It hasbeen sung in immortal strains by Alfred Tennyson. The fortitude of thegarrison was surpassed only by the self-sacrificing conduct of the womenwho nursed the wounded and cared for all. They received the thanks of QueenVictoria for their heroic devotion. For four months the garrison hadwatched for the succor which came at last. The surrounding city remainedfor two months longer in rebel hands. In November, Sir Colin Campbell with2, 000 men took charge of the intrenchments at Cawnpore, and then advancedagainst Lucknow with 5, 000 men and thirty guns. He defeated the enemy andcarried away the beleaguered garrison with all the women and children. 

[Sidenote: Cawnpore rises again]

[Sidenote: Death of Havelock]

Still the British were unable to disperse the rebels and reoccupy the city. Sir Colin Campbell left Outram with 4, 000 men near Lucknow. He himselfreturned to Cawnpore. On approaching that city he heard the roll of adistant cannonade. Tantia Topi had come again to the front. He hadpersuaded the Gwalior contingent to break out in mutiny and march againstCawnpore. General Windham resisted his advance. The whole city was in thehands of the rebel Sepoys, but the bridge of boats over the Ganges wassaved to the British. Sir Colin Campbell marched over it, and in safetyreached the intrenchment in which Windham was shut up. He routed theGwalior rebels and drove them out of Cawnpore. General Havelock the dayafter he left Lucknow succumbed to dysentery. Throughout the British Empirethere was universal sorrow that will never be forgotten so long as menrecall the memory of the mutinies of Fifty-seven. Havelock's victories hadaroused the drooping spirits of the British nation. 

[Sidenote: Aftermath of the Mutiny]

[Sidenote: Rose's brilliant campaign]

[Sidenote: King of Delhi transported]

The subsequent history of the Sepoy revolt is largely a recital of militaryoperations for the dispossession of the rebels and the restoration ofBritish supremacy. Sir Colin Campbell, now Lord Clyde, undertook a generaland successful campaign against the rebels of Oude and Rohlikund, and SirJames Outram drove them out of Lucknow, and re-established Britishsovereignty in the capital of Oude. At the same time a column under SirHugh Rose and another under General Whitlock did a similar work in CentralIndia and Bundelkund. Rose's campaign was peculiarly difficult. It wascarried out amid the jungles and ravines of the Vindhya Mountains, and inthe secluded regions of Bundelkund. He fought battles against bafflingodds, and captured the stronghold of Jhansi. He then marched against TantiaTopi, who had an army of 40, 000 near Kalpi, which he routed and scattered. Having brought his campaign to a close, he congratulated his troops onhaving marched a thousand miles, defeated and dispersed the enemy, andcaptured a hundred guns. The old King of Delhi was put on trial, convictedand sentenced to transportation. He was sent to the Cape of Good Hope, butthe colonists there refused to receive him. The last of the line of theGreat Moguls of India had to go begging for a prison. 

Toward the close of the year, when the Indian mutiny appeared to have spentits force, Lord Elgin returned from Calcutta to Hong Kong. In the meanwhilethe English, French and American Governments had exchanged notes on thesubject of Chinese outrages against Christians. Louis Napoleon was found tobe in hearty accord with England's desire to make an example of China. Baron Gros was sent to China charged with a mission similar to that of LordElgin. The United States declined to join in active measures against China. 

[Sidenote: Buchanan, American President]

In the United States of America, James Buchanan had become President atsixty-six years of age. He had served as a member of Congress from 1821 to1831; then as Minister to Russia from 1832 to 1834; United States Senatorfrom 1834 to 1845; Secretary of State under Polk from 1845 to 1849, andMinister to Great Britain from 1853 to 1856. 

[Sidenote: Dred Scott case]

Buchanan's first message repeated the assurance that the discussion ofslavery had come to an end. The clergy were found fault with for fomentingthe disturbances. The President declared in favor of the admission ofKansas with a Constitution agreeable to the majority of the settlers. Healso referred to an impending decision of the Supreme Court with which hehad been acquainted and asked acquiescence in it. This was Judge Taney'sdecision in the Dred Scott case, rendered two days after Buchanan'sinauguration. An action had been begun in the Circuit Court in Missouri byScott, a negro, for the freedom of himself and children. He claimed that hehad been removed by his master in 1834 to Illinois, a free State, andafterward taken into territory north of the compromise line. Sanford, hismaster, replied that Scott was not a citizen of Missouri, and could notbring an action, and that he and his children were Sanford's slaves. Thelower courts differed, and the case was twice argued. 

[Sidenote: The decision]

The decision nullified the Missouri restriction, or, indeed, anyrestriction by Congress on slavery in the Territories. Chief-Justice Taneysaid: "The question is whether that class of persons (negroes) compose aportion of the people, and are constituent members of this sovereignty. Wethink they are not included under the word citizen in the Constitution, andcan therefore claim none of the rights and privileges" of that instrument. "They were at that time considered as a subordinate and inferior class whohad been subjugated by the dominant race--and had no rights or privilegesbut such as those who held the power and the government might choose togrant them. They had for more than a century been regarded as beings of aninferior grade--and so far inferior that they had no rights which the whiteman is bound to respect; and that the negro might justly and lawfully bereduced to slavery for his (the white man's) benefit. The negro race bycommon consent had been excluded from civilized governments and the familyof nations and doomed to slavery. The unhappy black race were separatedfrom the whites by indelible marks long before established, and were neverthought of or spoken of except as property. " The Chief-Justice nullifiedthe Missouri restriction, by asserting that "the act of Congress, whichprohibited a citizen from holding property of this kind north of the linetherein mentioned, is not warranted by the Constitution, and is thereforevoid. " This made slavery the organic law of the land. Benton said that itwas "no longer the exception with freedom the rule, but slavery the rule, with freedom the exception. "

[Sidenote: Financial distress]

[Sidenote: Trouble with Mormons]

It was a year of financial distress in America, which recalled the hardtimes of twenty years before. The United States Treasury was empty. Therehad been a too rapid building of railway lines in comparatively undevelopedregions where they could not pay expenses for years to come. Settlers didnot come so quickly as was expected, and a fall in railway shares resulted. There was great loss, yet the country suffered less than in 1837. Duringthe summer the Mormons in Utah gave new trouble. Brigham Young, after Utahwas excluded from the Union, destroyed the records of the United Statescourts, and practically drove Federal judges from their seats and otherofficials from the Territory. The Mormons now numbered 40, 000 members, andfelt strong enough to defy the government. 

[Sidenote: Massacre of Mount Meadow]

In September, the Indians, believed to have been instigated by the Mormons, massacred an immigrant train of 120 persons at Mountain Meadow in Utah. Alfred Cumming, Superintendent of Indian Affairs on the upper Missouri, displaced Young as Governor of Utah. Judge Eckles of Indiana was appointedChief-Justice of the Territory. A force of 2, 500 men under Colonel A. S. Johnston was sent to Utah to suppress interference with the laws of theUnited States. On the arrival of the Federal troops in the autumn, theywere attacked, on October 6, by the Mormons, their supply trains weredestroyed, and their oxen driven off. Colonel Johnston was compelled tofind winter quarters at Fort Bridger. 

Early in the year a Legislature had met at Topeka, Kansas, and wasimmediately dissolved by the United States marshals. A TerritorialLegislature also met at Lecompton and provided for a State Constitution. The people of Kansas utterly refused to recognize the Legislature chosen bythe Missouri invaders, and both parties continued to hold their elections. 

[Sidenote: Quintana]

Manuel José de Quintana, the Spanish playwright and patriotic poet, died onMarch 11, at Madrid. He was one of the many Spanish writers whose firstpoetic inspirations were derived from the stirring incidents of thePeninsular War. On the return of King Ferdinand VII. , Quintana had toexpiate his liberal sentiments by a term of six years in the prison ofPampeluna. The revolution of 1820 brought about his release, but threeyears later he was banished again from Madrid. An ode on King Ferdinand'smarriage restored him to royal favor. He was appointed tutor to the InfantaIsabella, and in 1833 was made Minister of Public Instruction. Two yearsbefore his death Queen Isabella publicly crowned the poet with a wreath oflaurel in the hall of the Cortes. It was a well-merited honor, for thepoet's patriotic odes and ringing lyrics long before this had taken rankamong the finest productions of the modern literature of Spain. 

[Sidenote: Jules Breton]

Jules Breton, the famous French pupil of Drolling and of Devigne, exhibitedthis year at Paris one of his greatest works, "La Bénédiction des Blés. " Itwas of this picture that Hamerton, the author of "Painting in France, "wrote: "It is technically a work of singular importance in modern art forits almost perfect interpretation of sunshine. "

[Sidenote: Alfred de Musset]

[Sidenote: Relations with Georges Sand]

[Sidenote: "Rolla" and "Les Nuits"]

Alfred de Musset, the French lyric poet, died on May 1, in Paris. Born in1810, the scion of an old aristocratic family, he was brought up with theDuke of Orleans. They remained intimate friends until the Duke's death in1842. In his eighteenth year De Musset took rank among the romantic writersof Paris by his first volume of poems--"Contes d'Espagne et d'Italie. "During the next two years De Musset published another volume of poems andthe collection "Un Spectacle dans un Fauteuil, " and followed this up withseveral essays in dramatic verse, published under the title "ComédiesInjouables. " In 1833, De Musset went to Italy together with Georges Sand, but in Venice the lovers quarrelled and separated. The character of Stenioin Georges Sand's novel "Lelia" was recognized as a personification of DeMusset. Alfred de Musset himself drew on these experiences for his novel"Confessions d'un Enfant du Siècle, " published upon his return from Italyin 1836. Georges Sand, stung by De Musset's allegations concerning her, gave her version of their relations in the famous book "Elle et Lui, "whereupon De Musset's brother Paul published an even less lovely version ofthe affair, in his book "Lui et Elle. " During the succeeding year De Mussetbecame one of the foremost contributors to the "Revue des Deux Mondes. " Inits pages appeared most of his "Comédies et Proverbes, " and the lyricpieces of "Rolla" and "Les Nuits. " Among his prose tales of this periodwere "Emmeline, " "Les deux Maitresses, " "Frédéric et Bernerette, " and "LeFils du Titien. " Having lost part of his income, the poet was madelibrarian of the Ministry of the Interior at the instance of the Duke ofOrleans, and as such received an ample pension. After the revolution of1848 he was deprived of this stipend. Louis Napoleon, on his coronation asEmperor, restored Alfred de Musset to office and had him elected to theFrench Academy. During his last years the poet wrote but little verse. 

[Sidenote: De Musset's pessimism]

[Sidenote: "Rappelle-toi"]

As a lyric poet, Alfred de Musset claims foremost rank among the modernwriters of France. His verse, like that of his contemporaries, Byron, Lermontov, Leopardi, Lenau and Heine, is tinged with sadness and pessimism. Like them, too, he excels in the mastery of the subtile beauties of hisnative tongue. Characteristic of the spirit of his verse, if not of itsoutward form, are these lines, translated from his beautiful lyric"Rappelle-toi!"

 Recall our love when the shy dawn unfoldeth The enchanted radiance of the morning sun-- Recall our love when darkling night beholdeth Veiled trains of silvery stars pass one by one, When wild thy bosom palpitates with pleasure, Or when the shades of night lull thee in dreamy measure; Then lend a willing ear To murmurings far and near: Recall our love!

 Recall our love when fate hath separated Thy heart and mine, estranged for evermore-- When by the grief of exile ever mated The soul is crushed that soared so high before-- Remember our sad love, remember how we parted-- Time, absence, grief, are naught for love full-hearted, So long as fond hearts beat, They ever must repeat: Recall our love!

 Recall our love when under earth reposes This heart at last lulled in eternal sleep-- Recall our love when on my grave dark roses In solitude their tender petals weep. You will not see me more, but in immortal anguish My stricken soul will ever near you languish; Under the midnight sky A spirit voice will sigh, Recall our love!

[Sidenote: "Les Fleurs de Mal"]

[Sidenote: Baudelaire's Litany]

During this same year in France the pessimism of Alfred de Musset wasoutdone by Baudelaire's famous collection of poems "Les Fleurs de Mal. "Baudelaire, as a poet, took a unique place in French literature. Followingin the footsteps of Victor Hugo, and the American, Poe--whose works he wasthe first to translate into French--he outdid both these masters of thegrotesque in bizarre creations. He was the founder of diabolism in Frenchletters. As Sainte-Beuve wrote of Baudelaire: "S'est pris l'enfer et s'estfait diable. " The lucubrations of the so-called Satanic School of Byron, Shelley and Hugo were surpassed by Baudelaire's rapt worship of evil as thegreat power of the world. Take his famous Litany to Satan:

 O thou the wisest and most beautiful of cherubim, A god betrayed by fate and reft of worshipping, O Satan, have pity on my endless woe!

 Thou, who dost save the bones of the old sot That reels 'twixt prancing steeds and heeds them not, O Satan, have pity on my endless woe!

 Adopted father of those whom in his rage on high The God of Vengeance banished from his paradise, O Satan, have pity on my endless woe!

Baudelaire's worship of evil was genuine, since he cared nothing for anyvirtue save the crowning virtue of artistic excellence. From beginning toend his "Fleurs de Mal" may be said to have blossomed in defiance of allthat the world has accepted as virtuous. Baudelaire's unusual sense of thegrotesque is believed to have been fostered by his early voyages in the FarEast. 

[Sidenote: Czerny]

Carl Czerny, the eminent pianist and teacher, died on July 15, at the ageof sixty-six, at his birthplace, Vienna. Czerny while a boy showed raretalent for music. He received encouragement from such men as Beethoven, Clementi and Hummel, and began his career as a teacher at sixteen. An earlyconcert tour in 1804 had to be given up on account of the wars. The rest ofhis life was spent in Vienna, where he became one of the most influentialteachers. In all he published over a thousand compositions, the mostlasting of which were his pedagogic piano studies. As a musical writer hegained recognition by a work on the history of music. 

[Sidenote: Death of Béranger]

[Sidenote: The poet's early career]

[Sidenote: Napoleonic songs]

[Sidenote: Béranger in prison]

On the day following Czerny's death, Jean Pierre Béranger, the great Frenchsong writer, died at Paris. He was seventy-seven years old. Little caredfor by his father, he was brought up by his grandfather, a tailor, who lethim roam the streets as a gamin. At the age of nine he was sent to act as atavern boy for his aunt, who kept a small inn near Peronne in Picardy. Inhis fourteenth year he was apprenticed to a printer, and learned the firstprinciples of versification while setting up the poems of André Chenier. Onhis own behalf he soon printed a small volume of songs entitled "A Garlandof Roses. " In 1798, he returned to Paris, and was reclaimed by his father. For more than a year he had no settled occupation, during which time hecomposed some of his best songs. At the outset of the Nineteenth Century, Béranger definitely determined to follow the career of letters. He wrote acomedy, but failing to get it accepted threw it into the fire. Collectingall his poems he sent them to Lucien Bonaparte, the enlightened brother ofthe First Consul. Prince Lucien took the young poet under his patronage, but, unfortunately for Béranger, soon had to leave France, an exile. Onhis arrival at Rome, Lucien Bonaparte transmitted to Béranger the salarycoming to him as a member of the Institute. As a song writer Béranger madethe most of his opportunities. In 1809, he was appointed Secretary of theUniversity of France, an office which he held throughout the Napoleonicera. In 1813, he became a member of the Jolly Topers of the Caveau, thenthe resort of the most distinguished literary men of Paris. On the fall ofNapoleon, Béranger took it upon himself to sing the glory of the fallenempire in elegiac strains. A severe reprimand was administered to him bythe government. His second series of Napoleonic songs, published in 1821, cost him his place and three months' confinement in the prison of St. Pelagie, while his third (1828) subjected him to nine months' imprisonmentin La Force and a fine of ten thousand francs. The fine was paid by hisadmirers, and the prison in which he was incarcerated became the gatheringplace of the most celebrated literary men of the day. The songs which hecomposed during this period helped to bring about the revolution of 1830. Béranger now retired to Passy, then to Fontainebleau, and finally to Tours, where he completed what he called his "Mémoires Chantantes" by thepublication of a fourth volume of songs. After the revolution of 1848 hewas elected to the Constituent Assembly, but soon resigned that post. Hisdeclining years were spent at Passy. 

[Sidenote: Death of Comte]

Isidore Auguste Comte, the metaphysical writer and founder of modernpositive philosophy, died on September 5, at Paris. He was born atMontpellier in 1798, and became acquainted in his early manhood withSaint-Simon. Failing to agree with Saint-Simon's doctrines, Comte began tolecture on his own system of philosophy as early as 1826. In 1849, he gavereadings on the "History of Humanity. " After the _coup d'état_, however, the government of Louis Napoleon prohibited the continuance of hisreadings. Comte's teachings are a combination of empiricism and socialism. The first of his numerous works was published in 1822--"Plan of ScientificWork Necessary for Reorganizing Society. " Comte's most important work, "ACourse of Positive Philosophy, " was published in six volumes, 1830-1842. During the period of his religious enthusiasm Comte published his "Systemof Positive Politics, or a Treatise of Sociology. " This was followed by his"Positivistic Catechism, " "An Appeal to Conservators, " and "SubjectiveSynthesis. " In England and America, Comte's works found many illustriousinterpreters, and congregations adhering to the "Positivistic Ritual" wereformed at several places in England. Among his most fervent adherents wereMiss Martineau, R. Congreve, Stuart Mill, Buckle, Lewes, Bridges, Tyler, and the American, Carey. Positivism also found some noted exponents inItaly and Germany.